Glass ^0.353 Book. - W (^J Copyright}^? COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/californiafruits07wick The California Fruits and How to Grow Them A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE YIELDED GREATEST SUCCESS, WITH THE LISTS OF VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF THE STATE By EDWARD J^-'WICKSON, A. M. Dean and Professor of Auriculture in the College of Agriculture of the University of California; Director and Horticulturist of the Agricultural Experiment Station; Author of "California Vegetables in Garden and Field;" Editor of The Pacific Rural Press; Member of the National Council of Horticulture, Etc. FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND EXTENDED SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. PACIFIC RURAL PRESS NINETEEN HUNDRED TEN .^^-^ ^^^^ Copyright, 1910. By E. J. Wickson and Pacific Rural Press, Published March, 1910. BOLTE & BRADEN CO. printers and pttbmshers San Francisco - Cal. C.0U^59737 PREFACE. The Fourth Edition of this treatise met a wider de- mand than anticipated and the Fifth Edition has to be undertaken within a year from the publication date of its predecessor — bringing the work to the end of its thir- teenth thousand. The writer rejoices in this large demand as a token of the usefulness of the undertaking. The Fifth Edition returns to large octavo form as preferable to a quarto for a book which is intended to be always at hand as a guide in real work. Technical works are largely in octavo form. The picturesque quarto of the Fourth Edition, while admired by connoisseurs in art printing, was condemned by others who found it agreeing neither in length or breadth with other books they com- monly used and therefore inconvenient and undesirable. In the preparation of the Fifth Edition the writer has seized the opportunity to bring the contents abreast of a new decade by incorporating the most recent lessons of progressive experience and repeats the request which he has made in earlier editions that all readers whose obser- vation and work teach them any better way than he has described shall share with him the advantage of such greater wisdom. EDWARD J. WICKSON. University of California, Berkeley, March, 1910. CONTENTS PART ONE: GENERAL. Chapter I The Climate of California and its Modifications. II Why the California Climate favors the Growth of Fruit. III The Fruit Soils of California. IV The Wild Fruits of California. V The California Mission Fruits. VI Introduction of New Fruit Varieties. PART TWO: CULTURAL. VII Clearing the Land for Fruit. VIII The Nursery. IX Budding and Grafting. X Preparation for Planting. XI Planting the Trees. XII Pruning Trees and Thinning Fruit. XIII Cultivation. XIV Fertilizers for Trees and Vines. XV Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines. PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS. XVI Commercial Fruit Varieties. XVII The Apple. XVIII The Apricot. XIX The Cherry. XX The Peach. XXI The Nectarine. XXII The Pear. XXIII Plums and Prunes. XXIV The Quince. PART FOUR: THE GRAPE. Chapter XXV The Grape Industry. XXVI Propagating and Planting Vines. XXVII Pruning and Care of the Vine. XXVIII Grape Varieties in California. PART FIVE: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS. XXIX The Date. XXX The Fig. XXXI The Olive. XXXII The Orange. XXXIII The Pomelo or Grape Fruit. XXXIV The Lemon. XXXV Minor Semi-Tropical Fruits. PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS. XXXVI Berries and Currants. PART SEVEN: NUTS. XXXVII Nut Growing in California. PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION. XXXVIII Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Preserving. PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION. XXXIX Injurious Insects. XL Diseases of Trees and Vines. XLI Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds. XLII Protection from Wind and Frost. PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS. XLIII Utilization of Fruit Wastes. Topical Index. CALIFORNIA FRUITS PART ONE: GENERAL CHAPTER I THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL MODIFICATIONS In climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in Cali- fornia almost an epitome of the whole United States, with added climatic characters peculiarly our own. We have high mountain valleys with wintry temperature-conditions, where only hardy northern fruits can be grown ; we have hot valleys where the date palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine, while its feet are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the sandy surface; but we can not claim tropical conditions, because our dry air denies us many strictly tropical growths, although we have frostless sites for them. Intermediate between the cold and snow of the moun- tains and the heat and sand of the desert, we have every describable modification and gradation, and, naturally, it is between these extremes that our richest inheritance of horticultural adaptation lies. When this breadth and scope of our horticultural adaptations is realized, it becomes apparent that an enumeration of the fruits we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue of the known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly tropical. Wherever there is a northern or southern departure from the equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where the same is accomplished by elevation upon tropical mountainside or plateau, there also are fruits which find a welcoming home in California, and are improved by the intelligent cultivation and selection which here prevail. On the other hand, it has been abundantly demon- strated, during recent years, by official awards at great exhibitions and by the sharp criteria of the markets as well, that the fruits of wintry regions are quite as much benefited by transfer to proper locations in California as are the people who come to grow them. From north and south alike, then, California makes grand acquisi- 10 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM tions and includes within her area the adaptations of the whole country, with some which no other State possesses. But while this horticultural scope is claimed for the State as a whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within the State must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures have followed ill choice of location for the purpose intended. Whenever certain California fruits have been ill spoken of, they have been produced in the wrong places, or by ill-advised methods. It is possible, then, to produce both poor and perfect fruit of a given kind. It may be said this can be done anywhere by the extremes of culture and neglect, but to this proposition it must be added that in Cali- fornia equally excellent methods and care may produce perfection in one place and the opposite in another. One who seeks to know. California well must undertake to master both its horticultural greatness and littleness; and so closely are these associated, and so narrow the belts of special adaptations, that there are many counties which have a range of products nearly as great as the State itself. It is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for him to believe that the terms "northern" and "southern" have almost no horticultural significance in California; that northern fruits reach perfection, under proper conditions, at the south, and vice versa ; that some regions of greatest rainfall have to irrigate most frequently; that some of greatest heat have sharpest valley frosts ; that some fruits can be successfully grown through a north and south distance of 500 miles, but can not be successfully carried a few hundred feet of either less or greater elevation ; that on the same parallel of latitude within a hundred miles of distance, from coast to mountainside, one can continuously gather marketable Bartlett pears for three months — not to mention the second crop, which is often of account on the same trees in the same season. Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per- plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern certain general conditions, of both nature and culture, which may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Californian. The climate of the Pacific Coast is described by the meteor- ologist as "insular or moderate," as contrasted with the "continental or excessive" climate of the regions east of the Sierra Nevada. The west coast of Europe is also insular in its climate. The northern limit of an annual mean temperature of 50 degrees Fahr. is 50 degrees and 47 degrees of north latitude on western coasts of Europe and America respectively. But though there is this similarity in mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage pertaining to our climate over that of west Europe in that our range of temperature is less ; that is, extremes of heat and cold are nearer together, and changes are therefore much less excessive. CLIMATIC PECULIARITIES 11 This characteristic of our local climates is due in the main to two great agencies, one active, bringing heat, the other passive, shielding us from arctic influences. First : Our proximity to the Pacific Ocean. Professor McAdie, who has charge of the San Francisco office of the United States Weather Bureau, says : "The prevailing drift of the surface air in temperate latitude is from west to east. Therefore the proximity of the Pacific, with its mean annual temperature of 55 degrees Fahr.,. serves to prevent large temperature changes, because of the water vapor and also because the air comes landward. Whenever the circulation is reversed, temperatures vary." Second : Another agency contributing to the mild climate of the Pacific Coast consists in the mountain barriers upon our northern and eastern boundaries. It was Guyot who first called attention to the fact that the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains reach- the coast of Alaska and bend like a great arm around its western and southern shore, thus shutting off or deflect- ing the polar winds that otherwise would flow down over the Pacific Coast States, while California has her own additional pro- tection from the north in the mountain arch which has its keystone in Mount Shasta. CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS OF CALIFORNIA California is usually divided into three main areas and climates, each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by regions, more or less wide, in which these conditions merge and influence each other. Dr. Robertson says* : Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near the Pacific, deflected north and south, and define three distinct climatic belts. These may be named coast, valley and mountain; and while they resemble each other in having only two seasons, they are dissimilar in other respects. These dififerences depend upon the topography of the country, and are of degree rather than of kind; altitude, distance from the ocean, and situation with reference to mountain chains, giving to each region its characteristic climate. How similar are the conditions which prevail in these belts may be learned from the data shown in the following table, which includes points separated by nearly the whole length of the State, the difference in latitude of the extreme north and south points being seven or eight degrees. Thus, through a north or south distance great as that which separates the States of Georgia and New York, similar climatic conditions prevail in California. In the following table the averages are deduced from observations by the United States Weather Bureau observers for a long series of years : * Report of State Agricultural Society, 1886, p. 322. 12 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM LOCATIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT FRUITS It is intended to describe as definitely as possible the locations suitable for the growth of different fruits in the special chapters given to those fruits, but there are a few general conditions which should be outlined. Seasonable and extreme temperatures and average rainfall in various California re- gions from the records of the United States Weather Bureau to the close of 1907 U ^< ^5 rt^ rt> rtg .STATIONS COUNTY 5" S"" 2^ 2 2(^ 2» a " P| e'2 Sg S':?! S3 COAST ^ Eureka Humboldt 64 47 50 56 54 52 85 20 45.8 San Francisco... San Francisco 155 51 55 59 59 56 101 29 22.7 San Jose Santa Clara 95 50 57 67 60 58 104 18 14.8 King City Monterey 333 49 57 66 60 58 114 15 10.8 Santa Barbara. .. Santa Barbara 130 55 58 65 63 60 100 28 16.6 Los Angeles Los Angeles 293 55 60 70 65 62 109 28 15.6 San Diego San Diego 93 55 59 68 63 61 101 32 9.4 VALLEY Redding Tehama 552 47 60 80 64 63 117 18 36.2 Sacramento Sacramento 71 47 59 72 62 60 108 19 19.9 Merced Merced 173 49 61 79 65 63 120 16 10.3 Fresno Fresno 293 47 60 79 64 63 114 20 9.2 Visalia Tulare 334 46 59 78 62 61 113 17 9.8 FOOTHILL AND MESA Auburn Placer 1360 47 57 75 64. 61 110 12 33.4 Redlands San Bernardino 1352 52 61 77 65 64 113 25 14.8 In discussing the choice of location for an orchard it is not intended to speak geographically. As has already been intimated, latitude, which is a prime factor in geography, is of exceedingly small account as an indication of horticultural adaptations in California. The fact becomes strikingly apparent when it is known that the apple and the orange, fruit kings whose kingdoms lie at opposite borders of the temperate zone, so far distant that one may be called semifrigid and the other semi-tropical, have in California utter disregard for the parallels of latitude, which set metes and bounds upon them in other lands, and flourish side by side, in suitable localities, from San Diego to Shasta. Impressive as this truth may be, it is not so startling as another fact, viz., that fruits, in suitable interior situations, ripen earlier at the north than at the south — a complete reversal of the tenets of the geographer. THE COAST CLIMATE 13 It is apparent then that the selection of locations for orchards must be made with a knowledge of special conditions governing the distribution of equal temperatures and other natural agencies contributing to the development of fruit. This distribution, as has been intimated, is not by parallels of latitude, great circles which appear as straight lines on a map, but by curves, which proceed in various directions, governed chiefly by topography. These are curves of temperature, of rainfall, of elevation, of soil formation and deposit. Geography retires from authority ; topography and climatography govern. Let these ruling conditions be reviewed, then, briefly : First, as to general areas; second, with reference to special situations and locations. COAST CLIMATE The chief characteristics of the coast are equable temperature, increasing southward ; summers cool and winters warm', as com- pared with the interior; abundant rainfall, decreasing considerably southward ; a somewhat humid atmosphere, as compared with the interior; frequent fogs or overcast skies; prevailing westerly winds. The extension of coast influence toward the interior is gov- erned by local topography. Coast valleys open to ocean winds are cooler and moister and demand hardier fruits than valleys sheltered by intervening ranges. Gaps and passes in the ranges are subject to winds of considerable force and low temperature, and are not generally favorable for fruit ; on the other hand, situations sheltered on the north and west favor growth of fruits even though quite near the coast. Sometimes a distance of a few miles, sometimes a wind-break' of natural forest or of planted trees, so modifies coast influences that fruits do well. Elevation on the sides of coast valleys secures similar results. For example, the floor of the Pajaro Valley is well suited for apples, late pears, cherries, plums, prunes, and berries (except gooseberries), while on adjacent hill- sides peaches do well. In southern California, coast winds are warmer than in the upper half of the State, but coast influences intrude further, as a rule, because the hills near the coast in southern California are low ; the high ranges, answering to the Coast Range of the upper part of the State, trending far into the interior. On the coast side of these ranges fruits ripen later than in sheltered interior points in the upper part of the State, but eastward of the mountains, where soil and moisture favor, or irrigation is practised, extra early loca- tions have been found and are now being rapidly developed — in the Imperial and adjacent valleys, for instance. Some of the horticultural effects of the conditions prevailing on the coast may be described as follows : 14 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Late Ripening of Fruits. — The late ripening of fruits west of the mountains in southern CaHfornia has just been mentioned. Intrusion of coast influences has the same effect in more marked degree at the north because the ocean winds are colder. Directly on the coast, at Pescadero, San Mateo County, for example, fruits ripen about a month later than in Santa Clara Valley, which is just across the Coast Range. Napa Valley, though about forty miles inland and sheltered by ranges of hills, still is sufficiently affected by coast influences to mature fruits considerably later than Vaca Valley, ten or fifteen miles further east, beyond a higher range, which completely bars out these influences. Similar local effects are found in southern California. For instance, in Ventura County, in a canyon sixteen miles from the ocean, and at an elevation of sixteen hundred feet, fruits ripen three weeks earlier than on the coast or in the valleys opening thereon. Failure of Certain Fruits. — Though killing frosts are few directly on the coast, the deficiency in summer heat and sunshine renders some fruits unsatisfactory. This is especially the case in the upper coast region. Grapes and figs ripen imperfectly, while but a short distance back from the coast, in situations, sheltered by ridges parallel to the coast, they do well. Elevation sometimes produces corresponding effects. Pests and Diseases. — Certain blights are more prevalent under coast conditions. The scab blight of the apple, the curl-leaf of the peach, and some other blights, are prevalent on the coast and in coast valleys, on the river bottoms in the interior, and on the mountains, and less serious, or wholly absent, in the hot interior valleys. Some insects prefer the coast but thrive also in the interior, as hot dry wind is excluded by dense growth of the tree and the included air becomes moister above irrigated soil. A notable instance is the black scale, which, with the black smut which attends it, has long been a grievous pest of growers of olives and citrus fruits, and has recently become prevalent on deciduous fruit trees in some regions. Directly under coast influ- ences, moss and lichens gather quickly and should be removed. Spraying with alkaline washes not only kills insects but cleans the bark from parasitic vegetable growth. Although fruit trees on the coast are not so subject to sunburn as in the interior, there is especial value in low heading to withstand winds ; there should also be plenty of room given the trees, that sunshine may have free access to warm the ground all around the tree, which may be undesirable in the interior. VALLEY, FOOT-HILL AND MOUNTAIN CLIMATE VALLEY CLIMATE 15 The characteristics of the interior valley climate are higher summer and lower winter temperatures than on the coast, the range of temperature being nearly the same both north and south ; rainfall abundant in the north and decreasing rapidly southward, so that as a rule the interior valleys in the south half of the State require irrigation ; very dry air and almost constant sunshine, freedom from fogs and from dew in summertime ; winds occasion- ally strong, hot, and desiccating in summer and cold in winter. Local Modifications, — The term "valley climate" is broad, and includes everything, away from the coast to a certain elevation on the slope of the mountains. Certain small valleys protected from cold northerly winds and from fog-bearing westerly winds and open to the spring sunshine, have a forcing climate which produces the earliest maturing fruit of the season ; earlier not only than the coast and the mountain, as has been stated, but also somewhat earlier than adjacent locations in the broad, open valley. Slight elevation, even on the sides of small valleys, frequently secures freedom from winter frosts and ministers to early ripening. Elevation above sea-level on the rims of great valleys also secures similar results and gives rise to thermal belts in which semi-tropical fruits are successfully growing even as far north as Shasta County. On the floors of great valleys moderating influences are secured on the lee side of wide rivers and by planting on the river bank or on slightly elevated swells rather than on the level, open plain. The river bottom lands of the great valleys, though subject to severe frosts, are freer from the effects of desiccating winds than the open plains; they are, however, more favorable to the spread of certain blights than the plains. Some of the horticultural effects of valley conditions are as follows : Early ripening and perfection of summer and autumn fruits, owing to continual sunshine and dry air; forced maturity of certain fruits, as apples for instance, which destroys character and keeping quality; injury from sunburn and hot winds in summer, which seriously afifect both fruit and foliage of some varieties; occasional injury to tender fruits (semi-tropicals) and to young trees of hardy fruits, which have been kept growing late in the season, from low tempei-ature, which sometimes is reached suddenly on the floor of the valleys; freedom from some blights and insects which are prevalent on the coast, but not from others. Many of these minor troubles are, however, counterbalanced by the earliness, size, beauty, and quality of certain fruits, and by the most rapid and successful open-air drying of fruits, owing to high autumn temperature, the freedom from summer fog, dew, and generally from rain during the drying season. IQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM FOOT-HILL CLIMATE Foot-hill climate is usually considered as a modification of valley climate. It has been shown tha,t up to about two thousand five hundred feet, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, the seasonal temperatures are quite like those of the valley, but the rainfall increases about one inch for each hundred feet of elevation. There are, however, in the foot-hills, places where early spring heat and freedom from frost give very early ripening fruits, and other places at the same elevation where winter temperature drops below the valley minimum, and where late frosts also prevail. This is governed by local topography. In many of the small valleys among the foot-hills, both of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges, frosts are more severe than on the hills adjacent or in the broader valleys to which they are tributary. These small "protected valleys" are apparently warm and cozy for early blooming deciduous and citrus fruits, but are really very dan- gerous. They frequently have such narrow and obstructed open- ings that cold air is dammed up over their lower lands and frosts are more severe and later than in valleys which have ample and free outlets and seem less protected. Of course the disposition of cold air to settle in low places and to flow down canyons and creek-beds while the warm air rises and bathes the adjacent hillsides, has much to do with frost in the hollow and the freedom from it on the hills. The constant motion of the air on the slopes is also a preventive of frost, pro- viding the general temperature is not too low. It is not un- common to find in deeper valleys, protected against the western wind, flecks of snow and a wintry chill, with dormant vegetation, while one thousand feet higher up the foliage is fast developing. MOUNTAIN CLIMATE Above an elevation of two thousand five hundred to three thousand feet, conditions gradually intrude which resemble those of wintry climates. The tender fruits, the apricot, peach, etc., become liable to winter injury and give irregular returns, or as greater elevation is attained, become wholly untrustworthy. Early blooming of these fruits during warm spells which are fol- lowed by severe frosts, renders the trees unfruitful. At four thousand to four thousand five hundred feet the hardy apple and pear flourish, ripening late, and winter varieties possessing excel- lent keeping qualities. Here, however, winter killing of trees begins and locations even for hardy fruits have to be chosen with circumspection. ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES j^ There are elevated tracts of large extent among- the Sierras where the common wild plum, choke-cherry, gooseberry, and Cali- fornia chestnut are produced abundantly. April frosts have killed the fruit of those same plums, transplanted to lower ground, while those left in their natural situation were quite unharmed. It has been observed that these plum trees, with other fruits and nuts in their original positions, invariably occupy the broad tops of the great ridges instead of the sides and bottoms of ravines or narrow, ■ pent-up valleys. Follow nature in the choice of orchard sites (with due regard to a supply of moisture in the soil, either natural or artificial) and little hazard attends the culture of the hardier fruits of our latitude among the highlands of the State than is incident to other seemingly more favored localities. The beauty and quality of these mountain fruits are proverbial. A RULE OF GENERAL APPLICATION What has been thus suggested of the great variation of tem- perature conditions within narrow limits should lead to the con- clusion that not only must the kind of fruit to plant be determined by local observation and experience, but often varieties of these fruits must be chosen with reference to adaptation to local environment. For this reason it is impossible to compile tables of varieties suited for wide areas — and yet it is true that some varieties have shown themselves hardy and satisfactory under all conditions. These facts will be shown by the discussion which will be given to each of the different fruits. REST AND ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES Indication has already been made of regions adapted to the growth of early and of late fruits. There is, of course, difference in time of rest and of returning activity in blooming. On the mountains under wintry conditions the trees leaf out and bloom late, following more or less the habit of Eastern trees. In the foot-hills, the valleys, and the coast, there is less difference in time of rest and of leaf and bloom. Even in regions where there may be a month's difference in ripening of fruit, as, for example, in the Vacaville district, fifty miles inland, and in Berkeley, two miles from the bay shore, trees bloom almost at the same date. The difference in ripening is due to the higher temperature and fuller sunshine of the interior situation, which have a forcing effect, while the low temperature and dull skies of the summer on the coast retard maturity. The rest of the tree, in all save the mountain district, is not dependent upon the touch of frost. It comes rather from thirst 18 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM than from cold. The immense weight of fruit, the vigorous growth of wood, and the exhaustion of moisture from the soil by the draught of the roots to compass this growth, are the chief causes which bring the sere and yellow leaf in California. It is not frost, for the petunias may be blooming and the tomato vines still green in the fields. But the time has come for a rest. The trees sleep ; but it is merely as a nap at midday; the early rains wake them soon. The roots are active first, then the buds swell, and the blossoms burst forth — sometimes as early as January — the almond first heralding the advent of California springtime. Sometimes this season of rest is too short for the good of the tree or vine. The early rains, when followed by a spring-like temperature, as sometimes happens, induce activity in the top as well as the root, and the tree is not in condition to withstand cold weather, which may follow. It is probable that such stimulated activity, suddenly checked, is responsible for more ills to tree and vine than are usually attributed to it. CHAPTER II WHY THE CALIFORNIA CLIMATE FAVORS THE GROWTH OF FRUIT It was "pointed oiit by, the. earliest students of meteorology, as related to horticulture, that perfect development of fruits depends upon certain atmospheric conditions], which are included in the term climate : First, temperature ; second, light ; third, humidity or atmospheric moisture, — considered wholly apart from soil moisture. It was also shown that temperature and humidity should be equable, or as free as possible from excessive extremes or rapid changes. Obviously, the chief characteristics of the California climate are : First, freedom from extremes of low temperature ; second, an abundance of sunshine ; and third, an atmosphere with a low per- centage of humidity. It will be interesting to introduce enough statistics to demonstrate these claims, and to cite reasons why these conditions are of special value to the fruit grower. THE OFFICE OF HEAT IN FRUIT PRODUCTION Temperature conditions may preclude the success of a fruit tree either by destroying it outright, by dwarfing it, or by preventing it from setting or ripening its fruit. Extremes of temperature accomplish the death of plants, and insufficient or excessive mean temperatures may prevent fruition without killing the plant. The first quality of the California climate to arrest the attention of fruit growers in the states east of the Rocky Mountains is the freedom from the effects of extremely low winter temperatures, to which is due Ihe deplorable failure, in the eastern and western states, of many of the fruit varieties from the west of Europe, and to escape which such zealous effort is now being so successfully put forth to secure hardy varieties of native and foreign origin. How slight is the injury from low temperatures in all parts of the state where fruit is largely grown may be seen from the fol- lowing compilation of extreme low temperatures at different points approximately at the same latitude on the coast, in the interior valleys, and on the foot-hills. These records will show any one familiar with winter killing of the leading orchard fruits that such disasters are not to be feared in the chief fruit regions of California. Local temperature is largely controlled by local conditions, as has been already pointed out, and 19 Nevada City Colfax 7 14 Auburn 12 in Porterville Redlands Fall Brook 22 25 24 2Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Lowest temperature at several California points Coast and Coast Degrees Interior Valleys Degrees Foot-hills Degrees Valleys above zero above zero above zero Eureka 20 Redding 18 Ukiah 12 Red Bluff 17 Cloverdale 24 Oroville 20 Napa 18 Marysville 20 San Francisco 28 Sacramento 19 San Jose 18 Merced 16 Gilroy 20 Fresno 20 San Miguel 15 Tulare City 14 Los Angeles 28 Colton 22 San Diego 32 Poway 21 in the districts named in the table there are special locations where the lowest temperature probably differed a few degrees from the figures given. NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE SUMMER HEAT Passing beyond the freedom from winter killing, it may be remarked that the influence of certain degrees of heat upon the growth of the plant and the perfection of its fruit, has been the subject of much close observation. Boussingault conducted care- ful experiments, and showed that a temperature above a certain minimum of heat is found necessary for germination, another for chemical modification, and a third for flowering, a fourth for the ripening of seeds, a fifth for the elaboration of the saccharine juice§., and a sixth for the development of aroma or bouquet. Originally the mean annual temperature was alone observed, and the polar limits of plants, it was presumed, could be thereby determined. More recently it was taught that the mean tempera- ture of seasons is of more importance than that of the year, and it is believed that to the relative distribution of heat over the seasons rather than to the absolute amount received during the year, we are to attribute the fitness or unfitness of a region for the growth of certain kinds of vegetation. It is held in Europe that the mean heat of the cycle of vegetation of the vine must be at least 59 degrees Fahr., and that of the summer from 65 degrees to 66 degrees Fahr. It is stated to be impossible, for instance, to cultivate the vine upon the temperate tablelands of South America, where they enjoy a mean temperature of 62.6 degrees to 66.2 degrees Fahr., because these climates are characterized by a constancy of temperature, never rising to the higher heats necessary to the process of sugar forming, and the vine grows, and flourishes, but the grapes never become thoroughly ripe. Boussingault shows that, in addition to a summer and autumn sufiiciently hot, it is indispensable that at a given period — that which follows the appearance of seeds — there should be a SUMMER HEAT AMPLE 21 month the mean temperature of which does not fall below 66.2 degrees Fahr. As will appear presently, this temperature test should not be taken alone, but it will serve as a standard to show one feature of the horticultural adaptation of the California climate. Boussingault claims the need of 66.2 degrees Fahr. for a single month. To be sure to include this, the accompanying table gives the average summer temperature at the leading fruit-growing centers named. Average summer temperature at various California points Coast and Coast Deg. Deg. Eleva- Deg. Valleys F. Interior Valleys F. Foot-hills tion F. Upper Lake 86 Redding 80 Auburn 1,363 75 Napa 65 Oroville 79 Colfax 2,421 76 Livermore 69 Marysville 78 Georgetown 2,500 85 San Jose 67 Sacramento 72 Caliente 1,290 82 Hollister 66 Merced 79 Fall Brook 700 68 Santa Barbara 65 Fresno 79 Redlands 1,352 77 Los Angeles 70 Tulare 78 San Diego 68 Riverside 73 These points are selected because the European varieties of the grape reach perfection in their vicinity. The excess of heat above that required, as is found at all the interior points mentioned in the table, results in a very high sugar percentage in the grapes, and contributes to the ripening of a second and third crop, as will be noted presently. The superior length of the growing season in California, of course, is an important agency toward the same end. DIRECT SUNLIGHT ALSO A REQUISITE Count de Gasparin was first to point out that not alone sufficient heat, but abundance of continuous sunshine is a requisite of per- fectien in fruit growth and ripening, and on his authority may be based a claim of exceptional value to the fruit grower in the months of cloudless skies which are characteristic of the California summer. "The solar rays," says Gasparin, "do not .only produce heat, but bring us light, and the effects of the heat and light rays dififer in a very pronounced manner. Without light there is no fructification ; it is not necessary that the want of light should be complete that there should be a failure of fruits. In fact, diffused light alone does not suffice for the greater number of plants ; cultivated plants will not ripen their seed without the direct rays of sun, and the longer they are deprived of it the smaller the quantity which they will mature."* * Cours d' Agriculture, t. II, p. 96. 22 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Avg. Nov. 9 for mo. 3.6 1.9 1.0 0.7 1.3 2.4 3.4 2.5 2.7 1.5 0.5 0.4 1.1 2.0 2.8 2.0 4.2 3.8 4.3 4.3 3.5 3.3 3.8 4.0 2.7 1.5 0.7 0.9 1.4 2.2 2.8 2.0 5.3 4.8 4.3 3.9 3.7 3.8 3.3 4.2 5.2 4.9 4.6 4.6 4.9 6.0 7.6 5.5 5.2 4.9 5.0 4.9 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.0 5.1 5.0 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.7 5.2 5.0 5.1 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.7 4.6 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.9 5.7 7.3 5.3 4.8 4.6 3.8 4.0 4.4 5.6 7.5 5.1 4.1 5.1 4.8 4.9 5.0 4.2 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.7 4.9 4.7 4.3 3.5 4.5 4.5 Again, referring to the grape, for in connection with the growth of this fruit the most careful researches have been made, Humboldt wrote : "If to give a potable wine the vine shuns the islands and nearly all seacoasts, even those of the West, the cause is not only in the moderate heat of summer upon the seashore, but it exists more in the difference which there is between direct and diffused light; between a clear sky, and one veiled with clouds. "§ Normal cloudiness at California and Eastern points CALIFORNIA March April Red Bluff 4.4 4.2 Sacramento ..3.9 3.5 San Francisco ..... 4. 8 4.3 Fresno ......4.3 2.9 San Diego.;....;..: ...4.8 4.4 EASTERN Rochester, N. Y 6.6 5.4 New York, N. Y 5.5 5.3 Philadelphia, Pa 5.6 5.4 Baltimore, Md 5.4 5.1 Cleveland, Ohio 6.4 5.3 Grand Haven, Mich.. 6. 2 5.4 Jacksonville, Fla 4.2 4.1 New Orleans, La 4.8 4.8 It is noticeable that at the California coast points the average cloudiness is almost twice that of the interior valleys, while at the East the interior fruit regions of western New York, Ohio, and Michigan, have a greater average cloudiness than the Hudson River, New Jersey, and Delaware regions near the Atlantic sea- board. The average cloudiness in the Eastern fruit regions is rather more than twice as great as in the regions of California where most fruit is grown. This excess of advantage, as it may be termed, in connection with the high and protracted heat already mentioned, takes prac- tical form in the successful ripening of a second and sometimes a third crop of these grapes in a season, from later bloom on younger cane growth. This behavior is of more value as a demonstration of climatic conditions than otherwise, for it is generally better to produce the main crop alone than to undertake later ones. Another indication of excess of advantage in the interior valley is found in the development of high sugar contents, which is of direct value in raisin production. The same tendency, though perhaps of less commercial value, is seen in the fact that some grapes which yield a good claret wine nearer the coast develop too much alcohol when grown in the interior. § Cosmos, t. I, p. 349. ADVANTAGE OP DRY AIR 23 The advantage of California over Eastern and Southern fruit regions in the abundance of clear sunshine is shown in the adjacent table. Cloudiness is rated from to 10, three observations daily, and the figures in the table are the averages from these daily observations for a series of years, compiled from the records of the U. S. Weather Bureau. RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY TO THE GROWTH OF TREES There is another important condition of the climate of California which is intimately related to those which have been considered, and which is to be credited with no small influence in the perfection of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of humidity which our atmosphere contains.- In California the percentage of humidity is high in the winter and low in the summer; in the East the condi- tion is just reversed. For this reason summer heat is far more oppressive in the East than in California, and for the same reason certain serious fungoid diseases which prevail at the East, though found here in less injurious degree directly on the coast, are wholly unknown in the interior where the air is drier. The dry air also favors the access and action of light and heat, for Tyndall says that a sheet of vapor acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great measure impervious to heat. Normal relative humidity at Eastern and California points Eastern Stations April Jacksonville, Fla 72.3 Philadelphia, Pa 63.4 Rochester, N. Y 67.8 Grand Haven, Mich. . .70.9 St. Louis, Mo 63.7 New Orleans, La 76.0 Galveston, Tex 84.6 California Stations Los Angeles 73.1 Fresno 59.3 Sacramento 67.6 Red BlufE 61.9 It is not necessary, then, that there should be clouds to lessen the chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do clouds intercept sunshine, but water vapor in the air — when to the eye the sun is bright as ever — can absorb a large quantity of the effective sun rays, and so retard fruit ripening. Hence an appar- ently sunny country which has much invisible water vapor in the air, may prove defective in fruit-ripening qualities. A^ vs- for May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 8 mo. 73.0 77.6 78.6 80.9 82.9 79.8 82.2 78.3 68.9 69.2 68.6 71.2 75.2 70.7 73.6 70.1 68.6 69.1 67.3 70.7 75.2 75.6 76.2 71.3 71.4 73.7 69.0 73.1 75.0 75.7 79.1 73.5 67.8 68.8 66.3 67.3 70.2 65.9 71.1 67.6 74.2 78.1 78.3 78.8 77.3 74.0 79.4 78.0 78.0 79.3 77.4 78.1 77.2 75.6 80.4 78.5 75.2 73.0 75.4 76.2 72.9 74.3 66.6 73.3 52.7 42.4 34.7 34.7 43.6 55.1 64.1 48.3 67.6 66.1 59.8 59.8 59.0 62.4 66.8 63.6 56.8 43.7 35.6 35.3 43.6 51.6 60.7 48.8 24 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM It is true that air free from humidity allows rapid escape of heat by radiation as well as free access of it, and in dry air frost is more severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit growth, from June to October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by other natural agencies. In the early spring and late autumn the humidity percentage rises again and checks radiation just at the time of the year when it is most desirable to have it checked. The acccompanying table, compiled from the records of the United States Weather Bureau, shows the prevailing relative humidity in the East and South and in California. THE THREE POINTS COMBINED The three great advantages of the California climate — abundant heat, continuous sunshine, and dry air — taken in connection with the fitness of the soil and the great length of the growing season, insure the characteristic excellence of California fruit, and the early maturity, great growth, and abundant fruitage of our trees and vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rainless summer also min- ister directly to the curing of fruits in the open air. All things considered, it is doubtful whether any area in the world excels California in possession of natural adaptation to fruit production and preservation. A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFORNIA'S CLIMATIC ENDOWMENT Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per- plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Cali- fornian. Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length of the growing season. Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The bloom may appear in February, followed by the grand foliage expanding to a leaf-size, marvelous to one unused to such peach leaves. The shoots of new growth rush out with vigor promised by such a leaf, and yet the fruit below expands as though it would burst its skin in rapid enlargement — and still it grows. The new shoot, apparently weary of its several feet of extension, stops for a rest, and then, reviving, starts out its laterals — while still below the peach is growing. The laterals push out a foot or more — all carrying large, fresh leaves. While these are in full vigor, the fruit ripens, after having a full year's joint work of root and foliage, if it is a late variety. Is it any wonder is weighs a pound? But still the tree is active. It forms its terminal buds, and then all along the new main shoots and their laterals are formed the leaf and IMPORTANCE OF CLEAR SUNLIGHT 25 blossom buds for the following year. Still the foliage holds green and active, if the moisture below be adequate, and the leaves seem loth to fall in the ninth month from the time of blooming. Is it any wonder California peaches are large and the trees require pruning and thinning to enable them to carry the weight produced in such a season of growth? And what has been said of the peach is true of other trees, according to their nature and habits. The trees themselves are more eloquent of California's conditions for growth than descriptions or statistical tables can be made. But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissable, is a factor as well as their duration. The air, free, not alone from clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor which weakens sunshine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid climate, has a clearness and brilliance from its aridity which makes each day of the long, growing season more than a day in other climates, and thus adds to the calendar length of the growing season. The surplus light and heat also act directly in the chemistry which proceeds in the tissues of the plant, and we have not only size, but quality, color, aroma — everything which makes the perfect fruit precious and beautiful beyond words. It is true that for commercial purposes it is not possible to allow this process to go too far, for its later effects are higher sweetness, accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit can not endure transportation. But go to the tree to apply the only test which can fairly be put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration of the service of clear, unobstructed sunshine through an adequate period is complete. But if this can not be done, place the judgment upon the mature peach carefully sun-dried and intelligently cooked, or upon the ripe peach skilfully canned, and the distinctive adapta- tions of California for fruit production will display themselves. But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of fruit than intensity and duration of light and heat. Without adequate moisture in the soil, the air which we have credited with such benign power in carrying heat and light for perfection of fruit would transmit the same as agencies for the destruction of the tree which bears it. If this moisture comes from rainfall, it descends at the time of the year when the tree is least active, consequently is least retarded by a clouded sky and moisture-laden air, and least affected by atmospheric disturbances. Strong storm winds find the tree with reefed sails, and able to endure pressure which would tear it to pieces if they came upon its grand spread of foliage on branches heavy with fruit. It is a priceless horticultural endow- ment that no tornado can pierce our protecting mountain-barriers, and that it is exceedingly rare that our local winds disturb the confident swaying of the branches and leaf movement beyond the activity which ministers to the sap flow. And if the adequate 26 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM moisture is not from rainstorm, but by irrigation, the same facts remain, for the water reaches the tree without interrupting its aerial activity. Temperature is maintained, light is unobstructed, and the tree is refreshed with moisture without the chill and dark- ness which favor fungoid parasites. Of all the ways by which moisture could come to soils supporting fruit tree or vine, the natural by its time, and the artificial by its method, endow Cali- fornia with the best. The characteristics of the California climate which have been especially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to fruit culture when they exist to excessive degree, as in some interior or continental climates. Local conditions of altitude, distance from the sea, and exposure to the sweep of arctic winds, induce sudden and great weather changes which are serious in their effects. Excessively low percentage of atmospheric humidity, in connection with desiccating wind, often produce greater evaporation from the leaves than the roots can supply. Excessively dry air admits a parching sun heat at one time, and at another facilitates radiation of heat, until the rapid decline in temperature makes killing frosts frequent. It is evident that California has these agencies constantly held in check by her insular situation and protecting environment, and owes her wonderful adaptation to growth of tree and perfec- tion of fruit not more to the possession of certain conditions than to the fact of their existence in moderation. CHAPTER III THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA The favoring characteristics of the California climates, which have been described, find their fitting complement in the adaptation of the California soils to the perfect development of fruit-bearing tree and vine. In their wonderful variety and consequent great range of special adaptations within narrow limits of area, our soils also resemble our climates. As a man may sometimes find within the boundaries of an ordinary-sized farm such a difference of atmospheric conditions that the same fruit will thrive in one spot and not in another, so he may find dififerences in soil which will tend to produce the same results. For this reason the precise spot in which to plant any given fruit must be chosen with regard to both soil and exposure. In the chapters devoted to the several fruits, there will be an attempt made to describe the soil require- ments of each, so that the inexperienced planter may not err seriously in choosing the location for each kind of fruit he desires to grow. While this is true, it will also appear in these special chapters that the choice of roots upon which to bud or graft gives the planter a certain latitude and independence. This is of greatest value in the planting of home orchards, or orchards for local markets, in regions where the soil is not what is usually preferred for fruit production. With proper choice of stocks and wisdom and diligence in cultivation, one need hardly despair of growing good fruit on soil which will support any laudable plant growth. And yet in commercial orcharding, the secret of which is producing most abundantly and cheaply, too great attention can not be paid to choice of specially adapted soils. It is an interesting fact that more complete and exact knowledge exists of the soils of California than of any other State of the Union, and for this knowledge the public is indebted to E. W. Hilgard, Professor Emeritus of Agriculture, and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Stations of the University of California from 1875 to 1905. For the last thirty-three years he has given all the time he could spare from many other and pressing duties, to the examination, and, when needed, the analysis, of represen- tative soil specimens, and to practical expositions of their nature, adaptations, and requirements in the event of exhaustion from too long cropping, and he has just published a general treatise entitled, "Soils : Their Formation, Properties, Composition and Relations to Climate and Plant Growth in the Humid and Arid Regions," 27 2g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM which includes the results of his long study of California soils and climates. It is the purpose of the writer to set forth a few general characters of California fruit soils, with notes of their local occurrence, referring the reader to Prof. Hilgard's treatise for fuller exposition. Very extensive studies of California soils have been recently made under the direction of Dr. Milton Whitney, Chief of the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, and a new classification and nomenclature of them, from his points of view, with extended maps of their occurrence, are to be found in the special reports of the Bureau. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS One of the most interesting and important recent achievements in soil investigation consists in demonstrating distinctive differ- ences between soils formed under arid and under humid climatic conditions. In the development of this subject certain distinctive characters of California soils clearly appear, and they are of direct relation to the thrift, productiveness, treatment and longevity of fruit trees. These characters are : (a) lightness and consequent permeability and ease of cultivation; (b) depth, admitting excep- tional root extension and penetration; and (c) richness, containing some kinds of plant food in considerably greater amounts than are found in the soils of humid regions. These characteristics, as demonstrated by Prof. Hilgard, may be outlined in this way with special reference to their relations to fruit growing. Lightness. — California soils predominantly exhibit the sandy, silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid conditions, save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geological epochs, as well as slack-water deposits of the present epoch, all of which are substantially independent of climate. While "sand" in the humid regions means virtually quartz grains only, in the arid country it means very largely grains and powder of the other soil- forming minerals as well. While, therefore, in the humid region, sandy land as a rule means poor land, in the arid, on the contrary, sandy lands are at least as desirable as heavier ones, both on the score of high productiveness, durability, and ease of cultivation, together with ready resistance to drouth. Depth. — Another point of great importance is that the difference between soil and subsoil, which is so striking and important in regions of abundant rainfall, is largely obliterated in arid climates. Very commonly hardly, a perceptible change of tint or texture is found for depths of several feet; and what is more important, material from such depths, when thrown on the surface oftentimes subserves the agricultural uses of a soil nearly or quite as well CALIFORNIA SOIL CHARACTERS 29 as the original surface soil. The unconcern with which irrigators proceed to level or otherwise grade their land, even though this may involve covering up large areas of surface soil with subsoil from several feet depth; the rapidity with which the red loam of the placer mines of the Sierra Nevada foot-hills is re-covered with the natural forest growth of the region, etc., are examples familiar to the residents but surprising to newcomers, who are accustomed to dread the upturning of the subsoil as likely to deprive them of remunerative crops for several years, until the "raw" subsoil has had time to be "vitalized" by the fallowing effect of the atmos- phere, and to acquire the needful amount of humus or vegetable mold. Thus the surface soil, which in the humid regions supplies the bulk of the nourishment, becomes here of minor importance, serving chiefly as a mulch to prevent waste of moisture ; while the active process of nutrition occurs in the deeper portion of the soil stratum, whose composition, as well as condition of disinte- gration and aeration, is substantially the same as above. The second foot is rarely found to differ materially from the first, even as to humus content; for the latter, being almost exclusively derived from the humification of roots, the leaves and herbage on the surface being mostly oxidized away under the intense heat of summer; it not uncommonly happens in very porous soils that the first six inches of surface soil are poorer in humus than the second foot. Practical Results of Lightness and Depth. — The "lightness" and perviousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region permit of the penetration of roots to depth which in the humid region are inaccessible to them on account of the dense subsoils, which prevent the needful access of air. This deep penetration enables even annual plants to avail themselves directly of the stores of moisture in the substrata, at depths which in the humid region are scarcely reached save by the tap-roots of some perennials and trees ; while the latter themselves reach depths never approached by them in the region of summer rains. Professor Hilgard has personally found the ends of the roots of grape-vines at a depth of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam ; and from ten to fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root system of fruit trees. Such depth of rooting, when conservation of moisture is secured by proper surface cultivation, enables deciduous fruit trees to grow thriftily and bear fine fruit through six months of drouth while as many weeks of drouth may bring distress and loss of fruit to surface-rooting trees on the shallow soils of the humid region. Richness. — The foregoing conditions are rendered the more sig- nificant and effective through the third characteristic of soils formed in arid climates. The average aggregate amounts of plant- 30 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM food ingredients are markedly greater in the arid than in the humid soils, wherever their derivation is at all generalized. Among the agriculturally important ingredients contained in larger average amounts in the arid soils than in the humid, lime stands foremost; its percentage in soils not derived from calcareous formations being from twelve to fourteen times greater in the arid than in the humid soils. Magnesia follows lime in this respect, but the average differ- ence is only about half as great. The average content of potash in the arid soils exceeds that in the humid in about the proportion of one to three or four. But no such constant difference exists in respect to phosphoric acid. As regards humus, and the nitrogen of which it is the carrier and reservoir, its amount is usually con- siderably less than in the humid soils ; but the total nitrogen per- centage does not differ widely, because the humus of arid soils contains, on the average, from three to five times as much nitrogen as is found in the humus of humid soils, and therefore, the supply of soil nitrogen is very nearly the same in both regions, while from several causes, the humus-nitrogen of arid soils is more available to plants. CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS Any attempt to classify the soils of California upon scientific lines or even to describe them in their wonderful variety, according to their geographical occurrence, would lead beyond the limitations of a treatise upon the practice of fruit growing. Rather let an attempt be made to designate certain grades of soil with brief characterization of their leading features as they are related to the growth of fruits. By such a course it may be made to appear that though the soils of the State are predominantly light, deep and rich and thus eminently fitted for fruit growing, there are many degrees in the possession of these characters or any of them, in local soils, and upon this individual manifestation they rate all the way from perfection to defectiveness. Let a classification proceed then upon a descending scale. Light, Deep Loams. — Admixture of clay with enough coarse materials to secure permeability to air and water, ease in cultiva- tion, deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water, produces soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit trees and vines. These soils are popularly known as loams. They are designated as sandy loams, medium loams and clay loams, accord- ing to the proportion of clay commingled with the sand or coarse materials. Professor Hilgard has devised the following nomenclature of soils based upon their content of clay : Sandy soils, less than 5 per cent of clay; sandy loams, from 5 to 10 per cent; ordinary or FINE, DEEP LOAMS 31 medium loams, from 10 to 15 per cent; clay loams, from 15 to 20 per cent ; clay soils, from 20 to 50 per cent of clay. The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock particles in various degrees of disintegration. The fine materials are clay and rock powder, commonly designated as fine silt. Loam soils may result from deposits by flowing water or many consist of debris but little removed from local rock disintegration. They include a wide variety of materials but agree in the possession of striking adaptability to fruit culture. Some of the leading instances of such soils may be cited. Loams of the Valley Plains. — On the east side of the Sacra- mento Valley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river's course come in from the foot-hills, forming a gently undulating plain with a fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, sometimes right up to the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the east side have a reddish tinge, showing the admixture of the red foot-hill soil and demonstrating, by the way, that all these lands are well drained. In cuts ten to twelve feet deep, made by the sloughs, the reddish plains loam is seen to reach from six to ten feet depth, being then underlaid by gravelly substrata. The width of this class of profusely fertile valley land, east and west, varies consid- erably, according to the meanderings of the rivers. Away from the water courses, the higher lands of the valleys are largely red or yellow loams, sometimes clayey and difficult of cultivation unless taken just in the right condition, sometimes gravelly and apt to dry out unless the natural water supply is supplemented by irriga- tion, but mostly a free-working, fairly retentive, light loam, very satisfactory for some kinds of fruit. The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much greater admixture of sand than those of the Sacramento Valley; there is also a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into upland or "bench" lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper. Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and Tulare counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irrigation has been made during the last few years. Though its summer aspect is most forbidding and almost desert-like in lack of vegetation, the application of water has shown exceptional quickness of growth, early bearing, and lavish productiveness of tree and vine. These plains loams vary in appearance, and are from this fact locally named, "reddish loam," "white ash," and "sand hill." All are distinctly calcareous. Even in the case of the latter, which is the lightest and made of almost 90 per cent of inert sand, it is so deep and has its plant food in such highly available condition that it is producing very large crops of fruits where there is no rise of the bottom water to prevent root penetration. In the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada there are some loose loams of light color 32 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM resulting from the decomposition of granite, but they are as a rule inferior to the red foot-hill soils, which are more clayey, and will be mentioned among the clay loams later. The soils prevailing in the valley of southern California, from Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at its opening out toward the sea, consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points on the slopes forms the soils exclusively, but everywhere constitutes a prominent ingredient of the valley and mesa lands. These mesa lands are conspicuous for their orange-red tint, and the red sandy loam of which they are composed, to depths varying from ten to as much as eighty feet, is evidently the choice soil for orange culture. It is manifest that at some remote epoch it filled the entire valley. Of the middle portion much has been washed away, but islands of it form red-land tracts of greater or less extent all over the region, traversed by and more or less commingled with, the granitic wash from the valleys and canyons of the Sierra Madre. The latter frequently consists largely of gravel, and were it not for the luxuriant natural vegetation borne by these gravel beds, few would have thought of devoting them to the costly experiment of orange planting, which, nevertheless, has proved eminently successful even on these unpromising-looking masses of debris. In the upper valley (San Bernardino Valley proper) the red loam is conspicuous, and gives its name to the flourishing city and citrus district of Redlands, on the terminal slope ; but the heavy flow of water from the upper canyons, notably from that of the Santa Ana River, has scoured it out of the valley itself, and left there, at least on the northern portion, gray and blackish granitic loams of great depth and productiveness, underlaid, and therefore underdrained, by the enormous gravel beds that hold the artesian water of this favored region. The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller Southern California valleys as well, and are similar in character, as they are derived from similar geological formations. Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and not in bluffs, there are, as in Los Angeles and Orange counties, coast flats several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored sandy loam, glistening with scales of mica, and more or less affected with alkali in the lower portions. Similar soils are found in tracts of greater or less extent up the coast as far as Santa Barbara at least. As a rule, these seashore lands are very productive, but fruits for them must be chosen with reference to their low level and exposure to coast influences. The light loams of the so-called desert region of Southern Cali- fornia are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the best soils of the great valley, which it greatly resembles, save in the scarcity of humus, or vegetable matter. Only a detailed survey, however, can determine the tracts having an arable soil, as against VALLEY ALLUVIAL LOAMS 33 those overrun by arid sand. The soil of the Colorado River bottom is highly productive, easily worked, being quite light. It is a highly calcareous soil, and now, as the water of the Colorado River has been made available for irrigation, is yielding rich returns for cultivation. The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have mostly gray, light, and silty, rather than sandy soils, quite similar in appearance from Ventura to Humboldt county, though differing considerably in composition, those of the southern region being more calcareous, and apparently richer in phosphoric acid ; as the coast region consists for the most part of low ranges with inter- vening valleys, the valleys are, as a rule, small, though a few show considerable area. In such a country the soil surface shows wide diversity within smaller areas than on the vast stretches of the great interior valley; consequently, so far as soil goes, the coast farms are often suited to a wider range of fruits than the interior valley farms of similar size. ALLUVIAL OR SEDIMENTARY LOAMS These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings by Americans as par excellence the fruit soils of the great valley of central and northern California. They occur along the courses of existing streams, and extend back to variable distances, until they merge into the valley loams, or adobes. ■ These deposits are considerably higher than the present beds of the streams, and are sometimes described as "next to river bottom." They consist of fine alluvium, with seldom any admixture of coarse materials. These river soils are usually very deep and they are naturally well drained. These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular courses; they are of greater or less width according to the drainage area whence they have come. They vary also in depth, and taper down on either side to the level of the red loam or adobe upon which they have been deposited. Such strips are first chosen by the fruit planters of the district in which they occur. In the valleys of the rivers crossing the eastern side of the San Joaquin Valley, there are, bordering the streams as well as Tulare Lake, consid- erable areas of brown to blackish loam varying from heavy to light, but for the most part easily tilled and exceedingly rich. Consid- erable fruit has been grown for years on these situations, and some kinds do well on these bottoms which do not show adaptation to the plains. Some even of the higher lying portions of these "black lands" support thrifty orchards without irrigation. The wider stretches of alluvial soils in the upper part of the valley, as in the Mussel Slough country and the Visalia region, for instance, are notably well adapted to fruit growing. The occasional intru- sion of alkali, which must be carefully avoided, is the chief obstacle 34 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM to the general approval of these alluvial lands for fruit purposes. •Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys con- sisting of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some places reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable change in character. Such soils have proved very fertile and durable. The rich river bottom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers and sloughs of the valley, has usually a dark, rich, and miost soil, easily tilled and not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely used for the growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable areas have been planted with fruit trees, especially with pears, which do not suffer from submergence of their roots for consid- erable time. In the coast valleys of the State there are also very extensive areas of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit production, as well as upland loams formed in place by the disintegration of local rock formations. The famous fruit region extending from Oakland southward nearly one hundred miles, including the Ala- meda and Santa Clara Valleys, has very large areas of alluvial soil, ranging from deep, rich blackish loams used for vegetables and small fruits, to lighter loams resulting from intermixture of sedi- ment brought by streams from adjacent hillsides with the clay of the valley bottom. It is to these deep, rich alluvial deposits that the region owes its great reputation in fruit lines, CLAY LOAMS Or loams containing sufficient clay to render them somewhat heavy and tenacious, there is also a great variety in California. Their suitability for different fruits depends upon selection of roots adapted to their character and upon the depth and degree of reten- tiveness of the soils themselves. They are more difficult of tillage than the free loams, but offer some compensation therefor in their richness and durability. Clay Loams of the Foot-hills and Valley Border. — The soils of the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its course along the great valley, vary from a moderately clayey loam to a heavy, though not uncommonly gravelly, often orange-red clay. This character seems to be sensibly the same, whether the soil be derived from the decomposition of the ancient slate bed-rock or directly from the dark-colored granites, thus creating a presumption that the two rocks are closely related. The soils are highly charged with iron to the extent of from seven to over twelve per cent, which being finely divided, imparts to them the intense orange-red tint. The soils of the foot-hills agree with the soils of the valley in having a good percentage of lime, while the supply of potash and phos- phates, as well as of organic matter, is smaller, and sometimes low, USES OP HEAVY LOAMS 35 though never apparently inadequate for present productiveness, in the presence of so much lime. Along the base of the foot-hills of the Sierra there is in Fresno, Tulare, and part of Kern county, a narrow belt, irregular in width, of partly red and partly black clay or adobe, so highly calcareous as to break up, when dry, into small fragments, producing a con- dition that has received the name "dry bog." It is upon this that the citrus orchards of the Porterville district are chiefly grown. A white, calcareous marl sometimes occurs beneath this soil at vary- ing depths, producing chlorosis or yellowing of citrus leaves when reached by the roots. Westward of this "dry bog" land there is a belt of reddish or brown loam soils, corresponding to those simi- larly located in the Sacramento Valley, but generally more clayey, and hence frequently designated as adobe by contrast with the very sandy soils of the valley at large, although properly they should be classed simply as clayey loams. This belt is eight to ten miles wide in middle Tulare county and narrows to the north and south. Here these lands have a gentle slope of ten to twenty feet per mile from the base of the foot-hills, and appear to be underlaid at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing gravel. The soil is a reddish, more or less sandy, loam, changing little in its aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is shown by the products of the Lindsay region. CLAY SOILS Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been employed in horticulture. There is a great difference in the character of what is known as adobe in different localities. Its color varies, as the popular terms "black waxy," "black," "brown," and "gray" adobe indicate. Its physical condition and chemical composition also vary greatly. The black adobe of the east side of the Sacra- mento Valley is easily tilled as compared with the gray adobe on the west side, which is very refractory and often largely impreg- nated with alkali. To render soil of adobe character useful for fruit growing, this tendency to dry out and crack, thus allowing evaporation from below as well as from the surface, must be over- come. The discussion of this point belongs to the chapter on cultivation. Adobe soils are, as a rule, rich and durable and there- fore promise long fruitfulness to trees and vines with roots adapted to heavy soils, but difficulty of cultivation, excessive retention of water, and other evils are always present. Some suggestions on the treatment of such soils will be given in the chapter on fertilization. * This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the construction of adobe houses. Agriculturally, it means "a heavy clay soil," such as could not be used in building. 3g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM DEFECTIVE SOILS Although California soils are predominantly of the depth, light- ness and richness best suited to the growth and bearing of fruit trees and vines, it should always be borne in mind that there are marked exceptions, and failure to observe this fact has resulted in considerable disappointment and loss. There is in California much land which is bad from a horticultural point of view and it is apt to occur even in the vicinity of lands of the highest excellence. It is, therefore, necessary to advise that the closest examination be made before investment be made in the planting of fruits. Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in Cali- fornia soils and considerable areas of land sterile through excess of saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by the local reputation of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains to make inquiry. It is rather the more obscure, subsoil conditions which lead to loss or failure, and they may be unknown even to men who have owned or farmed the land for years for ordinary field crops. These defects are, in the main, three : Hard-pan. — Good loams may be underlaid near the surface by hard-pan or by layers of heavy clay. These prevent root penetra- tion; they also limit moisture reception to the shallow surface layer, which is apt to become water-logged for lack of drainage during the rainy season or by excessive irrigation, and to quickly lose its moisture by surface evaporation in the dry season, with no compensation from the tight layer below. In such a situation, then, the plant may suffer severely from excess of water at one time of the year and lack of it at another. Such lands may serve well for some of the small fruits, but not for trees or vines. Under certain circumstances the defects of these soils may be corrected, as will be suggested in the chapter on preparing lands for planting. Leachy Sub-soils. — Good loams are also occasionally underlaid by layers of coarse sand or gravel, through which water flows away beyond the reach of roots which will only make measured progress through such materials. Trees in such situations are apt to come into distress in the dry season and can only be comforted by frequency and volume of irrigation and fertilization, which may be out of proportion to the returns they are able to make. Rise of Ground Water. — Good fruit lands are also occasionally rendered defective by the rise of the ground water toward the sur- face so that only a shallow layer is left for root extension — the evil being aggravated by the fact that a temporary fall of the ground water induces deeper rooting, which a subsequent rise of the water destroys, and decay of the roots ensues. This trouble has occurred over large areas where excessive irrigation, or the course of leaky TO DISCOVER SOIL, DEFECTS 37 ditches, on higher lands, has filled the lower level to such an extent that there is actual outcropping of swamps in the swales. The cure for these conditions is, obviously, drainage, which it is not always possible to secure at a warranted outlay. Alkali. — Connected with this rise of the ground water the alkali evil may intrude. But little trouble arises from this cause in the high-lying, sandy tracts, where irrigation or the natural rainfall carries the soluble salts annually into the country drainage ; but in the low-lying and less pervious soils of swales and valley troughs, which are at the same time intrinsically the richest in available mineral plant food, the accumulation frequently causes consid- erable trouble, and difficulty. Prospecting for Soil Defects. — For subterranean prospecting. Professor Hilgard commends a steel rod not less than a quarter of an inch in diameter (round or square, preferably the latter), well pointed at one end, and provided at the other with a stout iron ring for the reception of a stout cross-handle, such as is used for post-hole augers. With such a prod, or sounding rod, not less than five feet in length, the exploration of the subsoil for hard-pan or dense clay layers becomes a matter of a few minutes. It is easy also to detect thus the presence of underlying layers of quicksand, gravel, or other loose materials through which irrigation water would waste, or which would prevent the rise of bottom water within the reach of plant roots, by the large interspaces between their grains. Any remaining doubts as to the nature of such under- lying materials at particular points can then quickly by solved by the use of a post-hole auger or by digging, for thorough inspection of each foot of depth which may be found desirable. CHAPTER IV THE WILD FRUITS OF CALIFORNIA The wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the most part peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or local species of more widely distributed genera. Very few are identical with the wild fruits common to great areas of the continent. For this reason our wild fruits constitute a very interesting subject for botanical study, and they are now, perhaps, more widely than ever before, attracting the attention of botanical pomologists. Viewed from the standpoint of practical pomology or horticulture, our wild fruits can not be claimed, on the whole, to have attained any very great importance. A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated their culinary or household value, and are locally sought for, but none have any notable commercial value. This may be due to the fact that some of our most delicious wild fruits are very exact- ing in their choice of conditions, and can not be moved far, even within the limits of our own State, and presumably would not take kindly to longer journeys. Another reason why we have made little of our own wild species is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior growth of the best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the world. Therefore, we have little occasion for recourse to the improvement of local wild fruits, because of superior hardiness and adaptation^ as has been done in other parts of the country. Neither fruit planters nor propagators have given any special attention to the wild growths, either for fruit or for stocks, although a beginning has been made in both these directions, which may ultimately attain importance. The horticulture of California wild fruits is a thing of the future. The distribution of our wild fruits is determined by limitations of areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way it may be said that fruits are most abundant in foot-hill and mountain regions, and that our great valleys have always been practically destitute of them, except along stream borders. These fruits are most abundant in the northern portion of the State, but some exist throughout the State, usually thriving at higher elevations as they proceed southward. Oregon Crabapple (Pirus rivularis).— This fruit, though more abundant in the more northerly regions of the coast, as its name indicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It chooses a moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high, shows white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit, about 39 40 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM half an inch long. The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit is eaten by the Indians, and was sometimes used for jelly-making by early settlers. Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata). — This must be regarded as one of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the plum varieties of all the world have been introduced, residents in some of the Sierra regions, where an excellent variety (Kelloggii) abounds, prefer it to the cultivated fruit, both for eating and pre- serving and jelly-making. The typical species is widely distributed over the mountainous regions of the State, and is a low shrub with white bloom and fruit three-quarters of an inch long, of red color and inferior pulp. The better variety has a narrower range, forms a larger shrub, and bears a yellow fruit, larger and better than the typical species. Some attempts have been made to improve this variety by cultivation and selection of seedlings, and the results are promising, as fruit has been shown at our fairs notably better than the wild gatherings. The roots have also been used to some extent as stocks, but seem to possess no marked advantage. The late Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, reported that grafting an improved plum on the wild stock seems to cause the root to grow to much greater size than natural to it. Observation upon grafted and non-grafted seedlings in the same nursery row convinced him of this behavior. Other experimenters have condemned the stock because of dwarfing and suckering. In early days the wild plums in the mining regions of the mountains were largely made use of and are highly praised by pioneers. Oso Berry (Nuttallia cerasiformis). — This fruit is sometimes called the "California false plum." It has a plum-like form, one- half inch long, and is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though not disagreeable to bicds and animals, which feed upon it. The white bloom of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock, the plum varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed. Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.). — Quite a group of wild fruits come under this generic grouping, and they have marked and widely different characteristics. The western Choke-cherry {Prunus dcmissa) closely resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its round, red, or dark purple fruit on a raceme. It is used for marma- lade by housewives in the mountain districts. This species has proved of some utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting in early days when better cherry stock was not available. Another species, Islay {Prunus ilicifoUa), has evergreen foliage, and is a useful hedge plant. Of species bearing fruit in umbels, or true cherry style, we have the Bitter Cherry {Prunus emarginata), which makes a handsome tree, sometimes thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite WILD FRUITS OP CALIFORNIA 4.]^ bitter and astringent. The bush form bearing bright red fruit intensely bitter, is the variety CaHfornica. California Grape (Vitis Calif ornica). — Along our streams the native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit resembling the "frost grape" of the East. The vine frequently covers and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its foliage. Some variation is reported in the species, but it is possible that some of the better kinds are seedlings from some imported species, bird planted. The species has attained something of a reputation as a phyloxera-resisting root for grafting, but it has proved exacting in its choice of soils and situations, and otherwise not desirable, and some Eastern species are now relied upon for this service. Elderberry (Sambucus glauca). — The elderberry makes a fine tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, and with a trunk a foot and a half in diameter. The fruit is borne in large quantities and is used to some extent for preserves and pastry. Raspberries (Rubus sp.). — In the mountains of the eastern part of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant flavor, which is called "thimbleberry" (Rubus parviHorus.) It seems to have an advantage over a variety (velutinus) of the same species which is found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit. Another raspberry, which is found in all hilly and mountainous regions, both on the coast and in the interior is Rubus leucodermis. It resembles the black-cap raspberry of the Atlantic slope, except that it has yellowish-red fruit. This fruit is quite largely gathered for domestic uses, and some efforts have been made to cultivate the plants. Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis). — The beauty, size, and delicious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who have enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and farther northward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten feet high, and it delights in woods and shady banks of streams. The praise of all who know the fruit has led to frequent attempts to mtroduce the plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but such efforts have thus far uniformly failed. Wild Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius). — This fruit should perhaps be called a "dewberry," as it has a trailing, or, at most, but partially raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet. The plant occurs abundantly on banks of streams and other sufficiently moist locations, both in the coast and interior regions of the State. Around the margin of Humboldt Bay, on land cleared by fire or axe, blackberries spring up abundantly on the denuded land. Tons of the fruit are said to remain after the local housewives have done their utmost in preserving and jelly-making. In the lowland region 42 CALiFORNlA PRtriTS: ttOW TO GRoW TttEM ground Stockton considerable quantities are sometimes gathered for sale. The fruit, which has been held in high repute ever since pioneer days, is oblong, black, and sweet. The species is variable, and the anomaly, a white blackberry, has been reported from Del Norte county. The native wild blackberry is one of the parents of the Loganberry and of some of Mr. Burbank's hybrids which are widely grown. Wild Strawberries (Fragaria sp.). — We have in California two Eastern species : Fragaria vesca and F. Virginiana. Thus far these have only been reported from localities in the Sierra mountain region. Another, the sand strawberry, has been found identical with a South American species, Chilensis, and it occurs along the coast, where the fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant enough to gather in quantity. A fourth species, wood strawberry, is local, and is named Californica. It bears a small round fruit and is partial to the coast region. Recently some cultural attention has been given to the wild strawberries, and varieties worthy of propagation have been reported by growers resident in the Sierra region. Mr. Albert F. Etter of Ettersburg, Humboldt county, has secured notable results in crossing with the wild strawberry, as will be noted in the chapter on that fruit. Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.). — Some of our currant species are achieving quite a reputation abroad as orna- mental shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Ribcs tenuiHoruni is, however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for jellies, etc., by dwellers in its region, which is the mountain region of the extreme north of the State. We also have a species (Bracteosum) which has something of the black currant flavor and a fair-sized fruit, black with whitish bloom, and very sweet. There are also several species oi Ribes which are classed with the gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of these {Ribes divaricatum) is peculiar to this coast; another (Ribes oxyacanthoides) occurs at an elevation in the Sierra Nevada and thence extends eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains. The berries are small to medium, of pleasant flavor, and well armed with spines. Another species {Ribes leptanthmn), common in San Luis Obispo and Kern counties, resembles the flavor of the cultivated goose- berry, and is free from spines. Cranberries and Huckleberries (Vaccinium sp.). — We have sev- eral species belonging to the same botanical genus as the Eastern cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth of plant and character of fruit. The fruit of two species is reddish, but insipid. Other species {V. ovatum, etc.) have dark blue or purple fruit. .Some of these are locally esteemed, and the argument drawn from them is that the cranberry of commerce would succeed. It should be stated, however, that the situations in which these plants thrive A GRAND CLUSTER OF BERRIES 43 are not at all according to the requirements of the bog cranberry. A huckleberry {Vaccinium ovatum) is largely gathered in the red- wood region of northern California, for canning and pie-making. The berries are juicy and delicious, and the preserved fruit has a very agreeable flavor. In one year as many as two thousand boxes were profitably gathered on the hills of western Sonoma county. Other Berries. — There are many small, wild fruits, commonly designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical interest. The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judging by the taste of Indians, birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be much more than ornamental in the eyes of white people. They may be briefly enumerated : The "manzanita" {Arctostaphylos manzanita) , the "little apple" of the Spaniard, bears a rather dry but sub-acid fruit. The "bear berry" {Arctostaphylos uvaursi) is esteemed by the Indians both as food and medicine. The "western buffalo berry" {Shcpherdia argentea) has small acid edible fruits. The "salal" (a species of Gaultheria), small fruit, either red or purple, is also a favorite of the aborigines. Of "barberries" we have three species of Berheris. One, aqui- folium, is called the "Oregon grape," chiefly notable for its hand- some bloom, which has been chosen the State flower of Oregon. The fruit is dark blue, and the root is said to be a febrifuge. An- other species (nervosa) has a larger fruit, which is esteemed in cookery; and a third species (pinnata) bears a small, pleasant- flavored fruit. It is the Lena amarilla of the Spanish Californians. Our "service berry" (Amelanchier alnifolia) is from a quarter to a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color. The "lemon berry" is a fruit of Rhus integrifolia, and is coated with an acid exudation which is said to dissolve in water and make a pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus trilobata is said to have both a sweet and an acid coating. The berries of the "toyon" or "tollon" (Heteromeles arbutifolia), or "California holly," are said to be eaten by Indians, but they serve the white people a better purpose in Christmas decorations. The "jujube " of commerce (Zisyphiis jujuba) has a local rela- tive in Zisyphus parryi, which is, however, dry, and mealy, rather than juicy. The "beach strawberry," or "sea fig," is the fruit of Mesembrian- themitm aequilaterale, a relative of the ice-plant. The good-sized fruit is gathered along the seashore, and remotely suggests a straw- berry. Wild Olive (Forestieria Neo-mexicana), — This is a tall willow- like shrub, found in springy places on the borders of the Mojave Desert. It bears an abundance of small fruits which, from their botanical relationship to the olive, have attracted' some attention. 44 • CALIFORNIA FRUITS; HOW TO GROW THEM Experiments to determine its standing as a possible root for the olive have been suggested. Wild Nuts of California. — The wild nuts of California are of very little commercial importance. The wild almond (Prunus , Andersonii) of the" eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada is chiefly of botanical interest, although some experiments are in progress in its use as a grafting stock for the sweet almond. The California filbert {Corylus Calif ornica) has none of the quality of the im- proved filberts nor even of the wild hazelnut. Our chestnut {Castaiiopsis chrysophylla) has a sweet kernel, but a hard shell, almost like a hazelnut ; its variety, sempervirens or Bush Chin- quapin of the Sierra Nevada and dry Coast Range, is said to have a bitter flavored kernel. Our native walnut {Juglans Calif ornica) is better in flavor than the Eastern black walnut, but its hard shell makes it of little commercial account in competition with better, cultivated nuts. The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local market is the "pinenut" — seeds of several species of Pacific coast pines, particularly the "Nevada Nut Pine" or "One-leaf Pinon." Their flavor is somewhat resinous, but is agreeable. The seeds of two species of palms, Washingtonia Ulifera and the Lower California Erythea armata, are sought for by the Indians, who also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Mojavensis, which somewhat resembles in shape the banana, and in flavor the fig, and is called the "wild date." The Indians also use the acorns of several species of California oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water, and then making a rude bread of the acorn meal. The "jajoba," or "goat-nut" (Simmondsia Calif ornica), is a low shrub, the fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are eaten like almonds, and when dried by fire and ground they are used as a beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or as a simple infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of fatty matter; the oil is suitable for food and of good quality, and possesses the immense advantage of not turning rancid. In Lower California it is prepared by boiling with water. The nuts of the California laurel were roasted by the native tribes and esteemed a great delicacy. Further improvements in the preparation process may some day adapt them to the white man's tastes. Cactus. — The common cactus (Opuntia Engelmanni) bears a sweet edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for winter use. By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after slight fermentation, they consider especially nutritious and stimulating. The local species has been used by Mr. Burbank in some of his • crossing to secure improved spineless fruits on plants of more vigor- ous growth and productiveness. CHAPTER V CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS Cultivated fruits were first brought into California from the south. Mission work among the Indians of Lower California was actually begun by the establishment of the mission at Loreto by Salvatierra, October 19, 1697. The following years horses and cattle were brought from Mexico, and from this introduction came ultimately the vast herds which roamed the hills and plains of Cali- fornia. Probably the first seeds and plants of cultivated vegetables and fruits came about the same time, for there was a small garden and a few fruit trees at Loreto in 1701. But Loreto was not fitted for horticulture, and in the same year an expedition in charge of Father Ugarte, who is called the founder of agriculture in Lower California, crossed over the mountain to a more suitable location at the mission of Vigge Biaundo, which had been destroyed some time before by hostile Indians. Ugarte restored the mission, made irrigating ditches, and planted fruit trees and vines. This effort was successful from a horticultural point of view, for in 1707 Ugarte made more wine than would suffice for mission use, and sent some to Mexico in exchange for other goods. Thus began the export trade in California wine. The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in Lower California until there were fifteen missions, at five of which there were vineyards, and presumably as many or more which had gar- dens with fruit trees. The variety of fruits grown in Lower California was small. They had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and some olives and dates. There were no North European fruits, with the exception of a few peaches, which, however, did not appear to thrive. The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower California, in 1768, by the Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra, at once pressed northward, and entered the territory which is now the State of California. Their first establishment was at San Diego, in 1769. Thence they proceeded northward, braving many perils, and under- going great hardships, establishing missions through the coast region of the State. Credit is given to the secular head of the expedition to San Diego, Don Joseph de Galvez, representing the king of Spain, for ordering the carrying of seeds of fruits, grains, vegetables, and flowers into the new territory, and from the plant- ing at San Diego the same varieties were taken to the twenty mis- sions afterwards established. 45 46 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Kinds of Fruit at the Missions, — It is of no little interest to ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mission orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at Santa Clara, with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all thrifty and prom- ising. He also describes at the mission of San Buena Ventura apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and peaches and pome- granates. Robinson described the orchards connected with the Mission of San Gabriel as very extensive, having among their trees oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears, peaches, pomegranates, and figs. There were also grapes in abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed at San Luis Obispo Mission the orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape. At the Mission San Jose he found an inclosure of fifteen or twenty acres, the whole of which was planted with trees and grape-vines. There were six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance and in full perfec- tion. The quality of the pears he found excellent, but the apples and peaches indifferent. E. S. Capron, in a general enumeration of the fruits grown at the missions, includes cherries. Early Planting by Others than the Padres. — Though the earlier Spanish population had the example of successful horticulture before them for half a century at the missions, they did not seem inclined to emulate the efforts of the padres upon their own grounds, except in occasional instances. General Vallejo planted fruit trees in Sonoma Valley as early as 1830, and of his place it is said : "It is an old and well-cultivated place, well known in all the northern portion of California while this State was still Mexican territory." Exceptions there were, also, at the south. The old fruit garden on the Cumulos Rancho, in Ventura county, has become famous. Fremont, writing of his observations in 1846, says that among the arid, brush-covered hills south of San Diego he found little valleys converted by a single spring into crowded gardens, where pears, peaches, quinces, pomegranates, grapes, olives, and other fruits grew luxuriantly together. Scarcely had six years elapsed subsequent to the settlement of the pueblo of San Jose on its present site, before the inhabitants were enjoying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Before 1805 more was grown than could be disposed of in its natural state. Decline of the Mission Orchards. — The decline of most of the mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the establishments in 1834. There were a few exceptions, where the mission lands fell into enterprising Spanish or American hands. During the years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the more hardy survived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine in withstanding drouth and the trampling and browsing of the cattle that roamed unmolested through the deserted gardens. These MISSION FRUITS AFTER GOLD DISCOVERY 47 pears, as will be described presently, were turned to good account by the early American settlers; the olive and the vine furnished cuttings for most of the plantations made during the first twenty years or more of American occupation. But it seems that not all the mission orchards were permitted to fall into decay after the secularization. In 1846 Bryant found at the Mission San Jose two gardens inclosed by high adobe walls. The area was from fifteen to twenty acres, all of which was planted with fruit trees and vines. There were about six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance, the quality of the pears being excellent, the apples and peaches indifferent. Other visitors to some of the mission orchards between the events of secularization and American occu- pation speak of being regaled with pears and milk, a dish which seemed to them ambrosial after the weary journeys overland across the deserts, or after months of ship fare. Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers. — There were quite considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and oranges, by early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. General Bidwell saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest vineyards that he had seen in California, and the vines were the most thrifty. Wine was also abundant — even the Angelica. Los Angeles had orchards, also, mostly of oranges. The largest orange orchards at that time were those of Wolfskin, Carpenter, and Louis Vigne. During recent years the modern city of Los Angeles has been built over and beyond them. Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern part of the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley in 1838, and other fruits later. John Wolfskill, of Winters, saw grapes and peaches at Yount's in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took peach pits froin Yount's over into Pleasant's Valley, Solano county, in 1851. Dr. Marsh, on his place at the base of Mount Diablo, had, in 1842, a mission grape vineyard more than an acre in extent, and in good bearing. The vines were planted about 1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted a few vines on Putah Creek in 1842. Partial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens. — After the incom- ing of Americans in 1849 some of the old mission trees were secured by enterprising men, and made to renew their youth by pruning, cultivation, and irrigation, that they might minister to the great demand for fruit which sprang up among the gold seekers. The trees richly reciprocated the care and attention given them and there still exist at the San Gabriel Mission old pear trees grafted over with improved varieties by W. M. Stockton in 1854. The first fruits offered for sale in San Francisco markets were from the pear trees of Santa Clara and San Jose Missions, and from the mission grapevines of the same localities, and of Los Angeles county. 48 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM These grapes, packed in sawdust, came up the coast by steamer, and were then re-shipped to the mining camps, arriving for the most part in good condition, and were very popular. It is recorded that one thousand iive hundred tons of these grapes were sent from Los Angeles county to San Francisco and the mines in 1852. An- other instance in which thrift followed neglect is seen in the fact that, in 1858, Don Andres Pico, who succeeded to possession of the orchard at the San Fernando Mission, did a considerable business in drying pears and other fruits, using the labor of the Indians. At the present time vestiges of the old mission orchards still remain, the pears and olives still bearing, and in some cases the old date palms guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as reminders of the old regime, while the new life of California is surging up around them. RUSSIAN FRUITS The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California was by the Russians. The exact date of their planting at Fort Ross on the ocean side in Mendocino county, is not known, but is believed to have been as early as 1812. The survivors of the original Russian planting look "very old and mossy, and are not very thrifty, but still bear some fruit every year/' They were planted too closely, and have undergone periods of neglect, no doubt. The trees are apple for the most part, but there were also cherries, and some of both fruits survive. The trees are all believed to have been grown from seed, and if this be true some fortunate results were obtained, for there is still grown in Green Valley, Sonoma county, a medium-sized, bell-shaped apple, lightly striped with red, which is called the Fort Ross or Russian apple, and was probably propagated by grafts from the Fort Ross orchard. Seeds were also secured from this source for propagation of apple trees in early days in that section of the State. CHAPTER VI INTRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES The first cultivated fruits of the old era came to California with the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the American pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made, it is not yet possible to declare definitely who brought the first budded or grafted trees upon California soil. It is a tradition in the family of Martin Lelong, who came to California as a member of Stevenson's regiment in 1846, that he brought with him a small lot of French varieties. of apples growing in a box, and that they were planted in Los Angeles. In the fall of 1849, W. H. Nash joined with R. L. Kilburn in ordering from a nursery in western New York a small box of thirty- six fruit trees, which, packed in moss, well survived the journey around the Horn, arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the spring of 1850. The shipment included Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, Winesap, Red Romanite, Esopus Spitzenburg apples; Bartlett and Seckel pears; Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau cherries. Before this introduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed, for several years afterwards, there were many shipments of fruit-tree seeds from the eastern States to California. Mr. Barnett planted Kentucky seed as early as 1847 in Napa county. T. K. Stewart brought to California with him, in 1848, about two hundred pounds of vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including peach, pear and apple, all of which were planted on the American River, within the present limits of Sacramento, in the spring of 1849. At the same time he planted figs and olives, and, in 1851, seeds of oranges. From all these he secured bearing trees. But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits were but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which followed the great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first thought — to get gold directly from the soil — would admit the second — to get it indirectly, by agricultural and horticultural arts — there came a demand for something better than the wild fruits of the mountains, better and more abundant than the fruits from the mission orchards. At first everything in the line of fruit-tree seed which could be obtained was planted. Thus the immediate vicinity of the mines soon began to show growing fruit trees. But seedlings of any kind would not satisfy the planters, and effort was put forth in every direction after grafted trees of the best varieties. Oregon had a few years the start of California as an inviting field for immigration, 49 50 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM and the advantage also of winning the attention of those who went out, not as gold seekers, but as agricultural producers. Oregon had grafted trees in bearing, and nursery stock as well, about the time the demand sprang up for it in California. Its introduction was then, however, of very recent date. Up to 1847 the cultivated fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the Hudson Bay Company and by early settlers from the Mississippi Valley. In that year occurred the first considerable, if not the very first, intro- duction of grafted fruit upon the Pacific coast. The story of that venture has been so often wrongly told that it is well to record its interesting incidents in the words of one quite near to the event, if not actually participating in it. Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukee, Oregon, writes : In 1847 my brother, Henderson Lewelling, crossed the plains from Henry County, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general variety of grafted fruits. He fitted up a wagon for the purpose, selected small plants, and planted them in soil in the boxes and watered them to keep them alive. He told me that in some places he had to carry water a mile up the mountains to save his trees. When he arrived in Oregon, late in the fall, he had something over three hundred plants alive. The same fall William Meek arrived in Oregon with a few varieties of fruit trees. He and my brother put their stock together, and commenced the first nursery of grafted fruits on the Pacific Coast. It was situated five miles south of Portland, just below Milwaukee, on the east bank of the Willa- mette River. For want of seedling stOick they could not increase their nursery much until, in 1850, my brother John and I crossed the plains, bringing with us some apple seed, which we planted that winter. We also found a gentleman named Pugh, in Washington County, Oregon, who had planted some apple seed in the spring of 1850, which had grown well, and we bought his stock. During the winter of 1850-51 we put in about twenty thousand grafts. In March, 1851, I went to Sacramento, taking with me a box of grafts of apple, pear, peach, plum and cherry, and sold them in Sacramento. I believe I have the honor of being the first to dis- tribute grafted fruit in California. Other Early Introductions. — The introduction of grafted trees, for sale by Mr. Lewelling in the spring of 1851, was quickly followed by other commercial importations, and by shipments by planters for their own use, so that the plantings of 1851-52 were quite large. Still there was great doubt as to the success of the trees. The late G. G. Briggs, after his great melon profits of 1851, went back to New York State for his family, and, returning to California, brought with him, as he says, "with no idea that they would succeed, but as a reminder of home," fifty peach and a few apple and pear trees. To his surprise, the trees grew well in 1852, and the next year blossomed and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. The pears also bore some fine fruit the same year. Besides the introduction of grafted trees which have been men- tioned, there were others in 1852, for, at a fair held in San Francisco in 1853, there were several kinds of apples, grown by Isaac A. Morgan, of Bolinas, on trees planted the previous year. Apples were also shown from Napa. David Spence, of Monterey, showed EARLY GARDENS OP DWARF TREES 51 the first almonds grown in California. During the winter of 1852-53 the distribution of grafted trees must have extended widely over the State. Five dollars for a small tree was frequently paid at the nursery of Meek & Lewelling, in Milwaukee, Oregon, and the trees were carried overland into the mining districts of California, as well as brought to San Francisco for distribution through the valleys. Fruit Gardens, not Orchards. — It is interesting to note that much of the pioneer effort was expended upon fruit gardens rather than fruit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direction. One was the popular thought, which, however, was very early found to be erroneous, that frequent and copious irrigation was essential to the growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another was the ambition, which was correct, both from a horticultural and commercial point of view, to secure the fruit just as soon as possible, foi the double purpose of determining" what was adapted to the novel conditions, and to secure the magnificent prices which fruit commanded in the market. For these ends dwarfing stocks naturally suggested them- selves, and were employed to an extent which seems wonderful when it is remembered that now hardly a fruit tree in the State is worked upon a dwarfing stock. Very early, say from '52 to '58, at San Jose, Oakland, Stockton and Sacramento, small areas, which would now only be considered respectable house lots, were turned to great profit with dwarf pear and apple trees. The place of Mr. Fountain, near Oakland, was called, in 1857, "The finest orchard of dwarf trees in the State." It consisted of three acres set with one thousand six hundred apple and pear trees, all dwarf from root grafts, two years old, and four feet high, and most of them in good bearing. He started the branches from the ground, pruning severely, and heading in during the winter. He claimed thai dwarfing gave him better and larger fruit, and from two to three years sooner than with standard trees. He did not irrigate, but plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to the first of June. But though these dwarf-tree gardens were formally declared "to be the fashion," and though the list of stock of one Sacramento nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five standard and eight thou- sand and sixty-eight dwarf pear trees for sale, the foundations of the greater orchards were early laid upon the basis of standard trees. Thus the Briggs' orchard, of one thousand acres, on the moist land of the Yuba, was planted with trees sixteen feet apart each way, and Mr. Lewelling, and other early planters on the rich lands of central Alameda county, adopted about the same distance. Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwarf trees, and contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan upon which the pioneer of pioneers, General Sutter, laid out his orchard on Hock Farm, on the west bank of the Feather River, eight miles from its junction with the Yuba, of which the following description was written about the time the trees were coming into bearing: 52 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit orchard, the trees and shrubs being so arranged as to present a unique landscape garden, nearly every article in which is productive of fruit. The arrangement of the fruit trees is peculiar, a large portion of them being set on either side of the broad avenues opening through the extensive grounds in various directions, imparting to the whole an air of picturesque beauty seldom seen. But neither the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad landscape-garden plan has survived. Neither of them harmonized with the commercial idea of orcharding — large production and economy of cultivation, and both are now but curiosities of the early horticulture of California. Irrigation Abandoned.-^The early abandonment of dwarf trees suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the valleys of Northern California — as early as 1856. Facilities which had been secured for irrigation of orchards were allowed to go unused, because it was seen that it was better not to use them. One case is reported in Napa county where means to furnish the orchard with thirty thousand gallons of water per day were allowed to lie idle. The substitution of cultivation for water, of course, attended this reform. The announcement of a prac- ticC; in 1856, "to plow deep, dig wide and deep holes for plant- ing, and work the ground from February to July, allowing no grass or weeds to grow among the trees," shows that the thorough and clean culture, for which California is famous, is not a recent idea in our practice. Even the abandonment of the plow, and almost weekly use of the cultivator, was the practice of some growers in the San Jose district before 1860. In fact, the descriptions of orchard management in that day include nearly the whole variety of meth- ods which now prevail. The experience of the two decades has shown that irrigation facilities are more valuable even for deciduous fruits than was once thought possible. This proposition will be discussed in the chapter on irrigation. Early Wisdom and Enterprise. — It is evident to anyone who studies the records, that California was -^ry fortunate in numbering among the early settlers so many men with horticultural tastes, skill, and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees were multi- plied, and the confidence with which these early comers entered upon the nursery business, shows their training. Although there were many trees brought here from the East and from Europe, they constituted only a very small percentage of the plantings of the first few years, but the orchards, with the exception of a very small number of trees introduced to furnish grafting and budding stock, were the product of the soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes all the more wonderful how so much could be done in a new country, in a distant part of the world, in so very short a time. It was an observation which was put upon record as early as 1856, BEGINNINGS OF FRUIT SHIPMENT 53 that "some varieties of fruit are much improved by change to this State, and some are not benefited." The test seems to have been that if a variety was not better than at the East, it should be discarded. The First Oversupply. — The wonderful stimulus given to the fruit interest by the results attained in growth and in marketing, soon induced larger plantings than the demand warranted. In 1857 it was publicly stated that "there are single farms in this State, containing each over half a million fruit trees in orchard and nursery — one person owning enough trees, when fully matured, to produce as much fruit, other than grapes, as will be sold this year throughout our State. The day is not far distant when fruit will be an important crop for raising and fattening swine." This was, to a certain extent, a statement of a croaker, for plantations con- tinued, rare varieties were brought from the East, the South, and from Europe; the growth of some fruits continued to be very profitable, and the nursery business, confined to fewer hands, was profitable also. The idea that quality rather than size should be striven for, led to more discrimination in propagation and better treatment of trees. The decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit interest of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly planted trees died from lack of proper cultivation and pruning, and the borer wrought sad havoc. In 1860 and 1861 there was serious depression. It is recorded that peaches were worth but one cent a pound, and many were allowed to go to waste as not worth gather- ing. The flood of 1862 destroyed many trees along the Sacramento River, and replanting was slow until prices began to improve, as they did soon afterward. The rapid development of the mining mterest in Nevada, and the construction of roads across the Sierras, opened the way for the disposition of much fruit growth in the foot- hills and in the region around Sacramento. The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and growers were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for themselves. Something was done in this direction, for by 1867 the local product of canned fruit was equal to the demand. Drying did not advance so fast; for two years later there were imports of six thousand' barrels of dried apples, while the hundreds of thousands of bushels of the fruit were rotting under the trees in our orchards. The decade under review was also notable for the first appear- ance of cured raisins and prunes at the State fair of 1863. The raisins were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the report states that so-called raisins exhibited previous to that time were merely dried grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez, was the first exhibitor of Muscat raisins, and he exhibited also dried grapes of four varieties to show the contrast between a raisin and a dried 54 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM grape. J. R. Nickerson, of Placer county, exhibited' the dried prunes, which were of the German variety. Though this decade was one of uncertainty and doubt, there Avere rich lessons of experience learned, and the foundations for coming greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines of production trace their beginnings to this period, and their later developments have been beyond any anticipations then cherished. The New Era. — Another era in California may be marked as beginning with the year 1869, because then the first fresh fruits were sent East over the newly-opened overland line. The first sea- son's shipments amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples, grapes, and plums ; in 1870 seventy car-loads, or about seven hun- dred tons, were sent. The Eastern shipment of fresh fruits began its new era with the year 1886, when the first full train load of fifteen cars of fresh fruit from deciduous trees went overland. Shipping train loads of oranges from Southern California began at an earlier date. During the present decade shipments of fruit and fruit products have increased until a very large aggregate in weight and value has been attained. The volume of shipments beyond State lines is shown by the statement on the next page compiled from the records of the State Board of Trade. The Fruit Interest in 1910. — The fruit interests of California now constitute the greatest single industry of California and the fruit output of California is far greater than that of any other State in the Union. Notable progress has been secured in planting, in the growth, preparation and marketing of the product, in the contest with injurious insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all things which contribute to success. It is true that there are problems still unsolved, and there have been grievous losses to individuals who have proceeded upon too great expectations or have erred in loca- tion for various fruits. Such mishaps will be less frequent in the future. At present there is a disposition to proceed more cautiously and to profit by the lessons which have been learned, many of which will be mentioned in their proper places in later chapters. Some dimensions of the present fruit interests may be sug- gested by the following statistics which have been carefully com- piled from reports of the supervisors of the counties submitted to the State Agricultural Society in accordance with the law of 1905. These reports are published, unfortunately, without summaries, in the Report of the Society for 1908. The figures for a few counties which did not comply with the law are supplied from other sources. The total acreage in 1898 was 542,399; since that year there has been a gain of nearly seventy per cent. RECORDS OF OVERLAND SHIPMENT 55 oo o 00 CD 00 ■- t- 03 CO ' O' CO 03 ir 03" 0" 0- t- 1-" T— 1 CD C CO ca rH o< 00 03 1-1 CO T-H -1- CO CO 50 .-1 00 ^ in 00 c 03 50 03 cq 03 e^ ^ If o 03 O 50 OC th «; ^ CO 00 oc N CO co" -» i> Tf CO rH ^'' oc no iH o >H cy +■ c 1-1 00 tH '^ T- 03 03 CO t- M t- 03 Cq C£ tr- W t^ tH c- ir o- 0. 03 ^ 00 'J o CO ^ iH Tf iH C£ ^ -* 03 r- io Ol CO CO N C " 10" t- -* Co" 00 OC 0" rH oo 1-t ^ [- CO C^ iH CO iH [- -* CO 03 If i U5 « ■* t- rH r- 03 in 00 00 C- C"- rH [- t- c- 03 rf o O O ^ C£ J CO oc C- 03 C- C£ Tt< 03 -^jT 00 cv " [-^ >- oT r-T CO C oT tH U5 iH Ci • oo LO IT OC CD C- 03 CO tH C- 03 CO >-l C t- If 00 03 cq c tH CO 03 N CO CC > t- <= 03 00 CO o- .00 O ,H CO m o ^ CO 0- 00 CO CD D- tH r-T 03" oT O " 03" ^ CO 03 00 00 03 ^ o- o- 03 CD 00 rH Cq iH CD iH 03 10 U" ) 03 If Tt( CO c- o- 00 O 03 CD -* C- • rH 0- CO rH 10 Ci CO co CO 03 If > 03 CC rH t- 03 Ot 10 C3 LO rH [- " C C-^ rH CO « t^ N 10 -a 1-1 (X ) r~i CO c- i-i cq 1-1 CD 00 .H t- ^ 1 o rH Til el- > oq 1-1 C- C- 00 r- 's" 10 C- C CO o CD 00 03 C- ■^ <^ lO 03 rH C£ CO* CO co" CV ' 00 c^ 03" 10" oT « co" 03 C^ 0> - 03 03 rH C- O t- ^ Lf 'i 00 03 cc o .H 10 C 10 If oo_^ 10 0^ c t- ^ rH CO ci: " cd" If ifT c eg la CD e^ c M d 'a C £ EC a a m c a (3i to a 0) Ex > ■a !h oj u oJ S -a 3 ;h K t 13 "a 01 .2 m '3 (0 03 "*- 'C s 3 CJ a> ^ Cl* b Q « ^ > 0300a3l0l:-(^qoOTt^ Ocoo3t-cqcoiooo oocqocococqooocD 0>OOOrHCDCOOOrH 03 C- CJ3 00 tr- oq oq oq < oq" rH eo" rH T-i rH ^A < t- 03 03 03 rH 00 t- 00 u CO 03 CO CO [- en CO rH en CD -*> k:i rH rH co" rH ^ P ^ < CD oq CO tm rH C- oq oq rH CO 00 Oq rH 10 T~i oq ^ 03 T-i UO LO °i oq 1— ( y-^ T-i T-i m h ^ H ^ in CO CD oq rH 03 03 Tf t> r-\ ^ 03 C- t- Tt( rH 111 w 02 rH 03 CO 00 oq t- rH rH rH rH rH FH l-H 5 Tj( CD 03 ^ CO C- 03 CO 00 Ph 00 10 la in 03 ""^ oq rH rH la TJH ■oq oq" i-i rH CD t3 P Q CO 03 C- oq m rH rH CO T-i CO Tjl CO [- oq l-H U H 3 C- 00 00 T^ oq oq CO rH rH rH T-i w eq rH t- CO ca oq in 03 CO CO t- oq -* in rt 03 C- Tfi oq oq CO fe - Oq rH rH "^ fe ;?; ^ 10 rH CD CD oq 03 ^ CO CD CO CO CO h- 1 03 10 03 03 03 oq rH c— b^ "-I rH rH < U oiOi-iiooocqoocqtr- O'-i'X'cqLALOcOi— icq OiiHCOOOi-lTHCMUJ w ai to s 3 0) to _ (1) '^ !h ^^ rrl m rrl S-. ..L_.. i ...u.... ! „.u... c .....L... i- 't. %= ^. •1. 4 % %. ^ %=. r«. % 4 ^^ C €. f. C ^4 t. C %- C % 4 ^L C %=. t. B VI 1.. ., .JU..,-.V..,...,|^.....1«._....U-_.......,....U U.. }^lj^X^:-i^ k- I'^-U ^ 1- i':;^:i-:J4A":vU:;>i?..i....u u j. .i-....w.j U;'"|i.; L'---'^^ y'-M L t- L :.. ...tJ.. ir.i ..J^...":t'[^4^ lJ.'.t.-.J^ ...uJ k:^ ; ui '■■•[. u '■■■U U--4- C--.L L..UL.ki:;I^.. .i«i.Nu....U.L..L;::-L..i ^K ^^ 4. ^ <^ ^ ^ -C ^ '^^ ^1^4. ^^ 'luC ■^^^1. %.^1L ^ C %. f4. C 4^4. C'^^^^^ -1k^ ^^^ccc-^c% %.%^ ^C4. C ^"L, t. C^k=Ci|.t^€^C4.% •t»-^ ^ C C Trees planted on the square system. The Triangular or alternate system. k_... l^- i-V-j--^ [....;v..|...:^.. \ % i \ ! Ur. ^:^^....r:::i'. /i- „.M. J i,.Ji:i^...L..^;t-...l.,.^k...l...J;^«.l. .'^J*_.l '^ ^ '^^ ^i. c ' c. c >!. ^ c ^^_ '%^ '^ ^ %. ^ €^ 4^ %=^ 4^ 4=^ ^ I--, U i-. -^ L L ! \\^ ! \.u : ^•^.u i \\^ j "'--U i U.....::1....^NL \'i.. "^L.__..!;:i W W W r-i W \ 'y 'L'L. !"::U....\i "::.U J:i j-XL- ;H W I'^'ir ^"^-t j I ':::L ':::L I'.-.-L i-L. '^l ^ C, ^ 1 C %^ t- 't^ C- C C ^ %. t=- %, C ^ C ^L= ^L. -'4^ t. •%, ^ ^L- #, C C_ 4. C. C t- C ^ C 4. %. C 4^ *. %_ ^%=. #_ C %„ ^ C c %. %« C. 4. ^Il t^,„t. The Hexagonal or Septuple system. The Quincunx system. go CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM LAYING OUT FOR PLANTING IN SQUARES It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and for the beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in straight lines, and care should be taken to attain that end. Most orchards and vineyards in this State are laid out in squares ; that is, the rows of trees or vines are all at right angles to each other, as shown in the accompanying sketch. This is the simplest arrangement; and by some of our largest planters is held to be the best. It is true that the trees are not equidistant from each other in all directions, and that, theoretically at least, there is a portion of the ground unused — supposing that the roots occupy a circle, as do the branches. Practically, however, it may be doubted whether the hungry roots of well-grown trees or vines leave any portion of the soil unvisited. There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares available for planting at long distances, with growths between, which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between fruit trees. Such mixed planting is, however, but little practiced in California. VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES Marking With a Plow. — This method was used in laying off some large orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two- horse turning plow is rigged with a "marker" — a light wooden bar extending^ at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as the desired distance between the rows of trees. On the end of this bar a crosspiece is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches along on the surface of the ground. The line of the first furrow has to be designated by a flag stake, to which the plowman proceeds. When this is done, the team is turned and sent back along the next row, the location of which has been fixed by the marker, and so on for the length of the field, the marker being turned each time to indicate the next furrow. Following the same course the other way of the field leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the furrows. Measure and Sight. — Another method which is quite commonly used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combi- nation of measure and sight. The sighting stakes are usually plas- terers' laths pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more visible to the eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the distances and locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all around the field. Then locate a line of laths across the field each way through the center, these laths occupying places which the trees of these two central rows will fill. After these are in place, meas- urement' can be dispensed with, and the job can be finished by sight- ing through. The man on the ends of the rows has three laths to HOW TO FIX DISTANCES 99 sight by in each row, and the stake driver places the stakes as directed by the sighter. Good location can be done this way if a man has a good eye and patience enough. Marking Off With a Wire. — A measuring wire or chain is, per- haps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines. It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as will be described presently. Measuring wires are made of annealed steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The length varies according to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay off the plantation in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred and eight feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length of one side of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use a wire as long as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of no consequence ; and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire just the length of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the wire is fixed a strong iron ring about one and one-half inches in diameter, to be slipped over stakes ; some use a larger ring, say three inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling taut. Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the distances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the points may be easily seen. Another style of measuring wires is made of small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diameter, made of several strands of small wire. It is more flexible and less likely to become kinked than the large wire, and can be easily marked off to represent the distances, at which rows of different kinds of trees should be placed, by separating the strands a little at the desired points and inserting a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires together again and tying firmly with a waxed thread to prevent slipping. In this way the same wire can be easily arranged for planting vines or for the trees requiring the greatest distance be- tween the rows. Another advantage of the cable is that any stretch- ing can be taken up by retwisting, which can not be done with the stretching of a single wire. Another good style of planting wire is made of 2, 4 or 6-foot links of No. 12 steel wire (including the diam- eters of the small rings turned at each end of the link pieces). As all planting will probably be at multiple distances of these link- lengths, the cloth tags can be changed and the chain thus be marked for any desired distances. Finding a True Corner. — To use the measuring wire for laying out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner true, and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the square and stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which will give room enough to turn with the team in cultivation or to drive along in picking-time. When the wire is thus stretched J^QQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM parallel with the boundary of the field, place a stake at each of the distance tags on the wire, and these stakes will represent the first row of trees or vines. To find a square corner, begin at the starting point and measure ofif sixty feet along this row with a tape line, and put a temporary stake, then from the starting-point measure ofif eighty feet as nearly at a right angle with the first line as can be judged with the eye, and run diagonally from this point the tem- porary sixty-foot stake. If the distance between these stakes is one hundred feet, then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the out- side lines started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with the measuring wire and lay ofif as large an area as he desires, if care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and all stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire — providing the land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over uneven ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree to tree, with the tape line held as nearly to a level as possible. Rows on Hillsides. — Laying ofif orchard or vineyard on hillside too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in plac- ing the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the rows along the face of the hill. In planting trees thus the advantage to be gained is by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill ; thereby you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower side of the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side of the rows, for the plow or harrow is always below the team. If trees are planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the hill a little between the rows, then allowed to drop down hill one step, and thus one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The same rule will apply to vines. QUINCUNX PLANTING There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State. It is, in fact, made to cover almost every kind of arrangement which is not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean "the arrangement of things, especially of trees, by fives in a square, one being placed in the middle of a square." Trees set in quincunx would stand as shown in the accompanying diagram. To locate them in this form it is only necessary to proceed as already described for planting in squares, by fixing upon the base line and locating two side lines to it at right angles. Place the stakes on these two lines just half the distance desired between the trees, and have the meas- uring wire long enough to reach across from one line to the other. Near one end of the wire place another mark just half way between the end and the first tree mark; that is, if the trees are to be twenty-four feet apart in the squares, this additional mark should be twelve feet from the end of the wire. Now set the first row with the end of the wire at the corner stake, and set stakes at each twenty-four foot mark. TRIANGULAR PLANTING ;[01 Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of putting the end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark there. Put stakes now at each twenty-four foot mark again to locate the trees in that row. In the next row put the cud of the wire at the first stake and proceed as in the first row. Thereafter using the end of the wire and -the twelve-foot marks alternately, the stakes will be set in quincunx all over the field. If the midway stakes are now pulled out along the two side lines, the remaining stakes show where the trees are to be placed. This way of planting locates about sev- enty-eight per cent more trees upon any given area, but it brings the trees at irregular distances from each other, and except in furnish- ing a way to arrange an orchard with permanent and temporary trees, there does not seem to be any advantage in it. PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES This is the arrangement generally implied when the term "quin- cunx" is wrongly employed. By it the trees are all equally distant from each other, and thus the ground divided as equally as possible. The arrangement admits fifteen per cent more trees to the acre than the setting in squares, and the ground can be worked in three different directions. This arrangement also gives better facilities for irrigation. Objections are urged to it, however, in that it does not admit of thinning trees by removal of alternate rows, as is some- times desirable, and that one has to take a zigzag course in driving through the orchard. Hexagonal planting places the trees as shown in the accompany- ing sketch. It is termed hexagonal because, as the figure consists of six trees inclosing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing trees makes a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because seven trees enter into its figure. An orchard can be laid out in hexagonals by using the measuring wire as described for quincunx planting with the distance and half- distance marks, except that the guide stakes in the side rows must be placed at different distances apart. The following table, show- ing the distance for side stakes to reach desired distance between the trees, and the method of calculating the number of trees to the acre by the square and hexagonal or sextuple arrangement : Trees set Sextuple Check-stakes should be 10 feet apart 8 feet 8 inches. 12 feet apart 10 feet 4 2-5 inches. 14 feet apart 12 feet % inches. 16 feet apart 13 feet 10% inches. 18 feet apart 15 feet 7 inches. 20 feet apart 17 feet 4 inches. 21 feet apart 18 feet 21/2 inches. 22 feet apart 19 feet % inches. 24 feet apart 20 feet 91/2 inches. -j^Q2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM After the field is staked, each alternate stake in the check rows should be removed. The following table will show the number of trees to the acre by the square and septuple system : Square Septuple 10 feet apart 435 500 12 feet apart 302 347 14 feet apart 222 255 16 feet apart 170 1£5 18 feet apart 134 154 20 feet apart 109 125 21 feet apart 99 114 22 feet apart 90 103 24 feet apart 75 86 For any distance not given in the above table, calculate the number of trees to the acre by the square system, and add fifteen per cent. This will give the number if planted septuple. Laying Out Hexagonals with a Triangle. — It is possible to lay out an orchard in hexagonal form by working from stake to stake with an equilateral triangle of dimensions equaling the distance required between the trees. One corner of triangle — all being made alike. Take three strips of one-by-two-inch dry pine or redwood, and as long as you wish the distance between the trees. Cut the strips the same length, and fasten the corners of the triangle firmly together by nailing two pieces of pine board six by six inches. If the long strips are set up edgewise, the triangle will be much stiffer and better to carry. Through the corner boards bore an inch hole, making sure that the three sides of the triangle measure exactly the same. If they do, the triangle must necessarily be perfect. Then brace it a little by nailing a lath across each corner, and it is ready for use. Now split out some three-quarter-inch pins, one foot long, from good, straight-grained redwood. Make one hundred pins for each acre you have to lay off. Three persons must now carry the triangle, beginning on one side of the field, say eight feet from the fence, and guided the first time through by a line of stakes. Carry the triangle with its side to the line of guide stakes and PLANTING ON HILLSIDES J^Qg its point in. The head man and the inside man will stick pins, while the rear man will slip his corner each time upon the pin set by the head man. After the first time across, the man at the inside point of the triangle alone will set pins, while the other two fit their corners upon the pins in the last row set. Thus one row of pins only is set each time you go across the field. If the triangle is exact, and the first row of pins is set perfectly straight, and the pins are always set perpendicularly, everything will now work like a charm and the job will be perfect; and it is so simple and easy that a man and two small boys can lay off from five to ten acres in one day. Remember that no guide stakes are used anywhere after the first time through. The Triangle on Hillside. — The use of the triangle requires a little nicety in "leveling up" where the piece is hilly. By using a plumb-line at two corners of the triangle, the third corner resting on one of the stakes, leveling the triangle and bringing one of the plumb-lines over another stake already set, the position of the other line would determine the position of the next stake. Thi§ method has worked fairly well, even in places where the slope was sufficient to give a fall of six feet between the trees, which were set twenty feet apart. Locating in Triangles with a Chain. — Instead of a wooden tri- angle, a chain has been used in this way : First stretch a chain along one side of the ground, setting by it the first row of stakes. This forms the base line. Have a piece of chain just twice the length of the established distance between trees, with ample rings on the ends and a joint in the middle. Put one of the rings over the first stake and the other over the second stake. Then take the joint in the middle of the chain and stretch it out reasonably tight. The wire forms a letter V, at the focus of which stick a stake. The point is indicated with precision by the joint in the middle of the chain. Then take the ring off the first stake and put it over the third stake, leaving the one on the second stake where it is. Tighten the chain again, and another point is fixed. Thus continue all the base line, shifting the rings alternately, turning over the chain as one turns a pair of draughtman's compasses in his hand when spacing off a line. The second row of s.t,akes being set, set the third row, and so on through the ground. The suggestions given in this chapter should indicate ways enough to lay off orchard and vineyard ground to answer all needs, though there are other good ways not mentioned. It is hoped that the instructions will not be regarded as too explicit. They are intended for the guidance of the inexperienced planter, and will nat- urally seem laden with detail to those who have become familiar with the operations by repeated practice. CHAPTER XI PLANTING THE TREES After the field has been graded, thoroughly tilled and carefully laid ofif as has been described, the next step is digging the holes for the trees. "How large shall the holes be?" He was a wise fruit grower who, when asked this question, replied, "As large as the field." That is to say, it is much better to work the whole ground over deeply than to trust to deep holes and shallow working else- where. Where this is done, the tree holes need only be large enough and deep enough to receive the roots without folding them in or cramping them up. In a loose, deep soil, however, one can dig extra deep and broad holes if he desires, and will be repaid by extra growth of the tree ; but in a close, tenacious soil a deep hole is not only undesirable, but often positively a danger to the tree, unless drainage of the holes is provided artificially. Such holes hold water like a tub, and the loosening of the soil deeply facilitites its gather- ing in the hole. Many have found their trees in such places dwind- ling and dying because their roots were soaking in water. Planting on Some Shallow Soils. — As a rule, trees should have a deep soil, and for these deep, free loams, California is famous, but there are situations where very satisfactory growth and production can be had, even when the hard-pan is near the surface and the soil would be called shallow. In such places it is the character of the subsoil which warrants the tree and vine planter in making use of them. Sometimes the hard-pan is so thin and near the surface that it can be broken through with a pick in digging the tree hole. Other- wise boring is done. It is about forty years since Mr. James Rutter, of Florin (on the "bed rock" lands near Sacramento), first noticed that there were vines here and there which grew exceptionally well and bore large crops of fine fruit. He found by investigation that under these vines there were crevices in the bed-rock, and from this he took the hint to bore through this hard-pan in the bottom of the hole where he placed the tree, and in this way he gained access for the roots to the subsoil and egress for the water through the permeable substratum. He bored a hole two inches in diameter into or through the bed-rock and rammed well into it one and a half pounds of black blasting powder. After exploding this, he some- times bored a three-inch hole about four feet below the blast. In- stead of blasting in the hole where the tree is to be planted, some bore and blast the hard-pan midway between the rows, placing the holes at "quincunx" with the trees. The shattering of the hard-pan 104 PREPARING HOLES FOR PLANTING 205 between the trees is said to be practicable after the trees are grow- ing, and may in certain soils relieve trees which are suffering for lack of drainage. A half-pound cartridge of dynamite has been successfully used for subsoil blasting, and some have reported in favor of exploding a quarter-pound cartridge quite near to a tree suffering from standing water, putting in the charge during the dry season. There are many situations where such practice would be bene- ficial, and in some cases mere digging or boring through the im- pervious stratum avails much. There are spots where "lava crusts" overlie gravel, and trees have been well grown by cutting holes through the lava to the gravel, filling with good soil and planting the trees in these holes. Their roots penetrate to the gravel stratum and obtain abundant moisture and nutriment. In certain situations where a shallow layer of soil overlies a heavy clay, trees have been blown over, but when a cut has been made through the clay, the trees have rooted deeply and have withstood the winds. Shooting Holes for Trees. — Even where there are continuous depths of dense strata, and not shallow hard-pan underlaid by free soils, trees can often be successfully grown by the use of high ex- plosives. In his book on "Soils" Professor Hilgard gives these suggestions : A permanent loosening of dense sub-strata is best accomplished by moderate charges (J4 to % lb.) of No. 2 dynamite at a sufficient depth (3 to 5 ft.). The shattering efifect of the explosure will be sensible to a depth of eight feet or more, and will fissure the clay or hard pan to a corresponding extent sidewise. If properly proportioned the charge will hardly disturb the surface; but if this be desired, from 1^4 to 2% pounds of black powder placed above the dynamite will throw out sufficient earth to plant the tree without farther digging. Where labor is high-priced this proves the cheapest as well as the best way to prepare such ground for tree planting, and it has often been found that in course of time the loosening begun by the powder has extended through the mass of the land so as to permit the roots to utilize it fully and even to permit, in after years, of the planting of field cropc where formerly they would not succeed. The boring for such blasting is usually with an ordinary carpen- ter's auger, a little larger than the diameter of the cartridge to be used ; the shank of the auger being lengthened by the blacksmith to reach the depth desired. It is becoming more and more apparent, however, that for com- mercial plantings of trees and vines all such defective soils should be avoided. There is plenty of good, deep land to be had, and the burden of ameliorating poor land is a serious handicap in the com- petition which has brought production to very narrow margins of profit. Digging the Holes. — Holes for tree planting may be dug at a leisure time after the laying off of the field, even though it is not designed to plant the trees immediately, but our largest planters 106 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM do not approve the practice. In such cases the sides of the holes should always be freshly pared off before the trees are put in, be- cause the rain and sunshine are apt to cement the sides. In digging holes the surface earth should always be thrown on one side and the lower soil on another. The object of this is to have the top soil to place in direct contact with the roots when the tree is planted, the lower soil being used to fill up the hole with. . • TREE SETTERS No matter how carefully the stakes are placed in laying off the orchard, the trees will not easily come in line unless some handy device is used for bringing the stem just in the place occupied by the stake which was thrown out in digging. These devices are called "tree-setters," and there are a number of designs. Two are given, either of which will give good results. Take a piece of board one inch thick, four inches wide, and five feet long; bore an inch hole in the center, and one at each end at equal distance from the center; then cut a piece from one side of the board, marked by a J \ o| Bar for tree setting. square, the corner resting in the middle of the center hole. Make two stakes, each one foot long, that will easily pass through the end holes. Place the center of this board against the stake, where the tree is to be planted; push the stakes into the ground through the holes in the ends, then lift the board from position and proceed to dig the hole. When dug, replace the board over the end stakes in its former position, then plant the tree with its trunk resting against the center notch in the board, and you have it in just the right place. Another setter is in the form of a triangle : Take three pieces of plain one-inch stuff three to four inches wide and four feet long, and nail them together, forming a three-cornered frame, letting the ends project sufficiently to form a* corner, as shown in the drawing. Next make a couple of smooth, hard stakes, well sharpened, and about a foot or sixteen inches in length. When you are ready to set your trees, place the frame flat upon the ground with one corner firmly and fairly against the stake which marks the place where the tree is to stand. Now in the other two corners stick the stakes already prepared for the purpose. This done pull up the stake against which the frame was first placed — the one indicating a place for a tree — remove the frame, being careful in doing so not to move the other two stakes, which must be left to be used while setting DEVICES FOR SETTING TREES 107 the tree. After the hole is dug and everything ready for setting the tree, again place the frame against the two standing stakes, let the tree drop into the other corner, which will help support it while the dirt is being placed about the roots ; and this will bring the tree exactly where the stake was originally. If the stakes are properly put in line, so willl3e the trees. These setters are described as they are used when the hole is dug and the tree set at the same time. Such is the ordinary practice in planting. If one wishes to dig the holes beforehand, it is necessary to furnish more stakes, as two have to be left beside each hole to mark the position of the setter when the planting is done. Besides its use in bringing a tree into line, the tree-setter enables one to Triangular tree setter. judge of the depth of setting as compared with the surface of the surrounding ground. It is not easy to determine this with the eye if the hole be a large one. Where the measuring wire is used to set the stakes, it is sometimes stretched across again after the holes are dug, the tags on the wire thus indicating the places for the trees of the whole row. The trouble with this practice is the bother of having the wire in the way while filling and, tramping the earth around the roots. , . SELECTING TREES In the purchase of trees it is well to patronize nurserymen in your own district, providing they are honest and intelligent men, Who keep themselves informed as they should about their business. The advice' of ^tich a local nurseryman is often of great value to the rtewcomer, for he will know by his experience and observation much about the adaptations of fruits and varieties thereof to the region. H, for' any reason; local nurseries do not meet your needs, seek some well-established nursery at a distance. It is much safer to deal directly with the, gr.owei; of the trees than to patronize traveling' IQg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM agents. Where, however, these agents are the accredited represen- tatives of well-known establishments, they may save the planter time and trouble by taking his order for him. So-called "tree peddlers," who are jobbers in trees and in too many cases send you refuse trees which they pick up cheap wherever they can, and label them to suit, without respect to truth or honesty, should be resolutely avoided, no matter what inducements or blandishments they may offer. The California legislature of 1907, passed a law making it unlaw- ful to sell fruit trees representing them to be a certain kind and aft- erwards to deliver trees of a dififerent kind. To do this is a misde- meanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. Action may be begun at any time within seven years after the date of delivery of such trees.* It is desirable, if possible, to visit the nursery and see the stock which is to be furnished. The trees should have a good healthy look, with clean bark, and of. size enough to indicate a good, free growth. The matter of size is not the only point to consider, for size of the top is not so desirable as well-matured wood and plenty of roots. On the other hand, stunted trees are not, as a rule, worth planting, for a stunted tree, like a stunted calf, often does not make a good after-growth. There are cases, however, in which, by extra cultivation in good soil, fine trees have been grown even from "culls" from the nursery. The best rule is to select trees of good medium size, straight and healthy. In judging size, however, one must take California and not Eastern standards, because our nursery stock, if well grown, invariably is of much greater size than Eastern. If the visit is during the digging season, ask to see samples of the roots as well as the tops and do not purchase trees unless the roots are healthy looking and free from knots or excresences. Gnarly and knotty roots in the young tree are a sure sign of insect pests or of unhealthy growth, and planting such trees has occasioned our orchardists immense loss. Many have been led into purchasing poor trees because they may be had cheap. A tree selected merely because it is cheap may prove the most expensive thing a man can put in the ground. Guarding Against Insects. — The top of the tree should be care- fully examined to discover scale insects if there be any. For this purpose a hand-magnifier should be used. Such a glass should always be in the fruit grower's pocket. One can be bought at any optician's for a dollar or two, which will fold into its case so as to be carried without scratching. Our nurserymen, by forsaking old infested locations and obtaining new ground, now sell much cleaner trees than they did years ago. But still it is well to be always on the watch for p.ests. Disinfection of nursery stock is now officially provided. Details of treatment will be given in the chapter on injurious insects. * statutes and amendments to the Codes, 1907; Chap. 229. TREATMENT OP YOUNG TREES ^QQ TAKING TREES FROM THE NURSERY Trees should be carefully taken from the nursery rows so as to obtain a good amount of small branching roots. In lifting from the home nursery, digging with well-sharpened spades, which will sever the long roots cleanly, is perhaps the best method. In the large nurseries tree-diggers are generally used. They have two revolving coulters, which cut through the surface soil each side of the trees, and a sharp, curved blade, which is drawn through the ground under the trees, loosening the soil and severing the long roots cleanly. The tree is then easily lifted, and has generally a much better root system than by the old style of "ploughing out," which broke off so many of the small roots and lacerated the larger ones. Whether the taproot should be retained or not is not worth discussing on theoretical grounds. As a matter of fact and practice, the taproot cuts no figure at all in California orchard planting, although the discussion of the question was formerly very warm in this State, and is still occasionally heard. It is important, however, that the planter should have as many small lateral roots as he can get. The small fibrous roots are usually of little account, as they seldom sur- vive transplanting, and it is better to clip them away, if the time can be afforded, as they often prevent the proper close contact of the soil with the larger roots. Cutting back all roots to short stubs at the base of the stem has succeeded in some instances in California on moist low lands, but longer roots are far safer in the deep drying of the surface layer which is to be expected in this State. The roots, after lifting, should not be permitted to dry. Hence, in hauling from the nursery to the farm, the trees should be well covered with wet straw and old sacks, or, if shipped from the nur- sery to distant points, should be well packed. The best way to pack trees is, undoubtedly, to box them in with wet straw, but it costs less and they usually carry well considerable distances if carefully bundled with tules (dry reed stems), the roots packed in wet straw, and the packing and covering bound down tight with ropes to prevent drying out. Attention should be paid to hauling away trees from the railway stations as soon as possible after arrival. It is not uncommon for shipments to lie on the station platforms for days, often when a desiccating north wind is blowing. Such treatment soon takes the life out of the rootlets, and often, no doubt, the nurseryman is blamed for failure of trees which have suffered some such neglect as this, either from transportation companies or from the purchasers. Heeling In. — On arrival at the farms, trees should be "heeled in" as soon as possible ; even if it is the intention to plant at once, heel them in just the same, for delays arise often in the most unexpected manner. To heel in, dig a trench or plow a deep furrow, or a double furrow, in light, moist, but well-drained soil ; put in the trees singly IIQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM side by side, removing all the packing material carefully from the roots, laying the tops all one way, and then shovel the earth over the roots until they are well covered with loose soil, and be sure that the soil sifts down well between the roots. Ordinarily this treatment will hold the trees in good condition for a considerable time if need be. If, however, they have become dry before arrival, the bundles should be thoroughly drenched with water before heel- ing in. In extreme cases, where the top shows drying by shrinking and shriveling of the bark, the trees should be drenched, and then they should be covered root and top with earth for two or three days, when, if the trouble has not gone too far, the bark will recover its smoothness and plumpness. It should be very seldom, however, that a lot of trees is allowed to get into such condition by neglect. In heeling in it will be found a great convenience and a safeguard against possible confusion by loss of labels, if each variety as taken from the packing is placed by itself in the trench. Nurserymen gen- erally attach a label to each small bundle, if the trees are of several varieties, and the novice is apt to lose all track of his sorts when heeling in the trench, unless he heels in each kind by itself, leaving the nurseryman's label to mark the whole lot of each kind. If the planter has his own ideas of after-treatment of his trees, or if he is a beginner and desires to adopt the suggestions which will be laid down in this book, he should insist that the nursery- man shall not trim up nor cut back the trees before packing. Have the trees packed just as they are lifted from the ground. The work toward the shaping of the tree should be done after it is planted in the orchard. PLANTING THE ORCHARD The young deciduous tree should be dormant before being moved , from the nursery row, and if its leaves have fallen it is good evidence of its dormancy. Such, however, is the efifect of the climate of Cal- ifornia, more apparent in some years than others, and with some kinds of fruit than others, that the young tree retains a small part of its activity very late, and in such cases it is not practicable to wait for the complete falling of the leaves. Sometimes for convenience of work, the trees have to be lifted before this takes place, and in such case it is desirable to remove the leaves to lessen evaporation. It is probably better to transplant in this condition for the sake of , early setting in its new position than to wait for all the leaves, to drop. This statement is not intended to include nursery stock which is kept growing late in the season by late irrigation. Such trees are not always desirable. Time to Plant. — The best time to plant deciduous trees in Cali- fornia is soon after the early rains have deeply moistened the CONDITIONS FOR PLANTING ^H ground. It is not desirable, however, to have a stratum of dry earth below. This can be removed by irrigation when available. Early planting of common orchard fruits is of advantage for sev- eral reasons. First, an early-planted tree gets the full benefit of the season's rainfall, whatever it may be, and a late-planted tree, in a year with short rainfall, is apt to suffer during its first season's growth, unless it can be irrigated. The two main things to observe are the dormancy of the tree and the proper condition of the soil, and both of these are most apt to coincide in many parts of Cali- fornia about the first of January, but in heavy loams in region of large rainfall, the soil may then be too cold and wet. There will, however, be some variation from year to year, and different parts of the State disagree as to the date. Hence, the general rule must be based on conditions, that of the tree and that of the soiL If the novice can not judge these for himself, he must get the advice of some one of experience in the locality. The dormant period of a tree in California, as has been stated in another connection, is very short. As many cold-climate annual plants become perennial here, so our deciduous trees, in compara- tively frostless portions of the State, evince a tendency to become evergreen. The period of dormancy in the root is also shorter than the inactivity of the top. Trees transplanted early are found to have their root wounds callused over and new rootlets considerably adyanced before the buds swell. Therefore, by early planting the tree begins soon to take hold upon the soil, the latter being well settled around it by rains, which often follow early planting, and the high winds, which are apt to come in the spring in some parts of the State, find the tree well anchored and ready to maintain itself. Again, the proper condition of soil, if not seized at its first com- ing, may not recur until after the great storms of the winter are over, say in February or March (in most parts of the State), and then, often the buds are bursting into bloom and leaf. Planting when the soil is water-soaked and cold is very undesirable, for in such condition it can not be properly disposed about the roots, the inactive roots may begin to decay and trees moved at this period are apt to show their dislike of the treatment. If the work has been delayed unavoidably, so -that early planting can not be done, it is better to keep the trees heeled in until the proper soil condition returns, even if it be rather late, for a little extra attention to culti- vation for retention of moisture will pull through a late-planted tree. These remarks are of very wide application in this State, but there are exceptions. In our high altitudes, where the climate approaches Eastern conditions in cold and snowfall, practice in planting will also approximate Eastern methods. In regions of very heavy rainfall and on the upper coast where the rainy season and moisture from fogs are prolonged late in the spring, late planting is safer and surer than in the warmer, drier parts of the State. 112 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Another consideration, too, is the slope of the land to be planted. Our hillside fruit growers in regions of heavy winter storms some- times plant slopes, which, if plowed deep in the fall, are apt to wash badly during the heavy winter rains. On such slopes it is better to plow late in the winter, after the heavy storms are over, and plant when the soil has become warm and mellow. THE OPERATION OF PLANTING Tree planting should be carefully and well done, but it need not necessarily be slowly done. With a kind soil deeply worked and just in the right condition for planting, trees may be put in well and rapidly. Two men work together at a decided advantage. Using the straight "tree-setter," which has already been described, one takes each end, and as soon as the center notch encloses the tree stake, the setter stakes are pushed into the soil, the "setter" is laid aside, and the two men, taking up their shovels or spades, begin first around the outside of the hole, throwing all the surface dirt on the same side of the hole and leaving the tree stake to be thrown out last, because its remaining serves to center the hole. The lower soil is now thrown to the other side of the hole, and when depth enough is reached, the soil at the bottom of the hole is loosened up to the depth of a shovel-thrust, without removing it from the hole. A shovelful or two of the surface soil is thrown into the center of the hole, being allowed to remain higher in the center, because this generally furnishes a cushion about the natural shape of the under surface of the root system of the tree. Now replace the tree-setter upon its end pegs, let one man hold the tree with its stem in the central notch in the setter, and while the other man shovels in the surface earth rather slowly at first, the man who holds the tree with one hand will spread out the roots, pulverize and pack the earth around them, being sure that no cavities are left under any of the roots, but that their sur- faces everywhere come in contact with the soil, and that they spread out as widely as possible. The earth is being continuously put in by the shoveler, and when the roots are covered the planter steps in the hole and carefully firms the soil down upon the roots by tramping (especially at the cut ends of the roots around the outer side of the hole), at the same time judging of the perpendicularity of the tree with his eye. When this is done, both men use their shovels and fill up the hole with the earth taken from below, being sure to leave the last few inches at the surface pulverized, but untramped, unless the soil be very light so that tramping will not overpack it. Some one said long ago that one should not plant a tree as he does a post, ramming down the earth to the very top of the hole. Many trees are doubtless ruined by over zeal in this respect. SUGGESTIONS ABOUT PLANTING j^j^g The shovel has been mentioned frequently as the tool to be used in planting. Where the soil is deeply ploughed, well worked, and free from stone, the shovel is the most rapid tool. Under other con- ditions the long-handled spade, and in some cases the long-handled spading fork, serves admirably in loosening the soil at the bottom of the holes and in breaking up lumps while filling in. One man with a shovel or spade, and the other with the fork, make a good combination in this respect. Planting in a Furrow. — A practice which has been largely fol- lowed in the Sacramento Valley and which attains greatest speed and cheapness consists in laying off as described on page ninety- eight, and then proceeding with a heavy listing plow, followed by a subsoil plow in the same furrow. The trees are then rapidly set with the least digging. This is all done before the field is plowed. Plowing immediately follows planting. The advantages of this method are ease of work on firm ground instead of a plowed surface, and escape of injury to this surface by men and teams in planting after plowing. RANDOM SUGGESTIONS The roots of every tree should be examined before planting. All large root ends should have a fresh, clean cut with a sharp knife or shears. Make a slanting cut with the cut surface on the underside of the root. Where a root is mangled or bruised, it should in most cases be cut back to a sound place. The tree should be placed if possible with the same side toward the sun as was exposed to the sun in the nursery ; at all events, the wound made by the cutting away of the seedling stock above the bud should be at the north or northeast, in order that this weak point may be shaded as much as possible from the afternoon sun. If the roots of the young tree grow more to one side than the other, place the strongest roots toward the prevailing wind. The use of water to settle the earth around the roots is some- times desirable in sections where the rainfall is light or uncertain. Pour in the water after the hand work in spreading the roots and in pressing the soil under and around them has been done and the hole partly filled. When the water has soaked away, fill the hole with fine earth zvithout tramping. In irrigated districts leading the water along the line of trees in a furrow to settle the ground at planting is a good practice. It is almost essential in the planting of evergreen trees which are best moved during the dry season. In early planting in parts of the State where the rainfall is abundant, there may be no need of water-settling; in late planting, however, it will some- times be found of advantage. Puddling the roots, or dipping them in thin mud and planting with this mud adhering, is governed by much the same conditions as water-settling; it may insure the ■[l^ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM growth of the tree when otherwise it might be seriously injured by drouth. With puddled roots especial care should also be taken to leave the surface loose to prevent evaporation. In making puddle, use loamy soil and never adobe, for in dry time the latter will bake around the roots and may kill the tree. The Use of Manure. — Never put manure in the hole with the tree. Sometimes the injunction is, Never put anything but well- rotted manure in the hole. It is better to put none of any kind. Manure should be spread upon the ground after planting. The rains then leach it out and it may be turned under in the spring plowing. There are, however, light soils in the drier parts of the state where turning under manure in the spring is a disadvantage, as it makes the soil too porus and facilitates evaporation. On such soils, extra care should be taken to have the manure thoroughly decomposed by composting, as will be described in the chapter on fertilizers, and all applications should be made either late in the spring to act as a mulch in the summer, or if a mulch is not thought desirable, apply the manure in the fall before the first rains, so that it may be turned under at the first plowing and have the whole winter for disintegra- tion. In this dry climate there is often misapprehension, especially among newcomers, as to what is well-rotted manure. They take ths scrapings of the corral, which have been trampled and pul- verized, but which, having been kept dry, have never rotted. When this is put in the holes with the tree and then moistened by rainfall or irrigation, it will burn the tree, the first sign of injury being the drying up of the leaves. It is, on the whole, safest and best to put nothing but well-pulverized surface soil around the roots of the young tree. Depth of Planting. — The depth to which trees should be set has always been a matter of discord among the planters. The safest rule under ordinary circumstances is to get the tree as nearly as possible the same depth it stood in the nursery row ; that is, so as to have it stand that way when the ground has settled, or the surface returned by cultivation to its normal level. In planting in loose soil in the drier parts of the State, it is often desirable to plant rather low, because several inches depth of the surface soil become dry, and the roots should be well in the moist layer. But if irrigation is to be practiced, it must be remembered that the water level will rise when the soil is saturated and deep-planted trees are apt to sufifer. The experience of recent years is decidedly against deep planting, which used to be advised because of our dry climate. Thousands of trees have been ruined by planting too deep except in light sandy soil. Speed in Planting. — On good soil, well prepared, trees can be put in rapidly and the job still be well done. It is reported that on one occasion, in planting almonds, twenty men finished sixty-four TREATMENT OP YOUNG ORCHARD 115 acres from Friday noon to Wednesday night, placing the stakes, digging the holes, and planting the trees. This would be almost three-quarters of an acre per day per man. In planting peaches and apricots an average of one hundred trees per day to the man has been attained. On the mellow loam, in another case, the aver- age was one hundred and twenty-five trees to the man, digging holes two feet square in land which had been plowed twelve inches deep. Such work is only possible on good soil, well prepared, and by men who work well together. Mapping and Labeling. — Where mixed varieties of fruit are planted, the orchard should be mapped as soon as the trees are set. A good durable map is made of the glazed muslin, such as carpenters and architects use for their drawings. The map can easily be drawn to a scale by using a fraction of an inch to represent a foot. After the map is made, it can be rolled on a broom stick and easily pre- served. With such a record, the grower need not care what becomes of the labels, as he can locate a variety any time by its row and tree number. If, however, one desires labels, let them be made in this way : Take a piece of common sheet zinc five inches wide. Across this, cut pieces three-quarters of an inch wide at one end and taper- ing to a point at the other. Near the wider end write plainly with a common lead-pencil the name of the variety. This will get brighter by exposure to the weather. The small end may be coiled around the branch of the tree ; it will yield as the tree grows and will do no injury. Such labels will last for a long time. Labels attached by a cord or wire should be removed as soon as the trees are set, for they are apt to be forgotten and the tree seriously injured by the cutting in of the ligature. Even when labels are used the map is the only surety, because any kind of a label is apt to be lost by acci- dent or through malice or mischief of intruders. Mulching. — Although early-planted trees on deep soils in regions of sufficient rainfall need only good cultivation, after planting, there are cases in which mulching is desirable. Various light materials may be used for a mulch, but nothing is better than well-rotted straw, in which fermentation has killed all weed seed. Apply it to a distance of two feet around the tree, and to a depth of not less than six inches. It is best done as soon as the tree is planted, and is to be especially recommended when late, planting is practiced. Even in localities of light rainfall, if the trees are well mulched early in the winter, irrigation may be unnecessary for the young deciduous tree. Trees planted very late in the spring may, by using great care and mulching well, make as great a growth as those set out early in winter. This should not be an excuse for late planting, but where late planting is necessary, mulching will help the trees to pull through. It is a far easier way of keeping the ground moist than by irrigating, but is not a substitute for it where systematic irrigation 116 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM is necessary, though irrigation may often be lessened, and in some cases obviated, by extra cultivation or mulching, at least until the trees come into bearing. Guarding Against Sunburn, — Newly-set trees should be pro- tected against sunburn. This can be easily done by winding strips of burlap from old grain sacks spirally around the stems beginning just below the ground surface to the points where the young shoots will appear. When these start the strip can be loosened and rewound so as to protect the bark between the shoots. The top can be fastened with a stitch or two with a twine needle. Manufactured "tree protectors" of paper or rushes which are readily adjusted around the trees are now largely sold. Whitewash made according to the formula at the close of Chapter IX is a good protection from sunburn. For young trees, however, it should be made with air- slacked lime, which has lost som.e of its causticity. Another white- wash, which has been largely used for young trees, consists of four ounces of whale oil soap dissolved in each gallon of water, Spanish whiting being stirred in to give the solution a paint-like consistency. Millions of trees have perished in this State, and as many more been condemned to sickly lives, because of sunburn, and borers which seek the injured bark for entrance. Pruning has much to do with saving trees from this evil, as will be shown in the proper connec- tion, but in the hotter parts of the State, the first precaution should be to shade the bark of the young tree with some artificial protec- tion. Cutting Back at Planting. — Whatever idea the grower may have as to shaping his tree, it must be cut back when planted. Lifting from the nursery has removed a considerable part of the root system of the young tree and the top must be reduced accordingly. The planter who dislikes to sacrifice the fine top will sacrifice future growth and vigor by retaining it. The tree may struggle through and regain strength, but it will for years be smaller than if it had been properly cut back at planting. If the moisture supply should be short the tree may die the first summer which would have sur- vived if differently treated at planting. The manner of cutting back depends somewhat upon the style of pruning to be followed after- ward, as will be considered in the next chapter. CHAPTER XII PRUNING TREES AND THINNING FRUIT It is not intended to enter into a discussion of the general theo- ries of pruning. The reader desiring to pursue them is referred to the abundant literature on the subject in Eastern and European treatises. The effort to approve or condemn these theories by con- sidering them in the light of 'California experience and observation might lead to interesting conclusions, but it has no place in a work aiming merely at an exposition of what appears to be the most satis- factory practice in California fruit growing. It will be found that this practice varies somewhat in the different regions of California, sometimes in degree, sometimes in kind, because of different local conditions, and it might be found that nearly all reasonable theories of pruning could be verified in California experience. Pruning in California is at present almost exclusively a shaping process. Our fruit trees are naturally so prone to bear fruit that pruning to produce fruitfulness is seldom thought of, and still more rarely practiced, whik pruning to reduce bearing wood, and thus decrease the burden of the tree, is quite widely done, to take the place, in part, of thinning out the fruit. Pruning to restore vigor to the tree, as in cutting it back to induce a new wood growth, is also rather a rare proceeding, but probably could be much more widely employed to advantage. We prune, then, for shape and for the many practical advantages which adhere in the form now prevailing in California orchards. Some of these advantages are peculiar to our climate ; others we share with those who advocate a similar form elsewhere. Our best orchards of the same fruits in adjacent localities are almost identical in form and general appearance of the trees, and those more distant differ chiefly in the extent to which the same principles are applied. And this is not because the trees are allowed to follow their natural inclination, which should secure resemblance, but because their natural bent is resolutely conquered by agreement of growers that they know what is good for the tree ; and this sub- stantial unanimity is the result of the experience of the last fifty-five years. People possessed of the art temperament sometimes com- plain of the depressing uniformity and artificiality of orchard-tree shapes in California. They are apt to lament the fact that system- atic orcharding destroys the picturesqueness of tree-growth. They should understand that such conception of a fruit tree has no place in commercial fruit growing. The producing tree is the result of the 117 118 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM conception of an agency to serve certain purposes. The orchardist does not prusue uniformity merely for its own sake, but rather for the purpose it serves, and the fact that many thinking men have practically agreed upon a certain form as an ideal of producing ability is demonstration that such form is, at least, approximately correct. There is an industrial conception of a tree, which is neces- sarily and essentially different from an art conception of pic- turesqueness based upon the feral type. The wild tree is rude and crude from a cultural point of view. PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF PRUNING One of the first things for the beginner to undertake as he approaches the practice of pruning trees and vines is to form a good idea of the purposes to be served. Imitation is not the foundation of intelligent pruning, though it yields many valuable suggestions. Satisfactory work rests upon a correct understanding of the reasons for each act and to the attainment of this, all study, observation and experience should tend. Possessing this, one can proceed capably, modifying method to meet condition, and producing desirable results. Receive all suggestions and then go quietly to the tree and study your problem in its shade. The tree is the best revelator of its needs. Some of the best pruners in California are men who were untrained to horticulture before they entered upon their orchard work. Reading, discussion, systematic instruction are all valuable. They save much time and many errors, but recourse to the tree- affords the sovereign test of attainment. These may be counted among the practical purposes to be attained by pruning in California : (a) Convenience of the grower; (&) health and strength of the tree; (c) regulation of heat and light; (d) attainment of strong bearing wood; (e) attainment of size in fruit; (/) promotion of regular bearing. Examine trees with reference to their embodiment of these characters and one can hardly fail to secure rays of light upon the subject of pruning which seems dark to so many. Convenience. — Trees which branch near the ground are most quickly and cheaply handled in all the operations of pruning, spray- ing, fruit-thinning and picking. Low trees with obliquely-rising branches are more easily cultivated than any form with horizontal branches, unless the head is carried so high that the animals pass easily under the tree. To do this sacrifices all the other conven- iences and economies which actually determine profit, and is really out of the question from a commercial point of view. Sometimes it does not pay to" pick some fruits at a certain distance above the ground, when picking at half that distance yields a profit. HEASONS FOR PRUNING H^ Health and Strength. — It is imperative in most parts of this State that the sunshine be not allowed to touch the bark during the heat of the day. This protection is secured even for young trees by low branching and encouragement of small, low laterals. The low tree with properly spaced branches attains superior strength by virtue of thick, strongly knit, short growth between branches, and by its strong, stiff, obliquely-rising growth sustains weight which brings horizontal branches to the ground, and thus even high-headed trees are liable to continually increasing interference with cultivation, and the desperate grower has to raise the head of his tree higher into the air and farther above the profit line, while at the same time he ren- ders it more liable to sunburn, to bark-binding, and to unthrift by forcing the sap to flow an unnecessary distance and through wood and bark which impede its movement. Besides, a low tree escapes stress by strong winds which a high tree invites and at the same time is less able to withstand. Pruning for health and strength of tree also includes the removal of unthrifty or diseased parts, which are not only an incumbrance to the tree but may communicate to other parts the causes of their ill condition. Heat and Light. — The maintenance of strong bearing wood in the lower part of the tree is conditioned upon the proper pruning of the top of the tree. How far the upper levels or the shade-layer of the tree can be safely opened, depends upon the local climate in each fruit region. The rule must be the higher the summer heat the denser the tree; the lower the heat the thinner the tree; but everywhere the proper condition of openness must be constantly in view in pruning. Not alone must this be done to maintain thrifty growth below, but it is also essential to the best growth and ripening of the fruit in the lower and interior parts of the tree. Fruit inferior in size, color and quality results, in part, from lack of pruning to regulate the admission of light and heat, sometimes one, sometimes both, to the shaded portion of the tree. Bearing Wood. — Good fruit develops on good bearing wood and good bearing wood is the product of proper degrees of light and heat, as has just been urged. But bearing wood in the case of some fruits is new wood, and reduction of old wood for the purpose of forcing the growth of new wood must be constantly in mind. Re- newal is more or less a consideration with all trees, and especially the securing of strong new wood. This is a point upon which close study of the bearing tree will yield most satisfactory suggestions. Size of Fruit. — The size of fruit, providing the tree is healthy and vigorous, depends upon the character and amount of bearing wood which the tree is allowed to carry. Removal of part of the fruit burden is done by thinning after it is well set, but this labor should a-lways be minimized by antecedent pruning, which aims to retain more or less bearing wood according to the vigor, size and bearing ]^20 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM i ^i habit of the tree. Thinning out of bearing shoots and spurs, when either are clearly seen to be in excess, should be the constant study of the pruner. Regular Bearing. — This point is largely involved in the preceding and affords an additional incentive. Regulating the amount of fruit borne in one year may involve the profit of two years, because a tree may not be able to produce an excessive amount of fruit and perfect good fruit buds for the following year. It i^iay generally make buds which will bloom, but not always that. Itiit does make the bloom, it is no guaranty that the bloom will be strong and effective for bearing. Consequently, pruning for reasonable amount of bearing should always be borne in view and should be practiced at the close of the year of non-bearing with particular diligence, if the alternate year bearing habit is to be broken up. The foregoing are among the practical purposes to be served in pruning. There are others, but these will suffice to emphasize a single point, and that is, that pruning can not be compressed into a single formula, nor can one learn it by a recipe. There are various ends to attain; they may be attained in different ways, although it is not strange that substantial agreement in methods does largely prevail. It is better to try to understand the purposes than to mem- orize the formulae. Get the tree and its interest clearly in the mind ; have an ideal toward which to work; be more interested in why a neighbor prunes in a certain than how he does it. Learn constantly by all available means, and at the same time study the visible forms and aim to understand their fullest significance. FORM OF TREE BEST SUITED TO CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS The form of deciduous fruit tree which prevails with singular uniformity all over the State is the "vase," or "goblet," or "wine- glass" form, all these terms signifying a similar shape. There are different ways in which this form is secured and maintained in different parts of the State, and with different fruits, which will be especially noted in the chapters devoted to these fruits. The mainspring of success in California is to grow low trees. Low is a term admitting of degrees, it is true, and may imply a trunk six inches up to one or two feet, in the clear. In addition to' the general advantages of low-trained trees which have been described, there are special reasons for this form in California. Hun- dreds of thousands of trees have been destroyed by the exposure of a long, bare trunk to the rays of the afternoon sun. The sun- burned sides have given the conditions desired by borers, and destruction has quickly followed. Sometimes young trees have not. survived their first season in the orchard, because of burned bark; or THE POPULAR CALIFORNIA FORM 121 this, with the added injury by the borers. It is also found by Cali- fornia experience that growth is more vigorous in the branches when they emerge near the ground. Even where actual burning may not occur the travel of the sap through the longer distance of trunk is undesirable. It is believed, also, that benefit results from shading of the ground at the base of the trees, by reducing evapora- tion, and by maintaining a temperature of soil better suited to vig- orous root-growth. But whatever may be the reasons, the fact is indisputable, the higher the prevailing summer temperature, and the greater the aridity, the lower should the trees be headed. Trees which will do well in the central and upper-coast region and adjacent to the bay of San Francisco, with twenty-four to thirty-six inches of clear trunk, would dwindle and probably perish in the heated valleys in all parts of the State. In such situations, both north and south, the best practice is to head the tree fifteen, twelve, and even some hold as low as six inches from the ground. There will always be some difference of opinion as to detail, but the necessity of making the trunk short enough to be effectually shaded by the foliage is admit- ted by all growers. Characteristic of the California Vase Form. — This vase form is a product of French ingenuity in the training of dwarf trees, but it has undergone very marked modification in California, losing much of the accuracy of its outline and gaining vastly in speed of work and in bearing capacity of tree without sacrificing any practical value which adheres in the design. The California vase form dispenses with the central stem or trunk at a certain short distance above the ground, but this is not done for the purpose of securing a hollow or open-center tree, which is a leading characteristic of the old European vase-form. The few branches which are desired to grow from the short stem are pruned when the tree is young to induce successive branching with short interspaces. At each cutting the aim is to get two branches from one, and nearly as possible of equal vigor, so the California tree does not, except, of course, in occasional instances, show the outline of a leader from the bottom to the top, but there is a succession of branchings, turned this way or that by the skilful pruner, occupying available air space, distributing the weight so it comes more nearly over the center of gravity and at the same time knitting the fibers of the branch so that the weight of the fruit is well sustained. This idea, however, is not allowed to go so far as to wholly close the interior of the tree, but to retain such degree of open interior as is found desirable. When the tree is laden with fruit, the weight nat- urally expands the top quite enough to admit the sunlight without exposing either the fruit or the branches to danger of burning. Thus it appears that instead of the true vase or wine-glass, with hollow 122 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM interior and thin walls, we have the general extierior outline of this model, but give a good part of the central area of the figure to bear- ing shoots, and thus secure a large bearing surface with well- strengthened supports. It has been found that this many-branching form, developed upon a few main branches well placed upon the trunk, gives a stronger tree than can be had by growing a considerable number of leaders, all starting from near the point where the tree was headed at planting. Such leaders crowd each other at the point of emer- gence from the stem, and when laden with fruit, sway outward and break out at this point. A vastly stronger tree is secured by start- ing but four or five branches from the low trunk and letting them emerge from different sides of the stem, and at different levels. Thus each main attachment to the stem has abundant room, and the wood enlarges symmetrically and solidly. The expansion of the top is attained by the branching which follows the cutting back of suc- ceeding years. Starting branches from nearly the same level on the stem has been the occasion of great losses of overladen trees, and quite a considerable recourse to strengthening up weak trees by running bolts through from side to side at the points where experi- ence shows breakage is likely to occur. In this respect it is now clearly seen that the practice which was widely adopted a few years Forms of head resulting from cutting back. Twelve-year-old apple tree in the writer's garden in Berkeley, showing forms of head resulting from cutting back for greater and less spacing of main branches at planting. ago of beginning with a very short stem and using the three or four adjacent buds nearest the point to which the tree was cut back at planting is defective. It is much better not to cut back so far at THE EFFECTS OF PRUNING 123 Results of cutting back to longer and shorter stems. Apricot and cherry trees twelve years old, showing results of cutting back to longer and shorter stems at planting, in 1897, as an experiment in head form. 124 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM planting, but to leave a longer trunk, keep a greater distance be- tween the main branches and still have the lowest branch as near the ground as before, thus securing a tree which is practically as low as that secured by the old method of starting. This point will be enforced by illustrations. HOW TO SECURE THE DESIRABLE FORM For the benefit of the inexperienced reader, it will be well to illustrate the steps by which the form of tree found so generally desirable is to be attained. Cutting Back at Planting. — This has been shown on page 116 to be essential to strong growth of the transplanted tree. It is also the prime act in securing a tree with a low head and strong branches. Formerly trees were cut back farther than desirable and the branches allowed to crowd each other, as has just been stated. It is better to retain twenty-four inches of stem than twelve inches — providing care is taken during the first summer to prevent, by pinching, the growth of too many branches near together. Allow those to grow which are more distant from each other on the stem and pinch the intervening shoots. In this way one can have the lowest branch at six inches from the ground in the hot valleys if desired, or twelve inches in the coast valleys, and the highest branch at eighteen or Pruning for branch spacing. Yearling apple marked to cut back for greater or less space between main branches; also first year's growth from each beginning marked for first winter pruning. RULES FOR WINTER PRUNING 125 twenty-four inches. This gives about twice the distance between the main branches which was formerly allowed, and it is of vast advantage to the strength of the tree. The illustrations of this fact are from trees planted by the writer in 1887 to test this matter. At this date they are large trees and show the forms of heads resulting from different spacing of branches on the young trees during the first summer's growth. First, then, cut back the tree just after planting, as shown in the engraving, deciding first at what height you wish your trees to form heads, and cut them all back as uniformly as possible and still secure a good bud just below the point of cutting. To preserve these buds the trees should be handled' carefully while removing from the nursery and during planting. If the tree has already grown laterals where the head is desired, three or four of these properly placed on the stem may be selected to form the main branches, shortened in to the sound bud nearest the stem, and other laterals, not desired to form the head, removed. This treatment is shown in the engraving of a young peach tree well branched in the nursery. If all the laterals on the young tree have started out above where the head is desired, as is sometimes the case, it may be necessary to remove the whole top, and usually others will start below afterwards. If there are no buds visible on the stem at the place where the head is desired, the choice must be made between heading" the tree higher up, where the buds are, or cutting back without regard to buds, trusting to the development of latent buds at the right place, or to the growth of a shoot from below, which can be cut back to form a head the following year. It is for this reason, among others, that planters prefer a yearling tree which has not branched, but has good buds all along the stem. Peaches and apricots usually branch in the nursery but usually have dormant buds at the bases, of such branches which can be employed in making new growth where it is desired. After cutting back at planting, the shoots desired to form the head are allowed to make their full growth without interference. All shoots not desired for branches are 'pinched off after growing out two or three inches, leaving a bunch of leaves to shade the trunk and contribute to its stouter growth. Constant watchfulness is necessary to pinch off undesirable branches all the first summer. First Pruning. — In the winter following planting, the shoots of the previous season's growth are cut back to about ten or twelve inches from their junction with the stem. Some prefer to cut shorter, but this is apt to huddle the branches too close together when they get old and stout. Growers, however, do not agree on the exact length which these future main branches should be left at the first pruning. 126 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM If, during the first summer's growth, all shoots except the num- ber desired to form the head have been pinched back, the first winter pruning consists only in cutting back the main branches. If laterals have grown on the parts of these branches which are to be left on the tree, they should be cut back to a bud or two. This is better than removing them entirely, for the next summer they will be pinched after throwing out a few leaves to shade and thicken tiie branches, just as the short growths left the previous summer serve the main stem. Second Pruning. — During the second summer it is usual to allow two branches to grow from each of the main branches left at the pre- vious winter pruning, and to pinch off all others, as described. These branches are allowed to run out their full growth, except where excessive growth is made, and then it is repressed by summer pruning. This is done with the apricot in the warmer parts of the State, as will be considered at length in the chapter on that fruit. Usually, however, the main branches are untouched during the sec- ond summer's growth unless some are running out so far as to make the tree lop-sided. During the following winter the main branches are cut back from one-half to two-thirds of the growth they have made, and if too many strong laterals have grown below this point, some are shortened, others are removed entirely where they are apt to cross or crowd each other or to interfere with cultivation. It is not desirable, however, that all small growth should be cleanly removed. Some of these small shoots will bear a little fruit and the leaf action is in any case desirable as a contributor to the strength of the larger branches to which they are attached. Besides, they serve to shade the bark from sunburn. Third Pruning. — When the tree reaches its third winter pruning, its form is well outlined, and early-bearing trees like the peach, apri- cot, almond, Japanese plum, etc., will give the grower a respectable crop the next season. To bear this crop greater care should be taken at the third winter pruning to leave the small laterals low down on the main branches, for on them, clustered close in the head of the tree, most of the first crop will be found. Though some trees, as stated, do bear earlier than the third summer, the fruit is not usually considered of commercial account until the third summer. An engraving is given of a peach tree just after its second winter pruning. It is a very good representative of the vase-form of a tree as grown in California. It has four main branches, each issuing from a different point on the stem, each permitted to carry two main branches, which are not arranged around the circumference, but some of them tending toward the center. At the third pruning more shoots have been left than are required by the rule, for, start- ing with four -main branches, there are usually sixteen left at the third pruning. STRONG TREES FROM A RIGHT START 127 PRUNING BEARING TREES Three winter prunings of deciduous trees usually establish their permanent form, and subsequent pruning is chiefly directed toward the retention of that form; for strength of branch and stem; for renewal of bearing wood ; for regulation of amount of bear- ing wood; for relative light and shade, and for convenience in cultivation and other orchard work. Naturally, these ends are sought according to the needs and habits of different fruits, and the methods of attaining them will be discussed in the chapters treating of these fruits. There are, however, certain general con- siderations which are proper in this connection : Pruning during the dormancy of the tree induces greater growth of wood during the following summer; pruning during the active period reduces wood growth and promotes fruit-bearing. The amount of wood removed during the dormant period will make the summer growth of wood proportionately stronger. Whether the total weight of wood growth would be greater may be questioned, but the effective wood growth is certainly greater. Whether the feet of new wood grown on a peach tree cut back to stumps in the winter would be greater in weight than all the inches of growth which would be scattered all over the surface of the tree if not cut Yearling peach. Cut back at planting. First summer's growth in the orchard. These sketches, and those on pages 98 and 99, represent the progress of the peach tree frorn a branched yearling to bearing form entering the third summer, 128 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM back, may be doubted, but the new growth secured by cutting back will be of immense vigor and the following year will bear large fruit, while the new growth on the tree not cut back will be thin and short and the fruit absent or indifferent. The weaker the tree or the branch or the twig of the tree, the greater the part of it to be removed when dormant to get the stronger new growth. In the case of fruit trees in vigorous growth pruning during the active period or allowing the wood to go uncut during the dormant period, having the same effect, viz., the promotion of fruiting. Some First winter pruning. Second summer growth in orchard. trees, like apricots and peaches, which bear upon new laterals, will bear fruit even though heavily winter-cut, if these small laterals are retained on the lower parts of the main branches. Some other trees, like the prune, which bear on spurs, will delay the formation of spurs if heavily winter-cut. These two facts suggest two diverse policies in pruning bearing trees : A peach tree unpruned will reduce its crop for lack or weakness of new laterals ; a prune tree too severely winter-pruned will reduce its crop for lack of old spurs. Again, some fruits, or varieties of fruits, bear chiefly upon the tips, others chiefly upon the lateral spurs ; shortening one reduces the crop largely ; shortening the other may increase the marketable crop by decreasing the aggregate number. These and other similar facts suggest that pruning bearing trees, to be intelligently pursued, HOW TO PRUNE FOR KFfECTS 129 must be accompanied with the fullest possible knowledge of the bearing habit of the fruit or variety thereof. Cutting back or "shortening in" should be done in a way which will reduce the burst of new shoots near the cut. This is measurably secured by always cutting the branch at a strong lateral, because the sap flow into this lateral prevents undue pressure and forcing of latent buds in the vicinity of the cut. For this reason the cutting back of all branches to a certain definite height is wrong. Trees Second winter pruning in orckard. shorn across at a certain line become thick as a brush with top shoots which require extensive thinning, or the bearing wood will soon be all at that level through failure of the densely-shaded bear- ing wood below. Cut to the nearest lateral below the line you wish to approximate, and shorten the lateral if desirable, and the result will be fewer and stronger shoots than from a stub-cut. In the treatment of bearing trees the main effort should generally be toward thinning or reducing the number of bearing shoots. This is related to the important work of thinning the fruit to reduce the burden of the tree, and will be mentioned again in that connection. The work has, however, a bearing beyond the size of the individual fruit specimens, It involves the whole future of the tree as a profit- 130 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM able affair. An unthinned tree becomes a thicket of small, weak, and dying laterals and spurs. An attempt to cure this afterwards by- sawing out many large branches is only partially successful, though perhaps the best thing that can be done after such condition has been allowed to exist. The only way to keep the interior of the tree full enough of strong, bearing wood is to resolutely and regularly thin out surplus shots as the tree advances in age and size. This work is as important with trees which are not regularly cut back, as with those which are thus treated. It is one of the most vital as well as the most generally neglected item in orchard practice. In thinning out lateral bearing shoots seldom leave more than one at any point ; select the strongest ; remove the rest close to the branch. When a new shoot springs out at the base of an older one remove the older one ; when a new shoot breaks out on the side of an older one cut the older one back to that point. In thinning always reject the older, weaker laterals or spurs. This does not apply to the outbreak of strong suckers or water sprouts below the main branches ; they should usually be cleanly cut away unless a new main branch is desirable. Pruning of bearing trees should always have regard to the removal of branches which have become decrepit through sunburn, blight or disease of any kind, frost injury, or in any form die-back from whatever cause. Such wood is not only of lessened value, but there is also danger of extension of the trouble. Removing such wood and training new wood to take its place should always be in mind. Where cutting of large branches is demanded for any reason it should be remembered that the wounds are most quickly healed and least injury to the tree is to be apprehended if the cutting is done near the beginning of the growing season and not at the beginning of the dormant period. TIMES FOR PRUNING Some changes of view have lately prevailed as to the times, within the dormant period, during which winter-pruning can be done to the best advantage. Formerly it was thought to be a vital matter that no cutting should be done until the leaves had fallen, and this is still the prevailing practice, and may prove to be on all accounts the best. Recently, however, pruning in autumn, has been quite widely practiced. Fall Pruning. — There is a time near the end of the active season in California when the foliage changes its aspect. There is no marked change in color, perhaps, but there is a certain limpness and drooping which betokens decided decline in activity. It comes first to the early fruits, the cherries and apricots, for instance, and upon old trees earlier than young ones. The buds are well formed; the GOOD FORMS OF YOUNG TREES 131 season's growth apparently complete. There are no frosts to hasten the fall of the leaf and it remains in place. Does it render any im- portant service ? On the conclusion that it does not, many growers begin the winter pruning while the days are longer and ground dry and firm rather than delay pruning until the short, dark days and rain-soaked soil of December and January render pruning expensive and disagreeable. Those trees are first pruned which first assume the appearance described, and the work proceeds with other varie- ties afterwards until the winter pruning is finished by December 1 — about the time when it commonly began under the old practice. Not only is more thus accomplished in the same number of days' work, Young peach and apple trees, showing branches well spaced on the stems. but the orchard is earlier in shape for the winter spraying and culti- vation and the grower is ahead of his work and not behind it all the season if the season is unusually rainy. Several years' practice of this method discloses no bad results except in the one item of increasing danger from frost. Vines and trees pruned early in the dormant period have a tendency to start growth earlier than those pruned late in the dormant period. In places, then, where early bloom and fruit-setting are particularly threatened by frost, this practice may be undesirable. Spring Pruning. — Resting largely upon this matter of retarding growth, the practice of pruning very late in the dormant period, or, in fact, at the beginning of the growing season, is also gaining wider adoption where frost injury is especially feared. It is not actual -too CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO .GROW THEM freezing, but a drop of two or three degrees below the freezing point which is feared, and during recent years such a temperature has wrought havoc with some fruits, in early valley regions partic- ularly. Later pruning, even after the bloom and foliage have appeared, has worked no injury to the trees, but it is less conven- iently done than when the trees are free of foliage. Summer Pruning. — Summer pruning, to induce bearing, is, as has been previously intimated, but little employed in this State, for the constant tendency of our trees is to bear early and to overbear. Enough has, however, been done in individual cases to show that fruit-bearing is promoted by pruning after the chief growth of the season has been attained. If the pruning results in forcing out laterals late in the season it has been done too early. What is desirable is the strengthening or development of fruit buds, and this will be accomplished after the energy has been too far dissipated to make new wood growth. Summer pruning to check the too exuberant wood growth of some kinds of trees is employed to some extent, chiefly in the warmer parts of the State, where the vegetative process in some' trees seems fairly to run riot, and unless checked is apt to ruin the tree by breaking to pieces when the wind and weight of fruit test its strength. The methods of summer pruning employed in different parts of the State for different fruits will be considered in connection with the special chapters on these fruits. Summer pruning to preserve form is another matter, and relates in the main to pinching in, to check undesirable extension and to direct the sap toward shoots in which growth is desired. This prac- tice is approved by most of our orchardists, and is employed by them to a greater or less extent. More people believe in than prac- tice it, however, because the summer months, with their long suc- cession of fruits to be gathered and shipped or dried, and the addi- tional consideration that there is always a scarcity of labor at this time, give the orchardist so much work to do that he is more apt to confine his "pinching" to a little that he may do now and then when he has a few moments' leisure than to do the work thoroughly and systematically. The result is that the regular Avinter pruning is the main operation for tree shaping in this State. There is such a great difference in opinion about summer pruning that it will be very difficult to make any assertions about it which will not be disputed. Much of this diiference comes, of course, from different conditions prevailing in different trees and in different parts of the State, and some of these will be met, as already prom- ised, in following chapters. Leaving these wholly out of considera- tion at this time, it is safe to advise those who wish to secure sym- metry or any particular fcrm in any kind of a tree, that they can resort to summer pinching with advantage, and can sometimes to advantage remove wood too large for the thumb and finger to sever. RENEWING OLD TREES 133 Constant watchfulness should be maintained for adventitious shoots starting out on stem or limb at points where branches are not desired. Wherever they start out strongly, they should be pinched, or entirely removed, according to the best judgment to be Weak tree from ill-spaced branches. formed in each case. Suckers, which, properly, according to Downing, are "shoots sent up from the root or from parts of the stem below the surface of the soil," should be removed whenever discovered. RENEWING OLD TREES Improving and renewing trees by cutting back and grafting has already been considered under the head of propagation. It is often desirable to renew trees of a satisfactory variety, and this is done simply by cutting back when the tree is dormant. Cutting back was formerly done early in the winter, before the rise of the sap begins, but more recently it has been seen that the exposure of large cut surfaces for weeks or months before growth begins, lesults in drying and shrinkage of the bark and checking of the wood, both of which are avoided by amputation later in the dor- mant period or during the early part of the growing season. In cutting back, of course, those stumps should be left to support new branches which will secure the best balance and symmetry in the new head. When the new growth starts, there generally appear many more shoots than are desirable, and selection of the best-placed and most vigorous should be chosen, the others either being rubbed ofif in the bud or pinched back when a few leaves are put out. In cutting back trees, the exposed trunk and branch stumps should be wrapped in old sacking, or carefully whitewashed as protection from sunburn. In removing large limbs it is desirable that the cut should be made in the right place so as to secure quick covering of the scar with new growth. Cutting so as to leave a long stub results in an unsightly piece of dead wood on the tree, and this, in decay- ing, carries the decay deep into the center of the trunk or branch. Cutting too close prevents covering with the new bark, and also results in a hole in the branch. Cutting just to the right mark, 134 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM which is the outer edge of the little collar or swelling which will be found at the base of all branches, enables the wound to grow over quickly, and if the Avound is properly treated when cut, there will be no decay, and the wound will soon be obliterated. In amputating large branches, an undercut with the saw should be made first so that the bark shall not be torn as the branch falls. Another good way is to saw off first at a distance from the final cut and then saw ofif smoothly at the right place when the weight is removed. Trees often become "hide-bound," as it is called. Especially in this dry climate the bark gets dry and tough, therefore can not expand in proportion to the growth of the tree, or supply the amount of sap necessary for the demand. Slitting such trees here and there up and down the trunk and main limbs with a sharp knife seems to have good effect, for often in three months the cut opens half an inch, and a fine, clear bark, with an increase of growth, results. On old trees, too, there is often a growth of moss and lichens which should be removed. This can be done by scraping off the rough, loose bark and spraying with an alka- line wash, composed of one pound of caustic soda or potash to six gallons of water. If scale insects are present, the lime, salt and sulphur spray should be used, as will be described in the chapter on injurious insects. This will remove the parasites, give the trees a clean, bright bark and contribute to their vigor. PRUNING TOOLS There is some difference of opinion as to the comparative value of the pruning knife and the pruning shears. The knife, if sharp, and well used, makes a smooth cut, with no bruising of the bark, and such a wound heals over perfectly. The shears, if of good pattern and sharp, also make a very good cut, but there is always some little injury to the bark on the side opposite to the entry of the blade. On small cuts, say three-quarters of an inch or less, if the blade is kept very sharp, the resistance does not make sufficient injury to the bark to seriously consider, and the speed with which the shears can be used renders them the main reliance for all the smaller pruning. Nearly all styles of hand shears are used in this State. There are, also, two-hand shears, which are very powerful, and enable one to work very quickly. When kept well sharpened they are very effective tools. There are a number of styles in use, both home-made and imported. Still another arrangement of shears is mounted on a pole, the cutting blade being operated by a cord, and having a spring to throw the blade back. The pole is jointed, so that one or more lengths can be used. With this device one can stand on the ground and shorten in the top shoots of a tree very handily. CUTTING AND COVERING 135 For larger cuts than can be made with the pruning knife or one-hand shears, there are pruning saws of different styles, of which two styles are chiefly used. One has a frame made of the best spring steel, constructed somewhat on the plan of a butcher's saw, except that the saw blade is much narrower; and instead of being stationary, it revolves so that the pruner is enabled to adjust the blade to cut at any angle, as is often necessary to do when cutting where limbs grow close together, and where it would be impossible to use an ordinary saw of a wider blade. The blade is only one-fourth to one-half inch wide, and therefore not liable to get pinched in the cut. Strength is imparted by a tension screw under the handle, which tightens the blade. The blade is easily detached by slackening the tension screw, and lifting the blade out of the slot in the clutches at each end. The blade can be thus reversed and made to cut with a push or a pull, as may be desired. Another popular saw is the curved pruning saw, with twelve and fourteen-inch blades, which cuts with a pull. During recent years it has been possible to find quite full assortments of pruning tools at the hardware and general mer- chandise stores in all our fruit districts where these devices can be compared and selection made according to individual preference, for there can be no best tools for all men and all uses. CUTTING TO A BUD Whatever may be used to make the cut, it is important to sever the twig or shoot at that distance from a wood bud which gives that bud the best chance to grow well, and at the same time facilitates the healing and complete obliteration of the scar. Cutting too far from the bud leaves a stub which dies back, and is likely to carry decay into the pith and thence down into the limb. Cutting too close to the bud or carrying the slope down too far behind it, does not give it enough live wood to carry it, and it makes a weak growth. Cutting to inside buds with trees of spreading habit, and to outside buds with upright growers, or to a side bud when lateral extension is desired, should always be remembered as a means of throwing new growth in the direction demanded by symmetry and equal occupation of the space allotted to the tree. This is one respect in which study of the habit of the tree suggests proper practice. COVERING WOUNDS Whenever wood is cut with so great diameter that it will not grow over in one season, the wound should be coated with something to keep the wood from checking and decaying. It has 136 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM been amply demonstrated by California experience that smooth- paring of the cut made by shears or saw is a waste of time. Large wounds should, however, be covered to prevent checking of the wood and drying back of bark edges. Nothing is better or cheaper for this covering than lead and oil paint, a little thicker than for ordinary use, and applied sparingly, so that it will not run down the bark. GATHERING UP PRUNINGS Gathering up prunings for burning is tedious and expensive, and several efforts have been made to substitute machinery for hand labor. Anderson's Brush Rake, invented by W. C. Anderson, of San Jose, has been used to some extent. It readily gathers all kinds of tree and vine brush, compresses it considerably and is easily discharged of its load by a slight lift while still going forward. It is said to save about one-half the cost of hand raking. Brush is often gathered into windrows by the use of horse rakes borrowed from the hay field. Baling Prunings. — There is a fuel value in prunings which has become more clear since pumping for irrigation is so widely prac- ticed, but loose prunings are too expensive in handling. T. G. Rogers, of Winters, has contrived a "brush baler." It is a large strong saw horse inverted, to which is bolted a long, heavy lever. Attached to a cross piece on the lever are four heavy tines bent in a semi-circle. The saw horse is filled with brush, the lever is then pulled down and fastened by a ratchet brake, the brush is forced into a small, compact bundle, and when bound with wire makes a bundle easily handled by the fireman. THINNING FRUIT Intimately connected with the pruning of bearing trees, is the thinning of the fruit or proper spacing of the individual fruits so that each shall have space and sap to allow its attainment of satisfactory marketable size. It has been fully demonstrated that no demand is profitable which will be content with the undersized fruit from an overladen tree. The superior price for good-sized fruit for all uses, not excluding drying, is unquestionable ; the total weight secured may be variable as between thinned and unthinned trees, but it can be accepted as an indisputable fact that any increase of weight there may be upon an unthinned tree will not be nearly an equivalent for the loss in value. It is the conclusion of our largest and most successful growers that, large as is the expenditure required for careful and systematic thinning of fruit. It is the most directly profitable outlay which they have to make for orchard maintenance. 137 138 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Objects in View in Fruit Thinning. — But thinning fruit has objects beyond the vakie of the visible crop which it makes profit- able. No overburdened tree can discharge the twofold summer duty of every cultivated fruit-bearing tree, which is to perfect this season's fruit and lay a good strong foundation for next year's bearing. If the tree, after fruit gathering, has not the strong, vigorous foliage to complete the formation of fruit buds for the following year, there will either be a lack of bloom or a show of bloom unfit to set, and the tree will Avork for itself next year, and not for you, because this 3'^ear you would not work for it. In this particular, thinning fruit coincides in purpose with pruning to limit the amount of bearing wood, which has already been considered. Other objects there are also which are related directly to the profit of orcharding and should command respect from the most careless. The following is an emphatic statement of the case :* There are at least six ways in which growers are repaid for thinning peaches, nectarines or apricots designed for drying: First: You can thin off half the fruit when small quicker than you could pick it when large, and when mature the time required to fill a basket de- pends mainly upon the number of peaches it holds. Second: It takes just as long to cut and spread on a drying tray a small peach as a large one. It takes longer to cut eight peaches that will weigh a pound than to cut three and pick off five when they are little. Third: If peaches run six to the pound the weight of pits will not vary much from that of the cured fruit. If they run three to the pound, they will weigh not much over half. A ton of large peaches is as likely to yield 400 pounds of dried as a ton of small fruit of the same variety to yield 300 pounds. It means a difference of about $8.00 per ton in the value of the fresh fruit to the dryer. It will cost over $t.oo per ton to thin a heavily laden peach orchard in a way to make that difference. Fourth: Granted that you leave fruit to reach the same weight at ma- turity, still you leave it along the body and in places on the limbs where the weight has no breaking leverage and take it off the ends where it may get sun-burned and is almost sure to break the tree. Fifth : Vitality drawn from the plant and certain elements of fertility from the soil, are in proportion to the number of seeds matured. The pulp cuts little figure except in aerial substances and water. Sixth : Suppose that fruit dried from peaches that weigh three to the pound only brings one cent a pound more than that from peaches half that size. Two cents would more accurately measure the difference in value. Still, the smaller figure is enough to meet the whole cost of picking and haul- mg or of cutting and drying in any vv^ell-managed establishment. When to Thin Fruit. — Thinning of fruit should begin with the winter pruning of bearing trees, as has been already urged in con- nection with regulating the amount of bearing wood allotted to each tree. After this is carefully done, there is the thinning of bloom, which is urged on the ground of least possible loss of energ}' by the tree in the partial development of fruit to be sub- sequently removed. Hand-thinning of individual blooms is im- practicable on .a commercial scale, but the removal of spurs or * Condensed from F. S. Chapin. THINNING FRUIT •139 twigs, or shortening of them with shears, is feasible enough. The objection must He in the fact that profusion of bloom does not necessarily indicate an excessive set of fruit, and any severe reduc- tion of bloom is, therefore, venturesome unless one is fully assured by local experience of the habit of the variety under treatment. Reduction of the amount of fruit itself is, therefore, the only safe proceeding, and this should not, as a rule, be undertaken until the first drop, through lack of pollination, has taken place. Even at greater theoretical loss of energy to the tree, it is better to err on the side of thinning a little too late than too early in order to secure the fullest assurance possible of the permanent burden which the tree assumes. Where spring frosts are likely to occur they afford additional reason for delay. If surety of the local conditions comes before the pits harden in the young fruit it is fortunate for the tree, but even after that it is still a greater saving to the tree and assurance of profit to the grower to reduce the fruit to a proper amount than to permit overbearing. The Practice of Thinning. — If the tree has not been sufificiently relieved of an excess of bearing wood during the winter pruning and has made a very heavy set of fruit, thinning with the shears by cutting out whole spurs or short bearing shoots, or even short- ening in longer Hmbs, cutting always to a lateral when possible, is of no appreciable injury to the tree. After all the shear-work possible is done, the spacing of the fruits on the twigs and branches must be provided for. This was done in early days by beating the tree with a pole, and some still maintain that they can use the pole to advantage. The almost universal practice, however, is to use the hand in plucking or pushing oft' the small fruit. This is done very quickly by experienced workmen. If the trees are low, as they should be, most of the work can be done from the ground. It is best to work in vertical spaces and take all that can be reached from top to bottom without changing position; then move a step or two and take another vertical strip, and so on. The distance which should be left between specimens depends upon conditions. It is as ujisatisfactory to thin by rule of inches as it is to prune by such a rule. The space to each fruit depends upon the kind, the age, vigor and strength of the tree, the size and thrift of the lateral or spur which carries the fruit, the moisture supply, the richness of the soil, etc. It also depends upon what use is to be made of the fruit, because it is possible to have some fruit which is too large for certain demands, though this objection does not often arise. The strength of the shoot is perhaps the most easily appreciable factor. With peaches, for instance, a shortened lateral one-eighth of an inch in diameter should only carry one peach, while one one-quarter of an inch in diameter might mature four good large fruits. It vvould evidently be wrong to 140' CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM work for an arbitrary inch-distance on all sorts of shoots, and it will be seen to be just as irrational if it be applied without regard to the other conditions of the tree. If, however, a rule must be had, let it be this, that the distance between the fruit shall be two and one-half times the diameter desired in the fruit. This would fix an arbitrary distance, then, of four to six inches for apricots and six to eight inches for peaches — with other fruits according to their respective sizes, and the late varieties with greater distance than early. Any such standard, however, considers only the size of the fruit, not the strength of the tree, and therefore stops short of one of the important ends of thinning, to conserve the strength of the tree for next season's fruiting. Fruits might be thus spaced and still the tree be overladen, because it may be carrying too many bearing shoots. Calculate the burden of the tree in this way, for instance : Peaches which weigh three to the pound are of fair marketable size ; sixty such peaches will fill an ordinary peach-box of twenty pounds ; ten to twelve such boxes is fruit enough for a good bearing tree six to ten years of age. ' Now count the little peaches you have left on one main branch and its laterals, which ought to be about one-tenth of the tree, and thin down to about sixty. By doing a few trees in this way and thinking of the relation of the bearing wood to the fruit, one will soon get a con- ception of the proper degree of thinning, and proceed to realize it as rapidly as the fingers can fly along the branch. It is seldom desirable to divide doubles in peaches ; pull both off or leave both on, as they may be needed or not to make the load of the tree. Clusters of apples or pears should often be reduced to singles, except where size is apt to be too great. All kinds of fruit are clearly subject to increase of size by thinning, but it is with only the larger fruits that the practice prevails at present. The dividing line seems to lie upon the prune. With this fruit thinning is only done by pruning the tree for the reduction of the number of bearing branches, while with some shipping plums hand thinning is practiced. Growers are still striving for a prune naturally of larger size rather than to have recourse to thinning. The practice of thinning partially at first, trusting to further removal of fruit later if too much of it survives the natural drop and various accidents, is followed by some growers, but the rule is to finish at one operation. CHAPTER XIII CULTIVATION It was demonstrated very early in California experience in fruit growing-, that "clean culture" is generally the proper treat- ment for trees and vines during the proper season, at least. Though the frequent stirring of the soil and the eradication of grass and weeds have been advocated by certain horticulturists for generations and have recently been demonstrated to be desirable by careful comparative experiments, it has nowhere secured such wide adherence as in California. It may even be held to be an essential to successful growth of tree and vine in most soils and situations in California, and the several advantages of clean culture are intensified under our conditions. Chief of these advantages is the maintenance of the soil in a condition favoring root growth, and the main feature of this con- dition is the retention of the moisture, though regulation of summer temperature in the soil is also involved. Where moisture-retention is not the chief concern, because of ample irrigation facilities, and the moderation of soil temperature is of greater moment, a summer-growing cover crop may be of benefit to the trees. In irrigated districts of excessive heat and dry air this policy may prevail, but it will be only the exception to the rule of clean culture. Retaining Moisture by Cultivation. — It is a familiar fact that Avater will rise in a tube of exceeding small diameter very much higher than the surface of the body of water in which the tube is held upright. The water rises by capillary attraction. A compact soil has extending through it,, minute spaces, formed by the partial contact of its particles, which facilitate the rise of water from moist layers below, in accordance with the same principle which causes the water to rise in the capillary tube. This movement IS constantly going on in firm soil, and as fast as the top layer is robbed of its moisture by evaporation, the water rises from below and it too is evaporated. During the long, dry summer, the water rises and is evaporated from a depth of several feet 4n -some- -soils, a-nd the earth, beneath the baking sun heat, becomes "dry as a brick." When a soil is broken up by cultivation, capillarity is tempo- rarily destroyed through the disturbed layer, because the particles are so separated that the mutual connection of the minute inter- spaces no longer exists. But if it be roughly broken up, so that the disturbed layer takes the form of coarse clods, the air has free access to the upper surface of the firm soil beneath them, in which 141 ]^42 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM the capillary condition still exists, and evaporation proceeds in the same way, though in a somewhat less degree, as if there had been no cultivation. It becomes evident, then, that the pulver- ization of the disturbed layer must be so complete that the particles are separated and capillarity destroyed, and, farther, that the free access of air to the lower point, where capillarity exists, must be prevented. This is accomplished by the fine loose earth which acts as a mulch. When this is attained, only that moisture in the upper surface which comes in immediate contact with the air is evaporated, and the balance is retained for the use of the plant. Plants growing, then, in a well-cultivated soil, have the water in the lower soil held for their use, and as fast as they use it the supply is replaced through the firm soil below, which evapora- tion being stopped, remains moist and permeable by roots which extent freely, seeking the nourishment they need. Such is a brief outline of the theory which explains the results gained by thorough cultivation of the soil, so far, at least, as reten- tion of moisture is concerned. The practical demonstration is easy. Go into a well-cultivated orchard or vineyard, push aside the soil Avith the foot, and moisture will be found two or three inches from the surface, or even less in some soils, while on uncultivated land adjacent, digging to the depth of several feet will show nothing but hard earth, baked and arid. In such hard-baked earth, more- over, the sun heat is conveyed or conducted downward very rapidly during a hot day, so that in some cases the roots are seriously injured. When the surface is well tilled, it will act like a blanket, preventing a too rapid conveyance of heat downward, and thus also diminishing the intensity of evaporation. Accurate demonstration of these facts has recently been secured as the result of many moisture determinations in cultivated and uncultivated soil by the University of California Agricultural Experiment Station.* Very striking exhibition of the condition of trees with and without cultivation is found in the engravings which are reproduced herewith. Upon the demonstration, the practice in the uncultivated orchard was radically changed. The exact deterrhination of moisture present at various depths of the soil beneath these contrasted orchards in the month of July is as follows : Cultivated. Uncultivated. Depth in soil. Per cent. Tons per acre. Per cent. Tons per acre. First foot 6.4 Second foot 5.8 Third foot 6.4 Fourth foot 6.5 Fifth foot 6.7 Sixth foot 6.0 Totals, six feet 6.3 756 4.2 512 128 4.3 86 116 4.4 88 128 3.9 78 130 5.1 102 134 3.4 68 120 4.5 90 •Bulletin 121. METHODS OF CULTIVATION 143 This shows a gain of nearly fifty per cent of soil moisture by cultivation. Necessity of Adequate Cultivation. — It has been very fully demonstrated by California experience that adequate depth of tilth must be attained. The depth of cultivation, or the thickness of the dust-mulch, as some like to call it, must be sufficient to prevent the access of the dry air to the firm soil below. At the East, where they have a moister air, a thin mulch may answer ; but in California, with a thirsty air for such a protracted period, there must be deeper tilth. Two or three inches of dust spread over a hard-pan layer^ formed in some soils by cultivation, will not retain moisture well in California. The cultivator should go twice that depth, ordinarily, and then the result will be accomplished if it is done frequently enough to prevent the re-firming of the surface by atmospheric moisture or by the rise of moisture from below. The exact significance of depth in the loose, surface layer has also been demonstrated by moisture determination in the subsoil at different points by the California Experiment Station, as follows : Percentage of moisture in cultivated loam soil. Depth. Three inches Six inches Niles. Santa Maria. 5.4 5.3 6.3 8.5 Ventura. 8.3 9.3 These may be accepted, probably, as average results : Varia- tion may occur in soils of difterent characters. The capillarity in a heavy soil is vastly greater than in a light soil. The difficulty of securing a pulverized surface layer is also greater in the heavy soil. The poorer the pulverization, the deeper the layer must be. Naturally, then, growers' practice will vary. The rule will remain that there must be depth enough to secure effective protection of the firm soil beneath from agencies promoting evaporation. Loss of Moisture by Weed Growth. — One of the most active agencies for the exhaustion of moisture from the subsoil is the growth of weeds. To cultivate the soil in winter and spring, and then to allow a summer growth of weeds to "shade the soil" is a great error. Although under the cover of rank weeds moisture may appear even at the surface and convey the impression of moisture-saving, the fact is, as fully demonstrated by experience and actual experiment, the moisture in the lower layers of the soil is reduced and trees are thus robbed of their supply. Weed growth must be resolutely suppressed during the dry season. Moisture Storage in the Soil. — Conservation of moisture in the soil is not only the surety of the current season's growth and fruitfulness, but is the safeguard against injury from the years of deficient rainfall which occur now and then in California. The 1^4 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM / moisture supply is equalized by this storage in the soil, and a surplus from the liberal rainfall of one 3^ear is held over to supply the lack of the next. Of course, the well-cultivated surface is also well calculated to catch water. While from a hard surface much of a heavy rainfall flows off quickly to a lower level before it can penetrate, a loose soil, if sufficiently deep, retains all that falls upon it, except the excess, which disappears by drainage. It has sometimes been held by California orchardists that plant- ing some tall-growing crop, like corn, so as to shade the young tree and the ground around it, is an advantage. This is a great mistake. Though some rich, moist soils may afford moisture enough to grow both the tree and the corn, it is a fact that in most cases the growth of the corn is made at the expense of the tree, and sometimes almost costs its life and thrift. It has been amply shown by investigation that though shading ground by a leafy growth may make the surface layer of the soil moister, the lower layers are invariably made drier, and it is in these lower layers that the tree seeks its sustenance. The young tree should be shaded as has been described in the chapter on planting, and not by a growing plant. GROWING CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES The possible advantage of a cover growth of clover in regions of high heat and ample moisture has been noted at the opening of this chapter. The rule, however, must be : Grow nothing what- ever between the trees if you desire the full success of the latter. As with all rules, this one may admit of exceptions. Inter-cultures in orchard or vineyard may be allowed under certain conditions of the soil and the purse of the grower. If the soil is deep and moist and rich, the cost of planting and culti- vation, and sometimes more, may be made by growing a crop among young trees. Of course, if irrigation is available, much more can be done in this direction than if dependent upon natural supplies of water. There is much difference as to crops in amount of injury they may do to the trees. Growing alfalfa, without irrigation, has been known to kill out an orchard. Grain is less dangerous, but still is objectionable, both because of exhaustion of soil and moisture, and because of danger to trees from heat deflected from straw and stubble. The crops least injurious, because of their requirements, and because of the constant cultivation of them, checks the loss of moisture by evaporation, are corn, beans, pota- toes, beets, carrots, etc., squashes, and other members of the melon family, onions, and other shallow-rooting vegetables. In the growth of these, however, there should be a width of several feet of well-cultured soil on all sides of the tree, unoccupied. CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES ]^45 In soils exceptionally rich and deep, and where rainfall is abundant, inter-cultures of small fruits or vegetables may be carried on for a long series of years with profit both from the trees and the inter-culture. In similar deep, rich soils, with irrigation, immense crops of small fruits and vegetables, even as high as twelve to twenty-four tons of tomatoes per acre have been taken from between orchard rows, and one hundred and fifty sacks of onions per acre from between the rows of a strawberry plantation. In Ventura County some fields of lima beans, in favorable years, have paid over $70 per acre — grown between young trees. In other parts of the State considerable amounts of peas for sale to canners are grown between the rows in young orchards. This crop is especially desirable when good sale is assured, because the plant is hardy and can make a good part of its growth during the rainy season and the ground be cleaned up and well cultivated early in the summer. As beans. and peas are legumes, their roots enrich the soil, as will be noted in the chapter on fertilization. How Exhaustion by Inter-Culture May Be Avoided. — But all inter-cultures are a loan made by the trees to the orchardist. The term may be very long and the rate of interest very small in some cases, but sooner or later the trees will need restitution to the soil of the plant food removed by inter-cropping. This may be accomplished by the use of fertilizers. Still the rule that the trees or vines should have all the ground is generally true. It is also true that on merely ordinary soils, trusting to rainfall, or on shallow soils, trusting in part to irrigation, the trees or vines should have the full strength of the land and all the help which can be given them in the shape of thorough cultivation. METHODS OF CULTIVATION In general terms the main objects of cultivation of orchard and vineyard are two : Winter cultivation for moisture reception, and summer cultivation for moisture retention. Wherever early winter plowing can be done without too great danger of soil washing, it afifords the best available means of admitting water to the great reservoir in the lower levels of a deep soil. Too frequently large volumes of rain water, enriched by air- washing as it falls and by fine soil-particles as it flows, are allowed to run off into the country drainage, with the double loss of fertility and moisture to the fruit grower. Deep penetration of winter rains should be, in all safe ways, promoted. Cultivation for retention has already been strongly urged and is quite generally recognized. To serve these main purposes there are two main divisions of practice in this State, each of which has variations of greater or less importance. ^Aa CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM .14d First : Winter plowing followed by frequent use of cultivator and pulverizer in summer. Second : Use of cultivator at intervals both winter and summer, following, if needed, with pulverizer in the summer. The main features of each division of practice, and some of the claims by which each method is supported by its advocates, will be noted. Plowing Orchard and Vineyard. — There is considerable varia- tion in the practice of plowing orchard and vineyard, in the kinds of plows employed, and the times chosen for the work. Some plow but once, toward spring, whenever the ground is in suitable condition; and, if there is much growth of weeds and clovers, a looped chain is run from the plow to the end of the evener to aid in drawing under the tall growth. Sometimes, however, the growth gets so rank before the soil is in condition to plow that the weeds are mown before plowing. Where but one plowing is done, the soil is usually thrown away from the trees and afterwards is leveled back by harrowing or cultivating. If this practice is adopted, care should be taken that the soil is properly returned about the tree roots, for injury is sometimes done by bringing the roots too near the surface, which is soon afterwards intensely heated by the sun- shine. It is undoubtedly better practice to plow earlier, when the green stufif gets a good start, but is still not too high to turn under handily. In this practice the weed stems are less woody, and they easily decay and act as a fertilizer. Where early plowing is practiced, it is usual to plow again when the second growth of weeds reaches the proper state in the spring. When two plowings are given, the earth is usually thrown away from the trees in the first plowing, and returned toward the trees in the second plowing. But this order is sometimes reversed in situations where rainfall is heavy and the soil retentive, for the dead furrow between the rows often acts as a surface drain to carry off surplus water, which is thus prevented from standing around the tree roots. In all modes of plowing it is desirable that before the summer heat comes, the surface be leveled as completely as possible. Too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of plowing when the soil is in good condition and not otherwise. To dis- regard this is bad enough in all soils, but it is a grievous mistake to work any of the clayey soils when they are out of condition. If too wet, they are puddled by the plow and dry down in hard clods, impenetrable by air, and even resist water itself for a long time. When clods are thus formed, it may require long effort to bring the soil back to a good friable condition. The cultivation of adobe is one .of the problems of California agriculture. The more refractory it is, the more particular care is needed to take it 147 148 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM when it is in proper condition to work. To work it when perfectly- dry is simply impossible, and if it is plowed when too wet and sticky, it becomes hard, lumpy, and altogether unmanageable. The con- dition which favors best results by tillage must be learned by experience. Another mistake, apt to be made where the orchard or vineyard is but one of the branches of a mixed farm, is to put aside the plowing until all the field work is done, and in some seasons the soil in the orchard has become so dry that it turns up in large clods, which are afterwards partially reduced by the harrow, but never put in the fine tilth which should be secured for the retention of moisture and otherwise to encourage the growth and productive- ness of the trees. Breaking up Hard-pan. — Those who advocate the use of the plow, claim several advantages for it. The chief is that more thorough tilth can be secured. Iji most, but not all soils, there is formed by cultivation an artificial hard-pan at whatever depth the implement attains, if this depth be kept the same for many succes- sive cultivations. This hard-pan, in some soils at least, becomes impervious to water and is otherwise an injury to the growth of the trees. It occurs in irrigated and unirrigated land alike, but probably is more quickly formed by irrigation. When continuous summer cultivation is practiced, the hard-pan will be found at whatever depth the teeth uniformly reach. The remedy is to plow in winter just below this hard-pan layer and thus break it up, and then by the action of the air and rains it is reduced, and culti- vation may proceed as before. Where the hard-pan is formed by the plow, the ground should be plowed shallow one year and deeply the next, thus alternating from year to year. Green Manuring. — Another advantage in the use of the plow IS, as has already been mentioned, the turning under of the growth of weeds, grass, and clover as a green manure. Many growers attach considerable importance to this, and some, who have orchards in which winter growth has been killed out by long culti- vation, are seeking for a quickly-growing crop which they can sow with the first rains and secure growth enough to turn under with the winter plowing. This consideration will be farther pre- sented in the chapter on fertilization. Plowing Hillside to Prevent Washing. — Where the slope of the land is sharp, there is much danger from washing during the rainy season, if the hillside is not terraced or furnished with ditches carefully laid out on contour lines to carry the water down on a gentle grade. The old plan of plowing furrows one above another around the hill" to check the flow and let the water down easily, is often found treacherous unless one is able to strike good grades, AVOIDING INJURY IN CULTIVATION 149 because of the liability to collection of water at certain points and the subsequent breaking away and washing. Recently some of of the foot-hill growers have adopted the plan of plowing furrows seven or eight feet apart straight down the hill in the direction of its deepest descent. The rainfall is thus distributed over the ground so that not much water is collected in any one place and the harm done by washing will not amount to much. Hillside work differs according to character of soil and of local rainfall and conference with experienced men in the region will usually afford the beginner the best suggestions of method. In some localities, the plowing of a few furrows at intervals to assist in penetration and the growth of a cover crop during the winter to assist in bind- ing the soil, will be found better than any attempt at the early plowing, which may work admirably on level lands. The Best Plow. — For plowing orchards and vineyards many kinds of ploAvs are used, including the ordinary one and two-horse walking plows, single and double sulky or riding plows, and gang plows of different kinds. Recently disk plows and harrows have become very popular. In several of the leading fruit districts there are plows made in the local shops which are patterned to meet the different soils prevailing. Which is the best plow is a question which can not be answered, it must be determined by local conditions, and the best way to get information is to consult the experienced cultivators of the locality. Avoiding Injury to Trees and Vines. — The great problem is to use the plow so as not to injure the trees and vines. Injury to the roots is one ground on which those who advocate the banish- ment of the plow from orchard and vineyard base their opposition, as will appear more fully presently. It is the usual practice to run tlie plow shallower when approaching the stem of the tree or vine, and this is easily done when using a riding plow or a two- horse walking plow between the rows and finishing up near the trees with a single-horse walking plow, which is a common practice. The injury by the plow, to which especial reference is now made, is that to the bark of the tree or to the vine stump. Makers of the special orchard and vineyard plows have recently made them adjustable so that the plow will work either side of the central line of draft, and these improved tools have rendered obso- lete the early contrivances for accomplishing the result with com- mon field plows. Flat Hames and a Spreader. — Among the worst things for use among trees are the pointed iron hames which are found on most harnesses. They often seriously bark the branches under which the horse passes, and should be dispensed with. An arrangement widely used consists in having broad leather tugs and hames with 150 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM only one long iron loop on the swell of the hame. The tug is passed around the hame and the end is brought through the iron loop from the under side, so that the draft will hold the tug tight between the collar and the hame and the end between the iron staple and the pulling part of the trace. A spreader is put between the tugs ; it is made of a hard-wood stick sixteen to eighteen inches long; a hole is bored in each end large enough for a two-inch screw, a hole punched in each trace about twelve inches from the rear end, and the tugs are screwed to the ends of the spreader, and the ends of the tugs attached to the plow clevis. This gives no iron or wooden surfaces at all, either on harness or whiffletree, to strike the bark. Improved Singletrees. — Later than these came the orchard and vineyard singletrees, invented and patented by Californians, which are widely used and sold in all stores in the fruit growing districts. Dispensing with Doubletrees. — Still other inventions which admit the use of two horses even close up to the trees, because they dispense entirely with whiffletrees and tugs, are known as the steel harness, Eastern inventions, which have secured the approval of some of our leading growers for use in orchard and vineyard. The plow is attached to the steel yoke by a chain running between the horses. With them it is possible to work quite close to the trees and vines, and is especially desirable in the vineyard in working close to the vines when they have grown out about two feet, which is a difficult job with the old-style harness. SUMMER TREATMENT OF PLOWED ORCHARD AND VINEYARD Where the orchard or vineyard is plowed twice during the winter, the land should remain after the first plowing as the plow leaves it. The moistening and aeration during the winter have a good effect upon the soil both chemically and mechanically. If but one plowing is done, when the chief rains are supposed to be over, there must be full effort put forth to reduce the soil to good tilth, and to level the surface as much as possible. This is done by harrowing with one of the several improved harrows which are now generally introduced and found very effective. They act in cultivating, clod crushing, and leveling, in a most satisfactory manner. They are too well known to need description. Each has its advocates and its adaptations to certain soils. As with plows, so with harrows and cultivators, the best for one soil may not be the best for another, and local inquiry among experienced fruit growers will be the best guide for the newcomer. In addi- tion to the excellent implements brought from the eastern States, CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING 151 there are others of California invention and 'manufacture which have very marked local adaptations, and almost every fruit region in California has some embodiment of local inventive genius in the form of implements of tillage. The secret of success in handling the heavier soils in spring working is to secure as perfect surface pulverization as possible without compacting the soil. Light soils need a certain amount of firming after plowing, or else there is too free access of air and too great drying out. For these and other reasons, the grower has to study his soil and learn from observation the methods which succeed best with it. The practice which gave success under cer- tain conditions might not be well adapted under other conditions. The use of the roller is a striking example of this fact. In some orchards the roller is a benefit, in others a decided injury. Its chief eifect is compacting the surface layer, which is only desirable on very coarse open soils. The long-tooth harrow accomplishes a very marked compacting of the soil to the depth it reaches and often settles the lower layer too closely and causes it to run together too solidly if rain follows. The modern cultivators, clod- crushers, disk-harrows, etc., are superior in eiTect, each in the soil to which its action is most desirable. After working down the soil after plowing, the cultivator is relied upon to kill the weeds, break up the crust which may form after spring rains or after irrigation, and to prevent the compacting of the surface layer of the soil from any causes. CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING There are orchards in California which have not been plowed for years — in some cases the plow has not been used since the trees were planted. Instances of this kind are to be found both in irrigated and unirrigated land. It depends largely upon the me- chanical condition and disposition of the soil whether the practice will give satisfactory results. It can not be trusted on land prone to develop hard-pan, as has already been considered, and yet the term "cultivation" has taken such a wide range in this State, and the tools have reached such efficiency, that there is not as much difference as formerly between the plow and the cultivator, except that the former turns the soil and the latter stirs without turning. For some who oppose the use of the plow, use a chisel-tooth cul- tivator, cutting to a depth of eight inches in the spring, but at other times of the year they are not more than half as deep. This treatment would tend to dispose of hard-pan. However this may be, and what the special nature of their soils, there are fruit growers, both in northern and southern California, who have for years trusted almost wholly to the cultivator, cutting to a depth of three or four inches, and keep their orchards throughout the year almost in the same state of tilth, never allowing a weed to 152 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM grow. This practice is, however, becoming less prevalent, and for certain soils the question is practically settled in the minds of nearly all orchardists, while for other soils there is still doubt. For the heavier soils, which continuous shallow cultivation is apt to render too compact, it is necessary to have recourse to the plow to open the land for proper aeration and penetration of moisture which otherwise would be largely lost by surface run-ofT. The lighter soils do not require this and they seem to do well with continuous use of the cultivator. It is beginning to be clearly seen, however, that this treatment tends toward the decrease of the humus and the consequent impoverishment of the soil. Its water-holding capacity is also lessened. These facts have induced some growers to change their practice and take up the plow during late winter or early spring to cover in the growth of green stuff which they allow to grow instead of frequently destroying it with the winter use of the cultivator. Either the fall and spring plowing, or both, followed by the summer use of the cultivator, is the most rational and satisfactory practice for most of our deciduous orch- ards, though there are local conditions and circumstances under which different procedure is preferable. SUMMER CULTIVATION Whatever the winter policy may be, the essential point in sum- mer cultivation is to preserve the surface layer of pulverized earth. It will not do to have a few inches of clods, from the size of a pea to that of a goose Qgg, resting on a hard surface. The finer the pulverization the shallower can be the surface layer, and vice versa, and this is probably one reason why in practice the work of the plow is, in so many situations, found the best founda- tion upon which to rest the years' cultivation. In order to secure this finely-pulverized layer, it is sometimes necessary to use what is called a "rubber," where there are many clods which are merely displaced by the harrow or cultivator. There are different styles, and they are generally home-made. The most common form is made of two-inch plank in lengths of three or four feet, bolted or spiked to pieces of four-by-four-inch scantling running crosswise, the edges of the planks lapped like the clapboards which are used for weather boarding. As these edges are drawn over the surface, the clods are rubbed into tilth if the}^ are not too hard and dry. But this rubbing may be very undesirable if it leaves the sur- face smooth and polished. It may reflect the sunheat even to tree-burning, and is apt to form an evaporating surface, which is most to be avoided. The best finish for the land is that produced by a light, fine-tooth harrow, and an attachment of this kind is provided with various clod crushers and cultivators. The result WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION 153 is a surface of loose earth, flat and fine, which approaches very closely an ideal condition. There is less difference than formerly in the use of the harrow or cultivator during the summer. Still some are content to use the cultivator only as a weed-killer, and after the weeds cease to grow and the spring showers are over, the cultivator is laid aside and the land left unstirred until the following winter. This, of course, refers to unirrigated ground, for wherever irrigation is practiced a cultivator must follow, except on hillsides where the surface is left undisturbed after the irrigation furrows are made at the beginning of the dry season. It is a fact, however, that even if no rain falls, the soil becomes compacted to a certain degree, and the best way to imprison the greatest possible amount of moisture below is to run the cultivator at intervals all through the dry season. It should run shallow and only stir the surface layer. The experience of the most successful growers is that fre- quent stirring without, however, bringing new soil to the air, is the best-paying practice. WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION As clean, thorough cultivation has been approved, it may be desirable to attempt to define the term. It can, however, only be approximately done, because of the great difference in individual views and practices. Some indication of the operations which are contemplated may be had in the following specifications upon which contracts have been let for care of orchard : First, plowing away from the trees, followed by harrowing; second, plowing toward the trees, followed by harrowing; ten summer workings with culti- vator; three workings with shallow cultivator or weed-cutter; five hand hoeings around the trees. The contract intends the most com- plete and perfect working of the soil and specifies the above merely that there may be no difference of opinion between owner and contractor. In cases where the land is infected with morning-glory, weekly cultivation is stipulated for in some cases, and this seems about the only way to cope with this formidable trespasser. - CULTIVATION FOR WEED KILLING Cultivation for weed killing is a minor consideration in Cali- fornia: because cultivation for moisture conservation effectually disposes of most of them, and weeds do not start readily in the earth-mulch during the dry season. There are, however, a few most persistent pests which require heroic measures. Johnson grass and morning-glory are the most prominent of these. The only successful treatment consists in cutting constantly with a weed -cutter (a sharp horizontal knife), operated so as to pass under -154 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM the whole surface and run so often that the plant is never allowed to show a shoot on the surface. It is of no use merely to cultivate or "weed-cut" as for other weeds. This spreads the pest more and more ; but if the rising shoots are continually cut under the surface, and never allowed to get the light, it will kill the plant surely, but it may take two seasons to do it. Weed-cutting knives of this description are usually contrived by local smiths and are attached to sleds or fitted with plow-handles, or used with a pair of thills and cultivator-handles, or other rigging as the operator may choose. The vital point is a blade of sheet steel, very sharp, and rigged to run just under the surface. It must be used as often as once each week. MULCHING A SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION The use of a mulch or covering of the ground with a litter of light materials to prevent evaporation, is practiced to a small extent in this State. Though mainly used for berries of different kinds, recourse has also been had to mulching by vineyardists. The mate- rials, used are various, such as partly-rotted straw, coarse manure, damaged hay, corn-husks, corn-stalks, vine prunings and leaves, and even fine brush from adjacent thickets. The practice has been found of greatest value on hillsides where cultivation is difficult, and danger of washing of loose soil is great. There are cases where vines have been grown several years in this way to the satisfaction of the owner. The danger of fire in our dry climate when the surface is covered to a depth of several inches with a dry mulch is considerable. As a rule, the mulch employed by the California grower is a perfect pulverization of the surface soil. CHAPTER XIV FERTILIZERS FOR TREES AND VINES It was a popular doctrine among early Californians that Cali- fornia soils would never need fertilization, and that there is some- thing in our soil and climate which releases us forever from repay- ing anything to the ground for the wealth of produce which we take from it. Such a view is, of course, without foundation, and yet it is not difficult to see how it arose. Early attempts to enrich the soil by the turning under of coarse stable manure, as is done in other countries, was undertaken here on light soil in a region rather short of rainfall. The manure did not decompose, and its; coarse materials made a soil, already too light to retain moisture well, so open and porous that its moisture was quickly carried away by evaporation, and crops did not grow so well as upon adjacent land which had not been manured. So the fiat went forth against manure. The corrals* became undisturbed guano deposits, and manure piles were fired in dry weather to get the soil poison out of the way. Innumerable tons of bones were gathered and ground in San Francisco and shipped away to countries which need fertil- izers. Nature did much to foster the popular delusion, for field crops were gloriously large, and trees and vines grew rampantly and bore fruit the weight of which they were unable to sustain. How could there be more conclusive evidence that manure was a detriment to California soils? A few decades of experience have swept away such fallacies and now California growers, especially those handling citrus fruits, are not only freely investing in commercial fertilizers but are buy- ing and shipping considerable distances all available animal manures. They are also untiring students of the art of fertilization and the sciences underlying it. It was in response to their demand that the California Legislature of 1903 passed a fertilizer control law giving the University Agricultural Experiment Station regu- lation of the trade in fertilizing materials. All dealers are required to register and submit samples of their brands and there is con- stant inspection to detect departures. Semi-annual reports are pub- lished for public information and these, with special instructions for taking samples when purchasers desire analyses on their own ac- count, can be had by application to the Experiment Station at Berkeley. The total amount of sales reported under the law for the year ending June 30, 1908, was 31,228 tons. * Inclosures for live stock of any kind. 155 156 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM It is foreign to our purpose to discuss the general subject of the use of fertilizers in California, and the changes in belief and practice which have recently gained ground. Of course, the marked falling off in the yield of shallow-rooting cereals gave the first un- mistakable intimation that there was something wrong about the old theory of the perpetual youth of California soils. The lands used for fruit are sometimes slow to show exhaustion, because trees are deep feeders, and the soils, as they are often the very best and deepest of the State, selected for fruit because of that very charac- ter, possess, in an eminent degree, lasting properties, as is shown in the chapter on the fruit soils of California. But certain of these soils are already showing the need of refreshment, and intelligent growers are quick to minister to the lands which are giving them such generous returns, as they can well afford to do. WHEN IS FERTILIZATION NECESSARY? Though the use of fertilizers by our fruit growers is beginning, it should be plainly stated that at present, except perhaps with citrus fruit trees, or the oldest orchards of other fruits, it is not yet the rule that such applications are necessary. There are some soils which are really too rich for fruit. There is sometimes an overrank growth of wood, which delays or prevents the formation of fruit buds, and there is a marvelous development of fruit which is inconsistent with the highest quality. For this reason the grower should not conclude, from the foregoing general remarks concern- ing the need of fertilization in California, that he must manure his soil whether it needs it or not. Especially is this the case with young trees, in which the wood growth is easily overstimulated. As with irrigation, so in fertilization ; the tree or vine itself will give the observing grower hints as to its needs, and if the growth of wood and color of foliage are such as obviously indicate health and vigor, it may be concluded that the plant needs nothing but good cultivation and intelligent pruning. Usually cases of overrich ground will cure themselves as the trees attain size and full bearing, and it is then that fertilization may be necessary. When the tree or vine which has been properly pruned and cultivated is not able to mature a good weight of well- developed fruit, and make a satisfactory wood growth, usually at the same time showing some degree of distress by the color of its foliage, it needs help ; and if the grower is sure that the trouble is not from lack of moisture in the soil, he should bestir himself in the manuring of his orchard or vineyard. In examining the soil for moisture, one should dig deeply, for there have been cases of moisture near the surface, and drouth below. THE USE OF FERTILIZERS 157 WHAT FERTILIZERS TO APPLY TO FRUIT TREES AND VINES A discussion of this subject from a chemist's point of view is beyond the scope of this volume. The results of research at the University Experiment Station at Berkeley are summarized in the treatise on soils by Dr. E. W. Hilgard, who maintains the position that the most intelligent and economical choice of fertilizers is to be made after ascertaining by analysis in what constituents the soil is deficient and in what it is well supplied. Some applications made in conformity with suggestions based upon analysis have proved very satisfactory. But as soils vary within narrow limits of area, there must be analysis for each soil in question. Approaching the matter of choosing fertilizers without soil analysis, the method by local trial is open. In this recourse there is danger of error, as pointed out by Dr. Hilgard, arising from local differences in soil and subsoil, and must be checked by several check plots so interposed between the others as to not only check them by direct comparison, and to prevent the washing of fertil- izers from one fertilized plot to another, but they must also be compared, first of all, among themselves, to determine what is the normal product of the unfertilized land. It will frequently be found that these unfertilized check plots differ more widely between them- selves than do the fertilized ones from them or from each other. It usually takes several seasons to come to definite results. From these statements it must appear that the prescription of fertilizers is not an easy matter. Disappointments will naturally be encountered, but unquestionably the advantage is on the side of patient trial and wise investment in fertilizers honestly made and honestly sold. The observing grower must learn all that he can from experience. The University of California at its Citrus Experiment Station at Riverside began in 1907 a series of experi- ments in the course of which trees, specially planted in plots guarded from interference, will be grown on various diets in order that close comparisons may be made, from which it is expected that important conclusions in plant nutrition can be drawn. It is obviously the duty of the grower to constantly study fertilizer questions as presented in books and journals and to be alert for observation of the behavior of his own trees with the applica- tions he may make. The publications of responsible fertilizer manufacturers and dealers, also convey important information when read discriminately. Though the deficiencies of the soil, as learned by analysis, or by practical test, must be the basis of prescription of fertilizers, the analyses of fruits, as showing the special needs of the plants, are of the highest importance. The following analyses of the different 158 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM fruits, containing, in each case, skin, pulp and seeds, are almost entirely from California-grown specimens, and are supposed to represent an average composition of the fruits named. Quantities of soil ingredients withdrawn by various fruits Compiled from analyses by G. E. Colby, University of California Phosphoric FRESH FRUIT Total ash Potash Lime Acid Nitrogen 1,000 pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Almondst 17.29 9.95 1.04 2.04 7.01 Apricots . . 5.08 3.01 .16 .66 1.94 Apples 2.64 1.40 .11 .33 1.05 Bananas 10.78 6.80 .10- .17 .97 Cherries 4.82 2.77 .20 .72 2.29 Chestmitst 9.52 3.67 1.20 1.58 6.40 Figs 7.81 4.69 .85 .86 2.38 Grapes 5.00 2.55 .25 .11 1.26 Lemons 5.26 2.54 1.55 .58 1.51 Olives 13.50 9.11 2.43 1.25 5.60 Oranges 4.32 2.11 .97 .53 1.83 Peaches 5.30 3.94* .14* .85* 1.20* Pears 2.50 1.34 .19 .34 .90 Prunes, French 4.86 3.10 .22 .68 1.82 Plums 5.35 3.41* .25* .75* 1.81 Walnutst 12.98 8.18 1.55 1.47 5.41 tincluding hulls. *Estimated. FIRST AID TO THE INJURED SOIL Based upon the clear characteristics of California soils as already indicated in the chapter on that subject, Dr. Hilgard advises that any large-scale fertilization should begin with phosphates and nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then with potash also, this being the order in which these substances are likely to become deficient in most of our soils under cultivation. In the course of time potash fertilization will become widely necessary in this State ; in fact some California soils are naturally deficient in potash. AVAILABLE SUPPLIES OF PHOSPI-IATES Phosphatic manures which are clearly promotive of freer fruit- ing of trees and vines, are now being supplied to fruit growers by importers and manufacturers located in various California cities, and results attained by their use are such as to warrant contin- uance. They are bone and rock phosphates, which are transformed into superphosphates, and, with nitrogenous matter added, serve as good applications both for growth and fruiting. HOW TO HANDLE BONES 159 Home-made Bone Manures. — Much good bone manure can be made, by collecting bones, heads, horns, feet, etc., from butchers' shops or elsewhere. How to make such material available, by- simple proceedings, is described by Prof. Hilgard as follows : 1. Bones put into a well-kept (moistened) manure pile will themselves gradually decay and disappear, enriching the manure to that extent. 2. Raw bones may be bodily buried in the soil around the trees; if placed at a sufficient depth, beyond the reach of the summer's heat and drouth and cultivating tools, the rootlets will cluster around each piece, and, in course of a few years, consume it entirely. 3. Bones may be packed in moist wood ashes, best mixed with a little quick-lime, the mass kept moist but never dripping. In a few months the hardest bones will be reduced to a fine mush, which is as effectual as super- phosphate. Concentrated lye and soil may be used instead of ashes. In this process the nitrogen of the bones is lost, going off in the form of ammonia, the odor of which is very perceptible in the tank used. For neither of these processes should the bones be burned. The burning of bones is an unqualified detriment to their effectiveness, which can only be undone by the use of sulphuric acid. 4. Bones steamed for three or four hours in a boiler under a pressure of thirty-five to fifty pounds, can, after drying, be readily crushed in an ordinary barley-crushing mill, and thus be rendered more convenient for use. Practi- cally, very little of the nitrogen (glue) of the bones need be thus lost. POTASH Though, as already stated, potash is commonly in good supply in California soils, it is very clear from experience that additions of potash, perhaps in more available form, are advisable. The fruit analyses already given show that the use of this substance by fruit trees and vines is very large. Recent experiments also show that potash ministers directly to the quality of the fruit in some cases. Ashes from wood fires are the most available source of potash, but it is a mistake to regard wood ashes as valuable only for their potash contents. Professor Storer has found by analysis of a number of samples of house ashes, that selected sam- ples contain 8J/2 per cent of real potash, and 2 per cent of phos- phoric acid, or say 4|/2 pounds of potash and one pound of phos- phoric per bushel. Hence there is enough potash and phosphoric acid to make a bushel of ashes worth twenty or twenty-five cents, and besides that, some ten or fifteen cents additional may be allowed for the "alkali power" of the ashes, i. e., the force of alkalinity which enables ashes to rot weeds and to ferment peat. These facts suggest to the fruit grower that he should carefully preserve all home-made wood ashes and apply them to the soil at once, or, if stored for future application, be sure that they are kept dry. Leached ashes from the lye barrel, or ashes ' from open piles, leached by rains, are hardly worth handling. Coal ashes are almost devoid of fertilizing properties, though, if finely divided, as in the case of coals burning completely, their use is 160 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM beneficial, mechanically, on clay soils, in the same way that fine sand would be. The chief supplies of potash salts are now brought from Ger- many and are in the hands of local dealers, but there are exten- sive deposits in Utah, New Mexico, and elsewhere in the interior, which can be employed when railroads make them available. NITROGEN Nitrogen ministers directly to the vegetative activity of the plant and is a wonderful stimulant of wood growth and foliage. Supplies of this substance can be had from animal manures, which will be considered later. The effect of stable manure upon the soil and the plant is notably strengthening and restorative. For this reason money and effort are often well expended in securing it even beyond the cost of the equivalent of the plant food which it contains. Another natural form of nitrogen in cover crops or green manures will be discussed presently. Of commercial forms of nitrogen, tankage and dried blood are highly esteemed for orchard use, and there is large use also of Chile saltpeter, which contains about sixteen per cent of nitrogen, in immediately avail- able form. From one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds per acre is the usual application. Sulphate of ammonia is another available source of nitrogen obtainable in commerce ; a good com- mercial article contains twenty per cent and over of nitrogen. It does not, however, act quite as rapidly as the Chile saltpeter. A suggestion of caution in the use of nitrogenous manures will be given presently. LIME, GYPSUM AND MARL Lime is another substance usually abundant in California soils, but still often desirable as an application. This is, notably, the case on our heavy clays or adobes, where, as has already been men- tioned in another connection, the use of lime as a top dressing, at the rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds to the acre, not only makes the heavy soil more friable, but acts upon and makes available the large amount of organic matter which such soils usually contain. Lime also renders inorganic materials more available for plant food, corrects acidity, and may destroy insects and fungi. Application of lime is also desirable after applications of barn-yard manure have been made for several years ; and it is especially valuable wherever, in alluvial soils rich in vegetable mat- ter, there is an excessive growth of wood and leaf. Usually light soils are not materially benefited by the use of lime. Ground limestone is sometimes proposed as a fertilizer, and has even been offered on the market, It is insoluble and inert TREATMENT OF STABLE MANURES 161 carbonate of lime, and is not worth the cost of hauling any distance. It can not take the place of burned limestone. Gypsum. — Gypsum, or land planter (sulphate of lime), occurs in considerable quantities in this State and Nevada, and is now being mined and ground at a low price in the San Joaquin Valley. It acts directly in correcting soils made alkaline by presence of carbonate of soda. Applied to soils not alkaline, gypsum sets free potash, magnesia, and ammonia, which may be present in insoluble form; and it also causes potash to be transferred from the upper to the lower layers of the soil, so that roots can everywhere find a store of it. Hence its special value when applied to deep-rooting plants. The reason why gypsum is so capricious in its action, which was long a mystery, is now held to be clear, because upon soils that are tolerably rich in fixed potash it will do good service, while upon soils poor in potash it will not. In any event gypsum is to be regarded as an excitant rather than as a form of plant food. Of the several uses of gypsum, probably its chief value lies in its power as an absorbent. If added to manure in excess it delays fermentation, and it is, therefore, not a desirable addition to the compost heap. But for covering fermenting manures or scattering around moist places in horse and cow stables to absorb odors and fix volatile manurial substances it is of value. Marls. — Marl is a calcareous earth, and is called shell marl, rock marl, earthy marls, etc., according to its origin and mechanical condition. A number of samples from different parts of the State have been analyzed by Professor Hilgard and some of them com- mended for local application to soils needing lime, but not valuable enough to warrant hauling far. Marl which sometimes occurs in California too near the surface is injurious to trees, causing yellow leaf and die back when reached by the roots. BARN-YARD MANURE AND COMPOST Where fruit growing is carried on with stock growing, there are abundant supplies of manure available, but this combination is not characteristic of California, though prevailing to some extent, and likely to be more prevalent as fruit planting extends farther from the centers which are wholly given to it. But even in the fruit centers there are certain amounts of material available from the animals that are kept for cultivation and hauling, or to be had, often, for the expense of hauling from adjacent towns. As already stated, coarse, unrotted manure can seldom be used to advantage in this State, unless it be in heavy soils in regions of ample rainfall, or on lighter soils, perhaps, if well irrigated; and even in such situations either finely divided or well-rotted manure is infinitely superior. Corral scrapings, which are usually 162 CALIFORNIA P^RUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM the first resource when the idea of manuring springs up in a neigh- borhood, are not always well decomposed, but they are finely divided, and therefore decompose readily as compared with coarse straw, which, it is said, has been found practically unchanged even after lying two years in a dry, loose soil. It is, therefore, of the greatest advantage to prepare barnyard manure with care for use in this State by some such method as will be described below, which includes composting, thereby turning to account nearly all organic material likely to be available : Clean up all the manure on hand just before the fall rains, putting the same on the land, and either cultivate it in or plow it under. What manure accumulates during the winter pile in a snug heap some five or six feet in depth, and throw it over some three or four times during the winter to keep it from burning, as well as to thoroughly mix it and thereby hasten decom- position. Put horse, cow, hog, chicken, and every other kind of manure that can be had, all together. Never burn anything that will rot, but haul to the pile corn-stalks, roots, and all squash, melon, tomato, and potato vines, etc., as well as weeds of every description, in fact, anything and everything that will decay and make vegetable matter. Use fresh horse manure mostly to hasten the decomposition of said vines, weeds, etc., alternating as the heap is made. By so doing there will not be a weed seed left with vitality enough to germinate. It is well to have manure piles under a roof to avoid leaching during the longest and most excessive rains, but so situated that some of the rain falling on the barn can be easily conducted to the piles, giving them just the amount of water necessary to wet thoroughly without leaching, and no more. Treatment of Manure without Composting. — Even when com- posting all refuse vegetable matter with the manure is not thought worth the time and trouble, it is just as important to properly treat the manure when stored alone. This can be easily done by some such plan as is described below : Collect the stable manure in a large bin and keep it wet enough to prevent burning or "fire-fanging." With a bin, say ten or twelve feet square and five or six feet high, built convenient to the barn, the manure can be placed therein and watered from time to time with much less trouble than it can be composted with other material. This, of course, presupposes the ability to run the water in through a hose or by natural flow. Care must, of course, be taken that too much water be not supplied, causing the substance to be leached from the pile. But in my own experience I find the danger is at the other extreme, and when I open my pile I sometimes wish I had used more water. In filling the bin leave one end or side open as long as possible, for convenience of filling. Barn-yard manure and compost carefully prepared in some such way as described, and applied before the rains or early in the rainy season, to be turned under at the first plowing, will be in condition to be readily assimilated, and will not injure any soil. Where no composting is undertaken it is rational to apply the manure during the rainy season directly to the land if the rainfall is not large and the land fit to haul over. During the dry season the manure can be spread in the corral and tramped into dust by the stock because as long as it remains dry no losses by USING WASTE MATERIALS 163 fermentation can occur. Near the end of the dry season, the corral should be scraped and all the material spread on the land. In this way the cost and trouble of manure piles can be avoided. Sheep Manure. — The proximity of the orange orchards of South- ern California to extensive sheep ranges led "to large use of the manure from the sheep corrals until supplies were practically exhausted. Afterwards large deposits in the San Joaquin Valley were opened and the material, which has shown value by analysis in one case of above $14 per ton, is finely ground and placed upon the market in a business way. One deposit mined for several years by George C. Roeding & Co., of Fresno, was several acres in extent and at some points the material was ten feet deep. Such deposits can seldom be found now except in remote parts of the State. Sheep manure is usually counted richer and quicker, though not so lasting in its effects, as stable manure. Being highly nitro- genous, too free use of sheep manure tends to excessive growth of wood, especially on young trees. Old bearing trees may be benefited by such a stimulant. VARIOUS WASTE PRODUCTS The care advised in saving and treating barn-yard manure, hen manure, bones, ashes, etc., should be extended to other waste products of the farm. Soapsuds should be allowed to run to adja- cent trees unless used in the flower garden, but not too long upon the same trees for it may kill them. Peelings and corings of fruit, cut for drying, should be fed to pigs and the resulting manure secured. It is not wise to corral the swine in a dry run in the summer and allow the manure to be sluiced out by the winter rise of the stream. Prunings. — Prunings of the orchard and vineyard should be burned between the rows, in small piles, so as to distribute the ashes well. Danger to adjacent trees may be avoided by using the portable, home-made tin shields on the sides of the fires. It is not wise to carry all the prunings to the side of the highway and burn them there and allow the ashes to be lost. Vineyard prunings are sometimes cut up with an arrangement like a straw- cutter, which reduces them to bits about an inch in length. They are then scattered over the surface of the ground, turned under at the next plowing, and soon decay. Where, through lightness of soil and short rainfall, the woody fiber does not readily decay, burning upon an iron sled about ten feet long is practiced. At its front is a V-shaped iron rod, to which a horse can be hitched. On the sled are flaring sheet-iron sides and perforated bottom. 164 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM This is filled Avith brush, a fire kindled, and as the horse moves forward fresh brush is added, while the ashes by its motion are sifted out very evenly all over the vineyard. Refuse from Wineries. — The fermented husks, stems, and seeds, all containing valuable fertilizing properties, are often spread on the road and in holes, where it is of no account whatever. If scattered over the vineyard, much valuable substance would be returned to the soil. In some soils application of raw refuse would be undesirable because of the acidity developed. It is usually safe on calcareous soils, and for other soils should be composted with lime or wood ashes to facilitate decay and neu- tralization of the acid. Of winery refuse the lees are especially valuable because of the supplies of potash they contain, but the}^ are now being largely used in the manufacture of tartaric acid. Other Waste Products. — There are available from various man- ufactories different waste products which can not be specified. When any such material comes to the notice of the fruit grower, he should seek advice from the Agricultural Experiment Station, at Berkeley, as to the probable value of the material, and its special uses. CAUTION IN USE OF FERTILIZERS Besides the injunction already given against application of fertilizers when the soil is already quite rich enough to produce good fruit and plenty of it, it should be noted that manures unduly rich in animal matter should be used with caution, as they may overstimulate the plant, delay or reduce fruiting, injure the quality of the fruit, and possibly engender disease in the tree or vine. Monstrous size and puffiness of oranges is clearly due in some cases to excess of nitrogenous manures. Excessive use of soluble fertilizers like nitrate of soda may kill plants or trees outright. The effect of excessive use of stable manures, or other manures very rich in nitrogen, upon the products of the vine has been frequently noted as destructive to bouquet and quality. METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS Suggestions concerning proper application of barn-yard manures, both to young trees at planting and to bearing trees and vines, have already been given. The same conditions which cause slow decomposition of stable manures apply to any fertil- izing material which is not readily soluble in water. All such material should be in a finely divided state. Surface applications of ground bone^ will, in the dry climate of California, lie practically unchanged for a long period. Ground bone should be plowed in MANURES IN IRRIGATION WATER 165 as deeply as can be clone without injury to the roots of trees and vines, and then, if the surface is kept cultivated, it will lie in moist strata and decompose, or be siezed'by the searching rootlets. On the other hand, superphosphate, or other really soluble chemical fertilizers, will produce immediate results, and can be most eco- nomically used on light and easily permeable soils, on which falling water sinks and does not flow over the surface. In leachy soils a part of such fertilizers might be carried down beyond the reach of shallow-rooting plants, but there is little danger of this in the case of trees and vines. When superphosphate is used on irrigated ground, it is some- times drilled in to prevent its being carried along with the running water. One way is to run a chisel-tooth cultivator ahead of the grain-seed drill and to distribute and drill in the fertilizer as deep as feasible to do without injuring the roots. Spring application of fertilizers are conveniently made by spreading upon the vegetation which is plowed under at that season. Manures with Irrigation Water. — Distribution of fertilizers by using the flow of irrigation water is described by A. S. Chapman, as follows : We shovel sheep manure into the irrigating ditches, allowing each tree to receive about twenty-five pounds at each separate irrigation. Our basins cover the entire surface of the ground. We make no effort to choke such weeds as clover, alfilerilla, and the like; but the irrigator with his hoe de- stroys the obnoxious nightshade, hoarhound, and nettle. In the fall of the year we follow with copious liming — about three barrels of unslacked lime to the acre — applied in the following manner at the head of our irrigating ditch : We plant a box about three feet wide, six feet long, two feet deep, and six inches under the surface of the running water. In it we place a barrel of the lime. It slacks and swells to twice its original bulk. A man stands on this with his hoe and sees that the water carries it off evenly. With an irrigating head such as we use, a man will run into the ditch four barrels a day, or about three barrels to the acre. We have a con- siderable fall, and the water runs very rapidly; but it takes up all the lime, and the water runs white, like milk. We now leave the orange orchard till spring, when we plow under weeds, manure and lime. We thus aim to supply our soil with nitrate of lime, potash, and magnesia. Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by the water and attacks the inert plant food in the soil; hard-pan is prevented both by the mechanical effects of the vegetable matter and the lime. The basin method of irrigation, to which allusion is made, will be more fully described in the following chapter. FERTILIZING MATTERS IN IRRIGATION WATER Water used for irrigation may carry in solution injurious sub- stances, as, for example, alkali, as will be noted in the following chapter; or it may carry very valuable fertilizing properties. These facts can only be determined by analysis. Professor Hilgard has found that the water of one creek in Alameda County carries to the land it irrigates about half a grain of potash in each gallon. -^QQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM which means that if twelve inches of such water were used on the ground during the season, each acre would receive therefrom about twenty pounds of fully available potash. At Riverside a crop of oranges requires about forty-two pounds of potash per acre, of which the amount of irrigation water used in that case contained thirty-five pounds, beside other matters required by plants. These things have a definite cash value in the market; and this value the irrigator gets as a free gift in addition to the water. Even in the case of the Nile, the sediment is only part of the sum of fertility conveyed by the river. GREEN MANURING OR COVER CROPS Green manuring consists in plowing under a growth of weeds or a sown crop to secure by its decay a contribution of humus to the soil. Plants grown for this purpose are currently called "cover crops" because they cover the soil instead of allowing it to remain bare in "clean culture" of orchard or "bare fallow" of grain fields. All plants by their decay in the soil add organic matter to it, and this matter is of nitrogenous character, but leguminous plants do this and a great deal more, through their exclusive ability to use atmospheric nitrogen gathered by the bacteria which cause nodules upon their roots. There is also special value in deep- rooting legume in soil amelioration. There is now reason to believe, as has already been stated, that where moisture is ample for both alfalfa and trees we shall come to using this plaut for a permanent cover of orchard ground as a substitute for apart of the clean culture which is now observed. This is, in fact, already being done to some extent. It is also probable that alfalfa can be used for a certain time even where its permanent stand is not desirable, for it is not difficult to destroy alfalfa with a well-sharpened plow although the roots may have attained con- siderable thickness. Of course this, as already stated, depends upon moisture supply ; where that is not abundant, clean culture for moisture conservation is unavoidable. But where moisture in excess of the needs of the trees is available it will be used in future indirectly for their benefit in ways we are only just beginning to discern, and one of these is likely to be the summer growth of legumes in the orchard. Cow peas on moist or irrigated lands may be used in this way. A summer cover crop in California is, however, largely a matter for future determination, and under ordinary conditions may never be practicable. The wider problem is to secure the best legumi- nous plant which will make a heavy growth during the winter months, so that it can be plowed in early in spring, and the ground put in shape for the thorough surface pulverization to prevent TWO METHODS WITH THE LEMON 167 Lemon orchard under clean culture. Winter view of lemon orchard with cover crop of vetches, -^Qg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM evaporation of moisture during our long, dry summer. For this reason we can not use many plants which are used for green- manuring in humid climates. Crimson clover, cow peas, etc., do not make good winter growth unless the temperature is relatively high and frosts few and light. They make exuberant growth for a time in the spring when heat is adequate and moisture abundant, but at that time it is too late to grow crops for plowing under because the soil is too dry for their decay and their presence tends otherwise to the loss of moisture and makes it very difficult to secure a good surface tilth. The greatest care must be had not to allow a growth either of cover crop or of weeds to stand too long or its covering will do more harm than good. Hardy legumes are therefore the desideratum both for winter forage and green- manuring. The common "burr clover" {Medicago denticulata) is proving very satisfactory in some parts of the State, the "Canadian field pea," the winter vetch, the hairy vetch and fenugreek are coming into quite wide use in orchards in different parts of the State. Which plant is best in any locality must be determined by its local behavior. In some places native lupines make a good natural cover crop. A Matter of Local Study. — The recourse to cover crops in the orchard or vineyard should be approached with a disposition to careful study and experiment. Unless it is done in the right way it is likely to be disappointing and the right way involves both the selection of the best legumes and the best ways to grow them. Scant growth, cloddy soil, loss of moisture and condemna- tion of the practice are likely to result from ill-considered methods. On the other hand, success with cover crops results in such numer- ous and important advantages that the wide introduction of them must be looked upon as one of the most important advances in California horticulture during the last decade. One of the most careful students of cover crops in all their bearings is Mr. L. L. Palmer of North Pomona, who in a recent public address cited ten different reasons for growing cover crops (legumes) in the orchard : 1. They provide humus in the soil, by which the inert fer- tilization materials of the soil are made available. 2. They make it possible to obtain results from the use of the cheaper forms of phosphate, such as Thomas Slag and other unacid- ulated phosphates. 3. They store up nitrogen from the air, and therefore act as a direct nitrogenous fertilizer. 4. They improve vastly the mechanical condition of the soil, making it easily possible to secure the best cultivation. 5. They put the soil in a condition to retain moisture. Service op cover crops -^qq 6. They make the soil porous, so that proper aeration is secured, 7. They are a means for overcoming" irrigation hard-pan and plow-sole. 8. While growing they prevent the washing of the soil by the storm waters. 9. While growing they probably assist in preventing the radi- ation of heat from the ground in time of a freeze. 10. They do away with the cultivation of the ground during the winter months. Each of these reasons suggests a chapter of discussion and explanation which can not be indulged in. Every reader should keep himself up to date in this progressive subject by thoughtful reading of our horticultural journals and proceedings of our horti- cultural assemblies. CHAPTER XV IRRIGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND VINES Whether fruit shall be grown with irrigation or not is a local and specific question, and it must be answered with due regard for several conditions, among which are: First, the minimum local rainfall ; second, the depth and character of the soil and' sub- soil ; third, the situation and environment of the ground on which the fruit is to be grown ; fourth, the kind of fruit which it is desired to produce. These conditions arc all correlated, and a knowledge of them all is necessary to an intelligent decision as to correct practice in any given locality. For example, the amount of rainfall which is adeciuate in one locality, or in one situation, even, may be quite insufficient in another, because, first, one soil may be deep and fairly retentive, into which roots can penetrate and find abun- dant moisture ; second, another soil may have sufficient depth, but be so porous as to lose its moisture by evaporation, or so leachy as to lose it by drainage ; third, still another may be shallow, and quickly dried out under a fervid sun, or quickly drained by reason of a sloping substratum of rock or hard-pan, while another similar soil, differently situated, may receive abundant moisture from the drainage of the slope above it; fourth. ])ossibly in all the soils cited there might be adequate moisture for deciduous fruits, but citrus fruits would require irrigation ; or enough for young, but not for bearing trees. Thus it appears that even to decide whether a location has sufficient rainfall for the growth of fruit without irrigation, one must pass judgment upon all the conditions first mentioned. It is hardly worth while, then, to discuss such a topic upon theoretical grounds, or to attempt to answer the general question, Shall irri- gation be employed in the growth of fruit? The true guide is enlightened local experience, and the true test is the growth of the tree and the excellence of its fruit. So long as the grower is able to secure every year a generous amount of good-sized and excellent fruit by natural rainfall, he need concern himself very little about irrigation ; if his tree shows distress, and his fruit, even when properly thinned out, is not up to market standards every year, he may do well to provide himself with irrigation facilities, either for constant use or to supplement rainfall when it is occasionally deficient. 170 RESULTS OF OVER-IRRIGATION 171 Of course it is not commended as a rule of practice that the grower wait until the tree shows signs of distress before applying water. This is a very bad plan of proceeding, but the visible language of the tree is mentioned as indicating that the tree needs help, either at regular intervals or occasionally, and after such a warning the grower should be able to tell by examination of the soil and by study of the local rainfall record when this need will occur, and apply his water in advance of the need. Recent experience has enabled fruit growers in all parts of California to arrive at a truer conception of the relation of irri- gation to the growth of fruits. Many who long scouted the sug- gestion that irrigation was necessary for deciduous fruit trees in their districts, have found that water, in addition to the rainfall, was very profitable, either to enable large, bearing trees to produce larger fruit, or to maintain in full vigor their later summer growth and to make strong fruit buds, which insure the following year's production. It has also been widely demonstrated that a tree which is adequately supplied with water, no matter whether it be directly from the clouds or through the irrigating stream, yields fruit of better size, aroma, flavor and carrying quality than a tree which, from any cause, falls even a little short of an adequate supply. It is clear then that neither irrigation nor non-irrigation are in themselves principles, but are merely methods to be em- ployed when conditions demand the one or the other. Several claims against irrigated products may be stated and opposed in this way : (1) The claim that nursery trees grown by irrigation are, from that mere fact, inferior is based upon experience in trans- planting trees unduly forced by overirrigation. Immense growth from the bud in a single season of an inch and a half in diameter and ten feet in height tempted buyers who wanted to get as much as possible for their money. The result of setting out such trees created a strong prejudice against irrigated nursery stock. It is now clearly seen that moderate, thrifty growth is the ideal in a young tree, and if the soil does not hold rainfall enough to secure this, water enough to secure it must be applied. (2) The claim that irrigated fruit lacks aroma and flavor is based upon observation of monstrous, insipid fruit forced into such abnormal character by excessive irrigation. Growers who concluded therefrom that irrigated fruit was necessarily inferior; denied water to their trees and gathered small, tough, unmarketable fruit because there was not enough rainfall to enable the trees to- perform their proper function. As it is now conceded that the highest quality, including the delicate aromas and flavors, can be secured only by adequate moisture, it matters not how long since it fell from the clouds nor by what route it reaches the roots of the trees. 172 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM (3) The claim that irrigated fruit could not endure shipment was based upon the bruising and collapse of fruit which was unduly inflated by overirrigation. The best fruit for shipping is the perfect fruit and that is secured as just stated. The fact that the greater part of the fresh fruit shipped across the conti- nent from California has been more or less irrigated, according to the needs of different localities, has settled the point beyond further controversy. (4) The claim that canners objected to irrigated fruit was based upon the early experience with overirrigated fruit, which lacked quality and consistency. At present the canners encourage irrigation and all other arts of growing which bring the product up to the standards they insist upon. (5) The claim that irrigated fruit is inferior for drying has the same foundation as the preceding claims and is just as clearly based upon misapprehension. Watery fruit is obviously inferior for drying, but such fruit is the fault of the irrigator, not of irri- gation. One of the plainest deductions from experience is that small, tough fruit makes unprofitable dried fruit, and that the best development of the fruit is essential to the best results from drying. Many comparative weighings have shown that the great- est yield in dried form has been secured from trees which have had water enough to produce good, large fruit. Even to bear fruit for drying, then, the tree must have moisture enough to develop size and quality. If lacking moisture, the tree serves its own purpose in developing pit and skin and reduces the pulp, in which lie the desirability and value of dried fruits. Of course the water should be applied at proper times, in proper amount, and in a proper way. HOW MUCH WATER SHOULD BE USED? This is by its very nature an elusive question and any attempt to answer it by a definite prescription is more apt to produce folly than wisdom. For as it appears that whether irrigation is at all needed or not depends upon several conditions which must be ascertained in each place, so the amount of water, which is really an expression of the degree of that need, depends also upon local conditions of rainfall, of soil depth and retentiveness, of rate of waste by evaporation, of the particular thirst of each irrigated crop, etc. The result secured by the use of water is really the ultimate measure of the duty of water in each instance. In the case of fruit trees and vines, then, what- ever amount of water secures thrifty and adequate wood growth and strong, good-colored foliage, but not excessive or rank growth ; and abundance of good-sized and rich, but not monstrous and watery, fruit, is the proper amount for that place and that product. INQUIRY INTO IRRIGATION PRACTICE -j^yo — and to the ascertainment of that amount, by local experience of himself and others, the grower should employ his most earnest thought and his keenest insight. During recent years the writer has continually renewed his data of the irrigation practice of California fruit growers by sys- tematic inquiry and has prepared four bulletins* which have been published b}^ the Irrigation Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. A study of local practice shows that infinite variety exists and in the nature of the case must exist, and that any definite prescrip- tion of the duty of water under various conditions is impossible. In some cases the amount of water at each irrigation must be smallj as, for instance, the frequent irrigation in Sacramento and Placer Counties, where the soils are shallow, over-lying bed-rock, and a small amount saturates them. In other places an acre-foot of water is readily absorbed and retained in the deep soil. The annual rainfall also has little relation to the amount of irrigation, because neither fine shallow, nor deep coarse soils, can retain the volume of water which falls upon them during the rainy season. Then the varying rate of evaporation, the character of the tilth, etc., enter as factors and it becomes clear that he is fortunate who knows how much water to use on his own place. It is interesting to note that results of close inquiry by the Irri- gation Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture to ascertain the amounts of water used by measurement of water running in main ditches and by estimate of the acreage to which the water is applied, do not agree closely with the growers' estimates of the amounts of water which they actually use. There are of course always issues between water-purveyors and water-buyers which can not be entered upon in this connection. A rough conclusion from data secured from the ditch flow, etc., is that from 12 to 30 acre-inches of water are used annually in irrigated orchards and vineyards, according to local conditions involved. It is quite clear that the amounts chiefly used would not be the average but would tend toward the lower figure. The details of these inquiries are found in the publications on irrigation of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Depart- ment of Asrriculture.* * Farmers' Bulletin, No. 116, "Irrigation in fruit growing." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 138, "Irrigation in garden and field," Bulletin of Experiment Stations, No. 108, "Irrigation practice among fruit growers of the Pacific coast." Annual report of Irrigation and Drainage investigations, 1904, "Relation of irrigation to yield, size, quality, and commercial suitability of fruits." * Definite citation is not made because these publications are continually appear- ing with additional data on the effective use of water. The whole series should be examined. 174 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM RELATION OF RAINFALL TO IRRIGATION The amount of rain and the time it falls are clearly the most important factors in determining the necessity for irrigation. Absence of rainfall makes a desert of the richest soils at all elevations and at all exposures. Its only remedy is irrigation. But there are degrees of poverty in rainfall, and thorough tillage will often lessen the ill effects of a scanty supply, so that an oasis may be made to appear without water beyond that supplied from the clouds. This is the triumph of tillage in the arid region which is to be considered in another connection. The line between adequate and insufficient rainfall can not be closely drawn. In the growth of common orchard fruits, irriga- tion is not resorted to at a number of points where the local rainfall sometimes is as low as 15 or 16 inches, but with less than that amount, unless the soil receive additional moisture by underflow, it is essential. On the other hand, irrigation is regu- larly practiced in some localities where the rainfall sometimes rises to 45 inches. Under average conditions of soil depth and retentiveness, the amount of rainfall which may be considered adequate for deciduous orchard trees under good cultivation is about 20 inches. So definitely is this amount fixed in the minds of some California growers- as meeting the needs of the tree for satisfactory growth and fruitage that, when rainfall for a season is less than that amount, irrigation is at once resorted to to supply the shortage. But owing to local conditions of soil and climate, the rainfall, no matter how large, may not be relied upon to carry the trees through the dry season. The fact is that the soil is not capable either of receiving the heavy rainfall or of long retaining such portions as actually enter it. There is, then, a considerable part of the rainfall which is worse than worthless, because it does injury by soil washing and soil leaching, and places where extremely heavy rainfall occurs may be actually worse off than other places with less rainfall. Some localities of large rainfall lead in amounts of water supplied by irrigation. The converse is also true, for some localities of light rainfall report success with deciduous fruit trees with a minimum amount of irrigation waier. Deciduous Fruits. — Without making too much of individual reports there appear instances enough to warrant the conclusion that the deciduous fruit tree can winter successfully with a small moisture supply and is, in fact, in less danger from lack of moisture than from oversupply at this time of the year. If there be enough moisture to prevent injury from evaporation, the tree will start good growth as the season advances and continue it if irrigation o a. a, ti H c 3 O O (U 175 176 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM is given promptly and in sufficient quantity. There must always be a determination of what is an adequate supply by reference to local conditions, but as an estimate of necessary rainfall has been made at 20 inches, it is evident that adequate irrigation may be very much less than that. The rainfall of 20 inches is dis- tributed through six or seven months. Some of it consists of light rains, with long, dry intervals, where there is slight penetration and quick evaporation. Some of it is lost by run off and by drainage. It is not surprising, then, that some growers having deep valley loams to render their irrigation effective, report success with deciduous trees with 8 or 10 inches of water applied just at the time of the tree's greatest needs and used, no doubt, with maximum efficiency. It seems to be a warranted deduction, from all data known to the writer, that 10 inches of water, applied at the right time to soils of good depth and fair retentiveness, and accompanied by good tillage for conservation, is an adequate sup- ply for five months of growth and fruiting even when the rainfall is only about enough to prevent drying out during the winter season. Some growers report use of less than this. Certainly less will do for young trees under favorable conditions, and some of the least amounts are reported from the newly planted regions. As the trees advance in age and bearing, larger amounts will be required. Instances of greatest frequency of application may be taken as-indicating soils lacking retentiveness, either through shal- lowness or coarseness, or either of these accompanied by extreme summer heat and aridity. Citrus Fruits. — As these trees are evergreens, and as their habit is to make their chief fruit growth in the autumn after the work of the deciduous tree has been finished for the season, the irriga- tion season for them is much longer. As they are, in fact, almost always active and sustaining uninterrupted evaporation from their leaf surfaces, they must always be provided with moisture or ill will result to tree or fruit. They thus require more water than do deciduous trees. There is the same relation between irrigation and rainfall with citrus as with deciduous fruit trees, but the degree of relation is different. Many trials have shown that it is prac- tically impossible to grow satisfactory citrus fruits without irri- gation,, unless there be underflow, and this is attended by the usual difficulties of high ground water and undesirable. There is no combination of heavy rainfall, or winter irrigation, and soil reten- tiveness which will supply the summer and autumn thirst of the orange or lemon in California. Irrigation, too, must be maintained both summer and winter wherever the rainfall is not well dis- tributed and adequate. In the chief citrus regions of the State rainfall is seldom adequate except during January and February, and not always then. Under such conditions an estimate of the IRRIGATION AND SOILS 177 average requirements of citrus fruit trees in bearing would be about • 20 inches of irrigation, irrespective of rainfall, although there are localities of larger rainfall and more retentive soils where crops of these fruits can be made with 10 inches used at just the right time. RELATION OF SOIL TO IRRIGATION As already stated, the desirability of irrigation is unquestion- ably, in many cases, conditioned upon soil depth and character. This relation has received careful attention from soil physicists, and an understanding of it involves problems of plant growth and the movement, of water in soils, the leading facts of which are available in popular form.* Analysis of such phenomena can not be undertaken in this con- nection but a few striking contrasts in existing practice are very suggestive. On the famous river-bank fruit land of the Sacramento Valley, with loams of great depth and good retentiveness, and with an average rainfall of approximately 20 inches, irrigation is resorted to only in years of minimum rainfall, when the precipitation is perhaps only about half the average. At nearly the same level, as already cited, where the soil is shallow and overlies hard-pan, regular irrigation is required. But still more marked contrast is found in the foothills within sight of these valley fruit lands, where with twice the average rainfall irrigation must begin early in the summer and continue until autumn is well advanced, because, first, the slope is so rapid that much rainfall is lost by run off; second, the soil is too shallow above bed rock to hold much water. Even here, however, there comes in a local variation of measurable effect. When the soil lies upon vertical plates of bed rock much water is retained between them, and is capable of being reached by tree roots, while soil lying upon flat plates of rock has no such subterranean reservoir. In the foothill region there also occurs exceptional exposure from slopes facing the midsummer sun in an atmosphere whose dryness is but slightly ameliorated by the influence of air currents from the coast. In the valley and foothill contrast, just cited, the unirrigated valley looks up to the irrigated foothills. There are also places where unirrigated hillslopes look down upon irrigated valleys. The uplands of San Diego County are nearer the coast than those above the Sacramento Valley. They, too, have a rainfall usually ample for deciduous fruits suited to their elevation. Their rolling * Relations of soils to climate, U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bui. 3. Water as a factor in the growth of plants, Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1894, p. 165. Some interesting soil problems, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1897, p. 429. The movement and retention of water in soils. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1898, p. 399. The mechanics of soil moisture, U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of soils Bui. 10. 178 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM plateaus of deep soil, free from excessive heat and evaporation which occur on the highlands farther inland and 500 miles farther north, produce very successfully without irrigation. In this region, however, the rainfall in the valleys below is often less than the needs of even the deciduous fruit trees, and waters flowing from mountain snows through a region of unirrigated uplands must be used to irrigate them. Still another striking contrast, and one involving another and wholly different factor, is found in the San Joaquin Valley. Near Visalia, 2 feet above river bottom and 4 feet above the surround- ing plains, there is a large area of deep alluvial soil with much decayed vegetable matter. The land is moistened by underflow from the river, and, though the rainfall is but lYi inches, decid- uous fruits are grown without irrigation. In the same county, and only 18 miles distant, there are areas of rich loam mixed with granitic sand 16 to 18 feet deep. In this locality, though the rain- fall is 11 14 inches, irrigation is practiced freely, as the loss of moisture in summer is very great. RELATION OF TILLAGE TO IRRIGATION Tillage, particularly during the dry season of the year, under some conditions, directly determines the need of irrigation, and is to a certain extent, as the popular phrase goes, a substitute for irrigation. Under all conditions surface tillage by promoting conservation of soil moisture, is determinative of the actual duty of water, whether it be from rainfall or irrigation. The efifect of frequent surface tillage has been accurately determined .by investi- gation and experiment, both in humid and arid regions. These experiments fully support the view taught by the experience of about half a century in California, in accordance with which thorough tillage has been so widely practiced in the arid sections as an essential to successful fruit growing. As already maintained in Chapter XIII, the relations of tillage to soil moisture include both reception and conservation. For the reception of moisture, deep work with the plow, and sometimes with the subsoiler also, is almost indispensable. To retain this moisture and to prevent, as far as possible, its escape into the thirsty air of the arid region by surface evaporation, less depth and more thorough surface pulverization are required. Recent practice has been tending toward deepersummercultivation.sothat.as previously claimed, 5 or 6 inches of loose, finely divided soil is now obtained where formerly half that depth was considered adequate. It has also been shown that frequent stirring of this fine surface layer checks evaporation, even when no water is applied to compact the surface or where no weeds grow to draw upon the soil moisture. In a word, the aim of tillage in the arid region, so far as it relates IRRIGATION AND COVER CROPS ^fjg to moisture supply in the soil consists in opening the soil to rain, or to irrigation, and in subsequently closing it to evaporation. These are the principles which were recognized and applied in California half a century ago and are now enjoying somewhat sensational renaissance in the "dry farming" agitation in the interior of the United States. A Negative Declaration. — It is interesting that current practice affords full demonstration of the foregoing claims both positively and negatively. The negative argument in favor of moisture con- servation by clean summer cultivation is found in the fact that growers in regions of heaviest rainfall approve the growth of cover crops, like clover, after the trees reach bearing age, and also that others employ scant summer cultivation, or cultivation for a short period only. The idea of these growers is that such practices relieve the soil of excessive moisture, either by the growth of the cover crop or by facilitating surface evaporation, and so prevent the tree from being stimulated to too large wood growth, or maintaining growth so late in the season as to enter the frost period in too active a condition and with new wood not properly matured. Quite in contrast with this is the practice, which is gaining ground in the hottest parts of the irrigated region, of growing alfalfa as a cover crop for the purpose of shading the soil and thus reducing soil tem- perature and, perhaps, of avoiding the ill efifects of the reflection of burning sun heat from a smooth surface of light-colored soil, or the ill effect of "burning out of humus" by clean summer culture. In such cases more irrigation is needed to supply enough water for the growth of both trees and cover crop. But at present these ex- ceptions are of rare occurrence. Cultivation Not Determined by Irrigation. — The adoption of a policy of clean cultivation in the dry season is not conditioned upon the amount of moisture available either by rainfall or irrigation. It is pursued both where irrigation is practiced and where it is not, and also where the rainfall is greatest and where it is least. It pre- vails in the humid region where rainfall may rise to 60 inches or more and in the arid region where it may not exceed one-tenth as much. As a matter of fact, there does not appear to be a good fruit soil so deep and retentive that it can retain enough even of a very heavy rainfall to effect good tree growth and fruit bearing if it is forced to sustain the loss by evaporation from a compact surface during the long dry season following. There may be, it is true, soils weak in capillary, in which water can not rise from a great depth and in which deep rooting plants may find ample water in the sub- soil, providing it is held there by impervious underlying strata. There are many more instances where loss by natural drainage is added to loss by evaporation. But, disregarding exceptions, the loss of moisture by both drainage and evaporation during the dry 180 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM season is so great that the soil to a depth of several feet loses practically all the water which is available for plant growth, and the trees fail or become unprofitable. Loss by drainage can not, practically, be prevented, but loss by evaporation can be so reduced that trees and vines will be adequately supplied in spite of the loss by drainage. Because, therefore, the soil can not retain enough water in its natural state, no matter how much it may receive, clean summer cultivation, involving quite complete and more or less frequent stirring of the surface to the depth of 5 or 6 inches, as dis- cussed in Chapter XIII, is the almost universal practice, irre- spective of local rainfall or of irrigation. Cultivation, However, Determines Success of Irrigation. — The prevailing motive for cultivation in the dry-summer region is moist- ure retention. In this respect good surface tilth is so effective that, though enough moisture can not be retained without it, so much can be retained with it that, even where irrigation or rainfall is moderate in amount, it may serve all purposes of the tree or vine. -Thus cultivation enters into the fruit-growers' practice in the region under consideration, not to make large rainfall effective as it does in some parts of the region, but to make moderate rainfall effective, or to make small irrigation effective, by increasing the duty of water which is applied. It becomes not only a ruling con- sideration in the effectiveness of a certain amount of rainfall, as has already been suggested in another connection, but it also deter- mines the success of irrigation and the amount of water required ; for, although it was an early and rude practice to rely upon irri- gation to support uncultivated fruit trees and to irrigate more and more frequently as the ground became harder from its use, this policy has now no standing in commercial fruit growing. Not only was it wasteful of water, but it was otherwise detrimental to the thrift of trees. Cultivation and Irrigation Work for Soil Improvement. — Thor- ough cultivation, both in winter and summer, has other very impor- tant ends in view. It opens the soil and promotes aeration ; it en- courages deeper rooting and thus encourages the tree to take pos- session of a greater soil mass both for moisture and other plant food. It is part of the very valuable policy of increasing humus by plowing under the natural growth of weeds or specially sown legumes, which is discussed in Chapter XIV. This affords oppor- tunity to use water, beyond the amount the trees require, for soil improvement. WHEN TO IRRIGATE When to irrigate is governed by local conditions and the needs of different fruits, and can not be stated in general rules. There are, however, some principles involved which may be hinted at. WHEN TO IRRIGATE 181 Winter Irrigation, — On lands with sufficient depth of fairly re- tentive soil, the grower may artificially supplement a scanty rainfall by thoroughly soaking the land by winter irrigation and then by careful summer cultivation he will be able to conserve enough water in the soil to carry deciduous fruit trees or vines through bearing and autumn bud formation without further water supply. But there are other situations in which no amount of winter irri- gation nor rainfall will suffice for these ends. There are foothill orchard areas in which the winter rainfall is two or three times as great as in the valley situations where fruit is successfully grown without irrigation, and yet water must be applied in summer on those foot-hills or the fruit would be unmarketable and the trees in distress. The forty or more inches of rainfall falling on a shallow soil underlaid by a sloping bed-rock in some cases nearly sluices the cultivated soil from its foothold, and yet the oversaturation in winter avails nothing for summer growth, because most diligent cultivation can not retain moisture enough in shallow soil thus situated to sustain bearing trees in good crops of full-sized fruit. The same is true of valley soils underlaid by hard-pan. In such cases winter irrigation could add nothing but distress to the soil oversoaked by rainfall, and summer irrigation, well-timed and ade- quate, is the secret of success in the orchard. The same conclusion, although for very different reasons, must hold for soils underlaid by gravel or sand, and thus too rapidly dried by leaching. But even this generalization must be accepted only for sirua- tions endowed with conditions which justify it. There may be sloping hills with shallow soil where winter rainfall does not amount to saturation. Then winter irrigation to supply such irri- gation is desirable, and then, too, summer irrigation in proper amount and at proper intervals, will also be demanded. Among the foot-hills, also, there may be localities with depth of retentive soil in which water enough can be applied in winter to carry trees through the year. Thus we come again to the only safe generaliza- tion which can be made, and that is, that everywhere water must be adequate to the demands of the tree at the time it is needed, and whether it can best be applied in summer or winter, or both, or whether it is not necessary to make any artificial application at all, depends upon existing conditions which the grower must ascertain and to which his policy and practice must conform. It is a fact, however, that all soils, which under good cultivation are fairly retentive, winter irrigation, when water is most abundant, and usually carries most sediment, can be made to go far toward mak- ing summer irrigation unnecessary for all deciduous fruits. As to winter irrigation, practice varies, some relying upon a single heavy flooding by using checks on contour lines, by which, perhaps, a foot in depth or more of water is allowed to soak into the soil; others use the same method of application in winter as in 182 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM summer, and, therefore, give a number of irrigations in winter. There is, of course, much less danger of injury by water to decid- uous growths in winter, because they are dormant, though an eye should be kept on drainage for excessive irrigation as for excessive rainfall. The grape and the pear are known to endure long sub- mergence, but some other fruits are sensitive about it. Slimmer Irrigation.— When this shall begin and when end are to be locally determined. In some places even the earliest fruits can not reach satisfactory size and quality without irrigation. In others rainfall with winter irrigation will suffice for proper devel- opment of early fruits, but not for late. In both cases the fruit may be satisfactory, but the tree unable to hold its leaf vigor until the work of the growing season is properly completed. It is then apparent that local practice must vary in order to reach the uni- versal fact, and that is that all through its active season the tree must have constant and adequate moisture supply. Many evils in lack of bearing, in dying-back, in unseasonable activity and the like are due to inadequate, intermittent and, in some cases, to exces- sive moisture in the soil. Cultivation and Irrigation. — Although the relations of irrigation and cultivation have been freely discussed, it must be remarked in this connection that with such an extension of irrigation practice as is now realized, there is danger that those who have previously trusted so fully upon good cultivation may SAving to the other extreme and trust too much to the stream of water and too little to the plow and cultivator. There is a temptation this way when one finds that he can run water in large amounts very cheaply. Not only is there danger of over-irrigation in the growth of tree and fruit, but the ill effects of water upon the soil, when unattended by good cultivation, are constantly threatened. The tree needs air as well as water; it needs a certain free condition of the soil for its best root action. These needs can be amply secured when adequate application of water is quickly followed by soil-stirring. Irrigated soil rightly treated is delightfully mellow and free and of condition to invite the fullest activity on the part of the tree. Irrigated ground not properly treated becomes compacted, fissured, cloddy and generally hateful, losing moisture rapidly, setting around the roots like cement and tearing them by its subsequent shrinkage. These conditions do not occur on the lighter soils, and yet even these are best when cultivated in a rational manner. METHODS OF IRRIGATION There are various methods employed in California for the con- veyance and application of water to trees and vines. Some of the principal ones will be described. o o El o O >» (« S Jl«! 183 184 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM As this writing does not pretend to be a treatise on irrigation engineering, no attempt will be made to describe the more ambi- tious undertakings, which should never be entered upon without the engagement of a qualified engineer. Nor is it possible to dis- cuss the numerous devices which are covered by patents. Invest- ment should always be preceded by visits to irrigation works now in operation, and procedure should be guided by observation. The hints presented herewith relate chiefly to things the irrigator can do for himself. Free Flooding. — Flooding — that is, the free flow of water over the whole surface, or the flow between rows with furrows near the trees to retain the water in the interspaces — is only employed on some flat lands where winter irrigation is used to supplement rainfall when the latter is occasionally below normal. In such cases water is available in large quantities, and the lay of the land favors quite even distribution. Even under these conditions the experience of growers soon leads to the adoption of deep furrows or lateral ditches, or some simple check system, as superior to flooding. Summer flooding is done only by those who are unac- quainted with better methods or who count their trees of too little account to warrant extra efifort. It seems, therefore, a fair con- clusion that flooding is only resorted to as a temporary expedient and has little standing. The Check System. — With soils of such character that vertical percolation is very rapid, flooding in checks, by which water is held upon a particular area until it sinks below the surface, is considered necessary. There is a tendency to change from this method to a furrow system wherever practicable, because the former requires more soil shifting, a larger head of water for eco- nomical operation, more labor to handle it, more working in water and mud, and more difficult cultivation to relevel the land and to reduce a puddled surface to satisfactory tilth. For these and other reasons, perhaps, on loams of medium fineness one may find two adjacent growers pursuing different methods, while on coarse, porous loams the check system prevails, and on fine, retentive loams the furrow system is without a rival. The check system can be seen on the most extensive scale in the upper part of the San Joaquin Valley, where the land is so level and water so abundant that the checks can be measured by acres or fractions of acres. In its most perfect form it is found in Orange County and some parts of Los Angeles County, where the checks are measured by feet, rarely by rods. Very large checks are chiefly used for field crops, although also employed for winter irrigation of vineyards and orchards of deciduous fruits. With fruits, however, even in the same district, the tendency is toward using smaller checks carefully leveled before planting. With the THE WAY TO MAKE CHECKS 185 large-check system permanent levees, either in rectangular form or on the contour plan, are generally used. The small-check system is chiefly laid off with temporary levees, quickly made with special appliances and as quickly worked back to a level as soon as the ground dries sufficiently after irrigation, and the whole surface kept well cultivated until the time arrives for a restoration of the levees for the next irrigation. The latter is the leading horticul- tural mode. It is carefully described by Mr. Sydmer Ross, of Fullerton, Orange County, California, as follows : The check system, as carried out in the best-handled orchards, entails much hard work, but after you are through with an irrigation you know that each and every tree has had its full supply of water or you know the reason why. The ground must be cultivated, say, about 5 inches deep, so as to have plenty of loose soil with which to throw up a high ridge. Then a four or six horse "ridger" should be run once each way between the rows, if it is a citrus or deciduous orchard, or twice should the trees be walnuts, because these trees are grown about 40 feet apart. After this is done the ridger should be run entirely around the outside of the piece to be irrigated, so as to have as perfect a ridge as possible on the outside. One man will ridge about 15 acres in a day. The ridger should be built with a steel plate extend- ing along the bottom of both sides, bolted to the inside and projecting about 2 inches, so as to take good hold of the ground. Then with one horse attached to what is locally known as a "jump scraper," one side of the checks should be closed up, for the ridger in making the cross ridges breaks down the first ridge at its intersection. These repairs were at first made with a shovel, but the jump scraper, also called locally the "horse shovel," closes up the gaps very quickly. The practice generally followed is to close up the high side of the checks if the land does not cut by running water, but if it cuts, close up the lower side. After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed out and then the V- shaped "crowder" is run twice through them. On lands inclined to cut it is advisable that the length of the rows to be irrigated should not. be over 250 feet, but in heavy land this distance can be considerably increased, if neces- sary, without danger of cutting the ridges by too long a run of water. If the checks have been closed up on the low side of the ridge, it is better to run the water to the ends of the ditch and water the last row first; but if the high side has been closed up, it is best to water first the row nearest the gate or the main ditch, as the case may be, as in each instance dry earth will thus be available, if necessary, to close up the checks. The water is run down the row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is filled it is closed up, and so on till all are filled and closed, when the water is turned down the next row. To do good work it is usual to allow three men for every 50 inches of water, but in our own practice we have had much better results by dividing up our water and running from 35 to 40 inches to a ditch and allowing two men for such streams. In doing this we get better work and find it much easier for the men. If everything is well in hand, each man will irrigate about 30 acres in a day. For turning the water from the ditches into the checks metal dams or tappoons are used. Some of these have a gate for the division of the water when the stream is too large and is divided, and two rows are watered at the same time. The gate is not a great success, as the water is apt soon to cut its way under the tappoon, but it may be much improved by having a shelf for the water to drop on after it passes through the opening. The com- mon practice for dividing water is to throw a tappoon partly across the ditch, putting a gunny sack on the opposite side to prevent cutting by the water. This is, on the whole, fully as satisfactory as using the tappoon with a gate. All who follow this system should get ready for the water before it comes. A great many seem to think that if they ridge up their land, close up the checks, and plow out their ditches, everything necessary has been done. Such is not the case, as ditches that are liable to cut should be fixed in the 186 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM weak places with brush or burlaps. Old gunny sacks cut open and spread out are excellent for this purpose. Occasionally there are places where it is impossible to get a perfect ridge. These should be looked up and fixed with a shovel. The jump scraper will not entirely close up a check; it gen- erally requires a shovelful or two to complete it. It is usual after the water is turned down one row to fix up the next one, but it is an excellent plan to have a few rows fixed up ahead, for there come times when breaks occur and there is not time to make the necessary repairs, and when water once gets the start there is apt to be much trouble and hard work before it can be put under control, besides doing poor work. After the ground is dry enough to work, the ridges are split with a listing plow or a furrower attached to a cultivator. Then the ground should be run over with a harrow, setting the teeth to go well in, so as to pulverize the surface thoroughly. By using the harrow the ground can be worked about one day earlier than with the cultivator, and it also prevents the ground from baking till such time as it can be worked with the latter implement, besides doing far better work than with the cultivator alone, especially when there is much land to go over, as some of it is certain to get too dry before it can be reached, and then it will not pulverize well. All trees should be worked around by hand with either a fork or hoe as soon after irrigation as the ground becomes dry enough and before it becomes hard. Specifications for Homemade Implements for the Check System. — The following implements, used in preparing the ground for irri- gation by the check system, were made on the fruit ranch of J. B. Neff, Anaheim, California, with the tools ordinarily found on a ranch and with but little help from the blacksmith : The "Ridger." For levee making in the checlv system of irrigating trees and vines. The ridger. — This has sides of 2 by 16 inch pine 7 feet long, stand- ing 18 inches apart at the rear and 5 feet apart at the front end. The sides may be made of two 2 by 8 inch pieces with 2 by 3 inch battens bolted on securely. The front crossl^ar is of 2 by 4 inch pine 6 feet 2 inches long and is set 20 inches from the end. The rear crossbar is of 2 by 4 inch pine 4 feet 4 inches long. It is set 7 inches from the end of the sides. The diagonal braces are 1 l)y 3 inch pine 6 feet 10 inches long. The short side braces are 2 by 3 inch pine 15 inches long. The lower inside edge should be pro- tected by a strip of steel or iron 1-8 by 2 inches extending to and around the front ends, which should be beveled to a sharp edge. TOOLS FOR RIDGING 187 The inside should also be lined with sheet iron 6 or 8 inches above the 1-8 by 2 inch piece, and should have sheet iron pieces extending 16 inches beyond the rear end of the sides, tapered and braced in the manner shown in the cut, for the purpose of making the Use of homemade ridger, orange orchard of A. D. Bishop, Orange County, Cal. ridger firmer at the top. Every part of the ridger should be firmly bolted with 3-8 inch bolts, except the 1-8 by 2 inch iron, which should have 3-16 inch bolts, and the sheet iron, which may be put on with nails. The hooks on sides for hitching draft chain are 3-8 by 1 1-2 inches, and the draft chain is 3-8 inch cable chain. The V-shaped Crowder or Ditcher. — -This has sides of 2 by 12 inch pine and cross-brace of 2 by 9 inch pine. The long side is 7 feet 8 inches long and short side 3 feet 6 inches long. This is also protected by a piece of steel or iron extending entirely around the ditcher and bolted with 3-16 inch bolts. The sides come together in a point and stand at an angle of 45 degrees. The brace is placed 2 feet 10 inches from the point on short side and 3 feet 10 inches from the point on long side. It also has two handles, as shown in cut, 3 feet long. These are made of 2 by 3 inch pine reduced so as to hold conveniently. The sloping handle is bolted 188 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The "Crowder." Used in the preparation for distribution of water in the checli system. to the short side. When in use this implement stands with the short side elevated at an angle of about 35 degrees, and a floor is placed in the triangular space so that it will be level when in use. An ordinary wide clevis is used for the draft and is placed as shoAvn in the cut. A vertical hole may be made in front of the clevis pin and a small rod driven in to strengthen the hold of the clevis. "The Jumper." Used to complete levees by the "ridger" for the check system. The Jump Scraper or Horse Shovel. — This is used for filling gaps in the ridges and is the work of the blacksmith. The beams are 1-4 by 1 1-4 inches and 30 inches long from the draft ring to the bend downward. The shovel is of No. 16 sheet iron 24 inches long by 18 inches deep. The handles are those used on any cultivator. The beams are bent to stand 6 inches forward of a square placed on top of the beams. The braces are of 3-8 inch round iron. The shovel is slightly cupped to make it hold more earth. The Portable Gate or Tappoon. — These are for shutting ditches, and are made of No. 16 sheet iron 2 feet wide and of any desired 6 M o 189 190 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM length, but usually 3 feet, 4 feet or 5 feet long. The corners are cut off to a circle, starting about 1 foot back of the corner. The handles are made of two pieces of 1 by 3 inch pine, 12 inches longer than the gate, and are placed one on each side of the sheet iron and secured by 1-4 inch bolts. The Combined Check and Furrow Method. — An effort to escape in some measure the puddling of the surface which results from allowing water to sink away upon finely pulverized soil, lies in the direction of breaking up the soil roughly in the bottoms of the checks, which facilitates the quick passage of the water into the subsoil. This is done by running a small plow or three large culti- vator teeth attached to a single frame before the ridger is used to c. «_ FURHOWS pi _ ^ _g,. "i isiMidSZiiSiZi^yH .■ 1 iPu^iZisi^oHa ieit^\.\iu &^ ^>U££'£j:x7< 3 OSuo'i.wlHSH4 freestone; not subject to curl-leaf. Smock Freestone (New Jersey). — "Large yellow, mottled with red; mod- erately rich and juicy. A better drying peach than Salway." — E. A. Bonine. La Grange (New Jersey). — Large, oblong; greenish white, some red on sunny side ; not desirable in coast regions ; freestone. POPULAR CALIFORNIA PEACHES 291 Salway (English). — Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extending beyond the apex; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; freestone; a standard late peach in California; tree very healthy. Phillips' Cling (California). — Originated with Joseph Phillips, of Sutter County ; propagated by J. T. Bogue, of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling, no color at pit, which is very small ; exceedmgly rich and high colored ; described by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best peach he ever used. The most popular yellow clingstone. Ripens progressively so that picking can cover two weeks without falling from tree. Requires good land and ample moisture. Persian's Cling (California). — "Originated in Visalia, probably from seed of Heath Cling, and a few days earlier than its parent. Large ; clear white skin and flesh, the latter very sweet ; commended for canning." — /. H. Thomas, Tulare County. Heath (Maryland). — Described by Downing as the most delicious of all clingstones. Very large; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red; flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor; best adapted- to interior regions, or places free from curl. Steadly (Missouri). — "Large to very large; white skin; flesh white at the pit, firm, rich, and good flavor ; freestone. Produces very heavy yield of dried fruit." — I. H. Thomas, Tulare County. George's Late Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. Large; white flesh, colored around the pit; beautiful yellow color, striped and splashed with bright red ; a very heavy and uniform bearer ; a good shipper and at its season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County that yields the grower so much profit." — P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew in some localities. Yellow Tuscany {Dura cini, Tuscany). — A very large yellow cling; propa- gated by G. Tosetti, formerly of San Leandro ; tree a strong grower and free from curl-leaf, very productive. On the basis of its behavior at the University Experiment Station at Pomona, this variety has recently been largely planted in Southern California. It is counted the best yellow cling for canning in that section. Ripens with Lemon Cling. Albright's Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Albright, near Placer- ville. Very large; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in quality and flavor. Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor, better shape, and the tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange Cling." — P. W. Butler. Endures long shipment even after being well colored. McDevitt Cling. — "Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County. Uni- formly large, rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe ; flesh very firm and solid, superior in flavor ; excellent shipper ; tree good and regular bearer. Staley (California). — Very large; eleven and one-half inches in circum- ference; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; rich, creamy white with very faint touches of light red; suture shallow, but almost continuous around the peach ; stone small and perfectly free, cavity considerable longer than stone ; flesh white to the pit, very juicy, fine, tender; flavor delicious. Originated as sucker from peach root from which prune had been broken off in Selma, Fresno County. Ripens twenty days after Salway or four weeks after Susquehanna. A high-class white freestone. Introduced by F. M. Nevins, Selma. Levy's Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia). — Above average size, yellow flesh, red cheek; late; clingstone. Very popular in San Joaquin Valley. Bilyeu's Late October. — "Large greenish white with red cheek; flesh whitish, freestone ; tree a rapid grower and attains great size ; prolific bearer ; fruit ships well, and where it will mature no peach can take its place does particu- larly well in the foot-hills." — P. W. Butler. Decker (California). — Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley, and in Sutter and Butte Counties. CHAPTER XXI THE NECTARINE The nectarine reaches perfection under California conditions, as does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact, as Down- ing says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth skin ; only a distinct, accidental variety of the peach; and this is rendered quite certain, since there are several well-known examples on record of both peaches and nectarines having been produced on the same branch. Nectarine pits usually produce nectarines again, but they occasionally produce peaches. Peach seeds occasionally produce nectarines; the Boston variety originated from a peach stone.* All these facts which are recorded of relation between the peach and nectarine have been verified by California observation. The practice of growing nectarines is also exactly like that employed with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the same ways, except that, as pointed out by Mr. Culbertson, the nectarine has more of a tendency to form short interior growths, and fruit buds are formed on the larger new growths, thus enabl- ing the pruner to cut them back more closely, and yet have an abundance of fruits buds remain. The peach and nectarines are the same in natural adaptations and requirements, and in diseases, so that what has been given concerning the growth of the peach in this State has an apt application in the case of the nectarine. The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as has been demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to the graft- ing over a good many unprofitable almond trees to nectarine, though this has not been done to the extent to which the French prune, and some other plums have been worked on old almond stocks. Comparative Production of Nectarine and Peach. — It may be wondered, considering the similarity of the peach and the necta- rine, why the former comes so near being our leading deciduous fruit and the latter is the least grown, but one, of all the temperate zone fruits, only the lowly quince being less in importance. The explanation is that the fruit buyer, both in California and at the East, prefers the peach, whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried, and some of those who have tried even a few acres of nectarines have found many occasions to wish the ground had been given to peaches. How much of this preference is due to lack of knowl- "Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees," p. 565. 292 NECTARINE VARIETIES 293 edge of the nectarine, and how much to its somewhat different flavor, it would be difficult to actually determine. It is true, however, that the nectarine is now advancing in popu- lar favor. This has been prophesied for some years and seems now being slowly realized because of the wonderful excellence of the nectarine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing beauty of the amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both when sun-dried and when produced by machine evaporators. The excellence of the canned nectarine, has also figured in the antici- pation. It is, however, questionable how far this anticipation has been realized, for it is estimated that the amount of dried nec- tarines is less than two per cent and of canned nectarines less than one-half of one per cent of the respective forms of peaches. Nor does the demand call for change in this proportion, for there is a slight advantage in the market value of the peach even in its great preponderance of supply. Still, the price for dried nectarines has been better of late, but whether this is due to better appreciation or reduced production, is a question. It is true that during the last decade many nectarines have been rooted out to be replaced by peach trees, or have been grafted over into peaches. There are, however, some growers who are confident that the nectarine will in the future rank much higher in the California fruit product. It would please growers and fruit driers and canners to popularize the nectarine, for its smooth skin makes it as easy to handle a? an apricot, and the beauty of the product, which certainly exceeds that of the peach, and is rather more easily attained, is very gratifying to the producer. VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE Varieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different local adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The varieties grown, are, however, comparatively few. The following have been found most satisfactory in California ; the descriptions are somewhat condensed from Downing's treatise, modified to suit local growth, and arranged approximately in the order of the ripening of the varieties : Advance. — Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh greenish white; rich and well flavored. The earliest to ripen. Lord Napier _ (English). ^Large, pale cream color with dark red cheek; flesh white, melting, tender and juicy, separating freely from stone; leaf glands reniform and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and regular bearer ; pronounced best in flavor at Pomona Experiment Station. Dozvnton (English). — Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek ; flesh pale green, slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting rich, and very good. Early Newington (English). — Leaves serrated without glands, flowers large; fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and terminating 294 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM with an acute, swollen point; skin pale green, but nearly covered with bright red and coated with thin bloom; flesh greenish white, but deep red at stone, which adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent. Hardzvicke (English). — ^Leaves with globose glands; fruit very large, round- ish, inclining to oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek; flesh pale green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and high-flavored ; freestone. This variety is a favorite in southern California ; described by the Southern California Nurserymen's Association as being the only satisfactory bearer. Boston. — Raised from a peach stone by T. Lewis, of Boston; tree hardy and productive ; leaves with globose glands ; flowers small ; fruit large and handsome, roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek ; flesh yellow to the stone (which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with pleasant and peculiar flavor ; freestone ; a general favorite in California. N'ezu White; syn. Large White. — Leaves with reniform glands ; flowers large ; fruit rather large, nearly round ; skin white with occasionally slight tinge of red; flesh white, tender, very juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; stone small and free commanded wherever nectarines are grown in California, and more freely planted than all other nectarines combined. Stamuick. — Originated in England from seed brought from Syria. Large, roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base; skin pale, greenish white, shaded into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, and delicious. Humholdt. — Very large, bright orange yellow vigorously marked with crim- son, flesh orange, tender; juicy, and high flavored. Described as one of the best of the newer varieties. Ripens late. As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying and canning of the fruit, the Hght-skinned, white or yellow-fleshed varieties without color at the stone, are most desirable. For dry- ing there has been thus far a decided preference for freestone vari- eties, though possibly the present popularity of cling peaches for drying may extend to the clingstone nectarines. Much color, however, either in skin or flesh, will prevent the production of the beautiful translucent, amber hue of the dried nectarine, which is attractive to consumers. Color in the flesh is, of course, unde- sirable in canning, because of the discoloration of the syrup. These facts have had much to do in fixing the popularity of the varieties named in the foregoing list. At present the largest orchards of nectarines are in the interior valley locations, which are also fine peach counties and are per- fectly adapted both to the growing of the fruit and to the open- air, sun-drying of it. CHAPTER XXII THE PEAR The oldest deciduous fruit trees in California are pear trees, as has already been stated in the account of fruits at the old mis- sions, and some of the trees are still bearing, though it is a century and a third since their planting. Trees planted by pioneers in the old mining districts have actually assumed semblance to adjacent oaks. XTotable instances are found in the Stillwater district of Shasta County and elsewhere. Near San Jose there is a tree over half a century old. with a trunk seven and a half feet around and yielding annually about fifteen hundred pounds of fruit, some of which was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition. The pear withstands neglect and thrives in soils and situations which other fruit trees would rebel against. It defies drouth and excessive moisture, and patiently proceeds with its fruitage even when the soil is trampled almost to rocky hardness by cattle, carry- ing its fruit and foliage aloft above their reach. And yet the pear repays care and good treatment, and receives them from California growers, for the pear has been one of our most profitable fruits. It is in demand for canning, for drying, and for distant shipment, and its long season and the slow ripening after picking allow delib- eration in marketing, and admit of enjoying low rates for shipment by slow trains. One of the most striking demonstrations of the commercial suitability of the California pear is found in successful marketing in London. Solomons, who is called "London's great- est fruiter," said in 1903 that California Bartletts from Block of Santa Clara are the "best in the world." Even after crossing the continent they seemed to endure shipment across the Atlantic better than eastern pears. The pear has not the beauty of the peach, nor is its handling characterized by so much dash and spirit, but the production of favorite market varieties at a time when the market welcomes them, is about as well repaid as any effort of the California fruit grower. Some idea of the yield of thrifty trees in large numbers can be had from the report of 100 acres of Bartletts on the Cone ranch near Red Bluff, which in 1904 yielded 900 tons of fruit which sold at $30 per ton — a gross yield of $27,000 of which not more than $7,000 were required to pay for the year's care and harvesting, a net yield of $200 per acre. There are much higher figures, of course, as the product of eight acres near Yuba City which yielded eighty tons in 1905, sold at $50 per ton or a gross 295 296 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM return of $500 per acre ; and 95 tons in 1906 at $36 per ton or $427 per acre. There are higher returns than this, and, unfortunately, many that are much lower. The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and beauty. The most conspicuous example is the Bartlett, which is the pear of California, judged by its popularity, fresh, canned and dried. When well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate color, aroma, and richness unsurpassed. What extreme in point of size has been reached is not known to the writer, 'but he saw at the San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 1886, thirteen Bartlett pears grown by A. Block, of Santa Clara, which weighed fourteen pounds, the heaviest of the group weighing twenty-two and one-half ounces. Other pears have made standard sizes in California far in advance of their records elsewhere. There was in 1870 a Pound pear sent from Sacramento to the late Marshall P. Wilder, president of the American Pomological Society, which weighed four pounds nine ounces, and was reported by Colonel Wilder to be larger than any- thing previously reported in pear annals.* But California has recently done even better for a pear from near Marysville in 1904 is reported as nine inches high, sixteen inches around the base and five pounds in, weight. Notes kept by the writer include five Vicar of Winkfields weighing four pounds eight ounces ; nine Easter Beurre weighing twenty-four and one-half pounds, the heaviest single specimen weighing two and three-fourths pounds ; thirty- five Beurre Clairgeau weighing thirty-seven pounds, the heaviest one, nineteen ounces; Seckel pears, nine and three-fourths inches in circumference — Downing's figures make the Seckel five and seven-eighths inches around. LOCALITIES FOR THE PEAR The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adaptations. It does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suitable vari- eties are grown ; it thrives far better than the apple in the interior valleys : it rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope of the Sierra N^evada, and gains from the altitude, color and late keeping, as does the apple. By rejecting a few naturally tender varieties, or by proper protection against the scab fungus (fusicladium dendriti- cum), in regions where its attacks are severe, one can grow pears almost everywhere in California — providing pear blight can be held in check, as will be discussed later. The choice of location is governed more by commercial consid- erations than by natural phenomena. The same facts which make the Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also should regulate * "Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, March, 1871, p. 87. An engraving of this fruit, natural size, was given in Pacific Rural Press, November 8, 1873." WHY THE BARTLETT RULES 297 the choice of locality for growing it. These facts were expressed by the late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, who was in his time one of the leading pear growers and shippers of the State, as follows : In the Sacramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that will justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all varieties may be grown successfully, and many varieties may be desirable for home pur- poses, yet for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves to this one variety, except in high altitudes, or localities where the fruit only matures very late. The reason for this will be better understood by the inexperienced if explained. The Bartlett pear having qualities that make it a universal favorite for shipping, canning, and for domestic market, no other variety is wanted while it is obtainable. With the difference in the time of its ripening in different localities that are adjacent, our markets are supplied with this variety about four months each season, viz., July, August, September and Octo- ber. While this pear is in the markets, any other variety to compete with it must sell at very low prices. It is not only the great demand the Bartlett pear has over the other varieties in the markets, but as a healthy grower and regular bearer it has no equal. [This was written before the introduction of the pear blight.] In higher altitudes, where pears will keep till the Bartlett has dis- appeared, other varieties may be quite profitable, although they can never be grown to any similar extent. Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would soon cloy with a continuous diet of Bartletts, and who know fully the superior quality of other varieties which ripen soon after it, would dispute the position taken by Mr. Reed, but for present California taste and trade he is undoubtedly correct. As the canners and ship- pers and local consumers all call for Bartletts, and as they usually sell at the East for nearly twice the price of other varieties, the choice of location to secure a Bartlett, either very early or very late, is the part of wisdom, for either end of the season usually yields better prices than the middle. Some growers are even opening the Bartlett season by growing Clapp's Favorite, which sells well because it is taken for a Bartlett, and closing the season with the Winter Bartlett, a local variety recently introduced. The earliest Bartletts come from the interior valley sometimes as early as the last week in June; the next, from the valleys adjacent to the bay of San Francisco ; the next, from the higher foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada; and the last, so far as present experience goes, although some coast and mountain situations are quite late, reach the mar- ket from the Vacaville district. It is an interesting fact that this district, which has long been famous for marketing the first early fruits, should also market very late ones. It is true, however, that early fruits hasten to maturity and late fruits are retarded. Late fruits push along until about midsummer, then stop growing for a month or two during the hottest weather, and afterwards pro- ceed on their course and finish up well. W. W. Smith, of Vaca Valley, has picked Bartletts as late as November 19, but that is unusually late. In years with heavy late spring rains the Bartlett ripens earlier in the Vaca Valley than in ordinary seasons, and when the fruit sells well in the East, the Bartletts are gathered 298 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM green and shipped all through the season, as their first growth usually makes them large enough for this purpose. Though the Bartlett is in wide favor, as stated, there is some progress being made in introducing other varieties, as will be stated in connection with the discussion of the adaptations of vari- eties. This substitution of other sorts is in part because the merit of others is being recognized, and in part because in some regions some of them are healthier and more trustworthy bearers than the Bartlett. There is produced in some situations a "second crop" of Bart- letts and of other varieties which is of account when pears are scarce and is sometimes dried with profit. For such fruit the bloom appears upon the tips of the shoots of the current season's growth. The fruit is sometimes coreless and has led to claims of "seedless pears." Bartlett pears have actually been picked in the foot-hills above Peatz in Butte County on February 25, 1905, and described as "fine, delicious and ripe." This fact must be regarded as a token of local climatic salubrity and not of economic or pomological account. SOILS FOR THE PEAR The pear, if it is not allowed to dry out entirely, will generally do well on shallow soil and over a tight, clay hard-pan, where most other fruits would be unsatisfactory or fail utterly. The trees will thrive in clay loams, and even in adobe, if properly cul- tivated. In laying out fruit farms, which often include a variety of soils, even in comparatively small area, the pears and plums (if on the right stock, as will be seen) should beset in the lower, moister, stiffer soil, and other fruits on the lighter, warmer, and better-drained portions. The pear, however, enjoys the better sit- uation, though it will thrive on the poorer. The tree seems to attain its greater growth and heaviest bearing on the alluvial soils of the valleys and near the banks of rivers and streams. All pears will be later in maturing and have better keeping qualities if grown on a clay subsoil. Thus it appears that the pear will flourish whether the water is near or far from the surface. On wet land the apple is apt to die in a few years, or become worthless. On dry land the apple lives longer, but the fruit is small and tasteless. But the pear tree may bear good fruit, under the same conditions. It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish on soil somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural Experi- ment Station at Tulare, this subject has been demonstrated in detail. It is shown that though the pear endures a certain amount of alkali its limit of endurance may be often exceeded and there is little warrant to select alkali soil for pears, unless it be to fill a space that would otherwise be vacant in the orchard. If it is PEAR PROPAGATION 299 not too alkaline the pears will thrive. If gypsum be used in plant- ing, somewhat stronger alkali will be endured than otherwise. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been nearly aban- doned in this State, though in early years the quince was largely used. The most prominent orchard on quince stock is that of A. Block, of Santa Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees originally planted eight feet apart in squares, but now wider spaced by removing part of the trees; the remainder doing exceedingly well under liberal manuring and irrigation. It is quite possible that, at least for gardens, there may be in the future more use made of dwarf trees, but for commercial orchards there appears no need of dwarfing. The common conclusion is that it is better to have fewer trees and larger ones, but since the pear blight became an issue in this State the Angiers quince has been advocated as a means of maintaining a sound root and keeping the warfare above ground. The following varieties are commended for cultivation on quince stock as dwarfs, experience proving them vigorous growers and abundant bearers in suitable localities : Bartlett, Beurre Hardy, Doyenne du Comice, Duchess d'Angouleme, Glout Morceau, Pound, Beurre Diel, White Doyenne, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis, P. Barry, Winter Bartlett. But the pear is usually grown in California on its own roots; that is upon imported French pear seedlings. It comes into bear- ing early enough, and is a long-lived tree unless badly attacked by blight. Trees are grown by either budding or grafting, as described in the chapter on that subject. Only good seedling roots should be used, and not suckers from old trees. The Japan- ese stock, so called, being seedlings of the Sand pear, of Asia, has been used to some extent, but no definite results reported. Propagation upon rooted cuttings of the Le Conte, which has a measurable resistance to the pear blight, has been advised for the purpose of securing less susceptible roots. Mr. M. B. Waite, orchard pathologist of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, has in progress a test of many cross-bred seedlings in the hope of reaching a hardier seedling stock for pears than is now known. He also proposes top grafting the Bartlett upon Winter Nelis, Seckel, Angouleme, Lawson and other partially immune varieties to increase the chances of securing a somewhat resistant tree-body and sound roots. Fortunately the pear is readily grafted-over by the common methods. Distance in Planting. — If the pears are to have the whole' ground, it is usual to plant from twenty to twenty-four feet apart 300 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM on the square. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bear- ing than the stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears are sometimes set twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx. Peaches and apricots are also set between pears sometimes, when the soil chosen for pears suits them also. PRUNING Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in the general chapter on pruning. With regular, upright growers, heading low and cutting to outside buds results in a handsome, gently-spreading top, and effectually curbs the disposition which some varieties, notably the Bartlett, have to run straight up with main branches crowded together. As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and pruning must be done with an understanding of the habit of the variety under treatment. Irregular and wayward growers, which, in windy places, also have their rambling disposition promoted by prevailing winds, often give the grower much perplexity. The general rules of cutting to an outside bud to spread the tree, to an inside bud to raise and concentrate it. and to an outside bud one pear and an inside bud the next, if a limb is desired to Con- tinue in a certain course, are all helpful to the pruner. But with some pears, of which the AVinter Nelis is a conspicuous example, it is exceedingly hard to shape the tree by these general rules, and some growers abandon all rules, merely shortening in where too great extension is seen, or to facilitate cultivation, and trust to shaping the tree when it shall have finished its rampant grow- ing period. It will be interesting to cite a few methods of Cali- fornia pear growers : "The Winter Nelis pear is an uncouth grower. Let the trees alone until they have borne a good, heavy crop, and the limbs come down and spread out nicely ; this will occur in five or six years after setting. This will give you an idea what you want to do with the balance of the top that is not borne down with the fruit. My plan is to cut straggling branches, thin out so that the branches will not wind around each other, but don't cut the top, for you will find that the more you cut the more wood you get, and after the tree comes into full bearing is plenty of time to head back." — A. Cadwell, Petaluma. "Our orchard is not in a very windy place, but still it is windy enough to throw our Nelis trees out of form. To get any regularity of shape, we cut off every year all the shoots growing low down on the leeward side, shortening in what are left as occasion may require, to an inside bud. On the windward side we rarely cut any branch out, but shorten in a little to an outside bud, frequently being obliged to cut back a strong shoot to a lateral which is grow- ing outward." — Leonard Coates, Napa. "It is hard to get a misshapen Winter Nelis tree into shape. Let the grower take his shears and go around the tree and examine the difficulty until he is conversant with it, and then commence to prune, not too heavily, though. Cut the limbs that lean too far leewards back a little with an inside bud, and train all future limbs toward the weather side of the tree; cut the limbs this PRUNING THE PEAR 301 year so that the coming buds will form limbs growing in the direction of the weather side of the tree. But use moderation and take your time for it, and don't cut too many big limbs off three-year-old trees — none, in fact, if it can be helped. In bringing limbs to proper place, I have found a piece of corn- stalk- the required length for the intended place, inserted endwise between the limb and the body of the tree to be spread, to be a very good brace, easily made, and not likely to injure the tree." — T. E. Owen, Santa Cms. These methods will suggest others by which one can bring the most irregular grower into shape. If the tree is cut at plant- ing so as to form the head low, it may be safely left until bearing age for shaping. The tree naturally makes a viny growth of young wood, and the object of leaving it alone is that one limb holds the others more upright until the main limbs become large, or stiff enough to keep the shape; so they may be left, after being thinned out to form three to five limbs, as judgment may direct. Some trees will be best with three or four, others five. The experience of pear pruning just cited has been secured in regions more or less subject to coast influences. In the hot interior valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care must be taken to prune so as not to open the tree too much to the sun, but to shorten in and thin out only so far as is consistent with maintaining a good covering of foliage. The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the apple, to be determined largely by the habit of the tree, and to secure a fair amount of fruit on branches with strength and stiff- ness enough to sustain it. Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young or an old tree and some practice it to secure early bearing of young trees, but the common practice is winter pruning to secure strong wood and prevent overbearing. THINNING PEARS It is quite important to attend to thinning the fruit on over- loaded trees. Even the popular Bartlett will often give fruit too small for profitable sale unless thinned. With pears, as other fruits, thinning should not be done until it is seen that the fruit is well set. Dropping off from natural causes sometimes thins the crop quite enough. IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will endure drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees. There is no profit in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chapter on irrigation the wood growth and fruit show whether proper moisture needs are met or not. Early pears are advanced in development by irrigation in some parts of the State, and this is an miportant factor in their value. 302 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM BLIGHT OF THE PEAR Although California pear growers who came to the State en- dowed with eastern experience have always apprehended the intro- duction of the true pear blight and shivered every time they saw die-back or blackening on a pear branch, the probability is that all early reports of its entrance were misapprehensions until the real scourge appeared in the San Joaquin Valley about a decade ago. The rapidity with which trees began to be destroyed at that time manifested its habit in this State and warrants the conclu- sion that earlier troubles of the tree probably arose from other causes. In 1904, after having nearly wiped out bearing trees in the southern counties of the San Joaquin Valley the disease began to devastate the orchards along the Sacramento River through the vast area of rich valley land which it traverses and on which is situated our most extensive pear acreage. In 1905 resolute warfare was made upon the blight, with a large appropriation of State funds, by the plant disease experts of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the California Agricultural Ex- periment Station, with the assistance of the local horticultural authorities. It was probably the greatest campaign ever made against a single tree disease although some insect warfares have been greater. The outlines of the plans followed and the results attained are to be found in the publications of the institutions engaged.* In a l^ter chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines, an outline of procedure against pear blight will be given. It is apprehended that neither paying crops nor living trees can be counted upon in the future unless the disease is successfully kept under control by successful fighting or by recourse to some form of natural immunity which can be discovered or developed by plant breeding. It is probable that pears can not be grown in the future as cheaply and profitably as in the past and there is a certain amount of bravery or daring in pear investments at the present time. It is encouraging, however, to note that in California the disease shows signs of relaxing the virulence which characterized its first attacks and it is reasonable to believe that here as elsewhere it may be possible to have the blight and pears also. The reader must keep himself continually informed of the various phases of the problem as they will arise, by careful study of our excellent California horticultural journals and of later publications from the official sources which have been indicated. * Reports of the California Commissioners of Horticulture, 1901 to 1906, includ- ing Reports on California Fruit Growers' Conventions for 1905-6-7, J. W. Jeffrey, Commissioner, Sacramento. Report of Plant Pathologist, University Experiment Station, Berkeley, 1906 and 1908. THE PEAR BLIGHT 303 The very exuberance of the pear in Cahfornia seems to increase the virulence of the blight. The long growing season with its con- tinual production of new soft tissue, the unseasonable bloom which attracts bees to bring new supplies of blight germs, the break of new shoots from root, trunk and main branches — all these make the tree subject to repeated renewals of the disease in its most vulnerable parts. How far growth can be -repressed by scant cul- tivation or by summer pruning; how far suppression of later shoots and blooms is practicable and whether the tree can be depleted so that it can only make fair sized fruit and no surplus soft tissue for blight invasion — all these are cultural problems which make pear growing very interesting to the enquiring mind. A Sonoma grower suggests that pruning may be used to control pear blight in the following manner: It is the natural tendency of the pear and apple while young to form fruiting spurs upon the body and larger branches of the tree. These fruiting spurs produce blos- soms from year to year, which are in turn as liable to be visited by bees or other insects carrying the destructive spores of the disease as are the blossoms at the ends of the branches. It is evident, therefore, that a blossom situated upon the body or larger branches of a tree, becoming infected, would communicate the disease directly to the framework of the tree, with the result that it would be fatally injured ; but if these fruiting spurs are all removed from the body and larger branches by pruning, the possi- bilities of infection in this way are overcome. The available means of gaining entrance to the tree by this parasite is confined to the smaller branches, which if affected can be cut away without severely injuring or disfiguring the tree. All suckers at the base of the tree should be removed at the point where they emerge from the trunk or the roots as they favor the entrance of blight to the root. The Leconte root is being used because of its resist- ance. The scab fungus which seriously affects some varieties, and notably the Winter Nelis, in the Coast region, is identical with the scab of the apple and will be mentioned in the chapter on tree diseases. Because of the liability of the Winter Nelis, to this dis- ease, and because of its irregular bearing in the coast region, there have been many trees grafted over into varieties better suited to coast conditions. The Beurre Clairgeau, because of its health, prolific bearing, and acceptability to shippers, was largely intro- duced in this way, but it has not sold as well as expected. Ordi- nary top grafting succeeds admirably with the pear. Clapp's Fav- orite and other varieties have also been worked upon Winter Nelis but they are apt to be more susceptible to blight than Winter Nelis so this old practice is now of less value than formerly. 304 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS Many pear growers make the common mistake of allowing the fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and ripening in a cool, dark place. Pears should be picked at the first indication of ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of the stem to part from the spur when the pear is gently raised up. This test applies especially to the Bartlett. Picking at this stage and laying away in the dark ripens up the Bartlett well. When picked at this stage and sent overland by slow freight, they ripen en route and the boxes open well on the Eastern markets. There are a few varieties which shrivel if ripened under cover, but the rule is a good one, and the grower will soon note the exceptions. Many desirable varieties have, no doubt, been pronounced poor and insipid because allowed to ripen on the tree. To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or inclosed in drawers. They do not do as well as apples on shelves open to circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-skinned apple endures exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy cheek and sound heart in spite of wind, rain, and rough weather. The pear under similar conditions decays rapidly. POLLINATION OF PEARS As very few varieties of pears are largely grown in California and as the Bartlett generally bears well when grown in large acre- ages by itself, the eastern claim that the Bartlett is self-sterile does not seem to be justified in California experience. Recent observations indicate that even at the east the Bartlett is self- fertile when conditions are favorable to setting of the fruit and self-sterile when they are otherwise. As conditions are usually favorable in California this may be the reason why its self-fertility is more conspicuous here than at the east. It has been individ- ually noted, however, that the White Doyenne is a good fertilizer for the Bartlett. The Winter Nelis is the one of the pears com- mercially worth growing which is most apt to be fruitless, but thus far association with other varieties has not been demon- strated to be a full remedy. For the assistance of those who desire to test pear pollination the following statement is made of the relative dates of bloom of a large number of varieties, based upon records kept in Tulare County : VARIETY. First bloom. Full bloom. Barry March 10 March 20 Bartlett March 14 March 24 Belle Lucrative March 14 March 26 Beurre Clairgeau March 11 March 22 Beurre d'Amanlis March 10 March 20 Bevirre d'Anjou March 16 March 24 WHEN PEARS BLOSSOM 305 VARIETY. First bloom. Full bloom. Beurrg Diel March 20 March 30 Beurre Giffard March 16 March 26 Beurre Gris d'Hiver March 14 March 24 Beurre Hardy March 18 March 28 Clapp's Favorite March 14 March 24 Colonel Wilder March 14 March 24 Counseiller de la Cour March 12 March 22 Dearborn's Seedling March 16 March 28 Doyenne d'Alencon March 18 March 28 Doyenne d'Ete March 18 March 28 Doyenne du Comice March 16 March 26 Duchesse d'Angoulene March 12 March 20 Easter Beurre March 14 March 20 Flemish Beauty March 20 March 30 Forelle March 2 March 10 Frederick Clapp March 16 March 26 Howell March 14 March 24 Jaminette March 12 March 22 Josephine de Malines March 12 March 22 Keifer's Hybrid March 2 March 10 Kennedy March 14 March 24 Lawrence March 12 March 22 Lawson March 16 March 26 Le Conte Feb. 28 March 2 Louise Bonne de Jersey March 10 March 20 Seckel March 14 March 24 Sheldon March 18 March 28 Souvenir du Congrgs March 20 March 29 Swan's Orange March 14 March 24 "Vernon March 8 March 19 White Doyenne March 14 March 24 Winter Nelis March 12 March 20 VARIETIES OF THE PEAR Though large collections of famous Eastern and European pears have been brought to California, the peculiarity of the local market, and demand for canning and shipping has led to concen- tration upon very few sorts. The pears chiefly grown in Cali- fornia are the following, arranged approximately in the order of their ripening: Harvest; syn. Sugar Pear (American). — Small, roundish, pale yellow, brownish in sun, brown and green dots ; flesh v/hitish, rather dry but sweet ; tree upright, young wood olive yellow brown. Madeleine (French). — Medium, obovate pyriform, stalk long and slender, set on the side of a small swelling ; pale yellowish green, rarely brownish blush ; calyx small, in shallow, furrowed basin; flesh white, juicy, delicate. Wilder Early (American). — Small to medium, yellow with red cheek; sweet, and good. Recently introduced and profitable for local sale in San Diego county. Should not be confused with Col. Wilder, a California seedling which has gone out of use. Bloodgood (New York). — Tree short, jointed, deep reddish brown wood; fruit medium turbinate, inclining to obovate, thickening abruptly into stalk; yellow, sprinkled with russet dots ; calyx strong, open, almost without depres- sion ; stalk obliquely inserted, without depression, short, fleshy at its base; flesh yellowish white, melting, sugary, aromatic ; core small. 306 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Clapp's Favorite (Massachusetts). — Tree a strong grower; young shoots dark reddish brown ; fruit large, slightly obtuse pyriform ; pale lemon yellow with brown dots ; flesh fine, melting, juicy, with rich, sweet delicate, vinous flavor; resembles Bartlett, but lacks musky flavor. Dearborn's Seedling (Massachusetts). — Young shoots long, reddish brown; under medium size ; roundish pyriform ; smooth, clear, light yellow, with few minute dots ; stalk slender set with very little depression ; calyx spreading in shallow basin; flesh white, very juicy, melting, sprightly. Lawson; syn. Comet (New York). — Medium to large, bright crimson on yellow ground ; flesh fine, rich and sweet. Souvenir du Congres (French). — Large to very large (exceeding Bartlett and Clapp's Favorite, to both of which it bears a strong resemblance) ; skin smooth, bright yellow when fully ripe, brilliant carmine in the sun ; flesh resembling Bartlett, but has not the musky flavor ; firm to the core ; tree a good grower, but somewhat subject to smut. Bartlett (English). — Tree a strong grower, early bearer, and healthy; fruit large, smooth, clear yellow, sometimes with delicate blush ; stalk moderately long, stout and inserted in shallow cavity; calyx open; flesh white, fine grained, juicy, buttery, highly perfumed (musky), vinous flavor. Beiirre Hardy. — Large, long obovate, sometimes obscurely pyriform ; skin greenish with thin, brown russet ; stalk an inch long ; cavity small, uneven, oblique, basin shallow ; buttery, somewhat melting, rich, slightly subacid ; tree a strong grower. Flemish Beauty (Belgian). — Large, obovate, often obscurely tapering to the crown, very obtuse, surface slightly rough, with some reddish brown russet on pale yellow ground ; flesh juicy, melting, and good if picked early and ripened in the house. Seckel (Pennsylvania). — Rather small, regularly formed, obovate; brownish green, becoming dull yellowish brown, with russet red cheek ; stalk slightly curved, and set in a trifling depression ; calyx small and set in a very slight depression; flesh whitish, buttery, very juicy and melting, with peculiarly rich, spicy flavor and aroma. Hozvell (Connecticut). — Rather large, roundish pyriform, light waxen yel- low, often with finely-shaded cheek thickly sprinkled with minute russet dots and some russet patches ; stalk medium, without cavity and sometimes lipped ; sometimes in small cavity ; calyx open in large, uneven basin ; flesh whitish, juicy, brisk, vinous. Duchess d' Angouleme (France). — Very large, oblong obovate; somewhat uneven, knobby surface ; dull greenish yellow, streaked and spotted with russet ; stalk long, stout, bent, deeply set in irregular cavity ; calyx set in somewhat knobby basin; flesh white, buttery, and juicy, with rich flavor. Louise Bonne of Jersey (France). — Large oblong pyriform, a little one- sided; glassy, pale green in shade, brownish red in the sun, numerous gray dots ; stalk curved, rather obliquely inserted, without depression, or with a fleshy, enlarged base; calyx open in a shallow uneven basin; flesh very juicy, and melting, rich, and excellent ; very prolific. Beurre Diel (Belgium). — Large, varying from obovate to obtuse pyriform; skin rather thick, lemon yellow, becoming orange yellow, marked with large brown dots and marblings of russet ; stalk stout, curved in rather uneven cavity ; calyx nearly closed, in slightly furrowed basin ; flesh yellowish white, a little coarse-grained near the core ; rich, sugary, buttery, delicious. White Doyenne; syn. Virgalieu (Franch). — Medium to large, regular, obo- vate ; smooth, clear pale yellow, sprinkled with small dots, sometimes red cheeked ; stalk brown, little curved, in small round cavity ; calyx small, closed in shallow basin ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, rich, and high flavored. Beurre Bosc (Belgium). — Large pyriform, a little uneven, often tapering long and gradually into the stalk; skin pretty smooth, dark yellow, dots and streaks of cinnamon russet, slightly red on one side ; stalk long, rather slender, curved ; calyx short, in shallow basin ; flesh white, melting, buttery, rich, with slightly perfumed flavor. POPULAR PEAR VARIETIES 307 Onondaga; syn. Swan's Orange (Connecticut). — Large, obtuse, oval pyri- form, neck very short and obtuse, body large and tapering to obtuse apex ; flesh melting, sprightly, vinous. A vigorous, upright grower, healthy; yellow shoots; sells well in distant markets. Beurre Clairgeau (France). — Large, pyriform, but with unequal sides; yel- low, shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with russet dots, some- times sprinkled with russet; stalk short, stout and fleshy, inserted by a lip at an inclination almost without depression; when lip is absent, the cavity is uneven; calyx open; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, granular, sugary, perfumed, vinous. A popular variety for local and distant markets. Beurre d'Anjou (France). — Large, obtuse pyiiform; stem short, thick, and fleshy, in a cavity, surrounded by russet ; calyx small, open in small cavity, russeted ; skin greenish, sprinkled with russet, sometimes shaded with dull crimson, brown and crimson dots ; flesh whitish, not very fine, melting, juicy, brisk, vinous flavor, perfumed; tree a fair grower, but somewhat affected by fungus. Dana's Hovey; syn. Winter Seckel (Massachusetts). — Small, obovate, obtuse pyriform ; greenish yellow or pale yellow, with much russet and brown dots ; stalk rather short ; a little curved, set in slight cavity, sometimes lipped ; calyx open and basin small; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic. Vicar of WinkHeld (France). — Large and long pyriform; pale yellow, fair and smooth, sometimes with brownish cheek and marked with small brown dots ; stalk slender, obliquely inserted without depression ; calyx large, open, set in a basin verj'- slightly sunk; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, with good sprightly flavor. Doyenne dii Cornice (France). — Large, varying, roundish pyriform, ov broad, obtuse pyriform ; greenish yellow becoming fine yellow, shaded with crimson, slightly marked with russet spots, and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stalk short, stout, inclined and set in shallow cavity, often russeted; calyx small, open; basin large, deep and uneven; flesh white, fine, melting, aromatic. Very profitable during last few years in eastern shipments. Glout Morceau (Flemish). — "Rather large, varying in form, but usually short pyriform, approaching obtuse oval ; neck very short and obtuse ; body large and tapering towards crown ; often considerably ribbed ; green, becoming pale greenish yellow ; stalk stout, moderately sunk ; calyx large ; basin dis- tinct, rather irregular flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, rich, sweet, and fine flavor." — /. /. Thomas. Block's Acme (California seedling, by A. Block, of Santa Clara). — Large and very handsome, surpassing Beurre Clairgeau in size and color ; regularly formed, pyriform, skin pale yellow, covered with russet all over, which becomes a fine growing red on the side exposed to the sun ; flesh white, crisp, and melting, juicy, sweet, and slightly musky; a pear that will rank foremost with our best shipping pears; reserved by originator for his own export trade. Winter Nelis (Belgium). — Medium, roundish, obovate, narrowed in near the stalk; yellowish green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal covered with russet ; stalk rather long, bent, and set in narrow cavity ; calyx open in shallow basin ; flesh yellowish, white, fine grained, buttery, very melting, and full of rich, sweet, aromatic juice. P. Barry (California seedling by B. S. Fox). — Fruit large, elongated pyri- form, a little obtuse ; skin deep yellow, nearly covered with a rich golden russet ; stalk of medium length and thickness, set rather obliquely on a medium cavity, sometimes by a lip; flesh whitish, fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous, and rich. "An early and prolific bearer. December to January." — California Nursery Co. The pear, P. Barry, is recommended for planting, by the South- ern California Nurserymen's Association. It is, to some extent, displacing the Winter Nelis as a more healthy tree and a more certain bearer. Easter Beurre (France). — Large, roundish, obovate obtuse, often rather square in figure ; yellowish green, sprinkled with many russet dots and some russet patches ; stalk rather short, stout, set in an abruptly sunken, obtuse 308 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM cavity; calyx small, closed, but little sunk among plaited folds of angular basin; flesh white, fine-grained, very buttery, melting, and juicy, sweet, rich flavor; was successfully shipped from California to England as early as 1872. Pound. — Large, pyriform ; yellowish-green with red cheek, esteemed for cooking ; reaches enormous size in this State as already noted. Kieffer and Le Conte. — These pears, recently introduced as especially hardy varieties, are grown to a limited extent in all parts of the State, but are usually condemned as inferior to the European varieties which attain such excellence in this State. The Le Conte root is used as a stock for the Bartlett because of its resistance to blight. Crocker's Bartlett (California). — Chance seedling on place of L. L. Crocker, Loomis, Placer county. Introduced by Mr. Crocker in 1902. Described in year book, 1905, of U. S. Department of Agriculture ; medium to large, oblong, obovate, pyriform ; rich golden jrellow, somewhat russety ; quality very good ; keeps until March. Claimed to be blight-free and regularly productive. Winter Bartlett (Oregon). — Chance seedling in a dooryard in Eugene, Oregon. Introduced in California by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno. Closely resembles Bartlett in shape and appearance and flavor but a little coarser ; ripens four months later than Bartlett in interior situations in California and promising as a winter pear. Pear varieties approved by California growers. VARIETIES. Angouleme, Duchess'd... Anjou Bartlett Bloodgood Bosc B. S. Fox Brandywine Clairgeau Clapp's Favorite Comice Dana's Hovey Dearborn Diel Easter Beurre Emile d'Heyst Flemish Beauty Glout Morceau Hardy, Beurre Howell Kieffer Lawson Louise, Bonne de Jersey. Madeleine Onondaga P. Barry Seckel Souv. du Congres Vicar of Winkfield Wilder, Early "V^^hite Doyenne TVinter Bartlett Winter Nelis Upper coast valleys. Central Interior Mountain coast valley and valley and Southern valleys. foot-hill, plateaux. California. * Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. ** Most highly commended. CHAPTER XXIII PLUMS AND PRUNES* The plums of California are exceptionally fine in appearance and of high quality. Both tree and fruit have thus far escaped the parasites which have wrought greatest injury on the eastern side of the continent. The curculio has never been found here, and the "black knot," though detected in some of the indigenous species of the genus prunns,-\ has never been observed in our orchards. The tree suffers, it is true, as do most other fruit trees, from various pests and diseases but their work is a light affliction compared with the ravages of the curculio and black knot which Eastern plum growers have to contend against. Because of reduced planting during the last few years, the plum stands second in point of number among the fruit trees of California, for, as noted in Chapter XX, the peach now holds first place. Of the plums, at least four-fifths are those varieties designated as prunes. This is, of course, owing to the profitable shipping demand for our prune product, while ordinary dried, pitted plums are expensive in pro- duction and do not always command good prices. There is, how- ever, a large trade at the East in our fine plums in a fresh state. Some varieties stand shipment well, and are large, handsome and in some cases possessed of unique characters, resulting from Mr. Burbank's work with the Japanese species as will be noted later. Considerable shipments of fresh plums have been made from Cal- ifornia to England. The maximum in plum profits is much like that with other fruits, for L. W. Leak, a Placer County grower, reported in 1906 a net return of $759 from an acre of "Hungarian prunes." By choosing varieties ripening in succession, the plum season extends from May to December, thus enabling the California plum grower to strike the Eastern markets both early and late. It is on record, also, that second crop plums have ripened. In 1904 Judge Leib, of San Jose, sent to Luther Burbank, on December 1, ripe fruit from a tree which ripened its first crop on July 4 of the same year. * All prunes are plums, but all plums are not prunes. A prune is a plum which can be dried without the removal of the pit without fermenting: the result being a fleshy pulp with a high degree of sweetness. All plums which will not do this are not prunes, even though the word may appear in their California common names. t Found on prunus demissa, in Tosemite valley and in Coast range in San Mateo County, by Dr. H. W- Harkness, Report State Board of Horticulture, 1883, pp. 54, 55, 309 310 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM There is also a considerable demand for plums by the canners who do not use, however, the varieties in chief demand for ship- ping. LOCALITIES FOR THE PLUM The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. The trees are thrifty and profitable even from the immediate vicinity of the coast and in coast valleys, where the sea winds and fogs intrude, eastward across the great interior valleys, and upwards upon the sides of the Sierra Nevada. In the upper half of the State, at least, wherever there is sufficient moisture in the soil, good plums can be grown. The tree is quite hardy, but in situa- tions open to sweep of the winds there has been found to be decided advantage in belts of sheltering trees for protection. At some points subject to direct coast influences, there is sometimes loss by cracking of the fruit. It is seldom encountered in the interior val- ley, except near the rivers or in draws where the damp coast air makes its way through. It seems to be worst where there are marked differences in atmospheric humidity within short periods of time. Where the percentage is quite uniformly high or low there seems to be less trouble. Some years conditions usually restricted to more exposed coast situations prevail in the interior valley, and the result is unusual prevalence of mildew and other moist fungi and cracking of fruit also, though they have no rela- tion to each other except that the same conditions favor both. Only certain varieties are thus affected, and they can be avoided where the trouble is found to exist. It was for a long time held that southern California was not adapted to the growth of the plum, but the experience of the last few years has shown that the conclusion was too broad. The "French prune" demonstrated its success adjacent to the coast in Santa Barbara County, and elsewhere, in the low, rich lands of the Santa Ana Valley, of Orange County, in the interior at various points on the rim of the San Gabriel Valley, in Los Angeles County, notably at Pomona, and still farther inland in the San Bernardino Valley, but the Southern California prune product is small because the land and water can be more profitably used for other fruits. There is, however, difficulty in some dry uplands where the tree is shy in fruiting and subject to serious gumming; but this is encountered locally in all parts of the State. Irrigation does not always overcome these troubles, and yet, no doubt, the arrangement of proper moisture conditions is important. The tree should be helped to make one good growth and to ripen its wood in the fall. To have growth checked by drouth and a sec- ond start made later in the season is not desirable. VALUE OF HYBRID PLUMS 311 Still it must be admitted that prune planting in the interior, proceeding with such rapidity, has encountered some soils and situations in which bearing has not been altogether satisfactory. New planters should confer with older residents before making investments in prune planting in interior valleys and foot-hills. All the foregoing observations are based upon the behavior of plums of European origin; descendants of the prunus domestica. One of the grandest contributions to the extension of the range of the plum in California was the introduction of the Asiatic species, primus triflora and simoni. Varieties of these species directly intro- duced or locally developed by Burbank and others, have proved productive in places where the domestica varieties were abandoned as shy or sterile. To estimate the value of these varieties one has only to visit the home fruit gardens of southern California or in- spect the fruit-stands of Los Angeles which are continuous exhibits of fine specimens of these varieties in their seasons. Even in places where the domestica varieties are largely grown the Asiatic vari- eties are also prominent as is shown by the fact that the Wickson, a Burbank triflora-simoni hybrid, is the leading shipping plum of California, and shipping plums are chiefly grown in the central and northern regions of the State. Other notable Burbank plums of recent introduction will be included in the descriptions of varieties at the close of this chapter. SOILS AND STOCKS FOR THE PLUM With the plum, as with the apricot, the subject of soils and stocks are intimately related, but the whole matter has been won- derfully simplified by the experience of the last few years. This relief has come through the adoption of the myrobalan, or cherry plum {Primus myrobalana) as a general all-around stock for plums and prunes. Before this practice was taken up the effort to grow the plum on its own roots generally resulted in getting an orchard full of suckers, and to avoid this, plums were worked on peach roots wherever this root would succeed in the soil to be planted. But some varieties of plums do not take kindly to the peach, and then "double working" (putting first on the peach a plum which is known to take well and then on that plum wood the variety desired) was followed. The use of the myrobalan does away with the suckering nuisance and the need of double working. There was considerable discussion a few years ago as to what is the true myrobalan, and it must be acknowledged that some of the refined distinctions formerly claimed have been abandoned. Seedlings grown from the seed of the myrobalan vary as do other fruit seedlings, both in fruit and in foliage and habit of trees, and perhaps this fact has given rise to the distinction between "true" and "false" myrobalan, so called. Practice has proceeded without 312 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM much reference to the discussion, and our nurserymen now have large, thrifty myrobalan trees from which they secure their seed supply. Growing- stock from myrobalan cuttings is but little prac- ticed. The myrobalan is now the accepted plum stock for Cali- fornia, except in light, alluvial, well drained soils, where for the French prune, peach, or almond may be preferred. . Though described by some authorities as a dwarfing stock, it is found to be sufficiently free growing in California to suit all purposes, and to form a good foundation for full standard trees, though the peach and almond roots in proper soils give a quicker and greater growth. Experience has shown that the myrobalan root thrives in this State both in low, moist, valley lands, in comparatively dry lands, and in stiff upland soils. In som.e soils especially adapted to the peach, peach roots are preferred as stock for the French prune, but, as already said, all plums can not be worked directly on the peach root, the Robe de Sergeant, Columbia, Yellow Egg, Washington, and Sugar Prune for example. Sometimes the bud or scion may make a large growth, but the two woods do not unite, and the trees break ofif sooner or later. Some work the plum on the apricot root, and report success when the soil suits the apricot root, and the gophers do not get at it. But it sometimes happens that the French prune parts from .the apricot root even after growing some time upon it. There are, however, instances of the French prune thriving, and, apparently making good union with the apricot root and some of the softer wood varieties, like the Sugar Prune, take kindly to it. Some plums do well on the almond root and some do not. The French prune succeeds admirably both when worked on young almond stocks and top grafted in old almond trees. Success is also reported with the Felenberg on the almond. But the almond root is suited especially for warm, dry soils. Excellent results from the use of almond stock are reported from the interior valley and the Sierra foot-hills. Propagating by Sprouts. — The French practice of growing cer- tain varieties of the plum by means of sprouts from the base of old trees has been successfully followed in this State by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, and was strongly commended by him as securing a tree which will not gum, which is one of the reasons why the same practice prevails in France. Sprouts growing at the foot of old and large trees, and but few are found to each tree, are taken off and planted close together in a bed to make them root well, and the ensuing spring planted in nursery rows, where they are trained like any other trees, and transplanted where to remain, when branched. For this method it is necessary that the parent tree should be upon its own roots, else one is apt to PRUNING THE PRUNE 313 get suckers from a wild stock. Sprout-grown trees can not, how- ever, be defended unless some special point like that claimed by Mr. Gillet can be attained by them. PLANTING AND PRUNING As with other trees, there is difference of opinion as to the best distance apart for plum trees. The present tendency is toward wider planting; not nearer than twenty feet is the usual advice, and on rich land, twenty-two or twenty-four feet is better. The plum, in California, is a most rapid grower; six to ten feet from the bud or graft in a season, and about as much after the first winter's cutting back, is not at all unusual. At this rate of progress, then the tree soon runs up and away, in a spindling, sprawling fashion, unless severely cut back for the first few years. Neglected trees of some varieties show long, streaming branches, arching outward, and exposing the bark to sunburn (to which it is very sensitive)," breaking the tree to pieces as the fruit gets weight, and, even if supported by props, breaking off at the bear- ing of the prop. This condition of the tree can only be obviated by low heading and moderate cutting back each year, with due regard to limiting the amount of bearing wood to get large fruit. For such plum varieties the suggestions on forming the tree and subsequent treatment in the chapter on pruning will be found help- ful. This reference to repressive treatment for brittle-wood plums is emphasized by experience with the Sugar Prune of which Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill says : "The sugar prune is a great bearer, but the tree must receive very different pruning from that given the French prune. The annual growth must be short- ened in every winter from one-half to two-thirds, and all laterals and fruit spurs must be cut back at every pruning. Of course, judicious thinning out of wood also needed. This will result in a very large, showy product for long- distance shipments, as fresh fruits, which have brought satisfactory returns." Pruning the French Prune. — Growers of the French prune, and other varieties of similar growth of strong and pliable wood, have reached substantial agreement as to the best practice. The old method of cutting back bearing trees has been abandoned. Cutting back the young tree to secure sufficient low branching is followed by thinning of shoots from this low head so that the tree shall not become too dense or carry too much bearing wood. The strength in the head depends upon proper spacing and arrange- ment of the branches as insisted upon in the chapter on pruning; and large, well-ripened fruit, which is essential to successful and profitable drying, is conditioned upon avoiding excess of branches and admission of sufficient light to the tree. A rather longer central stem is retained than in the old style, and a central stem throughout is admissible if one prefers it and 314 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM -I s\ \U'/' M// • Tyf"rs. C^t, ^( ^ ,r t ^ -tf^ . . "f^- ^ - 'Tj,'^ ^ Young and old French Prune trees, never pruned and assuming natural form. does not desire to dispense with it as the first step toward secur- ing a more open tree. Some retain the longer stem at planting, others cut back to eighteen inches, develop three side branches upon that and train the branch from the top bud for a lengthen- ing of the stem, and bring out more branches upon that the second year, and then dispense with its farther extension. The engravings on page 316 show this method of developing the head of a youngs French prune. The tree was cut back as planting in orchard to a straight switch about eighteen inches high. At the end of the first summer this showed the form in the first picture, which is marked for the first winter pruning. The second engraving shows the branching developed from this during the second summer's growth, also marked to prune away some undesirable branches. Upon a tree of this form farther cutting back is not desirable as it has enough well-placed branches to form the tree. How long cutting back shall continue depends partly upon the locality and partly upon the notion of the owner. In interior • localities the tree grows with great rapidity and branches more PRUNING THE PRUNE 315 y^^^ ^'Mmi/r - * foung and old French Prune trees rationally pruned for number and spacing of branches. freely. During the third summer it will bear some fruit if not cut back the previous winter and, where growth is so rapid, there is little danger of injuring the tree by early bearing. In the coast valleys cutting back may continue another year, and fruiting be thus postponed a year to get another summer's freer wood growth. Though cutting back may properly cease early with the French prune, it is a great mistake to allow the trees to go unpruned. Remove of defective wood, prevention of branch crowding and overbearing are of the highest importance, as insisted upon in the chapter on pruning. Special Study of Varieties in Pruning. — The points just ad- vanced apply especially to the management of the French prune. In addition to what has been already said about the Sugar prune, the grower must be exhorted to study the habit of the variety he has to deal with. The general rules for handling trees with differ- ent habits of growth are applicable to a certain extent to the plum. When to apply a rule or make an exception must be learned by 316 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM observation and experience. Some plums, like the Silver prune, have something of the growth habit of the peach, and this is also very true of some of the Japanese varieties. Cutting back in winter and pinching in summer are both useful facts in securing lower branching and low-growing fruit spurs. Pruning after first summer's growth in orchard. Growth during second summer in orchard. Grafting the Plum. — The plum has been grafted and regrafted in the constant effort to secure varieties promising superiority in various directions. Within the scope of their affinities plums graft easily by common top-grafting methods, and if the roots are strong the new growth is so rapid as to need special attention. Mr. Luther Bowers gives these hints about pruning such growths : "From practical experience I have found out that the Sugar prune wood should only be summer pruned and only cut while the shoots are tender, or so soft that the top can be pinched out; this will cause the top to be well branched and this should be done at least twice during the first year of the graft. This system will avoid long, slender limbs. After a graft is two years old I would never cut the top off of a limb. If a tree gets too thick a top, I would cut out some of the main branches." CALIFORNIA PRUNE PROBLE^VtS 017 THE PLUMCOTS One of the most striking- achievements of Mr. Burbank from the fruit grower's point of view is the cross of the plum and the apricot, which he has very fitly named the "plumcot." He has combined in a single fruit enough of the diverse characters of two fruits to that the ordinary observer can recognize the com- bination clearly and distinguish the gift of each to it. Mr. Bur- bank has secured several such crosses, the first of which to be made public is the "Rutland," introduced by Mr. George C. Roed- ing in 1907. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary apricot with a deep purple velvety skin. One of its striking features is its brilliant red flesh possessed of a strong sub-acid flavor rendering it suitable for cooking, jellies and jams, and it is in good demand for such uses. When fully ripe, it is an excellent dessert fruit possessing an apricot-plum flavor. Obviously the amalgamation of the apricot and the plum must produce a fruit unique m character, hence its economic value is a matter still largely to be determined by its development and the exploitation of its uses. HOW A PRUNE QUEST DISTURBED THE PLUM FAMILY IN CALIFORNIA Referring to the distinction between plums and prunes cited at the opening of this chapter, and to the extent and methods of the great prune industry of the State which will appear later, in Part Eight of this work, it may be stated here that the Cali- fornia prune product was obviously undertaken in emulation of the globe-trotting French prune, which had attained position as the leading commercial dried fruit of the world long before Cal- ifornia arose on the horticultural horizon. Naturally, French settlers in California bethought themselves of transplanting this great industry in their new home, and Mr. Louis Pellier intro- duced scions from the district of Agen to his place near San Jose in 1856. The product was good, and planting for a large output was entered upon, though slowly at first. There was disappointment over the fact that, while all fruits came sur- prisingly large in California, the dried prunes were smaller than the great French prunes in cartons and cannisters which sold for great prices. Had we secured the true French prune : did they not have larger ones which they were holding back from us? This was the great question of five decades ago. Some nurserymen of that day had spirits of enterprise larger than their consciences. If the people demand larger prunes they must have them, surely. Because of the small average size of the prunes of Pellier's introduction, they christened that variety "petite prune d'Agen," which was subsequently corrupted into 318 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM "petty prune" — a free translation and a mispronunciation at the same time, for a prune which seemed to be too small and inferior. The people must have something large, and they happened to mix a little German into the title which they manufactured, and offered trees of the "gros prune d'Agen." When shown that if the French had such fruit it would probably be called "grande" and not "gros," because the French word "gros" is not a compli- mentary term, the propagators simply changed their geographical base and declared: "This immense prune, just what you need to beat the French, is really German, and if you desire you may call it Hungarian prune." It of course did not matter much what it was called, because it did not come from either France or Hungary, but was the fine, old, large, light red, English plum, properly called Pond's Seedling, re-christened in California to meet a long-felt want. But it did not meet such a want; it would not dry sweet nor fleshy, but became merely a skin and pit, with a sour streak between. Still the question persisted : Have we the true French prune? It was definitely settled by the late W. B. West of Stockton, who visited France in 1878, and after close examination of the trees, announced that the variety grown in California was really the prune d'Agen, and that we had made no mistake so far as getting the main standard variety of French prune was concerned. But still we needed a variety which would run more to large sizes, and how to get it, with sweetness and flesh, characters which would resemble the best French product, was, and even now is, still a question. One of the early introductions to meet this end is now generally known as Robe de Sergeant. Here again confusion attends the name. Robe de Sergeant is one of the synonyms of prune d'Agen, and yet the fruit we secured was different. Much discussion was given to the elucidation of this problem, and the conclusion seemed to be that the variety is grown in France, but in another district, and is generally con- sidered inferior to the prune d'Agen. Still it runs larger, and has sold well, even though of distinctly different quality, and would probably have cut a much larger figure in California prune production if it had shown itself to be more free and reg- ular in bearing. The same is true of the "prune d'ente, or Imperial epineuse," which has been quite widely planted, but because of shy bearing, especially when attacked by the thrips, as discussed upon another page of this book, and because of the difficulty in drying such a large prune which ripens rather late, this variety, of which so much was expected, has fallen into dis- favor, and many which were grafted in have been grafted out again. Other introductions made much earlier, like the German and Italian, also fell out of the race very early, for shy bearing and for different flesh characters. Although the latter leads in PLUMS WHICH ARE NOT PRUNES 319 Oregon and other States north of us, it is out of California cal- culations. The conclusion of the whole matter now is that we have never secured from abroad a better than the one -which came 50 years ago — the true prune d'Agen. We have learned to grow it better, to seek places where it comes larger and in full quality; to use irrigation when it is needed by the tree to do its best; to guard against overbearing by reducing the amount of bearing wood and excessive branching; to strengthen the soil by fertilization, and to grade the fruit into sizes which commend themselves to different demands. Here we are again, doing our main business at the Old stand, but knowing how to do it better. Have we anything more to expect? Probably nothing from old varieties, for we have prospected them all from a prune-making point of view, taking Coe's Golden Drop plum, or its seedling, for the Silver Prune, and canceling all others as possibly good plums for various uses, but not for prunes. Probably our only expectation lies along the line of plant breeding, although nothing to supplant the prune d'Agen has yet been attained. The Giant prune is a large red plum ; several Oregon prunes are simply large red plums. The standard of sugar in the prune d'Agen as grown in California is from 15 to 23 per cent of sugar in the fresh juice, according to degree of ripeness and localities in which the fruit is grown. The sugar in Pond's Seedling and in the large red plums just named is less than 10 per cent — sometimes very much less. But percentage of sugar in the juice is not the whole story; there are tissue or flesh characters which are essential also. Mr. Burbank's Sugar prune answers the sugar requirement; it is a free bearer and early ripening variety, and it dries easily though large; but it has not the fine grain nor distinctive flavor of the prune d'Agen, and it becomes a good plum for shipping and possibly for other plum purposes. But Mr. Burbank has many of the plum family in training, and it would not be surprising if he should announce at any time a variety educated fully up to the very definite Cali- fornia requirements, which he fully understands. Others are also working at the problem, and the next generation of California prune growers may attain what the last and present have striven for. The most promising Hne at the present time is the search for better types of the Prune d'Agen which are found here and there, arising from natural variation. Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill, is giving particular attention to this subject. POLLINATION OF PLUMS The shy bearing of certain plums is probably due to lack of pollination, either through the self-sterility of the variety or lack of acceptable pollinating agencies. Bearing can be induced in many cases, no doubt, by either planting or grafting-in of 320 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM effective pollinating varieties. But this is not always profitable. For instance, there are many instances proving that the Tragedy can be brought to greater bearing by the presence of Clyman, but an early variety like the Clyman is not worth growing for sale in a late district, though in an early district both are valuable as shipping plums and should be planted together. The pollina- tion of plums has not been given as much attention as of other fruits. Plums and Prunes approved by California growers VARIETIES. Abundance Agen, Prune d'.... Bradshaw Burbank Chabot Climax Clyman Coe's Late Red.... Columbia Damson Diamond Duane Purple German Prune . . . . Giant Golden Drop, Coe's. Golden Prune Grand Duke Green Gage Hale Imperial Epineuse Imperial Gage Italian Prune Jefferson Kelsey Peach Pond (Hungarian) Red June Robe de Sergeant.. Royal Hative Satsuma Silver Simon Sugar Tragedy Wasliington Wickson Y.ellow Egg Upper Central Interior Mountain coast coast Valley and valleys and Southern i'alleys. valleys. foot-hills. plateau. California. * ** ** ** ** ** ** * * * ** * * ** * ** * * ** * ** * * ** * * * * ** * ** * ** * * * ** * * * * ** ** * ** * « * * ** * * * * ** * ** * * * * * * * ■ ** * . * ** ** ** ** * * ** * * ** ** *« * * ** * ** ** ** * * * * ** * * * ** ** * ** ** * ** * ** * * * * ** ** * ** * ** ** ** * Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. ** Most highly commended. POPULAR PLUMS 321 VARIETIES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES As with other fruits, comparatively few varieties of the plum are largely grown in California, and the list is continually being reduced. The following tabulation is the result of a very wide inquiry made during the year 1907: Simon (Pruniis Siiiioni). — Medium to large, roundish, flattened, with cavi- ties at base and apex ; brick red, small yellow spots ; stalk stout and short ; flesh yellow, adhering to flattened pit ; largely grown for shipment in early interior regions where it has good quality ; lacks flavor and cracks badly near the coast. Climax (Burbank) .—Large ; very early; heart-shaped; deep red; flesh yel- low. Popular for shipping in places where it does not crack badly. Clynian (California seedling introduced by Leonard Coates). — Large, round- ish oblong, flattened suture indistinct; mottled reddish purple, beautiful blue bloom ; freestone ; flesh firm, dry and sweet ; prolific ; the leading early plum for shipment. Red June (Japanese). — Medium to large, deep red flesh light yellow, firm, good quality. The best of the early Japanese plums. Tragedy (California seedling). — Medium to large, suture shallow, wide and extending beyond apex ; dark purple ; flesh yellowish green, sweet and well flavored; freestone. Very valuable for shipping from early regions in all parts of the State. Abundance (Japanese) ; syns. Ycllozv-flcshcd Botan, Llikado of Hinclay. — Large, globular with point at apex ; cherry color covered with white bloom ; flesh yellow, juicy and rich. Popular for shipment from early regions. California Red (California seedling) .—Introduced by J. T. Bogue, of M.arys- ville. Large, light red, firm flesh and small pit. A good shipping plum. Peach (French, prune peche). — Very large loundish oblate, regular, flat- tened at ends ; suture distinct, shallow ; color varying from salmon to light brownish red ; stalk very short, cavity narrow, shallow, flesh rather coarse, juicy, sprightly, free from the nearly round, very flat, much furrowed stone; shoots smooth. A prominent variety for early eastern shipment. Royalc Native (French).— Medium roundish, slightly wider at base; light purple", stalk half an inch long, stout, scarcely sunk; flesh amber yellow, with rich, high flavor, nearly free from the small, flattened, ovate stone; shoot! very downy. Grown as an early market plum and for eastern shipment. BradshaiiK — Large, obovate, with obtuse suture on one side, sometimes with very slight neck ; dark purple, with light blue bloom ; stalk three-fourths inch long ; cavity narrow ; flesh a little coarse, becoming light brownish purple, at first adhering, but becoming nearly free when fully ripe; juicy, good, slightly acid ; tree vigorous ; shoots purple, smooth. Reported from Sacramento county as blooming late and seldom injured by frost. Not in high favor. Green Gage (French). — Rather small, round; suture faint green, becoming yellowish green, usually with reddish brown dots and network at base ; stalk half to three- fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh pale green, melting, juicy, ex- ceedingly rich, and flavor excellent ; shoots smooth. Burbank.- — Tree imported from Japan by Luther Burbank. Named "Bur- bank" by Professor Van Deman. Tree usually vigorous, with strong, upright shoots, and large, rather broad leaves ; comes into bearing very early. Almost globular, being five and a half inches around horizontally, and flve and five-eighths inches around vertically ; rich cherry red, slightly mottled with yel- low and freely dotted with same tint; flesh deep yellow, juicy, very sweet, and of fine, somewhat peculiar, but very agreeable flavor ; pit is very small, three- fourths by a trifle over half an inch in diameter. Duane's Purple (New York). — Very large, oblong oval, longer on one side; slightly narrowed towards the stalk ; reddish purple, bloom lilac ; stalk three- fourths inch ; slender ; cavity narrow flesh juicy, moderately sweet, and mod- 322 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM erate ' flavor, mostly adhering to stone ; shoots very dowrny and leaves large and downy beneath. Washington (New York). — Very large, roundish oval, suture obscure, dis- tinct at base ; yellowish green, faintly marbled, often with pale red blush ; stalk half to three-fourths inch ; slightly downy ; cavity wide, shallow ; flesh rather firm, sweet, mild, very rich and lucious, free from the pointed stone ; shoots downy ; very vigorous. Burbank's Wickson Plum. Wickson. — A crossbred by Luther Burbank ; form suggests the Kelsey, but more symmetrical ; in ripening, the color develops from a deep cherry red down to a rich claret as full ripeness is attained. The color is solid and uniform. The flesh is of amber tint, very juicy and translucent; the pit is small and shapely, the flavor is striking and agreeable, but likely to be deficient near the coast. The most popular shipping plum in the State. Yellow Egg; syns. White Egg, White Magnum Bonuni (English). — Very large, oval, narrow at ends, necked at base, suture distinct ; stalk one inch, not sunk, surrounded by fleshy ring at insertion ; light yellow, bloom thin, white, flesh firm, rather acid until fully ripe, and then sweet, adheres to the pointed stone. Jefferson (New York). — Large, oval, base slightly narrowed, suture slight; greenish yellow, becoming golden, with reddish cheek; bloom thin, white; stalk one inch, but little sunk or not at all ; flesh rich yellow, very rich, juicy, high flavored and luscious, adheres partly to its long, pointed stone ; shoots smooth; tree a slow grower, but productive. Columbia (New York). — Very large, nearly globular, one side slightly larger ; brownish purple, reddish brown where much shaded, with many fawn- colored dots; bloom blue, copious; stalk one inch, rather stout; cavity small; flesh orange, very rich and sweet, free from the stone, which is very small and compressed. Shoots downy, stout, blunt, spreading; leaves nearly round. Satsuma; syn. Blood Plum of Satsuina. — Litroduced and first fruited in this country by Luther - Burbank, of Santa Rosa. Described by Prof. H. E. Van Deman, LT. S. Pomologist, as follows ; "Leaves more lanceolate than those POPULAR PLUMS 323 of Kelsey; fruit averages about two and a quarter inches in diameter, nearly round, and but slightly sutured on one side ; surface dark red, under a thick bloom ; dots rather conspicuous and numerous ; flesh dark purplish red, which has caused the name of 'Blood Plum of Satsuma' to be given by some; stone very small and pointed." Chiefly grown in Southern California. Red Magnum Boiiuin syn. Red Egg. — Large, oval, tapering to the stalk; suture strong, one side swollen ; deep red in the sun ; slight bloom ; stalk one inch, slender, cavity narrow ; flesh greenish, coarse, subacid ; shoots smooth. Imperial Gage (New York). — Medivun size, oval, suture distinct; stalk three-fourths inch, slightly hairy, evenly sunk ; green, slightly tinged vvith yellow, with marbled green stripes; bloom copious and white; flesh greenish, juicy, melting, rich, and delicious, usually free from the oval, pointed stone; tree very vigorous and productive ; shoots long upright, slightly downy ; leaves with slight shade of blue. A popular canning variety. Damson (English). — Small, roundish oval; purple, with thick blue bloom; melting, juicy, subacid. German Prune {Common Quetsche, Germany). — "This name has been applied in this State to numerous plums and prunes which are sold under it. The fruit of the true German prune is long oval, and swollen on one side; skin purple, with thick blue bloom ; flesh firm, green, sweet, with a peculiar pleasant flavor; separates readily from the stone." — John Rock. Complaint is made in many localities of the tendency of the variety to drop before ripen- ing, almost the whole crop sometimes dropping. Kelsey Japan. — Trees brought from Japan by the late Mr. Hough, of Vaca- ville, in 1870, and purchased by the late John Kelsey, of Berkeley, who propa- gated and fruited them for several years. First wide distribution was made by W. P. Hammon & Co., in 1874, who named the fruit after Mr. Kelsey. The following description is by H. E. Van Deman, U. S. Pomologist, from California and Florida specimens : "Tree upright in growth, leaves narrow, twigs brownish gray. Fruit from one and a half to two and a half inches diameter, heart-shaped, with a distinct suture on one side from stem to apex; stem is short, and set in a depression at the larger end; colors mixed yellow and purple, which vary in depth, Init rarely make a brilliant appear- ance, covered with a bloom ; flesh yellow, very firm, and clings to the stone, which is rather small, and nearly always partly surrounded by a cavity ; when fully ripe the quality is very good." Very widely grown ; is in less favor than formerly in interior valleys where color is not well developed. Where the fruit is of good color it is profitable for shipping and is highly regarded everywhere for domestic use. Quackenbos (New York). — Large, oblong oval; deep purple; suture faint; stalk short, slightly sunk ; slightly coarse, sprightly, sweet and subacid ; partly freestone. Victoria (English). — Large, obovate, suture distinct; color a fine light red- dish purple ; stem half inch, cavity rather deep and narrow ; flesh yellow, pleas- ant ; clingstone ; next to Pond's Seedling in size, beauty and productiveness. Hungarian Prune; English Pond's Seedling; Gros Prune d'Agcn (English). — This variety was brought to San Jose probably about 1856, and in some unac- countable way was first contrasted with the French prune and called the "great prune of Agen ;" afterwards, also in a mysterious way, it took the name "Hungarian prune." It is still marketed by these names both here and at the East. The true name is English Pond's Seedling. Fruit very large, ovate, slightly tapering to stalk ; skin thick, reddish violet, with numer- ous brown dots, and covered with handsome bloom; rather coarse, juicy, sweet ; a very showy fruit ; tree a strong grower and prolific bearer ; fruit has a tendency to double ; sells well in local and distant markets on its style and is largely grown. Giant. — Burbank seedling; very large, dark crimson upon yellow ground; flesh yellow, flavor good ; freestone. A shipping plum, disappointing as a drying plum. 324 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Splendor. — Burbank seedling; medium size but larger than French prune; clear red, drying dark, does not shake from the tree ; earlier than French prune. Sugar. — Burbank seedling, introduced in 1898; large and sweet; sugar in fresh fruit 23.92 per cent; not a good prune but valuable for shipping; oval, slightly flattened ; dark purple with thick white bloom ; freestone. Imperial Epineuse 33^1. Chirac Mammoth. — Introduced in 1884 by Felix Gillet and in 1886 by John Rock. Described by Mr. Rock as follows : "Uni- formly large size, reddish or light purple, thin skin, sweet and high flavor." Described by Mr. Gillet: "Uniformly large, more oval than the French prune ; nearly of the same color but somewhat lighter or reddish purple ; earlier than the French and with thinner skin." Fruit grown by Mr. Rock analyzed at the State University in 1898, showed 20.4 per cent of sugar against 18.53 per cent average of three analyses of French prune. Largely planted and grafted in, in the Santa Clara Valley, as a drying prune but irregular in bearing. There has been quite widely planted another prune called Imperial which is very inferior in sugar content and likely to prove much less satisfactory. Robe de Sergeant. Prune d'Agen. Prune d' Agen; syn. Petite Prune d' Agcn; French Prune, etc. — This is the drying prune at present most widely grown in this State. It is described by John Rock as follows : "Medium-sized, egg-shaped, violet purple, very sweet, rich and sugary ; very prolific bearer." The first trees of the kind were grown by Louis Pellier, at San Jose, about the year 1857, the graft having been brought from France by his brother in December, 1856. The identity of this variety (which was first largely grown in the neighborhood of San Jose) with the variety chiefly grown in the French district tributary to Agen, was first announced by W. B. West, of Stockton, in the year 1878, during his visit to France. Robe de Sergeant. — Though this term is .given in Downing as a synonym of Prune d'Agen, and seems also to be in French a synonym for the d'Ente BURBANK'S NEWER PLUMS 095 prunes; another prune grown in this State from an importation by John Rock, is quite distinct from the foregoing. Mr. Rock descriljes the variety as follows : "Fruit medium size, oval ; skin deep purple, approaching black, and covered with a thick blue bloom ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, and well- fiavored, sugary, rich and delicious, slightly adhering to the stone." This variety makes a larger, darker-colored dried prune than the Prune d'Agen, and has sold in some cases at a higher price. It has recently been in disfavor in coast valleys for defective bearing, but is more satisfactory at some interior points. Bulgarian. — "An undetermined variety grown under this name, chiefly in the vicinity of Haywards,_ Alameda County ; above medium size ; almost round ; dark purple ; sweet and rich, with pleasant acid flavor ; tree a vigorous grower, and an early, regular and profuse bearer." — John Rock. Coe's Golden Drop (English). — Very large, oval, suture distinct, one side more enlarged, necked; light yellow, often dotted red to the sun; stalk three- fourths inch, rather stifif; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and rich, closely adher- ing to the pointed stone; shoots smooth, rather glossy. A standard late variety for canning. Silver Prune (Oregon). — Originated with W. H. Prettyman, who says: "It is a seedhng from Coe's Golden Drop, which it much resembles, but it is much_ more productive." Profitable as a bleached prune, but defective in bearing in some California districts. A red variety by bud variation is reported by Mr. J. G. Grundel of Alma. Golden Prune. — Originated from seed of Italian prune by Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukee, Oregon, and described by him as larger than Italian ; light golden color ; exquisite flavor ; dries beautifully. Bavay's' Green Gage; syn. Reine Claude de Bavay (French). — Large, round oval, greenish yellow, spotted with red, with small violet-colored longitudinal veins; flesh rather firm, juicy, sugary, rich, of fine quality, adhering slightly to the stone ; shoots smooth, leaves roundish, shining ; a free-grower and very productive. Ickworth Imperatrice (English). — Large to medium, obovate, purple, with irregular streaks of fawn color ; stalk medium ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, juicy, rich, mostly adhering to the rather small stone ; shoots smooth ; very late, hangs long on the tree, and keeps well; endures long shipment well. Fellenberg, syns. Large German Prune, Swiss Prune, Italian Prune. — Medium size, oval, pointed and tapering at both ends ; suture small, distinct ; dark purple, with dark blue bloom ; stalk one inch, scarcely sunk ; flesh green- ish yellow, juicy, sweet, delicious, parts from the stone; tree a free grower and very productive; late, excellent for drying. But little grown in California, but largely in Oregon. Coe's Late Red, syn. Red St. Martin. — Size medium, roundish, suture distinct on one side ; skin light purplish red, or dark red ; bloom thin, blue ; stalk three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh rather firm, crisp, rich, vinous; very late, shoots downy. LUTHER BURBANK'S NEWER VARIETIES Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, has not only produced the leading shipping plum of California, as already stated, but he has six others in the list of twenty varieties which are chiefly grown as plums and prunes. During the last few years he has introduced many other varieties not included in the foregoing list, which possess striking characters and some of which will become famous. They must, however, endure the test of trial and await later credit. Seedlings by other growers are also under- going a similar ordeal. 326 CALIS^ORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Two of Mr. Burbank's recent creations, introduced by Mr. George C. Roeding', are of striking characters, and are described as follows : Santa Rosa. — "It is a fine grower, the wood is very tough and the limbs will not break. It is a sure, regular bearer and bears always most abundantly. It does not have any off years. The fruit runs remarkably fine, even in size, and astonishingly smooth and clear of any defects. It is beautiful, delicious and a very fine carrier to Eastern markets. It will keep well in hot weather for a week after it is ripe, so there is no occasion to pick it half ripe in order to ship. I intend to plant it very largely myself, and to the exclusion of all other shipping plums." — 5. F. Lcib. Formosa. — "Unusually large, thick, healthy, light green foliage; strong, hard, wiry wood ; blooms with the Burbank and Abundance, and always escapes late spring frosts, and always bears profusely even when continuous rainy weather prevents full pollination in most other plums. No disease has ever found lodgment with Formosa. The fruit is of uniform size, averaging about six inches in circumference one way by eight the other. Fruit yellow with a pale bloom until nearly ripe, turning to a clear rich red. Flesh pale yellow, unusually firm, sweet, rich, delicious, with a delightful apricot flavor, nearly freestone. Formosa has been very thoroughly tested for its keeping qualities, which are unequaled except by Santa Rosa, Wickson, Burbank, and a few others." — Luther Burbank. CHAPTER XXIV THE QUINCE The quince enjoys California conditions to the utmost, and rewards the grower with large crops of very large and beautiful fruit. A quince weighing a pound is no curiosity, and it is unlikely that any city of the world can show such fine quinces at such low prices as San Francisco. The lesson from this fact is that the fineness of the fruit, and the evident adaptation of the State to its growth, should not alone be considered by the planter. The local consumption of quinces is naturally small, and it is chiefly for home preserving and jelly making. The commercial jelly makers use apple juice as the basis of nearly all their jellies, only using a little quince for flavoring, and some housewives follow the same course. The hope for profitable sale of the fruit in large quantities must therefore rest on distant markets, and though those well acquainted with the growth and sale of the fruit in the cities of the Mississippi Valley, have predicted a great demand for the California quince in that territory, experiences of shippers thus far have been varied, and not such as to induce the extension of our quince production, as present at least. But though the quince in California has at present narrow com- mercial limitations, a few trees should find a place in every orchard, for family use or local sale. CULTURE OF THE QUINCE The quince is readily grown from cuttings. Take good-sized shoots of well-matured wood of the current year's growth, after the leaves drop in the fall, and set out at once in nursery row in moist, alluvial soil, or in any loose soil which is well drained and can be kept moist enough by cultivation or irrigation. Quinces are planted at all distances apart, and are grown either as bushes or trees. Undoubtedly the best way is to plant about fourteen or sixteen feet apart, and prune into low standard tree form. This can be done much as already advised for other fruit trees. An annual cutting back of about half of the new growth, while forming the tree, will strengthen the trunk and limbs and prevent the running out of long leaders, which droop to the ground on all sides when laden with fruit, and are often broken by the weight and the wind. Owing to the disposition of the quince to throw out several small shoots at a single point, it is advisable, when forming the tree, to remove all buds but one, 327 328 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM just as the growth is starting. This will give one good, strong branch where it may be needed, instead of several weak ones. Pinching off shoots which start out too vigorously, or at unde- sirable points is, of course, advisable. Soils for the Quince. — As the quince grows naturally in moist, though not wet lands, many persons think it always does best in springy ground or along the banks of rivulets ; but though moist soils are preferable to dry, such positions are not essential to obtaining large crops of fine fruit. In fact, the quince, like most fruit trees, prefers a well-drained location, and does best on a soil which can be freely worked. It thrives when fanned by the ocean breeze and does fairly well in the interior, providing it has moisture in the soil, and in some situations will doubtless require summer irrigation. VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE Though notably all varieties of the quince are introduced by our nurserymen and carried by them in small stock, most plan- tations are of the "apple" or "orange" variety. The following may be enumerated, however, as growing in this State : Apple or Orange. — Large; bright yellow; the best. August and September. Rca's Alaimnoth. — A very large and fine variety of the Orange quince; a strong grower and very productive. Smyrna. — Introduced from Smyrna in 1897 by George C. Roeding of Fresno ; large, lemon yellow, handsome, tender and delicious after cooking ; keeps well ; tree a strong grower, with heavy foliage. Pineapple. — Originated by Luther Burbank and distributed by him in 1899 ; the result of a long effort to secure a quince which would cook tender like an apple. The name comes from its flavor, which is suggestive of the pineapple. Resembles Orange quince but is smoother and more globular. Portugal. — Very large, and fine flavor, turns a fine purple or deep crimson when cooked. The Chinese Quince. — A most extraordinary fruit, oblong, of immense size, often weighing from two to two and one-half pounds ; growth rapid and distinct. West's Maniiiwtli. — Originated by W. B. West, of Stockton, from seed received from Boston in 1853; of the Orange quince family; round; clear yellow; very large; fine flavor and for the class a very good keeper. Champion. — Fruit very large, fair and handsome; tree very productive, sur- passing any other variety in this respect ; bears abundantly when young ; flesh cooks as tender as an apple, and without hard spots or cores ; flavor delicate, imparting an exquisite quince taste and odor to any fruit with which it is cooked. PART FOUR— THE GRAPE CHAPTER XXV THE GRAPE INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA The grape grows in all parts of California, from near sea level on the coast to an elevation of 5000 feet or more on the mountains. It is contented, too, with nearly all fertile soils, from the deep valley loams, where the great fat, firm-fleshed grapes are grown for raisin and table grape shipments, to the shallow soils of the high foothill and mountain slopes, where the grapes are less in quantity, but of superior aromatic qualities. This wide adaptation gives an immense area suited for grape culture, but the chief reason for the achievement and the promise of the grape in Cali- fornia is in the fact that the European species, Vitis vinifera, thrives, and thus the Californian grower has command of all that Europeans have accomplished in centuries by developing special varieties of the species for special purposes. The grapes of the States east of the Rocky mountains are only grown in California in a small way because the European varieties are the only ones from which raisins can be made ; they also furnish the world's wine and brandy, and they give size, beauty and shipping quality beyond all comparison with American varieties. Wherever wealthy Eastern connoisseurs choose grapes for their glass houses, they select European varieties ; the Californian grows his "hot house" grapes in the open air. He also grows most of them with- out the cost of trellising, because the European varieties generally will bear well in short-pruned bush form. California has a large acreage of grape vines, and planting has been very active during the last few years, because good ^prices have prevailed, especially through the increased opportunity for fresh grape shipments. At the same time, new economic and commercial problems are con- tinually arising and the industry has to readjust itself to new con- ditions. Discussion of such problems does not come within the scope of a cultural treatise like this. It is the duty of the grower to keep himself up to date on such subjects by faithful reading of California periodicals and by participation in public assemblies in the grape interest. Concerning cultural difficulties, the protection of vine from its enemies and problems in vinification, special ■329 ooA CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM researches are constantly pursued by the University Experiment Station at Berkeley and publications are furnished on application. The culture of the grape is one of the great branches of Cali- fornia horticulture. Its three chief divisions are : Grapes for the table, grapes for wine, and grapes for raisins. In all these branches the product has far exceeded local requirements and has become an important item in the export trade of the State. The. attairxments of the industry can be roughly measured by the sta- tistics of the shipments of grapes, raisins, wine and brandy, which are given at the close of Chapter VI. THE GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA The grape has a very wide range in California. If the imme- diate seacoast and the higher altitudes on the mountains be excepted, the grape may be planted with a good chance of suc- cess anywhere if soil and local topography be suitable. As has been shown in Chapter I, the vine can approach quite close to the ocean if some shelter from prevailing cool winds be afforded, and quite high on the mountains if one keeps out of depressions where late frosts are frequent. In planting the grape in doubtful situations much depends upon choice of proper varieties. For example, in the cool air of the coast region and the short summer of the higher altitudes, early maturing varieties must be the main reliance, for late sorts will not receive heat enough to bring them to full maturity. Away from immediate coast influences, and up to perhaps three thousand feet or more on the sides of the Sierra, the grape is suc- cessfully grown both upon the floors of the valleys and upon the hillsides. But there is still need of choice both of special loca- tions and of varieties according to the purposes which the grower has in view. The coast valleys of the upper part of the State produce good table grapes, but they are unfavorable for the raisin industry because of the deficient sunshine and excessive atmospheric humidity of the autumn months. The best raisins are made in the dry, heated valleys of the interior, and the condi- tions which there develop the fullest quality of the raisin grape also develop the sugar in some kinds of wine grapes beyond a desirable percentage. Here again the choice of suitable varieties intrudes itself, for the varieties which yield light table wines in the coast valleys may yield heavy "heady" wines in the interior. Valleys, too, as a rule, although they yield larger crops of grapes and greater measure of wine than similar area on the hillsides, must yield the palm for quality to the warm soils of the slopes. And here enters the business proposition whether large amount and less quality is better than less amount and higher quality. To this there can be no general answer. It depends upon the SOILS FOR THE GRAPE 33]^ disposition which is to be made of the crop, and the demand for it. The coloring of certain varieties is a matter underlying their profitable production for fresh shipments and this is determined by local conditions concerning which the best information is actual observation of their effects. These few facts out of many which could be stated Avill serve to enforce the fact that wide as is the range of the grape, both localities and varieties for certain purposes must be intelligently chosen. Much has been learned during the last few years, but it will require the experience of another generation, perhaps, to make the matter clear. Soils for the Grape. — The grape will thrive on a great variety of soils, in fact, on any of those enumerated as fruit soils in Chapter III. There are thrifty vineyards on the light, deep valley loams, on the heavy clayey loams, on adobe, and on the red soils of the foothills. Even on shallow soils the grape will do well if given sufficient moisture, and on rocky subsoils it thrives if there be crevices for the roots to penetrate, or if the rock be shattered to admit the roots to permeable substrata. Standing water dur- ing the active period of the vine is, however, unfavorable to growth, and alkali is adverse to satisfactory results in wine mak- ing. Almost any soil which does not hold excess of water or is not tainted with alkali will do for the vine, although the plant appreciates good, deep soil, and will grow and bear fruit in pro- portion to its supply of it. Of course the economic question of ease of cultivation enters into the choice of soil for the grape, as for other fruits, but its claims are obvious and need not be enlarged upon. Length of the Grape Season. — By choice of early and late vari- eties the grape season extends over half a year in California, without recourse to artificial means of preservation. Where the fall rains are not very protracted, the late varieties sometimes remain in good condition on the vines until the winter pruning. Good grapes have been picked from the vines as late as the mid- dle of January. CHAPTER XXVI PROPAGATING AND PLANTING VINES The grape is propagated from seed or by layers, or by cuttings of various lengths. Growing from seed was somewhat resorted to in California to get stocks for resisting the phylloxera, but such wide variation in resistance occurred in seedlings that propaga- tion by cuttings, of varieties demonstrated to be best in this regard, has become universal. There is at present little dispo- sition to grow grape seedlings in the hope of securing better and hardier varieties, as is so largely done in other parts of the country. The vast numbers of varieties of the European species, vinifera, which we have to draw from, makes the effort for new seedlings of little object. Growing Vines from Seed. — Seed is easily removed from the grapes by crushing the berries and stirring the pulp rapidly in water. From one pound of good, fresh seed one might get from two to three thousand seedlings. Some advocate sowing grape seed in the fall, just as it is taken from the fruit, but best results are usually obtained by spring sewing, after danger from frost is over. It is advisable to keep grape seed moist for some time before sowing. Seed soaked one week in water, and after- ward allowed to lie in a heap for three weeks germinates quickly, starting in ten days or two weeks after being put in the ground. Professor Husmann advised pouring hot water on the seed and allowing it to cool, the seed remaining in the water for twelve hours, and after that it is kept for a week in a sack, exposed to the sun, and covered at night, the sack being moistened from time to time. The seed should be sown in the open ground, the soil having been worked deeply and finely, as for a garden. Sow the seed about an inch apart, in drills far enough from each other to admit the use of the cultivator in the summer; cover not to exceed an inch in depth, and after moderate pressing of the ground, cover the whole bed with rotten straw, which should be gradually removed as the sprouts appear above the ground. This mulch will not only retain moisture, but will prevent the surface from being crusted by heavy showers. Summer cultivation with cul- tivator and hoe should be given. 332 WAYS TO GROW GRAPli: VINES 333 Growing Vines by Layering. — This is another method of mul- tiplying vines which' is but little employed in California, because it is so much easier to secure plants by cuttings, as the vinifera species roots so readily. Layering consists in bending down and burying one of the lower canes so as to facilitate top and root growth from each of the buds. To hold the cane in place, stakes are used, the trench being left open until the shoots grow out and then, by covering the roots are developed. The cane must rest in moist earth, and usually has to be watered artificially, as well as treated to prevent evaporation. The following winter the cane is raised and a plant made at each node. Another use for layering is to fill a vacancy in the row, a cane being taken from the nearest living vine. In this case the layer must be set in a deep trench so as not to be torn out by the plow, and the layered cane is at once covered in with earth, all but one or two buds at the extremity, where the new vine is desired. Such a layer usually bears the second year and is then detached from the parent vine. Both the layers described are laid down early in the spring, before growth starts in the vine. Summer layers of the current season's growth are sometimes made, but are not usually satis- factory. Growing Vines from Cuttings. — This is the prevailing method in this State both to secure grafting stocks and to grow vines on their own roots. In growing from cuttings, dififerent policies are adopted, 4. e., placing the cuttings in permanent place in the vine- yard, or rooting them in nursery to be afterward transferred to the vineyard as "rooted vines." First, the various kinds of cuttings will be considered, and their placing mentioned later. Growth from Single Eyes. — The use of single eyes or single buds, the shortest possible form of cutting, is not large in Cali- fornia, but some growers have reported good results. The method is to prepare the cuttings with a half-inch or so of the cane on each side of the bud and plant them carefully, with the bud upwards, in well-prepared soil, covering the cutting completely, but very little under the sui-face. Success depends upon retention of mois- ture in the surface soil to induce rooting, and mulchmg is advis- able. The method of propagation, too, seems best adapted to the moister parts of the State, whence, in fact, most success with it has been reported. Besides economy of wood in getting a plant from each bud of the cane, which is sometimes an object, growing from single eyes is advocated because of the satisfactory root system secured, which much resembles that of a seedling. The use of single eyes is obviously better adapted to nursery than to field growth. 334 CAL,IFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The Use of Longer Cuttings.* — It was formerly considered good practice to leave a piece of old wood attached to the base of the cutting, on the ground that such cuttings always grew. Properly made cuttings. This practice is now very generally abandoned, as it often gives rise to weak and diseased vines. The piece of old wood always decays finally, and the decay may spread into the trunk and roots * Much of the following description of handling cuttings is taken bodily from the excellent University publications by Mr. F. T. Bioletti, viz.: Circular 26, "Selection and preparation of Vine Cuttings." Bulletin 180, "Resistant Vineyards — grafting, planting, cultivation."- Bulletin 193, "The Best Wine Grapes for California," etc. All these contain discussions of propagation methods. MAKING GRAPE CUTTINGS 335 of the vine. A good cutting should consist exclusively of one- year-old wood ; that is, the wood which has grown during the previous season. The form and length of the cuttings will depend on the use that is to be made of them. If they are to be used as scions for grafting they may be cut up in any way and of any length that is found convenient for handling and keeping them in good con- dition. If they are to be used for rooting either in the nursery or the vineyard it is most convenient to cut them up into the exact lengths which are to be planted. The length will depend altogether on the soil and climate where they are to be planted. They should be. of such a length that when planted the base of the cutting will be at the level where the conditions are most favorable to root formation. If the base is too deep, it will be too wet and too cold to develop roots. Roots will start higher up and the bottom part will be wasted, or worse still, may decay and injure the vine. If the base is too near the surface the whole cutting may dry out and die before its roots have developed sufficiently to supply it with water. In the moister soils of the cooler districts a cutting 10 inches long is sufficient for direct planting in the vineyard. In the drier and warmer interior a 14-inch to 16-inch cutting is better, while in the driest soils of the warmest districts it is often necessary to have a cutting 18 to 20 inches long. For planting in the nursery a 12 or 14-inch cutting is about the most convenient. If the soil of the nursery is wet and cold more of the cutting should be left above ground ; if, on the contrary, the soil tends to be hot and dry the cutting must be planted deeper and even covered up com- pletely. It is not necessary, or possible, to make every cutting of exactly the same length, because they should all terminate at each end at a node. A vine cane consists of nodes where the buds are and internodes between them. The pith is interrupted at each node by a woody partition (called the "diaphragm") which extends through the cane at each bud. In making a cutting, therefore, we should cut exactly through a bud both at the top and at the bottom. This will leave the wood}^ partitions, which will prevent decay at the bottom and drying out at the top. If removed, the pith in the upper internode will be exposed to alternate wetting and drying,- and may decay, thus weakening or killing the bud below. In planting, the cutting should be placed with just one bud above the surface of the ground, as indicated by the dotted line in the accompanying engraving. It is a great mistake to leave more than one bud out of the ground, as this increases the danger of drying out. 336 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Making and Caring for Cuttings. — Cuttings can be taken from the vines at any time after the fall of the leaf and before the spring flow of sap begins. The earlier cuttings — those taken before January — are more likely to make a successful start and after-growth than those cut later in the 'season. It is common, however, to defer preparation of cuttings till the pruning is done, be it early or late, and this will generally answer the purpose, if care be taken to secure the cuttings imme- diately at the pruning; but if the branches be allowed to lie upon the ground for days, exposed to sun, wind, or frost, before the cuttings are secured, their chances of growth are seriously lessened, and a good part of the failures in planting are due to such cuttings. Cuttings should be taken from the short-jointed, well-ripened wood of the previous year's growth, cut squarely and smoothly as already described. Cuttings from the outer ends of long canes are not so likely to root, nor to grow so vigorously, as those from stronger wood, from three-eighths to fiye-eighths of an inch diam- eter generally. Keep them dormant until the time comes to set them in the vineyard, else the tender shoots may get broken. To keep them back, place them, at the pruning, in trenches, about as deep as the length of the cuttings, on the north side of a close board fence or a building, cover with loose earth, and over that throw some straw and boards. Take care that the trenches are in moist but not wet ground as too much moisture rots the cuttings. If the ground has not been moist enough, and the cuttings seem dry or withered, plunge them in water to within three or four inches of their top, for a few days before setting, and do not let them dry again before planting. Rooting Cuttings in Nursery. — What has been written is in reference to cuttings designed for placing in permanent position in the vineyard, but, for the most part, applies as well to the preparation of cuttings for the nursery. For nursery treatment, however, shorter cuttings can be used than for field planting, because of the better cultivation and more generous moisture con- ditions which are usually provided. In preparation of ground for the rooting of vines and the planting of cuttings therein, the suggestions in Chapter VIII are directly applicable, as, to secure rooting of the cuttings, there is just as great need for deep and fine working of the soil, pressing of it around the cutting, and for careful culture during the grow- ing season, as there is for such treatment of fruit-tree seedling or root graft. It is just as necessary, too, that the rooted cuttings should be carefully lifted and guarded from drying out while on the way from the nursery to permanent place. The reader is, therefore, referred to Chapter VIII for suggestions on preparation^ BUDDING THE GRAPE 337 laying out, and care of nursery ground intended for the rooting of grape cuttings. To secure vines upon resistant roots recourse has recently been made by some growers to the cutting-graft which will be mentioned presently. There is a growing tendency to use rooted vines instead of cuttings in planting out vineyards, for, although the former cost several times as much as the latter, either in the time of the grower or in cash outlay, the balance is believed to be usually on the other side, when the uniform stand and more satisfactory growth secured by rooted vines are considered. BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE Working over the grape-vine is largely practiced in this State and is easily accomplished. The occasion is twofold : Replacing undesirable varieties with those of better quality, or in better market deraand, and in bringing the vinifcra varieties upon roots which resist the attacks of the phylloxera. The employment of resistant stocks has proved eminently satisfactory in this State, the resistant stock having been successfully installed even in the hole from which the dead vinifera root had been taken. For this reason resistant roots are largely relied upon in the planting of Budding from previous season's growth. new vineyards in infested districts, and also used to some extent in regions where the insect is not now found, by those who fear and desire to provide against its coming. And yet in the large planting of vineyard in the interior valley which has recently 338 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM been undertaken very little attention has been paid to resistant roots. It is so cheap to proceed with simple cuttings of the variety desired, and the vine comes into bearing so soon, that most planters are willing to take the risk of infection with phylloxera for it may be long delayed and several profitable crops may be realized before its arrival. This is a question which each planter must answer for himself. Budding the Grape. — Buds can be readily made to grow in grape canes, though budding is not largely used. Success can be had with the same method of budding that is common with fruit trees as described in Chapter IX. Insert the bud (which is taken from a cane of the previous season's growth) in the spring as soon as the bark will slip well on the stock, and before the run of the sap is too strong. Keep the cuttings in a cool place so their growth will be retarded, and then seize upon just the right condition of the stock, insert the bud under the bark of a cane of the previous season's growth, tie it around with a string, and the bud starts readily without further treatment. When its growth shows its ability to take the sap, the top of the stock is removed. Herbaceous budding is also practicable. It consists of taking buds from the current season's growth and Avorking them upon canes also of current growth by the usual shield budding process. Mr. Thomas Casalegna of San Martin succeeds well with this under these conditions: All buds put in from July 15 to August 15 start the same year, but may be injured by fall frosts. Those put in from August 15 to September 15 remain dormant until the following year, unless the stock is exceptionally vigorous. Bud- ding is most successful in the month of August. The buds should be taken from canes which have reached the stage of maturity indicated by the pith turning white and just before the bark turns yellow. Grafting the Vine. — Grafting in old vine roots is a simple opera- tion, and is performed in various ways. The principles involved in vine grafting are similar to those affecting tree grafting, as described in Chapter IX. The processes employed are also sim- ilar, but the graft requires less binding and covering, because it is usually made beneath the surface of the ground, and is, there- fore, less subject to accident, exposure, and drying out. Grafting in the old Stump. — This is resorted to when the char- acter of the vineyard is to be changed. Out of the many ways for working into old stumps, one introduces the scion by a side cut into the stock without splitting across as shown at C C in the engraving on page 341. The earth is removed from the old vine down to its first lateral roots, and the top is sawed off cleanly GRAFTING THE GRAPE 339 a few inches above the first laterals. A cut is then made into the side of the stump with a knife and mallet, as shown in the figure. The scion is then cut long enough so that one bud will remain above ground when the surface is leveled again, the bottom of Herbaceous buds which have taken hold. the scion being given an oblique wedge-shape, so as to fit the crevice in the stock. Some care is needed in shaping the wedge of the scion, so that the surfaces are in contact will give good results. If the stock is well made and the end of the scion so adjusted that the stock will pinch it when it is pushed into place, nothing more will be needed except to smear over the cut surface of the stump and the joint of the scion and stock with clay or with a mixture of two parts clay and one- part fresh cow manure. If the scion is held firmly and sealed in with this mixture, it usually needs no tying, and the hole can be carefully filled with loose earth, with a strong stake to mark the place of the graft, and to which the new growth can be securely tied afterwards. Another common method of grafting beneath the ground is to split the stump across its center, as is done in top-grafting fruit trees as shown in Chapter IX, and one or two scions inserted. If two are used and both grow, the weakly one is afterward sup- pressed. In this cross cleft graft some grafters rely upon the stock to hold the scion without tying, and daub it over with the clay mixture, care being taken to fill and cover the split in the 340 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Stock to exclude water. Others put a ligature around the split stump, as shown in the engraving. Strips of cotton cloth answer well for this purpose. Tying offers better security from knocking! out the graft with the cultivator. In grafting into very tough old stumps, some growers leave a slim wedge of wood in the cleft with the scion to prevent the stock from closing too forcibly upon the scion. Side Grafting. — Side grafting the vine is commended by some growers. It consists in inserting a graft b)^ a cut into the side of the stock, the method being essentially the same as that employed with fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, except that in side grafting the vine the top is not amputated, but is allowed to bear its crop and is then removed the following winter. The next summer the scion will bear a crop, and the vine is worked over without cessation in its bearing. Herbaceous Grafting. — This term is applied to a graft in which the scion of the current season's growth is set by a cleft graft into canes also of the current season's growth, while both scion and cane are elastic, but not too soft. The method has not been usually successful in this State, apparently because of the dryness of the summer air. Still some satisfactory results are reported. Mr. Casalegna of Santa Clara county, whose success with herbaceous buds has been noted, does well also with soft- wood grafting by the whip-graft method. He says it is most successful in June, provided the scions are hard enough. The pith must be white. In a strong-growing vineyard grafting may be done in July. The leaves are taken off the scions when they are cut. If they are to be used immediately they are placed in water; if to be carried some distance they are placed in a wet sack. Tie the grafts with German knitting yarn, not with rafifia. The season for herbaceous grafting will, of course, vary according to the locality. Hot weather immediately following the work is fatal to most of the grafts. If two or three cool days follow the insertion of the scions he obtains an almost perfect stand. Care of Scions. — Scions should be kept cool and moist enough to prevent drying but not wet enough to cause decay, as has already been described in the keeping of cuttings. Time of Grafting. — Grafting into old vine stumps is done in February, March and April in different parts of the State, March being the month usually chosen for the work. If a spring graft fails, the stump may be regrafted in August or in the following spring. In regrafting, the stump is cut off again below the pre- vious cleft. The time for the work is when the sap has ceased flowing, usually from the first to the tenth of August. GRAFTING THE GRAPE 341 The recourse to resistant roots to escape the phylloxera has been attended with some disappointment because the wild roots at first widely used proved only partially resistant. Recently, in the main through employment of French selected varieties of the American wild species, stocks with satisfactory resistance. Methods of field grafting grape vines A. Whip graft for stocks 1-2 to 2-3 of an inch in diameter. B, BB. Whip graft for stocks 2-3 to 3-4 of an inch in diameter. C, CC. Cleft graft for stocks 3-4 of an inch in diameter and for old stumps. 342 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM larger growth and vigor and adaptation to different California soils have been secured. Notable success has been attained in the habilitation of vineyards on the basis of resistant roots. The University Experiment Station, at Berkeley, has maintained lead- ership in this direction by publication of specific information which can be had by application to the Director. Instances of successful herbaceous grafts. Resistant Varieties. — American wild vines are characterized by very marked differences in degree of resistance to phylloxera, and especially in adaptability to soils. Not only do species differ in this respect, but varieties of the same species show widely differ- ent characteristics. As a result of the process of selection varieties have been secured which are far above the average of the species in vigor of growth and development, degree of resistance and gen- eral suitability for resistant root purposes. The few varieties which have thus demonstrated particular excellence in France and have given notable indications of success in California, are presented by Mr. Bioletti as follows : The varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be most used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia X Rupestris 3306. Riparia X Rupestris 3309, Riparia So- lonis 1616, Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202, Aramon X Rupestris 2, Riparia gloire, and Riparia grande globre. These are all varieties T^ a 9 »3 O ^- iu d ^ 2 i-i O m ^ H-) b " ^ § - o o ■^ c I* t! c T) 3 •S 5 £ S 5 ^ ^ § <» a '5 "O t! o >. 4) m to ^i 13 „, t^ S >5 MH p IT a> w p to fe i> > * CO v o o (U " O ^ UJ ^ to >,^^ 3 .-O S ■« r^ Ul M fi 3 O g 1 CO u •2 ^ !3 - 1 o « csj 3 "2 fe S I' 3 ir, =^ Eh b Pi .1 ■M 3 to IS ;3 o s- .S '+j „ O -!->+-' o "3 o <3J S oj (P •;:3 0) ■^ n, '^ .s !lli = (P cS ^ 'C _r; o [0 2 :i t^ w ^ ft o biO to 0) u C be >> c ^ nS o o D o TO -^ '^ to O C 03 f: oi to by -o to 03 o 3 ""■ o J3

!h S ^ 6 ^, o -1 ^ CI u to fl ^ cS bx) o ® IH g c +^ fe 'E 0) >) ttf) 0) ^J S ^ O o (B oi (U <" to ft M to be !■"■•.■;■-■ '^^^r^^/ ^^•1 ^ •'; - ''.':C :• ■ ■■ jryk ■ : 1 ■^^T-^i; ^mm >^';-> ^^^m;. BS^ *r ■.:^^ p^^ W^ [Ly.. B^" -' '^■H mmk^ 1 J^ljJ '■■"« M p^v^m ^liMl: '^1 2L •£^gmmW ri^ y ^'"- • ^^^■■^*#^ ^j^JI L^.^.m^ . * ^^'"^^ 'T?'':*'?-^ ^ >V^ ■■^j --. :* • -■ -* ^vti^** '■■^^F ' ■»*, lUftf^ m^mm^ ■..; .» ..,:, . - ~,i-" '. . #^>| Cover Crop in Orange Orchard of Mr. W. M. Bristol, East Highlands. ent time, the annual shipments of deciduous orchard fruits fresh dried and canned ; the grape, both fresh, as raisins and as wine and brandy, has reached a total value of about forty millions of dol- lars — almost all of it from the regions of California north of the Tehachipi mountains. The engrossing recjuirements of this grandly successful undertaking gave northern growers, packers and capi talists no leisure to think seriously of citrus fruit planting— tha't: was left for a decade and a half to the special attention of the southern California people, and they developed it splendidly for PRECOCITY OF THE ORANGE TREE 427 the settlement and upbuilding of their portion of the State — reach- ing a total value of product sold beyond State lines, of about eighteen millions of dollars. The chief reason, then, why, although citrus adaptations were demonstrated very early in the upper part of the State, the commercial planting was largely postponed to the Early Bearing of Budded Orange Tree in California. present decade, was that the people were too busy developing a greater fruit industry to which their conditions were superlatively suited. During the last few years new interest has arisen in citrus fruit growing in northern California and all the scattered experiences of the last half century are becoming of inestimable value in guid- ing this planting aright. There are several important reasons why the north has now turned to the orange. 428 THE ORANGE IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 429 First : Deciduous fruit production has reached large volumes, margins have become reduced to those which assert themselves in any well established and extensive industry, and some of the early glamour has gone out of it It will henceforth proceed soberly, and consequently safely, to grand aggregates which no one can foresee, but it is readily demonstrable that with the present rush of population to the more wintry districts of the Pacific slope, the opening of Asiatic connections and the victories being attained each year in the distant East and in Europe, our production of deciduous fruits and their products will go steadily forward. In- creased interest in citrus fruit planting in northern California is in no sense a menace to the deciduous fruit industry. It is merely a new graft upon a very vigorous industrial stock. Second : Owing to natural conditions which will be briefly explained presently, orange growing can be pursued at the north without competition with the main crop in southern California. The northern California crop will be consumed before the bulk of the southern crop moves from the trees. Third: All California oranges have characteristics and quali- ties which are recognized as of distinctive excellence, and therefore have a commercial advantage, which, under a wise system of pro- tection against free entry of cheap tropical fruit, enables them to compensate the high grade American labor which is employed in their growth, packing and marketing, and leave a reasonable return to require the grower's efifort and investment. This being so, the production, so long as protection is' continued, justifies extension of the effort to produce an American orange for Americans. Fourth : Semi-tropical fruits are nature's demonstration of the existence in a place of a climate which promotes health, comfort and a maximum of physical and intellectual attainment in mankind. Probably all that is urged against tropical climates as enervating and depressing of human standards is true, but not a word of it applies to an arid semi-tropical climate, in which the blessing of dry air and freedom from the debilitating effect of temperature extremes rejuvenate the old and weary and bring the young to stature and stalwartness which all newcomers notice in the rising generation of Californians. ' Of the existence of such conditions a well-grown orange of the California type is unimpeachable evi- dence. It has brought a hundred thousand people and a hundred millions of capital to southern California which would not have come otherwise. In the conscious strength with which northern California has recently awakened to make systematic effort for settlement and development, the orange is accepted as an exponent of the possession of those natural characters of sky and air and soil, constituting the most desirable environments of human life — the highest desirability in the location of a home. 430 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Fifth : It is but a corollary of the foregoing that the successful and profitable production of citrus fruits is par excellence the motive force in promoting colony efforts and in drawing into hor- ticulture the class of people which constitutes the most desirable element in the upbuilding of a great State — people who know what is noble and desirable in human life and desire it for their children; people who know how to secure what their aspirations and tastes approve; people who by intellectual force and training and by suc- cessful professional and industrial experience are prepared for at- tainment in the higher horticultural arts and in the new commer- cial efforts which make those arts profitable. The splendid devel- opment of southern California communities upon a horticultural basis points the way to achievements in other suitable parts of the State, and the citrus fruits become then the token, not alone of superior natural endowments, but of the type of manhood which can use them to the best advantage. None know this better than the southern California people themselves, and it is a demonstra- tion of the desirability both of the natural resources of northerr California in citrus lines and of citrus fruit culture itself, that in all the newer citrus regions at the north, there are to be found among the leading planters and promoters, southern Californians who have sold their early plantings at the south at high prices to newer comers and have started anew in the northern districts, where they find cheaper land, more abundant water supply and fruit which is marketed at an earlier date. DISTRIBUTION OF CITRUS CONDITIONS IN CALIFORNIA The claim has been made above that citrus culture conditions exist in suitable situations in central and northern California from Shasta to San Diego county, and historical evidence has been cited to prove it. It is so surprising that practically the same climate should be found through a distance of between seven and eigh'. degrees of latitude that many, even of those who have lived in California, do not appreciate the fact, nor know the explanation of it. An effort is made toward such explanation in Chapter I of this work. Even at the risk of repetition the subject will be reviewed with special reference to the occurrence of conditions affecting the growth of citrus fruits. First : California is not only blessed with benign ocean influ- ences, but northern California is additionally protected from low winter temperatures by the mountain barrier of the Sierra Nevada, extending southward from the multiplied masses of protecting elevations in the. Shasta region, while southern California enjoys the protection of the Sierra Madre and other uplifts on the north CALIFORNIA CITRUS CONDITIONS 43;[ and east of her citrus region. Northern blizzards are, therefore, held back from entrance to California and are forced to confine themselves to southerly and easterly directions over the interior parts of the ^Pacific slope, while the great blizzards of the north- v^est traverse the Mississippi valley and, if they have sufficient impetus, extend to the gulf and carry destruction to semi-tropical growths even in northern Florida. The ocean then bringing warmth and the high mountains defending against cold, combine their influences to give nearly the whole length of California semi- tropical winter temperatures. Second : Although this striking similarity does exist, in citrus districts north and south, there is another even more startling proposition involved and that is the influence exerted by the presence of the coast range as the western boundary of the great interior valley of the State, and intervening between that great valley and the ocean. The several ridges of the coast range with their enclosed small valleys serve as a colossal wind-break against ■northwest winds, which might otherwise, now and again, bring a temperature too low for citrus fruits, where now they are safe from injury. The chief effect of these mountains is to protect the northern interior valleys and foot-hills from the raw winds of early springtime and to allow the sun as he crosses each day higher in his course, to expend the increasing heat directly in promot- ing vernal verdure. The result is a protected interior region in central and northern California, of quick growth in all lines — early pasturage, early grain harvest and early fruit ripening. The valleys of southern California, which have thus far been largely developed, have no high range between them and the ocean. They are open on the west because the coast range of mountains takes a sharp turn eastward in the southern part of the State and afterward curves southward, passing along the eastern side of the chief productive region. The influence of this opening of the valleys of southern California is not so unfavorable as such opening would be at the north, because ocean winds are gentler and warmer there, and there is winter service rendered by this eastward trend of the southern California mountains, as has been said, but the fact remains that the absence of high barriers against ocean influences retards the springtime and causes a slow development of summer conditions and late ripening of fruits, while the presence of high barriers at the north so hastens springtime and summer heat, that early summer fruits in California are shipped from the north to the south — a thing which does not occur anywhere else in the northern hemisphere. It is due to this same early start which the local topography gives to the orange, followed by the high summer heat which is essential to the development of a good orange, that the orange reaches an acceptable commercial condition at an earlier 432 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM date ill suitable interior places at the north and is at present being almost wholly shipped to eastern markets before free movem'ent begins at the south. This early marketing also relieves the growers of much anxiety and costly frost fighting, because the fruit, which is always more susceptible to injury than the tree, is out of the way before the frost period, which usually begins about Christmas,, is reached. There is in southern California, east of the mountains, a district which has thus far been but scantily developed where protection from ocean influences tends to early ripening of fruits. The same is true of some parts of Arizona adjacent, and small quantities of early fruits move westward and northward from that region. That region is not in view in this discussion, for too little has been accomplished in citrus lines to warrant conclusions which the present confident planting in that part of the State will soon supply. Third : Still another feature of local topography must bd mentioned as influencing citrus conditions north and south and explaining why winter temperature has fallen no lower at the north than at the south. At the north the snow fields of the high mountains are farther from the valleys and mesas, where citrus fruits are grown^ than they are at the south. The benches and low foot-hills of the Sacramento Valley, for instance, are forty to fifty miles from the high range to the east of them and there intervene countless ridges of high foot-hills and small valleys, and before the citrus plantations can be reached by the descending air currents they are considerably warmed by rustling over so much land which has been warmed by the ample winter sunshine. From many of the southern citrus regions one looks almost directly upward and outward upon the grand snow-clad mountains, whose crests are but fifteen to twenty-five miles away. It is a splendid scenic efifect — ripening oranges and dazzling snow fields in the same glance of the eye, but it is sometimes not so grand as a pomo- logical proposition. Fourth : Another protective influence for citrus fruit trees dur- ing the frosty period of December and January, is the low canopy of land fog which covers the interior valley of central and northern California much of the time at that season of the year and checks the radiation of ground heat, which is apt to take place rapidly under a clear sky. Though the nights are thus often protected from frosts, the day temperature is held low, which is also of account, because the citrus trees are held dormant, which is desir- able, as there is no fruit to ripen. On the other hand, the higher day temperature in southern California is valuable in that district because the later fruit is still maturing. The winter aspects of the THE ORANGE OUTLOOK 433 trees in northern and southern CaHfornia are therefore quite dif- ferent : in the north,. the dark green of dormancy; in the south, the gold of the fruit and the oft-protuding light green of the winter wood growth. In both regions all growth conditions seem good : each after its own kind, and the two, in a sense, complementary. In 1910 the outlook is for rapid extension of the orange product, particularly in the suitable lands on the eastern rims of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. The orange product of the north- ern district is about one-eighth of the southern and will increase rapidly, for of about two million trees now growing, only half have attained bearing age and planting is still being freely under- taken. Three-quarters of all the trees north of the Tehachipi mountains are in the citrus districts of eastern Tulare county. THE GENERAL OUTLOOK FOR THE ORANGE At the present time orange growing has a very promising out- look. The prospect for much larger consumption, at the east and abroad, is very encouraging. The orange is passing from its old status as a luxury to its proper recognition as a staple winter fruit for dwellers in cold climates. For such use the agreeable acid and sprightly flavor of the California fruit especially commend it. The consumption of the fruit per capita, away from California, is still small and will be greatly increased when people know better its desirability and the reasonable prices at which it can be secured. This wider distribution is to be confidently expected and the rapid increase in population through the great west and north is each year giving California growers nearer markets of growing consumptive capacity. It will be of great advantage tc the whole country, as well as to California, to have production steadily increased. The development of the orange industry in California to utilize the splendid natural adaptations which have been discussed, to make good the large investments which have been made, and to afford a field for the profitable employment of the high quality of American citizenship which has entered the list of producers, sev- eral things are essential. Plrst, the advancement of horticultural art and science. Second, the maintenance of the protective tariff, as has already been suggested. Third, the extension of co-opera- tive handling and distribution of the product as now embodied in the successful operation of the California Fruit Growers' Ex- change and its auxiliaries in all the producing districts. Fourth, the pursuit of systematic and intelligent inquiry and experiments into the durability of the fruit in transit as affected by cultural and commercial practices,' and the reformation of policies and methods in accordance with the results of such investigation as 434 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM conducted by Mr. G. Harold Powell of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture and his associates. Every grower of oranges should familiarize himself with this work.* SOILS AND SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE While citrus conditions do exist through large areas of Cali- fornia, there is still danger of loss and disappointment through unwary individual investments and unwise locations of citrus colony enterprises. The tracts of land for orange planting even in a favorable citrus climate are limited in area and every citrus climate has numerous places where local meteorological conditions will prove destructive to the profit of the enterprise, if not to the life of the trees. The orange is a hardy tree, judged within its temperature limits, but there is no money in a tree which is sub- jected to any kind of hardship. For this reason the selection of a good depth of strong, free loam should be made, for such is essential not only to good growth of the young tree, but to its support through the long productive life which the orange enjoys. Depth of good soil is not only a storehouse of plant food, which will postpone the use of purchased fertilizers, but it is a reservoir of water so that irrigation can be applied in larger amounts at longer intervals. While it is quite possible to grow an orange tree and to secure good fruit on shallower soils, if conditions are kept just right by frequent use of water and fertilizers in just the right amounts, such conditions impose heavy burdens in their constant requirements of extra care and expenditure, and these are handicaps of no small economic importance. The tree can not live upon climate as a man may, because a tree can not speculate; it must have a good foundation in the earth as well as a good outlook in the sky. Growing orange trees on defective soils has brought disap- pointment and loss in all parts of California. Ample supplies of irrigation water available have encouraged over-irrigation where trees have been planted above hardpan, and drainage is absent. Dying-back and yellow leaf have appeared in some groves and have been accounted for by digging to find the roots bedded ij mud and slush. All plantings over clay sub-soils should be guarded against this danger. Digging deep holes and filling them with good soil is setting a trap for the future failure of the tree unless the deep hole is properly drained by the nature of the sub-soil or by artificial provision. On the other hand, planting over a gravelly sub-soil is often disappointing, because the water passes through the sub-soil as through a sieve and the tree shows distress although * "The Decay of Oranges While in Transit from California," by G. Harold Powell, Pomologist in charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage. Bulletin 12."?, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D. C, 1908. SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE 435 generous amounts are applied to the surface. Wide observation through the State teaches that such warnings are needed by the unwary. There has also been injury to trees from planting over sub-soils carrying excess of lime.* Local temperature conditions even in sections generally suited to orange culture should be carefully ascertained. Frosty places must be avoided. A few feet difference in elevation may change profit to loss, but one must not therefore draw the hasty conclusion that all small elevations are favorable. The experience of the last few years shows that nothing is, on the whole, more dangerous than the warm bottom land in a small elevated valley which seems natur- ally protected on all sides. There are many such places which are far more treacherous than the uplands of the broad valleys, which may be considerably lower. The benches around the sides of the small valley may be safe and the bottom of the same valley dan- gerous because there is no adequate outflow for cold air to the large valley below. Look out for small valleys which have divides of crumpled hills where they debouch into the main valley. Cold air can be dammed and held back ; consequently the low land of a small valley may be worse than lower land in the main valley, because in the latter there are air currents which prevent accumu- lation of cold air in particular places. These air movements make some plantings on the upper plains of the main valley safe, though the whole region may seem to the eye rather flat and low, but, of course, broad sinks of the main valley may also be dangerous. Too great elevations are to be guarded against. Where one approaches the reach-down of mountain temperatures and loses the warming influences of the valley mesas, the danger line is at hand. An ample water supply is essential. Small waterings which may bring satisfactory growth to a young tree are no measure of the needs of a bearing tree. The orange is using water all the year, as discussed in the chapter on Irrigation. Its crop requires nearly a year to reach maturity. Both in leaf growth and fruit growth it nearly doubles the activity of the decidous tree and all the time it is pumping water with its roots and pouring forth water into the air through its exposed surfaces. No investment in orange planting can be profitable without assurance of adecjuate water supply. PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE The orange is grown from cuttings, layers, and seeds. Growth from the seed is the method almost exclusively followed, and by far the best, but the others will be mentioned briefly. Growth from Cuttings. — This method of propagation is de- scribed in the chapter on Propagation. * "Marly Subsoils and Chlorosis of Citrus Trees," by E. W. Hilgard. Circular 27, University Experiment Station, Berkeley. ' , 436 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Growth from Layers. — The orange roots readily by layering, the drooping branches being partly cut through, buried in the soil with the terminal shoot above the ground. Layers must be kept moist. Layering may be employed to obtain a few plants easily, but, other- wise, it cuts no figure' in propagation. Layers and cuttings, of course, reproduce the original variety without recourse to budding. Growth from Seed. — The orange is grown upon seedlings of the common or sweet orange ; the bitter orange or orange of Seville, generally called "Florida sour stock," and of the Pomelo or Grape Fruit. Good plump seed should be selected in growing orange seedlings either for their own fruitage or to use as stocks for budding. When seedlings for fruiting are grown, select seed from a choice variety in a situation where other citrus species are not grown; but the orange can not be trusted to come true from seed, and, more than this, the seedling class for fruiting purposes has been practically abandoned as unprofitable to plant, though fruit from old seedling trees is occasionally sold at a profit. In securing seed the fruit is allowed to rot and when thoroughly decayed, it is pulped by mashing in a barrel, and the mass is washed, a little at a time, on a coarse sieve, the pulp passing through, and the seed being caught on the wires, and pieces of skin thrown out. The plump seed will sink if thrown into water, and the imperfect can be skimmed from the top. The seed should never be allowed to dry, and unless it is to l)e sown at once, should be stored by mixing with moist sand, from which it can be afterwards removed by sifting ; or it can be kept for a time in water, changing the water from time to time to prevent souring. The best tmie for sowing orange seed is after the ground has become warm in the spring. Orange seedlings are grown either in boxes or in the open ground. In either case a rich sandy loam which Avill not bake should be secured or artificially made by mixing sand with rich garden loam. Boxes of about two square feet area and six inches deep are convenient to handle. The bottom should have holes, or sufficient crevices for good drainage. Fill the boxes about four inches with the prepared soil, place the seeds about an inch and a half apart each way, and sift over them about an inch of the soil., or a little less of the soil, and a layer of clear sand if it is at hand. It is essential that the soil should be kept moist, and light sprinkling daily or every other day with water that has been warmed by standing in the sun, is desirable. Seed can be sown in boxes in the house at any time, if plenty of light and heat are given. If the boxes are to be out-of-doors, it is best to sow in the spring, and to rip up a cover of cheap cotton cloth, suspended about a foot above the surface, to prevent effect of frost at night, and of burning THE ORANGE NURSPJHY 437 by sun heat by clay. The seedlings usually appear in about- six weeks, and with good care in weeding and keeping sufficiently, but not excessively, moist, they will make a growth of about a foot the first season. Some growers collect the boxes in a sheltered place, and build over them a lath house, tacking on old sacks or other cloth, to shield from sun and frost. The lath house keeps animals from running over the boxes, etc. Growing seedlings in an open bed involves about the same oper- ations. To guard against intrusion, it is advisable to make board sides to the bed about a foot high, and to make lath frames which will reach across, resting on the edge boards. A cloth sun-and-frost shade is also desirable, to be laid over the lath frames when it seems needed. Beds should be made narrow enough so that one can easily reach half way across from each of the long sides for weeding, etc. In open seed beds it is usual to sow the seed broad- cast. The Orange Nursery. — Planting out in nursery is usually done after the ground is thoroughly warmed in the spring, and the seed- lings are then about a year old. The preparation of nursery ground and the planting out of the seedlings can be done as described in a b c Root systems of seedlings. a Florida sour. b Pomelo. c Sweet seedling. 438 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Chapter VIII. Orange seedlings should, however, be given greater distance apart than is usual for deciduous trees, because the orange remains longer in nursery, and because it is often desirable, when taking up, to sack the ball of earth embracing the roots. If the roots are not to be sacked, about nine inches will do between the plants; if to be sacked, the distance should be twice as great. The rows should not be too close in the orange nursery. If horse cul- tivation is to be used, at least four feet between the rows should be allowed, and even greater distance is desirable. In taking the seed- lings from the seed beds, a few should be lifted at a time, and their roots kept shaded and moist until the ground closes on them in the nursery row. To get an even stand in the nursery, small and weak plants should be placed by themselves, or set in boxes to take another year before going into nursery. Young trees in nursery are very liable to frost injury, and it is wise to protect them by some sort of a cover during the winter. A framework covered with cypress brush is often used, the whole being cleared away in the spring, to allow of summer cultivation. Cultivation of trees in nursery is about the same as with deciduous fruit trees. The horse should be used, and the surface kept per- fectly pulverized. The cultivator should follow irrigation as soon Bearing Pomelo budded to orange: leaving side branch to keep up circulation. as the soil will admit of it. Frequency of irrigation of nursery depends, of course, upon local conditions. Some give two or three irrigations, by running the water in a little trench alongside the rows, at intervals of two weeks, for a time after planting, and then irrigate once a .month during the summer. It is important that irrigation should not be continued too late into the fall, because BUDDING AND GRAFTING ORANGES 439 the young tree should harden its wood before cold weather. Nor is it desirable that the growth be too rapid. A good growth of sound Avood is better than extra size. Length of Time in Nursery. — Seedlings are usually budded after being one or two years in the nursery, or at two to three years from the planting of the seed. At a convenient time in the winter the lower shoots and thorns are removed from the seedlings, so as to leave a clear stem of about six inches for the convenience of the budder. BUDDING THE ORANGE' The orange root is the best foundation for an orange tree, and the seedling sweet orange has been the main reliance. The seed- ling of the Florida sour orange has been used to some extent to escape gum disease. It has not been entirely free, though conceded to be less subject to the trouble. Oranges have also been worked upon pomelo seedlings, which force a strong growth, root deeply and are satisfactory. Of course many lemon, and recently many pomelo trees, have been worked over to the orange, but in these cases the orange root was below the other wood. All lemon roots are not suitable for the orange. The Japanese practice of dwarfing with the citrus trifoliata has never prevailed in this State. Recently the trifoliata stock has been used considerably to secure earlier ripening of fruit, and the tree claimed to be sufficiently free growing, but experience favors the other xoots for standard trees. Orange top on lemon trees eighteen months after budding. ^^Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Budding' is almost exclusively adopted for working in desirable varieties. The best time to bud is about the time the new growth starts on the seedling in the spring, though some practice budding in midsummer and fall. Good, well-matured buds only should be used ; those from both base and tip of the shoots are frequently defective. The method of budding described in Chapter IX is that usually employed in budding citrus trees, and the rules for loosen- ing the ligature, etc., are similar. Midsummer buds are apt to have soft growth at the coming of cold weather; fall buds remain dor- mant until spring; spring buds start to grow almost immediately, and have the benefit of the whole summer season for growth and maturing of wood. After the bud has started out w^ell, the top of the stock should be removed at a short distance above the bud, and suckers on the old stock should be continually looked for and removed. The tender shoot of the bud may be protected by tying to the stub, and when the growth of the bud has become strong enough to support itself, the old stock is smoothly sawn away above the bud and the wound covered with liquid grafting wax, or paint. The care of budded trees in nursery is similar to that of the seed- lings of the previous year. If too great a tendency to branch low down is observed, the tips of the lower shoots should be pinched, but it is not desirable to underprune much ; the retention of the lower branches thickens the stem. Sometimes a very rank growth on the bud will need a stake to strengthen it or to protect it from blowing out. The intrusion of gophers and other vermin should be resolutely and persistently guarded against. Working over Old Trees. — Old orange trees can be transformed into improved varieties either by budding or by grafting, as de- scribed at the close of Chapter IX, though re-working by grafting has been almost entirely superseded by budding. The common way to bud over an old tree is to cut back part of the branches and force out new shoots, the best of which are selected for budding and the others removed. Sometimes only a part of the tree is removed at first, and when the new buds have grown out on that, the other part is similarly treated. Others remove the whole top except a single low branch to maintain sap circulation until after the new buds start. Recently the practice of budding into old bark has been widely adopted as the quickest way to secure a new tree. As with working into old bark in other trees, it is necessary to take an older bud and a larger, thicker shield of bark behind it, than when budding into younger stock. Some remove the wood from the back of the shield, but generally it is not done. The following is an outline of practice approved by the Redlands Horticultural Club : PLANTING THE ORANGE 441 Keep the buds carefully in a damp cloth. Slide the bud upward, above the cross-section. Bind around the bark, steering clear of the buds proper, a wrapping of waxed cloth, already prepared, three-fourths of an inch wide. When enough of this has been wrapped about the tree trunk or branch to keep the bark and the bud in place, rub the end of the muslin strip with the handle of the budding knife, down upon the muslin already wound about the bark. This will hold the waxed wrapping firmly in place. From ten days to two weeks after the buds have been inserted, cut ofif the entire top of the tree, above the buds, and cover the stump of trunk or large branch with grafting wax — applied hot — with a brush. As soon as the wax is put on — and it must be put on as soon as the top is sawed off — whitewash the tree, over the waxed cloth, also over the bud, over every part of the tree that is left, except the stump ends, to which the hot wax has been applied. Immediately the buds will begin to grow. From ten days to two weeks after whitewashing take off the muslin wrap, and, if the work has been done carefull)', in accordance with the above directions, 90 per cent of the buds will develop- — perhaps more. A prime necessity for this work is a razor-sharp budding knife. There is a variation in practice in cutting back the stock above the bud. Instead of cutting back at once, heroically, as just de- scribed, some girdle the branch or cut back part of the top at a distance above the bud, cutting down to the bud after it shows good strong growth, tying the young growth to the stub at first to protect it. Others insert the bud in the fall, cutting back to start the bud after the fruit on the old top is gathered. It is very im- portant to watch for suckers below the bud and remove, or pinch them back, to make a bunch of leaves. The growth from the bud itself often needs pinching to induce low branching. Twig-budding can also be used on the orange by the method already described for the olive. Budding in old trees is best done in the spring, when the sap flow is strong, but, as stated, can be done in the fall and the bud allowed to lit dormant until spring. PLANTING ORANGES IN ORCHARD As already stated, orange trees are planted out at greater age than deciduous fruit trees. Budded trees are given one or two years' growth in nursery and one or two years' growth on the bud. which, added to the year in seed bed, makes them three to four years of age from the sowing of the seed. Seedlings, to be planted out as such, are allowed two years' growth in the nursery, which makes them three years old from the seed. For this length of time and the unusual care involved in their growth, taking up from nur- sery and preparation for carriage, orange trees of planting age arc of much greater cost than deciduous fruit trees. Since the growing of seedlings for their fruit has practically ceased, the distance between the trees in orchard planting has ranged 'from twenty to twenty-four feet. All the varieties now propagated are quick to bear fruit, and if properly shaped will find ample space in these distances — the greater distance on the richer soil as a rule. ' 442 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Preparation of land for orange planting by deep and thorough cultivation and laying off to secure straight rows by the square, quincunx, and hexagonal methods have been quite fully discussed in Chapter X, and Chapter XI has suggestions for planting, many of which are applicable to the setting of orange trees. There are, however, special methods employed in lifting the orange trees from the nursery rows and in placing them in permanent position, which will be outlined. The orange, in common with other evergreen trees, is exceed- ingly sensitive to exposure of its roots, and for this reason the handling of the young trees is very different from that of ordinary orchard trees. Thiee ways are employed for securing this constant moisture of the roots, as follows : Packing in Wet Straw. — As fast as the trees are lifted from the nursery ground by digging carefully so as to loosen and secure all the roots possible, they are packed in damp and partially rotten straw, proper receptacles being at hand so that the roots are not exposed by carrying them any distance. In taking up, all roots bruised by the spade are cleanly cut with a sharp knife. The tap- root is cut away at a depth of a foot or so from the surface. This use of wet straw, if faithfully carried out, will answer well in taking trees short distances for planting, but the use of a puddle on tne roots before packing in damp straw gives additional assurance oi success. Puddling the Roots. — This method is also used for deciduous fruit trees, as mentioned in Chapter XL It consists in having a thin puddling of loamy soil with preponderance of sand rather than of clay, into which the roots are dipped as soon as the tree is lifted from the nursery. This mixture, which should be about as thick as cream, may be made in a hole in the ground, or, better still, in a box or cask large enough to allow complete plunging of the roots. As soon as dipped, and with all the mud which will adhere, the roots are packed in wet straw. If the trees are to remain thus packed for any length of time, the greatest care must be observed to keep the straw damp, and water must be applied gently to avoid washing the puddle from the roots. Sacking the Roots with a Ball of Earth. — This is a very satis- factory way to move orange trees, and if it is well done, the tree does not wilt, and may be moved long distances and handled more freely than the puddled roots. To ball and sack trees, dig a trench along one side of the row about six inches away from the trees, and about a foot and a half deep. By careful digging under each tree from this trench the tap-root is reached, and severed by a cut with a sharp spade. The side roots are also cut by thrusting the spade down on the three sides not opened by the trench. The top PLANTING ORANGE TREES 443 earth is carefully removed nearly down to the highest lateral roots, and after being sure that the roots are severed all around, the tree is lifted out with the ball of earth which encloses the remain- ing roots. This ball is rounded off carefully and then placed on a half of a grain sack or other piece of burlap, the corners of which are drawn up and tied around the stem of the tree with baling rope. It is also an additional surety of safety to allow the baling rope to run under and around the ball to aid in hold- ing it together. The balled trees must be carefully handled so as not to break the ball, which would result in tearing to pieces, as well as exposing, the roots. The manner of handling the trees depends somewhat upon the character of the nursery soil. Successful balling of course requires a certain amount of adhesiveness in the soil. One can not be too careful in the handling of orange trees. Though they will stand harsh treatment when in permanent place, they must be most carefully transplanted. Lifting from the nursery when the soil is too dry, exposure of the roots, or careless planting, will consign the tree to a slow, sickly growth, and often kill it outright. Cutting Back at Transplanting. — The rule of reducing the top to compensate for the loss of roots, is vital in moving orange trees, but sometimes cutting back is carried too far and subse- quent growth is checked rather than promoted. Some growers cut back the young trees al little while before lifting them from the nursery. Some take off all leaves after planting out, aiid claim that growth starts sooner and more strongly, but it is doubtful whether defoliation is advisable, except in case of wilting, when it is necessary. Digging Holes and Setting Trees. — The same considera- tions which require extra care in lifting trees for nursery, rule in putting them in permanent place. All authorities on the sub- ject specify exceptional care in preparing the tree holes as a profitable investment on the part of the planter. Large and deep holes are commended, provided the planting is done in a deep, free soil. Deep holes would be more injurious than bene- ficial in a tight subsoil, unless drainage were furnished, but there are good orange trees now bearing in such places — good enough at least to be an ornament and acceptable fruit producers for family use. On large-scale planting in deeply prepared soil, holes large enough to allow good spreading of the roots are sufficient. Handling the soil at planting has been fully described in Chaptei XI, and the importance of bringing the soil into firm contact with the roots has been urged. The use of water in planting citrus fruit trees is especially desirable. Transplanting should 444 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM be done just as the growth is starting in the late spring or eariy summer, and this is the opening of the dry season and rains can not be expected. Therefore when the roots are arranged and the top soil lightly tramped around them, water is run in the hole and the earth compacted around the roots by water settling. After the water has settled away, the hole is filled and the sur- face left loose to prevent evaporation. These instructions apply to the planting out of trees which are taken up with long roots and puddled. In planting out balled trees, the sack is not removed, but after the tree is embedded in the earth, the tying rope is cut. The sack soon decays in the soil. Orange trees can be successfully transplanted at different times of the year, but the best time, as just stated, is after the ground gets well warmed by the spring sunshine. The date at which this condition arrives depends upon locality. Experience seems to indicate that the young orange tree is in best condition to transplant just as the new growth is starting out, and prefer- ably when it has not grown out more than two inches. Good form secured by training. nu Fig. 1. Orange tree at planting in orchard, 3 feet high. PRUNING THE ORANGE 446 Great care must be taken that transplanted orange trees do not become dry after planting. The methods of irrigation are described in Chapter XV. Good cultivation should also attend the orange from its first planting onward. This subject is fully discussed in Chapter XIII. PRUNING THE ORANGE All the considerations urged in Chapter XII in favor of low- headed and strongly-branched trees apply to the orange, though the habit of the tree in growth and bearing requires different pruning policies. The orange tree is more disposed naturally to assume a good form than most other trees, and for this reason most experienced growers declare their belief in pruning as little as possible. This is unquestionably good policy providing atten- tion enough is given to securing a shapely and convenient tree, Fig. 2. Branch form of orange before removing lower branches. • and TO overcome the tendency in the young tree to run out very long shoots which result in unsymmetrical shoulders with hollows beneath them and obviate a weeping habit, which interferes with irrigation and cultivation and prevents the development of good bearing space above. It is so easy to bring the orange tree into good form by a little hard thinking about what shape is desirable and a little timely cutting and pinching to secure it. 446 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM It has long been held that the orange tree should assume a compact wall of foliage. The interior of the tree being consid- ered merely the framework to support this and pump sap into it. Recently the importance of removing dead wood from the Fig. 3. Good form of five-year-old orange tree. center of the tree is being urged, even though the cost is con- siderable, and a rational thinning of branches to admit light and air in sufiticient amount to secure good fruit nearer the center of the tree is also being advocated and practiced to some extent, ' Hu Fig. 4. Branch form of orange six months after planting. PRUNING THE ORANGE 447 All these progressive tendencies carry the orange nearer to the application of the principles of pruning which are discussed in detail in Chapter XII, including the rational recourse to more severe pruning or cutting back to induce a growth of new and stronger wood for subsequent bearing. In other cases cutting back of varieties inclined to make a rank wood growth, like the Valencia Late, to encourage a better supply of fruiting wood, is being advocated. It seems clear that there are important ends to be gained by more pruning of the orange tree, and by earnest thinking and close observation along this line. Fig. 5. Tendency of clipped branches to rise. It has been held that it was necessary to prune the young tree to quite a high head at first to allow for the natural droop of the branches, and the result is seen in many young trees with slim stems and umbrella-like tops. It is better to develop a stout stem by allowing for a time a low growth upon it and then raise it later by removal of the lower growth which has done good service and outlived its usefulness. By wise underpruning it is possible not only to secure a shapely and convenient tree but also to so train the lower growth that it shall present good, low bearing wood without groveling in the dust. Unquestionably the drooping habit of budded orange trees is largely due to their treatment. A grower who does not believe in pruning allows the branches to extend too far horizontally. 448 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM and the weight of the foliage and the early fruiting brings the branches to the ground. To relieve the lower branches of the young tree of a part of this weight will enable them to assume a better direction, and this slight relief at first will prevent much Fig. 6. Branch form of five-year-old tree built down. branch-sawing in later years. The young tree as it comes from the nursery usually starts upon an upright course. If stopped at about three feet it can be brought along to develop strong and well-arranged branches, much as has been described for deciduous fruit trees in Chapter XII. The adjacent engraving, Fig. 1, shows a young tree in planting condition, stopped at three feet and needing only a slight cutting back of the laterals to be ready to begin its orchard life. If young trees are transplanted Fig. 7. Foliage form of five-year-old tree. SHAPING THE ORANGE TREE 449 short distances and at the right time they do not need so much cutting back as is commonly given them. If allowed to grow from the start shown in Fig. 1, pruning only to prevent long branches from running out at random, and removing branches which may start strongly from near the base, the tree will assume the branch-form shown in Fig. 2 and at from two to three years after planting in the orchard. At about this age the removal of lower branches begins, as they have served their purpose in shading the trunk and bearing the first fruit. These branches are removed one by one until, when the tree is five years in the orchard, it has lost all branches below the two-foot line except the one branch marked "a" of which the upright-growing part will be retained. The higher branches assume the more horizontal habit, too great out-shooting is repressed and at about five years orchard-age the tree attains a height of about twelve feet and is of the general form shown in Fig. 3. The next few months will bring its foliage to the ground to remain there or to be under-trimmed, as the notion of the grower may be. BUILDING DOWN AND NOT SAGGING DOWN It is perfectly feasible and rational to secure a good form of low tree without removal of large branches and without relying upon the sag of the branches from a high head. It requires rather more watchfulness and attention and study of the subject than some growers desire to give, but the results when attained are very satisfactory. The method is that of J. H. Reed, of Riverside, and has been followed by him for a number of years with his own orchard and others of which he has had charge. It will be found readily intelligible with the help of the sketches. Mr. Reed would begin with a young nursery tree like that already shown in Fig. 1. He does not believe in much cutting back before planting providing a fair amount of roots are left in the ball at transplanting. If the tree has been properly planted and cared for, it will soon begin to put out new growth, usually first along the stem, the strongest growth being lowest down. As many of these young branches along the stem as are not desired for permanent branches, are rubbed off, the earlier the better, at least before Avoody fiber is deposited in them. Mr. Reed rubs ofif promptly all below a point about two feet from the ground, if there is a prospect of getting sufficient good branches above that point. If not he saves them down to eight or even twelve inches lower if need be. Mr. Reed's idea is to build the head along a considerable length of the trunk and not have the branches bunched at the top, and this is the same idea that is urged in the development of the trunk of the deciduous fruit tree in Chapter XII. He finds 450 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM it impossible to do this in the nursery because if it is attempted to form a head 18 or 24 inches along the upper portion of the stem instead of one bunched near the top of it, the lower branches will appropriate most of the sap and the upper portion will not be well developed; while if this upper story is well established in the nursery the lower portion can be built on without detriment to the upper, if nutriment sufficient for both is furnished. Fig. 4 will show approximately the branch-form of the young tree at about six months from planting and the shoots with which the building-down is begun. The first step is to check the drooping habit. Upon this point Mr. Reed says : The common notion that the branch of the Navel orange naturally tends down is a mistake which grows out of me fact that in its rapid growth the new part of the stems and large leaves are so loaded with sap that they pull the stems from their natural upright position, and, unless relieved, hold them there till the deposit of woody fiber fixes the branches in the drooping or unnatural position. If the tips of these rapidly growing branches, with their heavy leaves, be clipped at the right time, the branches will spring back to the erect position, where they will remain to send out new branchlets. It is won- derful how the orange tree can be molded like a thing of wax by pinching and clipping here and there, if done at the right time. Fig. 5 shows the result of this clipping of heavy shoots to allow them to assume a more upright growth and the encour- agement of new shoots below the two-foot mark. Fig. 6 gives the branch-form of a five-year-old tree, with its lower story of bearing wood well developed, and Fig. 7 is the foliage-form of the same tree, about fifteen feet high, with its leaves and fruit reaching to the ground. As to how low the branches should be allowed, Mr. Reed says that until recently he has thought it best to keep the lower branches clipped back so that the fruit would not touch the ground, but he is persuaded that it is better to let them come to the ground even if considerable fruit rests on it. He finds that many of the best orchardists do this, and claim that there are really less culls among the fruit on the ground than on the less-protected branches above. Later Pruning of the Orange. — After the form of the orange is well established the aim should be to preserve a compact, sym- metrical and convenient form. It is desirable that weak wood should be removed; dead interior branches, which have given up the struggle for the light, should also be removed. It is an appalling undertaking to get into the inside of an old orange tree and saw off and drag out the dead wood but, as already stated, the conviction is growing that this should be done. Of the grow- ing shoots there is a reasonable amount of thinning to be done. The clipping back of ambitious shoots multiplies laterals. There should be a good cover of leaves, but the crowding of leaves on leaves excludes light and air and weakens the tree by lessening THE WASHINGTON NAVEL 451 the vigor of leaf action. Dead, twigs which appear among good bearing shoots should always be removed. The gourmand shoots or suckers should be repressed, unless, by clipping, one can be turned into a branch where a branch is needed. DISEASES OF THE ORANGE The orange is thus far subject to few diseases in California. The most grievous is the so called gum disease, which as analo- gous to the gumming of other trees and will be discussed in the chapter treating of tree diseases. Cracking of the fruit is a trouble which has never been fully explained. There are several serious insect enemies of the orange, which will be discussed in the chapter on that subject. The "black smut," which makes leaves and fruit unsightly in some parts of the State, is a fungoid growth upon the exudations of insects, and can be prevented by removing its cause. VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE Though many varieties of the orange have been introduced in California, but few are largely grown. During the last fifteen years there has been a pervading disposition to concentrate upon the Washington Navel, and, except to get other varieties either earlier or later to extend the season, there seems little reason to go beyond the Navel for commercial purposes. Not only have recent plantings been predominantly of this variety, but old trees of other kinds have been very largely budded over to it, and this work is still going on at a rapid rate. As already claimed in the opening pages of this chapter, the Washington Navel is the greatest commercial orange in the world. As it goes from California into the world's commerce it is a combined product of grower's skill and climatic conditions operating upon its own natural qualities and characters. Neither of these factors alone could achieve its present position. The navel mark is neither peculiar to it nor determinative of it, for there are other navels which are inferior here and our navel is inferior elsewhere; and even in Bahia, whence it came, it has no such quality and standing, because in coming to California it passed from humid, tropical to arid, semi-tropical environment. As already suggested, the tropical orange is not in the same class with the semi-tropical from the point of view of commerce. Trade in tropical oranges is local or limited; trade in semi-tropical oranges is world-reaching. The orange produced in an arid, semi- tropical climate is dense and compact, firm and better in keep- ing and carrying characters. It is also of more sprightly flavor and richer composition. Those who are disposed to exalt the 452 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM humid air orange for superior sweetness forget that the California orange, as compared, for instance, with the Florida product, has not less sugar but adds to it more acid; being, in fact, not less sweet but more sour. As both sugar and acid are nutritive sub- stances, the superiority of the California fruit from a dietary point of view is clear. Such an orange, enclosed in a thin skin of silky texture and beautiful finish, comes very close to an ideal upon which to found an industry. Although California has apparently no need for changes of type in oranges and has worked diligently and long for the attainment of the types which are at present supreme in her industry, there is still opportunity for improvement within the types. Such improvement is probably to be attained not by hybridizing, but by selection. The Washington Navel, like other members of the citrus family, is keenly disposed to variation and some of its variations have been named and propagated as the lists below will show. The pursuit of such and other improve- ments is now being systematically taken up at the Citrus Experi- ment Station at Riverside which is a branch of the University of California Experiment Station at Berkeley. Of the few varieties which are now largely grown the follow- ing is the ripening season : Navel and Seedlings, November to May; Malta Blood, March to June ; Mediterranean Sweets, April to July ; St. Michaels, May to July; Valencia Late, June to September. Washington Navel (Bahia, Riverside Navel). — Fruit large, solid, and heavy; skin smooth and of a very fine texture; very juicy; high flavored, with melt- ing pulp; is practically seedless, only in exceptional cases are seed found; tree is a good and prolific bearer, medium thorny, a rapid grower, although it does not attain a very large size; bears when very young, commencing to bear as early as one year old from the bud; ripens early. This variety was imported from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by Mr. W. Sanders, of the Department of Agricul- ture at Washington, and in 1874 two trees were received from Washington by Mrs. Tibbetts, of Riverside, Cal. Trees were also received about the same time by Alexander Craw, but the Riverside trees were first in fruit, and the excellence of the variety being at once recognized, it was propagated rapidly and took the name Riverside Navel from the place where its characteristics were first made known. As it came to be grown largely in other districts as well, a broader name, Washington Navel, recognizing its receipt from the national capital, was adopted. There is much tendency to variation in the Washington Navel, and sub- varieties are to be found involving departures in the direction of thinness and silkiness of rind, etc., as well as interior characters. The first to become prominent of these is Thomson's Improved Navel with A. C. Thomson, of Duarte, Los Angeles County, claimed to have produced by a process of prop- agation, but which is believed to be a natural variation. It is a very refined fruit; generally held to be too fine for ordinary handling. Two new variations, developed on the propagating grounds of the San Dimas Citrus nurseries of R. M. Teague are as follows : Golden Buckeye Navel. — Young wood, slender but strong; tree of striking appearance; fruit marked with bands of deeper color, skin very smooth; pulp aromatic with suggestion of pineapple flavor. PACKING CITRUS FRUITS 453 Golden Nugget Naz'cl. — Young wood willowy and slender, tree umbra- geous; fruit smooth, solid, thin-skinned, rather oblong and good size, rich golden color ; pulp free from rag, and delicious. Australian Navel. — A coarser type of the Navel introduced from Australia in 1874 by Lewis Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, and largely propagated formerly. It has now been practically abandoned for the Washington Navel. It seems to be of more account at some points in the San Joaquin Valley than elsewhere. Valencia Late (Hart's Tardiif). — Medium size, oblong, pale yellow; flesh rich, deep yellow, sprightly and crisp; tree a strong grower, slightly thorny. Ripens late, and valuable for late shipping. Malta Blood. — Fruit small to medium, oval; flesh fine texture and flavor, streaked and mottled with red; few seeds. The tree is thornless and regular and heavy bearer. Ruby. — Medium size, roundish; when ripe often reddened by deep red pulp within; juicy and sprightly, often rather acid; tree vigorous, thornless and a good bearer. Mediterranean Szveet. — Fruit medium to large, pulp and skin of fine texture, very solid and few seeds; ripens late, often not until May or June. The tree is thornless and of dwarf habit of growth and is inclined to overbear. It was at one time the most widely-distributed variety in the State, next to the Wash- ington Navel, but has recently been largely budded over. It was introduced and named by T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles. Paper Rind St. Michael. — Fruit small, round, very firm and very juicy; pale, thin skin; very elegant in appearance. It ripens late and keeps well on the trees as late as August; tree is of dwarf habit, medium thorny, a good bearer, and very desirable. Kumquat (Citrus Japonica). — Fruit very small, oblong or olive shaped, rind thick, yellow, smooth; sweet-scented; very little pulp; containing many seeds; tree dwarf (a bush), a prolific bearer. Chiefly used for conserves. Dancy's Tangerine, or Kid Glove. — ^Leaves broad, fruit flat, small to medium, reddish; skin separating readily from the pulp; flesh juicy and aromatic. Satsuma (Unshiu Oonshiu). — A considerable acreage of this variety, planted ten years ago on dwarfing stock, has availed very little commercially. At present there is disposition to grow the variety on sweet orange stock because of its earliness, but this practice has been recently condemned by Florida experience, where it is held that it must be grown on the trifolicata root. Tree quite hardy, fruit irregular in size, but usually medium size, flattened; rind easily detached; fine texture, sweet and nearly seedless. Mandarin, Willow-Leaved. — Medium sized, flattened, deep yellow; flesh dark orange, skin loose; tree compact, ornamental. King. — Of the Mandarin class ; large, rough skinned, skin and segments loose, pulp high flavored, sweet, aromatic. STANDARD PACK FOR CITRUS FRUITS A standard orange box in California is 12x12x26 inches outside measurements with a fruit space Ilj/ -. ' ^ ^ "^>-/ ■ ■ - ■■ A^ ^#^ ■■^^^' .:j^ -■'.^-/■^'^ ^ ^^~ :% :-fe, %-i'^ ■■?.'•■'■•■ Wmi ^''^' ^'■^^H?*^'^:C''^---^ P '■i*^ ^■v/,'%=, :-■ .^%, ■■• '■■ A' -:.:-:» -^tr^^: :l ■ MMifcMii ■^ ' Strawberry Field laid off in double rows. ' rows a foot and one-half or two feet apart, and between each pair of rows the soil from the center is drawn up to each side, making a low ridge or level a little higher than the surface on which the plants are set. This levee serves as a walk between the beds and holds back the water upon the bed when irrigated by flooding. An- other, and the generally-adopted plan, is to have the plants in double rows on a slight ridge, while between the beds is a furrow which serves as a walk and for irrigation. This is accomplished by throwing up the soil with the plow into ridges about two feet wide, with a double furrow between. On the sides of these ridges the plants are set, and often on the top of the ridge between the rows of strawberries a single row of onions or lettuce, or some other vegetable, is grown the first year. In irrigation the water is drawn up from the trenches by the roots and by capillary attrac- tion, and the upper surface does not bake as it would by flooding if the soil be heavy. In hoeing out weeds and in fruit gathering, the workman walks in the ditch and does not pack the soil around the plant by tramping. This is the best method for laying out for large plantations. The rows are a uniform distance apart across the field, whether the space between be a ridge or a ditch. The method 498 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM of making the beds a little lower than the general surface of the ground, answers best on free, open soils with perfect drainage. Cultivation can be reduced by covering the depressed surface of the bed with mulch of fine, clean litter, such as chafif, cut straw, etc. This retains moisture and gives the berry a clean surface to rest on. Such a bed is an excellent arrangement for the home gar- den. In all arrangements the plants are set at less distances in the rows than the rows are from each other. Probably the prevailing distance is one foot between the plants ; the range is from eight to eighteen inches in the practice of dififerent growers, and deter- mined, of course, largely by the habit of the variety. A vine like the Sharpless, with a spreading growth and long fruit stems needs, perhaps, sixteen inches which some growers give it, while the smaller more compact, Longworth Prolific, may do well with half that distance. Planting Strawberries. — Strawberry plants are set out either in spring or fall, or at any time in the winter when the ground is warm and in good condition. Fall planting usually gives a fuller springi; crop though planting as late as February has brought two crops the following spring and summer, and planting in April has secured fruit the same year, but it is better to prevent it and induce more growth. Spring planting is in April and May. In the drier parts of the State, early fall or winter planting is more essential than else- where. If the ground is dry, water should always be used in plant- ing. This may be given by thorough irrigation of the ground be- fore planting, or a little water may be used in setting each plant. At planting it is usually best to remove all leaves from the plant, shorten the roots to three inches or less, and be sure the plants do not dry while planting progresses. As with handling rooted grape-vines, it is advisable to carry around the plants in a vessel which has water in it. If the plants have been received by mail they are invigorated by soaking in water a few hours before plant- ing. In setting the plants, scoop out a little excavation with the hand or a trowel, spread the roots well, cover with fine soil, being sure that the crown of the plant shall not be below the surface when the soil is leveled. Too many strawberry plants are buried, not planted. Some plant very rapidly by using a dibble to make a hole, into which the roots are dropped and soil pressed around them by using the dibble alongside ; others set the plants on the side of the fur- row, trusting to the next furrow to complete the covering. Nearly all ways succeed if the plant is not set too deeply and the ground is moist at planting and not allowed to dry out afterwards — pro- viding good, strong plants are used. In buying plants it is often poor economy to buy the cheapest. CARE OP THE STRAWBERRY 499 Staminate and Pistillate. — In associating varieties be sure the pistillate varieties are not set by themselves. Some sorts have perfect flowers and are self-fertilizing; others have only the pistil- late element in the bloom and must have the staminate adjacent in another variety. All the varieties largely grown in California have perfect flowers, though some pistillate sorts have been locally ap- proved. Care of the Strawberry Plantation. — Herein lies the secret of success with the strawberry. Neglect has led to disappointment and condemnation of the strawberry, where intelligent care would have rendered it a constant delight. The cheap elements of proper care may be thus enumerated : Retention of moisture very near the surface by careful, shallow cultivation or by mulching, persistent destruction of weeds, and compensation for summer evaporation by frequent irrigation. The plants during the bearing season should never be allowed to show any leaf-shriveling from drouth. Frequency of irrigation depends upon local conditions. Irrigation at intervals of four to ten days, according to the soil, are the outlines of prevailing practice. Constant removal of runners from all plants except those it is desired to multiply to, furnish new plants or to fill the rows. Pinch- ing of runners should always accompany picking or hoeing of weeds, and on the garden bed there can be no excuse for neglect in this respect. The young plants should be faithfully freed from runners to strengthen them up for bearing. Though, as already stated, strawberries may in some locations be had all winter, it is better practice, as a general rule, to lay the plants away for a rest. The market season in the regions supplying the San Francisco market extends from April to December, and fruit is continuously shipped during that period. At the approach of winter in the last-named month, it is usual to go over the beds with a sickle, cutting off the old crops of leaves close to the root crown, carefully cleaning up the plantation for the heavy rains. In most cases it will be a great advantage then to cover over all with a light coat of good manure, which the winter rains will leach down in to the soils. The result of the fall clipping and enriching will be an early and strong start of the plant in the spring, and a most abundant fruitage. Duration of the Plantation. — Strawberry plants well cared for and not visited by insect pests, have a long, productive, and profit- able life in California. Twelve-year-old plants are sometimes re- ported as still producing abundantly. It is customary to count from five to eight years as the profitable life of a plant, though some growers replant after two bearing years. The efifective duration depends* directly upon preventing growth of plants and too close matting of the rows. 500 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Varieties of the Strawberry. — Though all new varieties are tried by California growers, and quite a number may be considered suc- cessful either for market or for home use, only a very few may be said to be widely grown. In the Watsonville district, which largely supplies San Francisco, the Melinda, which some growers hold to be indistinguishable from the Dollar, is chiefly grown, with Brandywine as a distant second. In the Florin district, near Sac- ramento, growing berries to ship all through the northern States of the coast and eastward to Colorado, the Dollar is grown almost ex- clusively, with a few Jessies for extra early. Excelsior is also grown. In the districts near Los Angeles, the Brandywine pre- vails. It is best for shipping and is held to be sweeter than at the east and next to it, in the commercial fields at the south, is Klon- dyke. The Arizona Everbearing is declining in popularity al- though still favored by amateurs for home use. Three old kinds which still hold favor for home use and local sale are the Longworth Prolific, the Sharpless, and the Monarch of the West. The Sharpless is the most widely grown; the Mon- arch shows better size and color in southern California and on the Sierra foot-hills than in the regions adjacent to San Francisco, al- though it is still grown therein to some extent. The Longworth is an old favorite, early, productive, and hardy, and its style has become very popular in the markets. Wilson's Albany also holds favor. It has been demonstrated that varieties show marked difference in behavior in different soils and situations. In planting for mar- ket or home use the planter will be safe in making his largest plan- tations of the varieties commended by leading growers and well informed nurserymen, and at the same time he should put out experimental plants of other varieties. The most notable work for new varieties in California is being pursued by Albert F. Etter, of Briceland, Humboldt county. He is crossing cultivated varieties with local wild species and is thus introducing factors not employed hitherto with results which prom- ise to be notable. His first named variety is Rose Ettersburg, which is a cross of a third generation Sharpless x Parry with a novel type of Fragaria Chiloensis. It has remarkable drouth resis- tance and thrift on poor soils. The blossoms are often as large as a silver dollar, the berries large, often 1^ inches in diameter, and blush pink in color. Single stocks from sets 18 months out meas- ured 22 inches high and over 10 feet in circumferance. Mr. Etter's work is described in detail in the Pacific Rural Press for August 22 and 29 and September 5 and 19, 1908, and is very interesting. PART SEVEN: NUTS CHAPTER XXXVII NUT GROWING IN CALIFORNIA Two nuts have risen to large commercial importance in Cali- fornia : The English walnut and the almond. Other nuts than these, except peanuts, have never attained great acreage, although several have succeeded and promise to become popular. The commercial production of almonds and walnuts in Califor- nia during the last thirteen years has been estimated by the trade as follows, in tons of 2,000 lbs. : Year Almonds Walnijts 1895 825 2,310 1S96 1,605 4,115 1897 2,375 3,985 1898 450 5,660 1899 2,320 5,530 1900 2,740 5,430 1901 1,560 6,910 1802 3,270 8,520 1903 3,200 5,500 1904 800 7,590 1S05 2,125 5,750 1906 900 6,125 1807 750 6,500 1908 2,900 8,500 1909 1,500 8,000 The walnuts are chiefly grown in Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles and Orange counties in Southern California. The almonds are from interior counties in the central regions of the State. Rea- sons for the extreme fluctuations in production will be suggested by the discussion of each nut which will follow. THE ALMOND The almond has an interesting history in California, but it can be outlined in a few sentences. The importation of the best Euro- pean varieties began very early, and a number of them had been planted in 1853. They proved irregular bearers, though the trees grew thriftily and in some cases showed fruit very soon after 501 502 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM planting. The barren almond trees were largely grafted into prunes or made into firewood and the conclusion was reached that to secure regularity and abundance in fruiting, locations for almond orchards must be sought with the utmost care, and that the secret of success lay in the location. After that local seedlings seemeci to demonstrate their value in regular crops, and in characteristics and qualities superior to foreign kinds. Large planting was then undertaken on the ground that the choice of soil and situation, and the selection of trustworthy varieties, are both factors of suc- cess, but that possibly more lay in the choice of variety than of location. This belief led to wide planting in locations now seen to be unfitted by reason of frosts and losses were again encoun- tered. Now it seems to be fully demonstrated that no matter what variety is planted, locations for the almond must be selected with great care. It has also been demonstrated that association of varieties promotes pollination and satisfactory bearing. Situations and Soils for the Almond. — Almonds are now doing best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and pro- tected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes; also at various points in the interior valleys and foot-hills. The general proposition that low lands in small valleys should be avoided, and bench or hillside situations preferred, seems to be a safe one. Lands directly upon the coast have not proved satisfactory. In the large interior valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, almonds are successfully grown on flat valley lands but little lifted above sea level and from such plains the chief product comes. Why almonds are safer on the low lands of a great valley than of a small valley is explained by the discussion on page 15. The almond prefers a loose, light, warm soil, and heavy, poorly- drained soils should be avoided. Though they need moisture enough to make good, thrifty growth they will produce good crops on soils that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory peaches, apri- cots, nectarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruit. The almond is, how- ever, a very deep-rooting tree, and may succeed by reaching deeply for moisture rather than by dejnying itself, as some think. The tree certainly suffers and is barren from drouth in some cases. Propagating, Planting, and Pruning. — The almond is propa- gated from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and budded as described in Chapter IX. The almond root is preferred, though the peach answers well. The apricot root should be avoided. For planting out, trees in dormant bud are very successful if given proper care. Yearling trees are, on the whole, best, and usually those wliich have made a moderate instead of a very large growth are to be preferred. The almond makes a comparatively ALMOND HARVESTING 503 large tree and should have plenty of room — not less than twenty- four feet apart (though some plantations are made at twenty feet), and thirty feet is better. Old almond trees are readily worked over to other varieties by grafting and by budding into new shoots forced out by cutting off large branches. Methods with the peach described on page 280 are applicable to the almond. The pruning of the almond is very simple. The tree should be headed low and pruned during the first three years, as de- scribed in Chapter XII, to secure a shapely, strong tree. After the third year little pruning is required except to thin out objec- tionable branches by winter pruning. There is danger of allowing the trees to become too dense. Shortening in, as practiced with the peach, is sometimes proposed for the almond, for the thrift of the tree and the size of the nut, but growers have not had courage enough to assume the increased cost of production which would be involved. The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as com- mended for other fruit trees, and as the trees are often planted in naturally dry soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to retain sufficient moisture to give good size to the nuts. In certain locations, of course, irrigation will be necessary, but usually a light rainfall will answer if good cultivation is given. Gathering, Hulling, and Bleaching. — Almonds are gathered by spreading canvas under the tree and shaking the branches sepa- rately; the few nuts remaining can be displaced by striking with a light stick. The gathering should be done after the hulls have burst open, but should not be delayed until the nuts are badly discolored. Discoloration of the nut depends upon local atmos- pheric conditions and is worst in regions subject to moist winds or fogs from the ocean, and they often extend considerable dis- tances into the interior valleys. On dry plateaux adjacent to the Mojave Desert perfectly bright almonds are produced naturally, but at these elevations frost injuries are frequent and notable. Hulling is done with machines devised for that purpose. There are several in use and recently great capacity and cheapness of operation have been attained. For the greater part of the almond product bleaching is appar- ently demanded by market requirements. Sulphur should not be applied until the nut is thoroughly dry, or else the fumes will penetrate it, and not only spoil its flavor, but will destroy its ger- minating power. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun on plat- forms or trays, and in dewy places should be covered during the night. After being well dried, sprinkle the nuts sufficiently to moisten the shell surface only and apply sulphur fumes. Various home-made contrivances are used for bleaching, such as piling up 504 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM several of the slat-bottom trays one upon another, placing around them sides made of boards so as to hook together at the corners, cover the top with a damp canvas, and burn the sulphur in a hole in the ground below the bottom tray. Webster Treat, formerly a large grower of almonds, describes his sulphuring-house for almonds : My bleaching-house is about twenty-five feet by eight feet, and I generally put in about four thousand pounds of almonds and expose them to sulphur fumes for three or four hours. The house is boarded with tongue and groove flooring, inside and out, and roofed with well-laid shingles, and has a flue about two feet high on the apex, to help draft the sulphur smoke up. The floor is of one-by-three-inch stuff, set up edgewise, three-eighths of an inch apart, or just wide enough to admit the fumes from the sulphur burning below, and narrow enough to prevent the nuts from falling through. The floor is about two and oncThalf feet above the ground, and the lower space is boarded up with tongue and groove also and fitted with small doors every five feet, so that the sulphur pans can be placed underneath the floor. Sulphur fumes are applied until the nuts are of a light y.ellow- ish color ; the proper shade is to be learned by securing approved samples from sOme trustworthy dealer. The following explicit account of handling almonds on a large scale is by Mr. J. P. Dargitz, of Acampo, San Joaquin county : "When the hulls on the nuts are loose from the shell, as will be indicated by their bursting open, it is time to begin gathering if you wish to hull them. If they get too dry you will have to wet them before hulling or you will break the shells. If you wish to shell them then, the drier they get the better. It will not pay to begin until the nuts about the crotches of the trees are ready and they will be the last to ripen. When they are all ready you can get all at one gathering. Have some sheets made of heavy un- bleached sheeting or light duck or sail cloth. Mine for large trees are 15x30 feet, handled by two men to- a sheet and two sheets to a tree. Spread the sheets under the tree, one on each side, lapping the edges where they join. Then the men take willow or bamboo poles and by jarring the limbs cause the nuts to fall on the sheets. Always strike the limb sideways, for if you strike a glancing blow down the limb, you will reduce next year's crop. The object is to get the nuts and disturb the foliage as little as possible. Of course, you will get some nuts and twigs with the leaves anyway. When the nuts are all off the tree, the men toss their poles to the next tree and then gather up the sheets, one man at each end of each sheet and, lifting them, carry them to the next tree where the pro- cess is repeated. When enough nuts are in sheets to fill several lug boxes, the boxes are placed on the ground side by side, and the sheets are emptied of their burden. These boxes are then stacked up so as to be easily seen, and the teamster gathers them up and hauls them in to the shed where they are run through the huller and then placed in the hoppers ready for the hand sorting. After POLLINIZING THE ALMOND 505 sorting they are placed on trays or board platforms in the dry- yard to cure. They should be cured until the kernel will break without bending. Then they are ready for bleaching; but be sure they are thoroughly cured before bleaching or the kernel will absorb the sulphur and be spoiled. When properly cured, any means may be employed which will thoroughly dampen the shell but not penetrate to the kernel and then be subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur for a period of 30 minutes to one or two hours owing to the variety and condition of the nut. A yellowish white color of the shell is demanded by the trade. Do not over-sulphur. When sufficiently bleached they are removed and placed in the sun for a few hours to dry, and then sacked up ready for market. My present plan of bleaching, given me by Mr. Reed, of Suisun, is as follows : When cured we place the nuts about one inch thick on fruit trays and run them into a division of the sulphur house which has been connected with a steam boiler (five horse-power), and low pressure steam (20 pounds), is turned into the house for a half or three-quarters of an hour. Then they are removed and quickly run in another division which has a sulphur charge ready fired and bleached from 40 minutes to an hour, when they are re- moved and immediately sacked. The same help will bleach twice as many in a day with steam as without it. Be careful not to use high pressure steam or you will cook the nuts." Pollination and Late Blooming. — The advantage of cross pol- lination between dififerent varieties and the surer bearing of late blooming varieties are related subjects which are worthy of close attention. Mr. J. P. Dargitz, whose harvesting method has just been given, has pointed out that, according to his observation as a rule all the paper-shells are deficient in pollen, and will not bear well if planted alone and he concludes that the only two which warrant planting in his section are the Nonpareil and the Ne Plus Ultra. The latter is not a very good nut, and needs much more moisture than the other. The Nonpareil will give good results if planted with some other variety as pollenizer. It is one of the very best of nuts and is well worth planting. Mr. Dargitz regards the Texas Prolific the very best pollenizer, and when planted in alter- nate double rows with the Nonpareil will cause it to set fruit freely in spite of the fact that the Nonpareil begins blooming two weeks earlier than the Texas but still has bloom to catch the Texas pol- len when it is ready. This late blooming of the Texas places it in the same class for surety with Drake's Seedling. Both nuts are medium soft shell and small but are being largely chosen because of sure bear- ing and large product. As to the relative return per sack, Mr. Dar- gitz says : 506 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The Nonpareil at 14 cents per pound, the Drake Seedling at 11 cents per pound, and the Texas Prolific at 10 cents per pound, will each bring about $10.50 per standard sack the IXL at 13 cents per pound about $9 per sack, and the Ne Plus Ultra at 12 cents per pound about $8.50 per sack. Varieties of the Almond. — Almonds should bear well every year, hull easily, have clean, thin, soft shells, and a smooth, bright, and plump kernel. Almonds with long, single kernels are pre- ferred in general to those which have double ones. These are the characters which ruled in the selection of new varieties by the pio- neer propagator of new almonds, A. T. Hatch, formerly of Sui- sun. In 1878 Air. Hatch planted out about two thousand five hun- dred seedling almond trees grown from bitter almond seed. He afterward budded all the seedlings but about three hundred, which were left to bearing age unbudded. The fruit of these seedlings was of all degrees of excellence. A few of the best of them were selected for propagation and naming, and they constitute the chief part of the acreage which is now bearing almonds, but other late bloomers and surer bearers are being preferred in current planting. Excellent seedling almonds have also been produced by other growers. The following list includes the sorts most widely grown : IXL. — Tree a sturdy, rather upright grower, with large leaves; nuts large with, as a rule, single kernels; hulls easily, no machine being needed, nor is any bleaching necessary; shell soft, but perfect; largely discarded for shy bearing, but desirable in some places. Ne Plus Ultra. — Large and very long in shape; heavy and regular bearer; soft shell; hull free. Nonpareil. — First called Extra. Of a weeping style of growth; smaller foliage than the IXL, but still forms a beautiful tree. An extraordinarily heavy and regular bearer, with very thin shell, of the Paper Shell type. Ripens early and can be gathered before other varieties are ready. Lewellings Prolific. — Originated with the late Mr. John Lewelling; "tree a great bearer; of drooping habit; nut large and good; soft shell; hull free." — Leonard Coates. Harriott's Seedling (or Commercial). — From Visalia, where it is a surer cropper than elsewhere ; shell softer than the Languedoc ; nut long, of peculiar shape, quite large; kernel sweet. King's Soft Shell. — Originated in San Jose; shell very thin and soft; regular and abundant bearer. Princess. — The finest of the Paper Shell class; long, oval, kernel large, white and sweet. Languedoc. — Nut large; shell thin; kernel sweet; condemned for irregular bearing. Paper Shell. — Medium size; shell very tender, easily broken between the finger and thumb; kernel large, white and sweet. Drake's Seedling. — Originated with Mr. Drake, of Suisun, of the Languedoc class; very prolific, and a regular, abundant bearer. A late blooming variety. Golden State. — Originated by Webster Treat. A large soft-shell, somewhat longer than the Languedoc, with a full, smooth-skinned meat; parts from the hull readily. An early variety, but in less favor than formerly. Peerless. — Resembling IXL. Popular in Yolo county for regular and heavy bearing. THE CHESTNUT 507 Texas Proline. — Brought, from Texas by Robert Williamson, of W. R. Strong & Co., of Sacramento, about 1891, as a seedling originated at Dallas, and the only almond which would bear there. Planted at Acampo by Robert Adams, who had charge of the company's nurseries at that place ; fully discussed by J. P. Dargitz, of Acampo, and described by the introducer as resembling Lan- guedoc in tree and nut, but with softer shell, which is filled with very sweet kernel. Blooms two weeks later than Drake. Mr. Dargitz reports fifteen years without failure to bear and usually prolifically. Jordan Almond. — This long, hard-shelled almond, notable because of its long, slim kernel for "salted almonds" and imported at high cost for that purpose, has been introduced both through government distribution and private enterprise, notably that of the late John Rock, of the California Nursery Co., of Niles. Too little has yet been seen to determine the value of the variety in local production. THE CHESTNUT ■ The chestnut is not yet produced in large amount in Califor- nia, and certain quantities of the nuts are annually imported, the American, Italian, or Spanish and Japanese all being found in the San Francisco markets. Of chestnuts grown in California, the Italian predominates, and the Japanese is more covctraon than the American, which is slow of growth and late in fruiting, as com- pared with the other kinds. Judging the success of the Italian, it may be said that a large area of California is well suited for the growth of the chestnut, as there are bearing trees in nearly all parts of the State. The chestnut succeeds on heavy, clayey soil, even if it be quite rocky. Chestnut trees are readily grown from the seed, and thus grown. come into bearing in from six to eight years, though the Japanese sometimes bears sooner. The growth of chestnuts from the seed is described in Chapter VIII. In growing from seed of the im- proved varieties, there is a tendency toward reversion, and budding and grafting may be resorted to; and can be done by the methods described in the chapter on the fig. The chestnut can also be grafted with the ordinary cleft graft. Buds or scions should be taken from trees which are fruiting satisfactorily, and in this way seedlings which have a tendency to bear empty burs can be turned to good account. Chestnuts can be grown in the nursery until several years old, providing they are lifted at the end of th^ first year, the taproot cut off, and the trees reset, giving them rather more room than during their first year's growth. In permanent plantings the trees should have plenty of room, as they ultimately attain great size. Trees at Grass Valley, Nevada county, when about twenty years old, fifteen inches in diameter of trunk, and forty feet high, and reported to bear a barrel of nuts to the tree regularly. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, has for many years made a specialty of propagating a large collection of the improved French varieties of the chestnut, known as Marrons, which were distrib- uted to some extent. The chestnut chiefly grown is the Italian 508 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM but it has not attained any considerable product as yet. The chest- nut, aside from its desirability as an orchard tree, can be com- mended as a tree for hillsides or a shade tree for waysides or pas- tures, and should be more widely planted in California. The chief product is in the foothill district east of the San Joaquin valley. THE FILBERT The best English cob-nuts have been quite widel}^ tried in Cal- ifornia without successful results. Improved Spanish and French varieties of the filbert were early introduced by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, and have been favorably reported by him as to growth and bearing. A few other growers in foot-hill situations have re- ported success, but as a rule disappointment has attended ven- tures with the filbert. The most favorable regions for farther ex- periment are apparently the north slopes of the Coast Range, and other cooler and moister situations, as well as at an elevation on the Sierra foot-hills where Mr. Gillet found them satisfactory. THE PEANUT During the last few years the peanut product of California has notably increased, and the crop is a popular one in some parts of the San Joaquin Valley and southern California. The nuts are considerably grown between the rows in young orchards and vine- yards, as well as upon ground wholly given to them. The follow- ing explicit directions are given by R. M. Hargrave, a grower in Orange County. Some slight modifications in practice may be needed, according to locality, as, for example, in time of planting, which is usually a little earlier than the date given : Planting. — The best time to plant peanuts is about the middle of May, say, lOth to 15th, in rows about three to four feet apart and sixteen to twenty inches the other way, and not cover too deep — three or four inches. Peanuts planted the middle of May ripen evenly and are of uniform size. Very early peanuts ripen unevenly, and the first nuts that set on get so ripe they turn to a pink color, and if the land is a little sandy the stems get soft, lose their strength, and will not lift the nuts from the ground. It takes about thirty pounds of the California or White Virginia, and fifty pounds of the Tennessee Reds to plant an acre. Tennessee peanuts can be planted much closer in the rows. The California peanut is the best to plant, as it yields three or four times as much as the Tennessee Reds do, and has more ready sale. The Quality of Land. — Peanuts require a rich sandy soil loam that is known as upland. Damp land gives the nuts a straw color, and they are not as good probably as those raised on higher land. They require no irrigation, except on very sandy land, where some have found it profitable ; but, as a usual thing, when irrigated the ground is liable to get hard, making the nuts crooked, ill-shaped, and many times coloring them. Cultivation. — Peanuts should be cultivated about the same as corn, not allowing any weeds to grow in them, keeping the ground loose and mellow, and when the spikes begin to form, they should not be disturbed. If they are, PEANUT AND PECAN 509 it causes the nuts to blight or not fill out. The blooms do not require to be covered. Harvesting. — Peanuts should be harvested when ripe, and not allowed to stand too long, in hopes that the last ones set out will fill out and ripen, as you lose more than you gain. The little ones spoil the sale of the crop, and many are left in the ground that get over-ripe. Peanuts should be cut or plowed out and thrown into windrows, nuts down, and let lie a week or ten days, and then sacked, as the best nuts are cured in that way, and they do not mold so badly, and cure a better color. They must not be allowed to get wet. The tops are good feed if stored away in a shed for winter use. All kinds of stock like them, and small nuts can be left on the vines. The> make the best chicken feed. An average yield is about twenty-five to thirty sacks to the acre, forty pounds to a sack, but many have raised fifty sacks, with extra care and good land well adapted to peanuts. THE PECAN The pecan, by rapid growth early fruitirtg, and general thrift, seems to be the member of the hickory family best fitted for Cali- fornia conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by J. R. Wolf- skill, on Putah Creek, in 1878 was, when twenty-five years old, over fifty feet high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, grow- ing luxuriantly and bearing freely. Still older trees, also very sat- isfactory in growth and bearing, are to be seen at Chico and Visa- lia. The pecan, though grown for thirty years by different parties around the bay of San Francisco, either does not bear or keeps the nuts hanging on until sometimes they sprout on the tree. The wider extremes in temperature or in humidity in the interior seem to teach the tree better habits of growth, and rest and moist low- lands in the great valleys seem best for pecan planting. As yet, California has no marketable product of pecans but the total num- ber of trees in the state is insignificant. Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh. Plant- ers should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a great dif- ference in size and quality) direct from growers in the southern States, and plant as soon as received, in the early winter, or if conditions are not favorable for planting, the nuts should be stored as described in Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good nursery ground in rows as there suggested, and covered about two inches or a little deeper in dry, loose soil, and then mulched to retain mois- ture, will germinate freely. The trees should be transplanted to permanent place at the end of the first year and then usually the taproot can be retained, as some growers deem very desirable ; if the trees are to be put in permanent place later they should be transplanted in the nursery and the taproot cut off. The nuts can, of course, be planted at once in permanent place if one will take the extra trouble necessary to properly care for them. 510 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM THE PISTACHIO The pistachio nut (Pistachia vera) was introduced a number of years ago but no results have been reported. The species upon its own root makes a low shrub and is slow of growth. We have also imported the Pistachia terehinthus, from which is derived the "chio turpentine," the stock the true pistachio is grafted upon in Europe and which is growing thriftily at several points in the State. The pistachio needs more time to declare its California career. THE ENGLISH OR PERSIAN WALNUT The nut which is signified in California when the term walnut is used, is the English walnut or Madeira nut (Juglans regia) and its many varieties. This tree makes a grand growth in California. Specimens are seen here and there, which, at about twenty years of age are from fifty to sixty feet in height, with a spread of branches of forty to sixty feet, and in some cases bearing four to eight hundred pounds of nuts. Much larger and older trees can be found in the coast and interior valleys of central California where the nut was first planted, although, as has already been stated, the nut has thus far been produced in large quantities only in regions adjacent to the coast in southern California. The equa- ble temperature and moisture of the southern coast seems to speci- ally favor the nut, but it must not be inferred that success can only be attained in such situations. A number of French varieties, which have been widely enough distributed to test their growth, have been found to thrive in many situations where the old Los Angeles variety is a failure, and there is at present quite a disposi- tion to larger plantings of the walnut in all California valleys, either as a sole occupant of the land or as border trees around fruit orchards. At the South the walnut area has largely increased in those situations where the tree shows most satisfactory bearing qualities, and newer varieties of California origin, like the Im- proved Soft Shell, constitute most of the present area. In all un- tried places, or in all places where the old Los Angeles Walnut has failed, trial should be made of the hardy French varieties, which will be described farther on. Recently considerable planting has been done in the coast and interior valleys and foot-hills of central California upon the quite fully demonstrated success of these va- rieties. It is, however, very desirable to secure satisfactory depth and retentiveness, without excess of water, in the soil. The wal- nut abhors drouth as well as standing water. Soils for the Walnut. — The walnut makes most rapid growth upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation of good things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it attains satisfactory size and bearing in less favorable situations. Thriving ROOTS FOR THE ENGLISH WALNUT 511 trees can be found in the clays and decomposed granite soils of the foot-hills, as well as in the valley silts and loams. Adequate mois- ture must, however, be had, and the walnut can not be commended for dry, neglected places nor for soils which overlie leachy subsoils described on page 36. Propagation. — The walnut tree grows readily from nuts treated as described in Chapter VIII. In the main the use of seedlings has hitherto prevailed, and the nut has been looked upon as com- ing sufificiently true from seed. Recently, however, this has changed rapidly, and grafting to secure a high, uniform grade and to secure fruitfulness in spite of the blight is commanding wide attention. Excellent results have been obtained by using the California black as a stock for the English walnut, and in that case budding or grafting must be resorted to. Many instances of the success of the English walnut on our native stock might be cited, but the most notable tree known to the writer is to be seen on the grounds of John R. Wolfskin, on Putah Creek, in Solano County. He put in a bud in 1875 and the tree has reached immense size and large product. Since then many large native black walnuts have been top-grafted with the English walnut with notable success, not only in orchards, but along highways where the native black walnut has been planted for shade and ornament. Mr. F. S. Leib, of San Jose, who has given much attention to stocks for the English walnut believes that the cross of the Cali- fornia black and the Eastern black walnuts and the California black walnut straight afford the best seedlings for roots for the English walnut, but advises close selection to secure the best growth. This is his prescription : "The Royal hybrid (every cross between the native Eastern black walnut and the native California black walnut is called a Royal hybrid), is, in my opinion, the most magnificent growing tree in the walnut line, and I believe that in the future some Royal hy- brids can, by persistent selection, be sufficiently fixed to furnish the strongest possible roots of substantial uniformity on which to graft. At present I know of only one tree, picked out from many hundreds, which is sufficiently fixed to grow a fair percentage of seedlings equal to itself. Only from one to two per cent of the seedlings of most Royal hybrids is equal to the parent, and the per- centage of even the best straight California is only from fifteen to twenty per cent, and the poorest give less than one per cent. At present, we, by a system of sprouting, are able to eliminate four-fifths of the weakest growing nuts, and we plant the remaining fifth in the nursery. Twenty-five per cent of such remaining nuts from our selected trees of Royal hybrid blood, and fifteen to twenty per cent from our selected California trees, grow three to four feet the first year. The three to four foot seedlings in the nursery are 512 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Eleven Nuts on Two-Year Grafts on Three- Year California Root. grafted when one year old, and the remaining smaller trees are left for another year; and for this reason a small per cent make a dis- proportionately large growth of root compared to its moderate top the first year, and make an immense growth of top the second year. All Paradox hybrids (English walnut crossed with California black) make a large root and but a moderate top the first year, as do many seedlings from the Royal hybrid, and as do very, very few from the straight California. These few trees, which make good the second year, three or four per cent, possibly, of the trees left to grow another year in the nursery, are grafted at the end of the second year, and the balance thrown away as unworthy to be grafted BUDDING WALNUTS 513 and given a chance in orchard form ; for a tree which is to have in the orchard from sixteen hundred to thirty-six hundred square feet, can not be too good, either as to root or top. Budding the Walnut. — In working on the native California seedling stocks, Mr. Clowes, of Stockton, buds by the common method, removing the wood from the inside of the plate of bark, as advised for the orange. Twig buds as used with the olive are also Four months' growth of Walnut Grafts — J. B. Neff, Anaheim, successful, and ring budding works well on shoots of a year's growth, which have at least attained the thickness of the middle finger. Mr. Gillet advises that the buds should be set at the base of these shoots where the wood is perfectly round. The bandage should pass above and below the bud so that the bark under it may be pressed down close upon the stock, and this is more surely gained by shaving off the base of the leaf stem, below the bud, about to the point where it would separate when the leaf naturally falls off. Mr. A. W. Keith, of Selma, has hit upon a very interesting 514 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Yearling seedling Black Walnuts grown on moist, subirrigated land, method of preparing walnut buds. In taking a fresh bud from the new growth of the walnut he found the large leaf stem a serious impediment in firmly placing a shield bud upon the cambium of the stock and binding it there. Shaving it away with a knife left too much exposed tissue. If the leaf stem would drop off as it does when mature and leave a healed-over scar, the result would be a flat surface with only the bud protruding, and this could be easily bound in place so as to exclude the air. He tried cutting off the • BUDDING WALNUTS 5]^5 compound leaf, leaving a stub of an inch or so, and was delighted to find that a stub thus left became dry and parted from the stem just as a mature leaf does in the autumn. By cutting off the leaves in this way about August 15, the stubs part readily before Septem- ber 1, and then he takes off clean, flat buds and uses them just as he does in budding the peach, except that he leaves no wood behind the bud. He takes rather alarge shield and puts it under the bark of the stock through a "T" cut, then wraps well with a strip of cheese cloth and waxes over the cloth with ordinary grafting wax. The wrapping is applied so as to cover most of the bark slit, every- thing beyond being waxed over. The bud is then allowed to remain dormant until the following spring. Mr. Pennington of Vacaville has been very successful in bud- ding by cutting buds in the regular shield form, about lj4 inches long, cut from branches ^ to ^ inch in diameter, so as to get wide buds with but little wood left in them. He also prefers to have stocks large, and considers a stock 1^ inches in diameter not too large. He uses ordinary budding twine for tying, but does not use wax to cover the incisions. He says it is best to put off budding as late as it is possible, to get a good flow of sap, as then the weather is likely to be cooler, which is an important factor, and the growing season is about finished, which will allow the twine to be left in place all winter, which he considers advisable. Buds are more apt to succeed when pushed upward from the cross-cut than downward from it. The cuts would then be an inverted "T." No preparation of the budding wood is made, except that mature buds are taken. About 90 per cent of the buds placed are said to grow. Grafting the Walnut. — Grafting into black walnut seedling root can also be well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the root stump, as described for grafting into grape-vine stumps in Chapter XXVI. In the case of the walnut, close binding with a wax band is desirable. Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or grafting. If by budding, the large limbs are cut back in the winter, and in autumn following, buds are put in, as just described, on as many of the new shoots as may be desired. In grafting, the common cleft graft is used with a degree of success particularly when the split is not made through the pitch, but at one side; the scion should be whittled so as to show as little pith as possible. This is done by cutting down to a point at one side and not in the center of the scion. Care should be taken to cover all exposed surfaces. Grafting over is desirable either for substituting a better variety of English walnut, or for working over a California black walnut into an English variety, and as much attention is now being paid to ^■^Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM blight resistant, interest is sharpened in grafting methods. Mr. J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, who has looked into the subject deeply and worked over many old trees gives the following practical sugges- tions on this work : Walnut grafting by modified cleft graft. If the trees are from three to five inches in diameter they may be cut off at about four feet above the ground and below the branches, then four or five scions may be placed in one stock, or three or four of the branches may be cut back to within lo to 24 inches of the trunk and two to three scions placed in each. All the other branches should be removed from the trunk. Old trees of from 12 to 20 years should have the branches cut at places where they are from three to six inches in diameter, and from five to eight stubs left, which will be from three to six feet in length and should have as many as six scions in the large stubs, the other branches being removed before the scions are put in place. In sawing large branches it is necessary to make two cuts, the first being some distance above or outside the final cut, to prevent splitting the stub, or the trunk, when the severed part falls. The scions should always be of solid, mature wood, that is, with as small pith as can be had readily, and must have good living buds. Each scion should be about one-quarter inch in diameter and have at least two buds. The growth having buds close together is best, as shorter scions can be used. To receive the scions use a heavy butcher knife and mallet to split the stubs, placing the knife across the stub as if a chip one-half to five-eighths-inch thick was to be taken off. Then depress the handle of the knife to an angle of 30 to 45 degrees and split the edge down to 2^/^ to 3 inches, allowing the knife to reach the farther side of the stub, but not making the split entirely across the stub. Open the cleft with an iron wedge J/2 to 5^-inch wide and thickest on one edge, placing the thickest edge toward the outside. GRAFTING WALNUTS 517 Trim the cleft in the stub with a sharp knife so it will be smooth. Then cut the scion so as to fit perfectly and place it so the inner bark (tne cambium layer) of both will be on the same line, or at least will cross twice, then remove the wedge and put hot wax over all the cuts on both stock and scion at once. The scions should be examined frequently and any excessive flow of sap wiped off, and the stub re-covered with wax as soon as dry. Excessive flow of sap for several weeks will cause the loss of the scions, as the callus can not form in water. This may be controlled by boring one-fourth inch holes in the body of the tree near the ground. Three or four holes four inches deep will be sufficient to control the flow of the largest trees. No damage is done to the body of the tree, as the holes soon grow over. Side graft made with a saw-cut. Enlargement can be prevented by slitting the bark below it. The last two wax formulas on page 85 are largely used in wal- nut grafting. For grafting in the stems of seedlings or in the smaller branches of young trees a side graft as described on page 87 is successfully used as are also several styles of cleft grafting. One which js used by Mr. R. Wiltz and others at San Jose consist in splitting a short stub of a small branch which has been cut about four inches from its attachment to a larger branch of stem. In this case the split can only extend to the closely knit wood in the crotch and the scion is pushed down strongly to the bottom of such a split and it is held tightly. The two pieces of the deep split are not cut away but are allowed to protect the short scion which is between them and if buds start on these pieces they are allowed to grow a little to keep the stock from dying back. When the scion starts well they are removed. A method of side grafting (so called because the stock is not cut across but a cleft made in the side of it) has been very successfully practiced by Mr. Weinshank, of Whittier, both with nursery seed- lings and on branches of large trees. His work has shown eighty 518 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM to ninety per cent successful in the nursery and even more on branches of large trees. The following is a condensed description of the method : The scion is prepared as for a whip graft (page 87), cutting a cross obliquely and making another cut right straight down with the grain in the scion. Then, instead of cutting the stock completely across like the scion, just simply make a little cut on the side. Do not cut into the pith of the wood at all. Then, place the two together by pushing the tongue of the scion (made by the cut on its shorter side) into the lip cut in the stock; tie with a string, and wax over. The same method on larger trees is performed exactly in the same way, except that the lip of course on the larger limbs, which are three or four inches through, would be considerably larger, and the scion instead of being placed directly in the middle of the lip, or in the center, would be placed on the side so as to have Split Grafting the Walnut by Mr. Geo. Payne, of Santa Clara. PLANTING THE WALNUT 519 the cambium of the scion connecting with the cambium on the stock at least on one side. Three or four, or sometimes five scions are put on a large limb, and in most cases three or four scions would grow. After the scion has reached a certain stage of growth, this string will commence to bind, and must be cut down right over where the scion is. The wax on either side still tend to hold the string, but as the wood gradually grows, the strings will draw apart, and it will not bind it as it would if the strins: was not cut. One-year Franquette Graft on one-year Selected Hybrid Root. Planting Walnut Orchards. — There is much difference in prac- tice in planting out walnut trees in permanent place. Some advo- cate the use of trees two or three years from the seed, getting as much of the tap-root as possible; others allow the tree to remain in nursery until it throws out laterals, which is usually done the fourth or fifth year. Two-y-ear-old trees are generally preferred, but walnut trees of many times that age can be successfully trans- planted if the work is carefully done. Walnut trees are usually set forty feet in squares, though some give the large-growing varieties fifty feet. Planting in hexagonals at forty-five feet distance gives 520 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM A thrifty young English Walnut. very satisfactory results. Some growers plant in squares at thirty feet distance, intending to remove alternate trees as they crowd each other, first cutting back, for a time, the trees which are finally to be removed. Intercultures with the Walnuts. — In the southern walnut regions it is common to grow beans, squashes, etc., between the rows of trees until the latter reach bearing age ; root crops Avhich attract gophers should be avoided. Inter-planting of smaller, early- fruiting trees is also practiced to a considerable extent. Pruning the Walnut. — The walnut is usually headed higher than ordinary orchard trees, but preference is now given to starting the first branch at about four feet from the ground instead of six feet as formerly. All the pruning needed is in shaping the tree as described for the fig. Upward trend of the branches should be secured, some- times by cutting out the shoots which grow downward, sometimes by tying them up for a time to the central stem until they are stilT HARVESTING WALNUTS ^21 enough to retain this position. Placing branches on the stem according to the principles advanced in Chapter XII, should be borne in mind. The stem should be protected from sunburn until the foliage accomplishes this. Whenever shoots are killed back by sunburn or by frost, they should be cut off cleanly below the black mark which shows how far the injury has extended. If this is done, the die-back down the branch is usually prevented. Bloom and Bearing of the Walnut. — The walnut has its stam- inate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same tree. Successful fruiting depends upon the appearance of these two forms of bloom, without too great interval of time, and although there seems to be quite a retention of vitality, the lack of bearing of some varieties has been found to be due to the fact that the catkins disappear too long before the pistillate bloom was sufficiently de- veloped to receive the pollen. The bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety. Some of the French varieties are very precocious and have borne fruit in nursery row at two and three years old, but the pistillate blooms were then fertilized from catkins growing on older trees. The practical bearing age of the seedling English walnut in this State may be rated at six to eight years, according to the variety. Trees grafted with scions from bearing trees fruit much sooner. Harvesting Walnuts. — Gathering walnuts is done in different ways ; some gather them from the ground at intervals during the months of September and October; others use poles and clean the trees at one operation ; some go over the ground three times ; first, picking up what have fallen; second, picking up what liave fallen and striking the limbs lightly to dislodge others which are ripest; third, picking up again and then knocking off all that remain on the trees. In this way gathering lasts a month or six weeks. Walnuts, after gathering, are usually treated as described by F. E. Kellogg, of Santa Barbara County : As fast as gathered the nuts are placed in slat-bottomed trays, 6x3 feet, by six inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, being thoroughly shaken up once or twice a day. If the weather is very hot, they should be dried in the shade. When the nuts are dry they are passed through an inclined revolving grader, making about twelve revolutions per minute, having a one-inch mesh wire screen, and all that fall through this are called "seconds." The lower end of the grader dips into a vat of water, thoroughly wetting the nuts and washing them to a certain extent — entirely sufficient for paper shells and soft shells, and usually enough for hard shells. A system of buckets attached to the drum of the grader then elevates the nuts to a chute, which discharges them into a large box 4x4x8 feet high, with an inclined slat bottom two and one-half feet above the ground. While in this box, they are subjected to the fumes of sulphur for twenty to thirty minues for the purpose of improving the color. The second grade walnuts are also put through the washing and sulphuring process. The nuts are next drawn off from the bleachers into the drying trays, piled one on top of the other, to prevent the sun from shining directly on the nuts, and remain there for ten or twelve hours, until the nuts are thor- oughly dried off. The trays are then emptied into a hopper, from which the 522 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM nuts are drawn off into bags containing something over one hundred pounds each; the bags are securely sewed up and stamped with the producer's brand, and the nuts are ready for shipment. Col. A. S. Heath, of Carpinteria, uses a moist bleach and a drier afterward, as follows : When the nuts leave the rotary washer they are entirely free of hulls and clean. They are taken to the bleaching boxes, and here subjected to the very minimum amount of sulphur necessary, and cold steam, being in the bleachers about one hour. From the bleachers they are taken to the steam drier. In the drier are lOO drawers, each capable of holding 40 to 50 pounds of walnuts. These drawers have wire bottoms to allow the heat to pass through them. In the basement beneath the drier Mr. Heath has some modern furnaces con- structed, and during the course of the drying about 130 degrees of heat is maintained. The nuts are kept under this heat for eight hours. During the drying it is possible to watch the progress by pulling out drawers for inspection. Dipping Instead of Sulphuring. — Sulphuring often injures the flavor of the kernel and dipping is coming into wide use. The fol- lowing formula has been furnished to growers by the University Experiment Station : Six pounds bleaching powder (also called chloride of lime), twelve pounds sal-soda, fifty gallons water. Dissolve the bleaching powder in about four gal- lons of water, stirring till dissolved. Dissolve the sal-soda in about four gallons of water. Add one solution to the other and stir well; let the carbonate of lime settle to the bottom and draw off the clear liquor and add water to make , a total of fifty gallons. Put the nuts in large dipping box or lath crate, immerse in the fluid, and then add one and one-fourth pounds of fifty per cent sulphuric acid and agitate by raising and lowering the dipping box. The bleach should be reached in five to ten seconds, and the nuts are then washed in clear water and put out to dry. Of course to employ this process cheaply, specially con- trived dipping appliances are used. The same liquor can be used with new batches of nuts so long as the proper effect is produced, and small additions of acid will prolong the efficiency of the liquor. Since the foregoing method was published certain California courts have decided that the process is covered by a patent pre- viously issued and controlled by the Anderson-Barngrover Co., of San Jose, who demand a royalty for its use. The walnut growers employed Prof. Stabler, of the University of Southern California, in Los Angeles, to devise a new process in the public interest. His early results indicate that by running an electric current through a four per cent solution of common salt (four pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of water) the chlorine is set free from the soda and becomes available for bleaching. It is possible also that the electric current may exert bleaching action of its own. Varieties of the Walnut. — Of walnuts of California origin there are two classes, which are called "hard" and "soft" shell, but the accepted commercial product is largel}'- composed of the soft-shell class. Several varieties of French walnuts are now being widely distributed. An attempt will be made to give some of the dis- tinctive points of each variety mentioned : VARIETIES OP ENGLISH WALNUT 523 Common English Walnut; Los Angeles Nut, etc. — This is the ordinary English walnut of commerce. It was planted at an early day in Los Angeles comity, but is now largely replaced by the Improved Soft Shell. Santa Barbara Soft Shell; Sexton's Soft Shell. — Originated by Joseph Sex- ton, who gives this account of its origin and characteristics : "The winter of 1867 I bought in San Francisco a large sack of English walnuts. I raised about one thousand trees that season, and planted two hundred of them the following spring, in orchard form, at Goleta. Sixty of them proved to be the soft-shell variety. The soft shell is a little later in starting in the spring than the com- mon nut, and blooms about ten days later. It commences to fruit at six years old from the seed, and some have been known to fruit as young as the fourth year. The hard shell commences to fruit about the ninth year, and bears full crops alternate years. The soft shell is not as strong a grower as the other walnut; it being so prolific, retards its growth. It is a superior nut; the kernel is white. The shell is thin, rendering them easily broken by the hand, at the same time strong enough to bear transportation to any part of the United States." Ford's Improved Soft Shell. — G. W. Ford, of Santa Ana, propagated an "Im- proved Soft Shell," gained by selection from the variety of Joseph Sexton, which has been largely planted. Santa Rosa. — A seedling by Luther Burbank, which has been distributed quite widely; but by variation in its seedling, its character is somewhat ill- defmed and the name is applied to several types, some of which are less desirable than the one receiving the name. Proeparturiens. — Introduced in California in 1871, by the late Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, and afterward by other parties, and widely distributed. Its chief characteristic, as its name indicates, is early bearing. It blooms from two to four weeks later than the common Los Angeles seedling; it shows both kinds of bloom simultaneously, and has the characteristics of ripening its wood well, and is a good nut, but it has been little planted recently because of its disposition to run to small sizes. Mayette. — This variety chiefly constitutes the imported Grenoble walnuts. It is large, roundish, with a broad ba-se, on which the nut will sit up; shell thin and white; kernel full and rich; a good bearer and late bloomer; local Mayette seedlings are being named; one is the "San Jose," by R. Wiltz, of San Jose — a fine nut, believed to be blight resistant. Concord. — Seedling of Cluster : of the Mayette type, grown by Messrs. Westgate and Hutchinson of Concord from seedling tree by Felix Gillet. Intro- duced by Mr. Leonard Coates in 1908. Claimed to be blight resistant. Franquette. — This French variety has risen to great favor and has been largely planted upon the successful experience of Mrs. Emily M. Vrooman, of Santa Rosa, and the extensive effort at its distribution by the Oregon Nursery Co., of Salem, Ore. It is a large, elongate-oval nut with shell rather thick and kernel of high quality. It is a late bloomer, and escapes blight to a certain extent. Bijou Seedlings. — Several of these are being grown. Willson's Wonder, introduced by F. C. Willson, of Santa Clara, is a large, smooth, desirable nut, and the tree is reported an early and prolific bearer. Other French Varieties. — ^^Other French varieties introduced by Mr. Gillet and others include the following: The Cluster, which fruits, as its name' indi- cates, in long bunches, sometimes as many as fifteen in a bunch ; otherwise the tree resembles the common English walnut. The Parisienne is a beautiful variety, the nut large, broad, and shapely; the tree blooms very late. All the foregoing varieties and the Franquette, Serotina, Barthere Mesange, Gant and Chaberte, were introduced by Mr. Gillet in 1871. Kaghasi. — A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for several years by the late James Shinn, of Niles, who described it as follows: "Very 524 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM much larger than the ordinary kinds, and thinner shelled. The tree is late in putting out leaves and blossoms, and is, therefore, especially good for places that are in danger of late frosts." Japanese Walnut; Juglans Sieboldiana. — This species, native of the north of Japan, was introduced to California about i860, and a tree grown from seed planted about that time is growing at the Tower House, in Shasta county. Recently the good points of the tree have been more widely recognized. The following excellent description is by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa : "This species is found growing wild in the mountains of northern Japan, and is, without doubt, as hardy as an oak. The leaves are of immense size, and a charming shade of green. The nuts, which are produced in extreme abundance, grow in clusters of fifteen or twenty, have a shell thicker than the English walnut, but not as thick as the black walnut, very much resembling pecan nuts. The meat is sweet, of the very best quality, flavor like butternut, but less oily, and much superior. The trees grow with great vigor, assume a very handsome form, need no pruning, mature early, bear young, and are more regular and productive than the English walnut." The nut has an exceedingly hard shell and does not rate commercially with the popular varieties of the English walnut. NEW CALIFORNIA VARIETIES Since the walnut blight invaded the commercial orchards and resisted all remedies tried against it, great interest has arisen in particular trees which bore well in spite of the disease. As Cali- fornia has such a large acreage of seedling trees there was a full opportunity for the full manifestation of such resistance and a wide field in which to exercise the art of selection. The result is that many trees were found which are profitable even when the blight is worst, and such trees are being given distinct varietal names. The progress of this work should be watched in the publications of the University Experiment Station at Berkeley, for the experts at its branch laboratory and trial grounds in the walnut region of Southern California, at Whittier, Los Angeles county, are largely engaged in this work. Individual growers are alert at selection within their own orchards and the prospect is that a general escape from the blight and the establishment in our local pomology of a group of especially desirable varieties will ere long be attained. PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION CHAPTER XXXVIII FRUIT CANNING, CRYSTALLIZING, AND DRYING The preservation of fruit in various ways for home use and distant shipment, is one of the leading industries of CaHfornia, employing a large amount of capital and labor, and distributing a vast amount of money among our people. These facts can be best emphasized by statements of the product of 1906, in the leading methods, of preservation, by canning and drying. Canned Fruit Product of 1908. Cases. Table fruits, 2i/^-lb. cans, 24 per case 4,227,248 Pie fruits, 1-gal. cans, 12 per case 507,215 Total, 113,631,512 21/^ -lb. cans, or 4,734,663 The relative use of different fruits is as follows Cases. Apples 37,700 Apricots 1,161,250 Cherries, black 40,725 Cherries, white 101,700 Figs 1,052 Grapes 45,545 Nectarines 1,673 Pears 640,550 Peaches, freestone 975,350 Peaches, clingstone 1,327,610 Plums 239,825 Quinces ; 65 Strawberries 5,780 Raspberries 5,950 Blackberries 87,550 Loganberries 2,380 Currants 138 Gooseberries 70 525 526 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM THE CANNING INDUSTRY California stands first in the United States in the value of canned and dried fruits produced and in the amount of money as wages paid for labor in fruit canning and curing establishments. In point of capital invested therein California is credited by the United States census office in 1905 with a total of ten and one quarter million dollars; thus standing second only to New York, which has ten and one half millions. The style and capacity of the establishments is characteristically Californian because California's ten millions are invested in 184 concerns, while New York has 565 concerns; only a quarter of a million more value in three times as many outfits. Fruit canning began in California about fifty years ago, but dur- ing the last three decades has attained its greatness, and is still promising much wider extension. The process is simple, and yet is attended at every point, from the purchase of the fruit to the sale of the product, with operations which require experience, wis- dom, and good judgment. It will be obviously impossible to give in print a guide to the pursuit of such an industry. The prin- ciples involved in the process of commercial canning are, of course, the same as rule in the old kitchen processes, but to secure uniform- ity and cheapness of product a vast number of manipulations and labor-saving appliances have been devised. These begin with the manufacture of cans and attend the product to the end, and the realization of the commercial and uniform production which they assure involves the employment of large capital and the keenest business ability. The canning interest has, therefore, segregated itself more and more widely from the growing interest. Orchard canning on a small scale which was once thought feasible has passed out of sight except as it is seen to lie in the foundations of a few of the smaller canneries which have been built upon it. It seems clear now that as a rule the fruit grower's duty to the canning interest ceases with the production of acceptable fruit unless indi- viduals or associations can command capital enough to enter the field on equal vantage with the large commercial canneries. Capital is flowing toward the business ; the field for the product seems to be constantly expanding, and canning centers are multi- plying throughout the State wherever ample supplies of good fruits and vegetables are available. Varieties for Canning. — The table previously given showing the fruits which enter in various amounts into the canned product gives a general idea of what fruits should be planted to minister to the canner's demand. As to varieties, it is not easy to make a general prescription, because the choice differs somewhat with different localities. It is a good idea for the new planter to consult with, owners of adjacent bearing orchards and to secure from the nearest canneries lists of varieties which are acceptable to them. CANDIED OR GLACE FRUITS 527 CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS Progress is being continually made in the production of candied, crystallized, or glace fruits, but the product is not a large one. Special establishments are now doing this work in Los Angeles, San Jose, and San Francisco. They have processes which are the result of considerable experimentation, and they do not make them public. To others the way lies open to similar experimentation. The general theory and an outline of practice as given by J. J. Pratt, an experienced processor, is as follows : The theory is to extract the juice from the fruit, and replace it with sugar syrup, which, upon hardening, preserves the fruit from decay, and at the same time retains the natural shape of the fruit. All kinds of fruit are capable of being preserved under this process. Though the method is very simple, there is a certain skill required that is acquired only by practice. The several successive steps in the process are about as follows : First, the same care in selecting and grading the fruit should be taken as for canning; that is, the fruit should all be of one size, and as near the same ripeness as possible. The exact degree of ripeness is of great importance, which is at that stage when fruit is best for canning; peaches, pears, etc., are pared and cut in halves, as for canning; plums, cherries, are., are pitted. The fruit, having thus been carefully prepared, is put into a basket, or a bucket with a perforated bottom, and immersed in boiling water. The object of this is to dilute and extract the juice of the fruit. The length of time the fruit is immersed is the most important part of the process. If left too long, it is overcooked, and becomes soft; if not immersed long enough, the Juice is not sufficiently extracted, which prevents a perfect absorption of the sugar. After the fruit has been thus scalded and allowed to cool, it can again be assorted as to softness. The next step is the syrup, which is made of white sugar and water. The softer the fruit, the heavier the syrup required. Ordi- narily about seventy degrees, Balling's saccharometer, is about the proper weight for the syrup. The fruit is then placed in earthen pans, and covered with the syrup, where it is left to remain about a week. The sugar enters the fruit and displaces what juice remained after the scalding process. The fruit now requires careful watching, as fermentation will soon take place, and when this has reached a certain stage, the fruit and syrup are heated to a boiling degree, which checks the fermentation. This heating process should be repeated as often as necessary for about six weeks. The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, and washed in clean water, and it is then ready to be either glaced or crystallized, as the operator may wish. If glaced, the fruit is dipped in thick sugar syrup and left to harden quickly in the open air. If it is to be crystallized, dip in the same kind of syrup, but allow to cool and harden slowly, thus causing the sugar which covers the fruit to crystallize. The fruit is now ready for boxing and shipping. Fruit thus prepared will keep in any climate and stand transportation. Thus far the crystallized fruit produced in California has sold well. There is a considerable importation of French fruit to the United States, which may be displaced by the California product, and the business commends itself to those who have ingenuity, patience, and capital enough to enable them to experiment and wait for future success. The California producer has the advantage of . an abundance of very fine fruit at a low price, but he carries a handi- cap in the high cost of transportation and of labor. 528 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUIT INDUSTRY A special census of the fruit-preserving manufactures of the United States in 1905 shows not only that California stands first in the dried fruit industry, but that the product (excluding raisins) was in that year valued at about fourteen million dollars and was over eighty-eight per cent of the whole national product. An adjacent tabulation compiled from the records of the California State Board of Trade gives interesting details of this product for a number of years. As suggested on page 21 it is the function of the sunshine and dry air of California not only to bring vigorous growth to the tree and vine and carry the fruit of both to fulness of size, beauty and quality, but to continue its beneficent action until the fruit, which is not required by the trade in fresh ripeness, is given imperishable form, in which its beauty, flavors, aromas and nutritive qualities remain available to delight and nourish mankind until the following year's sunshine wins from the earth another supply of fresh ripe- ness. There are many parts of the earth where good fruit is grown : there are few where conditions producing such fruit continue to accomplish its preservation, as they do in California, and this climatic endowment of the State yields an annual income of some- thing like twenty millions of dollars, as the years run. Product of California Cured Fruits in Tons — 1900 to 1908. Year Peaches Apricots Apples Pears Plums Nec- Grapes Figs Prunes Raisins tarines 1900 17,170 14,000 3,150 7,275 1,950 435 240 2,000 87,000 47,167 1901 14,755 7,776 3,225 3,290 1,725 317 180 3,260 40,000 37,125 1902 25,210 18,762 4,875 2,625 1,280 455 188 3,625 98,500 54,375 1903 16,075 10,500 1,800 2,325 1,435 317 205 3,000 82,500 60,000 1904 11,500 88,500 1,500 1,750 1,150 210 170 2,850 67,500 37,500 1905 17,500 19,250 3,250 1,750 930 185 193 3,625 37,500 43,750 1906 11,250 3,250 2,750 3,500 1,100 170 200 3,375 90,000 47,500 1907 12,000 1,500 1,500 500 750 137 188 3,000 40,000 60,000 1908 22,500 19,000 3,000 1,200 1,000 350 2,576 286 1,500 3,064 341 3,000 27,735 3,082 25,000 60,000 Totals.. . 147,960 102,538 25,050 24,215 2,691 11,320 1,257 568,000 447,417 Averages 16,440 11,393 2,772 63,111 49,735 In connection with this notable factor of our horticultural en- dowment, certain facts of its utilization and its significance should be clearly understood not only by those who actually employ it in their business, but by those who desire to properly appreciate the industrial resources of the State. First. Cured fruits in California are a primary and not a second- ary or by-product. It is true, of course, that curing fruit does, to CURED FRUIT NOT A BY-PRODUCT 529 a limited extent, save from loss fruit which shippers and canners are not at the time paying profitable prices for, and it is true also that the recourse to curing frees growers from helpless dependence upon fresh fruit buyers. But this does not mean that curing is a way of getting something from refuse fruit, not suited for other purposes. It should be taken as evidence that, for the most part, grades of fruit which are cured are the same which are also available for higher uses when prices are right. It is very important in many ways to have it clearly understood that, except to an insignificant extent, California fruit drying is not undertaken to save wastes or to get something from fruit which is not suited to higher uses. Second. As our cured fruits are a primary and not a by-product, it becomes intelligible why such free investment is made in acres of well-made trays; in tramways and turntables for their movement from the shelter of convenient cutting or dipping and spreading houses; in capacious apartments and mechanical devices for giving the cut fruit its bath in sulphur fumes to preserve natural colors and to prevent fermentation and insect invasion; in the carefully pre- pared drying floors; in well-fitted packing houses. Such investment has reached millions of dollars in the aggregate, and the standing of cured fruits as primary products is the justification of such outlay. Third. The provision of such equipment is not alone evidence of the standing of the industry; it constitutes an obligation upon producers to put out a product which shall be true to its opportunity as a primary product, and not merely a makeshift to prevent loss or waste. Thirty years ago California dried fruit was a makeshift, and a disgracefully poor one. As enterprise and investment proceeded it was soon seen that style and quality alone could requite them. Next it was discerned that fruit for curing, to command profitable prices, must be as good as fruit for any other high purpose, as has been suggested. It was then believed that to secure handsome cured fruit which should only be relieved of its excess of water and still retain color, flavor and winning beauty, could only be produced in machine-evaporators with artificial heat, and a few years were given to invention, purchase and rejection of all such devices except as occasional refuges when the California climate forgets itself. When the demonstration came that with proper pre-treatment California sunshine and dry air would produce notably fine evap- orated fruits without houses and furnaces, cured fruits entered upon their career as primary products, and planting to produce them began. Fourth. The obligations upon producers, to make their output worthy of such standing, extend to the whole process of growing and curing. The fruit must be well grown, and fruit for curing should have size and quality which make it first class for other pur- 530 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM poses, with the added excellence of being somewhat more mature, because it is not required to stand hauling and shipment. It should, however, be carefully handled to escape bruising, because discolora- tions are blemishes. It must be cleanly cut for removal of pit or core, because trimness, neatness and shapeliness are all essential to beauty. Before it reaches exposure to the protecting fumes of sulphur, it must be often saved from darkening by handling in water, when the nature of the fruit is such as to require it. It must be carefully and evenly spread upon the trays, especially if it be a cut fruit, so that no interference can prevent each piece from reach- ing its best estate. Sulphuring must be adequate, and yet not ex- cessive, for sulphuring is a protecting and not a resurrecting pro- cess ; it is not to improve bad fruit, but to keep good fruit from becoming bad. The fruit must be sufficiently dried and yet not over-dried, and during the process must be protected from dust by the situation and character of the ground used, even if such pro- tection costs trouble and outlay. Although the sun drying of fruit may be a simple process, so many little arts, methods and appliances are continually being intro- duced to facilitate work or improve the product, that one can learn much by visiting the different fruit regions during the drying sea- son. Such a course is commended to growers who contemplate large drying operations, for suggestions of great economic import- ance can be secured. The notes of practice which can be given in this connection must be brief and general. & I ' I.I I r ^ Cross-section of drying trays. Trays for Drying. — The greater part of the fruit, including raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made of one-half-inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet long, the boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat on each end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A cross-section of such a tray is shown at A. A large tray which is used by some growers is four feet square, and is made of slats three-eighths of an inch thick, and one and a half inches wide, the slats being nailed to three cross slats three- eighths of an inch thick and three inches wide, and the ends nailed ARRANGEMENTS FOR FRUIT DRYING 531 to a narrow strip one-half inch thick by three-quarters of an inch wide on the other side. A cross-section of this tray is shown at B. Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways and trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays. three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely employed These tramways lead from the cutting sheds to the sulphur boxes and thence to various parts of the large drying grounds, making it possible to handle large amounts of fruit at a minimum cost. Protecting Fruit from Dew. — In the interior there is seldom any deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there are earl}' rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is then protected by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick cleats serve a good purpose. In dewy regions the trays are piled at night, or cloth or paper is sometimes stretched over the fruit, thus reducing the discoloration resulting from deposits of moisture upon it. Drying Floors. — For the most part the trays are laid directly on the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to support them, about twenty inches from the ground. The drying trays are sometimes distributed through the orchard or vineyard, thus drying the fruit with as little carrying as possible. Others clear off a large space outside the plantation and spread the trays where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying spaces should be selected at a distance from traveled roads, to prevent the deposit of dust on the fruit. Spaces used for drying are often idle the rest of the year and are weed-covered and unsightly during the rainy season, or are culti- vated for grain-hay which loosens the surface and deepens the dust. When one has water for irrigation it is often practicable to reduce dust and secure an amount of desirable feed or hay by putting the piece down in alfalfa. Mr. P. F. Gannon of Yolo county proceeded in this way. He lowered the tramway tracks to the ground level, and turned up a furrow on the sides to hold the water from flooding the adjacent ground. In the fall, after the fruit-drying was over, he flooded the space, which is a little over half an acre (125 by 225 feet). Then it was disked both ways and leveled and harrowed and planted to alfalfa before the rains. The land was moist at the time and the seed came up and the plants grew more or less through the winter. In April he cut the first crop. Just before the space is needed for a drying yard, make another cutting, about June 20, cutting it down close and raking it clean. The yard is then ready for the trays and fruit. When the drying season is over the yard is cleared, and the space then is as clean as a clay floor, from being used so much. In three weeks the top of the ground is green all over, and before the rains come there is another cutting crop, mak- ing three crops a year, a ton at each cutting. So something is made 532 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM from the space and the dust problem is solved, which means clean fruit and better prices. Grading. — It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cutting is advisable. Machines are now made which accomplish this very cheaply and quickly.* Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter of some kind is always provided for the fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower made of poles and beams, upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch ; sometimes open-side sheds Avith boarded roof, and sometimes a finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the lower story open- ing with large doors on the north side, and with a large loft above, where the dried fruit can be sweated, packed, and stored for sale. The climate is such that almost any shelter which suits the taste and purse of the producer will answer the purpose. Sulphuring. — The regulations promulgated under the pure food law enacted by Congress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to the percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which was shown by producers to be destructive to their industry, and otherwise unwarranted and unreasonable. As a result of their pro- test the enforcement of such regulations was indefinitely postponed, pending the results of scientific investigation which began in 1908. From the point of view of the California producer it must be held that before the employment of the sulphur process, California cured fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They were of undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by con- tent of insect life. They had no value which would induce produc- tion and discernible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit in boxes or small "houses," with the fumes of burning sulphur, made it possible to preserve its natural color and flavor during the evaporation of its surplus moisture in the clear sunshine and dry air of the California summer. It also prevented souring, which with some fruits is otherwise not preventable in such open air dry- ing, and it protected the fruit from insect attack during the drying process. By the use of sulphur and by no other agency has it been possible to lift the production of cured fruits of certain kinds from a low-value haphazard by-product to a primary product for which Californians have planted orchards, constructed packing houses and made a name in the world's markets. The action of sulphuring is not alone to protect the fruit, it facilitates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required therefor. Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feas- ibility of curing fruits in larger pieces. The grand half-peaches, half-apricots, half-pears of the California cured fruits are the direct * See under "plums and prunes," page 538. 633 634 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM result of the sulphur process. Without it the fruit must be cut into small sections or ribbons, which in cooking break down into an uninviting mass, while, with the sulphuring, it is ordinary practice to produce the splendid halves with their natural color so preserved that they lie in cut glass dishes in suggestive semblance to the finest product of the canners, and are secured at a fraction of the cost. There are various contrivances for the application of sulphur fumes to the freshly-cut fruit. Some are small for hand carriage of trays; some are large and the trays are wheeled into them upon trucks. The most common is a bottomless cabinet about five or six feet high, of a width equal to the length of the tray and a depth a little more than the width of the tray. The cabinet has a door the whole width of one side, and on the sides within cleats are nailed so that the trays of fruit slip in like drawers into a bureau. Some push in the trays so that the bottom one leaves a little space at the back, the next a little space at the front, and so on, that the fumes may be forced by the draft to pass between the trays back and forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or dampers in the bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the sulphur burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through the interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet is made of matched lumber. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or iron pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is thrown on paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little alcohol is put on the sulphur and lighted, etc. The sulphur is usually burned in a pit in the ground under the cabinet. The application of sulphur must be watchfully and carefully made, and the exposure of the fruit should only be long enough to accomplish the end desired. The exposure required differs with dififerent fruits, and with the same fruits in different conditions, as must be learned by experience. Grading and Cleaning. — After the fruit is sufficiently dried (and it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized except by the experienced touch), it is gathered from the trays into large boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it mto a revolving drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces together and separates it from dust, etc., which falls out through the apertures as the drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a large wire-cloth table and pick it over, grading it according to size and color, and at the same time the dust and small articles of foreign matter fall through the wire cloth. The fanning mill for cleaning grain may also be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with proper arrangement of metal screens. Sweating. — All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes moist. This action should take place before packing. To facili- tate it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house and DIPPING AND PACKING 535 turned occasionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to sweat in boxes, the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to another. The sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the mass. Some large producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls, which pre- serve an even temperature. No fruit should be packed before "go- ing through the sweat." If this is not done, discoloration and in- jury will result. Dipping Before Packing. — All fruits except prunes can be packed in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is not over- dried. Efforts should be made to take up the fruit when it is just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If taken from the trays in the heat of the day and covered so that the fruit moth can not reach it there is little danger of worms. The high- est grades of fruit are made in this way. If, however, the fruit has been overdried or neglected, it can be dipped in boiling water to kill eggs of vermin and to make the fruit a little more pliable for the press. The dipping should be done quickly, and the fruit allowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, carefully covered, for twenty-four hours before packing. Packing. — To open well, packages of dried fruit should be "faced." The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be packed (and reference is especially made to such fruits as apri- cots, peaches and nectarines) by running them through a clothes' wringer or similar pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the fruit. Do not face with better fruit than the package is to contain. It is a fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flat- tened fruit (cup side down) neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill the box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the box and put on the label or brand ; the bottom then becomes the top. Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by fif- teen inches long, inside measurements, and it will hold twenty-five pounds of fruit. METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS As already intimated, it will be impossible to enter minutely into the operations of drying and packing on a commercial scale, or even to notice all the small and ingenious arts by which the work is facilitated. Any one who contemplates production on a large scale should personally visit leading regions and inform himself by inquiry and observation. Such an education will save mistakes, which may cost many times more than the expense of getting it. 536 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM California producers are usually quite willing to show visitors the methods they employ. Though this is the better way of proceed- ing, a fcAv general hints will be given of methods with different fruits. Apples. — There seems little use of drying apples unless a very light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This can be done by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun drying in a dry region, or by the use of a machine evaporator in regions of greater atmos- pheric humidity. Recently the product has largely, increased in such large producing regions as the Pajaro valley, and new labor saving devices are being continually introduced. Apricots. — Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not soft enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat, an amber- colored, semitranslucent fruit is obtained. The prevailing method of gathering is to shake down the fruit upon sheets, but the best product is hand picked. Pit the fruit by a clean cut completely around in the suture ; do not cut part way round and then tear apart — a clean-cut edge is essential. Put on the trays with the skin down, or with the cup up, as it is sometimes described; sul- phur, and then put in the sun. About three days of interior-valley sunshine will finish the apricots. Apricots will yield on the aver- age one pound of dried fruit to five pounds of fresh. Berries and Cherries. — These fruits are only dried in the sun in small quantities for local sale, and ordinary farm-house meth- ods are employed. Figs.* The fruit may be carefully picked from the tree so as to secure the whole of the stem, when the fruit is fully ripe, as is known by the seaming or slight shriveling of the skin. In drying the common black fig from large trees, however, the fruit is gen- erally gathered from the ground, which is cleaned and smoothed before the crop ripens. In drying black figs the fruit is placed on trays and in most cases exposed to the sun, but some foot-hill growers maintain the advantage of drying in the shade. The figs should not be allowed to dry hard. When sufficiently cured, put in sweat-boxes for several days, and when ready to pack dip in boiling salt water, or, as is the practice of some producers, dip in a thin syrup, boiling hot. In either method a good, pliable condi- tion and handsome color are obtained. In drying white figs many sulphur the fruit from fifteen minutes to an hour before putting out on the trays. Figs which dry slowly have to be turned several times during the drying, and those which are apt to run juice are placed so that the eye is raised a little until the juice is thickened. *A special illustrated account of handling dried figs in California is given in "The Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad," by George C. Roeding, Fresno, Cal. CURING PEACHES AND PEARS 537 The white figs are also put in sweat-boxes and dipped in hot salt water before packing. In packing, the figs are often flattened anvl drawn out by the hand. Such manipulation gives the fig a lighter and more translucent appearance. The time required in drying figs is usually from five to eight or ten days, according to location and weather. The fruit does not cure evenly, and those which are fin- ished (as determined by sight and touch— to be learned by expe- rience) are picked from the trays, and others given more time. J2|J&9figg;« I y-'.'-V^f*^l^'MSfS?S?)smi»k. . n- JT! '^■^:^~'sr ,'*- -v ^^fe.^^'^! A California Sunshine Evaporator. Pears.— The dried pear product is increasing, and, as with apples, only a light-colored product is profitable. These are made by sul- phuring and sun drying, or by the use of the machine drier. For sun drying the fruit of medium size is halved, the large fruit being quartered. Peaches.— Peaches are sun dried in much the same way as apri- cots, already described. Take the fruit when it is fully ripe, but 538 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM not mushy ; cut cleanly all around to extract the pit and put on trays cup side up ; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible after cut- ting. Peaches are dried both peeled and unpeeled, but drying with- out peeling is chiefly done. Peeling is done with the small paring machines or with a knife. Peeling with lye has been generally abandoned because of discoloration of the fruit after packing, al- though it can be successfully done by frequently changing the lye and using ample quantities of fresh water for rinsing after dipping. Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives and spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction with ordinary fruit knives. Different styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit dis- tricts, and individuals differ widely in their preferences. The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a cer- tain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety; some varieties yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than freestones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy fruit may require six or seven pounds. Nectarines, — Nectarines are handled like peaches; the produc- tion of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skillful use of sulphur. Plums and Prunes. — Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit, are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product is in- creasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot-power "pitters." More rapid and capacious machines are being brought out by inventors. Prunes are one of our greatest and most promising products. Several varieties which dry sweet with the pit in are used in making prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXIII, but the pre- vailing variety is the Prune d'Agen. Prunes are gathered by shaking from the trees, usually upon sheets spread beneath. Several gatherings are made by light shak- ings which cause only the ripe specimens to fall. Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home- made contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of adjustable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits than prunes ; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bottom, while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles. Other grading devices are made with wire screens or riddles of different sizes of mesh. Some of them work on the principle of a fanning mill, three to four riddles, placed above one another, each with a slight incline and a spout on the side where each grade drops into a box. Some have a long riddle, say twelve feet long, with three different sizes of wire screen on it. THE CALIFORNIA WAY WITH PRUNES 539 This riddle is hung upon four ropes with an incline ; the prunes are thrown in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and fall through the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of screen should be small, to -let only stems and dirt through, and no prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to grade prunes after drying. There are now several excellent manufactured fruit graders on sale in this State. Their work is very satisfactory, and they have largely displaced home-made contrivances. The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and crack the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the drying pro- cess. In the large caldron lye is made with one pound of con- centrated lye to each twenty gallons of water, and kept boiling hot. The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized pails with perforated sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boiling lye for about a minute, or until the skin has a wrinkled appearance, then the basket is plunged into clean cold water to rinse off the lye. This rinsing water must be frequently changed, for it soon becomes very alkaline. Some begin with a stronger lye solution, one pound to ten gallons of water, claiming that a very short dip in stronger lye is better than long exposure in a weaker solution. After this dip- ping, the prunes are placed on trays. In the sun the prune dries sufficiently in from one to two weeks, according to the situation and weather. A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them to roll over needle points has also been employed to some extent. There are now manufactured very capacious appliances for contin- uous dipping, rinsing, puncturing and spreading on the trays so that the fruit is handled in large quantities at a minimum cost. In no branch of our fruit industry perhaps has there been greater advance in labor-saving devices than in prune handling. When sufficiently dried the prunes are put through the "sweat," which takes from several days to two or three weeks, and then are ready for grading, finishing, and packing. In grading, the prunes are separated by the use of a grader, as already described, into a number of grades, the largest, forty prunes to the pound, and so on, fifty, sixty, etc., to the smallest, which may run one hundred or more to the pound. Finishing consists in exposing to steam, in dipping in clear hot water, or hot sugar syrup, or in dipping in boiled juice of ripe prunes, or peaches or apples, etc. Although there is a great variety of materials used for "glossing" prunes by different producers, the prevailing practice is to rely upon hot water, to which pure glycerine is added at the rate of one pound to twenty gallons. Some growers also add a little brine (having first dissolved the salt and skimmed off the impurities). This final hot dip kills insect eggs, and the fruit, after drying ofif away from the access of insects, should be packed tightly in boxes. 540 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The following explicit hints on the curing of prunes are based upon wide experience and observation in the Santa Clara valley : Be sure to allow the prunes to obtain all of the sugar they can from the trees by hanging until they drop of their own accord. Do not pick up until prunes are soft to the touch. These two rules are productive of nice black prunes. They may not be black when gathered in the bins but will color with age, without any foreign coloring matter. Do not keep prunes in boxes over night. They go through a sweat, and do not make a first quality of dried fruit, and take much longer to dry. It is better to let the prunes lie on the ground imder the tree for several days than to let the picked prunes lie in the boxes over one night. The dipping fluid must be kept at the boiling point and no prunes put in unless it is boiling. It is not a matter of how strong the lye is, but how hot is the water. On the trays prunes will either dry or ferment. Unless the dip is hot enough the prune will not immediately commence to dry, but will, in a few days, become a chocolate color and refuse to dry, sometimes a few on a tray, often half and sometimes nearly all. If the water is at the boiling point all through the dip, two pounds of lye to the lOO gallons of water may be sufficient. If the water is not boiling, ten pounds of lye to the loo gallons of water may be required. Weather conditions govern the time prunes should remain on the tray. Grasp a handful of prunes and give them a gentle squeeze and open the hana quickly, if the prunes separate they are ready to stack the trays and the fruit should be placed in the bin before it rattles on the trays. When the prunes are sufficiently dry put them in a dry place where it will not rain on them, but do not prevent the air from getting to them. Let the wind have free access until the rains set in, then close doors and make the house as snug as you can. In making bins, be sure the boards are dry and the bins well above ground, or you will have trouble. Do not let prunes get damaged by rain. For dipping before packing, some use a brine dip — about five pounds of salt to 100 gallons of water is about right. This salt dip can be used more safely for prunes than for peaches or other pitted fruit, as in some instances it has attracted moisture and caused mold. As to the respective results of a salt solution and glycerine solution, the salt seems to be a cleansing process, which leaves the skin of the fruit in a bright, clear condition and brings out the blue bloom, which is desirable. The glycerine is more of a syrupy or glossy nature, and on prunes that are inclined to be reddish this solution can be used to ad- vantage. A common method of treating prunes is to use the small prunes and suspend them in the steam-heated tank of the Anderson dipper, where they can not come in contact with the steam (which causes the skin and meat of the prune to turn dark), dissolve out the juice, thus forming a dip hquor, and this is quite extensively used. Raisins. — The varieties of grapes used for raisins are described in Chapter XXVIII. The production of raisins has reached such an extent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that a description of them can not be attempted. Besides, an excellent special treatise has been written on this subject.* However, in beginning the commercial production of raisins, one should visit the raisin farms and packing-houses during the harvest. The fol- lowing description by T. C. White, of Fresno, gives an outline of practise in the vineyard : In Fresno picking commences about the first of September, although there have been seasons when it occurred as early as the 20th of August. The grapes CURING RAISINS 541 under no circumstances should be picked for raisins until they are ripe. There are three ways by which to ascertain this fact : First, by the color, which should be a light amber; second, by the taste; and third, by the saccharometer, which is by far the most accurate. A grape may be ripe, and not have the proper color, when grown entirely in the shade. The juice of the grape should contain at least twenty-five per cent saccharine, to produce a good raisin. The method of drying is with trays placed upon the ground. The almost entire absence of dew in our locality greatly facilitates this method. The trays are usually twenty-four by twenty-six inches, which hold about twenty pounds of fruit, and should produce from six to seven pounds of raisins. The product of a vineyard depends largely upon its age and favorable conditions, varying from two to nine tons of grapes per acre. The trays are distributed along the sides of the roads, from which they are taken by the pickers as they are needed. As the grapes are picked from the vines, all imperfect berries, sticks, and dead leaves are removed from the bunches, which are then placed upon the trays, right side up. A cluster has what is called a right and a wrong side, the wrong side having more of the stems exposed than the right side. Great care should be used in picking, so as to handle the bunches only by the stem. If the berries come in contact with the hands, some of the bloom will be removed, which will injure the appearance of the raisins. The trays are placed, after filling, between the vines, one end being elevated so that the grapes may receive the more direct rays of the sun. Too rapid drying is not desirable. The grapes are left upon the trays until about two-thirds dry, which, with us, will be from six to eight days. They are then turned. This is accomplished by placing an empty tray on top of the one filled with partially-dried raisins, and turning them both over. Then take ofif the upper or original tray, and you have the raisins turned without han- dling or damage. After turning, curing will proceed more rapidly, and fre- quently is completed in four or five days. During this time they should be carefully watched to prevent any from becoming too dry. When it is found they are dry enough, the trays are gathered and stacked one upon another as high as convenient for the sorting which follows. This protects them from the sun and prevents overdrying. Stacking should be attended to early in the morning, while the stems and berries are slightly moist and cool from the night air, as they will retain this moisture after being transferred to the sweat-boxes, and assist in quickening the sweating process. As the raisins are taken off the trays, some of the berries on the bunch will be dry enough and a few will not be sufficiently cured. To remove the moist ones would destroy the appearance of the cluster, and to leave them out longer would shrivel the dry ones, hence the sweat-box. The moisture is dif- fused through the box, some being absorbed by the dry raisins, and the stems also taking their share are thus rendered tough and pliable and easily manipu- lated when ready for packing. Sorting and grading require great care and judgment, and although a tedious process, it greatly facilitates rapid packing. The sweat-box is a little larger than the tray and about eight inches deep, and contains about one hundred and twenty-five pounds of raisins. Heavy manila paper is used in the sweat- boxes, one sheet being placed in the bottom, and three or four more at equal distance as the filling progresses. The object of the paper is to prevent the tangling of the stems and consequent breaking of the bunches when removed for packing. The sorters have three sweat-boxes, one for the first, second and third quali- ties, as the grade will justify. The bunches should be handled by the stem and placed carefully in the sweat-boxes to avoid breaking the stems, thereby de- stroying the symmetry of the clusters. Any found to be too damp are returned to the trays and left a day or two longer in the sun. To ascertain if the fruit is perfectly cured, take a raisin between the thumb and forefinger and roll it gently until softened, when either jelly or water will exude from the stem end — if water, it requires further drying. When the boxes are filled, they are taken to the equalizer. This should be built of brick or adobe, and as near air- tight as possible, but provided with windows to allow ventilation when necessary. The windows should have shutters to keep it dark. The filled boxes are placed 542 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM one exactly above another to a convenient height, and should remain from ten to twenty days or more, when they will have passed through the sweating process. When the raisins are sufficiently equalized, the sweat-boxes are re- moved to the packing-room, which is provided with tables, presses, scales, etc. The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard clusters. Loose raisins are now being produced in increasing quantities. Loose Muscatels are prepared by being put through the stemmer and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from the stems, and the grader, by separating according to size, determines the grade. During the last few years the seeding of raisins has in- creased rapidly, and large establishments for this work, with very ingenious machinery, have been erected. Seeded raisins constitute a considerable portion of the product. A considerable quantity of dipped raisins are also made of the Sultana and Thompson seedless grapes and of loose or inferior Muscatels. A lye dip of about one pound of potash to twelve gal- lons of water is used, and the solution is kept boiling hot. The ripe fruit is dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for a thorough rinsing, and then placed on the trays. During warm, dry weather in the interior, the raisins are dried in the shade hy leaving the trays in piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails, the trays must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber color. An oil 'dip has been profitably used with Thompson's Seedless : One quart olive oil ; ^ pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts water are made into an emulsion, and then reduced with 10 gal- lons water in the dipping tank, adding more soda to get- lye-strength enough to cut the skins, and more soda has to be added from time to time to keep up the strength. The grapes are dipped in this solution and sulphured to the proper color. GRAPE SYRUP The manufacture of grape syrup, which was formerly of con- siderable prominence as a means of disposing of wine grapes, has recently received less attention because of low prices in competi- tion with the vast amount of syrup available for the sugar refin- eries. MACHINE EVAPORATION Although California summer conditions of adequate heat and dry air favor open-air evaporation to such an extent that nearly all our product of cured fruit is secured in that way, there are some parts of the State where artificial heat would be a safer re- course and there are late fruits which sometimes collide with early rains in a way to cause losses even in our best sun-curing regions. ^A. !t ^''^ «-« \^ ini k \ iTTTTiTTT Ju ^ £ ^ 5 o p „> >3 o 544 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM It is interesting, therefore, to describe a machine evaporator con- structed upon true principles and having a capacity sufficiently large to encourage its use. Mr. L. W. Parsons of Campbell, Santa Clara county, has given most of his life to the design and construction of fruit evaporators, and secured patents thereupon which have ex- pired and are now public property. In the Pacific Rural Press of June 19 and 26, 1909, he gave his conclusions on the desirability of machine evaporation and a design for the construction of an evaporator which embodied all his best work in this line. The ac- companying drawings and description are from Mr. Parson's writ- ings : A fruit drying chamber capable of holding about two tons is about as large as one heater can well handle. Wire trays two feet wide by five feet long are as large as one strong man can conveniently handle; he might prefer them shorter; in fact, if the smaller tray would give a drier with sufficient capacity to meet the demands of the owner, he could make the trays two by four feet, with a narrower furnace, to correspond. Where two men are always avail- able, trays three by six feet have been found to work well. A drier five feet wide and twentj'^-four feet long, having ten trays in its length and twelve trays high, holds 120 trays 2 by 5 feet, or a total drying surface of 1,200 square feet, which at the rate of 3 pounds per foot give a total of 3,600 pounds at one time : that is, it would take that much gross weight of fruit before cutting to fill the trays. Large fruit would amount to more, and small fruit or culls might not go above two pounds to the foot. By making the drier one or two trays longer and higher, and a foot or so wider, the capacity may be materially increased. But if much more capacity is desired, it would be better to build another drier, or several of them, alongside of it, which would work satisfactorily. The fruit drying chamber rests on top of the hot air chamber, which is surrounded by brick or cement walls about eight inches thick, and is as long and wide as the fruit chamber above. The height of these walls depends on the size and shape of the heater enclosed by them. The furnace is a very im- portant factor : it must be strong, not' easily burned out, smoke-tight in all i-ts joints and flues, with caps or covers so placed to facilitate cleaning out soot and ashes. There must be room between the sides of the furnace and the side walls to allow for circulation of the air to be heated. Fresh air enters this hot air chamber through openings about a foot square at the bottom in front between the furnace and the side walls ; passes along on the sides and top of furnace and flues until it reaches the back end of the hot air chamber, where it passes up through an opening into the fruit chamber above. The next, and perhaps the most critical, part in the construction, is the sheet iron floor which covers the furnace and flues and separates them from the fruit chamber above. This iron floor is made of either black or galvanized iron, not thinner than No. 24; thicker would be better. It rests on rods or bars of angle or T iron stretched from wall' to wall, with ends built into the walls. These rods are spaced about two feet apart. The sheets of iron should be riveted or bolted together. The edges of this iron floor should project into and be imbedded in the brick walls in front and along the two side walls as far back as the floor goes to the other end of the drier. Cover this floor with an inch or so of sand or fine earth, so as to stop up all cracks. At the back end of drier this iron floor is cut short one foot, allowing an opening of one by about five feet to allow the hot air from the heater below the iron floor to pass up into the fruit chamber above. This floor must be made tight everywhere, so no hot air can possibly leak upward and scorch the fruit or the woodwork above. The brick walls should be built about eighteen inches above the iron floor, so that the wooden frame which rests on top will be safe from burning. INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING EVAPORATOR 545 The furnace may be about four feet high by three feet wide, with an ash pit in the bottom part, and six or eight or more feet long. This will handle four-foot cordwood conveniently and make a liberal combustion chamber for the flames. It may be a cyhnder or shaped like a boiler, or have brick walls, with a cast iron arch on top. Or it may be a big wrought iron box made of quarter-inch boiler iron, braced with angle iron to prevent warping. A smoke pipe one foot in diameter connects with the back end of the fur- nace, passes horizontally to near the back end of the drier, then by a short elbow doubles back, coming to the front over the top of the furnace, and then, by an elbow, to right or left through the side brick wall to connect with the pipe inside of the ventilator shaft or flue. If the furnace is four feet high and the pipe above it one foot thick, allow six inches space between the top of the furnace and the pipe and between the pipe and the sheet-iron floor above it ; then add the eighteen inches of brick wall above the iron floor; we get a total height of seven and a half feet from the ground to top of wall. But only the furnace needs to be as deep as this, and it can be placed in a pit at one end of the drier. The brick walls back of the furnace do not need to go so far down by perhaps two feet. The smoke pipe leaving the furnace close to its top can rest on a brick lying on top of the ground, so the part of the heating chamber holding the long flues may be shallower, thus saving some expense in masonry. The top of the brick wall should be level all the way around and even with the floor of the house, so the operator can easily handle the traj^s on the upper track. Do not insert woodwork of any kind into the brickword. Lay 2x4 inch sills on top of the brick walls all around the four sides. Cut your upright studding of 2x4 joists six and a half feet high,' spaced two feet apart, and nail a 2x4 plate on top. This is for the two long sides. The ends of the drying chamber are to be supplied with close-fitting doors. Nail sur- faced matched lumber on the inner face of the studding. These boards had better be of redwood, so as not to gum up the trays with pitch. These two side walls should be perfectly straight, plumb and level and at equal distance apart at all points, so the trays will work true and not bind or slip off the tracks. Nail to these walls tracks or slides made of strips one and one-half inches square. Fasten to these tracks wheels, known to the hard- ware men as "sash rollers," one inch in diameter and spaced ten inches apart along the track. Cut a little notch in the edge of the track, so the wheel can turn freely, with the big side of the wheel upward. Put twelve of these tracks on each wall, spaced six inches apart, beginning six inches from the ceiling to the top of the first track, then six inches to top of next track, etc. One strong 16 penny wire nail driven into each stud will hold these tracks securely. Fasten the wheels with screws to the track on a work bench before nailing them to the walls. Nail matched lumber on top of the plates from side to side for a ceiling. This wooden shell will have to be braced from the outside so it can stand up firmly with its load of fruit. The ventilator or exhaust flue should be about two by three feet inside and extend about twenty feet above the top of the drier. Build it against the side of the drier, resting on top of the brick wall, close to the front end of the drier. The smoke pipe must be carried by a suitable elbow from its position above the furnace through the side brick wall to a point under the center of the ventilator, thence up through it to the top. A sheet-iron weather cap on top should protect the ventilator and smoke pipe. Make the bottom of the ven^ tilator where smoke pipe enters, air tight to ensure good draft. Provide caps or covers at the elbows to facilitate cleaning out the soot. On the side of the drying chamber, at the bottom, cut a hole into the ven- tilator for the passage of the damp air from the fruit into the ventilator. This opening should be the shape of a right angled triangle, in such position as though the bottom cover of the side wall were being cut off. The bottom and perpendicular side of opening are to be three feet long. The lower tracks go past this opening to carry trays to the door. Some kind of a small guide rail should be placed to prevent the corners of the trays from striking against the edge of opening. The trays are to be one-half inch shorter than the drier 546 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM is wide inside, so as to move freely without danger of being bound. Two or three rods of half-inch iron provided with screws and nuts should pass through from side to side of drying chamber about half way from top to bottom, to prevent the walls of the drier from warping or bulging, or else the trays will drop oflf the tracks. Make four sides of the trays of stuff one and a half inches square, notched :.t the corners of trays. Tack on No. 3 mesh galvanized wire cloth. Over this nail strips one inch thick by one and a half inches wide for runners to roll over the wheels. Nail a similar strip across the middle of the tray to prevent the wire cloth from sagging. From twenty-five to fifty extra trays will be found convenient in operating the drier. The wire cloth is two feet wide. Make the tray frames two feet one inch wide. With average prices for labor and material this drien can be built in a substantial manner for about $500. To Operate the Drier. — Get started right by taking all day in grad- ually filling the drier, so that by night time the first trays will be within a few hours of being finished. Start a good fire before putting in the fruit, so as to burn out the oily smells of the new ironwork. Use the eight lower tracks for the fresh fruit. Put eight trays in at a time, one tray on each of the eight lower tracks about every forty-five minutes, starting them at the front end over the furnace and pushing along. After ten lots have been so placed the eight lower tracks will be full. Then take out one tray from each track at the back end and put them in on the upper four tracks, two trays on a track, to be gradually pushed along from time to time, as often as fresh trays are put in at the front, until the machine is full and the dryest trays will be at the front end on the upper four tracks. The fresh, wet fruit will in this way have its vapor drawn out through the ventilator close by, without wetting the fruit which is partly dry. As the fruit gets dryer it is moved into dr3fer and warmer air at the back end. But this fresh air right from the heater below is 180 degrees hot and tinsafe for fruit to finish in, so it is started back on the upper tracks to finish in a milder temperature, with enough vapor in the air to allow tne iruit to finish gradually without danger of scorching, turning out the fruit in a soft and flexible condition, evenly cured and right in color. This process is peculiar to this evaporator and yields the best results in c[uality of work done. If fruit is rushed too fast through the drier it will get back to the front and top too soon and will be too wet to dry readily in the lower temperature. If the beginner gets caught this way, it will be better, after waiting a little, to take it out, and, if still too wet, carry it back to the other end and put in on the upper four tracks again to gradually go forward again. After a little experience he will learn how and when to move the fruit. As to variations of heat in different parts of the drier and the effects thereof, it may be added that the thermometer hanging in the current of air just as it strikes the fruit may register 190 degrees and do no harm, for the fruit at that end of the drier has enough moisture to save it. The air cools rapidly, and when it reaches the other end of the drier where the fruit on the top tracks is nearly dry, the temperature will be about 40 degrees cooler. This is one of the most valuable points in this evaporator, finishing the fruit in a lower temperature and yet with but little moisture in the air. Wood or coal fires will fluctuate in heat, and a careless operator might allow the temperature to get to 200 or 210 degrees, but if it does not last more than a few minutes, and as the fruit is not too near being finished at the exposed end, no harm is done. A thermometer resting on the tray at the back end lying between the fruit will show about 10 degrees lower temperature than when hanging clear in the draft at that point. While drying the trays should not touch the ends of the drier, but be pushed back about a foot and a half from the doors to allow room for free circulation of air at the back end of drier and down at the front end. It takes sixteen to twenty-four hours to dry the fruit, according to kind and size. Apples are dried in six to eight hours. The furnace may be made to use any fuel. An oil burner is the best, because the heat can be kept steadily at the maximum. PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION CHAPTER XXXIX CALIFORNIA METHODS WITH INJURIOUS INSECTS The California climate, which so favors tree and vine by a long, mild, growing season also enables some insects to multiply much more rapidly than they do in wintry climes ; some having several distinct broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and destruction of plants nearly the year round. The difficulties of the problem of the control of injurious insects are constantly being increased because new pests, in spite of the most careful efforts to keep them outside our boundaries, occasionally find their way into our orchards and vineyards. Furthermore native species, feeding, unnoticed perhaps, upon wild growths have found, in certain in- stances, that cultivated plants offer to them most satisfactory food and then suddenly become a factor in the horticulturists' problem. Undoubtedly parasitic and predaceous insects preying upon the injurious species found in the fruit plantations are of assistance, in greater or lesser measure, in reducing the pests, and this service is being promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from other parts of the world. There are many of our native species of insects, also syrphus and ichneumon flies, lady birds, etc., that are valuable in this regard. Other factors also, such as untoward weath- er-conditions at the time of hatching, bacterial and fungous diseases of insects, etc., assist the horticulturist in his warfare against inju- rious insects. It is also a fact that California conditions have de- manded and favored the development of ways and means for the suppression of orchard and vineyard pests, and methods and ap- pliances have been invented which have demonstrated notable effi- ciency and value. While the literature upon the subject of insect pests in California is quite extensive, much of it is beyond the reach of the general reader. Nevertheless there are a number of publications which should be secured and studied by every fruit grower. These are the bulletins and reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California, at Berkeley; of the State Board of *I am indebted to Mr. W. T. Clarke, assistant professor of Horticulture of the University of California, Berkeley, for careful revision and extension of this chapter. 547 548 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Horticulture, at Sacramento; and of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, at Washington. A most useful addition to the horticulturist's library will be found in Kellogg's "American Insects," published by Henry Holt and Com- pany, New York. This excellent work of Professor Vernon Kel- logg) of Stanford University, is particularly valuable because of its California observations and point of view. Furthermore as the study of the pests and the invention of means for their destruc- tion are continually progressing one can only keep himself up to date and enable himself to profit by improvements, by diligent reading of CaHfornia periodicals devoted to practical horticulture. CLASSES OF INSECTS In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular way, the grouping here will be based upon the character of the work they do. This arrangement has been followed by other writ- ers and is perhaps better than attempting to group the insects which prey upon any single tree or plant, because injurious insects seldom restrict themselves to a single food plant. Therefore the group- ing will be as follows : (1) Insects destroying foliage; (2) Insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit ; (3) Insects boring into the twig, stem or root; (4) Insects boring into the pulp of fruits. INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE Cut Worms and Army Worms.* — These are the larvae of Noc- tuid moths, which often become abundant over limited areas and do much damage to trees and plants. Cut worms and Army worms are terms applied to the same insects in California. In ordinary years they are not present in sufficient numbers to cause much con- cern, and in such years they are known simply as cut worms. When all conditions are favorable, however, certain species develop in enormous numbers and having exhausted the food supply where they breed, they begin to migrate or march, commonly in a definite direction, as an army in search of new food. When they thus ap- pear in such large numbers and take on the migrating habit they are called army worms. Some of the caterpillars have the habit of climbing up vines and trees and eating off the buds in the early spring. These are called climbing cut worms. Others remain at or near the surface of the ^Adapted from Bulletin 192, Agr. Exp. Station, University California, Berkeley. CUT WORMS AND ARMY WORMS 549 ground and feed by cutting off the plants at this point. They are more commonly found in the grass lands, but very frequently at- tack cultivated crops, particularly on land that was in grass the previous year. Army worm (Heliophila unipuncta). Of the methods used to protect trees and plants from cut worms, poisoned bait is probably the most common. This consists of bran and molasses or other sweet substance poisoned with arsenic and distributed in handfuls about the plants. The proportions are as follows : forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap molasses, and five pounds of arsenic. Cheap glycerine may be used to prevent the mixture from drying. This will be eaten by the worms in prefer- ence, usually, to the plants which it is desired to protect. Cut worms and army worms may also be captured by means of traps. Because of their habit of feeding at night and remaining concealed during the day, pieces of boards may be placed on the ground around the growth to be protected and these may be turned over during the day and the worms killed. In case of outbreaks of army worms the most important and successful means of fighting them is to keep them out of the orchard or vineyard entirely. This can be successfully done if they are discovered in time or if already in one portion they can be kept from spreading over the rest of the property. They travel in immense numbers in a definite direction, coming generally from an adjoining or nearby grain field. If a furrow is plowed along the side of the place to be protected it will effectively stop their progress. This furrow should be plowed as deep as possible, with 550 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW TMEM the vertical side next to the field to be protected. It can be further trimmed with a spade, preferably cutting under slightly, making a smooth surface, over which few if any, of the worms will make their way. Above this shoulder fine pulverized earth should slope as abruptly upward as possible. If any of the worms succeed in climbing up over the smooth surface made by the spade they will be pretty sure to fall back as they reach this fine loose earth in an attempt to ascend over the projecting shoulder. Postholes should be dug on the straight edge of the furrow every fifteen or twenty Moths of cut worms. feet. The worms in failing to scale the vertical side of the furrov^ will crawl along in the bottom and fall into these holes. Here they may be killed by pouring in a little crude oil, or by pouring in a little distillate and dropping in a match, thus burning them, or the holes filled in and others dug. They may also be killed in the furrow by sprinkling them with kerosene or by pouring a strip of crude oil along the furrow. Canker Worms. — These are destructive leaf-feeding caterpillars, commonly known also as inch- worms, loopers or measuring worms, because of the peculiar looping gait by which they move about. The male moths are slender bodied and have broad thin wings, while the females are wingless, heavy-bodied creatures. While these caterpillars can in large measure be controlled by spraying with lead arsenate or Paris green, it is by far the best to CANKER WORMS 551 use the trap method of control and avoid having them upon the trees at all. The trap method depends for its success upon the fact that the wingless female moth upon emerging from her cocoon in the ground immediately crawls up the trunk of the nearby tree and places her eggs upon the twigs. By trapping the females on their way up into the trees no eggs can be placed near the foliage and the caterpillars hatching from them can do no damage. The traps are made thus : Take No. 16 or No. 14 wire cloth in strips six inches wide, draw and tack the top edge close to the trunk of the tree over a bandage of cloth which is put on first to make the joint tight. The lower edge should flare out about an inch from the tree all around. This trap will need rather frequent cleaning while the moths are active. Home and work of the tent caterpillar. Tent Caterpillars. — Several species of hairy caterpillars called "tent caterpillars," or "web worms," from their spinning covers of cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large col- onies ; but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web, though 552 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM it lives in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting off and burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole, or by spraying the foliage with lead arsenate or -Paris green. The pest can be reduced while pruning by carefully collecting and burning the egg clusters, which encircle the twig. Red-Humped Caterpillar. — Striped caterpillars, not hairy, but having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in clusters ; of reddish color with yellow and white lines ; a short dis- tance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on which are four black spines ; black spines are also scattered over the body, but smaller than those on the back. Spra)^ with lead arsenate or Paris green, or cut off and burn colonies. Caterpillar of Tussock Moth. — A conspicuous caterpillar with four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes at the front, and one at the rear of the body — see engraving. This leaf-eater is found on apple, pear, plum, and sometimes on other fruit trees, also on the walnut and oak. The caterpillars are pecu- The tussock-moth larva, the so-called horned caterpillar. (Somewhat enlarged.) liarly resistant to arsenical sprays and can not be successfully con- trolled by these. The larva spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold of a leaf, more commonly in crotches or rough places on the bark, or even on adjacent buildings or fences, and the female, after emerging from the cocoon, deposits her eggs upon the outside of it. The engravings show caterpillars and their peculiar markings. The insect is fortunately very freely parasitized in the egg form and prevented from wide injury. It can be controlled by destroying the egg masses during pruning, as they are white and very conspic- uous.* *See Bulletin 183, University of California, College of Ag-rieulture. SLUGS AND BEETLES 553 Pear and Cherry Slug. — A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eating the upper surface of the leaves but not usually making holes through them. The insect can be checked by throwing fine road dust or air-slacked lime over the tree, which cakes upon the slime of the worm and destroys it. On a large scale -an arsenate of lead or Paris green spray is best. Saw-Fly Worms. — There are several larvze of saw-flies which do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole leaf substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not slimy like the pear slug, the one infesting the pear being about half an inch when fully grown. Its general appearance and work are shown by the engravings. The most available remedy is an arsen- ate of lead or Paris green spray. Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines.f — The grape-vine is often seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms two inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, or spine, sometimes without. They are larvse of several species of Sphinx moths or hawk-moths. The worms when new hatched can be killed by an arsenical spray or by hand-picking. The numbers of worms can be reduced by killing the large moths which are abundant at nightfall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flowers. These worms are related to the other large caterpillars which feed on tobacco, tomatoes, etc. Leaf Eating Beetles. — There are many beetles, large and small, which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of arsenate of lead or Paris green, or those which drop to the ground when disturbed may be collected in large numbers on sheets spread below. The most notable of these because of its evil work in the cen- tral part of the State, and because the grub destroys the roots of the vine causing it to be called the "grape root worm," and the beetle riddles the leaves and young fruit. It is Adoxus vitis and a special study of it has been made by Professor H. J. Quayle, of the University Experiment Station, the results of which are published in Bulletin 195 of the station and remedies suggested. Our pictures will enable the reader to recognize the beetle and its work. The beetle is about one-fifth of an inch in length and is black or brown. fSee Bulletin 192, University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station. r-f-A CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES OR FRUIT Leaf Lice. — Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple and plum, are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of different colors, from light green to black, some individuals having wings and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are the kerosene emulsions and other mixtures which will be given later as summer washes for scale insects, with a spray nozzle which sends spray vipwards, so as to reach the under sides of the leaves. Very often these pests are apparently cleared out by lady-birds and other insects which devour them. The engraving shows the gen- eral form of the aphis tribe. Larvae of tussock-moth feeding on apple foliage and fruit. Thrips. — Very minute insects infesting buds, leaves and blos- soms of pears, prunes, cherries, peaches and many other trees and plants. The attack on leaves and buds causes them to wither and fall off. Indeed complete defoliation may follow their attack. When thrips infest fruit blossoms the essential parts are eaten off by the insects and the attacked blossom sets no fruit. Much damage is done by the insect and thorough investigation was pursued by the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, by Mr. Dudley .F. Moulton, who in 1909 became Deputy Horticul- tural Commissioner of California. Mr. Moulton's publication of THRIPS AND VINE HOPPERS 555 his results* indicates that the insect is capable of control by spring spraying by the use of a two per cent distillate emulsion to which Black Leaf Tobacco Extract is added at the rate of one part of extract to sixty parts of emulsion. This spray can be applied with safety to opening buds, but should not be used on trees in full bloom, and its use can be resumed immediately after the blossoms have fallen, and later on the foliage for adults and larvae. The first application should properly be made when the thrips are coming from the ground in maximum numbers and before the cluster buds are too far advanced. This period in the San Jose district is early in March, but it of course differs for the several varieties of fruits. An effort should be made to kill all adults in an orchard before March 15, when practically all thrips are out of the ground and when egg-laying on the stems of leaves or bloom begins. Adult of the grape root-worm — greatly enlarged. Vine Hoppers. — Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects in- festing grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying rap- idly. The vine hopper (often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is the most widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the grape insects occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious num- bers, however, chiefly in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. It is also present in the coast counties, but rarely in sufficient num- *Bulletin 80,, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 556 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM bers to do much injury. Another larger species (Tettigonia atro- punctata) occurs in these localities and sometimes does considerable injury in the early part of the season. The principal injury caused by this insect is due to the extraction of the plant juices. These are sucked out by means of a sharp beak or proboscis, which is in- serted into the plant tissues. The most satisfactory method of control is in the use of a hopper cage to be used in the early spring when the young shoots of the vine are about four or five inches long. The vine hopper cage. The hopper cage, shown in an adjacent engraving, consists of a framework of laths over which is tacked a double layer of mos- quito wire netting or a single 20-mesh wire screen. The bottom consists of a shallow pan or tray made by turning up about an inch of the edges of a sheet of light galvanized iron. One entire side of the cage is left open, and there is a V-shaped opening in the tray at the bottom which allows the cage to be pushed over the vine. The base of the V-shaped opening in the bottom is padded with leather and the vine is bumped and the hoppers jarred off, at the same time that the cage is being swung into position. The sides of the cage and the tray at the bottom are smeared with crude oil, and the hoppers as they are jarred off are caught in the oil. THE GRAPE ADOXUS 557 If there is a breeze blowing the cage can be operated with the open side facing the wind and practically no hoppers will escape. If, however, the day is calm and warm and the hoppers are parti- cularly active a curtain can readily be dropped over the open side as the cage is pushed on to the vine, and it will prevent any from escaping. The V-shaped opening which might allow hoppers to drop to the ground in front of the vine can be covered with canvas, as fol- lows : Take two pieces of canvas about the shape of the opening and a little wider. Double this once on itself and between the two layers sew in pieces of three-fourths inch rubber tubing trans- versely. These are then firmly tacked on the sides of the opening as shown in the engraving. This will allow the cage to be pushed in on the vine and the flexibility of the tubing will bring the can- vas immediately into position again. This with the curtain in front, shuts off all possibility of escape. False Chinch-Bugs. — Small, grayish-brown insects (about one- eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine Grape leaf showing characteristic work of the adoxus beetle. 558 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is disturbed, and may be caught as just described for vine hoppers. Grasshoppers. — These pests often invade orchard and vineyard, and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely defoliating them. This plague has been successfully met by the use of the arsenic and bran remedy, prepared as follows : Forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap syrup, five pounds of arsenic, mixed soft with water; a tablespoonful thrown by the side of each vine or tree. If placed on shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison not eaten may be afterAvard gathered up and saved.* Red Spider and Other Mites. — Very minute insects, usually dis- cernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometinxes destroy the leaves, causing them to lose their color and health by their inroads upon the leaf surface. The red spider and yellow mite are con- spicuous examples; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially the almond, prune, and plum. The eggs of the red spider are ruby- red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast numbers upon the bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the finger if it is rubbed over them. The eggs are very hard to kill, and treatment is most effective when applied in the spring and summer after the mites are hatched out. The popular remedy is a thorough dusting of the trees with sulphur. On a large scale the sulphur is applied in a cloud by means of a modification of the broad-cast barley sower or with the sulphur machines specially made for this purpose. On a small scale it may be applied with a bellows as for grape-vines, or shaken from a cheese-cloth bag at the end of a pole. Sulphur sprays have been found most effective in controlling the red spider. The ingredients of the sulphur sprays are as prepared as follows : Flour Paste. — Take one pound of wheat flour to one gallon of water. Place the flour in a box with a screen bottom (common window screening), and pour the water through it, until all the flour has been washed into the receiving vessel. It will then be finely divided and free from lumps. The mixture should then be brought to the boiling point, being stirred constantly, thus form- ing a thin paste, without lumps. The paste is conveniently made in 20-gallon lots, using the com- mon 25-gallon kettles so often found on California ranches ; if large kettles are not available, the paste can be boiled in less water and then diluted to the above proportions before cooling. The paste should be strained before using. *For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary to resort to various devices for excluding the grasshopper, or for destroying them upon adjoining fields.. Publications describing such devices are Bulletins 142, 170 and 192, University Experiment Station, Berkeley. RED SPIDER SPRAYS 559 Sulfid of Potash Stock Solution.— Granulated, or powdered con- centrated lye, 15 pounds; sulphur, 18 pounds; water to make 20 gallons. Stir the sulphur and lye together in a vessel which will Hawk Moth larva. (Philampeles achemon Drury). allow plenty of room for boiling. When well mixed, add about one pint of water, placing it in a slight hollow in the mixture, and stir in slowly. The mixture will soon begin to melt and boil, form- ing a red fluid ; stir until the boiling ceases, and then add water to Hawk moth (Philampeles achemon Drury). 560 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM make 20 gallons. This stock solution will keep for a^vhilc, or in- definitely when protected from the air. Preparation of the Spray Mixture with Sulfid of Potash. — Place 10 to 15 pounds of sublimed sulphur, or 14 to 20 pounds of ground sulphur in the spray tank with 4 gallons of flour paste and 1 to 2 gallons of the sulfid of potash stock solution; add water to make 100 gallons. For summer or spring spraying after the danger of rains is over, the minimum amount of sulphur is sufficient. Winged male. Wingless partheno-genetic female. Wingless female. Forms of Aphids or Plant Lice, Phylloxera. — This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to the aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this State the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom seen. No remedy has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using roots resisting the insects, as described in Chapter XXVI. The insects are recognized, by the aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow lice, chiefly on the rootlets. Full account of the insect is given in Bulletin 192, University of California Experiment Station, THE SAN JOSE SCALE 561 The Woolly Aphis. — A louse of dark red color, occurring in groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from the bodies of the insects. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest of the apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are practically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that the fruitfulness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The use of wood ashes around the tree close to the trunk has been benefi- cial. Removing the earth from the root-crown and applying from two to five pounds of tobacco dust — a refuse from cigar factories- destroys the insects at this point and prolongs the effective life of the tree. The insect on the branches and twigs can be reduced by spraying with the summer washes soon to be given for scale in- sects, or the clusters of the insect can be touched with a swab dipped in gasoline or benzine, but the oil should not be allowed to spread upon the bark. Lady-birds often clear away the woolly aphis, after reproduction has fallen below the normal, from the tree above ground. Some attention is being given to trial of resistant roots and it is likely that such roots will be generally used here as in Australia. How such trees are grown is described on page 226. Scale Insects. — This is a large group of pests which occasion greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests combined. Therei are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are apparently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit grower should study their life history and classification as laid down in the works on entomology. It will only be possible in this connection to introduce a few engravings, by which some of the most prominent pests can be recognized, and to give some of the remedies which are now being most successfully employed against them. San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosiis). — This was formerly one of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales preying on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present, owing to the energetic war that fruit growers have had to wage against it, has become of minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disap- peared from some regions where it was formerly most injurious. The work of this species is generally readily distinguished from other species of scale by the red blotches which are formed wher- ever it stings any part of the tree — either branch, leaf or fruit. These red blotches are more pronounced in some varieties than in others. When the scales are present in large numbers, it causes a complete discoloration of the bark clear to the sap-wood. This scale has its preference among the deciduous fruits. The apricot and certain varieties of cherries and plums are but little afifected. rgo CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Root injury by Phylloxera and forms of insect. A healthy root; b, root on which the lice-are working, representing the knots and swellings caused by their punctures; c, root deserted by lice and beginning to decay; d, d, d, show how the lice appear on the larger roots; e, the nymph; g, winged female. After Riley. The Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus rapax). — This species affects many- kinds of trees, deciduous as well as evergreens. Scale, about one- sixteenth of an inch in length ; form, ovoid ; color, drab ; female, bright yellow. This insect is found in many places along the coast. It is distinguishable easily from the Aspidiotus perniciosus by its whitish-yellow color, contrasting with the dark color of the latter. Generally this scale has only one brood in the season, and, as com- pared with the San Jose scale, it is of little danger, owing to its slow-breeding propensities. Oyster Shell Scale of Apple (Lepidosaphes ulmi). — This scale af- fects the apple chiefly, although sometimes the pear also. Owing to the thickness of the armor, it is one of the most difficult of the scales to exterminate. It is easily recognized by its long curved form. Rose and Berry Scale {Aulacaspis rosce). — This scale has such striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round white VARIOUS SCALE INSECTS 563 scale is that of the female, the elongated one with ridges is the male. The rose scale infests, besides roses, various fruit bushes, especially blackberries and raspberries. Remedy : For raspberries and blackberries the cutting down of the canes to the ground should be adopted, and the stumps sprayed or washed with kerosene emul- sion, recommended under the head of general remedies for scale insects. Oleander Scale. (Aspidiotus hederac.) — This scale is small, flat, yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially ever- greens. Lemon trees become badly affected, and the fruit is some- times completely covered. The olive is also subject, and the fruit of the olive when infested does not mature well, and wherever a scale is found, a green blotch makes its appearance. Red Scale of Orange and Lemon (Chrysomphales aurantii). — • This scale affects citrus trees in both the coast and interior regions. The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more in diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The appearance of trees infested with this pest is very striking, very much resembling those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage, the leaf presenting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around the scale contrasting with the natural green of the leaf. The branches are but little troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, becomes completely covered with the insects. An orange tree infested with this scale gradually becomes sickly and languishes. Other Citrus Tree Scales. — Two scales more recently brought into this State from Florida are the "purple scale," Lepidosaphes beskii, and the "long scale," Lepidosaphes gloverii. The red and pur- ple scales of citrus trees are only treated successfully by fumiga- tion with hydrocyanic acid gas. This treatment is an elaborate one, requiring special appliances which are fully illustrated and described in Bulletins 122, 152 and Circular 11, which can be had free by application to the Agricultural Experiment Station at Ber- keley. The Black Scale (Saissetia olece). — This scale is almost a uni- versal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though it has recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley con- ditions. It afifects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees as well, and a fungus growing on its exudation causes the black smut, which renders tree and fruit unsightly; but this smut accompanies other scale insects as well as this one. It is especially trouble- some on the olive, and will quickly spread to ornamental plants and vines in the garden. It is a very difficult scale to subdue. On citrus trees the fumigation method is the only practical recourse. On deciduous fruits it requires both winter and summer spraying 564 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM to hold it in check. In spite of the fact that immense numbers are killed by parasites, and perhaps by fungi as well, it is still a grievous pest, and should be fought unceasingly. The black scale (Saissetia oleae). Black scale in mass form. Soft Orange Scale (Coccus Hcsperidwn). — This scale is a pest of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little wider at one end than the other; length, from one- twelfth to one-seventh of an inch ; color, dark brown on convex part, and a lighter brown sur- rounding margin; it has two indentations on each side, and one on posterior end. This scale prefers to collect on the under sides of the leaves along the midrib, the upper sides being covered with smut. It fortunately is usually held in check by natural agencies. Brown Apricot Scale. — The apricot tree, though defying the most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by certain scales. The black scale is one and the brown apricot scale another. The brown apricot scale {Eulecanium Armeniacum) is boat-shaped ; when reaching maturity, wrinkled; the color is a shiny brown, darker in the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized scale has a length of a quarter of an inch, and a width of one-eighth of an inch. This scale attacks nearly all kinds of deciduous fruits, but especially the VARIOUS SCALE INSECTS 565 prune and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about the black scale apply to it also. Brown apricot scale (Eulecanium armeniacum). Other Lecaniums. — ^There are several other scales on fruit trees : The filbert scale {hemisphericimi) , which is common in greenhouses and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees ; the frosted scale (pruinosuni) , very large, oval and convex, covered with dense, whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees. ^^^mk 'tMm ^^^a^m f^j^^^^^^^^M li^^M Hemispherical scale (Saissetia hemispherical). Cottony Cushion Scale or Fluted Scale {Icerya purchasi). — This promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its rapid increase and wide range of food plants, but it was speedily reduced by an Australian ladybird, Novius (Vedalia) cardinalis, in- troduced by Albert Koebele, with such success that specimens were for a number of years rarely seen, but have recently become abun- dant in some localities. 566 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Mealy Bugs. — Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs (species of dactylopiiis), soft and of a pale pink color, generally cov- ered with a whitish mealy powder, hence the name. The common species is found in nearly every greenhouse, in the world, and in California climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and has at various times proved quite troublesome. Unless checked by Frosty scale (Eulecanium pruinosan). natural enemies, the meal}^ bugs multiply very rapidly, and mass themselves in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn black from the fungus growth growing on the honeydevv, and the bush presents the same appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a magnifier the appearance of the mealy bugs, as different from scales can be readily recognized. Physokermes scale on cherry. Remedies for Scale Insects. — Though most of the scale insects are attacked by parasitic and predaceous insects, as already stated, these natural agencies have generally not proved rapid enough to cope with the increase of the scales, and insecticides have to be employed to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of these washes, many of which will do good work if thoroughly applied, which is- usually the secret of success. A few which have proved of special value will be given herewith : REMEDIES FOR INSECTS 5g7 A WINTER WASH FOR DECIDUOUS TREES WHEN LEAFLESS Lime Salt and Sulphur Remedy. — The following formula has been used with great success throughout the State : Lime 30 pounds Sulphur 20 pounds Salt 10 pounds Water 60 gallons For preparing the wash two vats or boilers are necessary, and if the spraying is to be done on a large scale, one of these at least should hold a couple of hundred gallons. If but a small number of trees are to be treated, ordinary iron kettles will answer the purpose. Of course, the preferable way of cooking the wash is by means of live steam. First place two or three inches of water in the boiler, and to this add the sulphur, which has previously been made into a paste by mixing with hot water in order to remove the lumps, or sift the dry sulphur through a mos- quito wire-netting and stir it thoroughly. Then add about one-fourth of the lime, and when the violent boiling has ceased add another fourth, and so on until the required amount of lime has been added. Hot water should be added with the lime as needed, so as to make the mixture of a creamy consistency. Too much water will "drown" the lime, while on the other hand too little will cause incomplete slaking of the lime. In this way the heat generared by the slaking of the lime is taken advantage of, and by adding the sulphur first plenty of time is given for removing the lumps. By the time the lime is thoroughly slaked the fire should continue the boil- ing, so that the time of boiling begins with the addition of the lime. The salt and about one-fourth of the water should now be added, and the whole boiled from one to two hours, keeping it frequently stirred in the meantime. At the end of this period screen into the spray tank and add the necessary amount of hot water, and apply to the trees hot. The wash when properly made is a heavy reddish-brown liquid, very caustic and having a strong sulphur odor. The heavier materials settle upon standing, leaving a lighter liquid both in color and weight. Stock solutions of lime-sulphur compound are now being furnished ready for dilution by California manufacturers. WASHES FOR ALL TREES WHEN IN LEAF Kerosene Emulsion. — Take kerosene, two gallons ; common soap, or whale-oil soap, one-half pound; water, one gallon. Dissolve the soap in the water and add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force pump and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, forms a cream which thickens on cooling. Dilute before using, one part of the emul- sion with nine parts of cold water. To obtain this emulsion in proper form violent agitation is necessary, the time required depending upon the violence of the agitation and temperature of the mixture. Professor Cook's formula is this : "Dissolve in two quarts of water one-fourth pound of hard soap by heating to the boiling point, then add one pint of kerosene oil and stir violently from three to five minutes." This is best done by use of the force pump. This mixes the oil permanently, so that it will never separate. Add seven pints of water and the wash is ready for use. Resin Soap. — Take ten pounds of resin, one and one-half pints of fish oil, three pounds of caustic soda (76 per cent), and enough water to make fifty gallons. Place all the ingredients together in the boiler with water enough to cover them three or four inches. Boil one-half hour, or until the compound resembles very black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water, or, if cold water is used, add very slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture to be diluted to the full amount as used. When spraying, the mixture should be perfectly fluid and without sediment. This mixture can be used twice or three times as strong on deciduous trees when dormant. 568 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM A common outfit in California for cooking the lime, sulphur and salt. INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT Peach Twig-Borer or Peach Worm,* — This larva is probably the most serious insect pest that the California peach grower has had to contend with. The creature hibernates as a young larva in burrows in the crotches of the tree. As soon as the tree begins to grow in the spring the larva be- comes active, eats its way out of its winter home and bores into the new growing twigs causing them to wither and die. Later genera- tions of the worm attack the fruit and from the two forms of attack much loss may accrue to the orchardist. Destruction of the larvae in their winter burrows overcomes all damage from these pests. This can be accomplished by spraying with the lime-sulphur compound in the late winter or very early spring when the buds are expanding.. The Common Borer. — An insect which has done vast injury in this State is the "fiat-headed apple borer" (chrysobothris femorata). It afifects chiefly apples, peaches and plums, etc., which have been injured by sunburn. It is a pale-colored grub with a brown head, the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The matured beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored on the under side. If any tree receives any damage to the bark, either by sunburn or other causes, the borer is sure to find it, and it works *See Bulletin 144, University of California Experiment Station. THE PEACH WORM 569 itself into the tree, its castings being the only guide to its presence. The best remedy is prevention by protection from sunburn, as de- scribed in Chapter XL Whenever a borer is removed, the debris and dead wood should be entirely cleaned out and the smooth sur- Peach twig showing winter burrow, natural size. face left, taking care to preserve the bark as much as possible. Then the wound should be smeared over with grafting wax, and a rag tied about it. In this manner young trees have been saved, but if seriously attacked, it is better to put in a sound tree and protect it. Peach worm burrow laid open, showing how the worm begins its spring work. Sun-Scald Borer. — Another borer which delights in sunburned trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pin- hole. It is known as the sun-scald beetle (Xyloborus xylo graphus) . The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark, for this precedes the attack of the beetle. 570 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The Olive Twig-Borer. — A reddish brown beetle boring into twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils of the leaves. It is Polycaon confertus, and it breeds in decaying logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the tree, but unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards given, it may spoil the shape of a young tree. Remove the afifected branches below the burrows of the beetle, or if it would be difficult to replace a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance to the hole stopped up— this to prevent decay and a weak branch follow- ing. Spraying with ill-smelling solutions may prevent their attack, but the insect has not been sufficiently abundant to invite serious effort thus far. Peach Crown-Borer. — A grub boring into peach trees just below the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming. The insect, Avhich has become quite troublesome in Santa Clara County, resembles the Eastern crown-borer of the peach, but is a distinct species {Sanninoidca opalescens). The best methods of sup- pressing this insect are three. A preventive treatment consists in coating the base of the tree a few inches below the surface and a A nearly full-grown larva of the Peach-tree Borer. Magnified four diameters. foot above with a whitewash, with a pint of coal tar to each five pounds of quicklime, put in while the lime is slacking. More recently the application of asphaltum "grade D" has been made with good results. This should be done in April. A killing treat- ment which has proved effective and safe to the tree is carbon bisulphide, when wisely used. Mr. Ehrhorn gives these precautions : Carbon bisulphide should not be applied when the soil is wet or just before a rain, nor just after cutting out borers and putting on lime and other pre- ventives. Avoid putting it on the bark of the tree. Procure a machine oiler which will hold about eight ounces of carbon bisulphide, remove the soil around the trunk of the tree about six inches wide and six inches deep, being sure to detach all soil adhering to the trunk of the tree. After this is done, fill in this space with loose soil to the level again. Now squirt the liquid a few times from one to one and one-half inches away from the bark around the tree, and cover immediately with six inches of soil. Borers have been killed in frorn VARIOUS BORERS 571 twenty hours to three days; after they are found to be dead, the soil should be removed from around the trees so that any remaining fumes of bisulphide can be dissipated. The method in most general use is known as the "worming process." This consists essentially in carefully cutting out and killing the individual borers. Special tools have been devised for this work. A full description of these processes can be found in Bulletin 143, University of California, College of Agriculture. Strawberry Root-Borer. — The larva of another clear-winged moth (Aegeria impropria) , boring- into the root of the strawberry plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing considerable damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much earlier than otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines has a great tendency to kill out the worms, and if the water was retained, say four or five days during the winter, all over the plants, doubtless all the larvae would be killed. Currant and Gooseberry Borer. — A white worm eating out the central pith of currant and gooseberry plants — the larva of another clear-winged moth {Aegeria tipuliformis). Spraying with whale- oil soap after the crop is gathered, pruning out and burning in the fall of all old wood which can be spared, will reduce the evil. The Raspberry Cane Borer. — This intruder is one of the family Tenthredinideae, or saw flies. The very small maggot or larva will be found by peeling the bark carefully. This larva can not crawl, therefore if the tips be cut and the worm is taken out he will die. A better way is to cut all tips, as fast as they show signs of wilting, and burn them. Thorough work in topping is absolutely necessary, so as to be sure that none of the worms remain to produce flies. Topping causes the canes to throw out laterals, thus producing more fruit. The canes are not affected after July. INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS The Apple Worm, — The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) is one of the great pests of the State. It preys chiefly upon the apple and pear, but the quince and other large fruits are sometimes in- vaded by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossom- ing of the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit, or on adjacent leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten days, generally seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the fruit, and in twenty days its full growth is attained, and it goes out through the side of the apple, and, by means of its spinnaret, reaches the ground or some large branch. If landed on the ground, it usually seeks the trunk, which it ascends and soon finds a hiding- place under the loose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight or ten days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. The &gg 572 CAIilFORNiA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM is laid all over the fruit, and especially at a point where two fruits touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but some- times three, and, naturall_y, if unchecked, the increase from the first to the last is enormous. The worms escaping from the fruit in the The Codlin moth — natural size and greatly enlarged. fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of the tree, or in store- houses, or in any available dry place. On the basis of long experience in the Watsonville district Mr. W. H. Volck, county entomologist, gives the following outline of operations against the apple worm : There are two broods in a season. The first develops from worms that have wintered over in protected places both above and in the ground. The moths of the first generation begin emerging in April, but very few eggs are laid before the middle of May. In this locality egg-laying is then continuous until the last of June. The full-grown worms of the first generation after emerging from the apples seek some hiding place where they may rest for a few days, transforming into pupa and then into full-grown moths. The moths of the second generation begin laying eggs early in August and may continue to do so as late as October or November. It is the worms of the second generation that do the greatest amount of damage. The codling moth lays its eggs on the surface of the leaves and fruit. The eggs are about the size of a small pin-head, circular and flat. The color varies from white to pink and red. These eggs are easily seen when the observer knows what to look for. The young worms hatch from the eggs about ten days after laying, and then begin crawling about in search of fruit to burrow into. This short period between the hatching of the egg and the entrance into the apple is the only time that spraying operations can prove effective. It is clearly impossible to accomplish anything by the use of sprays that will only kill by contact, for such sprays would have to be applied nearly every day. The spraying opera- tion must then leave a deposit of some substance on the fruit that will kill the worms when they attempt to burrow through the rind. The only substance now known that answers these requirements are the compounds of arsenic. SPRAYING FOR THE APPLE WORM 573 Arsenic is, however, poisonous to plants and must be applied with caution. The arsenic compound used must be entirely insoluble in water, and not subject to weathering, in order that it shall be perfectly safe. The wet fogs of the Pajaro valley summers give arsenical spray compounds a very severe test and it has been found that only the best quality of arsenate of lead is able to stand it. Arsenate of lead may do very severe burning, however, if it is not of the proper quality. It is a well known fact that a large percentage of the worms of the first generation enter at the blossom ends of the apples. This part is protected or more or less closed over by the leaves of the calyx. The calyx cups close very shortly after the petals fall, and so it is advised by the best authorities to spray as soon after the falling of the blossoms as possible in order to leave a deposit of poison there. In the Pajaro valley and adjoining sections weather conditions often prevent spraying at this time, but where possible to apply, the calyx cup spraying is advised. Good results have been obtained by spraying in the early part of May, which is considerably after the calyx cups have closed. Spraying at this time gives much the same effect as the calyx cup application, especially where it is applied with proper thoroughness. This early spraying is applied before any worms have appeared and is intended merely to have the poison in readiness for the insects when they do come. The first codling moth spraying should contain Bordeaux Mixture as a pre- caution against the scab : Bordeaux Mixture — Copper sulphate 3 pounds, lime 4 pounds, water 50 gallons. Arsenate of Lead — Use 2^/2 to 3 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons of Bordeaux. The Bordeaux Mixture should be prepared first, and enough space left in the tank to allow for the addition of the arsenate of lead and the water required to mix it. The second spraying should be applied from the last of May to the first ten days in June, and is intended to augment the effect of the first spraying by further covering the rapidly expanding fruit. For this spraying use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. No Bordeaux should be used with this spraying, for the previous sprayings containing Bordeaux will have controlled the scab, and the further use of the fungicide is likely to russet the apples. Very few eggs are laid during July, so if the second spraying has been applied about the first of June it should suffice to control the first generation attack. The second generation worms begin to appear about the first of August, so a spraying is due at this time. For the third spraying, use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. If the apples are to remain on the trees through September they should receive another spraying about the first of this month. For the fourth spraying, if the other three have been applied according to directions, use i>^ pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. The schedule of sprayings above laid out should control the codling moth under average conditions, and even where the insect is extremely abundant should yield 95 per cent clean fruit. The codling moth is much affected by weather conditions, and if there is a large amount of cold fog during the summer the damage will be much reduced. The Peach Worm. — As already stated, the larva of the peach moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is sometimes found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the im- portance of saving the fruit by proper treatment of the hibernating worms which emerge as the blossom buds are opening. 574 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The Diabrotica. — A light green beetle with twelve spots on his back {Diabrotica soror), is sometimes very injurious to early fruit, by eating" into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blos- soms. As the insect attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it is impossible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous spray. Some- times the insects are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and around the orchard. The Dried Fruit Worm. — Dried fruit is often seriously injured after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth not yet determined. The eggs are deposited on the fruit either while drying or while in the packing-house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of the package. The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing, by dipping in boiling water, or by heating in an oven and after that preventing the access of the moth. Infested fruit can also be treated by bisulphide vapor, the method being the same as described for nursery stock below. ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit drying. Ants are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pouring in a couple of ounces of carbon bisulphide and closing again with earth. Yellow jackets also nest in the ground in old squirrel or gopher holes, and they too can be suffocated with carbon bisulphide or by pouring in gasoline or kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are troublesome, but are much less numerous than the cave-dwelling species. To destroy yellow jackets by trapping and poison is also feas- ible. W. F. Moyer, of Napa, proceeds in this way : Make a thin fruit syrup by mashing the boiling ripe fruit, strain it and add a little sugar. Place the syrup dishes on the drying ground where the "jackets" are thickest. When the top of the syrup is covered with drowned and drowning "jackets," scoop them out with the hand, and crush them with the foot. They won't sting unless you pinch them. As the syrup evaporates fill up the dishes with water. If a day or two should elapse when no fruit is cut, be sure the traps are well cared for, as they will swarm around them thicker than ever, especially if the weather is hot. For dishes to place the syrup in, cut kerosene cans so as to make two cans, each about six and one-half inches deep. Poisoning to carry destruction to the young brood is also prac- ticable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his fruit in this way : I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and several pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a man's fist, I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bending the wire into a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower limbs of trees all around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted, and the little insects DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK 575 busily working at the fragrant liver. The insects carried pieces of the liver to their nests, and besides causing the death of those that had been destroying my fruit, the next generation of yellow jackets was also destroyed, and so complete was the destruction that there were not enough of the little pests in that neighborhood the following year to require a repetition of the treatment. There is no risk in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return to the fruit, and bees will not go near the meat. DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc., can be freed from insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a saucerful of carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it with canvas or any tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect life in forty minutes. Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale may be done in this way : Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of the best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled linseed oil to make it gas proof. The canvas must be perfectly dry before it is rolled up, or it is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous combustion. To fumigate evergreen stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one fluid ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to one hundred cubic feet of enclosed space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when dormant, use one-fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has been placed over the stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or four-gallon glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of water, then the sulphuric acid, and place it well under the canvas, the edges of which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas escaping, with the exception of the edge immediately in front of the jar. The proper amount of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into the jar from a long scoop, and the tent is immediately closed, and remains so for one hour. It is hoped that this chapter will convey trseful hints in the war- fare against insects. Whenever questions arise which are not met thereby, appeal should be made to the University Experiment Station at Berkeley. A condensed statement of useful insecticides is issued by the Station, prepared by Professor H. J. Quayle, as follows : INSECTICIDES 1. Lime Sulphur: Quicklime, 33 pounds; Sulphur, 66 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. Sift sulphur through box with screen bottom into boiling tank with 50 gallons of water. Add the lime and boil 45 minutes to one hour. Stir fre- quently. Strain through cheese cloth or burlap and dilute to make 200 gallons. If extra lime is desired strain in milk of lime when spray is ready for use. 2. Commercial Lime Sulphur: The standard strength corresponding to the above formula is obtained when commercial solution is diluted i to 9. Either of the- above for San Jose and other armored scales to be applied during dormant season, preferably in early winter or early spring. For Peacn Moth as the buds are expanding in the spring. 576 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 3. Distillate: Soap, I pound; Water, 6-12 gallons. A 28 deg. gravity oil refined for tree use. Distillate, 12 gallons; Water 200 gallons. For use only with power sprayer with good agitator, which is necessary to make a mechanical mixture of the oil and water. For the Brown Apricot, Black, and other unarmored scales, and for Woolly Aphis, to be applied during dormant season, preferably in early winter. 4. Distillate-Potash: Distillate, 10 gallons; Lye or Caustic Soda, 5 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. Preparation and uses same as under 3. Has the advantage of freeing tree from moss. 5. Distillate Tobacco: Distillate, 4 gallons ; Black leaf tobacco extract, 3 gallons ; Water, 200 gallons. For thrips and plant lice, to be applied by power outfit only. 6. Kerosene Emulsion: Soap, Yz pound; Kerosene, i gallon; Walter, 10 to 25 gallons. Dissolve soap in i gallon hot water. Add i gallon kerosene. Mix thor- oughly with spray pump by turning nozzle back into mixture. For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season, dilute with 20 to 25 gallons of water. For Scale insects. Woolly Aphis and other sucking insects dui^ing dormant season, dilute with 10 gallons of water. Kerosene emulsion can be used on small scale with hand sprayer. 7. Miscible Oils: Commercial preparations to lie used according to directions. Uses same as 3, 4, 5, and 6. Power outfit for application not necessary. 8. Straight Kerosene: Kerosene or Water White Oil, 20 gallons; Water, 200 gallons. In use for scale insects of citrus trees. Application by power outfit. Occa- sionally also 2 per cent distillate used for same pests. 9. Soap Solution: For plant lice. 10. Tobacco: Tobacco stems, i pound; Water, 4 gallons. Steep tobacco in i gallon hot water. Dilute to 3 or 4 gallons. Or, Black Leaf extract, i gallon; Water, 60-70 gallons. For plant lice, thrips, and other sucking insects during growing season. 11. Sulphur: Dry. — Thoroughly dust over foliage when wet with dew. Hydrated lime sometimes used to increase adhesiveness. Spray. — Sulphur, 30 pounds; Lime (as milk of lime), 15 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. For red spiders and for silver mite. 12. Lead Arsenate: Lead Arsenate, 6-10 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. First mix arsenate of lead with two or three gallons of water. For Codling Moth, and all defoliating insects. VARIOUS INSECTICIDES 577 13. Paris Green: Lime, 5 pounds; Paris Green, i r-3 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. For Codling Moth, and all defoliating insects. 14. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas: Potassium Cyanide, i part; Sulphuric Acid, i part; Water, 3 parts. Place water and acid in earthenware vessel and add cyanide. To be used under tents or in tight rooms or boxes. For fumigating buildings and the like, i ounce of cyanide to each 100 cu- »ft. of space for one hour or more. For use against scales' on citrus trees. Ordinary dosage in ounces, found by multiplying distance around by distance over top of tented tree and pointing off two places. Example : Distance around bottom, 40 ft. X Distance over top, 20 ft. = 8.08 oz. cyanide. 15. Carbon Bisulphide: For the fumigation of stored products and underground insects, and for squirrels. Usual dosage, i pint to 1,000 cu. ft. of space. Place liquid in saucers or shallow vessels near top of room if convenient. Inflammable : avoid lights. For underground insects, a tablespoonful placed in holes a few feet apart. CHAPTER XL DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES A few suggestions concerning pathological conditions which arise in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and remedies may be helpful : First, diseases demonstrated to be caused by fungi and bacteria; second, abnormal conditions, of which the causes are not yet clear. Effect of mildew on young growth of grape vine. Powdery Mildews. — Fungi which bring upon the leaf surface the appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause the leaf to curl and dry without producing marked swelling, perforation or dis- coloration, can be checked by the use of sulphur. The chief of these is the mildew of the grape, the mildew of the apple, appearing chiefly on the young growth, etc. The way to use sulphur for these fungi is to throw finely ground or sublimed sulphur on the young foliage 578 LEAF SPOT FUNGI 579 at the first sign of the trouble, either by hand or with suitable machinery which is fully discussed in Bulletin 186 of the California Experiment Station. Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deforming Fungi. — These classes are usually distinguishable by the results they produce. The mil- dew of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the leaves and growing fruit ; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach produces swellings and contortions of the leaf; the scab of the apple and pear produces t ■■• 0- /*;, Pacific ffuffAL Press. Effect of brown rot on fruit and twigs of apricots. first a smoky appearance on the leaf and afterwards causes black scabby patches on the fruit and on the young twigs ; the slot-hole fungus of the apricot, plum, cherry, and almond cuts roundish holes in the leaves as though a shotgun had been discharged through the foliage, and then, in the case of the apricot, produces roundish, dark red pustules on the fruit; the brown rot which attacks both twigs and fruit of apricots, prune, blackberry, etc., produced eruptions on plums and peaches ; the rust fungi of the under sides of the leaves, first of a yellowish or orange color, changing to dark brown or black. 580 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM and causing the leaf to fall. These fungi are only slightly, if at all, checked by the dry sulphur treatment, and are best subdued by the use of copper solutions : The Bordeaux Mixture. — Lime, four pounds; bluestone (sulphate of cop- per), four pounds; water, forty gallons. Use part of the water to slake the line and dissolve the bluestone, which should be done in separate vessels. The bluestone should not be put in a metal vessel. If put into a bag and sus- pended near the surface of the water, it will dissolve more readily, or hot water may be used in making the solution. Both should be cold when mixed, and the resultant mixture will be a beautiful blue wash. If mixed hot, a black compound (copper oxide) is produced, which reduces the value of the wash. After thorough mixing of the solutions, water should be added to bring the bulk up to forty gallons. This is safe to use on foliage. It may be used much stronger when trees are dormant — as strong as ten pounds of lime and ten pounds of bluestone to forty gallons of water to kill spores of fungi on the bark, but the chief advantage of the stronger mixture is not directly in spore-killing but in the longer resistance to removal by rains. This winter treatment is a successful preventive of curl-leaf on the peach, shot-hole on the apricot, scab on the apple and pear, rust on the prune, etc. In the case of the peach blight, which is an invasion of the young bark by the shot-hole fungus, an autumn spraying is imperative to protect the dormant twigs.* When the fungus survives winter treatment or when it attacks the fruit, as in case of the apricot particularly, or the leaf in the peach, there should follow the weaker Bordeaux in the spring or summer, as early as indications of the diseases may appear. In spraying for apple and peai* scab, the addition of five pounds of lead arsenate to each one hundred gallons of the Bordeaux Mixture makes the application answer also for the codlin moth, as described in the preceding chapter. When it is desirable to use a fungicide on fruit near the picking season, or on ornamental plants, which would be disfigured with the lime wash, the ammonical copper carbonate may be submitted for the Bordeaux Mixture, viz. : Copper carbonate, four ounces ; ammonia, forty ounces; water forty gallons. The usual way of making this wash is to dissolve copper carbon- ate in ammonia, and then dilute. If the carbonate is not fully dis- solved before the Avater is added, it can not be further dissolved, and not only is the carbonate wasted, but the fluid will not be up to standard strength. It is well, therefore, to give the ammonia ample time' to act, say over night, before adding the water. The lime, salt and sulphur mixture, as already prescribed for scale insects in the preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for *Consult Bulletin 191 of the University Experiment Station on "California Peach .Blight." BLIGHTS AND DECAYS' 581' winter use. It is sometimes a satisfactory curl-leaf preventive in the interior valleys especially. Toadstool Destruction. — Trees are often destroyed through in- vasion by toadstool fungi from the decaying roots or wood with which their roots come in contact. The injury is often not detected until the tree is ruined and it is too late for treatment. If only part is'affected, the disease may sometimes be arrested by cutting away the diseased parts and disinfection of the exposed tissue with the Bordeaux Mixture. Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark. — It has been clearly shown by investigation at the University Experiment Station that the growth of moss, etc., upon the bark of fruit trees is a decided, injury. All trees should be assisted to maintain clean, healthy bark. This is accomplished by the use of the lime, salt and sulphur mixture al- ready prescribed for scale insects. It can also be done by winter spraying with caustic soda or potash, one pound to six gallons of water. Effect upon the nuts of the bacterial blight of walnuts. Blights and Decays. — There are several blights which are trace- able to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible as are the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, because they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not reached by applications. The blights of the pear, the black heart of the apri- 582 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM cot, the olive tuberculosis, etc., are instances. Cutting back to healthy wood (with tools dipped after each cut in corrosive subli- mate, one part to one thousand parts of water), and burning all removed parts is the best treatment which can at present be pre- scribed. The walnut blight, demonstrated by Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, to be caused by a bacterium, has so far resisted treatment. The disease is recognized by black sunken spots on the hull of the young walnut; generally worst at the blossom end and usually first seen there early in the season ; later the spots run together and encompass considerable areas of the surface. As the disease progresses the nut is transformed into a hateful black mass and is utterly destroyed. The disease also affects the leaves and young wood. The recourse seems to be toward resistant varieties, as stated in the chapter on the walnut. Lemon Rot, a fungus disease destructive to the fruit in the orchard and during curing or in transit, is fully expounded in Bul- letin 190 of the University Experiment Station. Crown knot on peach just below ground. DIEBACK AND GUM DISEASE 5S3 DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO PARASITIC GROWTHS There are a number of prominent troubles which are not trace- able to parasitic invasion of any kind, and yet may be in some cases promoted by bacterial growth invited by preceding conditions. Sour Sap. — There is a fermentation of the sap, quite noticeable by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from the root to the topmost twigs ; sometimes in one part and not in another. Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing water in the soil, and the remedy is drainage. Trees thus affected make an effort to grow and then the young growth shrivels. Severe cutting back of the top to reduce evaporation until the roots can restore their feed- ing fibers is the only treatment of the tree, and its success depends upon the extent of the root injury. Sour sap may also be caused in the branches by the occurrence of frost after the sap flow has actually started. Cutting back the diseased parts, as soon as dis- covered, to sound wood, is the proper treatment. Die-Back. — Dying back of twigs or branches may occur without parasitic invasion through root-weakness or partial failure. It may Tuberculosis of the olive. 584 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of which will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress. The treatment is cutting back to sound wood and correcting the soil con- ditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other may be needed to advance vigorous growth in the tree. Gummosis. — This is a convenient term to designate the gumming which is seen on many kinds of trees. As has been said of die-back, gumming may result from excess of water or of drouth in the soil. The peach bUght — twigs from sprayed and unsprayed trees. ROOT KNOT 585 Gumming is, therefore, not considered in itself a disease, but rather an indication of conditions unfavorable to the thrifty growth of the tree. It has been usually found by investigation that trees in perfect condition of health, with the moisture just enough and not excessive, are not troubled with gumming; but there are cases in which this statement does not wholly apply. There is very much in this con- nection which is not fully demonstrated as yet and the University Plant Disease Laboratory, at Whittier, is undertaking careful and wide studies of which preliminary results appear in the University Bulletin No. 200. When there is an outbreak of gum where it can be treated it is desirable to cleanly remove all the unhealthy bark — cutting clean to sound bark and covering the wound with paint or wax to exclude the air. Root Knots. — These are excrescences upon the roots or at the root crown of various trees and of grape-vines, and they have been a serious trouble in this State for a good many years. Some of the knots have been studied by experts in plant pathology and the cause of the trouble demonstrated to be a fungus and the disease infec- tious. A satisfactory treatment has, however, been discovered. If the knot has not increased in size sufficiently to seriously interfere with the growth of the tree it can be smoothly removed, the wound treated with the Bordeaux Mixture, and the knot will not reappear at the same place. Success has also been had with boring a hole into the knot and filling the hole with bluestone solution, but some trees have been killed in this way. Bluestone can be used with least danger when the tree is dormant. CHAPTER XLI SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are sometimes such grievous trespassers upon the fruit plantation that protection has to be sought against them. The animals which figure in this evil work are mainly species of rodentia, some of them burrowers, as, for example, the ground-squirrel and gopher; others, surface dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is injury done by deer in the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the melon patch, but these larger animals may usually be left to the hunters and the dogs. RABBITS Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrowers. This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by driving them, with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into a narrow, fenced inclosure, where they are killed with clubs. Dur- ing the last few years tens of thousands have been killed in this way, and comparatively few are now found in the localities where the method has been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at large to vex the fruit planter, and he must protect himself against them. Rabbit Fences. — The surest protection against rabbits is a fence which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have been built in this State. Several styles prevail. The ordinary board fence, with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit-proof by placing the lower boards close together, with openings of but A rabbit-proof fence in successful use in the San Joaquin Valley. about two inches between them. A barbed wire, with bards about two and one-half inches apart, can be used to advantage by running it along at or a little below the surface of the ground to prevent scratching under. 58G RABBIT FENCE AND POISON 587 The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and wire nettings, or of perpendicular slats interwoven with wire. Such materials are sold in large quantities. A very effective combination of barbed wire and netting, which is used in the upper San Joaquin Valley, is described as follows : The tall posts are regular split redwood posts. The intermediate small ones are made by sawing in two the regular posts and splitting them into eight small posts, or rather, large stakes. The netting is of galvanized wire, No. 19 gauge, and one and one-half inch mesh. This netting is stapled to the posts and stakes on the inside, or toward the field. This is of prime importance, as it will not serve the purpose if it is placed on the outside. The bottom of the netting is to come down to the ground, and the ground must be left hard, and not plowed to prevent burrowing or scratching the dirt from underneath, which can be easily done if the dirt is softened up. It is not at all necessary to set the netting below the ground. In the sketch are shown three barbed wires, with barbs two and a half inches apart. These wires must be placed on the outside of the posts. This position is also a prime necessity. The lower wire is stretched just clear of the surface of the ground. The middle^ wire is one inch higher than the top of the netting, and the top wire, which is intended only as against cattle, is at a height suitable for the purpose. The rabbit-proof portion is comprised in the netting and the two lower wires. Hence, if cattle are not feared, and rabbits are the only foe, the top wire can be dispensed with, and the posts can be all short with a greater proportion of stakes, having only enough stout posts to stand the strain of the wires. The theory of this construction is that a rabbit can only pass the fence over the top or under the bottom of the netting, and this is effectually prevented by the barbed wires, which tear the animal if it attempts either to leap or climb over or to scratch under. Smears Distasteful to Rabbits. — Where the expense of a fence can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprinkling the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with substances dis- tasteful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Com- mercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled on leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels rabbits. A tea made of steeping quassia chips is said to produce the same effect. Rancid grease, liquid manure, putrescent flesh or blood, have been approved as a daub for tree trunks, but the efificacy is only of limited duration. Rabbit Poison. — Pieces of watermelon rind, cantaloupe, or other vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with strychnine and then scattered around the orchard. Rabbits will not touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one meal is effective, for the rabbit never gets far away from it. The same re- sults can be obtained by the following mixture : To one hundred pounds of wheat take nine gallons of water and one pound of phos- phorus, one pound of sugar, and one ounce of oil of rhodium. Heat the water to boiling point and let it stand all night. Next morning stir in flour sufficient to make a sort of paste. The rabbits eat it with avidity if scattered about. ggg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strych- nine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar. Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board. It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the sugar disguises the poison, which kills great numbers. GROUND-SQUIRRELS Ground-squirrels are poisoned by the use of the poisoned wheats which are sold in the markets, or by use of bisulphide of carbon, or "smokers," which are arranged to force smoke into the holes. A small quantity of bisulphide of carbon poured into the hole, and the hole closed with dirt, is probably the most effective squirrel killer, when the ground is wet, so that the vapor is held in the burrow. Smokers are also most effective when the soil is moist. When the ground is dry, poison is the best means of reducing squirrels. The following is an exceedingly effective preparation, of which a few grains should be placed in or near each hole : Take strjxhnine, one ounce ; cyanide of potassium, one and one-half ounces ; eggs, one dozen ; honej^, one pint ; vinegar, one and one-half pints ; wheat or barley, thirty pounds. Dissolve strychnine in the vinegar ; and you will have to pulverize it in the vinegar, or it will gather into a lump. See that it is all dis- solved. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium in a little water. Beat the eggs. Mix all the ingredients together thoroughly before adding to the barley. Let it stand twenty-four hours, mixing often. Spread to dry before using, as it will mold if put away wet. To keep squirrels from gnawing fruit trees, or climbing and getting the fruit, tying a newspaper around the trunk of the tree, letting the paper extend out four inches at the upper edges, is said to be effective. The rattle of the paper when the squirrels attempt to get over it will frighten them. GOPHERS Gophers can often be destroyed by the use of poisoned wheat, especially prepared with a little oil of rhodium, which seems to be very attractive to all rodents. Pieces of fruits or vegetable, or the succulent stems of alfalfa, into which a few grains of strychnine have been inserted by making a cut with a knife-blade and then squeezing it together again, are also handy conveyors of death to gophers. There are two ways to put poisoned materials into a gopher runway. One is to look for fresh open holes and put in the poison as far as possible with a long-handled spoon; another is to take a round, pointed stick and shove it into the ground near the gopher mounds until it strikes their runway, then drop in the poisoned bait. Close up the hole with some grass ; level down mounds, so that if the poison does not kill all the gophers, you will DESTROYING GOPHERS 'ggg soon discover their new mounds. If there are many mounds, put the poison in a number of places. Bisulphide of carbon is also successfully used in killing gophers, while the ground is wet, using an injector which is furnished with the poison to force the vapor through the long burrows. Trapping Gophers, — Some are very successful in using gopher traps, of which there are several styles sold. Gophers come to the surface in the night, and generally close their holes soon after day- break. They frequently emerge again about noon, and a third time late in the afternoon. It is best to set the trap in an open hole ; still, the holes may be opened if the dirt is still fresh, with a good pr.os- pect of the gopher's return. Therefore, the trapper may make his rounds three times a day, as above indicated. Care should be exer- cised in preparing the hole for the insertion of the trap, a straight hole for a distance of at least ten inches, with no lateral branches, otherwise the gopher in pushing out the dirt will likely enough thrust the trap to one side, cover it up, or spring it,' without being exposed to its grasp. The trapper should be supplied with at least two varieties of traps — one for the larger gophers, and the other for the smaller ones. The common iron gopher trap, which springs downward, is excellent for the former, and the small wire trap, which springs upward, is generally successful with the later. The* size of the hole is indicative of the size of the gopher. Either trap should be inserted nearly its full length into the hole, pressed down firmly, and a little dirt piled at the outer end to prevent its being easily pushed out. After the trap is set, it is well to cover the opening with some grass or weeds. Sometimes the holes require a little enlarging, but care should be taken to make the fit as close as pos- sible, that the body of the gopher may be kept near the center, and thus more exposed to the prongs of the trap. In the fourth place, the trapper should have a small spade and a little gouge-shaped instrument for trimming the hole. Gopher Pitfalls. — If gophers are abundant, large numbers can be captured in this way : Dig a trench around the orchard or vine- yard about the width of a spade and from fourteen to sixteen inches deep. In the bottom of the ditches, about a hundred feet apart, sink five-gallon oil cans, leaving the tops level with the ditch bottom. The gophers migrate in the night, and in attempting to come into the inclosure will fall into the ditch and then run along the bottom until they drop into the cans. Of course the ditch must not be wider than the cans. As many as fifteen live gophers have been found in one can. The cats soon learn to help themselves out of the cans. The ditch must be kept clean, and if any roads cross the tract, set up a board at night, to compel the gophers to tumble in the ditch. This ditch should be constructed about the first of 590 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM June, when the outside feed begins to dry up, and the pests rush for the cultivated ground. With such protection from the outside, and the use of poison and traps inside, the trees and vines can be saved. DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectivorous birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work in disbudding the trees in spring-time, and in destroying ripe fruit, that protective measures have to be adopted against them. The so-called "California linnet," which is not a linnet, but a finch (Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of buds, and the Eng- lish sparrow, infamous the world over, are probably the most grievous pests, though there are other destructive birds, including the beautiful California quail, which is protected by law, and yet must be destroyed in some parts of the State or the grape crop must be abandoned. For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually employed, and it is best administered in water. Poisoned water made of one- eighth ounce of strychnine to three gallons of water and placed in shallow tin pans in the trees, has been widely approved. Cutting oranges in halves, spreading strychnine over the cut surface and empaling the half oranges on twigs high up in the apricot trees, has destroyed hundreds of linnets. Some advocate the use of the shot- gun. No. 30 caliber, with a small charge of good powder and No. 10 shot. As many as five hundred linnets have been killed in two days. The advantage of this plan is that one kills linnets and not other birds, while poison kills both friends and foes. CHAPTER XLII PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS Though the cHmate of CaHfornia renders unnecessary the pro- tection against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some other parts of the world have to provide, there is often advantage in secur- ing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts. The general subject of forest planting in California, and the effect of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our fruit in- dustries, has received the attention of our best-informed growers. The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad valleys at right angles to the courses of prevailing or most violent winds, has also been urged with great force. These greater enterprises and projects are beyond the scope of this treatise. It is rather concerning the planting of trees to shelter individual possessions that a few suggestions will be offered. It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the successful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly dependent upon proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from the ocean the topography may induce strong currents of air which will illy affect trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower should plant windbreaks, and will find himself well repaid for the ground they occupy, by the successful production on the protected area. In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from occa- sional high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some cases long lines of the sheltering trees have been cut down because they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them, and afterwards the losses through lack of protection were far greater than would have been incurred by retaining them. What Kind of Trees to Plant. — This is a question concerning which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating in the growth of, trees planted to test their suitability, and the future planter will have more certain ground to proceed upon than is now available. Mention will be made, however, of a few trees, which are now most widely grown. The most widely-planted shelter tree is the Eucalyptus globulus, or Australian blue gum. It is a rapid grower and voracious feeder, and wonderful for root extension, for which it has been roundly abused. It is doubtful, however, whether we have a better tree for 591 592 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM high growth, and consequent large area over which its shelter will be felt. It is deficient in undergrowth, and if a close screen is de- sired, the planting of eucalyptus and Alonterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) is a common practice. The latter also attains good height, but its broad, thick base fills the gaps between the bare stems of the gum trees. Another tree which has often been planted with the blue gum, to supply a thick, low growth, is the pepper tree (Schinus molle). It is also grown in rows by itself. It makes a dense head, grows rapidly, and flourishes without much care. Trees planted eighteen feet apart will soon come together and make a dense wall of very beautiful, bright, light-green foliage. The pepper is not only a good windbreak, but also an excellent dust-catcher. Unlike most trees which are used for this purpose, it does not be- come laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, and therefore repel the dust particles, which, stopped in their flight by the dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much slower than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and the cypress for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the interior valleys, make, probably, as perfect a wall of foliage all the year round as can be had. The blue gum is, however, somewhat subject to frost killing, especially when young, and in very frosty places is objected to on that account. A number of other species of eucalyptus are now being planted, and are being found more hardy than the blue gum. The rostrata, rudis, tereticornis, polyanthcma, amygdalina, viminalis and others are of this character. The Monterey pine {Pinns insignis) is a rapid, high-growing tree, and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well adapted to the interior valleys of the central portion of the State. Its foliage is dense for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more complete. A native white cedar (Libocedrns decurrcns) has also been employed as a shelter tree in the San Joaquin Valley, and is commended as a rapid grower in the interior as on the coast. Its ability to stand drouth, heat and frost is said to exceed that of any of the conifers of the seacoast. It stands well in the most exposed situations, as its roots run very deep into the earth and it is claimed that it does not sap the fertility from the soil around its base, as with the blue gum. It is also said to be less subject to frost injury than the Monterey cypress and pine. All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afford pro- tection summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there are many which may be well employed. The California black walnut makes a very satisfactory growth both in the interior and upon the coast, and is largely used for roadside planting. The California broad- leaved maple {Acer macrophylla) is very beautiful, rapid in growth, and dense in foliage, and the same is true of the box elder {Acer negrundo), but probably both trees are especially suited to the coast PROTECTION FROM FROST 593 regions. Of the poplars, the Carolina (Populus monilifera) is best, because of its breadth, density of foliage, and comparative freedom from suckering. The locust {Robinia pseudacacia) is used to some extent, but its suckering is very objectionable. Quite a number of the larger-growing deciduous fruit trees are used to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards for the pro- tection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chestnut, seedling almonds, and apricots are especially commended for such use. Growing Trees from Seed. — Much that has been said in Chapter VIII will be suggestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best grown in boxes, and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress especially, do best when put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put at once in permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply worked and the young plant well planted and cared for. Cultivation of Shelter Trees. — If one desires rapid growth of shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as thor- oughly as an orchard. Much disappointment results from allowing roadside trees to shift for themselves in a hard, dry soil. With such treatment the root extension is naturally most rapid into cultivated orchard ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and enrich the roadside, and the tree will grow chiefly on the waste land. At the same time the roadside will be prevented from producing vast quan- tities of weed seed, to be blown over the fence, and the place will have a name for neatness, which is too rare even in California. PROTECTION FROM FROSTS Much attention has been given during recent years to the pro- tection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of deciduous fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occasional fall of the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been shown by ample experience that fruits may escape injury by a temperature of 28 degrees if the ground surface is wet and the ex- posure be but of short duration. Fruit has, therefore, been saved by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been nipped by the same temperature. About the same result has been secured by^ checking radiation of heat by covering the orchard or vineyard with a cloud of smoke. Both these protective measures fail when the temperature falls a few degrees below 28 degrees or when such freezing temperature is continued several hours. During the last fifteen years, at Riverside, systematic invention and trial of frost prevention has proceeded, and the satisfactory results of one device is thus described by Mr. E. W. Holmes : 594 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Satisfactory results have been gained by the use of soft coal, burned in wire baskets suspended under or between the trees. When twenty to forty of these to the acre were used, we occasionally raised the temperature from three to five degrees. More has been claimed; but this is all that I am sure has been achieved. However, in a section where the temperature would not go below twenty-five or twenty-six degrees for a few hours, this method was ample. The outfit costs about ten cents a basket, or four dollars an acre if forty baskets are used, and the coal about two and one-half dollars an acre per night. The objection is the labor of replenishing the baskets in case of their being used the second night, because even if kerosene is poured upon the kindling, it is no easy task to light four hundred fires with a torch. Four men will be required to do this in proper time. Still, this is the system more generally approved here, and because definite and certain results have been achieved through it. Other effective devices are pots for burning- crude oil, stoves for burning briquettes of inflammable material, etc. The best accounts not only of the conditions favoring the occurrence of frosts, but the details of frost-fending methods are given in the publications of Professor A. G. McAdie, U. S. Weather Bureau, Mechanics' Ex- change, San Francisco, which are available on application to him. Appliances for use in these efforts can be purchased from the Frost Prevention Co., of Fresno. These resources have been chiefly resorted to for the protectioti of citrus fruits, the value of which as the crop is maturing will war- rant the cost. With deciduous fruits thus far only smoke and steam clouds from burning piles of damp rubbish have been employed, except in irrigated regions where, if frost threatens while the ground is dry, the limited efficacy of running water is resorted to. There is ample field for further experiment in all lines of frost prevention. Where there is trouble from early activity of deciduous trees, the trees may be kept dormant for a limited time by winter spraying with whitewash, which reflects heat and thus prevents activity. Ex- periment has shown that heat upon the aerial parts of the tree starts the growth ; it does not come from the roots as was formerly supposed. CHAPTER XLIII UTILIZING OF FRUIT WASTES Some progress has been recently attained in the securing of hor- ticultural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes. There is a considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace and lees of the wineries in central California. In Southern California citric acid factories have to some extent used lemons rejected in packing, and some other by-products of citrus fruits have been secured in small quantities. Vinegar from wine and cider are, of course, made here as everywhere in fruit countries. There has arisen also a profitable export demand for fruit pits and apricot and peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now selling profitably — machinery for cheap extraction of the kernels having been contrived by California inventors. The kernels are bought by agents of European manufacturers of oils and essences. Apricot kernels are used by confectioners in place of almonds. Comparative Value of Fruits, and Hay, Grains, Meals, etc. 100 Pounds Fruit Equivalent to Pounds of CD Tj FRESH FRUITS Apples Oranges Pears Plums Prunes Apricots Nectarines Figs Grapes Watermelons . . . Nutmeg Melons. 34 33 40 50 46 40 43 50 50 22 19 DRIED FRUITS Dried prunes Dried apricots Dried peaches Dried figs Raisins 175 194 190 186 216 < 20 19 23 30 27 23 26 30 30 13 11 104 115 113 110 128 24 23 30 36 33 29 30 37 37 16 13 125 138 135 132 153 15 14 17 22 20 17 19 23 23 10 78 86 85 83 97 15 14 18 24 22 18 20 24 24 10 9 82 90 85 100 17 16 20 25 23 20 22 26 26 11 9 97 95 93 108 16 15 19 24 22 19 21 25 25 11 9 84 93 91 89 103 -i-i a ■^ ffl 18 17 20 26 24 20 23 27 27 12 10 92 102 100 97 111 16 15 19 24 22 19 21 25 25 11 9 84 93 91 89 103 13 12 15 20 18 15 17 20 20 67 74 72 71 82 9, 03 13 11 14 13 11 12 14 14 6 5 53 51 50 59 12 15 20 18 15 17 20 20 76 74 72 84 The disposition of waste fruit by growers must, however, always lie chiefly in the line of feeding animals unless de-natured alcohol 595 596 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM enterprises should arise to consume it at prices to pay something more than cost of handling. Refuse fresh fruits of all kinds, and especially refuse dried fruits have nutritive value which should not be lost. A statement of the value of various fruits as compared with various cattle foods has been prepared by Prof. M. E. Jaffa, of the University Experiment Station, in the adjacent table. A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by prunes. Using the equivalents in the table below for computation, it appears that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes would be worth as a substitute $3 per ton ; likewise, if cottonseed meal is selling for $21 per ton, the prune value would be about $2.75. At the market price of oat hay, the figure for fresh prunes should be nearly $3 per ton. The dried fruits naturally rank far above the fresh material as stock feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table, raisins lead in food value ; containing one and one-fourth to one and one- half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hays, respec- tively; 100 pounds of the fruit being practically equal to the same quantity of grain, but to only eighty-two and fifty-nine pounds respectively of rice bran and cottonseed meal. Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because they contain more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value as a feeding stuff with wheat bran and almond hulls about half as much as alfalfa hay, bran or middlings. Concerning the feeding of raisins to hogs, the following state- ments are made : "With raisins selling at 2^ cents per pound they are much cheaper food for hogs than corn or barley. Raisins give the hog a hard sweet meat and are much sought after by the butchers. Care must, however, be exercised in feeding raisins to hogs, as they are full of sugar, and consequently too rich when fed alone. They heat the animal up so that the hogs lose flesh and will kill the little pigs of a farrowing sow. For fall and winter feeding, pumpkins, citrons and alfalfa are the best feed to give the hogs in conjunction with the raisins, but in the spring a change is found very beneficial. "Many people feeding raisins to hogs are not having the success they should because they overfeed their porkers. A pound of raisins a day is ample to start in with. After the system of the hog has become accustomed to the raisins the amount can be in- creased so that the last three weeks each hog should get about four pounds of raisins a day. The last ten days, when the finishing touches are being put on, the hogs should be allowed all they can get." Wine grapes rich in sugar have been cheaply dried on the ground and used . to advantage for hog feed. One grower says that in 1908 failing to get $6 per ton for his grapes, he dried them A BLISSFUL CONCLUSION 597 and fed them to hogs. Having more than the hogs required, grapes were fed to the horses: "The horses soon got a taste for them and seemed to thrive well on the new diet and in a short time became fat and sleek, while they were being worked as hard as ever, and we continued to feed them dried grapes and have kept it up for a whole year. The effect seems to have made the old horses five years younger, both in looks and in ability to work. The hogs fattened up so quick that we thought the pork would be soft and sloppy, but to our surprise, we never had better bacon and ham than was produced from these grape-fed porkers. It was not only solid, but sweet and tender." Prune-fed and raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact in California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog, what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this treatise than this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of Farmersville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees near the house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and rested in the shade until he finally grew too fat to move about to gather the sweet morsels. By this time his owner became so much interested in the case as to carry him his regular figs three timies daily. Gradually he grew so fat that his eyes closed entirely, but still he ate figs in contentment and delight. RECAPITULATION 'The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear, And verdant olives flourish round the year; The balmy spirit of the western gale Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail; Each dropping pear a following pear supplies, On apples, apples, figs on figs arise: The same mild season gives the blooms to blow, The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow." Pope's Horn. Odys. Bk. VII. INDEX Page Acorns, edible 44 Alkaline Soils 7>1 Alligator Pear 476 Almond, The 50i growing from seed 74 hulling and bleaching 503 pollination 505 propagation 502 pruning 502, 503 situations and soils 502 wild 44 varieties 505, 5o6 Animals, injurious 586 Ants, killing 574 Apple in California 223 aphis resistant 226 aphis woolly 559 drying 536 exposures for 225 gathering 230 irrigation 230 localities for 224 mildew 578 mission 46 native crab 39 planting, distance 227 picking and packing 232 pollination 234 propagation 226 pruning 227 scab or smut •. . . 579 second crop 234 seedlings, growing 72 shipping 233 soils for 225 Southern California 240 storehouse for 231 summer and fall 233 table of varieties 241 thinning 140, 229 varieties, most popular 221 when to pick 230 winter 233 worm 576 varieties 236 to 240 Apricot 243 climatic requirements 244 diseases of 251 distances for 247 drying 536 exposures for 244 growing seedlings T2> irrigation - 251 localities for 244 mission 46 Page Apricot — continued old trees 243 on almond root 246 planting 247 pruning 248 shot-hole fungus 252, 579 stocks and soils for 246 table of varieties 252 thinning 137, 250 varieties 253 to 255 Army Worms 548 Atmospheric humidity 23 Banana, The 468 Barberry, native 43 Bear berry 43 Bergamot 467 Berries and currants 479 Berries, various wild 43 Birds, poisoning 590 Blackberry, The 480 cultivation 481 hybrids 494 distances for 480 longevity of 484 propagation 480 pruning 483, 486 wild 41 varieties 484 Blasting for planting 104 Borers 1 16, 568 Bones, treatment of iS9 Bordeaux Mixture 579 Brush, cutting to kill 66 Budding, common method 81 June 89 over old trees 91 spring 83 Bud, cutting to a I3S Buds, dormant 90 Buffalo berry 43 Burbank's varieties 219, 317, 326 Cactus fruits 44> 476 Canned fruit product 525 Canning industry 526 Canker worms 550 Caterpillars 551 Chain for laying out 103 Chamisal and chaparral 61 Charcoal making 66 Cherimoyer 469 598 INDEX 599 Page Cherry 256 delayed fruiting of 259 distances for 260 exposures for 259 gum disease 264 grafting, the .260, 263 localities for 257 moisture requirements 258 old trees 256 pests and diseases 264 pruning the 261 seedlings growing ^2. slug 553 soils for the 257 stocks for the 260 table of varieties 266 wild 40 varieties 265 to 269 Chestnut, The 507 seedlings 74 wild 44 Choco or Chayota 469 Citron, The 467 Clearing land for fruit 61 brushy 64 cost of 62 grading 67 steam puller 64 stump puller 64 with powder 64 time to cut to kill 66 Climate, divisions of California 11 of California, characteristics of. .10, 19 of California, why mild 10 foot-hill 16 mountain 16 coast 13 valley 15 value of 24 Cloudiness, east and west 22 Coast pests and diseases 11 Codlin moth 571 Composting 161 Corner, to find true 99 Cover crops 166 Cranberries 487 wild 42 Crops between trees or vines 144 Crystallizing fruit 527 Cultivation 141 adequate 143 hillside 148 methods of 145 purposes of 141 shallow, results of 143 summer 151, 152 to retain moisture 141 without plowing 151 Page Currants 487 culture of 487, 488 regions for 488 varieties grown 489 wild 42 Custard apple 469 Cutworms 548 Cuttings, fruit trees from "j^y Dates 377 at the missions ■^'j'j bearing age of 378 bearing in Solano County. .. .378, 381 blooming of 378, 381 first fruit . 378 from seed 379 from suckers 380 propagation of 379 requirements of 378 transplanting 380 Dewberry 485 Diabroticas 574 Die-back 583 Dormant buds 90 Drainage desirable 71, 216 Dried fruits (see fruits) 528 boxes for 535 covering . 531 cutting sheds 532 dipping . . 534, 542 drying floors 531 grading and cleaning 532, 534 packing 534 product of 528 sulphuring 532 sweating 534 trays for 530 worm 535, 574 Elderberries 41 Evaporated Fruits 542 Evaporator, sunshine 537 Fertilizers in California 155 caution in use of 165 for trees and vines 157 methods of applying 164 value of green 166 when necessary 156 sources of nitrogen 160 sources of phosphoric acid 158 sources of potash 159 Feijoa Sellowiana 470 Fig 382 bearing age 388 budding 384 caprification 389 drying 536 foes of 390 from cuttings 384 from seeds 387 600 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Page Fig — continued grafting 3^5 mission 46 planting and pruning 3^7 regions for 382 size of old trees 382 soils for 382 varieties 39i to 395 Filbert growing 508 wild 44 Frosts, protection from 591, 593 Fruit cultivation 141 Fruit gardens, early Si Fruit industries, influence of 57 Fruit industries, outlook of 58 Fruit interest, extent of 54, 56 Fruit shipments 54 Fruit thinning 136 Fruit tree acreage 56 Fruit products, value of 56 Fruits, crystallizing 527 drying 528 drying floors 53i graders 534 grafted, first in California 49 locations for 12 value as stock food 595 Fruit shipments, eastern 54 Fruit trees, dwarf 51 Fruits, commercial varieties 219 Fruits, locations for 12 Fruits, native 39 Goat nut, or jajoba 44 Gooseberry, The 489 culture of 490 requirements of 489 varieties 489 wild 42 Gophers, killing 588 pitfall for 589 trapping 589 Grafting 83 bark 87 cleft 86 root 88 side 86 time for 93 top 91 whip 88 wax for 85 waxed bands 85 Graft, time to 93 Grafts, planting out 88 Granadilla 471 Grape, area of ; 330 budding 337 conditions of ripening 20 Page Grape, area of — continued cutting grafts 346 dibbles for planting 349 diseases of 366 distance 347 from cuttings 333 from layers 333 from seed 332 frost injuries 366 grafting 338 insects 553 industry 329 length of season 33^ mildew 578 number per acre 348 planting devices 350 planting in rows 347 products 56 pruning 353 pruning, long 361 pruning, short 353 resistant 342 rooting in nursery 336 soils for 331 stakes, twine, etc 353 suckering 357 sulphuring 578 summer pruning 358, 364 syrup 542 trellising 364 varieties 368 wild 41 wine, varieties of 373 Grasshoppers, killing 556 Growing season, long 24 Guava, The 47o varieties : strawberry 470 lemon 470 Gummosis 583 Gypsum, uses of 160 Hard-pan, breaking up 104 Heat, deficient on coast 13 importance of 19 summer, records of 20 Heeling in young trees 109 Hexagonal planting 97 Hillside, rows on lOO use of triangle on 103 Holes for trees 105 Huckleberries, wild 42 \ Humidity, atmospheric 23 deficient 26 east and west 23 excessive 23 Insects, injurious 108, 547 Insects, remedies 575 Irrigation 170 distributing manure by 165 ditches 204 INDEX 601 Page Irrigation — continued drainage and 216 evils of excessive 171 flooding 184 for citrus fruits 176 for deciduous fruits 174 flume building for. 201 hillside 196 how much 172 implements for 186 in early days 52 in basins 184, 191 in checks 184, 190 in furrows 192 leveling for 67 locating contour lines 204 manure with irrigation water 165 manurial value of 166 measurement of water 210 methods of 182 nursery 78 objections answered 171 relation to cultivation 180 relation to rainfall 174 relation to soil 177 relation to tillage 178 reservoirs, small 206 running ditches for 204 subirrigation 216 suggestions for 215 summer 182 taken from ditches 209 wells and pumps for 210 wheels for 209 when desirable 180 winter 181 Jajoba 44 Jujube of commerce 471 Jujube, native 43 Kai Apple 478 Laying out land for fruit 98 Leaf lice 554 Lemon, The 457 curing 462 packing 453 planting and pruning 459 propagation 459 situations and soils for .' . . 458 Varieties : Eureka 466 Lisbon 466 Villa Franca 466 Lemon berry 43 Lice, leaf 560 Lime, The 466 Varieties : Mexican 466 Imperial 466 Lime, uses of 160 Page Loganberry 493, 494 Loquat, The 471 Varieties : Advance 473 Blush 473 Commercial 473 Pineapple 473 Premier 473 Victor 472, 473 Manure, care of 161 green 166 sheep, use of 163 Manuring at planting 114 Manzanita berries 43 Map of orchard and vineyard 115 Marls 161 Mealy bugs 566 Measuring wire 98 Melon shrub 475 Melon tree 475 Mildew 578 Miner's inch 210 Mission fruits 45 Moisture lost by weed growth 143 retained by cultivation 143 Morning Glovy, killing 153 Moss, removing 576, 580 Mulberry, The 491 Mulching, after planting 114 Mulching as substitute for cultivation. 154 Nectarine 292 compared with peach 292 dried 293, 538 future of 294 varieties : 293 Nitrogen for fruits 160, 166 Nursery 69 budding and grafting 80 classes of nursery stock 89 growing seedlings 71 imported seedlings 76 irrigation 78 laying out and planting ^^ pruning in 89 selection of site for 69, 70 soil, preparation of 70, 71 soil, proper for 69 trees, ages of 89 trees, digging 109 trees, disinfecting 575 trees, selecting 107 when to plant no Nuts growing in California 501 growing from seed 74 wild 44 602 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Page Olives 396 at old missions 46 budding 401 canning 412 climate for 396 from cuttings 399 from seed 398 grafting 402 localities for 397 oil making 409 oil yield of varieties 419 planting 404 preferred varieties 413 pruning 405 pickling 408, 41 1 small cuttings 399 soils for 398 truncheons 400 twig borer 570 wild . 43 varieties 413 Orchard land, preparation of 95 laying out in squares 98 alternating squares 97 measure and sight 98 measuring wire 99 quincunx planting 100 time for planting no Orange 420 all the year from California 426 budding and grafting 439 California regions discussed 422 conditions for citrus fruits 430 diseases 451 distances for 441 from cuttings 435 from layers 436 from seed 436 in central California 424 in southern California 422 mission 46 nursery '. 437 packing . 453 planting in orchard 441 product 56, 423 pruning 445 ripening first at the north 431 seedlings, care of 436 situation and soils for 434 superiority of semi-tropical 421 transplanting 442 world's industry 420 varieties 452, 453 Orchard planting 104 Oregon grape 43 Oso berry 40 Popular fruit varieties 221 Palm nuts 44 Peach 270 age at planting 275 approved lists of 285 Page Peach — continued blight 579 blooming of varieties 284 curl-leaf 281 diseases 281 distance in planting 275 dormant buds 276 drying . 537 early bearing 271 grafting 280 growing season of 24 irrigation 280 localities for 272 longevity of 270 mildew 282 mission 46 moth 568 "peach almond" 275 pitting clings 538 propagation 275 pruning 126, 277 ripening of varieties 284 root liorer 570 seedlings TZ soils for 273 stocks for 275 table of varieties 283 thinning 140, 279 varieties 285 to 291 Peanut growing 508 Pear 295 Bartlett, why popular 296, 297 blight 302 characteristics in California 296 diseases 303 distances for tlic 299 drying 537 dwarf 299 for alkali soil 296 irrigation 301 largest on record 296 localities for 296 mission 46 on quince stock 299 pollination 304 propagation of 299 pruning 300 seedlings, growing ^2 sl"g 553 soils for 298 storing and ripening 304 tables of varieties 308 thinning 301 varieties 305 to 308 Pear, Alligator 476 Pecan, The 509 Persimmon, Japanese 473 Persimmon, Virginian 473 Persimmons, curing. 474 Phenomenal berry 494 Phosphates 158 INDEX Page Phylloxera 559 Pioneers, planting by 46 Pineapple 474 Pine nuts 44 Pistachio, The 510 Planting, conditions favoring iii bar for setting 106 cutting back after 116, 124 depth of 114 digging holes for 104 laying off for 98 mulching iiS operation of 112 preparing land for 95 speed in 114 time for no triangular tree setter 107 use of manure 114 use of water 113 Plowing, devices for . 146 orchard and vineyard 146 on hillside 148 to break hard-pan 95, 148 Plow, laying off with 98 Plums and prunes 309 California false 40 confusion in names 317 definition of a prune 309 drying 539 from the root 312 in southern California 311 length of season 309 localities for 310 mission 46 myrobalan 311 planting _ 313 pollination 319 propagation 311 pruning the 313 seedlings "JZ stocks and soils 311 table of varieties 320 wild 40 varieties 321 to 326 Plumcot, The 317 Pomegranate, The 475 Pomelo 455 varieties 456 packing 453 Potash 159 Prickly Pear 44, 476 Prune curing 538 Pruning 117 Bearing Trees 127 California style 120 effects of 119 gathering brush 136 influenced by location 121 • • 603 Page Pruning — continued low, advantages of 118 nursery 89 prunings as fertilizer 163 purposes of 118 times for 130 tools 134 to renew old trees 127, 133 vase form, securing 120 wounds, covering 134 Quince 327 demand for Z'^7 propagation 327 pruning . 328 soils for 328 varieties 328 Quincunx planting lOO Rabbit, fences 586 Rabbits, destroying 587 poisons for 587 smears for 587 Rainfall, records of 12 Raisin making 53, 540 Raspberry, The 491 black-caps 492 hybrids 494 pruning . .'. 491 varieties, popular 492 wild 41 Red Spider 557 Root rot 580 Root-knots 585 Russian introduction of fruits 48 Salal 43 Salmon berry 41 Scale Insects 560 black 563 brown apricot 564 cottony cushion 565 pear 562 orange, red 563 orange, soft 564 oyster shell 562 rose and berry 562 San Jose 561 remedies for 567, 575 Sapota, white 477 Scions, care of 84 selection of 84 Sea Fig 43 Seed, growing trees from 74 Seedlings, imported Ti, 76 Septuple laying off 100 Service Berry 43 604' CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Page Soils for fruits 27 adobe 35 alkali Z1 alluvial ZZ bed-rock or hard-pan 36 characteristics of California 27 classification of 30 clay 34 defective 30 desert 32 examination of Zl granitic 34 loams 30 mesa 32 plains 31 red 34 river bottom 34 sedimentary or silty 33 shallow, blasting 104 Sour sap 5^2 Spider, red 557 Squares, laying off in 98 Squirrels, destroying 588 Strawberry 495 care of 499 continuous bearing 499 laying out for 496 planting 498 propagation 49^ situations and soils 495 varieties, popular 500 wild 42, 500 Strawberry tree 475 Sunburn, protection from 116 Sunlight, value of direct 21 Sunshine, evaporating 528 Sunshine, records of 22 Temperature, lowest 20 Temperature, records of 21 Thinning fruit 136 Thrips 554 Page Tomato tree 478 Toyon 43 Trees, activity and rest of. 17 heeling in 109 selecting 107 Tree-setters 106, 107 Triangle for laying out 102 Tuna fruit 44, 476 Tussock moth 552 Vine hoppers 555 Walnut, black 44, 511 Walnut, English . . . .■..•.■.•■ 510 bacteriosis or blight 581 bleaching 522 blossoms of 521 budding 513 culture and soils 510 gathering and drying. 521 grafting 515 growing seedlings 74, 514 hybrids 511 propagation and planting 511, 5iy pruning 520 varieties 523 Water measurements 210 Weed killing by cultivation 153 Weeds, evaporation by 143 Weir measurement 212 Whitewash against sunburn 116 Wild Fruits of California 39 Windbreaks 591 trees for 592 Wine grapes 260 Winery refuse as manure 164 Winter-killing, unknown 19 Wire, measuring 98 Woolly aphis 559 Wounds, covering 135 Yellow jackets, killing 574 California Vegetables I N GARDEN AND FIELD A MANUAL OF PRACTICE WITH AND WITHOUT IRRIGATION By EDWARD J. WICKSON, A. M. CONTENTS Chapter. Chapter. I. Vegetable Growing in California. XX. II. Farmers' Gardens in California. XXI. III. California Climate as Related to XXII. Vegetable Growing. XXIII. IV. Vegetable Soils of California. XXIV. V. Garden Irrigation. XXV. VI. Garden Drainage in California. XXVI. VII. Cultivation. XXVII. VIII. Fertilization. XXVIII. IX. Garden Location and Arrange- XXIX. ment. XXX. X. The Planting Season. XXXI. XI. Propagation. XXXII. XII. Asparagus. XXXIII. XIII. Artichokes. XXXIV. XrV. Beans. XXXV. XV. Beet. XXXVI. XVI. Cabbage Family. XVII. Carrot, Parsnip, and Salsify. XXXVII. XVIII. Celery. XXXIII. XIX. Chicory. XXXIX. Corn. Cucumber. Egg Plant. Lettuce. Melons. Onion Family. Peas. Peppers. Potatoes. Radishes. Rhubarb. Spinach. Squashes. Tomato. Turnip. Vegetable Sundries. Vegetables for Canning and Drying. Seed Sowing in California. Garden Protection. Weeds in California. 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