ISTORY Ttt ■ in Copyright N^. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT EPITOME OF HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION EPITOME OF HISTORY and PRINCIPLES of EDUCATION BY THOMAS J. McEVOY FOUNDER OF McEVOY SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, BROOKLYN, N. Y.; FORMERLY IN PRACTICE DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CORTLAND, N. Y.; AUTHOR OF "science OF EDUCATION" AND "AIETHODS IN education"; editor of McEVOY MAGAZINE. T. J. McEVOY, Publisher 6 THIRD AVENUE BROOKLYN, N. Y. McEVOY PEDAGOGICAL SERIES 1. Epitome of History and Principles of Education $1.00 2. Methods in Education, third edition 1.50 3. Science of Education, second edition 2.00 4. Answers in Methods of Teaching, second edition, 1914 . . . . 2.00 5. Answers in Methods in Arithmetic, second edition 2.00 6. Answers in School Management, second edition, 1915 2.00 7. Answers in History and Principles of Education (in preparation) . . 2.00 8. Examination Questions in Enghsh . 1.00 9. Examination Questions in Methods and School Management . . . 1.00 10. Examination Questions in History and Principles of Education . . 1.00 Copyright, 1907, 1915 By Thomas J. McEvoy First edition, November, 1907 Second edition, July, 1915 JUL 31 1915 ^yA CIA401951 / r PREFACE '^ The first edition of this book was a pioneer in the ef- ^ fort to organize the facts in the history of education. That effort found immediate justification in training schools, normal schools, universities, and especially home study by zealous men and women who could not take established courses in educational institutions. This second edition, revised and enlarged, embodies eight years more of experience, suggestions from many edu- cators, the benefits of scholarly research by other au- thors, and the helpful contributions from various kinds of experiment to determine standards of effectual teach- ing. The book itself is an expression of gratitude to all who have aided in making a clearer presentation of his- tory and principles of education. Thomas J. McEvoy. CONTENTS PAET I. MEANING OF EDUCATION, PEIMITIVE EDUCATION, ORIENTAL EDUCATION CHAPTER I, Definitions, Ideals, Values II. Education in Primitive Society III. China — Ancestral Education . IV. India or Hindustan — Caste Education V. Phenicia — Commercial Education . VI. Persia — State Education . VII. Egypt — Priestly Education VIII. The Jews — Theocratic Education . IX. Summary of Oriental Education page 2 8 11 17 23 25 27 30 33 PART II. CLASSICAL EDUCATION X. XI. XII. XIII. Greece Old Greek Education I. Homeric Period . II, Spartan Education III. Old Athenian Education New Greek Education at Athens The Age of Pericles Early Philosophers and the Sophists vii 36 39 39 40 43 47 47 50 CHAPTER XIV. XV. CONTENTkS The Schools of the Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle I. Socrates II. Xenophon III. Plato . IV. Aristotle Rome — Education for Efficiency . I. Early Roman Education II. Introduction of Greek Schools III. Graeco-Roman Education IV. Noted Roman Educators V. Summary of Roman Education VI. Decline of Roman Education XVI. Summary of Educational Progress . PART III. MEDIEVAL EDUCATION XVII. Medieval Education XVIII. Early Christian Education The Christian Fathers .... XIX. Education of the Middle Ages I. Monastic Education II. Period of Charlemagne III. The Period of Chivalry or Feudalism IV. Mohammedan Education V. Early Christian Universities VI. Scholasticism .... VII. Mysticism VIII. Other Types of Schools PART IV. MODERN EDUCATION XX. The Renaissance — Humanism . Humanism in Italy .... Humanism in Holland and Germany The Protestant Reformers Humanism in England Humanism in America Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER XXI. The Jesuits XXII. Realism ; 16th Century Educators . XXIII. The Seventeenth Century I. The Innovators of the 17th Century II. The Teaching Congregations The Oratorians Port Royalists The Christian Brothers . XXIV. XXV. XXVI. The Naturalists of the 18th Century I. Francke and the Pietists II. Real Schools and Normal School III. Basedow .... IV. Rollin V. Rousseau .... VI. Kant Psychological Tendency in Education I. Pestalozzi II. Froebel III. Herbart IV. Jacotot V. Herbert Spencer VI. Thomas Arnold VII. Alexander Bain VIII. Joseph Payne IX. Antonio Rosmini X. William T. Harris XI. Burke A. Hinsdale Education in United States Massachusetts Connecticut New Jersey Pennsylvania Maryland Virginia . Georgia IX CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XXVII. Education in New York State . . . 248 XXVIII. European School Systems .... 266 XXIX. Pedagogical Training of Teachers . . . 270 XXX. Eclectic Conception of Education . . . 280 XXXI. Chronological Table 284 XXXII. Pronunciation of Names. — Eeferences for Collateral Study 290 XXXIII. New York State Syllabus of History of Education 296 XXXIV. General Summary 316 XXXV. Drill and Eeview 331 Index 339 PART I MEANING OF EDUCATION PRIMITIVE EDUCATION ORIENTAL EDUCATION Chapter I DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES The Meaning of Education 1. The first step in any subject is to consider the meaning of the terms used. Epitome, history and edu- cation are familiar words, but their exact meaning should be given. An epitome is a summary of essen- tials. History is an authentic record of events. ''Edu- cation," said Kant, ''is the development in man of all the perfection which his nature permits. ' ' Other defini- tions of education put emphasis upon aim or content or method or result, but all of these should be included in one definition. Students will be able to make a satis- factory definition at the close of the course in the his- tory of education, but it is economy of mental energy to make a foundation by becoming familiar with the broad definition formulated by President Butler of Columbia University. In Butler's The Meaning of Education we find that education means a gradual adjustment to the spiritual possessions of the race. Those possessions are considered as inheritances and he mentions five kinds — scientific, literary, esthetic, institutional and religious. The scien- tific inheritance is found in geography, nature study, mathematics and physics; the literary inheritance in- cludes all forms of literary composition and interpre- 2 DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES tation; the esthetic inheritance is embodied in drawing, music and other kinds of art that may aid in forming a higher conception of life; the institutional inheritance is found in all kinds of civic training, including political geography, history, civics, and the subordinate forms of government represented in state and municipal organi- zations; and the religious inheritance includes those forms of training that are conducive to spiritual per- fection. The foregoing definition is eclectic because it em- bodies the best in the educative efforts of mankind. It says that each generation is entitled to enjoy the spir- itual benefits of all prior civilization, i. e., the in- heritances ; and it requires that each generation shall in turn contribute to the larger inheritances as the develop- ment goes on. Thus education is self-realization or the training of every pupil so that he shall possess the power and the willingness to adapt himself to the needs of the time and the locality in which he lives. As a prepara- tion for such activity in life, the pupil must become acquainted with the educational progress of other generations. An essential part of such training for effi- ciency is knowledge of the history of education. Ideals in Education 2. The history of education presents a number of interesting ideals from western civilization. These can be used as related topics in discussing the meaning of education, as standards of testing the breadth of defini- tions of education, and as means of judging the develop- ment through the successive epochs. All these ideals ^3 DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES are included in the broad conception of the meaning of education according to modern views. 1. Culture. This term ''refers to the comprehensive changes in individual and social life, due to the continued and systematic influences of mental im- provement. ' ' It implies esthetic appreciation and refinement, and it is sometimes considered a syno- nym for civilization. The ideal in Athens, in later work of the Renaissance, and in many in- stitutions today. 2. Efficiency. Power to do practical work is efficiency. The ideal in Rome. 3. Discipline. A training or fitting for future effi- ciency. The ideal in all medieval education, among the humanists, and with Locke. 4. Knowledge. The content of consciousness, the sum of acquired facts. The ideal of Bacon, Comenius and other Innovators. 5. Development. The process of directing all the possi- bilities of mankind to their highest usefulness. It is akin to self-realization. The ideal of Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel. 6. Character. As an educational ideal, character means the right disposition of individuality resulting from harmonious development. The ideal of Her- bart and his successors. 7. Citizenship. Character and efficiency in civic af- fairs; intellect, feelings and will acting under consciousness of social obligations. Sparta, Athens and Rome had initiation ceremonies that 4 DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES exalted citizenship. Horace Mann and John Dewey are representative American advocates of this ideal in education. Value of Study of History of Education 3. Knowledge. The learning of facts is considered an essential part of education. The facts in the history of education are worth knowing on account of general educative value and specific bearing upon preparation for teaching. 4. Guidance. We may avoid mistakes in teaching if we are familiar with the theory and the practice in the history of education. Guidance that enables us to avoid mistakes is economy of energy in striving for suc- cess. In other words, the experience of the race is a useful inheritance in promoting the welfare of man- kind. 5. Judgment. The use of the memory in acquiring facts is only one helpful procedure in mental develop- ment. Judgment, the power to weigh and decide, is a related act of higher value. The student in history of education reflects upon the facts acquired, tests them according to the needs of the past and the present, and then makes a decision that is valid. 6. Ideals. The study of the development of theories leads to the psychology of education ; the study of prac- tice in teaching justifies accepted methods; the har- monization of theory and practice gives balance to all the subjects classified as pedagogy. History of educa- tion should, therefore, help formulate ideals that are clear, practical and inspiring. 5 DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES Epochs 7. Simple division makes four general epochs con- venient for study. 1. Oriental. From early historic periods to the Chris- tian era, or to the present. China, India, Phe- nicia, Persia, Egypt, the Jews. 2. Classical. Greece and Rome. Overlaps Christian period. 3. Medieval. 529 to 1500 A. D. To Renaissance. 4. Modern. 1500 to the present. 8. The epochs are outlined here to indicate the topical treatment shown in the chapters. Outline of Epochs ien tal Education. Recapitulation. 1. China 2. India 3. Phenicia 4. Persia 5. Egypt 6. The Israelites or Jews II. Classical Education. 600 B. C. to 476 A. D. 1. Greece, Athens and Sparta 2. Rome III. Medieval Education. The Christian era to 1500. 1. The Great Teacher. 2. The Christian Fathers. First five centuries. 3. The Monks. Sixth century. 6 DEFINITIONS, IDEALS, VALUES 4. Period of Charlemagne. 800 to 900. 5. Period of Supremacy of Feudalism. 900 to 1200. G. Period of Universities and Scholasticism. 1200 to 1500. IV. Modern Education. 1500 to present. 1. Sixteenth century. Renaissance, realism. 2. Seventeenth century. Innovators. 3. Eighteenth century. Naturalism. 4. Nineteenth century. Naturalism, science. 5. Twentieth century. Eclectic tendency, i. e., combining the best. Chapter II EDUCATION IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 9. Education through experience. The writers who speak of education as evolution find it necessary to trace the process to the primitive societies of savages and barbarians. It is possible to find among those people evidence of the educative process in their adaptation to environment through the use of experience of earlier generations. As in all child life, the early training was through play and unconscious imitation. Then came conscious imitation in learning to produce the necessities of life, such as food, clothing and shelter. In all of those acts the group instinct of helpfulness was effective in de- veloping customs, but there was no organized effort in education. Boys and girls were creatures of custom, and their responsive development did not go far beyond the limits of tribal experience. Initiation ceremonies and other related experiences appealed to the feelings and the will, and opened the way to the virtues having the- oretical and practical value. Thus the developing insti- tutions became the embodiment of customs and ideals. 10. Institutions in primitive society. The dominant characteristic of primitive peoples is called animism. This name is associated with the belief 8 EDUCATION IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY that every life has a companion spirit or double in trees, rocks, animals and other things. This close companion- ship with environment directed the course of daily life, gave content to intellectual and spiritual beliefs, and made a foundation for natural religion, early philoso- phy and rudimentary science. The scope of animism offered opportunity to those whose fitness enabled them to deal satisfactorily with the spirits. The favored ones became the wizards, shamans or medicine men. They were the earliest teach- ers, and their work gave form to written language, de- termined the subject-matter for study, and directed the method of instruction. Under this development, the priests were the first teachers. As their office was re- ligious in its nature, instruction in common things of life devolved upon the home. Later development pro- duced the school as soon as the priests found it neces- sary to organize special instruction for candidates for the priesthood. Thus, primitive peoples exemplified certain tendencies which are considered essential elements in organized education. The instincts of play, imitation, construc- tiveness and fellowship were utilized in converting ex- perience into customs which embodied ideals that domi- nated the development of institutions. Chapter III CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION Ancient oriental education is spoken of as recapitula- tion because it summarizes the history of those eastern nations. China may be taken as a type that embodies the characteristics of early civilization. Among those characteristics are (a) independent national existence on account of tendency toward isolation; (&) govern- ment by rulers with authority sanctioned by tradition or divine right; (c) adherence to the fixed ways of the past or to the dominating ideas of ancestors; (d) ac- ceptance of a caste system; and (e) worth of the indi- vidual not recognized. 11. Aim of education in China. To prepare for success in life. This aim was definite because no one could go beyond the rigid standards of social organization. Success was the attainment of the best under the fixed rules governing home, school, state and vocation. In all this, the ideal, moral and intel- lectual, rested upon the past, and success was estimated in measures of exact imitation. 12. General characteristics and means. 1. Moral; in school, literary. 2. Based upon Confucianism, supplemented by Bud- dhism and Taoism. 11 CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION Confucius (550-478 B. C.) was a philosopher whose ethical code and personal influence secured an enthusi- astic following, although he neither remodeled the old religion nor taught a new theology. The old religion embraced worship of ancestors, deified rulers and spirits ; vague ideas of future life ; no system of rewards and punishments ; there were offerings but never human sacrifices. The influence of Confucius was a revival of religious fervor under the idea of the golden rule. His writings embodied the wisdom of twenty centuries and gave to the Chinese ''the loftiest moral code which the human mind unaided by divine revelation has ever pro- duced." 3. Sacred texts: The Four Boohs and The Five Clas- sics, partly by Confucius (550 — 478 B. C), partly by his disciple Mencius (372—289 B. C), and partly by later disciples. The Four Books 1. Analects of Confucius 2. Great Learning 3. Doctrine of the Mean 4. Mencius The Five Classics 1. Spring and Autumn 2. Books of Poetry 3. Books of History 4. Books of Rites 5. Books of Changes 12 CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION 4. All ethical and social duties included in five rela- tions: sovereign and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, brother and brother, friend and friend. 13. Sayings of Confucius. 1. ''What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others." 2. "Learning without thought is labor lost. Thought without learning is perilous." 3. "To see what is right and not to do it is want of courage. ' ' 4. "Shall I tell you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold that you know it ; and when you do not know a thing, to confess your igno- rance." 5. "Worship as if the Deity were present." 14. The home. 1. The family is the unit of social organization.' 2. Wife is servant to husband. 3. Filial obedience includes all duties. 4. Disobedience punishable by death. 5. Virtues: politeness and obedience. 15. Elementary education. 1. Child entered school at six or seven. Studied liter- ary language which differs from spoken language. Reading and writing taught; memorizing four primers: The Three Character Classic, The Thousand Character Classic, The Hundred Sur- names, The Rules of Behavior. School name 13 CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION given to child and then he studied The Four Books and the Five Classics mentioned in section 12. 2. No license to teach. Many of the teachers were students who failed in higher examinations. No state control ; no public school houses ; school days long and continue nearly all the year. 3. Every village had a school and there were some charity schools. 4. Three stages: memorizing, translation, composition of essays. 5. No alphabet; symbol for every idea, not for sounds; mastery of five thousand or more different char- acters. 6. Maxims for morality. 16. Higher education. 1. Indefinite in time ; depends upon passing. A system of examinations, not of schools. 2. No* school houses ; individual instruction for success in examinations was the method. 3. The aim of the school work was success in examina- tions. Development of literary style was the chief merit. The administration of education was in charge of the Hanlin or Imperial Academy, which was organized in seventh century. The members in four groups: (a) Emperor's cabinet; (&) in charge of public records; (c) history of reigns ; (d) examinations. 4. Some modern high school instruction. See 18. 5. Examinations for degrees. a. Budding Intellect. 14 CHINA— ANCESTRAL EDUCATION 6. Deserving of Promotion. c. Fit for Office. d. Forest of Pencils. For Royal Academy only. 17. Method of Chinese education. 1. Exact imitation. 2. In lower stages purely a training of the memory. 3. Pupils study passages aloud. 4. Individual recitation. 5. Rapid repetition the aim of the pupil. 6. Use of tracing in primary writing. 18. Criticism. 1. Memory strengthened. 2. Chinese stability, as desired by China, secured. 3. Discipline in mastery of form without knowing con- tent. 4. The content of their literary education had no prac- tical relation to daily life. 5. It made no use of interest as a stimulus. 6. Women not educated. 7. Not national, universal, compulsory. 3Iodern Education China must be given credit for many changes in her school system. Western ideas are adopted for types of normal schools, high schools, colleges and universities ; and the reforms will be extended to all elementary edu- cation as soon as adjustment can be made. One notable advance is the opening of schools for girls. Many American teachers are employed in the various institu- tions. In 1910 English was made the official language in scientific and technical schools. 15 Chapter IY INDIA OR HINDUSTAN A caste system that is the outgrowth of physical, racial and religious conditions. Castes are classes of society made permanent by custom and law. The castes of India were formed in the struggle between the Aryans and the native Hindus. The Aryans, an agri- cultural people on the steppes of southern Russia, had herds, crops, homes and rudimentary civic associations; they reverenced the gods supposed to control weather and seasons — sky, moon, wind, fire, etc. ; and they had both desire and capacity for intellectual advancement. They were the progressive people who overran nearly all of Europe and much of Asia. Their struggle with the native Hindus and the environment in India produced the castes and the modified ideals in Hindu education. 19. Aim of Hindu education. To prepare for future life. 20. Castes. 1. Brahmans: priests, lawyers, physicians, teachers. 2. Warriors and rulers. 3. Merchants, mechanics, farmers. 4. Sudras or servants. No education. 17 INDIA OR HINDUSTAN 21. Home. 1. Woman uneducated ; not equal to husband. 2. Marriage in same or lower castes. 3. Reverence for parents and teachers. 22. Elementary education. 1. A state system supported by government. Teachers from the Brahman caste. 2. In open air or in tents or sheds. Monitors assist in teaching. 3. Method is rote learning, or memory training, as in China. 4. Studies. Reading, writing, arithmetic, language, re- ligious and caste ceremonials. a. Writing on sand with a stick, on palm leaves with a stylus, and on plane leaves with ink. h. Elementary arithmetic: memorizing tables. Repetition by singing. c. Memorizing Veda in Sanskrit. The Veda constituted the four collections of the sacred writings of the Brahmans. The time of composition was probably be- tween 1500 and 1000 B. C. 5. Religious exercises, hymns and prayers, three times a day. 6. Discipline mild ; corporal punishment in extreme cases. 23. Higher education. For Brahmans and some warriors and farmers, grammar literature 18 INDIA OR HINDUSTAN law astronomy mathematics medicine philosophy religion 24. Aim of Hindu wisdom is to overcome suffering through knowledge. See 27 and 28. 25. Contributions. Decimal system; philosophical and mathematical dis- coveries. Kemp's History of Education, page 29, gives a favorable summary. **The scholarly achievements of the Hindus in their enervating climate attest the philosophic character, the keenness, and native energy of the Hindu mind. They seem to have anticipated by nearly two hundred years some of the best features of Aristotle's logic. IMore than four centuries before Christ they had a compre- hensive grammar of their language. Quite early they computed eclipses and places of planets by means of tables. In the third or fourth century of the Christian era they had excellent treatises on rhetoric. In the fifth century A. D. they had an algebra superior to that of the Greeks. Whether they received help from the Greek algebra is not known. They were able to solve equations having two unknown quantities, and had methods for the resolution of indeterminate problems of the first and second degree. They applied algebra to astronomical investigations. The Arabic system of notation, which has been such an inestimable boon to the Western na- 19 INDIA OR HINDUSTAN tions, appears in their literature of the fifth century as an old thing. In fact, the Arabs got it, as well as much of the algebra they taught to the West, from our Aryan kinfolk in India." 26. Criticism. Humane discipline ; contributions to methods of teach- ing, mathematics and philosophy. See section 25. Rigid caste system prevented flexibility, neglected women and servants, and disregarded the worth of man as an individual. Too much use of memory without thought. 27. Brahmanism and Buddhism. The Brahmans were the scholars of the Hindus. They were the priests who composed the Veda, which forms the basis of all Hindu education and literature. In the changing ideals of the periods, the Veda shows the trend of thought. The early religion was nature wor- ship of fire, wind, sky, etc. Then came polytheism, the belief in many gods. Later came pantheism, the belief that all forms of existence came from one source and will return to it. All individual existence is pain or sorrow; hence, the desire to merge self in Brahma, the perfect being from which all things emanated. It is obvious that the doctrine of effort to develop individu- ality is contrary to the underlying aim of Brahmanism. Buddhism, a sort of reformed Brahmanism, dates from about 500 B. C. Buddha (the knower, the en- lightened one, the awakened) is not the name of one person, but a name signifying a person who has achieved a certain spiritual and intellectual state by means of the 20 INDIA OR HINDUSTAN eightfold path described in the next paragraph. Prince Siddartha was the founder and he is known as the Buddha. The fundamental law of Buddhism is expressed in the Four Verities or Noble Truths: (1) Suffering exists wherever sentient being exists. (2) Cause of suffering is a desire, a craving for pleasure or for existence. (3) Deliverance from suffering can be effected only by the extinction of desire. This is Nirvana. (4) This cessa- tion and entrance into Nirvana can be attained only by walking in the Path of Buddha, or the Noble Eightfold Path. This comprises right views (as to the nature and cause of suffering) ; right thoughts ; right words ; right actions; right means of livelihood, i. e., as a mendicant monk, living in celibacy and on offered alms; right ap- plication of the spirit to the study of the law; right memory, or freedom from error in recollecting the law; and right meditation. Primitive Buddhism was atheistic. Gods and all earthly things were subject to decay, death and rebirth. Hence, sacrifice, worship and priesthood were unneces- sary. Later, deities were introduced. The existence of soul was denied. Man was considered a combination of material qualities, sensations, abstract ideas, tendencies of mind, and mental powers. These break up at death, but there remains a force. Karma, which tends to form a new personality representing the cumulative merit or demerit of thoughts, words and acts in life. 28. Results, social and individual. Passive virtues were inculcated, such as politeness, patience, modesty, truthfulness and obedience. 21 INDIA OR HINDUSTAN The education was ethical and ascetic. In the tendency toward self-discipiine, some virtues were de- veloped, but those virtues were not such as modern life demands. As both Buddhism and Brahmanism were ''systems of organized weariness," India could not rise to the civic grade of culture and social efficiency. 22 Chapter V PHENICIA— COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 29. Location. Phenicia is the Greek name of Canaan. The country of the Phenicians was a strip of land five to four- teen miles wide and one hundred fifty miles long. Its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea favored commer- cial development and education was conditioned by the phases of industrial life. 30. Aim. To secure commercial success by manufacturing and commerce. 31. Customs and methods. 1. Religion included worship of gods of fire and forces of nature. Sacrifice of children by fire. 2. Boys apprenticed for vocational training. This and other efforts for commercial efficiency weak- ened influence of home and caused disregard of parents. 3. Extent of education limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and technical knowledge of trade se- crets. 23 PIIENICIA— COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 32. Results. 1. Sea life made men strong, courageous and ambi- tious. 2. Eemarkable development of the cities of Sidon (1300 B. C.) and Tyre (1000 B. C.) ; colonization of Cyprus, Ehodes, Sicily and other islands ; com- merce by sea and land to Africa, Europe, Arabia, Assyria, Armenia and other countries; invention and development of processes of manufacture. 3. Government of cities by hereditary monarchy checked by two republican assemblies. 4. National security not permanent without family as unit. 33. Contributions. 1. Alphabet dating from about 1000 B. C. It had twenty-two letters, all consonants. The writing was from right to left. 2. Purple dye, weaving, glass-making, mining, work in metals, architecture. 3. The science of navigation. 4. The value of intercourse in disseminating ideas and material products. 24 Chapter VI PERSIA— STATE EDUCATION 34. Aim. To serve the state. Military service. 35. Home. 1. Father demanded respect from wife and children. 2. Teacher next to father in esteem. 3. Mother beloved by children; women uneducated. 4. Child at home until 7. a. Name given by astrologer. h. No corporal punishment. c. Physical training in running, throwing, archery, riding, etc. d. Truthfulness, justice, courage developed. 36. State education. National control of boys after seventh year. 1. First period. 7-15. a. Physical training continued. h. Moral training by proverbs, prayers, c. Teachers were men over 50 years old; models in virtue and knowledge. 2. Second period. 15-25. Military training. 25 PERSIA— STATE EDUCATION 3. Third period. 25-50. a. Soldier. h. Competent retired soldiers became teachers. 4. Studies. a. Eeading and writing for soldiers. &. Astronomy, astrology, alchemy, sacred litera- ture for priests, called Magi. Their sacred writings called Zend-Avesta. 37. Criticism. 1. Made moral and physical soldiers. 2. Inlellectual education neglected. 3. Women excluded. 38. Zoroaster, philosopher. 1. Dualistic philosophy. One supreme God, Ormuzd, the principle of light, the good; one evil one, Ahriman, the principle of darkness. 2. Life is a struggle in which good prevails. 3. Judgment. a. The good pass over a bridge to happiness. &. The bad are cast off. c. The average person put on probation. 4. Highest ethical value among ancients, excepting the Jews. 26 Chapter VII EGYPT— PRIESTLY EDUCATION 39. Aim. To maintain supremacy of priests. 40. Castes. Not so strict as in India. 1. Priests, rulers, land owners, wealthy class, higher professions. 2. Soldiers. Associated with priests for protection. 3. Producers. a. Farmers and boatmen. &. Mechanics and tradespeople. c. Common laborers, fishermen, herdsmen. 41. Home. 1. Woman, mistress of home ; some education, taught children; polygamy, except for priests. 2. Religion, piety, obedience, love. 3. Phj^sical education ; simple food, light clothing. 42. OrgBJiization, content and method. 1. Education suited to respective castes, but no system controlled by state. 2. Priests were teachers. Many other teachers of ele- mentary subjects. Reverence for teachers. 27 EGYPT— PRIESTLY EDUCATION 3. Elementary period opened at fifth year in temple courts. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and some geometry and astronomy. Religions training for all. Girls received some training in private schools and under private tutors. Method in- cluded imitation, memorizing, learning numbers by play, writing with stylus on wood and with ink on papyrus. 4. Higher education for priests and soldiers. engineering language natural science astronomy mathematics medicine philosophy religion music 5. Colleges were in the temples. Leading colleges were Memphis, Thebes, Heliopolis. 43. Contributions. 1. Use of papyrus for writing. 2. Originated geometry. Why? 3. Concrete methods in arithmetic and writing. 4. Evidences of proficiency in engineering, mechanics, architecture, decoration, painting, sculpture; in manufacturing glass and jewelry; in spinning and weaving. 5. Literature: moral and religious works, poems, novels, letters, books of travel. The Booh of the Dead contains texts, prayers and incantations to 28 EGYPT— PRIESTLY EDUCATION help the soul on its way to the court of Osiris. The library of Alexandria had many writings on various subjects. 44. Criticisms and results. 1. Equality destroyed by castes. 2. Increasing respect for women. 3. Vast achievements without hereditary value as cul- ture products in civilization. Compare Butler's definition of education. 29 Chapter VIII THE JEWS— THEOCRATIC EDUCATION 45. Location. Egypt, Babylon and Palestine are associated with the JeAvs, Hebrews or Israelites. Jerusalem a historic city. Three periods are embraced in the history of their edu- cation. The first is to the coronation of Saul, 1055 B. C. ; the second, to the beginning of Babylonian cap- tivity, 586 B. C. ; the third, to the fall of Jerusalem, 70 A. D. 46. Aim. To rehabilitate the nation. 47. The home. 1. Purest of antiquity. 2. Wife equal to husband. 3. Children considered as the gift of God. 48. Education at home. 1. Boys, reading and writing. 2. Girls, household duties and some education. 3. Eites and ceremonies ; Scripture. 4. History as a means of patriotism. 5. Religion, central thought. 6. Home training best of all nations. 30 THE JEWS— THEOCRATIC EDUCATION 49. The Jewisli school. 1. 64 A. D., first compulsory education. 2. Every town must support a school. 3. Teachers were mature married men. 25 pupils to a teacher. 4. The teacher was greater than the parent because the future is greater than the present. 5. Methods of teaching were good. Dialectic or con- versational method and learning by rote. Mul- tiple sense appeal, i. e., making use of as many senses as possible, was utilized. Pupils sang or chanted their lessons. Clearness in presentation and drill made the pupils understand. Mild dis- cipline; no corporal punishment until after eleven. 6. Sayings from the Talmud. * ' The world exists only by the breath of school children. ' ' **A town without a school and school children should be demolished." * ' Jerusalem was destroyed because there ceased to be schools and school children there." '^The pupils' questions should never become too much for the teacher. ' ' 7. Studies. reading writing arithmetic geometry astronomy natural history Scripture 31 THE JEWS— THEOCRATIC EDUCATION 50. The schools of the rabbis. 1. At Alexandria, Babylon, Jerusalem. 2. Theology and law. 3. The Talmud is a compilation of the Jewish tradi- tions as distin^ished from the original Scrip- tures. It embraces the Mishna, the original tra- ditions ascribed to Moses, and the Gemmara, com- mentaries of the rabbis. Compiled second to sixth centuries A. D. 51. The schools of the prophets. Philosophy, poetry, medicine, history and law for sons of prophets, priests and other leaders. 52. Criticism and results. 1. Exalted woman and home; organized schools; de- veloped progressive, united people. 2. Obedience, patriotism, religion. See 49. 3. Produced some of the world's greatest poets and historians. 32 Chapter IX SUMMARY OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION 53. Class distinctions. Lower classes were deprived of advantages. The rec- ognition of the caste system removed all stimulus ex- cepting the attainment of ideals which seemed to be adequate under the respective social organizations. 54. Progressiveness. The national ideals were not conducive to free develop- ment, as already shown in the preceding paragraph. Traditions and authority of teachers took the place of in- vestigation and experiment. 55. Position of individuals. Man belonged to the state. Individual worth was esti- mated in relation to the mass, not in terms of self. Ser- vice was the law of value, but not the service that em- braces the reciprocal rights of the individual and so- ciety. Politeness, obedience and good conduct were de- veloped as passive virtues. ^lemory w^as made the dom- inant intellectual powder by acquiring moral precepts as guides to conduct. Woman was held inferior to man and, as in the lower castes, she was deprived of the ad- vantages of education. 33 SUMMARY OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION 56. Content of matter of instruction. The elements of subject-matter in modern curricula can be traced to various early efforts in education. Some of the Eastern nations made creditable advance in getting definite arrangement of subje(;ts, but in no case can balanced organization be found. 57. Method of instruction. Imitation and memory through repetition in all the nations. Play as an educative instinct is evident in In- dia and Egypt. Concrete methods associated with play may be traced from the periods of barbarism and found in frequent use in China, India and Egypt. Appeal to many senses and rudimentary motor expression are made a part of conscious effort in India, Egypt and Israel. 34 PART II CLASSICAL EDUCATION SPARTA, ATHENS, ROME Chapter X GREECE Culture is the aim associated with Grecian education. This aim implies liberal training. The basis of liberal education is found in the social organization of the Greeks. The race was tribal, not national. The Spar- tans were Dorians, people who were types of strong, practical soldiers. The Athenians were lonians, people who were characterized by literary, artistic and philo- sophical inclinations. Two other divisions were The ^olians of Thebes and the Achaeans. In religion the Greeks believed in polytheism, the gods being considered as personalities. Their ceremonials included oracles, mysteries, prayers, libations, games and festivals. The civic organization was a type of the city-state, i. e., the larger problems usually associated with states were dealt with in relation to cities, as in Sparta and Athens. 58. Progressive features. 1. Recognition of individuality. 2. Recognition of the state. 3. Mutual welfare of individuals and the state. 4. Education as development meant progressive adjust- ment. a. Political freedom. &. Moral freedom. 36 GREECE c. Intellectual freedom. Love of knowledge for the sake of knowledge. d. Esthetic idealization, appreciation and realization. Exemplified in art, litera- ture, oratory, history, architecture and personal appearance. e. Effort toward self-realization. Christian ideal lacking. Grecian ideal found in *'the true, the beautiful and the good." 59. Great men. 1. Homer. Iliad and Odyssey about 850 B. C. 2. Lycurgus. Laws for Sparta, 850 or 800 B. C. See 62. 3. Solon. Laws for Athens, 594. Parental duty in education. 4. Pythagoras. See 87. 5. Fifth to third century B. C. Pericles, ruler in the Golden Age of Greece; Herodotus, historian; Xenophon, writer ; Demosthenes, orator ; Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great. 6. Euclid systematized geometry about 250 B. C. Prob- ably founded mathematical school at Alexandria. * ' There is no royal road to geometry. ' ' 7. Strabo (first century B. C.?). Educated at Athens, Eome and Alexandria. Compiled geographical knowledge into his Geography, a treatise in sev- enteen books. 8. Ptolemy (second century A. D.), astronomer, geome- ter, geographer. Developed trigonometry and put geography upon a scientific basis. Ptolemaic theory: (1) The earth is a globe. (2) This 37 GREECE globe is at rest in the center of the world. (3) The heaven or world makes a daily revolution round an axis which passes through the center of the earth. 38 Chapter XI OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES, 459 TO 431 B. C. I. Homeric Period (1000 to 776 B. C.) 60. Ideals. The poems by Homer are the sources of information for this period. The Iliad and the Odyssey are the Greek masterpieces that embody the ideals and the prac- tises. The ideal was twofold — the man of action and the man of wisdom. 1. Achilles was the type of action : bravery, reverence, balance by avoiding extremes. 2. Odysseus was the type of wisdom: practical judg- ment, harmonious balance in thought. 3. Virtue or worth of citizen was tested by worth to the state. 4. Content of education included physical training in military exercises for physical development; mu- sic, ethics, rhetoric and religion for intellectual and moral development. There w^re neither books nor schools, but there were tutors. Learning by doing was the method. Ideal and real persons were examples that stimulated imitation in developing the virtues of bravery, truthfulness, kindli- ness, loyalty, chastity and prudence. 39 OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 6. Patriarchal monarchy was the form of government in the heroic period. Then followed a republican constitution at first aristocratic, but later demo- cratic. The democracy of antiquity was one in which the majority of citizens ruled, not the ma- jority of inhabitants. In most of the Greek States, the majority of the population consisted of slaves. n. Spartan Education (776 to 480 B. C.) 61. The Homeric period is sometimes called the legendary period to distinguish it from the historic period which opened 776 B. C. Spartan education was influenced by natural and social environment. Tribal organization insufficient for defense when Lycurgus un- dertook to organize the laws. 62. Lycurgus. (820 B. C.) In the ninth century B. C. Lycurgus divided the peo- ple into the three classes given in 63, organized and en- forced laws which made the Spartan institutions. The government was an aristocratic republic for the first class alone. There were two kings, a council of 28 elders, the popular assembly, and 5 ephors or in- spectors. Illustrations of Laivs of Lycurgus 1. Eating in common, fifteen men at table. 2. Children silent at tables: manners, wisdom; simple food, 40 OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 3. Iron money. 4. State controlled marriage, owned children. 63. Three classes of people. 1. Citizens or rulers. Nobles divided into 9000 fam- ilies. Hereditary landed estate assigned to every family whicli had lost possessions. 2. Free men, farmers, miners and others. They paid dues to owners of property, were bound to mili- tary service, and had no political rights. 3. Slaves, known as helots or prisoners. They were divided by lot among the first class, tilled the lands, and paid their lords a fixed portion of the harvest. 64. Home. 1. A¥eak children killed or abandoned. 2. Children with mother till six or seven ; warlike toys ; father or mentor was the teacher. 3. Obedience, modesty, courage, patriotism. 65. State education. 1. Boys in barracks at state expense. 2. Boys in group under monitors, called irens. 3. Distinguished boys trained by elders. 4. Inspector over all groups. 5. Girls received some training, often wdth boys' groups until the girls w^ere fourteen years old. G. IMusic on the lyre ; chanting Homer, laws of Ly- curgus, and war songs; reading and writing not favored. 7. Evil of crime is in being detected. 41 OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 8. At twelve, boy took mantle of manhood. 9. At eighteen, the boy entered the class of ephebes, or cadets. Strict military training. 10. From twenty to thirty, the boys were knoAvn as youths. Separate barracks, constant physical and military training. Actual experience in war. 11. At thirty, full citizenship. Marriage, home founded, state service continued. 66. Content of Spartan education. 1. Physical training to produce warriors. Running, jumping, riding, SAvimming, hunting, playing ball; boxing, wrestling, throwing discus and jave- lin, military evolutions; dancing accompanied by muscular movements similar to actions in battle. 2. Reading and writing not taught in barracks, but tutors were sometimes employed at private ex- pense. 3. Memory exercises for singing or chanting to de- velop warlike spirit. 4. Conversational topics at tables to develop good man- ners, attention, readiness to participate, clear judgment and incisive speech. Terse answers gave rise to the word laconic, from Laconia, the Spartan division of Greece. 67. Method of Spartan education. 1. Imitation and play in organized games. 2. Definite ideals inculcated by rhythmical appeal in dancing and chanting. 3. Practical doing under critical supervision. Physi- cal punishment for defects, faults and failures. The hardening process carried to extremes. 42 OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 68. Criticism or results. 1. Robbed the home; produced courageous but cruel and selfish men. 2. Narrow. Duty to humanity not inculcated. 3. Checked luxury and extravagance. 4. Woman honored; educated for good motherhood. 5. Illustration of mode and value of organization in education. The ideal was definite — courageous defenders of the state; the process was clearly arranged — some theory, much practice; a super- intendent of education — the pedonomus; moni- tors or leaders in teaching — the irens; 20 to 30, vocational training as soldier; at 30, manhood representing the cumulative effect of education for service in citizenship. III. Old Athenian Education 69. Sparta and Athens contrasted. Sparta was a kind of military socialism; Athens was favorable to the development of democracy. Sparta ex- emplified the military ideal; Athens developed the arts of peace as well as the arts of war. Sparta destroyed the family as a unit of organization; Athens made the family a responsible factor in civic life. Sparta did not recognize individuality apart from state; Athens did recognize the value of full development of the indi- vidual. 70. Materials for culture. The Hellenes, or old Greeks, had two valuable in- heritances as bases for intellectual advancement. Those inheritances were a phonetic alphabet containing both 43 OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES vowels and consonants and the poems of Homer. The use of the materials necessitated the formation of schools and the securing of laymen as teachers. 71. The beginnings of a course of study. The Greek ideal of education embodied the aim of in- dividual excellence or worth closely associated with pub- lic welfare. That civic or social ideal required perfec- tion of the body in strength and beauty, and perfection of the mind or soul through knowledge to wisdom. Hence, the education was planned under the two di- visions of gymnastics for the body and music for the soul. 72. Responsibility of family in the organization. Neglect of child's education thereby released the child from the father's control, according to the laws of Solon. All schools private; state required music and gymnas- tics and controlled the exercises in the gymnasia. 73. Home. 1. Father had right to destroy or abandon children. 2. Use of games in education. 3. Children in charge of nurse or slaves. 4. Elementary school, 7-16. Gymnastics and music. Pedagogue in charge of boy. 74. Gymnasia, 16-18. State education. 1. Public schools for wealthy classes, as in Plato's Academy. 2. Training by conversation with elders. Attendance and conversation at banquets, theaters, the law courts, etc. 44 OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES 75. Ephebes, 18-20. 1. Enrolled as citizen under oath. 2. Barrack or camp for first year; regular soldier the second year. 3. Following is the oath taken by boys when they were admitted to the army : "We shall never bring disgrace to this, our city, by any act of dishonesty or cowardice, nor ever desert our suffering comrades in the ranks. AVe will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the city, both alone and with many. We will revere and obey the city's laws and do our best to incite a like respect and reverence in those above us who are prone to annul or to set them at naught. We will strive unceasingly to quicken the pub- lic 's sense of civic duty. Thus, in all these ways, we will transmit this city not only not less, but greater, better, and more beautiful than it was transmitted to us." 76. Content of old Greek education. 1. Gymnastics. JMore than half the time given to physi- cal training. Games in organized course of study for pentathlon, which included jumping, run- ning, throwing the discus, throwing the spear and wrestling; swimming and hunting added later. 2. Music. This included poetry, the drama, history, oratory, the sciences, music in the limited sense and all other activities presided over by the nine Muses. After memorizing Homeric poems the boy chanted them to the accompaniment of the lyre. Hence music included the processes of de- 45 OLD GREEK EDUCATION, TO AGE OF PERICLES veloping creative power, — power of expression, of initiative and of appreciation. 3. Reading, writing, and the literary element of edu- cation were included in music. The Iliad and the Odyssey furnished material for reading. 4. Arithmetic and drawing were not introduced until later. 5. "Dancing was a rhythmical movement of the whole body for the purpose of harmonizing physical de- velopment. Dancing was the union of the har- mony of thought and emotional experience ex- pressed through music and the harmony of physi- cal development produced through gymnastics.'' 46 Chapter XII NEW GREEK EDUCATION AT ATHENS (480-338 B. C.) The Age of Pericles, 465-429 B. C. 77. Spirit of liberty. Democracy after battle of Marathon, 490 B. C. 78. Aim. Harmonious education of the whole man; culture. 79. Home. 1. Child with mother till 6 or 7. Toys: play a factor in education; mental, physical. 3. Intellectual training, poetry, strict obedience; hu- mane discipline. 4. Father or mentor trained boy. 5. Mother was the equal of the children. 80. Elementary, 7-15. 1. Palestra, school for gymnastics. 2. Didaskaleion, school for music. 3. Pedagogue, attendant for boy outside of school. 4. Studies. a. Gymnastics: wrestling, running, etc. See 76. h. Music: reading, writing, spelling. See 76. c. Some arithmetic for utility. 47 9 NEW GREEK EDUCATION AT ATHENS 5. Long school days. 6. Trade for poor boys at 14 or 15. 81. Advanced. (After middle of fourth century B. C.) grammar rhetoric poetry elocution mathematics music philosophy 82. Gymnasia. At about 15, boys were freed from pedagogue. They entered gymnasia for special training for citizenship. 83. Ephebes. At 18 the boy began active service in citizenship. See 75. 84. Organization. 1. State furnished gymnasia, such as Academy and Lyceum. 2. State fixed qualifications of teachers, school hours, number of pupils. 3. State gave examinations once a year. 4. Schools were private institutions under state in- spection. 5. Teachers were philosophers; excellent; fees from parents, but no salaries. 48 NEW GREEK EDUCATION AT ATHENS 85. Criticism. 1. Rights of parents exalted. 2. Freedom of individual. 3. Play as education. 4. Harmonious education. 5. State inspection. 6. Women and slaves excluded. 49 Chapter XIII EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS 86. Early philosophers. From 7th to 5th centuries B. C, philosophers taught in different parts of Greece. They sought the origin of things and thus made a beginning of scientific and philosophic activity. Astronomy and mathematics ben- efited thereby. Thales, the first philosopher of Greece, was of Phe- nician descent. He was a contemporary of Croesus and Solon and was one of the Seven Wise IMen. He was the founder of Greek geometry, astronomy and philosophy. He learned the geometry of surfaces in Egypt, added the geometry of lines, and applied geometry to the measurement of heights and distances. He introduced algebra in this connection. 87. Pythagoras (582-500 B. C.) Born on the island of Samos, a pupil of Thales, a student in Egypt, a traveler in other countries. He founded a school at Crotona, in southern Italy. His school was a brotherhood formed for ethical and re- ligious purposes, governed by a set of rules similar to the monastic regulations of later times, and destined to promote power by meditation, reflection and order in adjustment. His aim was to produce harmony and pro- portion in life. 50 EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS The Pythagorean theory is that number is the essence and basis of all things. "All is number." The regu- larity and harmony of changes in nature led to this con- clusion. In applying the principle of number, odd and even were considered the elements of number, odd being definite and the other indefinite, while the unit is the product of both. From this dualism or twofold nature of the unit, the doctrine of harmony in opposites is worked out, as finite and infinite, left and right, odd and even, male and female, etc. The application of this doctrine of number by Pythag- oras and the Pythagoreans. 1. Physics. Bodies were analyzed into surfaces, sur- faces into lines, lines into points. Every body expresses the number four; surface is three, the line is two on account of its two ends, and the point is one. Ten is the perfect number because it is the sum of the numbers from one to four. 2. Music. Relation of notes worked out mathemati- cally, thus giving science of music. 3. Astronomy. The perfect number ten is the basis of the arrangement of the heavenly bodies. The earth is a sphere ; central fire in the center of the universe; bodies revolve from west to east. The motion of the bodies is regulated by mathematical laws, and that exactness of velocity is harmony. 4. Geometry. The Pythagorean proposition discovered. The square of the hypothenuse of a right-angle triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. 5. Ethics. Supreme good of man is to become godlike. This assimilation is secured by virtue, and virtue 51 EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS is harmony secured by balancing the faculties. Subordinate the lower to the higher. This har- mony can be secured through knowledge, asceti- cism, music and gymnastics. 6. Nature. A philosophy of nature under thoroughly religious aspects. Particular importance is in directing Greek thought to calmer, deeper moral worth. Pythagoras himself believed in trans- migration of souls (metempsychosis), a future life, and retribution. 88. Sophists (450 to 400 B. C.) 1. The aristocratic tendency of the Pythagoreans caused a mob hatred to develop, and the school had to be suppressed. The philosophers were scattered through Greece. Another condition un- favorable to philosophic thought was the new idea of individual freedom resulting from the battle of Marathon. It was then that the sophists ap- pealed to receptive listeners. 2. The word sophist means wise man. The early teach- ers were given this name because wisdom was the content of their teaching. The first sophists went from city to city, gathered young men about them, and taught for certain fees. Later, the sophists rented rooms in the gymnasia or in the public squares. The subject-matter of in- struction was mostly rhetoric as exemplified in the art of convincing by speaking, but the sub- jects are usually listed as grammar, poetry, style, oratory and mathematics. 3. Pupils were usually the ephebes. 52 EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THE SOPHISTS 4. Leading sophists. Protagoras of Abdera, the indi- vidualist ; Georgias of Leontini, the nihilist ; Hip- pias of Elis, the polymathist; and Prodicus of Ceos, the moralist. 5. Results. 1. Argument exalted over truth and right. 2. Disregard of the old, philosophical search after truth. 3. Disregard for the old religion and social dis- cipline. New view of practical usefulness in life. 4. Threatened weakness and disintegration of the state. Individualism, or the absolute freedom of the individual, made emphatic. 5. Helped change the ephebic education from formal routine based on custom to unre- stricted development of a higher type; physical and political aspects yielded to moral culture under the literary aspect. The rhetorical and grammatical study of language and literature is the result of that transition. 53 Chapter XIV THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS SOCRATES, PLATO, ARISTOTLE The Greek educational theorists include the follow- ing: Pythagoras, 582-500 B. C. Section 87. Sophists. Section 88. Socrates, 469-399 B. C. Xenophon, 434-357 B. C. Plato, 427-347 B. C. Aristotle, 384-322 B. C. /. Socrates (469-399 B. C.) 89. Motto. ''Know thyself." From the study of the objective world, our environment, we should turn to the study of self. By observing and reflecting on our own mental activities, we can ascertain the conditions of knowledge, form concepts in the right way, and thus scientifically classify the principles of conduct and the principles of knowledge. Socrates took this position to try to clarify conflicting notions in education. The Pythagoreans worked out a scheme of socialism which was rejected by the people. The sophists put emphasis upon sensations and emo- 54 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS tions, and questioned the validity of general truth ; some denied the possibility of knowledge. Socrates set out to reconcile these views by showing that valid knowledge can be acquired as concepts if the process of thinking is right. 90. Fundamental principle. '^ Knowledge is virtue." There are ideas that possess universal validity, and a life will be virtuous if it is guided by that universal knowledge instead of by mere individual opinion. Education should aim, therefore, to develop individual power of thought that will lead to the guiding principles of conduct, not to superficial in- formation and glibness of speech such as the sophists exalted. Under this view, Socrates put validity into the words of Protagoras, the sophist, ''Man is the measure of all things." Every individual has latent or developed power to know and to desire to enjoy such life virtues as honesty, truthfulness, fidelity and wisdom. 91. The Socratic method. 1. The negative stage. Socrates assumed a humble attitude as if he desired knowledge. His method was conversational, but direct statements were avoided. The answer to each question was the basis for the next ques- tion, and the process was continued until the consecu- tive answers ended in a confession of ignorance. The pretended deference of Socrates is known as Socratic irony. 2. The positive stage. The second series of questions led to the discovery of the truth. These questions caused the pupil to consider instances one by one and combine 56 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS them inductively into a concept or general notion. This stage or process was called maieutic by Socrates, i. e., giving birth to ideas. 3. Heuristic method. The Avhole method is heuristic, or a way of discovering or finding. Spencer calls the method of discovery an empirical method. The Socratic method is, furthermore, an inductive method resulting in a definition. 4. Illustrations. See McEvoy's MetJiods in Educa- tion, page 82. Following is a suggestive application : — Teacher. What is a straight line? Fupil. A line that doesn't slant. T. (draws a slanting line on the board). Is that a straight line? P. Yes. T. Does that line slant? P. It does slant. T. Do you still hold to your definition? P. No, it is not accurate. T. Why not? P. A slanting line may be a straight line. T. AVhat, then, is a straight line ? P. The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. 5. Specific value. Knowledge can be classified as concepts possessing universal validity if sense-impres- sions are grouped according to the laws of thought, rather than according to the sound of rhetoric. 92. Influence of Socratic method. 1. Emphasis on knowledge that related to practical life and possessed moral worth. 58 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PmLOSOPHERS 2. In place of the formal lecture method of the sophists, the conversational method aimed to generate power of thinking. 93. Limitations of the Socratic method. 1. It is adequate when it is applied to the formation of ethical truths since such experiences are for every individual. 2. It is not applicable when applied to subjects wherein the content is not given by the experience of the individual, such as mathematics, science, history, language and literature. In these, one's own ex- perience is too narrow for a correct conclusion. 3. Socrates and Plato recognized the dialectic method for its value as a process in developing power, but some of their successors tried to give it uni- versal application and thus gave themselves over to endless discussions relating to distinctions in- stead of to the validity of the thought contained. When this method was given permanent form in the science of logic first formulated by Aristotle, it became the basis of an entirely new conception of education, namely, education as discipline. 94. Place of instruction; pupils. Wherever he met people. Two noted pupils were Plato and Xenophon. 95. Doctrines. 1. Immortality of the soul. 2. There is one Supreme Being, the intelligent Creator of the universe. 60 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS II. Xenophon (431 to 357 B. C.) 96. Born in Athens, pupil of Socrates, soldier in Persian wars, became writer on history and philosophy. 1. Writings on education. Cycropedia. Description of Persian education, but really a plea for Spartan education modified by the cul- tural ideals of Athens. Economics. Training of wife for domestic efficiency. No intellectual training advocated. 2. Writings on history and philosophy. Anabasis Hellenica Agesilaiis Memorahilia Xenophon 's purpose was to counteract the individu- alistic doctrines of the sophists by exalting ideal life such as the Athenians might exemplify. ///. Flato (427 to 347 B. C.) 97. Definition of education. ''A good education is that which gives to the body and to the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable." 98. Name of school. The Academy; founded when Plato was forty. 99. Writings. 1. Repuhlic, a description of the ideal state and the proper education therefor. 61 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS a. He considered the state as one living being. &. Based upon a psychological analysis of the individual whose soul has three facul- ties: intellect or reason; spirit or cour- age; desire or appetite. c. In the state the merchants and producers represent its appetite; the soldiers, its spirit; the philosophers, its intellect. 2. Laws, a modification of the theoretical views in the Bepuhlic. The latter is socialism as a remedy for individualism ; while The Laws is a return to conservatism. 3. Dialogues, the teachings and the conversations of Socrates. Theory as Expressed in the Bepuhlic 100. Classes of people. 1. The common people or industrial class, whose vir- tue is money-making ; no education. 2. Guardians or citizens, the soldier class, whose virtue is honor; music and gymnastics. 3. Eulers, the philosophical class, whose virtue is wis- dom; geometry, astronomy, rhetoric and philoso- phy after elementary work. 101. Absolute control by the state. 1. Family life and private property abolished. 2. Marriage controlled. 3. Weak children killed. 4. Healthy children with mothers in common in nurser- ies. 62 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 5. Playthings in education. Boys and girls treated alike. 102. Periods of education. 1. Till 7. Play, physical exercises, fairy tales, poetry, gentleness. 2. 7-16 or 17. Gymnastics for harmony of body, music for harmony of soul. Music included literature, writing and arithmetic. 3. 17-20. Ephebes, military gymnastic training. See 75. 4. At twenty, promising youths selected for study of mathematics, astronomy, harmony and science. 5. At thirty, another selection for five years more of study. 6. 35-50. Serve the state. After 50 return to study of philosophy. 103. Summary and criticisms. 1. Plato originated a theory of ideas. Universal truths called ideas. Such ideas come from a world inde- pendent and above the world of sense. 2. Soul immortal and had prior existence in high state. Memory of former high state produces eagerness to attain knowledge of truth. 3. State control of education; compulsory for all be- tween ten and sixteen. 4. Homeric poems should be expurgated ; music and literature censored by the state. 5. Harmonious cooperation of all the powers of man. 6. There should be no forcing of the intellect in edu- cation. Adapt work to pupils. 64 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 7. Education should determine vocations and fit citi- zens therefor. 8. The first scientific and systematic scheme of educa- tion is history. IV. Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) 104. Plato's pupil. Studied under Plato nearly twenty years. Alexander the Great was Aristotle's pupil. 105. Aristotle's school. Lyceum in Athens. Called peripatetic school because Aristotle walked under the covered pathways as he taught. Peripatetic means walking about, and peripatos means covered walk. Aristotle is known as the Peri- patetic Philosopher, the Stagirite, because he was born in Stagira in Macedonia, and as the greatest mind of antiquity. He was fifty years old when he founded the Lyceum. 106. Aim. To develop imperfect, untrained children into strong, patriotic citizens. 107. Writings. 1. Ethics. 2. Politics, his educational scheme. 3. Other writings dealt with morals, logic, rhetoric, psychology, physics, metaphysics, zoology and other subjects. 66 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 108. Pedagogy. 1. Education is a lifelong task. 2. Pedagog}^ based upon a knowledge of the individual. 3. Until 7, humane, physical education at home. 4. From 7 to 14. Thorough intellectual training. 5. From 14 to 21. Direct preparation for life. Severe physical training for war. 6. Women educated to train future citizens. 7. Natural method, inductive and deductive ; concrete to abstract. 109. Summary. 1. The greatest intellect of antiquity. 2. Agrees with Plato that the highest of all arts is Politics — the art of directing society to produce the greatest good for mankind. 3. Success in directing society requires properly dis- posed group of citizens. Function of education is to produce such proper disposition. 4. Care of morals of children should be in the hands of the government and of parents, not in the hands of slaves. 5. Gymnastic training is for harmonious educational effect, not for superiority in athletics. 6. Use literature. Plato banished the poets. 7. Formulated the new science of esthetics. 8. Music approved. a. Amusement, a form of relaxation. h. A form of intellectual enjoyment. c. It possesses a moral value. 9. All citizens educated, but effects will vary. 10. Used inductive method of research in his own work. 68 THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 11. Wrote on inductive method in education, but fa- vored the deductive method for tested validity. The inductive method is uncertain beyond our tested instances; the deductive method is uni- versally valid if the rules of the syllogism are ob- served. Aristotle is the first great scientist; the greatest systematizer, in fact, that the world has ever known." (Monroe, p. 158.) 110. Comparison of Plato and Aristotle. PLATO 1. Outlined an ideal 1. scheme of education. 2. Value of ideas to the in- 2. dividual. 3. Intellect exalted. 3. 4. Philosophic method. 4. 5. Education a fixed proc- 5. ess. 6. Music in the narrow 6. sense. 7. Sought truth for its 7. formal value. 70 ARISTOTLE Gave principles for at- taining such an ideal. Value of ideas to the race. Will emphasized. In- tellect and will united. Happiness is the re- sult of knowledge passing into action. Objective and scientific method. Education a constant development. ]\Tusic in the broad sense of liberal, intellectual training. Sought truth in the ex- perience of the race THE SCHOOLS OF THE PHILOSOPHERS PLATO ARISTOTLE and thereby devel- oped the inductive process. This he ap- plied objectively and subjectively, while the Socratic method used only the latter. Here for the first time in education the induc- tive and the deduc- tive processes were consciously used as methods of proced- ure. Using the in- ductive process more than any other man prior to Francis Ba- con, Aristotle ''be- came the father of practically all of the modern sciences. ' ' (Monroe, p. 154.) 71 Chapter XV ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY The Roman ideal of efficiency is contrasted with the Greek ideal of culture and the contrast brings out the national differences. The Greeks were idealists follow- ing present enjoyment of the good, the beautiful and the true; the Romans were utilitarians preparing for the future. The Greeks developed according to reason; the Romans lived by authority. The Greeks were stu- dents of nature and their gods were close to human types; the Romans developed polytheism, but they did not deify nature in detail nor were their gods like human beings. The Greeks were poetic in their con- ceptions ; the Romans were sternly practical in their in- terpretations. The worship of the Romans consisted of prescribed ceremonies to satisfy the gods. The prayers, sacrifices and games dominated the trend of education. In pri- vate life, both education and religion were in charge of the head of the family ; in matters of public welfare, re- ligious cerepaonies were conducted by the state. The periods of Roman history referred to in the his- tory of education are as follows: — 753 ( ?) to 509 B. C. Mythical period of kings. 509 to 29 B. C. Republic. Period of developing the constitution by struggles between the patricians, or citi- zens with full political rights, and plebeians, or free in- 73 ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY habitants without political rights (509 to 264). Laws of Twelve Tables, which were used as subject-matter in education, 450 B. C. Central and Lower Italy sub- jugated. During second part (264 to 146 B. C.) oc- curred the great wars of conquest of the East, Spain and Gaul. Greece became a Roman province 146 B. C. 29 B. C. to 476 A. D. Empire. Sway of Roman Cassars down to fall of Roman Empire of the west. Augustus, 29 B. C. to 14 A. D. Golden Age of Litera- ture. The great poets: Vergil, ^neid; Ovid, Metamor- phoses; Horace, Odes and Satires. Great historians: CaBsar, Gallic War; Livy, Annals of Rome; Sallust, Jugurthine War; Tacitus, Germania. Orator and philosopher: Cicero. /. Early Roman Education (776 to ahoiit 250 B. C.) 111. Home. 1. Practically the only school. 2. Mother's worth exalted. 3. Father was teacher and companion of boy ; high ideals; severe discipline. 4. Slight literary training for religious and choral ser- vice. 5. Laws of Twelve Tables. a. Adopted 451-450 B. C. ; basis of society. 1). Dealt with powers and rights. c. Furnished ideals of education. d. Posted in forum and learned by boys. 112. Schools. 1. Latter part of period. About 260 B. C, Spurius Carvilius, a Greek, opened a school. The name 74 INTRODUCTION OF GREEK SCHOOLS associated with school was Indus, meaning a turn- ing aside from sport or play. As the develop- ment of Roman boys was secured by natural free- dom in play, the school was looked upon as some- thing that interfered with sport, the accepted means of education. 2. Rudiments of reading, writing, arithmetic. 3. Private ; in homes or on porches of temples. 113. Results. ''Virtuous, practical, robust men and women." 11. Introduction of Greek Schools (About 250 B. C. — 50 B. C.) 114. Period of transition. 1. Greek customs and ideas introduced. See 112 for school of Carvilius. Greek language, ideas and customs made known by Greek slaves. Many slaves employed as tutors. 2. Livius Andronicus (about 284 to 204 B. C.) trans- lated Odyssey into Latin. Translation used as text-book. 3. Other translations gave literary material. ///. Grceco-Roman Education (About 100 B. C. to 200 A. D.) Known as Hellenistic education. 115. Aim. Polished orators and forensic pleaders. 75 ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 116. Schools. Public ; support was private. Women and slaves ex- cluded. 117. Primary school. 7-12 ; under literator. 1. Reading. Alphabet, spelling, Latin Odyssey. 2. Writing. Used stylus on wax after tracing on tablets or engraved wood. 3. Arithmetic. Concrete calculations using fingers, pebbles, or abacus. Results written on tablets. 4. Citizenship. Memorized Laws of Twelve Tables. 5. Maxims. For dictation, composition, memory. 6. Strictly Roman training; literator not respected. 118. Secondary education. 1. Pupils 12-16; under grammaticus or literatus. Literary training in grammar school. 2. Two kinds: Greek and Latin instruction respec- tively. 3. Grammar literature oratory rhetoric history philosophy 4. Processes in method. a. Memorizing choice literature. h. Reproduction of fables and stories. c. Paraphrase of poems. d. Composition very important. e. Analysis, criticism, reconstruction and elabo- ration. /. Frequent dictation exercises. 5. Aim. Mastery of the language; facility in reading, 76 NOTED ROMxVN EDUCATORS writing aucl speaking; and, as a means, familiar- ity with the best Latin and Greek authors. 6. Greek literary ideal made practical. 119. Higher education. 1. Under rhetor; practical training for professional life. 2. At 16, boy put on toga of manhood, the distinctive dress of Roman citizen. 3. Study of rhetoric, literature, criticism, law. Prac- tice in declamation and debate. 4. Technical training on farm for farmers; in mili- tary camp for soldiers; in law courts for law- yers; in senate for orators. Compare with mod- ern vocational training. IV. Noted Eoman Educators Marcus Tullius Cicero, Orator and Philosopher (106 to 43 B. C.) 120. Cicero's pedagogy. 1. Education is a lifelong task. 2. Amusement should be refining. 3. Memory trained by exact selections. 4. No corporal punishment except as a last resort. 5. Style (literary and oratorical) a paramount aim. 6. Religion is the basis of morality. Lucius Ann^eus Seneca, Philosopher (3 B. C. to 65 A. D.) 121. Seneca's pedagogy. 1. Aim of education is to overcome evil tendencies. 2. Adapt education to individual needs. 77 ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 3. Environment should be pure and elevating. 4. Do not flatter; teach obedience, modesty, etc. 5. Thoroughness; give but few studies. 6. Corporal punishment mild or none at all. 7. Teacher's position highly esteemed. 122. Quotations. 1. "We best learn by teaching." 2. ''We should learn for life, not for school.'' 3. ''The result is gained sooner by example than by precept. ' ' 123. Seneca's pupH. Nero. Marcus Fabius Quintilian, Teacher (35 to 95 A. D.) 124. Biography. 1. Born in Spain about 38 A. D. 2. Studied in Rome and practiced law there. 3. Opened a school of oratory. Broad grammatical and literary culture as a foundation for the ora- tor. 4. Wrote Institutes of Oratory. 125. Pedagogy of Quintilian. 1. Oratory exalted ; rhetoric is climax of education. 2. Public schools superior to private tutors. 3. Studies should be made attractive. 4. The work should be adapted to individuals. 5. Memory trained by using choice selections. 6. Concrete methods : forms and names of letters with objects. 78 NOTED ROMAN EDUCATORS 7. No corporal punishment. 8. Children begin foreign tongue first; their own is natural. 9. Qualifications of teachers stated; high require- ments. 10. Activity of the mind is natural. 126. Summary. 1. The first scientific treatment of the problems of edu- cation. 2. The most successful Roman teacher. 3. The first teacher to hold position with regular sal- ary. Plutarch (50 to 138 A. B.). Writer. 127. Graeco-Roman. Born in Greece, lectured in Rome. 128. Books. 1. Lives of Illustrious Men. Arranged in parallel col- umns in Latin and Greek. 2. Training of Children, the first treatise on infant education. Pliny (23 to 79 A. D.). Naturalist. 129. Scientist. Investigated phenomena of nature. 130. Death. Suffocated while observing Vesuvius. 79 ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 131. Books. Natural Histor^y in tliirty-seven volumes. It served as a Eoman Encyclopedia. Varro (116 to 27 B. C). Writer. 132. Librarian. Appointed by Caesar. 133. Title. ''The most learned jnan in Rome." 134. Books. More than 600 books on various subjects. Valuable treatise upon agriculture. 135. Criticism of Roman education. 1. Honored the home and respected the mother. 2. Instilled respect for law and obedience to authority. 3. Recognized the value of organization. 4. Not a state institution ; not compulsory. 5. Superficial in trying to apply Greek culture. 6. Aimed at practical results rather than harmonious development of power. 7. Humanitas. The Seven Liberal Arts, the course of study organized by the monks, can be traced to the development of subject-matter in Roman edu- cation, and much of the Roman material can be traced to Athens. In the interpretation of the subjects, the Romans used the term humanitas, which means the study of the liberal arts, or those literary subjects which humanize and re- fine mankind. The word humanists embodies 80 SUMMARY OF ROMAN EDUCATION this idea of liberal culture. The early leaders of the Renaissance in Italy were called humanists, and the word humanities was used to designate classical Latin and Greek in colleges and universi- ties during the Middle Ages. Humanism is used in modern education in contradistinction to real- ism, the name given to the study of things such as physical science, geography, French and Ger- man. V. Summary of Roman Education The oldest period represents purely Roman ideals. The aim was to prepare for the duties of domestic, re- ligious and political life. There were no books, no schools ; the home, the forum and the fields helped form habits. Ballads, songs, recorded annals and laws were memorized and chanted. Piety, modesty, obedience, manliness, courage and honesty were resultant virtues, but there was no distinctive development of art, litera- ture and science. The influence of Greek life can be traced to contact as early as the rise of the republic in 509 B. C, but the first direct instruction by Greeks was not until 260 B. C, when Spurius Carvilius opened a school in Rome. At that time there was no Roman literature available for study because there were no text-books, but Livius Andronicus made a Latin version of Homer's Odj^ssey and that book gave the Romans the first enjoyment of the content and spirit that had been so long an inspira- tion to the Greeks. The Greek language spread on ac- count of the work of Greek slave tutors, and in 146 81 ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY B. C, when Greece became a Roman province, the Ro- man education had become thoroughly Hellenistic or Greek. Much of the instruction was imparted in Greek, but about 100 B. C. Lucius Stilo opened a school in which Latin was used. Cicero and Varro Avere students in the Latin school. The use of Greek declined after the opening of Stilo 's school. The introduction of Greek gave literary content to education, but the Romans never became exponents of culture; they were examples of education as discipline. During this period the schools of the literators and the rhetors taught Greek grammar and rhetoric and, later, Latin grammar and rhetoric. During the period of the Roman Empire (30 B. C. to 476 A. D.), the Romans attempted to introduce the Greek spirit of individualism and culture, but the Ro- man institutional life did not yield easily. As imi- tators of the Greeks, the Romans improved the form of Latin literature and carried on organized efforts as enumerated. 1. The school of the literator taught reading, writ- ing, elementary arithmetic, and parts of the Latin trans- lation of the Odyssey. 2. The school of the grammaticus became a recog- nized type of grannnar school in which either Greek or Latin was taught. Grammar included syntax and sub- ject-matter; literature covered history and science as well as language ; music, mathematics and dialectics also were appropriated from the Greeks, but music and gym- nastics as known in Athens were not adopted. 3. The school of the rhetor gave a direct preparation for public life. Declamation, started in the grammar 82 DECLINE OF ROMAN EDUCATION school, was a combination of literary and vocational training. Oratory was supreme as an aim because the orator was the type of man of greatest use in the com- munity. 4. Libraries were secured as the spoils of conquest. Augustus and other rulers founded libraries. 5. Universities were associated with the libraries. The university of Rome was the outgrowth of the library founded by Vespasian (69 to 79 A. D.). The subjects of instruction were the liberal arts and a few technical studies such as architecture and mechanics. 6. The schools were supported by the empire and the towns, but national supervision was lacking. Grammar schools and rhetorical schools Avere organized in every province, but universities were not common. VI. Decline of Eoman Education (200 to 476 A. D.) The effectiveness of education in general lessened as the Roman power declined. Soon after the opening of the Christian era, the decline in spirit was rapid, and the effect was evident in a corresponding loss in quality and scope of grammatical and rhetorical training. Edu- cation produced a caste effect by limitation to the upper class only, and even there the disciplinary value was re- placed by affectation or adornment. While the effectiveness of practical education declined with the lessening of political power, there was not cessation of all intellectual activity. A revival of classi- cal culture came in the fourth century, when Emperor Julian returned to paganism. The grammar of the 83 ROME— EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY seven liberal arts was enriched in content and organiza- tion by the writings of Donatus (about 400) and Pris- cian (about 500). Their grammatical analysis of lan- guage was the basis of language study for a thousand years. Grammarians, rhetoricians and sophists followed the Roman armies into the provinces, became known as itinerant or wandering teachers, and thus helped to dis- seminate some of the products of Grecian and Roman education. 84 Chapter XVI SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 7. National Ideals 137. Supremacy of the state. Individual worth measured by usefulness to the state. In theory Aristotle recognized value of individuals for their own sake. 138. Passive types. China and India were passive types; self-activity im- possible. 139. Active types. Phenicia, Persia, Egypt and Sparta were active types, but not permanent. Phenicia was selfish ; Persia and Sparta were too active in war to leave leisure time for culture. 140. Harmonious development. Athens had the noblest ideal, but it lacked Christian conception of individual worth. 141. Utility. Rome sought practical efficiency; good, but not broad enough for humanity. 85 SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 142. Theocracy. Direct preparation for individual ideal of Christian era. The Jews also proved the value of an ideal in edu- cation. 77. Suhject -Matter 143. Alphabet from Phenieia. 144. Notation from Hindus. 145. Abacus used in China and Egypt. 146. Development of grammar, rhetoric, logic, arith- metic, geometry, music, astronomy, etc. 147. A literature in Greek and in Latin. 148. Philosophy, medicine, law. 777. Methods of Teaching 149. Concrete methods. Abacus in China and Egypt for arithmetic; reading and writing so taught in Egypt, by Plato's Laws, and by Quintilian's Institutes. 150. Inductive and developing methods by Socrates. 151. Deductive method l)y Aristotle. 152. Practical methods in rhetoric by Quintilian. IV. School System 153. Organization in Rome. Consistent system of elementary and higher education culminating in the schools of Rhetoric, Philosophy, Law, and Medicine. 86 SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS V. Butler's Spiritual Inheritances 154. Scientific. Classifications by Aristotle, Pliny, Ptolemy, etc. 155. Literary. Excellent in Greece and Rome. 156. Esthetic. Excellent in Athens. 157. Institutional. Some in Persia, Sparta, Ath- ens; best in Rome, 158. Religious. In all nations ; Christian ideal lack- ing. VI. Pedagogical Principles 159. State control of education. Advocated by Plato and Aristotle. 160. Compulsory education. Plato, for all between ten and sixteen. 161. Natural order of development. Aristotle. 162. Associations. Pure attendants, subject-mat- ter, and environment. Plato and Quintilian. 163. Teaching a dignified vocation. Some recogni- tion in every nation. 164. Corporal punishment. Tendency to limitation. 165. Adaptation to capacity. Plato, Aristotle, Sen- eca, Quintilian and Plutarch. 87 PART III MEDIEVAL EDUCATION The Christian Fathers The Monks Charlemagne Alfred the Great Chivalry Mohammedans Christian Universities Scholasticism Chapter XVII MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 1 xo 1500 A. D. Education as Discipline Pedagogy of the Great Teacher Christian education is considered under two divisions, medieval and modern. The first period of fifteen hun- dred years embraces the time of transition from Greek and Roman ideals. The highest ideal in Greek thought was Aristotle's conception of happiness of the indi- vidual in conserving the welfare of society. As this ideal required intellectual efficiency, it was an aristo- cratic ideal since only a few were permitted to enjoy the full privileges of education. The Christian ideal rested in the moral development of man through charity or love that appealed to all. Thus the Greek ideal was in- tellectual and aristocratic ; the Christian ideal was moral and democratic. Conflict arose in attempting to harmonize the two ideals and there was consequent hostility between Chris- tianity and Greek culture. Compromises produced ad- vantages to Christianity, especially in methods of teach- ing. The Greek method of selecting themes or texts, of logical analysis, and of allegorical interpretation was adopted by the Christian Fathers. The influence of Roman thought was distinctly help- 90 MEDIEVAL EDUCATION ful to Christianity. In the interpretation of Stoic philosophy by the Romans, virtue was an aim, con- science was a guide, and deeds were a test of worth. Duty was an ethical standard and obedience was a life virtue. Christianity adapted these views to the con- duct of life and extended the conception of moral duty to include individual and social obligations here and hereafter. Ethics and morality thus controlled the in- terests of all mankind, and education became domi- nantly religious for the sake of salvation of souls. 166. Growth of Christian ideas. 1. Fatherhood of God. 2. Brotherhood of man. 3. Marriage a divine right. Wife equal to husband. 4. Children are the gift of God. 5. Individuality is important: man responsible to God. 6. All education is for the individual. 167. Pedagogy of Christ. 1. Ideal perfection as an aim. 2. Fundamental truth emphasized. 3. Adaptation to hearers. 4. Forceful illustrations. 5. Simple, earnest, sympathetic. 6. Mastery of questioning. 7. Exemplified what he taught. 92 Chapter XVIII EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION. TO 529 A. D. 168. Aim. To prepare for future life. 169. Obstacles. 1. Poverty. 2. Ignorance. 3. Small number. 4. Opposition of rulers. 5. Lack of Christian literature. 170. Schools. Odessa in the second century was the first one. Others at Antioch and Athens. 1. Catechumen schools for converts. The cate- chumens were applicants for baptism and other rites in the Christian Church. They were taught the Lord's Prayer, the Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments and other portions of Scripture. The method was ques- tions and answers, a method called catechetical. 2. Catechetical schools : reading, writing, religion ; later, the liberal arts. Famous school at Alexandria, Egypt, 181 A. D., developed by Panta3nus, Origen and others. Religion associated with university culture. Other schools at CiBsarea, Rome and Carthage. 94 EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION. TO 529 A. D. 3. Cathedral or Episcopal schools. Prepared young men for the priesthood. Organization perfected in eighth century. Priests were teachers. Parochial schools in parishes. The Christian Fathers 171. Use of pagan literature. The problem of the subject-matter of instruction di- vided the leaders of the early Church. As all agreed that the mission of the Church was a moral one, they tried to decide whether to accept or reject Homer, Ver- gil, and all other parts of pagan learning. Most of the Greek Fathers favored its use for the good it contained, while the Latin Fathers maintained that there was dan- ger in whatever was not wholly and positively helpful to Christianity. Second and Third Centuries 172. Clement of Alexandria, Greek. (160-215.) 1. Use all literature and past education. 2. Harmonize philosophy and religion; reason and faith. 173. Origen, Greek. (185-254.) 1. Teacher at eighteen at Alexandria. 2. Most learned of the Church Fathers. 3. Reconciled Greek culture with Christian religion. 4. Encouraged investigation by pupils. 174. Tertullian, Latin Father. (150-230.) 1. Against pagan literature. 2. Founder of Christian Latin literature. 96 THE CHRISTIAN FATHERS Fourth and Fifth Centuries 175. St. Jerome, Latin Father. (331-423.) 1. Translation of Bible into Latiii Vulgate. 2. Wrote Letters on the Education of Girls. 3. Against pagan learning. 176. Chrysostom, Greek Father. (347-411.) 1. Mothers are the natural educators. 2. Teacher must adapt himself to capacity of pupils. 3. Religious instruction is essential. 4. Greatest pedagogue of this period. 177. Basil the Great, Greek Father. (331-379.) 1. Use pagan literature. 2. The Bible, the chief text-book. 3. Church songs and religious instruction made the foundation of common schools. Fifth Century 178. St. Augustine, Latin Father. (354-430.) 1. The greatest of the Church Fathers. 2. A zealous convert. 3. Against pagan literature. 4. Used observation in instruction. 5. History in narrative form is the chief subject. 6. Writings. a. Confessions. This is a psychology of the soul. h. The City of God. 97 Chapter XIX EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES The term Middle Ages is used for the period of nearly a thousand years between Early Christian Edu- cation and The Great Renaissance. The date 529 A. D. is chosen for division because it stands for the suppres- sion of the University of Athens and the abolition of pagan schools by Justinian, and also for the establish- ment of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cas- sino, Italy. I. Monastic Education Education as Moral Discipline, 6th Century to 16th Century 179. Importance of monasticism. See benefits following 188. 1. A type of education for one thousand years. 2. Only intellectual education during this period: 6th-13th centuries, elementary; 13th-16th, uni- versities. 180. Causes and occasions of monasticism. 1. In 410, Alaric the Goth sacked Rome. This was followed by six centuries of unstable society in Europe. 98 MONASTICISM 2. Persecution of Christians. 3. Corrupt world not ruled directly by God ; therefore renounce world, aiid seek God in contemplation. 4. Immediate second advent of Christ expected; spe- cial preparation therefor. 5. Idea of asceticism. Asceticism is a system of moral training- by which perfection is sought by subju- gating the lower impulses, i. e., by conquering the desires of the body. The ascetic ideal in- cludes various forms of abstinence, such as celi- bacy, poverty, fasting and solitude. Two types of early asceticism are associated with monasticism. In Syria and Egypt, the Anchorites lived in retreat as hermits and used their time in contempla- tion. In the West, the Cenobites lived in communi- ties and worked systematically. Every hour is scheduled by regulation as in St. Benedict's Rule of Monastic Life. 181. Nature of monasticism. 1. Ideal was asceticism. Original meaning, training or discipline of athlete; later meaning, discipline of all powers for higher life. 2. Educational ideal of asceticism was the moral and spiritual perfection through discipline of physical nature. 3. Three ideals. a. Chastity. Celibacy instead of family life. h. Poverty. Needs of Church instead of indus- trial society. c. Obedience. Submission to God instead of the state. 99 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 182. The monastic orders. 1. Benedictines, founded by St. Benedict, at Monte Cassino, near Naples, 529. Date of abolition of pagan schools by Justinian. a. Rule : work, prayer^ teaching. h. Most influential in education. c. Monasteries famous for their educational ef- forts were Austria — Salzburg, 696. England — Canterbury (586), Glastonbury, Yarrow, Wearmouth, Malmesbury, Oxford (ninth century). France — Lyon, Tours, Paris, Rouen, Corbie, Bee, Clugny. Germany — Fulda, Hirschau, Constance, Ham- burg, Cologne. Italy — Monte Cassino (St. Benedict). Switzerland — St. Gall. Ireland — Armagh . d. Famous teachers: Abelard (Paris), the great- est; Alcuin, see 189; Boniface (Germany). e. Motto. "Love the study of the Scriptures and you will not love vice. ' ' /. Their great monasteries were at once fortresses against crime, refuges for the oppressed, centers of instruction for the people, the free home of the sciences, archives of literature, schools for the young, universities for the learned, chanceries for kings, seminaries for priests, schools of agriculture, of manufac- ture, of music, architecture, and painting. Nor was the education of girls neglected. 100 THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS The nuns of St. Clare were as active in teaching as their brother monks. — Browning, Educational Theories, p. 46. 2. Franciscans, founded by St. Francis, 1182. Duns Scotus, famous representative. Emphasized the will. 3. Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic, 1216. Thomas Aquinas, ''the Angelic Doctor," representative. See 223. Emphasized intellect. 4. Cistercians founded in 1098. Asceticism carried to extreme : absolute silence, solitary life as far as possible, rigid enforcement of ascetic rules in ceremonials. 183. Educational work of the monks. 1. Copying manuscripts and thus preserving learning. 2. Collecting and keeping manuscripts : libraries. 3. Writing chronicles, comments, lives of religious men and women. 4. Teaching. 184. The Seven Liberal Arts. A course of study. 'grammar rhetoric logic 'arithmetic geometry music astronomy IMentioned by Plato, Quint ilian, St. Augustine and others, but definitely organized as a course of study by the monks. 101 1. Trivium- Quadrivium EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 3. Content of the Seven Liberal Arts. a. Grammar, principally Latin, some Greek and Hebrew; explanation of some well-known writers, learning of prosody, etymology, and correct expression. Here is germ of humanism. h. Rhetoric from Quintilian and Cicero. c. Logic, dialectic from Aristotle. d. Arithmetic, mostly secret property of num- bers. e. Geometry, from Euclid, included some geography. /. Music emphasized. g. Astronomy, names and courses of stars; re- lation to festivals; the only natural sci- ence ; related to astrology. 185. Methods of teaching. Few text-books; teacher dictated lessons; pupils cop- ied on wax tablets, then memorized. 186. Female education. St. Benedict's sister, known as Sister Scholastica, es- tablished an institution for women. English Representatives 187. Aldhelm. (640-709.) Bishop of Sherborne. 1. Studied in Ireland, France, Italy, Canterbury. 2. First Englishman to write in Latin. 3. Wrote sonnets, sermons and epistles in Saxon. 102 BENEFITS OF MONASTICISM 4. Books on arithmetic, astrology, history, religion and Latin prosody. 5. Poet and mnsician. His songs a medium of instruc- tion. 6. Abbot of Malmesbury monastery. 188. Bede (about 673-735). Writer. 1. Educated at monasteries of Wearmouth and Yarrow under Biscop. 2. Ordained priest at 30. 3. Studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew. 4. Wrote History of the English People. In five books; now a source-book on England down to 731 A. D. 5. Other writings: Ecclesiastical History; books on grammar and "chronology ; sermons, hymns, epi- grams ; commentaries on Old and New Testament ; translation of Gospel of St. John into Saxon. 6. Greatest name in literature of Saxon England. Benefits of Monasticism 1. The monks were missionaries, and thus the Church controlled the fierce northern barbarians. 2. The monks were copyists who gathered, multiplied, and preserved ancient manuscripts of classic literature. 3. The monks were teachers and the monasteries were the schools of the Middle Ages. They thus kept up educational interest. 4. The monasteries were the inns, the almshouses, the asylums, and the hospitals of medieval Europe. 5. The Benedictines became agriculturalists and taught 103 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES this industry. Benedictine nuns founded schools for girls. 6. Music^ painting, architecture, stimulated; large libraries founded; universities established. II. Period of Charlemagne, 800 to 900 The First Benaissance The principal influence in the revival of learning dur- ing this period of education was the enthusiastic work of the monks from Ireland, Scotland and England. Many zealous missionaries were prepared in the monas- teries founded in Ireland after the conversion by St. Patrick in 432 A. D. Those missionaries founded schools in various parts of the British Isles and Europe. Credit is given for the work of St. Columba of lona in Scot- land; the monasteries of York, Yarrow and Wear- mouth in England; the organized efforts of Theodore of Tarsus, the archbishop of Canterbury in southern England; widespread conversion of the inhabitants of France; and the founding of schools by St. Boniface in Germany. Such was the zeal in education and re- ligion when Charlemagne became ruler of the Frankish domain in 771 A. D. He perceived the necessity of edu- cation as a means of unifying the people under his jurisdiction, and he decided to make use of the organi- zation of the Church in combining religion and educa- tion of his people. 189. Charlemagne (742-814). 1. Crowned Emperor of Rome by Pope Leo III, Christ- mas, 800. 104 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 2. Euled France, Germany, parts of England, Austria, Italy. 3. Capital, Aix-la-Cliapelle ; nominal capital, Rome. 4. Aim was to reorganize Roman Empire under the Christian religion. 190. Charlemagne's work. 1. Founded schools, secured best teachers. 2. Favored increased education of the clergy. 3. Favored secular instruction in monasteries. 4. Realized the value of a national system of universal, compulsory education. 5. Used German for Lord 's Prayer, Apostles ' Creed ; tried to develop German language. 6. Became a student and learned Latin, Greek, gram- mar, rhetoric, music, astronomy, and natural his- tory. 191. Alcuin (735-804). 1. Most learned man of his age ; a Benedictine monk at York; invited to court by Charlemagne. 2. Founded Imperial School of the Palace : Palatine school for royalty. 3. Subjects. Some liberal arts plus some other work. 4. First minister of public instruction in France. 5. Method. Catechetical; his own answers served as maxims. 6. Wrote on grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, seven liberal arts. 192. Rabanus Maurus (776-856). 1. Ablest and most noted pupil of Alcuin. 2. Abbot of Fulda, Germany. 106 ALFRED THE GREAT 3. Compiled an encyclopedia. 4. Knew Greek, but preferred dialectic wliicli lie called ''the science of sciences, which teaches us how to teach and how to learn. ' ' 5. Wrote important treatise upon the Education of the Clergy^ covering the entire field of education of his time. 193. Joannes Scotus Erigena (about 810 to a])out 875). 1. Successor of Alcuin in the Palace School. 2. Broad knowledge of the Greek language and the Greek Fathers. 3. The work of Maurus and Scotus leads directly to scholasticism. 194. Alfred the Great in England (858 to 901). 1. Became king of the western Saxons in 871. 2. United kingdoms; made foundations of navy. 3. Made laws: established foundations of English in- stitutions. 4. Translated works into Anglo-Saxon, especially Bede's History of the English People and the Consolations of Philosophy of Boethiiis. Thus he helped the language. 5. Encouraged education of the higher classes and pos- sibly laid foundation of Oxford University. 6. j\Iethodical habits: Eight hours to government, eight hours to religious devotion and study, eight hours to sleep, recreation and amusement. 7. Influenced by Charlemagne. Note that Alfred neg- lected the education of the lower classes. 107 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES III. The Period of Chivalry or Feudalism (900-1200) Education as Social Discipline I. Feudalism 195. Aims. 1. To adjust individuals to service in the community. 2. To promote secular education by getting away from the monastic ideal of asceticism. This life should be full of happiness. 3. To exalt woman by giving her recognition in the so- cial organization. To do this, girls should be trained and boys should be habituated to life virtues of purity, loyalty, love and honor. 196. Development of ideals. Monastic education, largely religious, prepared for living while aiming at the future life; Charlemagne tried to organize an empire controlling education for this life and the hereafter; feudalism tried to secure actual preparation for this life. Compare Dewey's so- ciological view of education. 197. Authority in education. Education controlled by Church ; no state schools ; in- struction in castles. 198. Perfections of a Knight. Seven perfections of a knight : horsemanship, swords- manship^ swimming, use of bow and arrow, hunting, chess and verse-making. These prepared for service in this life, i. e., secular 108 I EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES or social usefulness ; monastic education prepared for re- ligious service in the Churcli and the future life. 199. Three periods of a knight's education. 1. Till 7, home; mother; health and courtesy. 2. 7-14, page; music, poetry, chess and some study. 3. 14-21, esquire, attended master, learned arts of war, hunting, fencing, etc. Recall ephebic period of the Greeks and the Roman initiation into citizen- ship. 200. Girls at home. Domestic arts, etiquette, reading, writing, poetry; some took music, French, Latin. Results commendable. 201. Criticism of feudal education. 1. Woman highly honored. 2. Manly virtues inculcated. 3. Minnesingers contributed to literature. 4. Not universal; neglected the intellect. //. Crusades (1096 to 1273) 202. Meaning. The crusades were efforts by the European Chris- tians to rescue the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem from the Mohammedans. The leaders were Peter the Hermit, Godfrey of Bouillon, Conrad III, Louis VII, Richard the Lion-Hearted, Barbarossa. 203. Some of the results. 1. Downfall of feudalism. 2. Commercial enterprise: Venice and Genoa. 110 MOHAMMEDANS 3. Desire for travel and discovery. 4. Thought awakened by contact with the East. 5. Feeling of unity of nations in one purpose. IV. Mohammedan Education 204. Mohammedanism or Islam. Dates from 622, Flight from Mecca. Mohammed (570 to 632 A. D.), the founder, had contact with Jews, Christians and other religious sects in Arabia and Syria. He felt himself called to lead his people and furnish them a guiding book. 205. Koran. This sacred book of Mohammedanism is ascribed to a special communication from Allah to Mohammed. It is a composition of Plebrew, Christian and Arabian tra- ditions. While it is the work of Mohammed, it was not put into form until after his death. Its principal doc- trines are one God and unconditional predestination. 206. Activities. The Mohammedans became warriors, conquerors and then educators. Their zeal amounted to fanaticism. 207. Schools. In many towns and cities in Europe, Asia and Africa. Universities in Bagdad and other cities in the East; Cordova, Grenada and Seville in Spain. The works of Greek philosophers, physicians and mathematicians were translated into Arabic in the schools of Bagdad and neighboring cities. Noted educators built up centers of 111 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES learning that attracted students from three continents, and those institutions held sway for nearly three cen- turies following 850. There a group of famous schol- ars, known as "Brothers of Sincerity," tried to combat the fanaticism of Islam by planning a complete scheme of education based on science and leading to social har- mony such as the Pythagorean philosophers desired to secure. The scheme covered mathematics, logic, natural sciences, law and theology, thus embracing the best from Greeks, Eomans, Hindus, Arabs and other national sources. 208. Elementary schools. 1. For boys and girls. 2. Koran the main study. Reading and writing taught. 209. Higher schools. Mathematics, astronomy, grammar, philosophy, chem- istry, etc., taught. 210. Influence. 1. They preserved and transmitted the philosophy of Aristotle. 2. They translated the works of Euclid ; remodeled the algebra of the Greeks and Hindus into modern form; founded a new trigonometry on the Greek basis and gave a knowledge of arithmetical nota- tion to the West. 3. They added much to the knowledge of medicine, sur- gery, pharmacy, astronomy, physiology, chemis- try and physics. 4. They constructed astronomical tables, invented the 112 EARLY CHRISTIAN UiNIVERSITIES pendulum clock, and improved inventions in navigation and commerce. 5. Tliey introduced the use of rice, sugar, cotton, and tlie cultivation of silk. 6. They stimulated the Christians to establish rival institutions for secondary education. V. Early Christian Universities 211. Origin. 1. Scholastic interest in dialectic of scholasticism. 2. Migrations of the Teutons ceased in the eleventh century, permitting stable civilization. 3. Development of commercial enterprise and munici- pal government in Italy. 4. Stimulation of Saracenic learning by contact in crusades. 5. Direct outgrowth of monastic schools. 212. Organization. 1. Charters conferred by Pope or rulers. 2. Democratic government. Student control in south- ern universities. 213. Privileges. 1. Exemption from general militarj^ service. 2. Internal jurisdiction held by the university itself. 3. The degree was a license to teach. 214. Faculties. The subject-matter of instruction included four de- partments. 1. Law. 2. Medicine. 113 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 3. Philosophy. 4. Theology. 215. Names. 1. Salerno, Italy, 1060; medicine. 2. Bologna, Italy; law. 3. Paris, greatest of the middle ages; Abelard, the most popular teacher. 4. England— Oxford, 1140 ; Cambridge, 1200. 5. Germany — Prague, 1348; Heidelberg, Leipsie. 6. France — Paris, Toulouse, Orleans, etc. 7. Austria — Vienna, 1365. 8. Sweden — Lund, Upsala. 9. Norway — Christiania. 10. Denmark — Copenhagen. VI. Scholasticism (9th-16th Centuries) The Second Benaissance Education as Intellectual Discipline 216. Definition. Scholasticism was an educational movement to recon- cile philosophy and Christian doctrines. 217. Time. Ninth-15th centuries ; climax, llth-13th ; Abelard, teacher at Paris; Aquinas, philosopher; Roger Bacon, the Franciscan investigator. 218. Monks. The Schoolmen or Scholastics were monks. Scholastic, derived from seholasticus, the name of an authorized teacher in a monastic school. 114 SCHOLASTICISM 219. Purpose. 1. Stated in 216. 2. Heretical views had to be met by argument. 3. Reason questioned authority in religion. 4. Scotus and IMaurus had aroused intellectual activ- ity. 5. The Crusades had stimulated new thought. 6. Students returning from Saracenic universities were advocating the pagan interpretation of Aris- totle. Scholasticism aimed to guide the process of thinking so that students could uphold or jus- tify Christianity by reasoning according to logic and philosoph}^. Recall the work of Socrates in teaching men how to think. 7. Scholasticism sought to satisfy the new conditions by making reason support faith. For this it was necessary a. To give knowledge a scientific classification. h. To give individuals a mastery of systema- tized knowledge. 220. Form of scholastic knowledge. 1. Ideal was logical perfection according to deductive method of Aristotle ; not adapted to immature minds. 2. Prior to this time, catechetical (question and an- swer) arrangement of subject-matter. 3. Early scholasticism used dialogue method and also catechetical method. 4. Perfected scholasticism required arrangement "rig- idly scientific in form though wholly deductive in character. ' ' 115 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES 221. The method of scholasticism. 1. Logical analysis into parts, heads, subheads, sub- divisions, etc., according to the logic of Aristotle. 2. The freer method of stating a proposition, consid- ering several interpretations and the difficulties of each interpretation and then forming a con- clusion. This method more stimulating than strict logical analysis. 3. Abelard stated his theories as questions instead of propositions; as ''Is God the author of evil, or no ? " This method aroused individual interest. 222. Syllogism. The syllogism was the process of reasoning em- ployed. A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning by which a valid conclusion is formed from two valid premises. Major premise. All men are mortal. Minor premise. Aquinas is a man. Conclimon. Aquinas is mortal. Contrast this with the inductive method advocated by Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century. The induc- tive method makes use of several observations and then formulates a rule or law covering the agreement ob- served. For treatment of induction and deduction, con- sult McEvoy's Methods in Education, page 91. 223. Representative schoolmen. 1. Abelard, eloquent teacher at Paris. Benedictine. (1079-1142). 2. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), the Angelic Doctor; a Dominican ; emphasized the intellect. Gradu- 116 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES ated from Paris, 1248. Taught in Cologne, Paris, Eome, Naples. a. Wrote De Magistro, Concerning the Teacher ; also Summa Theologiae. h. Theologian: a master of the deductive method of Aristotle and its application to theology. c. Authority on Christian philosophy. 3. Duns Scotus (1271-1308), Franciscan; the ivill. 4. Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). Dominican teacher of Aquinas at Cologne and Paris. VII. Mysticism The mystic phase of education as discipline is placed in the period of scholasticism and associated in particu- lar with St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091 to 1153). Mys- ticism is a tendency of the mind toward the supernatu- ral, or an effort of the soul to come into actual com- munion with God. This direct and immediate blend- ing of divine and human is secured by training the soul by use of imagination and contemplation. In this sense, mysticism is related to asceticism of monastic training. The psychology of mysticism shows the pedagogy. The soul, which is spiritual and immortal, has threefold nature: {a) the lowest or animal part is a part of the body; (h) the reasoning or logical part is distinctly the human part; (c) the spiritual or superhuman part is identified with the divine. These three stages of experi- ence imply adapted training in education and religion. The first stage is purgation or purification, as suggested by Pythagoras, Aristotle and asceticism of the monks. 118 BURGHER SCHOOLS The second stage is the perfection of the inner life by thinking and doing under religions guidance. The third stage was continual approximation to the life of God bj^ contemplation. The assimilation of human and divine was a state of ecstasy. ]\lysticism represents reaction against the extreme ap- peal to reason by Abelard of Paris. It is exaltation of imagination in the work of salvation. ''If thou wishest to search out the deep things of God, search out the depths of thine own nature." References. Monroe's Text-Booh on History of Edu- cation, 279; Turner's History of Philosophy, 302. VIII. Other Types of Schools Burgher or Guild Schools This type of school was developed as free cities arose and artisan classes rose in social rank. The aim was to increase the effectiveness of instruction in technical in- struction and to assure the desired development of citi- zens. The priests were usually the teachers and they received compensation from merchant and craft guilds. Some laymen were employed as teachers ; and there were wandering scholars or mendicant monks secured for temporary service. The matter of instruction included the Seven Liberal Arts, a little natural science, Latin, and probably the mother tongue. Town Schools Consolidation of burgher schools, parish schools and private schools often secured better support, better or- 119 EDUCATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES ganization and better results under support and super- vision of towns or cities. The improvement in instruc- tion conformed to developing economic interests. Charity Schools A type of episcopal schools but better because the priest received endowment for the school. Such support or legacy insured permanency and quality of teaching. IX. Summary of Progress op the Middle Ages 1. Importance of the individual recognized by Chris- tianity. 2. Education controlled by Church, except under Charlemagne. 3. Church Fathers were leaders; monks and priests were the principal teachers. Great influence upon masses at large. 4. Crusades checked feudalism, and aroused the peo- ple to a broader conception of man's power and duty. 5. Many universities founded. 6. Scholasticism defended the Christian faith against those who attempted to upset religious doctrines by the use of pagan philosophy. Use of the de- ductive method of Aristotle. 7. Benefits of monasticism. See following 188. 8. Woman honored and fairly well educated. 9. Model principles of pedagogy in Christ's teaching. 10. Seven Liberal Arts, a course of study for ele- mentary schools; faculties in Christian universi- ties — Law, Medicine, Philosophy and Theology — course of study in higher education. 120 PART IV MODERN EDUCATION Renaissance Humanism Realism Innovators of 17th Century Naturalism of 18th Century Psychological Tendency Scientific Tendency Sociological Tendency Eclectic Tendency Chapter XX MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT The Renaissance. 1500 to 1600 The sixteenth century is generally considered the first century in the period of modern education. It embraces the Revival of Learning, the Reformation, the Counter- Reformation and Realism. The invention of printing was the one great stimulus to all these phases of mental activity. 224. The invention of printing. 1. The art of printing was first practiced by the Chi- nese. The first use of printing cannot be deter- mined accurately, but the year 930 is sometimes given. 2. The cities of Haarlem in Holland and Mentz and Strasburg in Germany all claim the honor of having been the place of the first printing in Europe. 3. Laurentius (sometimes called Custer) lived in Haar- lem and seems to be the rival claimant. He worked with two brothers, the younger named Gutenberg. On the death of the former, about 1440, Gutenberg moved the wooden types and 122 MODERN EDUCATTON— 1500 TO PRESENT other printing equipment to IMentz where he formed a partnership with John Faust. Guten- berg was the lirst to cast movable types in metal, about 1450; and in 1456 Peter Schoeffer com- pleted the invention by cutting the matrices to cast the type from. 4. See 6 under 226. 225. The renaissance, revival of learning, or renas- cence. Three renascences: (a) Period of Charlemagne, not permanent; (h) Scholasticism, powerful intellectual stimulation; (c) Renaissance of 16th century. The word renaissance is French derived from Latin re, again -\- imsci, to be born; hence, to be born again, to awaken, revival. The term is applied to the period of revival of art, literature and culture in Italy in the fourteenth century and in other parts of Europe in fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. 226. Causes. 1. Downfall of Constantinople, 1453. Greek scholars, fleeing from Turks, settled in Italy and other parts of Europe. 2. Crusades enlarged the views, aroused ambition, and led to study and invention. 3. Decline of feudalism, independence of individuals and feeling of personal responsibility to govern- ment. 4. Invention of gunpowder turned minds from war. 5. Invention of mariner's coinpass turned minds to- ward commercial enterprises. 124 < MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 6. Iiiventiou of printing and introduction of linen paper. a. Changed methods of teaching by supplanting dictation. Inquiry, investigation, research. h. Changed mental activity from memory to under- standing by lessening copying of dictation. c. Demanded more originality and breadth from professors. d. Developed local patronage of universities by lessening necessity of travel to lectures. e. Edition of Vergil printed in Florence in 1472. In 1500 there were at least 10,000 books and manuscripts in printed form. 7. Development of national languages and literatures, such as Italian, German, French. 8. Security of persons and property due to increasing stability of society and powers of government. 9. Official intercourse among nations. 10. The revival of interest in the direct study of Greek and Latin classics, especially Greek. 11. Deventer influence through Brethren of the Com- mon Life. See 235. 227. Characteristics. 1. Individual worth in this world exalted. 2. Use of the mother tongue, instead of Latin, as a written language. 3. Growth of modern science. 4. Increased attention to education of women. 5. Changes in course of study. 6. Changes in methods of teaching. 7. Idea of universal, national, compulsory education. 126 THE RENAISSANCE 228. Transition. Note that the transition was not abrupt. The renais- sance was the cumulative result of all the preceding his- toric conditions; and as such, it continued to utilize many of the ' ' old methods of thought, the old ideas and ideals." The one new and predominating characteristic was the enthusiastic devotion to ancient classic litera- ture. 229. Tendencies and their educational results. 1. Pleasure in sharing the life of the ancient Greeks and Eomans. Iliimanism in education. 2. Pleasure in the things of this life; practical rather than philosophical and religious point of view. Realism in education. 3. Appreciation of natural environment. Naturalism in education. 230. Renaissance in Italy. 1. Spirit of joy in life. 2. Activity in securing classical manuscripts. 3. Pioneers. See 236. 231. Renaissance in Northern Europe. 1. General intellectual awakening. 2. Elizabethan literature in England. 3.' Greek teachers in English universities. 4. Social reform and social improvement. 232. Educational meaning of the renaissance. Revival of idea of liberal education as expressed by the theorists in Greece and upheld by educational lead- ers in Rome. 127 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 1. Imitation of Christian ideals modified by Roman utilitarian tendencies. 2. Hostile to the dogmatic scheme of scholasticism. 3. The aim of education is a perfect man fitted for so- cial participation. 4. Emphasis of physical training, a new element in edu- cation. Recall Spartan ideal. 233. Summary. The new conception of the liberal education includes the physical, the esthetic, the moral, the literary, and the social;, as well as abstract, literary, theological and ec- clesiastical elements. 234. The narrow humanistic education. 1. The Greek and the Latin languages and literature became known as the humanities. That is, the studies that humanize or civilize mankind. Hu- manism means, then, the study of literature for its formal discipline rather than for its content. Compare with meaning of humanitas in Roman education. 2. Humanistic education made little use of the physical and the sociological or institutional factors in education; it neglected history, mathematics, natural science, and practical training for citi- zenship. Observe that science was not an organ- ized subject at that time. Neglect in the use of it meant, therefore, neglect to develop it as a subject. 3. Foreign languages studied before the native tongue. 4. Memory strengthened. 128 HUMANISIM IN ITALY 5. Discrimination of forms produced a dialectic power similar to tliat of scholasticism. 6. Corporal punishment an incentive to work. Humanism in Italy 235. Pioneers. 1. Dante (1264 to 1321) combined the medieval and the modern spirit. Wrote Divine Comedy and Inferno. 2. Petrarch (1304 to 1374) was ''the first modern man." He chose Cicero as master and developed a passionate fondness for Latin, not for its form alone, but largely for its spirit or content. This was realism two centuries in advance. He appreciated the beauty of literature, sympathized with the spirit of classical peo- ple and classical institutions, and transferred that beauty and spirit with all the fervor of his personality. His writings gave the Italian language the inheritances of classical times. a. A Latin epic, Africa, h. Italian Sonnets. • c. Letters. d. Lives of Ancient Men. e. His masterpiece, Decameron, was the inspiration and source of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. 3. Boccaccio (1313-1375). Zealous in recovering classical texts, in multiplying classical manuscripts, and in founding libraries. 4. Barzizza (1370 to 1431), noted scholar who worked with Petrarch and Boccaccio in recovering and repro- ducing manuscripts. 5. In 1396, Manuel Chrysoloras or Emanuel Chryso- 129 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT lanras, a Greek teacher in Constantinople, was so strongly influenced by the enthusiasm of the humanists that lie settled in Florence and became famous as a teacher of Greek literature. In 1453, many other Greek scholars came to Italy and the University of Florence in particular became noted for intellectual activity in art, literature and music, Greek manuscripts were se- cured, Greek grammars were written, and Greek litera- ture was open to zealous students who became mission- aries in education for various parts of Europe. A Greek teacher was lecturing in the University of Paris in 1470, and the culture of Florence was taken to England by three scholars from Oxford — Grocyn, Linacre and John Colet. 6. ^eas Sylvias and Guarino of Verona aided in giving the new education definite form. Each taught in his own home and thereby developed a plan of in- struction that supplemented the public teaching in the universities. 7. Vittorino da Feltre (1378 to 1446) was associated with Barzizza, Sylvias arPd Guarino. Taught at Padua and Venice, but his fame rests upon the school he founded at Mantua (1428) in response to a call from the Prince of Mantua. This school was the first hu- manistic school distinct from university departments, and, for this reason, he was called "the first modern schoolmaster." The royal school later accepted otlier pupils. Pleasure and activity were aims in "The Pleas- ant House," the name given to an entire palace used as a school building. The seven liberal arts, with litera- ture predominating, formed the course of study; self- activity in play, esthetic appreciation and moral devel- 130 HUMANISM opmeiit was the keynote. Self-government of boys, ap- peal to natural interests, and use of constructive in- stincts were features far in advance of other systems. Harmonization of Greek and Roman merits under Chris- tian culture sought to prepare pupils for direct service in life. 8. Schools of the Court were developed under the patronage of monarchs and the nobility. Wandering scholars were employed to teach, and the rival of states or cities was a stimulus to excellence in disseminating the new learning. Florence, Verona, Venice, Padua and Pavia became famous. 9. Aldine Printing Press. The first original book printed in Italy was a Greek grammar, in 1476. In 1472, an edition of Vergil was printed in Florence ; and, within thirty years, Europe had ten thousand books and pamphlets. 10. Libraries. Enthusiasm in collecting manuscripts made the foundations for libraries. The collections of Niccolo Niccoli were given to Florence and Pope Nicho- las V secured five thousand manuscripts for the Vati- can library. Humanism in Holland and Germany 236. Brethren of the Common Life, or Hierony- mians. 1. Founded about 1380 at Deventer, Holland, by Ger- hard Groot. ]More than one hundred fifty schools in Flanders, France and Germany before middle of fif- teenth century. 131 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 2. Opposed to scholasticism, interested in mother- tongue and direct study of the Bible. Purpose was to give religious instruction to poor children, but later work included broad course of study. The members be- came enthusiastic students of grammar, rhetoric, litera- ture, Greek and Hebrew. Their teaching inspired their students with scholarly zeal. 3. Their work and constitution formed a suggestive model for the Jesuits. 4. Famous pupils. Wessel John Wessel (1420 to 1489). Studied in Cologne, Paris and Rome after leaving Deventer; scholar in Greek, Latin and Hebrew ; taught Agricola and Reuch- lin. Hegius Alexander Hegius (1420 to 1498), famous as a stu- dent of Greek and the Bible ; master of the gymnasium at Deventer for thirty years. Wimpfeling Jacob Wimpfeling (1450 to 1528) was lecturer and rector at Heidelberg. His fundamental principle was that ''the better education of the young is the founda- tion of all true reform, ecclesiastical, national, and do- mestic." Author A Guide to the German Youth, the first pedadogical treatise written in German. 132 ERASMUS Thomas a Kempis Author of Imitation of Christ. 237. Rudolph Agricola. (1443-1485.) 1. Studied in Italy; teacher at Heidelberg. 2. Prepared northern countries for humanism. 3. Made some progress in the study of Hebrew. 238. John Reuchlin. (1455-1522.) 1. Studied classics in Paris; teacher at Heidelberg. 2. Introduced Greek into Germany. 3. Champion of Hebrew. 4. Textbooks. a. Hebrew Grammar and Lexicon. h. Latin Lexicon. c. Manuscript for Greek grammar. 239. Desiderius Erasmus. (1467-1536.) 1. Born at Rotterdam, attended school at Deventer, studied at universities of Paris and Turin. Trav- eled extensively and everywhere influenced stu- dents to take up the new work. Died in Basel, Switzerland. 2. ''When I get money I will first buy Greek books and then clothes." 3. Translator, writer, publisher. 4. Translated Greek works into Latin. Printed first edition of New Testament in Greek. 5. Educational writings. a. Praise of Folly: a Satire on Scholasticism, h. Colloquies: Instruction in Latin and Morals. 133 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT c. On the Order of Study. d. Of the First Liberal Education of Children. G. Pedagogy. a. The mother is the natural educator. &. Morals, manners, and choice use of language till seven. c. After seventh year, Latin and Greek studied to- gether. d. Utilize activity of child. See Froebel. e. Adaptation, interest, and thoroughness. /. Avoid brutal discipline. g. Objective method. h. Cultivate memory [a) by understanding sub- ject, (Z>) by logical thinking, (c) by compari- son. i. For girls, {a) Cultivate religious feeling; {h) protect from contamination; (c) keep from idleness. )■ The Protestant Beformers 240. Martin Luther. (1483-1546.) 1. Founder of Protestantism. 2. Translated the Bible into German; aided German language. 3. Founded German common school system. 4. Educational aim was conformity to culture. a. Use ancient languages. h. Use history, music, mathematics and physical training. c. Practical value of training in rhetoric. d. Established public libraries. 134 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 5. Pedagogy. a. Parents responsible for education. Firmness and love in the home. 5. Compulsory attendance under jurisdiction of state. c. Religion; natural methods; trades. d. Trained teachers, pedagogy for ministers. e. His conception of education embodied the ideas exemplified today in the Prussian school sys- tem, namely, a system that is national, uni- versal, compulsory. Observe that Luther used some subject-matter not in- cluded in the humanities. 241. Melanchthon. (1497-1560.) Saxony School Plan. 1. Called the preceptor of Germany. Luther's friend. Made Protestantism acceptable to men of letters. 2. A teacher. Lecturer on Old and New Testament ;, ethics, logic, physics, and classical authors. 3. A school organizer. The Saxony School Plan. a. Not too many studies; Latin the only language. h. Not too many books. c. Three grades for primary schools. 4. Author of text-books on Greek and Latin grammar, logic, rhetoric, ethics and Hebrew, f). ''Through his formulation of the Visitation Articles of Saxony in 1528 he became the founder of the modern public school system." (Monroe, p. 416). 242. Johann Sturm (1507-1589). Classical High School Course. 1. Organized Strasburg Gymnasium and remained its master for forty-seven years. ( 136^ STURM 2. The originator of the classical high school system. 3. Latin and Greek; no German, history, mathematics or science. 4. Method, double translation. Translate Latin and Greek into German and later translate back into Latin and Greek. 5. The first extended well-articulated course of study. 6. Child at home till six; 6-16, Latin, six years of Greek, some rhetoric, logic, music and religion; 16-21, college work. All the periods covered by organi- zation into ten classes. Language the basis of the system ; pure humanism. Sturm's school was a type of humanistic schools called gymnasien in the early periods but called gym- nasium in latter part of the sixteenth century. The gym- nasien developed from the higher burgher schools and became the distinctive classical schools that prepared for university courses. Classical Latin, classical Greek, literature, mathematics and^ in many cases, Hebrew were the principal subjects. Later development held the gymnasium as a classical school distinct from the real school which stood for science and modern lan- guages. The gymnasien were under control of munici- pal governments. 243. Trotzendorf. (1490 to 1556.) Self-government. 1. A teacher at Goldberg thirty-five years. 2. Latin and Greek like Sturm's course; pupils recited in Latin. 3. Conversation, concrete methods, illustrations. 4. Student self-government. 137 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 244. Neander. (1525-1595.) Geography, History, Science. 1. Pupil of Melanchthon. 2. Teacher at Ilfel'd forty-five years. 3. Knew Latin, Greek, chemistry and medicine. 4. Favored geography, history, natural science. 5. Author of Latin and Greek text-books. Furstenschulen, or schools for princes, were organized in the sixteenth century for the education of boys of the nobility. Controlled by courts. Humanism in England Grocyn, Linacre, John Colet, Thomas More, Roger Ascham, Erasmus. Humanism was introduced into England by three men who were imbued by the new spirit as a result of study in Florence, Italy. Those men were William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre from Oxford University and John Colet from Cambridge University. They wel- comed Erasmus to Oxford in 1498 and aided him in his work at Cambridge from 1510 to 1513. John Colet (1466 to 1519) Lectured at Oxford on St. Paul's Epistles; founded St. Paul's School in 1519 and systematized humanistic studies for secondary schools. Sir Thomas More (1478 to 1535) 1. Son of a lawyer in London. 2. Attended St. Anthony's School where Colet and Latimer were pupils. 138 HUMANISM IN ENGLAND 3. Trained by Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canter- bury. 4. At Oxford. Studied Greek under Linacre and be- came acquainted with Grocyn, two English hu- manists who studied in Florence. Familiar with Latin, French, history, mathematics and music. 5. Met Erasmus in England in 1497 and received the first inspiration from him. Strongly influenced by many humanists whom he became acquainted with in Northern Europe. 6. "Wrote Utopia in Latin and it was published in Lou- vain in 1516. Utopia describes an ideal country free from abuses of the Old AYorld. The educa- tional views favor the liberal arts including Greek, the use of the vernacular, physical exer- cise including agriculture and trades^, riding and military exercises, plenty of sleep, moderation in eating and drinking. 7. More's influence in favor of the new learning was strong in England. 8. Beheaded by Henry VIII in 1535. Roger Ascham (1515 to 1568) 1. Teacher of Greek in Cambridge. 2. Tutor of Queen Elizabeth. 3. Method. Double translation : Latin to English^ then English to Latin. 4. Wrote the ScJioIenmster, the first treatise on educa- tion in Eno^lish. 139 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT FiCblic Schools of England The public schools of England became numerous on account of the humanistic revival. Winchester (1387) and Eton (1440) existed before the Renaissance, but the model was St. Paul's School, London, founded by Colet in 1512. The first master of that school, William Lilly, is still cited as authority on Latin grammar. The other public schools were developed out of nearly three hun- dred monastic or church schools which were suppressed by Henry VII (1509 to 1547). Those schools were re- constructed according to humanistic ideals. Nine of the public schools are recognized as great : Winchester, Eton, St. Paul's, Westminster, Harrow, Charter-House, Rugby, Shrewsbury and Merchant Taylors'. The public schools were supported by private contri- bution or royal endowment, independent of church and state. Pupils were required to pay tuition. Humanism in America The colonial grammar schools followed the type of English public schools, but support was given by the colonies, not by private endowment. See later chapter for development of schools in United States. 140 Chapter XXI ^ THE JESUITS— CATHOLIC COUNTER- REFORMERS The Protestant Reformation under the leadership of Martin Luther had definite educational significance as shown in connection with humanism in Germany (sec- tion 240). Now we shall consider the educational work of the Jesuits, a teaching congregation organized to de- fend the Catholic Church in religion^ education, and all other interests of mankind. The movement is known as the Catholic Counter-Reformation because the avowed purpose was to oppose the Protestant Reformation. The Jesuits 245. Founder. Ignatius Loyola, born in 1491 at the castle of Loyola in Spain. Entered the army, wounded at Pampeluna (1522) ; during convalescence he read the Lives of Jesus and the Saints and decided to become a soldier of the cross; a pilgrim to Holy Land (1524) ; at study (1524 to 1535) ; received papal charter for society (1540) ; drew up Constitution of Order (1550) ; died 1556. 246. Designation. A teaching congregation organized to combat Protest- a,ntism. Won back one third of Protestant Europe. 142 MODERN EDUCATION— 1500 TO PRESENT 247. Aims. 1. To be the best teachers. 2. To be the best preachers. 3. To be the best confessors. 4. Motto, ''To the greater glory of God." 5. Their course of study was called Ratio Studiorum, or System of Studies. Planned by a committee under Claudius Aquaviva and adopted in 1599. Intended for secondary schools and collegiate courses, not for primary classes. a. Studia Inferiora, or lower grade, corresponded to the gymnasien. Arithmetic, history, natu- ral science, religion. h. Studia Superiora, or college course. Ancient classics, philosophy, theology. 248. Criticism. 1. Most efficient system for three centuries. 2. Professionally trained teachers; adaptation to indi- vidual powers of pupils; excellent discipline. 3. Authors, learned men, zealous missionaries. 4. Primary education neglected. 5. Use of emulation through rivalry is adversely criti- cized. 6. Method of teaching Latin is excellent in developing habits of study. a. Prelection, or going over advanced lesson with class. h. Repetition, the actual recitation in class after prelection and study, c. Disputation, or debate as a means of review and public expression. 144 THE JESUITS 7. Thoroughness. Daily, weekly, monthly and yearly reviews. 249. Organization. The Society of Jesus is itself an example of the value of organization. Under no other plan could such effec- tive results have been attained. The sixteenth century is strong in the tendency to- ward organization: Saxony School Plan; High School Classical Course; Ratio Studiorum; Neander's Student Self -Government. Sturm organized one school; the Jesuits organized all high schools — a system. 145 Chapter XXII EEALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS 250. Meaning. Realism in education is the name given to that tendency in which natural phenomena and the practical realities of life became the subject-matter for study in place of Latin and Greek. It was a utilitarian tendency. In its later development some of the realistic studies were natural science, geography, history, art, French and German. 251. Humanistic realism. Pure humanism exalted Latin and Greek for their dis- ciplinary value, but humanistic realism took a broader view by using those two languages as a means of learn- ing how to live better through knowing the lives of the ancients. Linguistic content was made more valuable than form. Thus education became an appreciative study of classic literature. Representatives, Rabelais and Milton. 252. Social realism. This view of education rejected humanistic training as a worthy preparation for real life, and insisted upon direct, practical education through experience. Repre- sentative, Montaigne. 146 RABELAIS 253. Sense realism. Knowledge comes through the senses. This conception of education was a development from the other forms of realism. Best represented in the seventeenth cen- tury, it embodied the leading principles of modern edu- cation. Mulcaster, Bacon, Comenius, Ratke. Rabelais (1183 to 1553), French Realist and Satirist 254. Life. An expelled monk, a pastor, a physician, a universal scholar. Ridiculed all these in his satire. 255. Writings. A series of chronicles, the first called Gargantua, the second called Pantagruel. 256. Nature of his writings. Destructive rather than constructive. He ridiculed existing conditions but did not go ahead and improve them. Garfjantua was a satire on previous systems of education, especially on scholastic education. The giant Gargantua represents the old education, while the page Eudemon typifies the new realistic education for the world. In conversation, the intelligence, courtesy and self-control of the page causes Gargantua to ''cry like a cow and hide his face with his cap." 257. His course of study. 1. Practical substance of the seven liberal arts. 2. Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldaic, Arabic. 3. ^lathematics, astronomy rather than astrology, his- tory, civil law, philosophy. 147 EEALISM; 16TII CENTURY EDUCATORS 4. Exact study of nature through observation and other objective mctJiods: seas, mountains, fishes, herbs, minerals, etc. ; acquaintance with the arts and trades by visiting workshops. 5. ^'In brief let me see thee an abyss and bottomless pit of knowledge." 258. Pedagogy. 1. Health. Games and sports for physical development. 2. Interest. Studies made pleasant ; interest rather than compulsion. 3. Thing rather than words. The realities of life rather than formal literary education. 4. Mild discipline. 5. Private tutor better than public teachers. 259. Influence. Not much concrete influence upon schools but a great stimulus to educational writers like Montaigne^ Locke and Rousseau. Montaigne (ir)38 to 1529), French Essayist 260. Series. It is frequently said that Rabelais, Montaigne^ Locke and Rousseau form a series. Note the development of similar lines of thought. What evidence of realism in INIontaigne ? 261. Writings. 1. Essays on Pedantry, showing the aim of education. 2. Instruction of Children, showing method in educa- tion. 148 MONTAIGNE 262. His view. He condemned the schools of his time and of prior ages for the use of force in intellectual, moral, and physical education. To him, education meant a frank preparation for a practical, serviceable, successful and happy career of a man of the world. 263. Social realist. This aim of education puts Montaigne into a class by himself as a social realist. He censures the show of learning exemplified by the humanists. He stands for a knowledge of things as ideas and so he is not a humanis- tic realist; he advocated training the senses in contrast to the formal humanistic training but not in the extreme concrete manner advocated by the sense realists ; he was not a naturalist like Rousseau, because contact with the world through experience was emphasized by Mon- taigne. 264. Pedagogy. 1. Private tutor required. 2. Health. Physical exercise needed. No coddling or spoiling by foolish parents; tlie boy must be hardened to endurance. 3. Environment. Make schools cheerful. 4. Interest. Desire for study is most important. 5. Discipline. Use a kind of severity but not punish- ment and compulsion. 265. Studies. 1. Courtesy : elegant manners. 2. History gives judgment and character. 149 EEALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS 3. Nature study : a means of judging true values. 4. Logic, physics, geometry, etc., as pupil desires. 5. French first; then other languages. 266. Methods. 1. Experience. Learn more from experience than from books. 2. Travel. To learn to know men. 3. Latin. Learn by conversation, not by grammars. 4. Learning by heart is not learning at all. Practice lessons rather than recite them; apply what is learned; prove every opinion, submit to no au- thority. Independence of thought is the most im- portant object of education. 267. Naturalism. The eighteenth century is associated with naturalism because the nature of the child was considered and physical nature of environment was used in the sub- jects studied and in the methods of teaching. Mon- taigne and Rabelais are sometimes classed as naturalists because they advocated adaptation of matter and methods to the nature of the learner's mind. 268. Theory. Note the progress in the theory of education rather than in the practice. Richard Mulcaster (1532 to 1611), England 269. Teacher* Headmaster of Merchant Taylors ' School 25 years and of St. Paul's School 12 years. Knowledge of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, music and drama. 150 KAMUS 270. Books. The Positions. Description of principles of an effi- cient school system. 1. Individuality of child must be respected. 2. All classes must attend elementary school and learn reading, writing, drawing, music and physical training. 3. Vernacular first. Teach English well and then Latin. 4. Schools must have air, light and playgrounds. 5. Public education is far better than private tutoring. 6. Professional training of teachers. Establish training colleges at the universities to rank with schools for clergymen, physicians and lawyers. In this and some other points he was three centuries ahead of his time. The Elementarie. Strong plea for the mastery of English. Discussion of origin of language, orthography, language reformers ; rules for ortliography and com- position. 271. Aim of education. ''The end of education and training is to help nature to her perfection." Ramus (1515 to 1572), France 272. Life. 1. Petrus or Pierre de la Ramee born at Cuth, edu- cated at University of Paris. Professor in College of France and later principal of College of Presles. 151 REALISM; 16TIT CENTURY EDUCATORS 273. French language. An ardent advocate for development of French lan- guage at a time when Latin was the language of schol- ars. 274. A reformer. 1. Tried to reform organization of the University by working for better teachers, better curriculum and bet- ter methods of teaching. 2. Tried to free the liberal arts from abstractness and needless difficulties. His principles for reform were (a) nature, (5) system, (c) practice. Nature should be the guide for clearness of subject-matter. Grammar, for instance, should be considered from actual usage of both ancient and modern writers and modern speech. Logic should be based upon the ob- servation of the human mind, and natural sciences should be based upon the investigation of physical na- ture. System related to the arrangement of subject- matter, following most of the logic of Aristotle as his guide. 275. Author. Undertook a revision of all the liberal arts. His publi- cations include sixty- two works covering Latin, Greek and French, grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, mathematics, all natural sciences, ethics and theology. 276. Influence. He directed attention to the value of clearness in or- ganization and practice in application. ''Few precepts and much use." 152 VIVES Vives (1492 to 1540), Spain 278. Life. 1. Juan Luis Vives was born in Spain. Educated at University of Paris. Friend of Erasmus and Sir Thomas ]\Iore. 2. Located at Bruges in Belgium. Lecturer in Paris, Louvain and Oxford Universities. 3. In 1523 he wrote a plan of studies for the daugh- ter of Queen Catharine of England and he performed a similar service for the son of Mountjoy, the pupil and patron of Erasmus. 4. Considered one of the three noted scholars of the time. Erasmus and Budaeus were the other two. Vives was given the title, ' ' The Second Quintilian. ' ' 5. He wrote Institution of a Christian Woman. The book applies the principles of the Eenaissance and gives woman full rights of education. It retains the religious basis, rejects the use of medieval romances, favors man- ual training, introduces humanistic Latin, and exalts the ideal of domestic education. The Introduction to Wisdom gives precepts or maxims to guide the moral and intellectual life of the students. De Disciplinis, the greatest educational work of Vives, has seven books on the causes of corruption of learning dur- ing the ^liddle Ages and five books showing con- structively how the work of education should be carried on. It is considered the greatest educational work of the Renaissance. Another book, De Anima, produced in 1539, is psychology, and its merit has given Vives the title of the "Father of Modern Psychology." 153 EEALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS 279. Ideals of teacher. 1. High scholarship to teach and to inspire. 2. Aptness in imparting knowledge. 3. Incorruptible morals as an example. 4. Paternal sympathy for pupils. 280. Methods of teaching. 1. Begin with pupil's experience: known to related un- known. 2. Inductive method in grammar. As strong an advo- cate as Francis Bacon. 3. Nature study through observation. (Compare Ba- con.) 4. Use native language in explaining Latin. 5. Logical order distinguished from order adapted to child's mind. Zwingli (1484 to 1532). Ulrich Zwingli was a Swiss religious reformer. He favored elementary schools for all and general education in higher branches. He wrote The Manner of Instructing and Bringwg Up Boys in a Christian Way. John Calvin (1509 to 1564) A reformer in religion. Organized a college at Geneva, Switzerland, and it became a type for Protes- tant schools in France and Germany. John Knox (1505 to 1572) Leader of Protestantism in Scotland, introduced parish schools into Scotland. 154 REALISM; 16TH CENTURY EDUCATORS Sitrmmary of Progress for Sixteenth Century 1. Humanism revived classic liter ature^, put it into form for use, and stimulated intellectual activity. 2. The Reformation stimulated the German language, promoted primary education^ laid foundation of German common school system, and helped the idea of universal education. 3. Sturm organized the Classical High. School course and used double translation in the mastery of languages. That was a new method in education. Latin and Greek into German, then German into Latin and Greek. 4. The Jesuits organized a High School system, made a course of study, and gave their teachers peda- gogical training. 5. Realism demanded knowledge of practical living. 6. Rabelais directed attention to realism. 7. Montaigne stood for practical education, pleasant surroundings, conversational method in lan- guages, mild discipline. 8. Ramus made learning practical and pleasant. 155 Chapter XXIII THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY I. The Innovators of the 17th Century 281. Meaning. An innovator is one who introdnces a change, gen- erally something new. These innovators developed the ideas of the sixteenth century realists. These are sense realists. 282. Reaction. This century is called a period of reaction. It was a reaction against the exclusive use of Latin and Greek ; a reaction in favor of tilings instead of words. Recall the tendency to give more attention to the substance of studies than to form, but observe the necessity of teach- ing both things and the names of things together. Re- formers often make the mistake of rejecting much that is good as their zeal carries them along in the new work. 283. Outgrowth or development. 1. New literatures: Italian, French, German. 2. Geographical discoveries: America, Magellan's cir- cumnavigation. 3. Scientific discoveries of Roger Bacon, the Franciscan monk, in the thirteenth century. Attention di- 156 PEDAGOGY OF INNOVATORS rected to laboratory work in chemistry and physics. 4. AVritings of Rabelais and Montaigne. 5. Work of Ramus and Mulcaster. 6. Inventions and discoveries in 17th century. a. Galileo's use of the telescope, 1609. h. Kepler's laws of planetary movements. c. Harvey discovered circulation of the blood, 1616. d. Guericke invented air-pump, e. Newton's laws of gravitation. 284. Compulsory education. In 1619 the Duke of AVeimar made the first efficient compulsory education law for all classes. IMust be in school 6 yr.-12 yr. 285. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). This depopulated Germany and set her back two hun- dred years in character, intelligence, and morality. 286. The new efforts. The conditions under 283-286 explain the need of new efforts. The attention of mankind was directed to the real things of life. 287. Pedagogy of innovators. 1. Things before words : concrete to abstract. 2. Sense instruction : visualization. 3. Begin with mother tongue: French, German, Eng- lish, etc., before Latin and Greek. 4. Latin and Greek, part of advanced education. 5. Physical training. 6. According to nature. This principle is one of the broadest in education. Its meaning and applica- 157 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY tion include the observed laws of nature in en- vironment and tlie nature of children. To Comenius and other innovators, proceeding ac- cording to nature meant to conduct the educa- tional process as you plant seed. Begin in the spring, prepare the soil, sow the seed, cultivate the growing crop and enjoy the harvest. Analogy gives a similar process in training the mind. Re- call the formal steps of instruction advocated by Herbart — preparation, presentation, comparison, generalization, application or drill. Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel had another meaning for the expression ''We must proceed according to nat- ure," and their notion is the present educational view. It means that we must proceed according to the nature of the child. We can't teach the child percentage or pro- portion before his mind is ready to grasp them. The missionary can't convert a heathen by preaching ab- stract sermons on truth, service, loyalty, etc. He must approach the abstract by personal, concrete examples of these virtues — truth, service, loyalty, etc. So the child, to know number in the abstract, must first count and measure things. Eatke (1571 to 1635). Germany Known as Wolfgang Ratich or Ratichius also. 288. Organizer. Formulated the ideas of the new conception of edu- cation. Classed as realist and innovator. 158 RATKE 289. Enthusiast. An erratic wanderer seeking to sell his natural method for the quick mastery of languages. He agreed to teach au}^ language in six months by the method of conver- sation and double translation. The method of con- versation^ or the direct method, is the leading one to- day. Studied at Hamburg and Rostock, Germany ; traveled in Holland, Belgium and other countries, wrote Address to Princes and Methodus Nova. 290. His pedagogy. 1. Everything according to nature. 2. One thing at a time. 3. Frequent repetition. 4. Nothing learned by heart ; study thoughtfully. 5. Uniformity : everything taught in the same way. 6. Knowledge of the thing before the name of the thing. See Pestalozzi. 7. Everything by experiment and analysis. See Ba- con's inductive method. 8. Corporal punishment only for obstinacy and evil ways, not for failure of learning. 9. Special teacher for each school. 10. Special schools for different languages. 11. Girls instructed by proper and skilful women. 12. Logic and rhetoric considered real studies; science not taught. 291. Influence. Stimulated others by showing what could be done. 159 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY Francis Bacon (1561 to 1626). England 292. Method. Developed and applied the inductive method in in- struction and in investigation. Educational work un- dertaken after failure in public life. With equipment of education at Cambridge, he undertook to organize all knowledge. 293. Writings. 1. Essays. 2. The Advancement of Learning. 3. Novum Organum. In this appears his Inductive Method, which requires the student to experi- ment, investigate, verify. 4. Instauratio Magna, an encyclopedia of knowledge. 294. Title. Sometimes called the Father of Modern Science, a title which belongs to Aristotle. Bacon did show how to use the inductive method in elementary science and other subjects in which pupils can observe experiments and formulate rules, definitions or laws; but Aristotle wrote on induction two thousand years before Bacon's time. Aristotle concluded that induction is uncertain because we cannot be sure that subsequent experiments will pro- duce results the same as the observed results. In other words, we cannot judge the future by the past and the present. Aristotle favored deductive method because the conclusion must be true if the two premises of the syllogism are valid. Bacon said the deductive method may train formal reasoning, but it cannot lead to new knowledge. 160 COMENIUS Induction and deduction may be illustrated in teach- ing definition of noun. Under the inductive method, the teacher directs attention to the several name words in five or more sentences and associates the word noun with each name word. After a few such observations, pupils make the definition of noun. Under the deduc- tive method, the pupils learn the definition of noun first and then proceed to pick out the nouns in several sentences. Both methods should be combined in a com- plete lesson as shown in section 208, page 92, of McEvoy 's Methods in Education. 295. Influence. His ideas aided Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi and others. John Aynos Comenius (1592 to 1670) 296. Moravian. Born at Moravia, Bohemia; a member of Moravian Brethren, or Ancient Unitas Fratrum, an organization characterized by missionary zeal and effectiveness in education and religion. 297. Observer. Minister and bishop in the Moravian church; teacher, exile in Poland, student of all conditions affecting life. Disgusted with schools and methods of his time, he de- termined to unify agencies producing human welfare. No class distinctions recognized by him. 298. Author of text-books. a. Orhis Pictus, an illustrated text-book. 161 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY h. Gate of Tongues Unlocked: eight thousand Latin words associated with things. A method of teaching. c. Great Didactic. Principles of teaching. 299. Organizer of an educational system. The school system in four periods of six years each. 1. From 1 to 6. Infancy, mother school. Religion, morals, sense training, language. Compare kin- dergarten. 2. From 7 to 12. Boyhood, national school. Mother tongue, catechism, singing, arithmetic, geography. Compare elementary school. 3. From 13 to 18. Adolescence, gymnasium or Latin school. Substance of seven liberal arts modified to meet needs of time. 4. From 19 to 24. Youth, university. Advanced courses according to development of science at that time, language, history, etc. 300. Originator of principles and methods of teach- ing. See Great Didactic. 1. According to nature. 2. Present everything through the senses. 8. Simple to complex, near to remote, easy to difficult, from known to related unknown, to teach from tilings and not about things. 4. Make learning pleasant by selection of material, by adaptation, by illustration. 5. Eliminate all that is useless. Learn to do by doing. 6. One language at a time and each language learned by conversation and application to things. 162 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 7. Importance of example by parents, nurses, teachers and associates. 301. Method. The method according to nature was analogous to the processes in physical nature. As there is an appropriate time for preparing the soil, planting the seed, cultivat- ing and harvesting, so there are likewise appropriate times and methods in education of children. 302. Influence. He put existing theories into definite and practical form. He organized a school system, outlined methods and principles, and prepared text-books for pupils and teachers. A valuable preparation for all later efforts in education. John Milton (1608-1674). England 303. Book. Published Tractate on Education, 1644. 1. Objected to formal grammar and formal composi- tion. 2. Objected to formal language; content of language more important than form. 3. Favored practical efficiency. 4. Favored language as a means of expression, physical training, literature as source of life duties, and pleasant effort leading to development of pupils. 304. Definition of education. "I call, therefore, a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and 164 FENELON magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace ancT war/' 305. Aim. Tlie aim of learning is to repair the ruins of our first parents by regaining to know God aright. 306. Scheme. Outlined a scheme of education so broad that it is impossible to satisfy it. In content it was the broad humanistic conception; in the method and purpose of the use of that content, it was realistic. 307. Literature. Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. Fenelon (1651-1715). France Education of Women 308. Life. 1. A Catholic priest. 2. Archbishop of Cambray. 3. Teacher in convent of New Catholics; and in 1669 tutor of the young dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry, grandsons of Louis XIV. 309. Book. While teaching in the convent of New Catholics, a school for young women reclaimed from Protestantism, he wrote his famous book, Education of Girls. 310. Views on female education. 1. Women intellectually weaker than men; therefore strengthen them by education. 165 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 2. Women control morality of world,. 3. Education overcomes vices due to idleness. 4. Use literature, history, religion. 5. Utilize curiosity of children. 311. Indirect instruction. Fenelon showed how to use the story in education. As shown in the following section, he prepared books for his pupils, the young dukes. He put history into the form of story or fable to make the matter interesting, and the study of such pleasing matter produced two results^ one direct and the other indirect. The direct instruction was the content or subject-matter of his- tory; the indirect instruction was the moral notions formed. As a method or device, indirect instruction com- bined instruction, interest, pleasurable effort and va- riety. Note how much pupils acquire by reading, hear- ing, observing and imitating, aside from the direct points in the recitation. All outside of the direct aim of the lesson may be indirect instruction. 312. Books for indirect instruction. Theory of indirect teaching was applied in Fenelon 's text-books. 1. Telemachus, facts from Homer. 2. Dialogues of the Dead, history taught by having his- torical characters appear and converse. 3. Fahles moral and mental lessons for his pupils. 313. Summary. 1. Greatest Catholic educator of 17th century. 2. Indirect instruction : story methods in teaching. 166 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 3. Discipline, mild; develop better tendencies. 4. Make use of curiosity. See Bacon, Comenius, Pes- talozzi for agreement. 5. Used principles of Innovators. 6. Strong supporter of public education under control of the state. II. The Teaching Congregations The Oratorians. France. A Teaching Order 314. Foundation. In 1611, in imitation of Congregation of the Oratory founded in 1575 by St. Philip Neri in Italy. A religious community of priests, not monks, organized to teach candidates for priesthood. Extended teaching to in- clude secondary education. Chief colleges at Dieppe, Mans and Juilly. 315. Principles. 1. Obedience to their organization. 2. Absence of militant and political spirit of Jesuits. 3. Liberal, Christian education to produce intellectual freedom. 4. Use literature, history, science. 316. Contributions to education. 1. The use of the vernacular (mother tongue — French, German, etc. ) and the exclusion of Latin until the fourth term. 2. Geography and history correlated. History made important; French history before classical his- tory. 168 PORT ROYALISTS 3. Improved methods in Latin and Greek. Vernacu- lar used in each ; oral expression more important than written themes. 4. Physics, chemistry and philosophy taught. 5. Discipline was gentle. Monitorial assistance em- ployed. The same professor took a class through from the first term to philosophy. 317. Representatives. 1. Lamy and Thomassin, teachers and philosophers. Lamy's Conversations on the Sciences. a. Begin study with logic. h. Combine logic and mathematics. See Ramus, c. Interlinear translations. 2. Mascaron and Massillon, preachers. 3. iMalebranche, philosopher. Port liOijalists (1637 to 1661). France. A Teaching Order 318. Reaction. Against the theology and the methods of the Jesuits. The order known as Jansenists also. 319. Members. The community was a brotherliood of distinguished men — clergymen and laymen — who gave themselves up to a kind of monastic life under the guidance of St. Cyran. Petites Ecoles, or Little Schools, founded by St. Cyran. 320. Conception of education. Child's nature wholly evil; education must eradicate this and replace it with religious spirit. 169 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 321. Aims and methods. 1. Five or six pupils to each teacher; always with teacher; individual influence. 2. Begin with French, and through French learn Latin. 3. Moral training through literature instead of lan- guage. 4. Content vs. form: teach only what children can un- derstand. , 5. The Jesuits used emulation to replace compulsion and fear of physical violence ; the Port Royalists rejected all rivalry and emulation, and depended upon love of pupil through affection and religious zeal of teacher. Result, pupils often indifferent. 6. Alphabet method replaced by phonic method in spelling. 7. Objective methods formulated and applied. 322. Text-Books. 1. Port Eoyal Logic. Practical treatise. 2. Objective teaching followed as a principle. 3. Useful text-books. 323. Teachers. Nicole, Lancelot, Rollin. 324. Famous pupils. La Fontaine, Pascal. v The Christian Brothers (1682). France. A Teaching Order 325. Founder. St. John Baptist de la Salle (1651 to 1719), a priest. The members of the Institute of the Brothers of the 170 THE CTTRTSTIAN BROTHERS Christian Schools are not priests, nor can they become priests. 326. Aim. The Brothers of the Christian Schools sought to do for elementary education and the working people what the Jesuits had done for secondary education and the higher class of people. In more specific terms, their object is the education of youth, the cultivation of let- ters, and the diffusion of knowledge. Their system in- cludes colleges, technical and industrial schools, com- mercial colleges, elementary schools, grammar schools, high schools, asylums and protectorates. 327. La Salle's book. The Conduct of Schools. Its scope includes all that is usually deemed essential in both theory and practice in school administration. It is a notable production on account of comprehensiveness of treatment, clearness and precision in style, practical adaptation to existing needs of pupils, teachers and communities. Following are some of the topics treated : 1. Basic principles. a. Man is a rational being, composed of body and soul. h. Children are as weak from the viewpoint of in- tellection and volition as they are in their physical faculties. c. To correct a defect or vice, man should make frequent acts of virtue opposed thereto. d. The senses, having a large share in the opera- tions of the intellect, should be carefully cul- 171 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY tivated. Hence the necessity of developing the intellect, of rectifying the judgment, of educating the will, and of forming the heart to virtue. 2. Specific directions for physical, intellectual and moral education. 3. Qualifications of teachers: physical, intellectual and moral. The virtues of a good teacher are grav- ity, silence, discretion, prudence, wisdom, pa- tience, reserve, gentleness, zeal, vigilance, piety and generosity. 4. Laws of education, 328. Contributions. 1. Organization and management of elementary schools. 2. Simultaneous teaching, i. e., class teaching by which all the pupils receive the same lesson at the same time from the same teacher. 3. The grade school, the forerunner of the present graded schools. 4. First normal school for secular teachers, Rheims, 1685. 5. The Christian Academy or Sunday school, in which architecture, drawing and geometry were taught (Paris, 1698). 6. Technical schools with courses such as the schools of technology have to-day. 7. The Reform School (Saint-Yon, Rouen, 1705). Compare protectories for boys or girls. 8. Lasting improvement of primary methods, primary schools, and the public school system. 172 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY John Locke (1632-1701). Efigland 329. Life. 1. From Puritan stock. 2. Six years in Westminster and then Oxford. Studied medicine, but was not graduated as physician. 3. Associated with royal families, held public office. Some experience as tutor and companion of boys. 4. Lived in Holland six years, traveled in other coun- tries. 5. Influenced by Montaigne; Rousseau influenced by Locke. 330. Process. The process of learning, not the thing learned, is im- portant. At first the mind is a blank, and its powers must be developed from the outside through the forma- tion of habits. This exaltation of process brings up the doctrine of formal discipline in education. This doctrine "asserts that mental power developed in one subject is usable in any other." (Home, Principles^ p. ^Q.) This theory brings up two phases of daily teaching, form and content of matter. The historic theory held that it does not matter what is studied, provided it is studied rightly. This is the doctrine of power in educa- tion ; and, as Home says, power applicable to any task that is assigned to us. Modern opinion exalts content, since interest is attached to matter related to life. The object of interest is present, not in the distant future. Criticism of formal discipline and its advocates is made by stating the present or modified view in this 174 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY wa3^: ''Mental power developed in one subject is ap- plicable to any other in direct proportion to their simi- larity. This principle means the greater the similarity between two subjects the greater the applicability of mental power developed in one to the other; the less similarity, the less applicability." {Principles, p. 71.) 331. Kinds. Education is physical, moral and intellectual; and so the corresponding aims are vigor of body, virtue and knowledge. 332. Writings. 1. Essay Concerning Hnman Understanding. 2. Thoughts on Education. The Essay Concerning Human Understanding is among the most important books in the development of modern tliought. It is an exposition of empiricism, or the value of personal experience in producing valid knowledge. It made inquiry ''into the originals, cer- tainty and extent of human knowledge ; how far the understanding can extend its view, how far it has facul- ties to extend its certainty, and in what cases it can only judge and guess." The result of this inquiry was the statement that knowledge is limited to the ideas gained through the senses and the relations discovered by com- parison, discrimination and reflection. Knowledge can extend no further, therefore, than our own experience. Locke's Thoughts on Education originally consisted of personal letters to Edward Clarke about the training of Clarke's son. The opinions show keen observation rather than technical experience as an educator. Habits 176 LOCKE of efficiency under moral conduct of a gentleman are the desirable ends. Other thoughts are given in the following sections. 333. Pedagogy. Speaking of essential principles, he says: ''These are: (1) in physical education, the hardening process; (2) intellectual education, practical utility; (3) in moral education, the principle of honor^ set up as a rule for the free self-government of man." Leading Thoughts 334. Intellectual education. 1. Universal education not favored. See Alfred the Great. a. Education for sons of gentlemen. h. Working schools for sons of laborers. 2. Private tutor preferable to public schools. Danger from association with other pupils. 8. Foreign travel a part of education. 4. Concrete or objective method for alphabet, geogra- phy, etc. Use senses. 5. Latin and French. Learn by conversation or inter- linear translations. No writing of Latin verses. See Montaigne. 6. Music and poetry. None; each leads to bad asso- ciates. 7. IMemory. Learn short, interesting passages that are clearly understood. Thoughts vs. words. Eote learning of grammar is wrong. 8. Manual training. At least one trade for gentlemen. 177 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 335. Physical education. ''A sound mind in a sound body." 9. Recommendations: '' Plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep, plain diet; no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic; not too warm and strait clothes, especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water, and exposed to wet." 10. Criticism. The hardening process by means of holes in boots, thin clothing^ hard fare, etc., is condemned by Spencer. 336. Moral education. 11. Leave to children, aside from fortune, (a) virtue, (&) prudence, (c) good manners, (d) instruction. 12. Great principle is "that a man is able to deny himself his own desires." Self-mastery. 13. Practice self-denial from infancy up. Establish parental authority without severity. 14. Corporal punishment. None except for stubborn- ness and disobedience. 15. Rewards and punishments should be of the mind, — esteem and disgrace. Open praise, private cen- sure. Reason with children. Develop honor. 16. Habituate pupils to cheerfulness, pleasure and in- dustry. 337. Locke's contribution. Thoughts on Education is classed as one of the best works on the theor}^ of education. Defective in not pro- viding for the education of all classes ; valuable in mak- ing specific proposals in both theory and practice ; a strong link in the series from Rabelais to Froebel. 178 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 338. Summary of Seventeenth Century. 1. Utility in education. 2. Modern science.encouraged. 3. Care of the body: physiological education. 4. Less use of the classical studies. 5. Principles of modern education formulated. 179 Chapter XXIV THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 340. Naturalists were innovators. The educators of the eighteenth century were exponents of the developed realism of the sixteenth century. They were both realists and innovators ; and so, too, the nine- teenth century educators will represent the cumulative result of all that was best in the three preceding cen- turies. 341. Revolution. Civil and political unrest during this period: French Revolution. Desire for other and better organizations. 342. Educational efforts. 1. Pietism and Francke. 2. Real School movement. 3. Philanthropin and Basedow. 4. University reform under Rollin. 5. Emile and Rousseau. 6. Kant's philosophy. I. Francke and the Pietists 343. Reaction. Reaction in Protestantism against the Lutherans. More faith and less ceremony in religion. Real studies and German vs. classical course. 180 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 344. Halle. University at Halle founded 1691 nnder Spener. 345. Francke. (1663 to 1727.) Francke called to teach Greek and Oriental languages. Remained thirty-six years. 346. Institutions at Halle. 1. Easter 1695, received $2.80. Opened free school and citizens' school. 2. Orphan asylum and schools. 3. Pedagogium for teachers. 4. Established a Real School. 5. Theological school. 347. Results. 1. Social and educational organization. 2. Unification and application of best educational the- ories. 3. Spread of enthusiastic spirit by students. 77. Real Schools and Normal Schooh 348. Real Schools. By some, credited to Francke; by Monroe (p. 498), to Johann Julius Hecker, a pupil of Francke. School organized 1747 at Berlin. Taught German, French, Latin, writing, drawing, history, geography, geometry, arithmetic, mechanics, architecture, religion and ethics. The Real School prepares for practical life; the Gym- nasium prepares for learned professions. Compare modern technical schools. The pedagogium at Halle opened the way to normal 182 BASEDOW schools. Frederick William I of Prussia is given credit for opening a teachers ' seminary at Stettin in 1735 with one of Francke's men in charge. (Compare Rheims, 1685, Christian Brothers.) Hecker added a normal de- partment in Berlin in 1748, and this was adopted as a state institution by Frederick the Great. The first of these schools to be known as a normal school was in Vienna in 1771^ a school similar to American normal schools. The system was extended rapidly in Austria, while Germany extended her system of training schools. In 1738, Gesner made an effort in university instruction in pedagogy by opening a course at Gottingen Uni- versity. III. Basedow (1723 to 1790) and the Philanthropm. Germany 349. Inspired by Emile. Salzmann and Campe, associates. Located at Dessau, where Ratke formerly taught. 350. Basedow's Writings. 1. Elementary Book, Elementarbuch, or Elementar- werk. a. Illustrated book based upon Comenius, Bacon, and Rousseau. h. Knowledge of things and words through natural phenomena. c. Moral education. d. Social, commercial, and economic affairs. 2. Book of Methods. The natural method or the method of experience. 183 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 351. The Philanthropin or Philanthropinum. (1774 to 1793.) 1. Aim to educate youth in accordance with the laws of nature and humanity. Philanthropic basis. 2. The school was non-sectarian, Germany not ready for this. 3. Emphasis upon training of teachers affected entire German school system. 4. The first recognition of manual training for its edu- cational value. 5. Instruction from objects and pictures elaborated in actual practice. 6. Physical training and other aims of the innovators. 352. Value. 1. Literature for children. The Swiss Family Robinson by Campe. 2. Directed attention to more useful methods and re- sults. 3. Prepared the way for Pestalozzi. IV. Charles Bollin (1661 to 1741). France 353. Life. 1. Master in College du Plessis when he was twenty- one. 2. Professor in College of France from 1688 to 1736. 3. Three times Rector of University of Paris. 4. President of College de Beauvais from 1699 to 1712. He put new life into the teaching, modified the curriculum, and raised the standard of collegiate education to the highest standard in France. 184 ROLLIN 354. Reforms. 1. In studies. Real things as observed in geography and nature study; use of French in all subjects; history. 2. jMethods. Articulation, pronunciation, correct use of words, interpretative grammar and language study; history used as means of forming intel- lectual and moral character; preparation of teachers to meet needs of pupils. 3. School management. Influenced spirit and results of all grades of schools. 355. Book. Treatise on Studies. Advocated matter and method approved to-day. 356. Greek and Latin. 1. Little Greek; enough to read understandingly. 2. ]\Iaster Latin and use French in doing so. 357. History. 1. Wrote Ancient History. 2. Purpose^ to vindicate the ways of God to men. 358. Aims. flatter and method again clearly presented. Training of the senses is fundamental. 1. Object lessons clearly described. 2. First definite plan of applying the ideas of Co- menius and Locke. 359. Service. Practical advance in course of study, school manage- ment, methods. 185 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY V. Bousseau (1712 to 1778). France 360. Life. Jean Jacques Rousseau was born at Geneva, Switzer- land, June 28, 1712. Poor training, as mother was dead and father was bad. Gave away his five children to foundlings, and he was never able to recover them. 361. Writings. 1. Confessions: A revelation of himself. 2. Social Contract. As government is a contract among the people, government can be dissolved when the people disagree. This principle incited the French Revolution and also enunciated the principle in our Declaration of Independence. 3. Emile, a philosophical romance, not a formal trea- tise. Following is an excerpt : ''We are born weak, we have need of help; we are born destitute of everything, we stand in need of assist- ance; we are born stupid, we have need of understand- ing. All that we are not possessed of at our birth, and which we require when grown up, is bestowed on us by education. This education we receive from nature, from men, or from circumstances. The constitutional exer- tion of our organs and faculties is the education of nat- ure; the uses we are taught to make of that exertion constitute the education given us by men; and in the acquisitions made by our own experience, on the objects that surround us, consists our education from circum- stances. We are formed, therefore, by three kinds of masters. Of these three different kinds of education, that of nature depends not on ourselves; and but in a 186 '. EOUSSEAU pertain degree that of circumstances ; the third, which belongs to men, is that only we have in our power: and even of this we are masters only in imagination ; for who can flatter himself he will be able entirely to govern the discourse and actions of those who are about a child?" 362. According to nature. The proper education takes the child from his parents, from society, and from the schools, and he is put under an ideal tutor who directs him in contact with nature. 363. Meaning of nature in Emile. ' ' Everything is good as it comes from the hand of the ]\Iaker ; but everything degenerates in the hands of man. Our education comes from nature, from man, from things. Harmonize these three and we have good educa- tion. Harmony in education is obtained by subordinat- ing the education of man and of things to that of na- ture." 1. Nature is a habit, education is anything but a habit. Habit has two meanings: unaltered instinctive judgments or primary emotions and those altered by experience with mankind. The former, that is, the primitive emotions or natural instincts, are the ones according to nature. 2. In the social contract he describes the natural state of man as one founded upon a knowledge of the true nature of man, but not according to the so- ciety of the eighteenth century. The natural man is not the average man, but man governed and directed by the laivs of liis own nature. A 187 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY high state of culture couUl be secured on the ground of individual choice instead of that of arbitrary authority. 3. Direct contact with the phenomena of nature is the third meaning of the phase according to nature. The evil influences from associating with men are counteracted by associating with animals, plants, and physical forces of all kinds. 364. Negative education. The prevailing opinion of human nature was that man was bad and education must supplant the badness by goodness. See Port Royalists. Rousseau held contrary opinion. Education consisted not in teaching princi- ples of virtue or truth, hut in guarding the heart against vice and the mi'nd against error. By this he does not mean to reject all education, but to give an education of a different kind. He said : ' ' I call a positive education one that tends to form the mind prematurely, and to instruct the child in the duties that belong to a man. I call a negative education one that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of knowledge before giving this knowledge directly ; and that endeavors to prepare the way for reason by the proper exercises of the senses. A negative education does not mean a time of idleness ; far from it. It does not give virtue, it pro- tects from vice; it does not inculcate truth; it protects from error. It disposes the child to take the path that will lead him to truth, when he has reached the age to understand it; and to goodness, when he has acquired the faculty of recognizing and loving it." — From Emile. 188 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 365. Application of negative education. 1. Physically^ this doctrine agreed practically with Locke. 2. Intellectually, it gave little instruction until after the age of twelve. No reading, working or rea- soning until that time. 3. Morally, it led to the doctrine of natural punish- ments or the discipline of consequences. This means that the child shall suffer the natural re- sults of his own acts without the intervention of human beings to protect or to punish. With Rousseau, the educator might correct the child if it appeared to the child that the punishment came as a natural consequence without human inter- ference. 366. Illustration of natural punishment. * ' If the child is slow in dressing for a walk, leave him at home ; if he breaks a window, let him sit in the cold ; if he disobeys and gets wet, let him have a cold and be compelled to remain indoors; if he overeats, let him be sick; if he is indolent and will not perform tasks as- signed, let him go without food that would come as a result. ' ' 367. Limitations on natural punishment. 1. Value of such a principle depends upon connection of cause and effect ; but as the child before twelve cannot reason, there is no moral instruction in such a process. 2. Under a sociological view of education the direct ef- 190 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY fects upon one individual are not the only stand- ard worthy of acceptance. The effect upon so- ciety may not be satisfied by the natural punish- ment of the wrongdoer. 3. Such experience would form the judgment of acts from consequences not from methods. No posi- tive moral character from such effects upon child- hood. 4. The ultimate results might be far beyond repair be- fore the child would be old enough to understand the consequences. 368. Stages in education. Though wrong in his divisions, Rousseau directed at- tention to the fact that the child has periods of aptitude in education. 1. From 1 to 5 years of age. a. Father the natural teacher, mother the natural nurse. &. Physical training free from customary re- straints. c. Excessive praise of sports, games, etc. d. Little attention to intellect and morals. 2. From 5 to 12. a. Negative education. h. Natural punishment. c. No intellectual training. d. A natural training of senses through observing all his environment. e. **He measures, weighs, counts, compares^ draws conclusions, tests inferences, discovers the principles. ' ' 192 ROUSSEAU 3. From 12 to 15. Period for the acquisition of knowl- edge. a. Curiosity is the sole motive and the sole guide. h. Robinson Crusoe, the text-book of life accord- ing to nature. c. Emile learns a trade to show that he overcomes the prejudice against it. Manual training considered important. 4. From 15 to 20. Period for training the heart. a. Educated for life and social relationships. h. Love for others, the great motive. c. Importance of adolescence in education. d. Strictly moral and religious education. Name of God never heard before. 369. Education of women. 1. Sophia educated simply as a companion for Emile. This follows the fundamental doctrine of Rous- seau, which stated that all education is for the individual. 2. "A woman of culture is the plague of her husband, her children, her family, her servants, — every- body." 370. Results or influence. 1. Education is a natural, not an artificial process. 2. It is a development from within, not an accretion from without. 3. It comes from the workings of natural instincts and interests and not through response to external force. 4. It is an expansion of natural powers, not an acquisi- tion of information. 193 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 5. It is life, it is not a preparation for future state, remote in interests and characteristics from the life of childhood. 371. Corollaries. 1. Education is a process of living that lasts all through life. 2. Natural, concrete, objective methods of teaching are required by the nature of the child. 372. Pedagogical merit of Emile. 1. Praiseworthy study of child nature. 2. Exalted the necessity of sense instruction and bodily health. 3. Definite insight into the child's point of view in learning geography, history and physics. 4. Education of girls is well treated in the fifth book. 373. Foundation of recent educational development. 1. The fundamental idea that education is a natural process gave rise to the psychological tendency in education. 2. Rousseau 's teaching that educational material should be the facts and phenomena of nature, and an inquiry into various laws, is the basis of the scientific tendency in modern education. 3. Rousseau's teaching that education should aim to develop the virtues of the primitive man, that it should prepare the individual to live in a so- ciety where he should have relations to other in- dividuals, is the basis of sociological tendency in education. 194 THE NATURALISTS OF THE 18TH CENTURY 4. In literature he stimulated the romantic movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. VI. Kant (1724-1804) 374. German philosopher. Representative of the psychological tendency in edu- cation. Influenced by Locke and Rousseau. 375. Teacher. Professor of logic and metaphysics at Konigsberg. In 1803, lectures published under title On Education. 376. Definition of education. Education is the development in man of all the per- fection which his nature permits. 377. Leading thoughts. 1. Chief interest is character development, a practical education combining the conduct and the training of the will. 2. Emphasized sociological duties of the individual. 3. Do not break the will but train it to yield to natural obstacles. Breaking means slavery; natural op- position brings tractableness. Direct influence upon Herbert Spencer. Traits of desirable char- acter are obedience, truthfulness, sociality and candor. 4. Inculcated religious ideas as laws or duties, not as matters of memory or imitation. 5. Hinted at culture epoch theory. 196 KANT 378. Summary. Kant's value lies in giving clear expression to funda- mental points of view rather than in making a practical application of them. 379. Summary for 18th century. 1. Child study instituted. 2. Education is a natural process; development an ideal. 3. Matter must be adapted to the child. 4. Improved methods of teaching. 5. A period of definition, classification, and helpful ex- perimentation. 197 Chapter XXV PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION I. Festalozzi (1746-1827). Switzerland Naturalist and Innovator 381. Biography. 1. Father died when Pestalozzi was five. 2. Narrow training at home and in school. 3. Emile awakened a desire for educational and social freedom. 4. From clergyman to lawj^er; greater usefulness. 5. Farmer; failure and bankruptcy. 6. Asylum for poor at Neuhof. Another failure. 7. Eighteen years of poverty; writing books. 8. Schoolmaster ; orphan asylum at Stanz ; successful methods of teaching. 9. Primary schools at Burgdorf and Yverdun: success and fame. 382. Writings. 1. Evening Hour of a Ilermit: educational maxims (1780). 2. Leonard and Gertrude (1781). Depicts ideal vil- lage life in Switzerland. Gertrude, a pattern for all mothers, properly trains her children. All 198 PESTALOZZI mothers may follow sucli principles and thus ele- vate peasant life. 3. How Gertrude Teaches her Children (1801). Prac- tical exposition of his principles of teaching. Ob- servation, i. e., the uses of the senses, is the foun- dation of education. 4. The A B C of Sense Perception (1801). 5. The Book for Mothers (1801). 6. The Song of the Dying Swan (1826). 383. Fundamental ideas. 1. Education an organic process. It is the harmonious development of all powers. Compare unfolding of physical nature according to eternal laws. 2. Psychological foundation for all education and in- struction according to nature's laws. 3. The human mind is neither a tablet nor a vessel; it is a real, living power that unfolds according to its own laws. 4. Moral culture is the unfolding of the will through love, gratitude, and confidence^ as seen in rela- tion of mother to child. 5. Intellectual culture is the unfolding of the power of reason through habituation to use. Aim, clear concepts; starting point, sense perception; proc- ess, passing from percepts to concepts and then from concepts back to percepts. 6. Physical culture is the development of many-sided physical powers through habituation to use. (Self-activity again.) Aim: power, graceful car- riage, and skill in handicrafts and arts; starting pointy movement. 199 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 7. Conditions of mind in education are spontaneity and self-activity. 384. Characteristic principles. 1. Enthusiasm: service to humanity. 2. Love: *' maternal love is the first agent in education; a thinking love." 3. Sense experience. All knowledge comes from sensa- tion plus observation and reflection. 4. Things before words : concrete to abstract. 5. Object lessons combining sense training and passing from concrete to abstract. Three means of get- ting clear concepts. a. Language : exactness of speech in expression. h. Form : observation ; measuring, drawing, writ- ing. c. Number is always certain; language and form may be inaccurate; therefore arithmetic ex- alted. 6. Instructing is not amusing; exertion needed for knowledge. 385. Influence of Pestalozzi. 1. Purpose. Education of the masses is the chief means of social reform. 2. New meaning of education. Organic development of all powers of individual. 3. On means and methods. a. Analysis of knowledge into simplest elements for adaptation. h. Object lessons as intuitive basis for entire mental development. c. Mental arithmetic exalted. 200 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION d. Writing and drawing as means of expression. (Visualization; motor activity.) e. Language by graphic methods. /. Home geography; correlated nature work. 4. On spirit of schools. Love, sympathy, interest; the spirit of the home transferred to the school. 11. Froehel (1782 to 1852). Germany 386. Biography. 1. Friedrich Froebel was born at Oberweissbach, a vil- lage in Thuringia, in 1782. Mother died; little attention from father. 2. Grew close to nature. 3. Attended University of Jena a short time, but was unsuccessful. 4. Studied farming^ and worked at forestry. 5. Teacher in normal school at Frankfort. Became a student of education. 6. Visited Pestalozzi at Yverdon and remained two years; returned to Frankfort; studied at Uni- versity of Gottingen two years and at Berlin one year ; a soldier, 1813-14. 7. Opened Universal German Educational Institute at Griesheim and moved it to Keilhau, 1817. Insti- tute sacked and ruined, 1829. Returned to Keil- hau, 1832 ; to Burgdorf as director of orphanage, conceived idea of kindergarten and planned edu- cation of mothers. 8. Institution for the Nurture of Little Children at Blankenburg, 1837. Makes use of name kinder- garten in 1840. 202 FROEBEL 387. Writings. 1. The Education of Man deals chiefly with the first seven years of childhood. 2. Songs for 31 other and Nursery. 388. Meaning of the name kindergarten. As planned by Froebel, it is not a school ; it is a chil- dren's garden. It is intended for pupils three to seven years of age. Its purpose is stated by Froebel : ''To take the oversight of children before they are ready for school life; to exert an influence over their whole being in correspondence with its nature; to strengthen their bodily powers ; to exercise their senses ; to eniplo}^ the awakening mind; to make them thought- fully acquainted with the world of nature and of man ; to guide their heart and soul in the right direction, and to lead them to the origin of all life and to union with Him." 389. Pedagogy. 1. Religion in education. "All education not founded on religion is unproductive." 2. Self-activity. This is the fundamental characteristic. Pestalozzi said the faculties were developed by exercise; Froebel sought to arouse voluntary ac- tivity. 3. Play. One means of directing voluntary activity in education. Every game has educational value. 4. Productiveness. ''A child may forget what he sees, and more still what is said to him, but he never forgets what he has made." (Rousseau.) Oc- cupations satisfy the constructive instinct. Com- pare manual training today. 203 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 5. Social action. This activity habituates the child to proper relations to humanity. Compare sociologi- cal view of education. 390. Features of the kindergarten. 1. An educative system of play. Little direct instruc- tion; children are amused, interested, and di- rected to observe, to think, and to do through the use of toys (gifts) and play (occupations). 2. Harmonious development of all powers the initiative coming voluntarily from the child's instincts or impulses. 3. Froebel's gifts are kinds of playthings, but their great value is the unity and continuity of edu- cative development of the child. Songs and dances serve as variety in the play. 4. First Gift. The Ball. a. Materials. Worsted balls of different colors sus- pended by strings. h. Aims. Observation — training the eye to color; motor activity — exercise of limbs in raising and lowering ball, passing right to left, etc., in game; to teach directions, properties, etc. c. Advantages. Fellowship in united action; gen- tleness, pleasure, conscious growth; mental, moral and physical results from the first exer- cise. 391. Summary. Theory and practice of the kindergarten are clearly shown in Dexter and Garlick's PsycJiology, page 94. 204 FEATURES OF KINDERGARTEN The Child possesses: 1. Spontaneous activity. 2. Dislike of continued application. 3. Delight in handling things. 4. A liking for colors rather than for form. 5. ]\Iarked imitative powers. 6. ]\Iarked imaginative powers. 7. Some sympathy. 8. Strong verbal memory. 9. Weak discriminative power. 10. Weak powers of judgment and reasoning. 11. Weak moral sense. llie Kindergarten System recognizes: 1. That this spontaneous activity must be diverted into educational channels. 2. That lessons should be short. 3. That the child should handle the ' ' gifts. ' ' 4. That the commencement should be made with col- ored objects. 5. That the child should imitate the teacher. 6. That the imagination should be employed in nam- ing forms made in paper folding, etc. 7. That sympathy should be cultivated chiefly through pity. 8. That the memory may be usefully employed in learning songs, etc. 9. That the differences presented to the child's notice should be large. 10. That it is inadvisable to endeavor to evoke these too much. 11. That the moral sense may be trained through sym- pathy and regard for law and order, etc. 205 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 392. Contributions. 1. Practical application of best features of educational theories. 2. Self-activity of the learner can be utilized in all schools. 3. The course of study must be correlated with the child and with life. 4. Child nature determines educational processes. 5. Education is development ; a phase of evolution. III. John Frederick Herhart (1776 to 1841). Germany 393. Biography. 1. Student under Fichte at Jena. 2. Private tutor in Berne, Switzerland. 3. In communication with Pestalozzi. 4. Professor of philosophy at Konigsberg; successor to Kant (1809). 5. Established a practice school in connection with de- partment of pedagogy in the university. The first of its kind. Compare 348. 394. System. Completed and systematized Pestalozzi 's views. 1. Pestalozzi wished to ''psychologize education"; Her- bart accomplished it. 2. Pestalozzi went as far as training the senses; Iler- bart explained how sense perception is converted into clear ideas by apperception. 3. Pestalozzi had no logical form or system; Herbart made such a system. 206 HERBART 395. A series. 1. Locke made the child the center of theory and effort in education. 2. Rousseau outlined a form of training for one child. 3. Pestalozzi put the theory into concrete application in the schoolroom. 4. Herbart gave it a scientific basis, a psychological jus- tification. 396. Writings. 1. A B C of Intuition (1804). This explained Pes- talozzi 's views. 2. General Pedagogics (1806). 3. Education Under Fiihlic Cooperation. Teachers are experts whom parents should consult. 4. Relation of the School to Life. Application of home rule (self-control) to every school. 5. Tlie Esthetic Presentation of the Universe as the Chief Aim of Education. 397. His psychological views. 1. Rejected belief in existence of distinct faculties. 2. The soul is a unity with the one power of entering relationship with its environment through sense- perception. 3. Interactions of presentations of sense-perception lead through generalizations to concepts, and thence by other interactions to judgment and reasoning. (See Formal Steps of Instruction.) 4. Presentations are of two kinds. a. Experience, from which knowledge comes. h. Intercourse with society, from which social sym- pathy develops. 207 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION '). Keynote is apperception, — the assimilative power of the mind through its own guided activity. 398. His pedagogy. 1. Aim of education is a moral-religious character. 2. Conform to the laws of human development as learned from exact psychology and sympathetic study of children. 3. The will exalted. Educative instruction must form the circle of thought so that right judgment and right willing must result. 4. Specific object of instruction is to stimulate and develop many-sided, equilibrious (harmonious) direct interest. 5. K^inds of interest. fempirical a. Interests of knowledge - speculative esthetic I sympathetic social religious 6. Subject matter of instruction is found in the sci- ences. a. Natural sciences for 5 a. h. Historical sciences for 5 h. 7. Method of instruction necessitates attention^ ab- sorption and reflection. Use Formal Steps. 8. Concentration. All instruction must be tending to a central core. Used literature or literature and history. 9. Use the things themselves or representations of the things. 208 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 10. Self-activity of the pupil under instruction and guidance is the only way to character. 399. Contributions. 1. Unified prior and existing processes in education. 2. Founded the science of education. 400. Comparison. Pestalozzi, Herbart, Proebel. 1. Herbart exalted the process of instruction, the method, the function of the teacher; Froebel ex- alted the material of instruction, the environment of the school, the importance of the child. 2. Herbart made instruction a means of forming moral character; Froebel made the stimulated activities of the child a way to character; Pestalozzi gave direct training in moral virtues. 3. Pestalozzi showed how to form clear percepts through trained senses; Herbart advanced psychologic^ally by making percepts into concepts through apper- ception ; Froebel worked back from percepts into the inherent character of child nature and made the volitional character of the human mind the foundation of education. IV. Jacotot (1770-1840). F^^ance, Belgium 401. Teacher. Jean Joseph Jacotot, a French mathematician, was the originator of what is called the universal method in education. His own diversified experience explains the general nature of his sayings called paradoxes. He 210 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION concluded that success is possible in many fields, as he was successful as teacher of Latin, Greek, French, mathematics and Roman law ; as soldier, member of Chamber of Deputies, lecturer and director of military school in Belgium. He was driven from France by Bourbons; he became Professor in the University of Louvain, Belgium. 402. Text-book. In his classes in Louvain, he used Fenelon's Telemaque with French in one column and Flemish translation in the other. French was quickly learned entirely by the efforts of the students. 403. Paradoxes. 1. "All human beings are equally capable of learning." Not so ; the truth in it means that learning de- pends upon the will. He derived this principle from observation of mental progress of his Flem- ish students. 2. "Every one can teach; and, moreover, can teach that which he does not know himself." His mean- ing of teach is causing to learn. Not true in sci- ence, music, drawing and many other subjects. The truth in it relates to stimulating self-activity of pupils, as he did in Louvain. 3. ''Tout est dans tout," "All is in all." Insisted upon memorizing six books of Telemaque. Then, with this knowledge as an apperceptive mass or basis, students could acquire all related knowl- edge. As no bit of knowledge can exist alone or isolated in the mind, this core, thoroughly mas- 212 JACOTOT terecl, makes it possible to master all other matter in French. Apperception and correlation used. 404. Value of Jacotot's universal method. 1. Something thoroughly mastered. 2. Other facts correlated with this. 3. Success from such self-activity enkindles interest. 4. Did he not carry repetition too far? 5. His comparison and verification coordinated ele- mentary method with the method of investiga- tion. 6. Four steps make a plan in teaching pupils how to study: Learn, repeat, compare^ verify. V. Ilerhert Spencer (1820 to 1903). England 405. Science. Represented the scientific tendency in education. Re- call the attention to Latin and Greek languages under humanism and observe that linguistic studies are still a recognized part of courses of study. Science consti- tutes another important department of education to- day, but the development of science as content and scien- tific method is recent. Spencer is the leading advocate of the scientific tendency in education. See 373 for influence of Rousseau. 406. Book. In 1860, he wrote Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. Agrees with Bacon regarding purpose, basis and method of education. Agrees with Rousseau in the use of natural punishments. 213 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 407. Definition. ^'Education is a preparation for complete living. The knowledge that is of most worth is that w^hich most ef- fectively promotes complete living." 408. Activities constituting complete living. In classifying the knowledge that is of most worthy Spencer made five divisions. 1. Direct self-preservation, 2. Indirect self-preservation. All those needfnl for the necessaries of life. 3. The rearing of children. 4. Social demands and citizenship. 5. Literature, art, esthetics, etc., for the leisure part of life. 409. Sciences predominant. Natural sciences for the first three, social sciences for the fourth, and then culture subjects for the fifth in 408. 410. Utilitarian scheme. Culture studies put last, but Spencer would have all secure some knowledge of each group mentioned. To him, science included all the sciences of nature, so- ciology, psychology, mathematics and history, the sci- ence of language alone being excluded. 411. Criticism. 1. Meaning of complete living. Satisfactory definition has not been given ; too much variety in demands of different countries and different civilizations. 2. The use of the term science. See 410. Too broad. 3. Spencer has omitted what constitutes man's worth 214 PSYCIIOLOGTCAL TENDENCY IN EDTTCATTON in those activities in relation to others, i. e., all that makes np character. 4. Impossible for pupils to comprehend the scientific treatment under the first three headings. 5. Spencer's effort to outline a scheme intended to cor- rect the one-sided ness of linguistic education has produced a one-sidedness in scientific education. 412. Contributions. 1. Directed attention to the value of science as suitable material and method in education. 2. Made the principles of Pestalozzi and other inno- vators familiar to {^English-speaking people. a. From simple to complex. b. From concrete to abstract. c. From known to related unknown. d. From empirical to rational. Recall Locke's the- ory of knowledge. e. Self -development through self-activity. 3. Directed attention to natural means in discipline by advocating the theory of natural punishments or the discipline of consequences. This theory does not, however, admit universal application. See 367. 4. Justification of rational physical education; refuted the hardening process of Locke. VI. Thomas Arnold (1795-1842). England 413. Early life. 1. Born at Cowes, Isle of Wight. 2. A pupil at Warminster, where he was influenced by reading Priestley's Lectures on History. 216 THOMAS ARNOLD 3. A pupil at Winchester where he became familiar with monitorial system, the discipline of boys^ and the general management of one of the noted public schools. This observation aided him in develop- ing Rugby. 413. Oxford. 1. At sixteen, student in Oxford. Associated with Coleridge, John Keble, the writer of hymns, Whately, afterwards Archbishop of Dublin, and John Henry Newman. Greatly influenced by per- sonal association. 2. Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads charmed him, the study of the Lake poets imbued him with lofty and imaginative thoughts which influenced his whole spiritual life. 3. Ordained priest in the Episcopal church in 1818, and served nine years. Interested in the poor; direct social contact made a means of improving the community. Became tutor of boys and de- veloped unusual power in teaching on account of his intense earnestness. 414. Rugby. Became headmaster in August, 1828. Frankly help- ful to assistants, morally severe but honest with boys, independent in thought and speech at all times. "It is not necessary that this should be a school of 300 or 100 or 50 boys ; but it is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen." 415. Characteristics. Earnestness, thoroughness, frankness, sincerity. 217 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION 416. Influence. 1. Reformed the public schools of England. He modi- fied severity of punishment in upper classes, and restricted flogging to moral offenses. 2. Made character an educational ideal. He placed aims of school life in the order (a) religious and moral principles, (&) gentlemanly conduct, (c) intellectual ability. 3. Implicit trust in students was an incentive for self- control. 4. Individual instruction: reciprocal relations between teacher and pupil in conduct, scholarship and character. 417. Estimate. * ' The most famous modern schoolmaster. ' ' 418. Reference. Eead Tom Brown's School Days by Hughes. YII. Alexander Bain (1818 to 1903). Scotland 419. Teacher. Professor of logic in University of Aberdeen. 420. Writer. Exponent of physiological psychology. Several edu- cational books; Education as a Science (1878). 421. Influence. Conservation and correlation of forces. Attention di- rected to the necessity of harmonizing mental and physi- cal relations. Think of present study of fatigue, nerv- ous disorders^ defective children. 218 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION VIIL Joseph Payne (1807 to 1876). England 422. Teacher. 1. Tutor. 2. Teacher in private schools. 3. Public lecturer on education. 4. First professor of art and science of education in England. Chair in College of Preceptors. 5. Exponent of views of Froebel and Jacotot. 423. Influence. 1. Book. Lectures on the Science and Art of Educa- tion. A plain, practical treatise. 2. Introduced system of examination of teachers. 3. Made English public familiar with phases of educa- tion as a national institution. IX. Rosmini (1797 to 1855). Italy 1. Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, descendant of a noble and wealthy family, became a Catholic priest and founded a religious order, the Institute of Charity, known also as the Rosminians. The order includes Brothers of Charity and Sisters of Charity, or Sisters of Providence. The work of the order includes charity, Sunday schools, elementary schools and pedagogical training of teachers. 2. He wrote New Essays on the Origin of Ideas, Principles of Moral Science, and chapters on Unity of Education and Liberty of Teaching. 3. Rosmini's contribution to education is a system of philosophy which harmonizes scholasticism and modern 220 ROSMINI thought. His analysis of mental activity combines in- tellect and will under apperception. He made use of Herbart's conception of apperception and interest, but he did not know Herbart ; and Froebel's conception of education as development is included. Rosmini argued that thought serves as matter for a subsequent thought and thus a close series is formed in the natural order of apperception. ''All the thoughts that ever entered, or can enter, the mind of man are distributed and classified into so many different orders according to this law. Those orders are: ''First;, thoughts that do not derive their matter from previous thoughts. . "Second, thoughts that derive their matter from thoughts of the first order, and from no others. "Third, thoughts that derive their matter from thoughts of the second order (and so on). "This series of orders is endless; hence the infinite development to which the human intelligence is or- dained." On this theory, Rosmini framed a table showing the intellect act and the corresponding act of the will in each of the four orders of thought. In the first order, there is intellectual perception of the subsistent thing and affectional volition of the thing as a whole. In the second order, there is intellectual abstraction of the qualities presented by the senses and affectional voli- tion directed to the sensible quality abstracted. In the third order, there is synthetic association of the interest- ing quality of the thing and the thing itself and a re- sulting judgment; and appreciated volition directed to the object in proportion to the extent to which the mind 221 PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION recognizes the quality as a quality of the thing. In the fourth order, there is comparison of the two objects judged and the formation of a third judgment, or an appreciation of one; and there is appreciative volition showing choice between the two objects. Recall Herbart's formal steps of instruction as an in- tellectual process; compare with Rosmini's process and observe in the latter a blending of religion and educa- tion so that the intellect and the will shall cooperate in development that insures moral and intellectual free- dom. Rosmini deserves recognition as an organizer of conflicting opinions, a leader in showing the function of the will in a unified process in education. X. William T. Harris (1835 to 1908). 1. Born in Connecticut, studied in Yale, teacher and superintendent in St. Louis, 1857 to 1889, United States Commissioner of Education, 1889 to 1896. 2. Student of philosophy and psychology nearly fifty years. Founded Journal of Speculative Philosophy. 3. The first great educational philosopher in America. Value of his philosophic study evident in all his work. Annual Reports in St. Louis and in Washington ; editor of International Educational Series; editor-in-chief of Webster's New International Dictionary; member of Committee of Fifteen; author of Psychologic Founda- tions of Education ; wrote on nearly five hundred sub- jects relating to education. 4. Three purposes in his educational activity. a. To psychologize education. h. To exalt the school as a sociological institution. 222 HINSDALE c. To reorganize processes so tliat education should be on a permanent foundation. The respective agencies were analyzed and classified so that each should contribute to education as the in- stitution which enables man to work out his destiny according to the will of God. XL Burke A. Hinsdale (1837 to 1900). 1. Born in Ohio, educated at Eclectic Institute (later Hiram College), clergyman, president of Hiram Col- lege. 2. Superintendent of schools in Cleveland, 1882 to 1886, and, 1888 to 1900, professor of science and art of education in University of Michigan. 3. His writings are valued on account of clear grasp of the needs of the schoolroom, breadth of knowledge in subject-matter to be taught, and aptness in applying the principles of psychology to methods of teaching and school management. The Art of Study. Studies in Education. Jesus as an Educator. How to Teach and Study History. Teaching the Language Arts. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States. 223 Chapter XXVI EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 424. Bureau of Education. The Bureau of Education was made a department March 2, 1867, but in 1868 reduced to a division of the Department of the Interior. No power over state educational systems. Chief services are in collecting and distributing educational in- formation. a. Annual Reports. h. Bulletins. c. Circulars of Information. Divisions of Bureau. a. School sanitation and hygiene. h. Higher education. c. School administration. d. Eural education. e. Editorial division. /. Library. Commissioners. Henry Barnard, 1867 to 1870. John Eaton, 1870 to 1886. Nathaniel H. R. Dawson, 1886 to 1889. William T. Harris, 1889 to 1906. Elmer E. Brown, 1906 to 1911. Philander P. Claxton, 1911 to date. 224 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 425. State systems. The state systems are in charge of commissioners of education or superintendents of public instruction and governing organizations known as boards of regents or boards of education. While the standards of efficiency vary, all the states are working toward the large ideals of universal and compulsory education. The ultimate aim is to give the advantages of education to every per- son who is capable of profiting by the training that is offered. The development of the various grades of schools is indicated by the history of some of the colonies which may be studied as types. Judgment of lapses, defects and faults should be tempered by consideration of the difficulties which pioneers had to meet. 426. National measures to promote education. 1785. Sections of townships in the western territory reserved for school purposes. 1836. Division of national surplus among states. 1862. Land scrip granted for agricultural colleges. 427. Characteristics of educational advancement. 1. Increase in number of colleges and universities. 2. Adaptation of high schools or academies to local needs. 3. Establishment of system of elementary schools. 4. Courses of study enlarged, enriched, and pre- scribed. 5. Methods of teaching improved by making the ap- peal humane, objective, adapted; by enabling child to do for himself under the principles of 225 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES interest, self-activity and motor expression; and by leading pupils to feel the direct relationship of the work to the experiences of life. 6. Eecognition of the needs and rights of girls. 7. Gradual development toward all kinds of useful in- struction under the ideals of free, compulsory, universal education. Massachusetts 428. Favorable conditions. All had some education and, in Plymouth and Massa- chusetts Bay colonies, one man in every 250 was a gradu- ate from an English university. 429. Boston Latin School, 1635. The town, five years old, requested Brother Philemon Purport to become schoolmaster. The Latin School traces its history to this event. Ezekiel Cheever, the most famous teacher, was in the Latin School thirty- eight years. In 1636, the General Court appropriated $2,000 toward a school or college, which was lo- cated at Newtown in 1637. Foundation of Harvard College. 430. Harvard College, 1638. John Harvard bequeathed his library and half his property. Name of town changed from Newtown to Cambridge in honor of John Harvard's alma mater. Other towns made provision for schools: Charles- town employed William Witherell, in 1636, for twelve months for $200; in 1637 Rev. John Fiske in Salem; 226 MASSACHUSETTS in 1639 Dorchester, school supported by tax; in 1639 Newburg- granted ten acres to Anthony Somerby to open a school ; Ipswich, 1641 ; Cambridge, 1642 ; Roxbury, 1645. 431. Laws. In 1642 Massachusetts law for support of common schools. Schools not free, but in 1647 schools made free. The law of 1642 was an attempt to provide for all as a few towns had provided individually. The law of 1647, know^n as "that old deluder Satan law/' is referred to as the mother of all our school laws. It is the foundation of the Massachusetts school system. Harvard College was in existence, and this law required every town of fifty families to employ a schoolmaster, and every town of one hundred families to provide a grammar school to prepare students for college. In 1691 the united colonies provided for town schools, course of study, support by taxation, and certification of teachers. Elijah Corlett was a noted teacher in Cambridge forty-three years. 432. Constitution of 1789. 1. District system legalized. 2. Towns of 50 families support an English school six months; 100 families, English school twelve months; 150 families, English school six months and grammar school twelve months ; 200 families, both schools twelve months. 3. All high school teachers must be college graduates, or men certified by learned minister. 227 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES •±. Elementary teachers must be citizens of United States and must hold certificate. 5. Ministers and selectmen a visiting committee. 433. Academies. 1. Fifty years of weakness in education. Town schools declined on account of breaking into districts and the coming of the moving school. 2. The endowed academies replaced the older grammar schools. The first endowed academy was New- burg in 1763. In 1778 Phillips Academy at Andover; in 1784 Leicester Academy; and by 1840 there were 112 academies preparing boys for college. Better curriculum than the grammar schools had but the exalted idea of private school education was an obstacle to public education. 434. State support. 1. In 1647 taxation for schools was permitted, but the law of 1827 enforced taxation for school support. 2. School fund provided by sale of Maine lands; not to exceed one million dollars. 3. In 1836 first law regulating child labor. Children under fifteen not to be employed unless they attended school three months during the school year. 4. Massachusetts State Board of Education, 1837. On June 29, 1837, Horace Mann was elected first secretary. 435. Horace Mann (1796-1859). 1. Brown University, lawyer, Mass. legislature, Con- gress. 228 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 2. 1837-1849, Secretary Mass. State Board of Educa- tion. 3. Twelve Annual Eeports. Seventh Annual Report is valuable discussion of European Schools. 4. Aims. a. Consolidation of small schools. &. Elevation of standard of teaching. c. Normal schools. d. Longer school terms. ^ e. School libraries. /. Enriched curriculum. g. Milder discipline. 5. Results. Positive success in all his aims excepting consolidation of district schools. That came in 1859 ; permanent in 1882. 6. First great American school organizer, sometimes called Father of Common School System in the United States. 7. President of Antioch College, Ohio. From his last address : ' ' Be ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity. ' ' 436. Educational institutions. Nine normal scJiools. Bridgewater, Fitchburg, Framingham (formerly Lexington opened 1839), Hyannis, Lowell, North Adams, Salem, Westfield (formerly Barre opened 1839), and Worcester. Technical work. Massachusetts Agricultural Col- lege at Amherst, Institute of Technology at Boston, Worcester Polytechnic Listitute. 230 CONNECTICUT 3. Colleges and Universities. INSTITUTION LOCATION OPENED CONTROL FOR Harvard University .... Cambridge. . . . 1638 Nonsectarian Men Williams College Williamstown 1793 Nonsectarian Men Amherst College Amherst 1821 Nonsectarian Men ]\It. Holyoke College . . . South Hadley . 1837 Nonsectarian Women College of the Holy Worcester .... Auburndale . . . 1843 1851 R. C. Nonsectarian Men Lasell Seminary Women Tufts College Tufts College . 1854 Nonsectarian Both sexes Massachusetts Institute of Technology Boston , 1865 Nonsectarian Both sexes Massachusetts Agricul- tural College Amherst 1867 State Both sexes Worcester Polytechnic Institute Worcester .... Boston 1868 1873 Nonsectarian M. E. Men Boston University Both sexes Smith College Northampton . 1875 Nonsectarian Women Wellesley College Wellesley 1875 Nonsectarian Women Radcliffe College Cambridge 1879 Nonsectarian Women Clark University Worcester .... -1889 Nonsectarian Both sexes Simmons College Boston 1902 Nonsectarian Both sexes Connecticut 437. Early history. 1. Similar to organization in Massachusetts towns. Hartford chief city of Connecticut Colony (1635) and New Haven in New Haven Colony (1638). 2. In 1650 Connecticut Colony laws required town of 50 families to appoint one to teach children to read and write, and town of 100 families to main- tain a grammar school. 3. The New Haven Colony code required masters and parents to teach apprentices and other children to read and write. 4. Colonies united in 1665 and the Connecticut laws prevailed. In 1690 the legislature voted $300 yearly to the grammar schools in New Haven 231 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES and Hartford, and in 1693 $150 to each of the grammar schools in New London and Fairfiehl, thns providing state aid for the fonr connties. 5. School supervision provided in 1714. Selectmen made visitors and examiners. Law in force until 1798, when school societies were empowered to control the respective schools. 6. School fund provided from public lands in state in 1733. State fund secured in 1795 by sale of land in Pennsylvania and Ohio ; $1,200,000. 7. District system in 1766. Parishes and towns di- vided; local support and control. 8. Constitution of 1818 protected school fund, but did not contain positive requirements about educa- tion. It was a time of apathy in education. In 1838-9, an investigation resulted in Board of Commissioners for common schools, with Henry Barnard secretary. He was legislated out of office in 1842, but in 1849 he became Superin- tendent of Common Schools. 438. Henry Barnard (1811 to 1900). 1. Born in Hartford, educated in Hopkins Academy, Monson Academy, and Yale, class of 1830. 2. Studied law and was admitted to the bar. 3. Taught school; studied social and educational insti- tutions in Europe, and wrote Reformatory Edu- cation, one of the earliest and most important works on juvenile delinquents. 4. In legislature; formulated bill making State Board of Education the basis of the state school system. 5. Secretary of Board of Commissioners four years. 232 HENRY BARNARD Notable reforms similar to changes in Massachu- setts under Horace Mann. a. First teachers' institute in 1839. &. Established Connecticut Common School Jour- nal. c. Secured passage of desirable laws. d. "The cold torpidity of the state soon felt the sensations of returning vitality." (Horace Mann.) 6. Six years in charge of schools of Rhode Island. a. Organized Rhode Island Institute of Instruc- tion, the first teachers' association in the United States. b. Town libraries for the use of schools. c. Town lecture courses for teachers. d. Traveling model school. Teacher and class went from town to town to institutes. 7. In 1851, Secretary of State Board of Education of Connecticut and principal of New Britain Nor- mal School. Wrote Normal Schools and School Architecture. 8. In 1855, American Journal of Education founded. Edited it twenty-six years and produced 32 vol- umes of more than 800 pages each. 9. In 1867, First United States Commissioner of Edu- cation. 10. He gave America her first literature of education. Connecticut Reports. Rhode Island Reports. United States Commissioner of Education Re- ports. Connecticut Common School Journal, 4 volumes. 233 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 3 vol- umes. American Journal of Education, 32 volumes. 52 works on American and European Education. 439. Institutions. 1. Four normal schools. Danbury, New Britain, New Haven and Willimantic. 2. Colleges and universities. Yale University at New Haven (1701), Trinity College at Hartford, Wes- leyan University at Middletown. New Jersey 440. Composite type. 1. The early period of education in New Jersey com- bined the notions of settlers from several nations. The first school was established by the Dutch at Bergen about 1662, and all the inhabitants were required to contribute to the support. 2. Connecticut emigrants settled the town of Newark in 1666 and ten years later a schoolmaster was appointed to teach the rudiments and as much else as the pupils were capable of assimilating. 3. In 1689 the English opened a school at Woodridge and set apart one hundred acres of land for edu- cation. Other early settlements and schools were at Perth Amboy, Piscataway, Shrewsbury, ]\Iid- dletown and Freehold. 4. In 1682 the Assembly of West Jersey made a grant of 300 acres, the island of Matinicunk in the Dela- ware river, for educational purposes. The 234 , NEW JERSEY Quakers in that section were liberal supporters of the school and the church side by side. 5. In 1693 the East Jersey Assembly at Perth Amboy passed an act encouraging town organization of schools under three directors chosen under war- rant of the justice of the peace. 6. For fifty years following the union of East Jersey and West Jersey in 1702, the educational ad- vancement rested upon the personal endeavors of a few leaders. Some schools were supported by subscription; some private grammar schools were opened, among which was William Ten- nent's Log College at Nashamany in 1727, an in- stitution associated with the history of Princeton University. 7. Colleges and universities. College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, in 1716, Rutgers Col- lege at New Brunswick in 1766, Seton Hall Col- lege at South Orange, St. Benedict's College at Newark, St. Peter's College at Jersey City, Up- sala College at Kenilworth, St. Elizabeth's Col- lege at Convent Station, College of IMount St. Mary at Plainfield, and Stevens Institute of Tech- nology at Hoboken. 8. Normal schools. Trenton and IMontclair are state schools ; Jersey City, Newark, Paterson and Eliza- beth have city normal schools. 9. Present system is under State Board of Education and State Commissioner of Education. County supervision with the township or school district. 235 EDTTCATTON IN UNITED STATES Pennsylvania 441. Facts. 1. Perm's Frame of Government^ drawn up in Eng- land in 1682, provided for teaching reading, writing, and a usefnl trade. 2. In 1683 Enoch Flower was engaged as schoolmaster in Philadelphia. First school in the state. 3. In 1689 Friends' Public School opened. Similar to grammar schools in England. A chartered school which became the William Penn Charter School. 4. In 1692 a school was opened in Darby, and in 1697 the Society of Friends established a public school in Philadelphia free for poor children. 5. Many private schools and parochial schools under different denominations were established, as Ger- mantown Academy (1761) and the Moravian schools at Nazareth and Bethlehem. Charity schools, private schools and church schools con- trolled education half a century. The New Eng- land colonists in the AVyoming Valley maintained schools such as New England had. 6. State Common School Fund from sale of public lands, 1831. Three years later the county was made the school division, and each district was given directors and inspectors. State appropria- tion and local tax supplemented the state fund. Full state control under these provisions did not become effective until 1873. 7. Present system under State Board of Education and State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 8. Thirteen normal schools partially under state control. 236 PENNSYLVANIA All these will ultimately be state normal schools. They are at Loch Haven, Clarion, Shippensburg, East Stroudsburg, Edinboro, Millersville, In- diana, Kutztown, Mansfield, Slippery Kock^ Cali- fornia and West Chester. 9. Colleges and universities. Pennsylvania State Col- lege at State College is under state control. There are 34 other institutions, as University of Penn- sylvania at Philadelphia, Dickinson College at Carlisle, Bucknell University at Lewisburg, La- fayette College at Easton, Lasalle College at Philadelphia, Franklin and Marshall at Lan- caster, Girard at Philadelphia, Lehigh University at South Bethlehem, Villa Nova, Haverford, Swarthmore and Pittsburgh. ^ 442. Dock's Schulordnung. This Plan of Teaching was the first American book on pedagogics, by Christopher Dock, a German Men- nonite teacher. Written at Germantown, Pa., 1750, and published about 1770. 443. Benjamin Franklin (1706 to 1790). 1. Influenced thought by services as author, scientist, statesman. 2. His writings are world literature in education, as Poor Richard's Almanac and Autohiograpliy. 3. Pounded first American circulating library (1731), the academy that developed into University of Pennsylvania, and the American Philosophical Society. The purpose of the Philosophical So- ciety was to secure cooperation of learned men. 237 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 4. Two specific writings an education should be con- sidered. In one, Proposals relating to the Educa- tion of Youth in Pennsylvania (1749), Franklin suggested the academy and outlined the essen- tials as follows : ' ' Clear and rapid penmanship ; something of drawing and perspective; arithme- tic, accounts, and some geometry and astronomy ; English grammar, pronunciation, and composi- tion, taught through oratory and debate and the writing of letters, abstracts, and reports; some geography ; biography for its moral lessons ; much history for its illumination of politics, religion, and citizenship, and its incidental incitement to the study of ancient and modern foreign lan- guages; natural history, with observations, ex- cursions, and practical exercises, and finally the history of commerce, invention, and manufacture, with an introduction to mechanics. The other book, A}b Idea of the English School, suggests specific methods for teaching the foregoing sub- jects, with emphasis upon English language and literature, but no Greek and Latin. 444. Pestalozzian influence. 1. William McClure visited Yverdon and secured Jo seph Neef, Pestalozzi's co-worker at Berne. 2. Neef taught in Philadelphia twenty years; wrote Methods of Teaching; founded Community School, New Harmony, Indiana (1826), in which he trained teachers. 238 MARYLAND Maryland 445. Essential facts. 1. In 1695 the colonial assembly passed two acts, one to encourage learning and the other to petition for the erection of free schools. 2. In 1796 an act was passed favoring the erection of free schools for higher grades in each county. As a direct result. King William's School was founded at Annapolis as a preparatory school for AYilliam and Mary College. This plan of one free higher school in each county dominated the Mary- land school system for a century and a half. 3. In 1723 a school fund for the regular support of the free higher school in each county was begun by the import tax on pitch, pork and tar; and trustees or visitors were appointed to manage the fund and maintain the school for each county. 4. In 1728 the visitors were required to have the schoolmasters for each high school teach as many poor pupils free as the visitors directed. By this provision of 1728 the county academy was estab- lished and the plan of sustaining the charity schools for the poor became fixed. 5. In 1782 the University of jMaryland was provided for by the opening of ^Washington College at Chestertown, and in 1784 St. John's College at Annapolis. 6. In 1799 the Benevolent Society of the City of Balti- more was organized to care for the education of the female children of the poor. In 1805 St. Peter's School for the poor was opened, and dur- 239 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES ing the next twenty years many academies and other high schools were supported by the aid of lottery or other means. 7. In 1812 a school fund was raised by the tax on banks, in 1813 changed to tax on bank stock, and later aided by estates of persons dying intestate, interest received from United States and income from railway stock. In 1816 the first direct tax was imposed to support schools for poor children. 8. In 1826 the first general school law was enacted cov- ering supervision, course of study, certification of teachers and support of schools. The law was not enforced, however^ except in Baltimore. 9. The State Constitution of 1864 provided a basis and the law of 1865 secured an efficient system for state education under central supervision. In the same year a normal school was established in Baltimore. In 1868 the laws were modified to satisfy the needs tested by experience under the law of 1865. 10. In 1896 a normal department was organized in "Washington College and in 1898 a second normal school was opened at Frostburg. A normal school for colored teachers was opened in Baltimore in 1908. 240 MARYLAND 11. Higher institutions. INSTITUTION Charlotte Hall Acad- emy Washington College St. John's College . . Medical Department of University of Maryland Mt. St. Mary's College Law School, Universi- ty of Maryland .... New Windsor College . St. Mary's Female College McDonough Institute St. John's Literary Institute Maryland Institute. . . U. S. Naval Academy Loyola College Kee Mar College Maryland College for Women Rock Hill College Maryland Agricultural College Morgan College Western Maryland College College of Physicians and Surgeons Johns Hopkins Uni- versity Baltimore Medical College Goucher College Woman's College .... LOCATION OPENED ChariotteHall Chestertown . . Annapolis .... 1774 1783 1789 Baltimore .... Emmitsburg . . 1807 1808 Baltimore. . . . New Windsor . 1814 1843 St. Mary' City La Plata Frederick Baltimore .... Annapolis Baltimore .... Hagerstown. . . i845 1852 1852 Lutherville . . . EUicott City . . 1853 1857 College Park . . Baltimore .... 18.59 1867 Westminster . . 1867 Baltimore .... 1872 Baltimore .... 1876 Baltimore .... Baltimore .... Frederick 1881 1888 1893 CONTROL STATE AID $6,600 13,275 14,200 Nonsectarian Nonsectarian 4,000 R. C. Presbyterian 6,000 5,000 400 10,000 Nation R. C. Nonsectarian Lutheran R. C. State M. E. 15,000 Meth. Prot. 15,800 4,000 Nonsectarian 25,000 4,000 M. E. Reform Males Both sexes Males Males Males Males Both sexes Women Both sexes Males Both sexes Males Males Women Women Males Males Both sexes Both sexes Males Males Males Women Women Virginia 446. Essential facts. 1. In 1618 it was proposed to establish a college with associated preparatory schools, but the Indian mas- sacre of 1622 interfered with the project, and nothing more was done until the College of William and Mary was established in 1693. This college alone represented higher education nearly fifty years^ during which time 241 EDUCATTON IN UNITED STATES lower education was in charge of tutors, clergymen and other private endeavors. 2. In 1749 AVasliington and Lee University at Lex- ington had its origin in a Presbyterian academy char- tered in 1782 as Liberty Hall. 3. The third institution of the colonial period was Hampden- Sidney College (1783), which had its begin- ning in a Presbyterian academy chartered in 1776. 3. In 1779 Jefferson and Wythe framed a bill for the establishment of a school system, but the bill was not passed. The first school law was in 1796, but its optional character did not secure enforcement. It pro- vided for the teaching of reading, writing and common arithmetic; a board of three aldermen to erect school, appoint teacher, visit and examine schools once in six months; support by county tax. The scheme was the- oretically sound, but the administration was not well carried out. 4. The second school law was passed in 1818, and it provided a charity school system in towns, cities and counties. The literary fund, which was started in 1810, had increased to a million dollars, and out of this fund $45,000 was annually paid for the support of charity schools, or free public schools for poor children. In 1821 colleges, academies and grammar schools began sharing the state support. 5. University of Virginia at Charlottesville chartered in 1819 as a result of persistent efforts of Jefferson, Madison and other leaders. Opened to students March 7, 1825. 6. Virginia Military Institute at Lexington, 1839. Modeled after West Point. 242 VIRGINIA 7. The third school law, enacted in 1846, provided for boards of commissioners, division of counties into dis- tricts, elementary and grammar schools, free to all resi- dent white children above the age of six, and support by local tax to supplement state aid. These provisions were in effect until the Civil War and they are found in modified form in the present school system. 8. Normal schools. Colored students are trained in Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, or in some of the denominational schools for negroes. White students are trained in the College of William and ]\Iary, the Vir- ginia ]\Iilitary Institute, the State Female Normal School, the college at Radford, or in the state normal schools at Harrisonburg and Fredericksburg. 447. Thomas Jefferson (1743 to 1826). 1. ''Author of Declaration of Independence, of the statute of religious freedom, and father of the Uni- versity of Virginia." These words are from his epi- taph composed by himself. The statute of religious freedom was enacted in Virginia in 1776, separating Church and State. 2. Persistently worked for legislation establishing a state system of schools, but he was not supported by legislators. 3. Directly responsible for founding and organizing the University of Virginia. Assisted by James Madison and Joseph C. Cabell. Rector of the University. He favored an elective system instead of a prescribed cur- riculum, and advocated the development of individual responsibility of students in place of rigid discipline. 243 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 4. Purpose of a state university. a. ''To form the statesmen, legislators, and judges, on whom public prosperity and individual happiness depend. h. ''To expound the principles and structure of gov- ernment, the laws which regulate the intercourse of na- tions, those formed municipally for our own govern- ment, and a sound spirit of legislation. c. "To harmonize and promote the interests of agri- culture, manufactures, and commerce, and by well-in- formed views of political economy to give a free scope to the public industry. d. "To develop the reasoning faculties of our youth, enlarge their minds, cultivate their morals, and instill in them the precepts of virtue and order. e. "To enlighten them with mathematical and physi- cal sciences, which advance the arts, and administer to the health, the subsistence, and comforts of human life." 448. Cabell. Joseph Cabell was graduated from William and Mary College, studied in Europe, visited Yverdon, tried to in- troduce methods of Pestalozzi in Virginia. Aided Jeffer- son in founding the University of Virginia. Georgia 449. Essential facts. 1. In laying out original towns, land was set aside for school purposes. Schools maintained by trustees and charitable contributions. 244 GEORGIA 2. In 1754 the crown took control and assured con- tinuance of allowance to minister and two schoolmasters. This condition remained until the Revolution, and it was the only instance of Parliamentary support of schools in the colonies. 3. In 1739 George Whitefield, the evangelist, founded an orphan house in imitation of Francke's orphanage among the Institutions at Halle. Carpentering, tailor- ing, weaving and other trades were taught. Whitefield expended $60,000 in developing the orphanage. 4. Free schools of the county type were planned by legislature enactment in 1777, and the first three acad- emies Avere chartered in 1783. Each school was given an endowment and one thousand acres of land. All the academies became a part of the state administrative sys- tem under the state university two years later when Georgia enacted a statute providing for the first state university in this country. The system, excellent as an administrative scheme, produced academies for girls and boys and also separate schools with courses embracing English, Latin, Greek, writing, arithmetic, geography, astronomy, mathematics and Roman antiquities. 5. Private schools and charity schools developed as in the other colonies. 6. Normal and industrial schools are typical institu- tions at present. The Georgia State Industrial College at Savannah is for negroes; the Georgia Normal and Industrial College at Milledgeville is for whites. 7. Colleges and universities. University of Georgia at Athens, Georgia State College of Agriculture and Me- chanical Arts at Athens, Georgia School of Technology at Atlanta, North Georgia Agricultural College at 245 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES Dahlonega. The Georgia State Industrial College at Savannah is for negroes. 450. Pedagogical journals. 1. The Academician was the first, New York, 1820. 2. Annals of Education, Boston^ 1830. 3. The Common School Journal of Massachusetts (1837) started by Horace Mann. 4. Common School Journal of Connecticut (1838) started by Henry Barnard. 5. New York District School Journal, edited, by Fran- cis D wight, Geneva, 1841. 6. Barnard's American Journal of Education^ 1855. 451. Some early text-books. 1. Dabol's Arithmetic. 2. Dilworth's Spelling Book. 3. Webster's Spelling Book. 4. Hodder's Arithmetic. 5. Bailey's English and Latin Grammar. 6. Lindley Murray's Grammar. 7. Morse's Geography. 8. Webster's Historical Reader. 452. Some important dates and events. 1. 1700, Yale College. 2. 1704, First American newspaper. 3. 1709, First daily newspaper. » 4. 1746, Princeton University. 5. 1751, Academy of Philadelphia; later became Uni- versity of Pennsylvania. 6. 1754, King's College; now Columbia. 246 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 7. 1785, Land endowments for public schools in the United States. 8. 1785, Webster's speller. 9. 1795, Lindiey Murray's English Grammar. 10. 1802, Congress authorized states formed from Northwestern Territory to reserve lands for school purposes. 11. 1806, Neef in Philadelphia. 12. 1821, First high school (Boston). 13. 1827, All schools free in Massachusetts. 14. 1836, Congress distributed among the states $30,- 000,000, the surplus in the United States treas- ury. Used by sixteen states for common schools. 15. 1837-1849, Horace Mann, Secretary of Massachu- setts Board of Education. 16. 1838, First state normal school in the United States. (]\Iassachusetts.) 17. 1860, First kindergarten in the United States. 18. 1862, Morrell Land Grant for agricultural and technical education. 19. 1867, United States Commissioner of Education. 20. 1873, Kindergarten part of public school. (St. Louis.) 247 Chapter XXVII EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 453. Dates and facts. Period of Dutch Control Dutch West India Company in control of New Netherlands. New Amsterdam was the principal settle- ment with a dozen neighboring settlements on western Long Island and along the Hudson River. 1629. First official act by Patroons for support of minister and schoolmaster. 1633. First elementary school in America. This date is in dispute, many writers claiming 1638 as the correct date. Adam Roelandsen was the first regular school- ma,ster, 1633 to 1639. A parochial school under joint control of West India Company and the Reformed Dutch Church. The Company paid the salaries and held principal control while the Church supervised the teaching. The schoolmaster, who was usually the reader, the leader of the choir, and sometimes the sexton of the church, received in addition to his salary tuition fees from all pupils excepting the poor, who were admitted free. 1642. Many private schools started. 1652. A Latin school opened by the Company in New Amsterdam, but closed soon. 248 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 1653. New Amsterdam received city charter which placed the school under control of the city governor. The continuous existence of this school is claimed, and thus it is the foundation of the oldest elementary school in America. Parochial schools in neighboring villages were supported by the local court and the local church. The West India Company did not pay salaries nor otherwise hold direct interest. 1659. First permanent Latin school under joint sup- port and control of the Company and the city. Dr. Alexander Carolus Curtius was the teacher. Private schoolmasters taught Latin and other subjects in New Amsterdam from the time of founding the city. Pri- vate instructors had to be authorized by the director and the council. The subjects in the schools were read- ing, writing, some arithmetic, the catechism and prayers. Girls and boys attended on equal terms. Under Control of England After the English secured control, the parochial schools of the Dutch continued until the Revolution. There was an epoch of lack of interest in public educa- tion as the English favored the private school system. Teachers were licensed by the governor or the Bishop of London. Some charity schools were helped by the city and the different churches. 1702. "An Act for encouragement of a grammar free school" provided for the appointment by the gov- ernor of a schoolmaster to instruct the male children of French, Dutch and English parents. The subjects were reading^ writing, English, Latin and Greek. Sup- 249 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE port of school by taxation. This act was in force until 1709. 1732. ''An Act to encourage a public school in the City of New York for teaching Latin, Greek and Mathe- matics." During nearly quarter of a century prior to 1732, instruction was carried on by private institutions. By the act of 1732 the first Latin school under the Eng- lish was a free school supported by the income from licenses issued to hawkers and peddlers; supervised by the justices of the supreme court, the rector of Trinity Church and the city aldermen. Twenty free scholar- ships were offered. This act was effective seven years. In 1840 the Latin school closed and education again passed to private schools. 1704 to 1775. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel controlled a large part of elementary education of the English in the respective villages. First school in Rye in 1704 and more than sixty other schools were organized during this period. The schools were dis- tributed over the territory including Albany. 1746. ''An Act for raising the sum of £2250 by a public lottery for this colony, for the advancement of learning and toward the founding of a college within the same." This was the origin to the movement which led to King's College. 1754. Charter from King George II establishing King's College, whicli became Columbia University. A grammar school was maintained in connection with the college and instruction in both the grammar school and the college was continued until the Revo- lution. 1767. Medical department added to King's College. 250 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE Under Netv York State Education was not considered a state function in the early days of the colony, xis in England and in New England, education depended upon private organiza- tion. 1784. Regents of the University of the State of New York. In January, 1784, the message of Governor George Clinton urged immediate attention to education. The result was the revival of interest in King's College, which had been discontinued as a result of the Revolu- tion. The Board of Regents was the Board of Trustees in control of King's College, which was revived and re- named Columbia, and that institution was the core of an educational system including schools and colleges in the state. Three years of attention to King's College left the other institutions without any development. 1787. ''An Act to institute a University within this state, and for other purposes." All prior acts were re- pealed. Columbia College was made independent under a Board of Trustees, but the institution was still con- sidered a part of the University of the State of New York. The Board of Regents of twenty-one members was given full power over "all the colleges, academies and schools which are or may be established in this state. ' ' 1787. The first two academies, Erasmus Hall and Clinton Academy, chartered. An act of 1787 provided for secondary and higher education, but not for the elementary schools. From time to time during ten years the regents directed the attention of the legislature to this difficulty, but not 251 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE until 1795 did the legislature enact measures for the or- ganization of the lower schools, and then that organiza- tion was made without the authority of the regents. 1795. The first general school law enacted by New York State. It was an experiment to be tested during five years only. It provided for an annual appropria- tion of £20,000 "for the purpose of encouraging and maintaining schools in the several cities and towns in this state, in which the children shall be instructed in the English language, or be taught English grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, and such other branches of knowledge as are most useful and necessary to com- plete a good English education." The act provided for distribution of money, town commissioners and district trustees. The teachers had to be certified by town com- missioners and here, therefore, was the beginning of certification of teachers in this state. The law lapsed by limitation in 1800 and the common schools were not again organized until 1812. 1799. Four successive lotteries to raise $100,000, $12,500 to be distributed by the Regents among the academies and the remainder to be placed in the treas- ury for the use of the common schools. In 1801 an- other lottery to raise $100,000, one-half of which was for the common schools. 1801. Common school fund for permanent use estab- lished by sale of public lands prescribed by act of 1786. 1802. United States Military Academy at West Point. 1805. The Public School Society of the City of New York chartered to establish free schools in the city ''for the education of such poor children as do not belong to or are not provided for by any religious society. ' ' This 252 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE Society began to receive aid from the school fund in 1812, was aided by city tax in 1831, and continued effi- cient service until 1853, having educated more than 600,000 children. 1812. The Common School System. By act of the legislature, towns were divided into school districts, town school commissioners elected, district trustees elected, school money distributed according to popula- tion in towns and counties, and according to number of school children in the districts. Each district required to contribute as much money as it received from the state, and all state and local money must be used for teachers' salaries. This system of common schools Avas placed under a new official known as Superintendent of Common Schools, not under the Board of Regents. This act of 1812 was responsible for the dual system of super- vision in this state, a system which continued until 1904. 1813. Gideon Hawley 'appointed Superintendent of Common Schools. 1817. New York Academy of Science founded. Monitorial teaching introduced by Lancaster. Older pupils, called monitors, assisted in teaching. In 1805, the monitorial or Lancasterian method introduced into New York City. Lancaster, himself an English school- master, came to New York in 1818, and aided in estab- lishing schools in New York, Brooklyn and Philadelphia. The services of this system were : 1. The masses of the people became accustomed to schools. 2. The people became accustomed to support the schools. 3. Education was considered a function of the state. 253 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 4. A better system of grading. The subjects were arithmetic, spelling and reading, and pupils were promoted by subjects. 5. Better organization and better discipline. The defects of the system were : a. The work was too formal. &. Superficial instruction. c. Discipline too rigid. d. Too much memory work. 1818. State library established. 1821. Gideon Hawley, Superintendent of Common Schools, removed and office abolished. Secretary of State acted as superintendent from 1821 to 1854. 1823. Brooklyn Academy of Arts and Science founded. 1825. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute founded. 1830. State convention of teachers at IJtica. 1834. First teachers' training classes established, one in each of the eight judicial districts of the state. Academies appointed to give professional instruction, and the first class opened in 1835. This was the first public provision for professional training of teachers in the United States. Appropriation of $500 for books and apparatus and $400 for an instructor was made for each senatorial district. Such support withdrawn after ten years. 1836. State museum established. 1837. United States Deposit fund. In 1837 New York received $4,014,520.71 from the United States Treasury as the state's share of the surplus revenue of 1836. $110,000 was appropriated immediately for the common schools ; $28,000 was to be used by the regents 254 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE to aid academies; and the balance used to be added to the school fund. 1838. District school libraries started. Movement in- fluenced by James Wadsworth (1768 to 1844), Geneseo. He was a faithful promoter of the common school. Dis- tributed many copies of Hall's Lectures and Cousin's Report on European Schools. 1839. County supervision. County boards of visitors without salaries. As a result of their supervision, the law of 1841 provided for Deputy Secretary of State for schools and deputy superintendent of common schools for each county, the latter to be appointed by the supervisors of the county. The deputy superintend- ents of the counties were empowered to examine and certificate teachers and to have, general supervision of all the schools in the county^ subject to the state rules and regulations. 1843. Town commissioners and inspectors replaced by town superintendents of schools. The name of dep- uty superintendent of county changed to county super- intendent of schools. The office of county superintend- ent was abolished after 1847. First Teachers' Institute, Ithaca, under Supt. J. S. Denman. 1844. First Nonnal School, Albany; David P. Gage, Principal. Mr. Page (1810 to 1848) was a teacher in New England and a lecturer on education. Associated with Horace Mann in developing school spirit and good schools. Wrote Theory and Practice of Teaching. 1845. State Teachers' Association. 1853. First compulsory school law passed. Vagrant children 5 to 14 years of age could be taken before a magistrate and their parents compelled to agree in writ- 255 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE ing to send them to school four months each year until the children were fourteen years old. 1853. Union free school law passed. Any district or union of districts could provide a free school, support it by taxation, and establish secondary departments. The elementary schools were under the supervision of state, county and local authorities, but the academic departments were under the Regents. The difficulty over this dual supervision showed the need of unill ca- tion. 1854. Office of State Superintendent of Education restored. Victor M. Rice, first Superintendent, 1854. Abraham B. Weaver, 1874. Neil Gilmore, 1876. A. S. Draper, 1886. James F. Crooker, 1892. ' Charles R. Skinner, 1895. 1856. Office of school commissioner established, 1863. Oswego Normal School opened. Edward A. Sheldon (1823 to 1897), principal. Exponent of Pes- talozzianism ; author of Object Lessons. 1866. Cortland Normal School opened. James II. Hoose, principal. 1. Principal Cortland Normal School (1869-1891). 2. Adaptation of Pestalozzi's principles especially in primary work. 3. Professor of Philosophy and Education, University of Southern California. 4. Noted lecturer, organizer, disciplinarian. Compare Arnold. 5. Wrote O71 the Province of Methods of Teaching. 256 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 1866. Normal Schools at Brockport^ Predonia and Potsdam. 1867. All State schools free ; public support. Normal Schools at Buffalo and Geneseo. 1874. Compulsory Education Law enacted. Age limits, eight and fourteen years. 1885. Normal School at New Paltz. 1887. Normal School at Oneonta. Uniform system of examining teachers adopted by the State Superin- tendent. Optional until 1894 and then made manda- tory. 1889. Legislature changed corporate name of Board of Regents of the State of New York to Uni- versity of State of New York. Normal School at Plattsburg. School year increased from 28 weeks to 32 weeks. Supervision of teachers' training classes in high schools and academies transferred from Regents to Su- perintendent of Public Instruction. 1892. Old district library law revised and districts required to duplicate state grants. 1894. Compulsory education law fixing school age at 7 to 14 years^ and also 14 to 16 years for all who are not regularly employed. County institutes changed to district institutes under commissioner. 1896. Consolidation of school districts permitted ; city institutes and state summer institutes established. 1900. New uniform regulations for teachers' certifi- cates. All certificates based upon questions used for first grade certificate. 1904. Unification. Board of Regents and Depart- 257 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE ment of Public consolidated. New office of Commis- sioner of Education, Andrew S. Draper in charge. Teachers' Information Bureau established in the State Department. 1910. Laws and regulations governing Education De- partment made effective by simplification, definite re- sponsibility assigned respectively to Board of Regents and Commissioner of Education. 1910. Office of school commissioner abolished and dis- trict superintendents substituted. The change effective January 1, 1912. 1911. Teachers' retirement fund law. School bond issues permitted by court, and a state advisory board permitted to encourage agricultural edu- cation and country life advancement. 1913. School law. Chap. 292^ page 5. Establishes five state scholarships annually in each of 150 assembly districts of state. Holder of scholarship entitled to $100 for each year in attendance at an approved college during four years. Awarded in order of merit. Chap. 129, page 9. Consolidation of school districts by vote of electors of districts to be consolidated. Applied to both common and union free school dis- tricts. Chap. 176, page 14. Establishment and maintenance of temporary schools outside of cities and union free school districts, in camps, etc., by district superintend- ent, subject to approval of commissioner of education. Quota $125. Cost and expenses paid by state or mu- nicipality and not by district. Chap. 440, page 16. Annual school meeting in union 258 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE free school districts of 300 or more children may be held on first Tuesday in August at 7.30 p. m. Chap. 221, page 18. Acquisition of site for play grounds, athletic center and social center purposes, ^tc, and for the giving instruction in agriculture, and also extending the use of school buildings for library pur- poses, social or civic meetings, etc. Chap. 511, page 24. Extending number of school weeks from 32 to 36 (180 days). The term in common school districts to begin first Tuesday in September. Six days may be allowed for conferences with compensa- tion. Sec. 3, page 24. Child between 8 and 14 residing else- where than in city or school district of 5,000 population, and employing a superintendent of schools, shall attend upon instruction during entire time school is in session. BetAveen 14 and 16, attend if not employed. Sec. 1100, page 25. The word ''teacher" includes teachers, principals and superintendents when referring to ' ' teachers ' retirement fund. ' ' Sec. 1108, page 25. Teacher to contribute 1 per centum of salary annually to teachers' retirement fund. Amount due fund to be deducted from each warrant or order. Counties and cities in which provision is already made for pensions are excepted. Chap. 627, page 27. ^ledical inspection of all pupils in public schools. Pupils to furnish health certificates. Chap. 747, page 32. General industrial, trade, agri- cultural, part-time or continuation schools, etc., and evening vocational schools may be established in cities and union free school districts. State will pay two- thirds of salary paid to teacher. 259 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE Chap. 748, page 36. Compulsory school attendance between 14 and 16 in part-time or continuation schools evenings for not less than 6 hours each week for not less than 16 weeks in one year. Chap. 101, page 39. School record certificate. At- tendance not less than 130 days, read and write English language, instruction in six required subjects, completed first six years ' elementary school work. Date, birth and residence of child and name of child's parents, guard- ians or custodians. Chap. 175, page 44. A blind or a deaf person in at- tendance at a college, university, technical or profes- sional school shall be paid $300 per annum to employ persons to read or to aid such student in receiving in- struction. Chap. 424, page 46. Division of Public Records and the Division of History in the Education Department created. 1914. School law. Chap. 154, page 6. Authorizes a district superintend- ent to alter the boundaries of any school district within his jurisdiction, with consent of trustees. Chap. 101, page 6. Two-thirds of qualified electors of each of two or more districts in which there shall be less than 15 electors, or, if there be 15 or more, ten of such electors shall sign a request for a meeting to con- solidate. Trustees to call meeting. Chap. 55, page 8. Commissioner of Education au- thorized to lay out in any territory, exclusive of a city, school districts conveniently located for attendance of scholars and of suitable size for establishment of ''Cen- tral Rural Schools" to give instruction usually given 260 EDTTCATION IN NEW YORK STATE in common schools and at high schools, including in- struction in agriculture. Any central district shall have same powers now conferred upon union free school dis- tricts. "State aid. Transportation of scholars. Chap. 216, page 12. Districts may vote tax not ex- ceeding $25 in any one year for the purchase of maps, globes, reproductions of standard works of art, black- boards, and other school apparatus and for the purchase of text-books and other school necessaries for the use of poor scholars of the district. Trustees may expend $25 for articles mentioned above, or for conducting athletic playgrounds and social center activities, in one year^ without a vote of the dis- trict. Chap. 44, page 18. Establishment of State Teachers' Eetirement Fund. Sec. 1108, page 19. All teachers to contribute 1 per centum of the salary. District superintendents to con- tribute 1 per centum of salary. Teachers' contract. All school districts and cities shall contribute an amount equal to that contributed by the teachers, to be de- ducted from the public moneys. Sec. 1109, p. 22. Retirement of teachers. A teacher who has taught 25 years^ of which period at least the last 15 years in this state, shall, upon his retirement be entitled to an annuity of a sum equal to one-half of the average annual salary for the period of five years prior to retirement. No annuity to exceed $600. (2) A teacher who has taught 15 years, at least 9 in this state, and who is either physically or mentally incapable of teach- ing, may be retired, and be entitled to an annuity of as many twenty-fifths of the full annuity for 25 years 261 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE as said teacher has taught. (3) Retirement may be made on the request of the teacher or of the board of education in a city or union free school district. Re- quest for retirement made to State Teachers ' Retirement Fund Board, Albany, N. Y. Sec. 1109 a. A teacher is not entitled to an annuity unless he has contributed to retirement fund an amount equal to at least 50 per centum of his annuity. He may become an annuitant by making cash payment which when added to his previous contributions will equal 50 per centum of his annuity. Chap. 21, p. 28. Upon obtaining a permit and badge a male child over 12 years, between the close of school and 6.30 p. m., and a male child over 14, between 5.30 and 8.00 a. m., may be employed to carry and distribute newspapers. Chap. 318, p. 30. Physicians^ teachers and others to report in writing to the health officer the name and ad- dress of any person who appears to be suffering from tuberculosis. 454. Sources of support of education. 1. The common school fund. Act of 1805 made use of 500,000 acres of unappropriated land in this state. Approximate value, $4,000,000; annual income, about $170,000. 2. United States Deposit fund. In 1836, under Presi- dent Jackson, the surplus in the United States treasury was distributed among the states. This state received four million dollars. 3. The Free School Fund. Secured by state taxes. First levy in 1851. 262 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 4. Gospel and School Lands Fund. In 1784 three hun- dred acres of unappropriated lands in each town- ship were set apart for the use of a minister of the gospel, and 690 acres for the public schools. An act of 1786 provided that these lots should contain 640 acres, and an act of 1789, 250 acres each. These lots have since been rented or sold and the proceeds used for the benefit of the pub- lic schools. In 1786 unappropriated lands of the state were sold by the Board of Commissioners of the Land Office and the proceeds used for a literature fund. By various subsequent acts, the revenue derived from the sale of lands and from the United States Deposit Fund in 1836 has been added to this fund. About a quarter of a million dollars from the literature fund has been dis- tributed by the Regents for the maintenance of schools. 455. Means for professional training of teachers. 1. Normal schools and college. State Normal College at Albany. Brockport New Paltz Buffalo Oneonta Cortland Oswego Fredonia Plattsburg Geneseo Potsdam 2. Pedagogical departments in colleges and universities. 3. Teachers' training classes. 4. Summer training schools. 263 EDUCATION IN NEW YORK STATE 456. Colleges and universities. Name Location Opened Control For Columbia University Union University New York City . . Schenectady .... CUnton Hamilton 1754 1795 1812 1819 1822 1824 1832 1836 1841 1847 1849 1850 1854 1855 1856 1858 1859 1859 1860 1863 1865 1868 1868 1870 1871 1889 1890 1896 1896 1904 1910 Nonsectarian Nonsectarian Nonsectarian Nonsectarian Nonsectarian Nonsectarian Nonsectarian Nonsectarian R. C. R. C. City Baptist Nonsectarian Presbyterian R. C. Univ. R. C. R. C. P. E. R. C. Nonsectarian Nonsectarian Nonsectarian R. C. Methodist Nonsectarian Free Baptist Nonsectarian Nonsectarian R. C. R. C. Both Sexes Men Men Colgate University Men Men Rensselaer Polytechnic In- stitute Troy Men New York University Alfred University New York City . Alfred Both Sexes Both Sexes Fordham University St. Francis Xavier College . College of the City of New York New York City- New York City . New York City . . Rochester Brooklyn Elmira Men Men Men University of Rochester . . . Polytechnic Institute Elmira College Both Sexes Men Women Niagara University Niagara Men Both Sexes St. Francis College St. Bonaventure's College . St. Stephen's College Manhattan College Vassar College Brooklyn St. Bonaventure. Annandale New York City . . Poughkeepsie . . . Men Men Men Men Women Wells College Women Cornell University Canisius College Ithaca Both Sexes Buffalo Men Syracuse University Barnard College Syracuse New York City . . Keuka Park Brooklyn Potsdam New Rochelle . . . Mt. St. Vincent . Both Sexes Women Keuka College Both Sexes Adelphi College Both Sexes Clarkson School of Tech- nology Men College of New Rochelle . . . College of Mount St. Vin- Women Women 264 Chapter XXVIII EUEOPEAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS 7. Germany 457. Organization. 1. Each German state independent. Minister of Public Instruction over all. The Prussian school system is among the best in the world. 2. Three characteristics — state control, compulsory, uni- versal. 458. Attendance. 1. Compulsory, 6-14, every school day. 2. Parents may be fined for absence of children. 3. Six days a week for forty-two weeks. Hours, 8-11 and 2-4; Wednesday and Saturday afternoons free. 459. Schools. 1. Kindergartens. 2. Public elementary schools (Yolkschulen). 3. Secondary schools. a. Gymnasium. Classical school leading to univer- sity. Course, 9 years. h. Realgymnasium. Combination of classical and scientific, known as Latin-scientific. Course, 9 years. 266 GERMANY c. Oberrealschule. Course of 9 years in subjects not considered classical. d. Realschule. Modern languages, sciences, mathe- matics and other subjects in distinction to those in classical schools. Course, 6 years. e. Modern language school for girls. Course, 9 years. /. Classical school for girls. Course, 5 to 6 years. 4. Normal schools and elementary school seminaries to prepare for elementary school teaching; gym- nasial seminaries and university seminaries to prepare for secondary teaching and higher teach- ing. .5. Continuation schools for instruction in trades, agri- culture and other lines of industrial life. 460. Support. State and local taxes, endowments. 461. Teachers. 1. Normal graduates for common schools. 2. University men for higher work. 3. Temporary appointment for 3 years. 4. Life tenure after probation. 5. Increasing salaries ; pensions. II. France 462. Organisation. 1. Minister of education. 2. Divisions and subdivisions, each under otficer and council. 267 EUROPEAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS 463. Attendance. Compulsory, 6-13. 464. Schools. 1. Infant or mother school, 2-6. 2. Lower primary, 6-13. 3. Higher primary. 4. High schools. 5. Normal schools, higher and lower. 465. Support. State and local. All are free. 466. Teachers. Nearly all normal graduates. 467. Summary. 1. Excellent system. 2. Professionally trained teachers. 3. Compulsory attendance. III. England 468. Organization. 1. Public education law in 1870. 2. Education Department established in 1900. 469. Attendance. Compulsory between 5 and 14 years of age. 470. Schools. 1. Infant schools, 3 to 7. 268 ENGLAND 2. Elementary schools, above 7 years. Classed as free schools, but not entirely so. Church schools known as voluntary schools and supported by subscriptions or vested funds. Board schools supervised by local boards and supported by state grants and local taxation. 3. Technical schools to prepare for vocational or indus- trial service. Conducted by Science and Art De- partment, by cities, by colleges, by guilds or pri- vate associations. 4. Public and private high schools. 5. Teachers' training colleges. There are seventeen col- leges for men, twenty-five for women, and one for both sexes. 6. Colleges and universities. 471. Support. State and local taxes, tuition, endowments, private subscription. 472. Teachers. Monitors, as under Bell and Lancaster, begin teach- ing, and later take professional training; salaries fair; no pension. IV. Other Countries 473. Attendance. Compulsory except in Russia. 269 Chapter XXXIX PEDAGfOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 474. Formative stage. Uniform development of the professional training of teachers cannot be shown, but the trend can be indi- cated by leading events. Students should observe that this department of educational effort is still in the formative stage. 475. Jesuits (1540). INIembers of the order were carefully trained for teach- ing. The training included theory supplemented by teaching under supervision. 476. Christian Brothers. First normal school for members of the order was opened at Rheims in 1685. Called Seminary for School- masters. Other normal schools included schools of prac- tice as well as departments of theory. 477. Francke (1692 to 1707). The Institutions at Halle included a pedagogium, or school for the training of prospective teachers. 478. Monitorial system. A system in which pupils are employed as assistants in teaching. Associated with Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster. 270 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS Andrew Bell (1753 to 1832), born in Scotland, edu- cated at University of St. Andrew, tutored in Virginia, chaplain and superintendent of Military Male Orphan Asylum in Madras, India. He learned the monitorial system from Hindu teachers and immediately (1791) put it into practice. Principal application by pupil- teachers was in writing on tables of sand. Bell devel- oped the system in England and introduced it into Ire- land and Canada. Joseph Lancaster (1778 to 1838) was an exponent of the monitorial system in England, South America and United States. He used sand tables and introduced wall charts for reading. He advocated small classes, training of teachers by observation and practice, and management under the maxim, ''Let every child at every moment have something to do and a motive for doing it.'' While the professional training of teachers under the monitorial system was inadequate, it was habituation under organized procedure. 479. Public opinion. National ideas produced a type for consideration in France, Germany and Austria. The actual opening of normal schools directed public attention to the necessity of having trained teachers. 480. Influence of writings. The literature of modern education furnished definite ideals for rejection, modification or acceptance. Co- menius produced books on theory of teaching, methods of teaching, and school organization. Rousseau, Pes- talozzi, Froebel and Rosmini contributed to new concep- 271 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS tions of education by theory, applications in teaching, and psychological classification. ]\Iann, l^age and Barnard made definite advancement in organization in America by combining principles of education, methods of teaching, school administration, and public enlightenment by means of extensive writ- ings. 481. Germany. 1735. Frederick William of Prussia established first state seminary at Stettin. 1738. University of Gottingen opened pedagogical seminary. Similar plan soon adapted by other univer- sities. 1748. Hecker's Teachers' Seminary in Berlin. 1763. State teachers' examinations in some subjects. In a period of thirty years fourteen pedagogical semi- naries were established. They were distributed over nearly all the states and supported wholly or in part by the respective states. 1807. Law requiring state examination teachers. 1809. Herbart at University of Konigsberg instituted scientific study of education resulting in psychology of education. Stimulus to other institutions. 1810. Full control of examination of teachers. State authority substituted for local authority. 1831. Normal schools established. 1874. First state examination for women teachers. 1890. Training course lengthened one year for train- ing prior to the first year of experience in teaching. 1901. Graduates of secondary schools granted unre- stricted admission to teachers' examinations. 272 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 482. France. 1794. Law providing for first normal school at Paris. 1808. Normal school for teachers of secondary schools. 1814. During the next fifteen years twelve normal schools for teachers of elementary schools. 1833. Every department was required to have a normal school by itself or in union with one or more other departments. This requirement resulted in the opening of forty-seven primary normal schools. Dur- ing three years following 1860 seven more normal schools were established. 1867. A period of reorganization. Courses of study revised and enlarged, the study of agriculture being re- quired; salaries increased and graded. 1880. First higher normal schools to train girls for teaching in secondary schools. This was followed by the establishment of two normal schools for the use respec- tively of men and women preparing to teach the higher primary schools. 1886. Two normal schools required for every depart- ment, one for men and the other for women. 1889. Law requiring all teachers to be lay teach- ers. 1903. The Higher Normal School affiliated with Uni- versity of Paris. Degree at graduation valid for teach- ing in secondary schools. 483. Austria. 1771. Normal school having practise department to supplement theory. Type similar to American normal schools. 273 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 484. Great Britain. 1581. Mulcaster advocated departments of pedagogy in universities. Monitorial systems of Lancaster and Bell early in nineteenth century. Theory fundamentally the same in both systems. The older and brighter boys were trained to become teachers. Lancaster had the support of the Quakers and Bell had the support of the Church of England. 1833. Government grants for education. The sum of £10,000 was voted for the erection of model schools in 1835, but the money was not used for that purpose un- til 1839. Pupil-teacher system introduced about 1840 by Kay Shuttleworth from Holland. Similar to monitorial sys- tem, but the pupil-teacher was apprenticed for five years to a head teacher. The pupil-teacher received a small salary. Special attention was given to professional training, while academic instruction was reserved for the training college, which was entered at the close of the period of apprenticeship. In 1846 the Queen's Schol- arships were granted to help support pupil-teachers in the training college. 1874. Pupil-teacher center system. Introduced to assure better academic preparation. Age of pupil- teachers raised from thirteen to fourteen in 1878 and later to fifteen and sixteen. Apprenticeship period di- minished from five years to two years. 1890. Day training colleges. Pedagogical train- ing in connection with university organization. The latest development is organization of day training colleges under control of city or county authority. 274 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS The time in the training college is one, two, three or four years. 1905. Student-teacher system. Secondary education first, then one year of practice teaching in elementary work under supervision, and then the training college. 485. United States. Five stages are found. 1. The academy as a training school. 2. The normal schools. 3. City training schools. 4. High school normal training classes. 5. Departments of pedagogy in colleges and universi- ties. 1. Training Glasses in Academies 1756. The Academy and Charitable School of Phila- delphia was proposed in 1743 and organized in 1756 under the influence of Benjamin Franklin. The aim was 'Hhat others of the lesser sort might be trained as teachers." Most of the training was in subject-matter rather than in theory of teaching. Phillips Andover Academy in Massachusetts sought to prepare teachers for the common schools about the mid- dle of the nineteenth century. There was rivalry between the academies and the mon- itorial high schools in New York State when sentiment favored the professional training of teachers. The acad- emies won because they had had state support since 1813. In 1834 courses of instruction were organized. It is said that the law of 1834 was the first in United States for training of teachers for the common schools 275 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 2. The Normal Schools 1845. First normal school in New York State at Al- bany under Principal David P. Page. Eminent educators had written in favor of normal school training. Among them were William E. Russell in 1823 and Professor Kingsley of Yale in the same year; Walter R. Johnson of Pennsylvania and Thomas H. Gallaudet in 1825. 1823. Samuel R. Hall opened a private school for the training of teachers in Concord^ Vermont, and the work was continued into 1830. In 1829 Hall's Lectures on School Keeping were published and widely circulated. In 1830 Mr. Hall continued his work in Andover, Mass., and from 1837 to 1840 in Plymouth. 1826. Neef opened training school in New Harmony, Indiana. 1827. James G. Carter, known as a ''Father of Nor- mal Schools," opened a training school for teachers in Lancaster, Mass. Elected to the legislature in 1835, Mr. Carter urged the establishment of training schools for teachers. He was aided by Charles Brooks, who had written on the Prussian educational sj^stem, and also by Edmund Dwight, who contributed $10,000 toward the project. 1839. First public normal school in America was opened July 3 at Lexington, IMass., for women, under the principalship of Rev. Cyrus Pierce. This school afterwards became the Framingham Normal School. Another school was opened at Barre for both sexes and later became Westfield Normal School. Barnard's work in Connecticut kept the subject be- 276 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS fore the people twenty-five years and ended in the estab- lishment of the New Britain Normal School in 1849. 1848. Philadelphia Normal School. 1850. Ypsilanti Normal School. 1855. Trenton Normal School. 3. City Training Schools Private normal schools developed and increased rap- idly. During the second quarter of the nineteenth cen- tury the city training schools, a type of smaller normal school and the direct outgrowth of the monitorial school plan of Lancaster, were organized. Such schools estab- lished in Philadelphia in 1848 became the Girls' Normal School; in 1852 Boston; in 1867 New^ York City, the school later becoming Normal College for Girls; in 1861 Oswego City Training School, which became the Oswego Normal School in 1866. 4. High School Normal Training Classes Intended to give limited professional training rather than to serve as substitutes for normal schools. Gradu- ates fitted for rural schools. Many of the graduates pur- sued subsequent courses in normal school. This type of training is the outgrow^th of the original work of the academies in preparing teachers for service. Similar schools are found in AVisconsin, Nebraska, Indiana^ and Virginia. 5. Departments of Pedagogy in Colleges and TJniversities Began with an agitation for the establishment of such departments in Amherst College in 1826. Actual open- 277 PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS ing of department in Washington College in 1831 and in any New York nniversity in 1832. Plan has devel- oped into effectual service in all parts of the United States. In this connection, New York State Normal College at Albany and Teachers College, connected with Co- lumbia, deserve special mention as distinctive institu- tions. The former was organized as a college in 1891; the latter, in 1888. 278 Chapter XXX . ECLECTIC CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION 486. Using inheritances. The opening paragraphs of this book direct attention to composite or eclectic definitions of education. Now we have clearer reasons for seeing why modern educa- tion is making use of the desirable elements in all prior work in education. The eclectic notion of education embodies three large conceptions formulated during the period of modern education. The psychological conception is represented by Herbart, Pestalozzi and Froebel; the scientific con- ception, by Herbert Spencer, Thomas Huxley and other scientists; the sociological conception, by John Dewey and nearly all the other recognized educators. The three conceptions are the cumulative result of develop- ment through all the periods in the history of educa- tion. The comprehensive scope of aim and the composite nature of effort can be more easily grasped when we consider how the specific needs of modern life are met. School administration recognizes the inheritances of the culture products of civilization — scientific, literary, es- thetic, institutional, industrial and religious; makes use of the five factors in education — home, school, 280 ECLECTIC CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION church, state and vocation; and seeks to aid the un- fortunate and the defective — the blind, the lame, the abnormal, the orphan, and those in penal institutions. Industrial education, a new phase of school organiza- tion, illustrates the breadth of theory and practice. Agriculture, commerce, manual training, technical trades and vocational aptitudes are thoroughly covered. The cooperation of agencies is made efficient as shown in the following outline, and the belief that education is a life process is evidenced by extension work in evening schools, vacation schools, free lectures, and organizations for community welfare. 487. Cooperation of factors in education. 1. The school and the home. a. Visits by teachers and nurses. b. Parents' meetings. c. Improvement societies. d. School exhibitions. e. Rhetorical exercises. /. Pupils' report cards. g. Graduation exercises. 2. The school and the church. — Lines of effort parallel Avitli those in, the school and the home. 3. The school and the state. a. Obedience to law. h. Respect for authority. c. Desire to cooperate. 4. The school and the library. a. Literature and character. h. Desire for self-improvement. c. Substitution in habit : reading vs. idleness. 281 ECLECTIC CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION 5. The school and the museum. a. Visualization. h. Eecorded observation, a means of causing reac- tions. Notes on observations put into com- position form. c. Collecting impulse stimulated and guided. d. Esthetic influence. 6. The school and the newspaper. a. The support of the press needed. &. Current history a vitalizing force, c. School papers as means of expression. 7. The school and industry. a. Excursions to factories. h. Study of commercial geography. c. Arithmetic applied to lumbering, excavating, milk depots, etc. d. Correlation with life. Study of materials used in food, clothing, houses, manufactures in gen- eral. 282 Chapter XXXI CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 488. Correlation. This table may be used to associate history of educa- tion with the leading events in general history. Chronological Table 1000-900 (?) B. C. Settlement of coast of Asia Minor by ^olians, lonians and Dorians. 1000 ( ?) B. C. Homer and his successors. 820 (?) B. C. Constitution and laws of Lycurgus of Sparta. 776. First Olympiad. Coroibus the first victor in Olympian games. 594 B. C. Solon, lawgiver of Athens. 490 B. C. Battle of Marathon. 444-429 B. C. Athens under administration of Pericles. The Age of Pericles was 465-429 B. C. 525 to 406 B. C. The tragic dramatists: ^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides. 470 to 390 B. C. The noted historians: Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides. 469 to 399 B. C. Socrates. 427 to 348 B. C. Plato. 384 to 322 B. C. Aristotle. 284 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 336-323 B. C. Alexander subdued Greece. 146 B. C. Greece subject to Rome. 106 to 43 B. C. Cicero interpreted Greek philosophy for Romans. 70 to 18 B. C. The Roman poets : Vergil, Horace, Ovid. 35 to 95 A. D. Quintilian : Institutes of Oratory. 50 to 138. Plutarch. Parallel Lives. 181. Catechetical School of Pant^nus, Alexandria. Middle of third century. Paul, the first Egyptian her- mit. 320. Monastic Community of Pachomius. Fourth century. Cathedral Schools with Trivium. 404. Cassian's Monastery at Marseilles. 476. Fall of Rome. 529. Benedict's Monastery at Monte Casino. 563. St. Columba settled on lona^ near Scotland. 714. Arab conquest of Spain. Eighth century. Chrodegang's organization of Ca- thedral Schools. 782. Alcuin summoned to Charlemagne's court. Ninth and tenth centuries. Mohammedan schools in Spain. 1079 to 1142. Abelard at University of Paris. 1200 to 1386. Universities of Paris, Naples, Vienna, Heidelberg. 1221 to 1274. Thomas Aquinas. 1214 to 1294. Roger Bacon. 1265 to 1375. Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio. 1383. Gerhard Groot founded Brethren of the Com- mon Life. 1395. Chrysoloras began to teach Greek at Florence. 1453. Constantinople captured by Turks. 285 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 1467 to 1536. Erasmus: Grammars, Dictionaries, and Translations from Latin and Greek; first printed Greek New Testament. About 1470. Wessel, Agricola, and Reuchlin studied Greek at Paris. 1483 to 1553. Rabelais and realism. 1492. Grocyn began to teach Greek at Oxford. 1506. Reuchlin published Hebrew Grammar. 1512. Dean Colet founded St. Paul's Grammar School. 1516. Erasmus published Greek New Testament. 1528. Melanchthon 's Saxony School Plan. 1538. Sturm's Strasburg Gymnasium. 1540. Loyola founded Society of Jesus. 1570. Ascham's Scholemaster published. 1580 ahd 1588. Montaigne's Essays published. 1580 to 1605. Francis Bacon : Inductive Philosophy. 1619. Ratich opened school at Anhalt-Kothen and, in 1620, formulated maxims for teaching lan- guages. 1627 to 1657. Books by Comenius. 1643. Port Royalists opened the Little Schools. 1679. La Salle opened a school for boys at Rheims. 1683. La Salle founded Brothers of the Christian Schools. 1687. Fenelon published The Education of Girls. 1692. Locke published Thoughts on Education. 1695. Francke began his Institutions at Halle. 1707. Francke formed teachers' seminary. 1701. Yale LTniversity founded. 1724. Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences founded. 1726-28. Rollin's Treatise on Studies published. 1735. Teachers' Seminary founded at Stettin. 286 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 1738. Pedagogical Seminary established in Gottingen Lhiiversity. 1746. Princeton University founded. 1747. Hecker's Real School opened in Berlin. 1748. Hecker's Teachers' Seminary opened. 1749. University of Pennsylvania founded. 1754. Columbia University founded. 1762. Rousseau's Eniile published. 1770 to 1841. Jacotot. 1771. Normal School established in Vienna. 1774. Philanthropin opened by Basedow at Dessau. 1775. American Revolution began. 1776 to 1841. Herbart. 1782 to 1852. Froebel : Kindergarten. 1785. United States Government set aside public land for schools. 1787. United States Government set aside public land for universities. 1789. French Revolution begun. 1795. New York appropriated one hundred thousand dollars to aid schools. 1795 to 1842. Thomas Arnold : Rugby. 1796 to 1859. Horace Mann. 1798. Lancaster opened a monitorial school in London. 1802. AYest Point ^lilitary Academy established. 1805. Pestalozzi's school at Yverdon opened, 1806. University of France established. 1808. Emma Hart's Seminary for ladies at Middle- burg, Vermont, opened. 1809. Herbart made professor at Konigsberg. 1811 to 1900. Henry Barnard. 1812. State superintendency established in New York. 287 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 1812-15. War between United States and England. 1815. Napoleonic wars ended. 1815. Connecticut asylum for deaf and dumb estab- lished. 1820 to 1903. Herbert Spencer. 1821. First real high school in the United States opened in Boston. 1824. Elective system begun at Harvard. 1824. Rensselaer technical school established. 1826. Neef 's training school in Indiana. 1831. Education nationalized in Ireland. 1832. Massachusetts institution for the blind opened. 1833. Oberlin College opened as a coeducational insti- tution. 1834. State free-school law enacted in Pennsylvania. 1836. Mount Holyoke College founded. 1837. Kindergarten opened at Blankenburg by Froebel. 1839. Normal school opened at Lexington, Massachu- setts. 1848 to 1913. Andrew S. Draper. 1850. S. S. Green made professor of didactics in Brown University. 1855. First Kindergarten opened in the United States by Mrs. Schurz. 1860. Publication of Spencer's Education. 1862. National land appropriations made for agricul- tural colleges. 1867. United States Bureau of Education established. 1870. Education nationalized in England. 1873. University extension movement begun. 1877. Education made compulsory in Italy. 1882. Education made compulsory in France. 288 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 1888. Teachers College, Columbia University. 1890. School of Pedagogy, New York University. 1899. National Board of Education established in Eng- land. 1901. School of Education, Chicago University. 1903. Higher Normal School in France. 289 Chapter XXXII PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES.— REFERENCES FOR COLLATERAL STUDY 489. Pronunciation. A Abelard, ab'e-lard. Agricola, a-grik'o-la. Alcuin, arkwin. Anselm, an'selm. Aquinas, a-kwi'nas. Aristotle, ar'is-tot-L AscHAM, as'kam. Augustine, aw'gus-tln. B Basedow, ba'zeh-do. Basil, ba'siL Boccaccio, bok-kat'cho. Buddha, bood'da. BuRGDORF, boorg'dorf. C Celestine, seris-tm. Charlemagne, shar'le- man. Chrysostom, kris'os-tom or kris-os'tom. Cicero, cic'e-ro. Clement, klem'ent. Colloquy, corio-quy. CoMENius, ko-ma'nee-oos. Confucius, kon-fu'she-us. CoNSTANTiNE, kon'stan-tln. D Dante, dan'te. Demosthenes, de-mos'the- neez. Descartes, da^kart'. Dessau, des'sa. Deventer, da'ven-ter. Duns Scotus, dunz sko'- tus. E Emile, a-mel'. Erasmus, e-raz'mus. Erigena, e-rig'e-na. 290 PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES F Fenelon, fa"neh-loii'. FiCHTE, fik'teli. Francke, fran'keh. Froebel, fro'bel. G Gargantua, gar-gan'tti-a. H Halle, hal'le. Herodotus, he-rod'o-tus. M Magnus, mag'noos. Melanchthon, me-lank' thon. Mencius, men'sM-us. Montaigne, mon'tan". N Neuhof, noi'hof. NiCALE, ne'kol. Origen, or'i-jen. Jacotot, zak'ko'to'. Jerome, je-roin'. K Keilhau, kel'a. Konigsberg, ko'nigs-berg. Lamy, la'me. LaSalle, la-sal'. Literator, lit'er-a-tor. LiTERATUS, lit-e-ra'tus. Loyola, loi-o'la. Lycurgus, ll-kiir'gus. Pantagruel, pan-tag'ru-el. Pericles, per'i-kleez. Pestalozzi, pes-ta-16t'see. Petrarch, pee'trark. Pliny, plin'i. Prague, prag or prag. Ptolemy, toPe-mi. Pythagoras, pi-tliag'o-ras. R Rabelais, ra'bla". Ramus, rii'moos. Renaissance, re-nas'sans. Reuchlin, roik'lin. Rousseau, roo"so'. 291 PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES S Trotzendorf, trot'sen- dorf. Socrates, sok'ra-teez. Strabo, stra'bo. ^ Sturm, stoorm or stiirm. y^^^^^^ ^^^^^g^ YvERDON, e'ver'don". T Telemachus, te-lem'a-kus. Tertullian^ ter-tiiri-an. Zoroaster, zor-o-as'ter. 490. References. Young students are bewildered by the number of references assigned in the history of education. The theory of wide reading is good enough, but is it not bet- ter education to get a foundation from one book that presents the matter in a satisfactory way? Pass from clear percepts to clear concepts and then get as much breadth as the individual can sustain, but do not scat- ter the thoughts by research before there is an apper- ceptive basis formed. These references are therefore suggested according to types of students. 1. For beginners and others who need to know the facts, Kemp's History of Education is adequate and stimulating. The author's style is pleasing, related facts are expressed instead of being assumed as known, and balanced credit is distributed among Jews, Catho- lics and Protestants. J. B. Lippincott Company, Phila- delphia. Seeley's History of Education, latest edition. Ameri- can Book Company. Bardeen's Dictionary of Educational Biography gives in terse form the facts so often needed to supple- 292 REFERENCES ment ordinary text-books. C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y. 2. For other students. Cubberly's Syllabus of Lec- tures on the History of Education has references to suit all needs. Macmillan Company, New York. Monroe, Paul. A Brief Course in the History of Edu- cation. Monroe, Paul. A Text-Book in the History of Educa- tion. Complete for general reference. ]\Iacmillan Com- pany. Cyclopedia of Education, edited by Paul IMonroe. 5 volumes. IMacmillan Company. Davidson, Thomas. A History of Education. Charles Scribner's Sons. Graves, F. P. A History of Education during the Middle Ages and the Transition to Modern Times. Macmillan Company. Schwickerath, R. Jesuit Education. B. Herder, St. Louis. Quick, Robert H. Educational Reformers. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education. C. W. Bardeen. Pen Wen Kuo. The Chinese System of Public Edu- cation. Teachers College, New York. Turner, William. History of Philosophy. Ginn & Company. 3. For those who desire topical outlines. Aspinwall, William B. Outlines of the History of Education. Macmillan Company. Tucker, Louise Emery. Visualized History of Educa- tion. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, New York. Both of these books, issued respectively in 1912 and 293 REFERENCES 1914, follow closely the plan of the first edition of Mc- Evoy's Epitome, 1907. Aspinwall has references by pages and Tucker has graphic charts. 4. For correlated study. The mastery of history of education apart from psychological principles and ap- plied methods of teaching is impossible. The mind is not developed by vertical sections. Here, therefore, is a list of books that can assure any faithful student a safe, broad and invigorating view of the best in mod- ern education. James. Talks to Teachers. Henry Holt & Co. Halleck. Psychology and Psychic Culture. Ameri- can Book Company. Home. The Philosophy of Education. Macmillan Company. Bagley. Educative Process. ]\Iacmillan Company. Spencer. Education. C. W. Bardeen. Eliot. Education for Efficiency. Houghton Mifflin Company. Blow, Susan E. Symbolic Education. Klapper. Principles of Educational Practice. D. Appleton & Company. McEvoy. Methods in Education. McEvoy. Science of Education. 5. For general reading. Myers. General History. Ginn & Company. Adams. Civilization During the Middle Ages. Charles Scribner's Sons. Symonds. Renaissance in Italy — The Revival of Learning. Henry Holt & Co. Dexter. History of Education in the United States. Macmillan Company. 294 Chapter XXXIII NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION 491. The suggestions issued by the Education De- partment are helpful guides to the essentials. The work presented here is a compilation from various pamphlets and circulars published during the last ten years. 492. The syllabus is intended to give the outline upon which the work in this subject Avill be based and not to present methods of teaching it. It is expected, however, that this subject will be taught in a manner to inspire interest therein for its own sake, to arouse a professional spirit, to bring the class into intimate acquaintance and sympathy with the great educators of the past, to secure an intelligent ap- preciation of current pedagogical discussions, and to beget serious reflection upon the real nature of educa- tion and the true aim of the educator. A complete history of education would include a rec- ord of all influences, human and otherwise, which have affected mankind at all times and in all places. In its narrower and usual sense it concerns itself with con- scious, premeditated efforts to realize some ideal of per- fection in the individual. The chief ends sought in the study of the subject are breadth of view, steadiness of purpose, that inspiration which comes from the study 296 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS of the masters, and a somewhat connected account of the development of present educational ideals and the circumstances which have furthered or hindered this development. 493. The evolution of education in primitive so- ciety. Education in relation to civilization. The history of education and universal history. Education through the experiences of life. The transmission of experi- ences in primitive society. Institutions as the embodi- ment of customs and ideals. The basis and beginnings of instruction in the family. The domination of institu- tions in primitive society. 494. Oriental education. Each nation has evolved a system of education in ac- cordance with the dominant ideas of its civilization. The variety in systems and ideals mainly due to the re- lation of the social and individual factors to each other. The glaring contrast, in general, between oriental and occidental education as to the importance of the indi- vidual. Discussion of Chinese, Hindoo, Persian, He- braic, and Egyptian education under the following heads : 1. Social organization. 2. Education as determined by social organization. a. Aim. h. Means. c. Method. d. Administration. e. Results, social and individual. 297 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 495. Greek education. The social organization of the city-state and its in- fluence in shaping education. Greek religion, art and national games. Aims in Greek education, Greek edu- cation in relation to Greek social organization. Sparta and Athens as types. The organization of the Athenian schools. Music and gymnastics. Tendency to indi- vidualism in Greek life and education. The new Greek education. The Sophists. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Philosophical schools and their permanent significance. Significance of the Alexandrian period. Education as the essence of Greek life. Emergence of the ideal of a liberal education. 496. Ideals and methods of Roman education. Comparison of the Roman national ideal with that of Greece. Ideals of Roman education as expressed in Roman social organization, Roman education and the characteristic Roman virtues. Conception of the prac- tical value of education. Periods of Roman education. Hellenic influence. Organization of the Roman schools. The Roman Humanitas. Educational theorists. Cicero and Quintilian. 497. Early Christian education. To 529 A. D,, the date of the abolition of pagan schools by Justinian, The educational implications of the doctrine of the Great Teacher, His method. The first Christian schools. The church fathers. The conflict with the pagan learning. The tendency to asceticism. General 298 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS results of the intei-action of Greek, Roman and Chris- tian influences on education. 1. Pre-Christian education inefficient. No nation rises above its idea of a God. Greeks and Romans had lost their traditionary faith and regarded intellectual and esthetic culture as the highest aim of education. The equality of man practically unknown to the Ro- man empire. 2. Christian education a new force reconstructive in character. Aim: a perfect life. Teachings : the immortality of the soul ; The brotherhood of man; The worth of the individual. Condition: that conduced to the rapid spread of Christianity. 3. Christian and pagan ideals. Christian education subordinated the intellectual to the moral and religious. Reasons for the devotion of the early Christians to their ideals. Christian vs. Greek solution of the problem of the individual and society as shown in the attitude towards poverty, wealth, social position, amuse- ments, occupations, moral standards, marriage, women, children, slaves, the state, foreign nations. 4. Decadence of the Romano-Hellenic schools and the supremacy of Christian education consummated by the Edict of Justinian. Total rejection of pagan ideals not possible. Culture represented by classical literature. 299 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS The church antagonistic to scientific investigation. Effect of hostility against pagan learning upon the condition of education for a thousand years. 5. First Christian schools. Nature and object of instruction. Methods largely based upon the work of Christ as a teacher. Characteristics of these methods. Catechetical and Catechuminal schools. Reasons for their organization. Class of students. Subjects taught. Schools at Alexandria, C^esarea, Rome, Carthage. Alexandria a Christian university A. D. 389. Christian fathers and striking characteristics of their works and teachings: Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, St. Basel, Chrysostom, Ter- tullian, St. Jerome, St. Augustine. 498. Education during the Middle Ages. From 529 A. D, to the revival of learning. The decline of schools. Monasticism and the seven liberal arts. Episcopal and parochial schools. The Carolingian revival and the work of Alcuin. Alfred the Great. Education of the knight. The Crusades as an educational factor. Saracenic education. The schoolmen and the rise of the universities. Mysticism. The burgher schools. The church as the instrument of education. 1. Monastic education. Monasticism resulting from the ascetic spirit that followed the supremacy of Christianity. 300 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS Types of life represented: Cenobites^ Anchorites. The monastery described. Names and location of the most noted monasteries. Monastic orders : Benedictines, Dominicans, Cister- cians, Franciscans. Rules of the orders, poverty, labor. Provisions for study. Subjects taught. Use of pagan literature. The seven liberal arts ; trivium, quadrivium. Transcribing manuscripts. Collecting libraries. Special work of the Irish monks. The revival of learning under Charles the Great and scope of his efforts. The palace and castle schools. Subjects taught. * Use of the vernaculars. Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, Joannes Scotus Erigina. The origin of mysticism, its teachings. Relapse of the 10th and 11th centuries. 2. Saracenic learning. Mohammedan migrations and conquests. Intellectual advancement as shown by the patronage given to learning. Schools and libraries. Translations. Architecture, the Alhambra a type. Work in mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine and surgery. Contributions to the Christian world. Decline. 301 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS S. Forms of education from the 10th to the 13th cen- turies inchisive. Feudalism the social basis of medieval education. The institution described. Causes contributing to its growth. Relations of feudalism to church and state. Forms of medieval education. Chivalry, a new educational force, an outgrowth of feudalism and the influence of the church; its special value to a crude age; its code; inadequacy of the schools to teach its code; training of the page, the squire, the knight ; results of chivalry; its decline and end. Monastic and cathedral schools train for clerical du- ties. Industrial education: the apprentice system, the gild. The destruction of feudalism. The Crusades, their origin and purpose ; reasons for their humanizing and educative effect. The rise of free cities. Growths of municipal, parish and endowed grammar schools. The Brotherhood of the Common Life. 4. Scholasticism. Medieval science. A system of intellectual discipline. Its purpose to harmonize ancient philosophy, es- pecially that of Aristotle, with the doctrines of Christianity. Reasons for the growth of the scientific spirit. Great schoolmen : Abelard, Roger Bacon. 302 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS Limits of scholasticism. Its decline and downfall. Its service in awakening the minds of men and so accelerating the growth of the universities. 5. The rise of the nniversities. Causes contributing to their growth. The evolution of the first universities at Salerno, Bologna and Paris. Special work of each. How the universities were supported and gov- erned. Conflict W'ith municipal authorities. Special privileges. Temporary nature of their location and its effect. Courses of study. Discipline. ]\fethods of teaching. Graduation and degrees. Customs, habits and morals of students. Oxford and Cambridge. Revival of study of Greek language. Effect of invention of printing upon the methods and content of instruction. Influence as a public force. A power for freedom in an age of oppression. Interference in affairs of church and state. Effect of interchange of students. Preparation of leaders for the revival of learning know^n as the Renaissance. 6. Summary. In leaving the work outlined in this syllabus certain important facts should be emphasized because of 303 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS their bearing upon the Renaissance and all later educational development. Special attention is therefore due the lasting and broadening effects of the gradual and general growth of Christianity throughout Europe, the enlightening influence of the Crusades, the breaking down of feudalism, the rise of great municipalities with their wealth and refinement, the rise of the modern nations, the effect of the inventions of the mariner's compass and the art of printing, the growth of the ver- naculars to the status of written languages; and the gradual improvement in methods of travel, communication, manufacture and art, especially architecture, 499. The Renaissance and education. Courses of revival. Humanism in Italy: Dante^, Petrarcli and Boccaccio. Humanism beyond the Alps: Agricola, Reuchlin and Erasmus. Da Feltra, Colet, Ascham, Melanclithon and Sturm. Effect of the Renais- sance on education. 1. Introductory. Renaissance. Its approximate date. Its derivation. Its broad meaning-revival of classical learn- ing (literature and art). Humanism. Its meaning. 2. State of learning at the close of the Dark Ages. Saracenic influence. Greek and mathematics in German and Ital- 304 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS ian universities (extent and manner of introduction). Scientific investigation ; Roger Bacon. Subtle disputations by the schoolmen. Christian ideals and the dignity of the soul. Causes leading to the Renaissance ; ilhistration and discussion of each cause. The ''Deventer" influence. The breaking up of the Greek empire. The gradual transference of scholars and manuscripts. The crusades. The development of vernacular literature. Spirit of life in the great cities. Strengthening of the government of Central Europe. The establishment of universities. Numerous church councils. The invention of the art of printing. Mutual acquaintances of different govern- ments through diplomacy. Interest in the study of Greek literature. Geographical discoveries. The invention of the mariner's compass. The breaking down of feudalism. The invention of gunpowder. The progress of civilization of the Teutonic race. Humanism in Italy. Pioneers — Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch. Intellectual activity of Florence. 305 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS Influence of kinship of the Italians with noted men of the past. The changed meaning of the monuments of the civilization of ancient Rome. Search for old manuscripts; the founding of libraries ; the Aldine Press. Patrons of the new learning. Italian painting; the four masters; exam- ples of their work. 5. Humanism in Germany. Leaders — Agricola, Reuchlin, Erasmus, Its field compared with that in Italy. Attitude toward the existing state of the church. ''The Letters of Obscure Men." Protestant high schools. The Jesuit schools : aims, methods, discipline and courses of study. The gymnasium, 6. Humanism in England. Reasons for its fullest development here. New learning in Oxford. Erasmus in Cambridge. Change in the curriculum of the univer- sities. Growth of public schools. Dramatic literature. Education of women. 7. Humanism in America. a. In the Colonial period. h. At the present time. 306 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 8. Results of humanistic education. a. Good — (1) General; (2) on the indi- vidual. &. Bad ; how in each of the countries. 500. The Reformation and the Counter-Reforma- tion. Educational significance of the Reformation. Luther, Melanchthon and Knox. Sturm, "the Cicero of Ger- many." Trotzendorf, the monitorial system and self- government of pupils. Neander. Origin and constitu- tion of the Jesuits. Merits and limitations. The teaching societies. The Jesuits. The Oratorians. The Port Royalists. The Brethren of the Christian Schools. The Pietists. 501. Rise of realism and science in education. The humanistic and the realistic tendencies in educa- tion. Rise of realism and utilitarianism in education as opposed to humanism and culture. Verbal realism, Rabelais and Milton. Social realism, I\Iontaigne. Ba- con and the inductive study of nature. Comenius. The educational theories of Comenius. The rise of the con- ception of method in instruction. The place of Co- menius in the history of education. 502. Development of modem educational theory. Rabelais and realen. Ascham and method in lan- guage teaching. IMontaigne and the relative values of character, wisdom and knowledge. INIulcaster and edu- cation versus learning. The innovators: Bacon and the Novum Organum. 307 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS Eatke's visions and experiments. Milton's Tractate. Comenius and universal popular education. Rollin's Trait des etudes. Locke and the education of a gentle- man. Fenelon and his theory of female education. The New Education : Rousseau and education accord- ing to nature. Basedow and his Philanthropinum. Pes- talozzi and harmonious development. Froebel and the philosophy of education. Herbart and the science of education. Jacotot the methodizer. Spencer and edu- cation for complete living. Introductory 1. Locke — founder of naturalistic movement ; placed the child instead of the branches of instruction in the forefront of pedagogic consideration. Doctrine : All knowledge comes through the senses and experience and should lead through discipline to truth. Influence: Strengthened the doctrines of ''formal discipline" and that training is more important than knowledge. 2. Rousseau — worked out Locke's theories with ^'EmiW' ; inspired Pestalozzi to apply naturalis- tic theories, with emphasis on moral develop- ment, to the masses; strengthened the idea of education as development and growth and thus introduced the psychologic tendency. Principles : Education is the free development of the child according to his own nature through direct experience. Education should be negative, withholding di- 308 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS rect instruction of truth, but guarding against error. Interest should be the sole guide to intellectual training. Moral training should be by natural conse- quences. 3. Basedow and the Philanthropinists — the first to give expression to naturalistic views. Principles : Children should be treated as chil- dren^ not as adults. Languages should be taught by conversational methods, and the vernacular should be the chief subject-matter of instruction. Physical exercises and games and the learning of a handicraft should find a place in the child's education. Instruction should be based upon realities, not upon words. General characteristics of the psychologic movement. 1. Sympathy for and knowledge of childhood and child mind. 2. New attention paid to method based upon a rational psA^chology. 3. Education seen to mean a development, a natural process of growth from within. 4. More attention given to elementary education and to education for the masses. Chief exponents of the movement. 1. Pestalozzi. ''Before Pestalozzi, popular education did not exist. . . . For him was reserved the fame of having not only restored to credit the processes of the method of sense-perception, already known 309 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS and applied, but of having realized the social im- portance of the education of^the people." a. Biography — his life and literary activity. h. Doctrines: ''Education is a social duty; aim of education is to prepare men to be what they will be in society." ''The aim of all education and instruc- tion is and can be no other than the har- monious development of the powers and faculties of human nature, ' ' hence educa- tion and instruction should be based upon a knowledge of the laws of the develop- ment of the mind. c. Principles of method: Sense-perception is the absolute foundation of all knowl- edge. Language must be linked with observation — number, form, language are the means of instruction. Teaching must begin with the simplest ele- ments and proceed gradually. The time for learning is not the time for judgment. The chief end of elementary teaching is not to impart knowledge, but to develop and increase the powers of intelligence. The teacher should respect the individuality of the pupil. Discipline must be based upon and ruled by love. d. Influence in Prussia. Influence in United States. 310 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS (1) First school and teacher — Neef in Philadelphia. (2) In New England— Russell, Olcott, Mason, Barnard, Page. (3) In New York — Sheldon and the Os- wego Normal; the influence of the Oswego movement upon Victor ]\I. Rice. (•i) In St. Louis— AVilliam T. Harris. 2. Herhart — recognizes the need of psychology as a basis for instruction and develops a psychology that can be used in the practical problems of teaching; formulates the flrst system of educa- . tion that unifies education from kindergarten to university and makes pedagogy a science. a. Biography — his life and literary activity. h. Doctrines : The entire content of conscious- ness is due to experiences and therefore can be modified by education. The immediate aim of education is a bal- anced^ many-sided interest leading to knowledge and sympathy. The ultimate aim is to determine the will toward virtue — moral life is the end of all education ; but such life depends upon the nature of the world organized in the mind and soul and can be furthered by education. c. Basis of his psychology: the doctrine of apperception. "Sense-perceptions are the elements of mental life and their com- binations, permutations and interactions 311 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS cause all the rest of the manifold forms of consciousness." The mind develops through its own experiences through the acquisitions of presentations or sense- perceptions; education or instruction, however, controls these presentations, hence the importance of the influence and guidance of the teacher in presenting presentations. d. Contrast between Pestalozzi and Herbart — perception versus apperception. Pestalozzi emphasizes the use of the senses, but lays little stress on previous knowl- edge; Herbart 's chief object is to secure the reaction of the mind upon what is offered to the senses. e. Principles and questions of method : Methods of instruction must harmonize with the psychologic development of the child. The meaning of the following terms: Five formal steps of method. Doctrine of interest. Culture-epoch theory. Theories of correlation, coordination, con- centration. Relative value of studies. /. Influence in Germany and in the United States. Froehel — crystallizes theories into practical methods, especially with reference to the young child ; rec- ognizes the value of self-activity and the power 312 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS of play to awaken and to strengthen the intelli- gence and the soul as well as the body. a. Biography — his life and literary activity. h. Contrast between Herbart and Proebel: Herbart emphasizes the importance of the teacher and the method of instruction, Proebel the importance of the child, as the factor in the educative process. To Froebel, education is conscious evolution; the child must be self-active in the ac- quisition and assimilation as well as in the expression of knowledge. c. Principles: "In all things there lives and reigns an eternal law." The child must be brought into harmony with this law of unity. This is accomplished by conti- nuity in education and by self-activity. Continuity: ''education should be one connected whole and should advance with an orderly, continuous growth." Self- activity : ' ' activity determined by one 's own motives, arising out of one's own in- terests and sustained b}^ one's OAvn power." (1) Porms of activity: play, manual activities, expression in gesture, song, language, construction. (2) Development of method expounded in kindergarten gifts, occupa- tions, mother-songs and plays. d. Influence. (1) In Germany. 313 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS (2) In United States — Elizabeth Pea- body, Mrs. Carl Schurz, Dr. Wil- liam T. Harris, Susan Blow. 503. Development of public education in the United States. The more important educational activities in colonial America. Character and influence of the academy in American education. The secondary school. Horace Mann and the common school revival. The normal school system. European influences in American education. The educational situation. 504. Development of school systems. The principal steps in the development of the school systems of Germany, France, England and the United States. The present administration of these systems, the school attendance, the various grades of schools, the manner in which the schools are supported, the curricu- lums, and the provision for the training of teachers. In the study of the development of the educational systems in the United States stress should be laid on the work of the common schools and the influence of such men as Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, Francis W. Parker, and W. T. Harris. 505. Education in New York State. Stages in the development of elementary, secondary and higher education. Professional, technical, commer- cial, industrial, and other branches of education. The present administration of education in New York State. 314 NEW YORK STATE SYLLABUS 506. Modern tendencies in education. The child study movement — societies for the study of education. The problem of the curriculum. Night and vacation schools — centralization of schools. Parent- teacher circles. Physical education and improvements in buildings and surroundings, etc. Medieval guilds and the liberation of the laborer. Ef- fects of the Industrial Revolution. The social problem presented by the industrial and democratic type of so- ciety. Origin and growth of industrial education. In- dustrial training in Germany, France and England. Education demanded for individual and social efficiency in America. 315 Chapter XXXIV GENERAL SUMMARY 507. Purpose. This chapter is intended to help students organize the principal facts into periods or other unities which clearly indicate development in history and principles of education. Oriental Education Purposeful effort to secure specific ends but not har- monious development. Classical Education 508. Greece. Sparta. Physical training of boys to prepare for service to the state; of girls to prepare to bring forth vigorous sons. Health, obedience, loyalty^ courage. Athens. Culture an ideal; literary, esthetic, physical training to produce harmonious or balanced training of all human powers. ''The true, the beautiful^ the good." Music and gymnastics for elementary training, philosophy and vocational drill for higher preparation. Socrates. Method of teaching by questioning to de- velop valid concepts; expose error, lead to truth; in- 316 GENERAL SUMMARY terest, self-activity, reasoning and judgment. The method was inductive. Plato. A pupil of Socrates; school called Academy; Laws and RepuNic; three classes of people, education adapted bj^ epochs; lecture method; psychology in his theory of ideas. Aristotle. One of Plato's pupils; school called Ly- ceum; Politics and Ethics; inductive and deductive methods, with preference for latter. 509. Rome. Efficiency an ideal; institutional; organization; ora- tory ; practical, obedient citizens. Learn to do by doing. Cicero: orator; mild treatment of pupils. Seneca : philosopher ; Nero. Quintilian: teacher of rhetoric; Institutes of Oratory; vs. corporal punishment; public schools best, object method for letters, graphic method for writing, i. e., tracing ; learn foreign language first ; literary education. The Christian Era 510. Period 1 to 1500. 1. Discipline of mind and body an ideal; aimed to save the soul; religious. Discipline comes from per- sistent exercise; formal culture. 2. Ideal pedagogy of The Great Teacher. The Chris- tian Fathers helped formulate material for instruction, interpreted Christian doctrines for subsequent use, and served as the transition from classical period to monas- tic period. 3. Monks — Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, Cistercians. 317 GENERAL SUMMARY Course of study, Seven Liberal Arts, in use 1000 years. Trivium: Grammar, rhetoric, logic. Quadrivium : Arithmetic, geometry, music, astron- omy. 4. Charlemagne. 9th century. Founded schools ; best teachers; Alcuin secured as teacher; Charlemagne him- self a student ; German for Lord 's Prayer and Apostles ' Creed; national system of universal, compulsory educa- tion. Alfred the Great. England. Education for higher classes — language, customs and laws. 5. Feudalism. 1000-1200. Three periods of knight's education : home, page, esquire ; seven perfections ; woman exalted. Mohammedans. Sciences: chemistry originated; uni- versities after elementary schools ; Bagdad and Cordova. 6. Crusades, universities, scholasticism, 1200-1500. Religious aim, to rescue Jerusalem; mental awaken- ing, interest, activity (compare preparation in formal steps) ; downfall of feudalism; brotherhood of man, in- ventions, discoveries, explorations, commerce. 7. Universities. Salerno, Bologna, Paris, Prague, Oxford, Cambridge, etc. Faculties — law, medicine, philosophy, theology. Abelard at Paris. 8. Scholasticism. 9th-15th centuries. {a) Aim to reconcile philosophy and the Christian religion. (&) Thomas Aquinas and Abelard. (c) Methods — lecture, syllogism or deductive reason- 318 GENERAL SUMMARY Modern Education 511. 16th Century. Renaissance. Realism. The period of Charlemagne was the first renaissance; Scholasticism was second ; and this period was the great renaissance, or the revival of learning. Discipline of intellect an ideal ; formal discipline from study of classi- cal Latin and Greek. 1. Humanism. Literary studies humanize, refine. Dante: Inferno, Divine Comedy. Erasmus: translator, printer; Greek testament. Study Latin and Greek together. 2. Printing in fifteenth century was best stimulus to renaissance. 3. Reforms. Luther, theory of education; primary schools; Ger- man language only; music; pedagogical training needed by all teachers ; trades ; national control. Melanchthon, organizer; books on Greek, Logic, Rhetoric, Hebrew; Saxony School Plan, 3 grades, Latin the only language ; founder of public school system. E. 128. Sturm, successful organizer; Classical High School Course; Latin and Greek; double translation; Strasburg Gymnasium. 4. Jesuits, or counter-reformers. Aims — to be the best teachers, preachers, confessors. Course of study — Ratio Studiorum, 1599. Criticism: Most efficient system for three centuries. Trained teachers ; mild discipline ; emulation. 5. Ascham. Queen Elizabeth ; double translation. Scholemaster. 319 GENERAL SUMMARY 6. Rabelais. Realist: natural science. Concrete to ab- stract; known to related unknown; things before words. Gargantua, satire on scholastic education. 7. Montaigne. Use senses. Use science. No corporal punishment. Beauty and pleasure in school rooms. Essays on Pedantry. 512. 17th Century. Innovators. Realism applied ; new views. 1. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) had depopulated Germany and set her back two hundred years in character, intelligence and morality. 2. Educators vs. humanistic studies ; for real, practical work. 3. Principles of education : a. Things before words. &. Sense instruction. c. Begin with mother tongue^ French or German. d. Latin or Greek for advanced work. e. Physical training. /. According to nature. 4. Comenius. Knowledge an ideal. Organization, methods, books. School system ; 4 periods of 6 years each. Text-books: Orhis Pictus; Gate of Tongues Un- locked; Great Didactic. Principles : Learn to do by doing ; learn a language by use; nature is the basis of all learning. Ex- ternal physical nature the guide ; analogy of pre- paring soil for crops. 5. Francis Bacon. Inductive philosophy and modern science. Essays; Novum Organum. 320 GENERAL SUMMARY 6. Locke. Private schools for higher classes of people. Learn Latin by conversation or interlinear transla- tion. Memory trained by short passages. Interest and pleasure. Leave to your children a. virtue c. good manners h. prudence d. instruction Essays concerning Human Understanding. Thoughts on Education. 7. Milton. Very broad system of education. Paradise Lost. 8. Ratke or Ratich. Germany. Natural method in mastery of language. Double translation. Uniformity in speech, etc. 9. Port Royalists of France. Vs. Jesuits; more heart in religion. Object teach- ing. Phonetic spelling. Text-hooks on Logic, etc. 10. Pietists of Germany. Francke and Institutions at Halle. Vs. Reformers; more piety in religion. Peda- gogium, Real-gymnasium, orphan asylum, etc. ; 3200 students in 1727. Real-school; modern languages, sciences, arts; vs. Classical Gymna- sium. 11. Fenelon : Indirect instruction. Education of Girls, Dialogues of the Bead. 12. Christian Brothers. First normal school, Rheims, 1684. Primary schools. Simultaneous methods. 321 GENERAL SUMMARY 513. 18th Century. Naturalism. Development an ideal. Realism continued. Accord- ing to nature includes nature of child. 1. Rousseau. E. 178-191. Emile : stages^ course of study ; attention to child study. According to nature, negative education, discipline of consequences or natural punish- ment. 2. Basedow. Philanthropin at Dessau. Purely secular education. Failure, but influenced Europe. Ele- mentary Book. 514. 19th Century. Naturalism, science. 1. Pestalozzi. Percepts the basis of knowledge. a. Naturalness in teaching and learning, &. Love. c. National system. d. Evening Hours of a Hermit — educational max- ims. e. Leonard and Gertrude — nature of village life in Switzerland. /. How Gertrude Teaches Her Children — his own principles. 2. Froebel. Kindergarten. Keilhau. a. Harmonious training. h. Self-activity. c. Productiveness; occupations. d. Play; social activity; religion. e. Songs for Mother and Nursery. f. Education of Man. 3. Herbart. Character an ideal. Concepts the basis of knowledge. Formal steps of instruction. Peda- 322 GENERAL SUMMARY gogy made a science. Will in character. In- terest. 4. Horace Mann: Massachusetts Reports, mild disci- pline; normal schools; American public school system. 5. David Page: Albany Normal; Theory and Practice of Teaching. 6. Barnard: Connecticut Reports. 7. Thomas Arnold: Rugby. Character in boys. 8. Jacotot: Repetition, ''All can learn," "All can teach." 9. Spencer: Complete living; science; Education. 515. 20th Century. Eclectic view. Combination of best features of former views. Bagley's The Educative Process. Butler's The Cleaning of Education. Dewey's School and Society. Home's Philosophy of Education. James's Talks to Teachers. McMurry's Elementary School Standards. Perry's The Management of a City School. 516. Courses of study. Indicate facts of time, nation, or men. 1. Music and Gymnastics. 2. Seven Liberal Arts. 3. Law, ]\Iedicine, Philosophy, Theology. 4. Llumanism. 5. Classical High School Course. 6. Ratio Studiorum. 7. Eclectic courses. 323 GENERAL SUMMARY 517. Name Books. , authors or books. 1. Laws. 2. Republic. 3. Plutarch. 4. Quintilian. 5. Confessions. 6. Koran. 7. Erasmus. 8. Gargantua. 9. The Advancement of Learning. 10. Tractate on Education. 11. Comenius. 12. Locke. 13. tmile. 14. Elementary Book, or Elementarhuch, mentarwerk. or Ele 15. Pestalozzi. 16. Education of Man. 17. Education. 18. School and Society. 19. Educative Process. 20. The Meaning of Education. 518. Schools, organizations, or institutions. Associate essential facts. 1. Academy. 2. Lyceum. 3. Monasticism. 4. Bagdad and Cordova. 5. Christian universities. 6. Scholasticism. 324 GENERAL SUMMARY 7. Strasburg gymnasium. 8. Christian Brotliers at Rlieims. 9. Port Royal. 10. Halle. 11. Philanthropin or Philanthropinum at Dessau. 12. Yverdon. 13. Keilhau. 14. Rugby. 15. Common schools of United States. 519. Method of teaching*. Give name of method or tell name of user. 1. Socrates. 2. Aristotle. 3. Scholastics. 4. Double translation. 5. Prelection, repetition, disputation (Method of studying Latin in schools of Jesuits). 6. Inductive method. 520. Life virtues. Associate nations or educators. 1. Obedience. 2. 3. 4. Respect. Courtesy. Silence. 5. Self-control. 6. Order or organization. 7. 8. Accuracy. Neatness. 9. 10. Good posture. Love. 326 Chapter XXXV DRILL AND REVIEW 1. Define education. 2. What is the meaning of history? 3. Name seven ideals in the history of education. Which one is the most comprehensive ? Give rea- son for your choice. 4. Which form of education is priestly? ancestral? state? caste? 5. Describe Chinese competitive examinations. 6. Who was Confucius ? Give one quotation from him. 7. Explain the philosophy of Zoroaster. 8. What nation originated geometry? Why? 9. Why were the Hindus an imaginative people? 10. Mention two virtues sought in each oriental nation. 11. Contrast the caste systems of India and Egypt. 12. What subjects were studied by (a) the Magi, (&) priests ? 13. What advance in methods of teaching in Egypt? 14. Describe the Socratic method of teaching and dis- cuss its application. 15. Define and illustrate (a) deductive method, (h) inductive method. 16. Mention three principles of pedagogy advocated by Aristotle. 328 DRILL AND REVIEW 17. Compare the first seven years of the Athenian child's life with those of the Spartan child; con- trast their later education. 18. Describe the two great writings of Plato. 19. Why were Spartan women educated? 20. What educator made harmony his basis? 21. Mention three favorable points in Spartan educa- tion. 22. Mention five defects of Spartan education. 23. Who was the great lawgiver for (a) Athens, (6) Sparta? 21. IMention five points in which Grecian education ex- celled oriental education. 25. What were the duties of a pedagogue ? 26. For what is Euclid noted? Pythagoras? Zoro- aster ? 27. What was the Lyceum? the Academy? 28. Name three Grecian books treating on education. 29. Who was the most learned Grecian? 30. Name the periods of education in Plato's scheme. 31. What important treatise did Aristotle w^ite? 32. Who was the author of deductive logic ? 33. Show how play was utilized in Grecian education. 34. Who taught Alexander the Great ? 35. Athens sought to develop the true, the beautiful, and the good. What gain have we made in twenty-five hundred years? ''We have made but one great change, that of sub- stituting material achievement for the esthetic expression of personality; and this is a change that is not an unmitigated blessing nor unqual- ified advance." (Monroe, page 59.) 329 DRILL AND REVIEW 36. Distinguish (a) palestra and (&) gymnasia. The school of physical culture for youths in Greece was called a palestra; those for men were called gymnasia. 37. What did music include in Grecian education? In general, all educative efforts presided over by the nine muses, as follows : Clio, the muse of his- tory; Euterpe, of lyric poetry; Thalia, of com- edy; Melpomene, of tragedy; Terpsichore, of choral dance; Erato, of amatory poetry; Poly- hymnia, of rhetoric and eloquence; Urania, of astronomy; Calliope, of epic poetry. 38. Give three favorable criticisms of Roman education. 39. Who was the first teacher to hold an endowed chair in education? 40. Name the most eminent Roman philosopher. 41. What was the chief aim in Roman education? 42. Tell who wrote each of the following : a. Talmud. h. Iliad and Odyssey. c. Institutes of Oratory. d. Bepuhlic. e. Latin Orations. f. Yedas. g. Laws. h. Diialistic Philosophy. i. Politics. j. Parallel Lives. k. Training of Children. I. Deductive Logic. 43. Give an account of the origin and the rise of the early Christian universities. 330 DRILL AND REVIEW 44. Describe the relation between the Church and the schools. 45. What did the Saracens do to foster learning? 46. Define scholasticism. Name three schoolmen. 47. Name three monastic orders. State four of their contributions to progress. 48. Name three noted books of this period, and the author of each. 49. Where were the first catechetical schools? What was their purpose? What was their method of teaching ? 50. What two early Christian educators w^ere opposed to pagan literature? Why? What ones favored the use of Latin and Greek classics ? 51. Name the Seven Liberal Arts. Who made this course ? 52. What is the Koran ? Who compiled it ? 53. Mention three of Charlemagne's reforms. What contributions to education did Alcuin make? 54. Who was Alfred the Great? What language did he aid in developing? 55. Name the seven perfections of a knight. 56. Describe the three periods in feudal education. 57. Define and illustrate syllogism. What educators used it ? What is its value ? 58. Why were the early Christians backward in intel- lectual development? Three reasons. 59. Explain the effects of the Crusades on educa- tion. 60. Locate (a) five Christian universities^ (h) two Mos- lem universities. 61. What new studies in this period? 331 DRILL AND REVIEW 62. Status of woman? 63. Name two books written by St. Augustine. 64. What years are assigned to the Middle Ages? 65. What were the four departments of instruction in the universities? 66. Name authors: a. Letters on the Education of Girls. h. The Bible known as the Latin Vulgate. c. Confessions. d. The City of God. e. Education of the Clergy. f. Translation of Bede's History of the English People. g. Koran. h. DeMagistro (Concerning the Teacher). i. Summa Theologice. 67. Considering this period from an educational point of view, is it rightly called the Dark Ages? 68. What does the word Renaissance suggest to you? How does the Great Renaissance differ from the two preceding ones? 69. Name three German representatives of the new learning. 70. What is the meaning of humanism? What were the humanities? 71. Was the education of women advanced much? 72. Describe the Gargantua of Rabelais. 73. Who was called the preceptor of Germany? (Melanchthon.) 74. Describe the Saxony School Plan. Why did it not succeed outside of rural schools and small village schools ? 332 DRILL AND REVIEAV 75. What was the attitude toward school discipline in the sixteenth century? 76. Who wrote (a) Divine Comedy, (&) Pantagruel, (c) Essays on Pedantry, (e) ScJiolemaster, (/) Instruction of Children f 77. What humanist was a noted translator, writer and publisher ? 78. What two courses of study were organized in the sixteenth century? Which one has largely in- fluenced English and American high school courses ? 79. Give advice of Erasmus for (a) memory; (6) care of girls. 80. When and by whom was printing invented ? 81. Enumerate the points of value of humanistic train- ing. a. Required decision in favor of the expression that was absolutely best. This required dis- crimination, mental acuteness, and scholarly tact. h. It aimed at exactness in a degree more search- ing than either mathematics or science. c. Such discipline, though small in extent, was di- rect preparation for mental experiences in life. d. Humanistic scholarship did not exclude other subjects having correlated value. 82. State two defects of humanistic training. a. Words were taught instead of things. b. Formal side of language emphasized too much. 83. What is the meaning of the term Innovators ? 84. Give five pedagogical principles of the Innovators. 333 DRILL AND REVIEW 85. Name three inventions or discoveries that tended to direct attention to practical things. 86. Describe the natural or conversational method of Ratke. 87. State three of Ratke 's principles. 88. What is meant by the inductive method? Show that it deals with things rather than words. 89. Describe the school system planned by Comenius. 90. What did Comenius mean by according to nature? (See 301.) 91. Comenius would associate things and words. Show that he thus combined humanism and realism. (See 298 &.) 92. Criticize Milton's definition of education. 93. What subjects used by the Oratorians would class them as realists rather than humanists? 94. Name two contributions from the Port Royalists. 95. Define, illustrate, and defend indirect instruction as used by Fenelon. 96. Show three ways in which the Christian Brothers permanently aided elementary education. 97. Name three essential principles discussed by Locke. 98. Give Locke's opinion of (a) Latin, (&) music, 99. Outline Locke's suggestions on physical education. 100. What would Locke have parents leave to their children ? 101. Show three views in which Locke followed Mon- taigne. 102. Name the authors : a. Novum Organum. h. Orhis Pictus. c. Paradise Lost. 334 DRILL AND REVIEW d. Fahles. e. Great Didactic. f. Essays. g. Advancement of Learning, h. Paradise Regained. i. Port Royal Logic. j. Telemachus. k. Tractate on Education. I. Conduct of Schools. m. Essay concerning Human Understanding. n. Gate of Tongues Unlocked. 0. Education of Girls. p. Conversations on the Sciences. q. Dialogues of the Dead. r. Thoughts on Education. 103. AVliy is Rousseau the representative educator of the eighteenth century? 104. AVhat did Rousseau mean by according to nature? 105. Define pietism. 106. Describe the Institutions at Halle. 107. What educator is associated with university re- forms? 108. What is meant by real schools? 109. What subjects were studied in the real schools? 110. Why did the Philanthropin fail? 111. Show that the principle of motor activity was known in Basedow's scheme. 112. State Kant's view in regard to training the will. 113. How many periods in Emile's education? 114. State clearly what was studied by Emile during each period. 115. Define and illustrate negative education. 335 DRILL AND REVIEW 116. What is the meaning of natural punishment? State {a) favorable, (&) unfavorable use. 117. Give Rousseau's view of female education. 118. Name the author; a. Confessions. h. Elementary. c. Emile. d. Book of Methods. e. Ancient History. f. Philosophy. g. Social Contract. h. Treatise on Studies. 119. Give a sketch of the life of Pestalozzi. 120. What is the source of information on Pestalozzi 's views? (See 382.) 121. Show that Pestalozzi believed in education as de- velopment. 122. State three principles of teaching advocated by Pestalozzi. 123. Give an account of the origin of the kindergarten. 124. How did Froebel utilize self-activity? 125. How does the kindergarten satisfy the child's in- stinct of productiveness ? 126. The Education of Man, Thoughts on Education, Spencer's Education, Emile, and Dewey's School and Society are considered epoch-making books in education. Give one leading thought from each book. 127. State three kindergarten principles that apply in all education. 3 28. Give a brief psychological justification of the kin- dergarten. (391.) 336 DRILL AND REVIEW 129. What is Herbart's service to Pestalozzianism ? (394.) 130. Show the succession from Locke to Ilerbart. (395.) 131. Herbart made character the aim of education^ and he made will the means to character. Do you agree ? Why ? 132. Show exactly how Pestalozzi^ Froebel and Her- bart differ from one another. (400.) 133. What are the limitations upon repetition in learn- ing? Which is ideal, quiet concentration or ac- tive repetition? Why? 134. State a paradox from Jacotot and disprove or de- fend it. 135. Give Spencer's definition of education, naming the five activities. 136. Criticize that definition. 137. In a course of study, would you favor sciences or languages, or both? Why? 138. Physics has both culture value and material value ; Latin has only formal or culture value. Discuss this statement. 139. Explain discipline of consequences. Apply it to (a) laziness in school, (&) tardiness, (c) cheat- ing. 140. How did Arnold develop reciprocal trust in school government ? 141. What important treatise did Bain Avrite? State one of his views. 142. Briefly outline the favorable features of European schools. 143. Summarize the contributions of ]\Iann and Bar- nard. 337 DRILL AND REVIEW 144. What book was written by David P. Page ? 145. Arrange in chronological order five courses of study that are combined in modern eclectic courses. 146. Make a list of ten books that have strongly in- fluenced the history of education. 147. Give briefly the substance of one book that has helped you in the history of education. 148. Name five prominent educators living in America today. 149. Which one of the teaching congregations is promi- nent in elementary education at present ? 150. Name three educational journals and briefly de- scribe the nature of each. ^ 338 INDEX The figures refer to sections unless otherwise indicated. The names of books are printed in italics. A Abacus, 149 Abelard, at Paris, 223 Academy in United States, 433, 485 Plato's, 98 According to nature Bacon, 480 Comenius, 301, 480 Froehel, 388, 481 Pestalozzi, 481 Port Royalists, 320 Ratke, 289 Rousseau, 362, 363, 481 Achilles, 60 Administration of schools Austria, p. 273 England, pp. 268, 274 France, pp. 267, 273 Germany, pp. 266, 272 Russia, p. 269 United States, pp. 224, 275 Advancement of Learning, Ba- con, 293 Agricola, 237 Ahriman of Zoroaster, 38 Albertus Magnus, Dominican, 234 Alchemy, 4 under 36 Alcuin, 191 Aldhelm, 187 Aldine printing press, p. 131 Alexander the Great, 59 Alexandria, 170 Alfred the Great, 194 Alphabet, 33 American education. Chap. XXVI American Journal of Education, p. 233 Analects of Confncius, 11 Ancestral education, 11 Animism, 10 Apperception, Herbart, 393 Apprentices, 31 Aquaviva, 247 Aquinas, St. Thomas, 223 Arabian service to education, 210 Arabic notation, 210 Aristotle, 104-110 Arithmetic Athenian, 74 concrete primary, 149 Egyptian, 43 Hindu, 25, 144 Saracen, 210 Arno'd, Thomas, 413 Aryans, 17 Asceticism, 180 Ascham, Roger, 244 Astrology, 4 under 36 Athens new, p. 47 old, p. 43 339 INDEX Attendance, 284 Augustine, St., 178 Augustus, p. 74 Bacon, Francis, 292 Bacon, Roger, 283 Bede or Baeda, 188 Bain, 419 Barnard, Henry, 424, 438 Barzizza, 235 Basedow, 349 Basil, 177 Bell, Andrew, 472 Benedict, St., 182 Benedictine monks, 182 Bible Greek New Testament, Eras- mus, 238 Latin Vulgate, St. Jerome, 175 Luther's, 240 Blankenburg, kindergarten, 386 Boccaccio, 235 Boetliius, Translation of, 194 Bologna University, 215 Boniface, 182 Book of Methods, Basedow, 350 Book of Dead, Egypt, 43 Books, list of, 517 Boston Latin School, 429 Brahmanism, 27 Brahmans, 20, 22, 23 Brethren of the Christian Schools, 236 Brown, E. E., 424 Browning, Oscar, quoted, 182 Budaeus, 278 Buddha, 27 Bureau of Education, 424 Burgher schools, p. 119 Butler, quoted, 2 Cabell, 448 Csesar, p. 74 340 Ca?sarea, p. 170 Calvin, p. 154 Campe, 352 Carthage, p. 170 Carvilius, Spurius, 112 Castes defined, p. 17 Egyptian, 40 Hindu, 20 Catechetical schools, 170 Catechumens, 170 Cathedral schools, 170 Champeaux, William of, p. 118 Character, an ideal, 2, 398 Charlemagne, 189 Cheever, Ezekiel, 429 Chemistry, 210 Child study, Rousseau, 372 China, 11 Chivalry, 198 Christian Brothers, 325, 476 era in education, p. 90 Fathers, 171 ideas, 166 Chronological table, 488 Chrysoloras, 235 Chrysostom, 176 Cicero, 120 Cistercians, 182 Citizenship, an ideal, 2 Classical literature Chinese, 12 Greek in Rome, 118 Hindu, 22 in Jesuit schools, 247 in Sturm's school, 242 Roman in Rome, 118 Claxton, P. P., 424 Clement, 172 Colet, 244 Colleges Connecticut, 439 Georgia, p. 245 Maryland, p. 241 Massachusetts, 436 New Jersey, p. 235 INDEX Colleges — Continued New York State, 45G Pennsylvania, p. 237 Virginia, 447 Colloquies, Erasmus, 238 Columbia University, 240 Comenius aims and principles, 297, 300 Didactica Magna, Comenius, 300 educational periods, 299 Janua Linguarum, 298 labors, 299, 300 OrUs Pictus, 298 realism, 9 under 339 text-books, 298 Commissioner of Education U. S., 424 Commercial aim, Phenicia, 30 Common School Journal^ 450 Complete living, Spencer, 407 Compulsory education, 284 Conduct of Schools, LaSalle, 327 Confessions Rousseau, 3G1 St. Augustine, 178 Confucius, 12 Congregations, teaching Christian Brothers, 325 Jansenists, 318 Jesuits, 245 Oratorians, 314 Port Royalists, 318 Connecticut, 437 Counter-reformation, 245 County supervision. Chap. XXVII Course of study, 51G Classical High School, 241 modern, 249 music and gymnastics, 7'^» ratio studiorum, 247 Roman, 136, 153 Seven Liberal Arts, 184 Court schools, 235, 243 Crotona, G8 Crusades, 202 Culture, an ideal, 2 Culture epochs, 377 da Feltre, p. 130 Dancing, Greek, 7G Dante, 235 Dates and events, 452, 488 De Anima, Vives, 278 Decimal system, 25 Dc Disciplinis, Vives, 278 Deductive method Aristotle, 109, 151 St. Thomas, 221 Degrees, Chinese, IG Demosthenes, 59 Dessau, Basedow's Philauthro- pin, 351 Development, an ideal, 2, 140 Deventer, 23G Dewey, 351 Dialectic, 49 Dialogues, Plato, 99 Dialogues of the Dead, Fenelon, 312 Didactica Maqna, Comenius, 300 Didaskaleion, 80 Discipline, an ideal, 2 Discipline of consequences, 367, 412 Disputation in .Tesuit schools, 248 Dock, Christopher, 442 Dominicans, 182 Donatus, Latin grammar, p. 84 Drill and review, p. 328 Duns Scotus, Franciscan, 234 E Eaton, John, 424 Education ancestral, p. 11 animism, 10 341 INDEX Education — Continued caste, p. 17 commercial, p. 23 early Christian, 168 eclectic, 1, 486 epochs, 7-8 Grasco-Roman, 115 harmonious, 78 humanistic, p. 122 ideals, 2 medieval, p. 90 modern, p. 122 monastic, 179 New York State, p. 248 priestly, p. 27 primitive, 9 realistic, p. 146 Roman, p. 73 State, p. 25 theocratic, p. 30 value of history, 3-7 Education, Spencer, 406 Education as a Science, Bain, 420 Education of Girls, Fenelon, 309 Education of Man, Froebel, 387 Efficiency, an ideal, 2 Egypt, 39 Elementarie, Mulcaster, 272 Elementary Book, Basedow, 350 Emile, Rousseau, 363 Emulation in Jesuit schools, 248 England, 463 English public schools, p. 140 Ephebes, Athenian, 75 Episcopal schools, 170 Epochs, 7 Erasmus, 244 Erigena, 193 Esquire, training, 199 Essays Bacon, 293 Locke, 332 Montaigne, 261 Ethics, Aristotle, 104 Euclid, 59 European education, p. 266 Evening Hours of a Hermit, Pestalozzi, 382 Examinations, Chinese, 16 Expression, Froebel's theory, 390 Faculties in medieval universi- ties, 214 Faust, John, 224 Fenelon, 308 Feudalism, 199 Florence Aldine press, p. 131 Chrysoloras, p. 130 University, p. 130 Formal discipline, 330 Formal Steps of Instruction, 393 France, 462 Franciscans, 3 under 182 Francke, 343, 477 and Pietists, 343 institutions at Halle, 344 pedagogium, 346 real schools, 348 Franklin, Benjamin, 443 Frederick, William I, 348 Froebel, 386 Education of Man, 387 kindergarten, 388 Fiirstenschulen, 243 Galileo, 283 Gargantua, Rabelais, 255 Gemara, 50 Geometry, Egyptian, 43 Georgia, 449 Georgias, 88 Germany, 455 Gifts, kindergarten, 390 Grammatists, schools of, 118 342 INDEX Great Didactic, Comenius, 300 Great Teacher, Jesus Christ, p. 16G Greece, 36 Age of Pericles, p. 47 Athens, new, 77 Athens, old, p. 39 great men, 59 Homeric period, GO Sophists, 88 Sparta, 61 Theorists, p. 54 Grocyn, p. 138 Groot at Deventer, 236 Guarino, 235 Guericke, air pump, 283 Guild schools, p, 119 Gutenberg, 224 Gymnasien, 242 Gymnasium, 74, 82, p. 58, 242 Gymnastics in Greece, 76 H Hall, S. R., p. 276 Halle, Institutions, 343 Hanlin or Imperial Academy, 16 Harvard, 429, 430 Harvey, circulation of blood, 283 Hegius, 235 Helots, 63 Harris, W. T, pp. 222, 424 Harvey, 283 Hebrews, 45 Hecker and real schools, 348 Herbart, 393 Herodotus, 59 Hieronymians, 236 Hindustan, 19 Hinsdale, B. A., p. 223 Hippias, 88 History, for patriotism, 48, 178 History of education, value, 3 Homer, 59, 60 Hoose, J. H., 446 (a) Horace, p. 74 Hoio Gertrude Teaches her Children, Pestalozzi, 382 Humanism, 234-240 America, 244, p. 140 England, p. 138 Germany, 231, 236 Holland, 231, 236 Italy, 230, 235 narrow, 234 Ilumanitas, Roman, 135, 234 I Ideals, in education, 2 Iliad, 59 India, 19 Indirect instruction, 311, 312 Inductive method Aristotle, 110 Bacon, 292, 294 Locke, 334 Rousseau, 368 Socrates, 91 Inheritances, 1, 486 Innovators, 281 Institutes of Oratory, Quintil- ian, 124 Interest, Herbartian, 398 Invention of printing, 224 lona monastery, p. 104 Irens in Sparta, 65 Irish monks, p. 104 Islam, 204 .Tacotot, 401 Jansenists, 318 Janua Linguarum, Comenius, 298 Jefferson, Thomas, 447 Jerome, St., 175 Jesuits, 245, 475 as teachers, 248 Ratio Studiorum, 247 Jesus, pedagogy of, 167 Jews, 44 343 INDEX Joannes Scotus Erigena, 193 Johns Hopkins, p. 241 Journals, pedagogical, pp. 233, 246 Justinian, p. 98 Kant, 1, 374 Kemp, quoted, 25 Kepler, 283 Kindergarten, 388-391 Knight, perfections, 198 Knowledge, an ideal, 2 Knox, p. 154 Koran, 205 La Fontaine, 324 Lamy, 317 Lancaster, Joseph, 472, 478 Lancelot, 323 LaSalle, 325 Conduct of Schools, 327 normal school, 328 simultaneous teaching, 328 Latin method x\.scham, 239 Comenius, 9 under 338 Jesuits, 248 Locke, 5 under 334 Ratke, 289 Sturm, 242 Laurentius, printer, 224 Law Bologna, 215 Hebrew, 50 Lycurgus, 62 Roman, 111, 119 Laws, Plato, 99 Learning, revival of. Chap. XX Leonard and Qertrude, Pesta- lozzi, 382 Libraries, humanistic, p. 131 Liuacre, p. 138 Literator, 117 Literatus, 118 Lives, Plutarch, 128 Livius Andronicus, 114 Livy, p. 74 Locke character of work, 337 health rules, 335 intellectual training, 334 moral training, 336 physical training, 335 Logic, Port Royal, 322 Loyola, Ignatius, 245 Luther, Martin, 240 Lyceum of Aristotle, 105 Lycurgus, 59, 62 Lyre at Sparta, 65 M McClure at Yverdon, 444 Magi, 36 Mann, Horace, 435 Mantua court school, p. 130 Mascaron, Oratorian, 317 Massachusetts, p. 226 Massillon, Oratorian, 317 Man r us, 192 Melanchthon, 241 Mencius, 12 Military training of chivalry, 199-202 Persian, 34 Spartan, 05 Milton, John, 303 Mishna, 50 Model school, Herbart's, 393 Mohammedans, 204 Monasticism, 179 Monitorial system Bell, 472, 478 Hindu, 22 Lancaster, 472, 478 Montaigne, 260 More, Thomas, 260 Mulcaster, Richard, 269 Muses, Grecian, 76 Music, Athenian, 76 Mysticism, p. 118 344 INDEX N Native languges Montaigne, 2G5 Mulcaster, 269 Natural education, see Accord- ing to nature Naturalism, 267 Naturalists, 340 Neander, 244 Neef in Pennsylvania, 444 Negative education, 364 Nero, 123 New Jersey, p. 234 New Testament of Erasmus, 238 Newton, Sir Isaac, 283 New York State education, p. 248 Niccolo Niccoli, 235 Nicole, 323 Nirvana in India, 27 Normal schools Austria, 348 Francke, 343 Germany, 348 LaSalle, 328 New York State, 455 See Chap. XXVI and Chap. XXIX United States, 276 Notation, 144 ]\"ouum Organum, Bacon, 292 O Odysseus, 60 Odyssey, 59 Of the First Liberal Education of Children, Erasmus, 238 On the Order of Studies, Eras- mus, 238 Oratorians, 314 Orbis Pictus, Comenius, 298 Origen, 173 Ormuzd, 38 Ovid, p. 74 Oxford, 194, 215 Padua court school, p. 131 P.Bdonomus in Sparta, 68 Page, David P., 444 Page, training, 199 Palace School Alfred the Great, 194 Charlemagne, 191 Palestra, 80 Papyrus, 43 Paradoxes of Jacotot, 403 Paris University, 215 Pascal, 324 Payne, Joseph, 422 Pedagogium, 346 Pedagogue, 80 Pedagogy Aristotle, 108 Jesus, 167 Plato, 103 Quintilian, 125 Pennsylvania, p. 236 Pericles, p. 47 Persia, 34 Pestalozzi, 381 books, 382 ideas, 383 influence, 385 principles, 384 Petrarch, 235 Phenicia, 29 Philanthropin of Basedow, 351 Philosophy Athenian, 89 Bacon's, 294 early Greek, 86 great Greek schools, p. 54 Jesuit, 247 inductive in Aristotle, 210 Peripatetic, 105 Pythagorean, 87 Saracenic, 210 Phonic method, 321 Play in education Aristotle, 108 Athens, 79 Fro€beL 390 345 INDEX Play in education — Continued Plato, 102 Pietists, 343 Plato, p. 61 Pliny, 129 Plutarch, 127 Politics, Aristotle, 107 Pope Nicholas V, libraries, p. 131 Port Royalists, 318 Praise of Folly, Erasmus, 238 Principles of education, 159 Printing Aldine Press, Florence, p. 131 invention of, 224 Priscian, Latin grammar, p. 84 Prodicus, 88 Professional training of teach- ers, p. 270 Pronunciation of names, p. 290 Prophets, schools of, 51 Proportion, Pythagoras, 87 Protagoras, 88 Prussia, 46 Ptolemy, 59 Public schools, English, 244 Punishment, natural, 366 Pythagoras, 87 Q Quadrivium, 184 Questions for review, p. 328 Quintilian, 124 Rabanus Maurus, 192 Rabelais, 254 Rabbi schools, 50 Ramus, 272 Ratio Studiorum, 247 Ratke or Ratich claims, 289 346 Ratke or Ratich — Continued influence, 291 methods, 289 principles, 290 Reaction in realism, 282 ~ Realism, 250-253 Real schools, 348 References for study, p. 290 Reformation, Protestant, 240 Regents of New York State, p. 251 Renaissance, 225 Repuhlic, Plato, 99-103 Reuchlin, 238 Review. Chap. XXXV Revival of Learning, 225 Rheims Normal School, 328 Rhetoric Quintilian, 152 Roman, 119 Sophists, p. 53 Roelandsen, Adam, p. 248 Rollin, 323, 353 Rome, p. 73 Rosmini, p. 220 Rote learning, 22 Rousseau, 360 according to nature, 362 Emile, 363-374 influence, 373 natural punishment, 366 negative education, 364 writings, 361 St. Barnard of Clairvaux, p. 118 St. Boniface in Germany, p. 104 St. Clare, nuns of, 182 St. Columba at lona, p. 104 St. Patrick, p. 104 St. Scholastica, 186 Salerno University, 215 Sallust, p. 74 Salzmann, 349 Sanskrit, 22 INDEX Saracens, 204 Saxony School Plan, 241 Schoeffler, Peter, 224 Scholastica, Seiter, 18G Scholasticism, 216 i^cholemaster, Ascham, 239 ISchool and Society, Dewey, 517 Schoolmen, 216 Schools burgher, p. 119 catechetical, 170 charity, p. 120 court, 235, No. 8 episcopal, 170 guild, p. 119 public, in England, 244 real, 348 summary, 518 town, p. 119 Seneca, 121 Seven Liberal Arts, 184 Socrates influence of method, 92 limitations of method, 93 method, 91 purpose, 89-90 Solon, 39 Songs for Mother and Nursery, Froebel, 387 Sophia, Rousseau's, 369 Sophists, 88 Sparta, 61 Spencer, Herbert, 405 Spener, Philip, 344 State organization of schools. Chap. XXVII Stilo, Latin school, p. 82 Stories, Fenelon's use of, 308 Strabo, 59 Sturm, 242 Sudras, 20 Summary, general, p. 310 Swiss Family Rohinson, Campe. 352 Syllabus, New York State, p. 296 Sylvias, iEnaeas, 235 T Tacitus, p. 74 Talmud, 49 Teachers Athenian, 84 Brahman, 22 Chinese, 15 Egyptian, 42 Greek, 84 Hebrew, 49 pedagogical training, 270 Teaching congregations, p. 168 Tertullian, 174 Thales, 86 Thomassin, Oratorian, 317 Tom Brown's School Days, 418 Treatise on Studies, Rollin, 355 Twelve Tables, Rome, 111 Jesuit, 248 Persian, 36 professional training. Chap. XXXIX Roman, 117, 118 Telemachus, Fenelon, 312 Tertullian, 174 Theocracy, 142 Theology, 215, 223 Thoughts on Education, Locke, 332 Tractate on Education, Milton, 303 Training of Children, Plutarch, 128 Trigonometry, Saracenic, 210 Trivium, 184 Trotzendorf, 243 United States. Chap. XXVI Universities Alexandria, 59 Christian, 211-210 See Chap. XXVIII Utility, Spencer, 410 347 INDEX Value of history of education, 3 Varro, 132 Veda, 22 Vergil, p. 74 Virginia, 446 Virtues, life, 520 Vittorino da Feltre, 235 Vives, 278 W Wadsworth, James, 442 Wessel, 235 Wimpfeling, 235 Women Athenian, 79, 85 Fenelon's view, 310 Roman, 111 Rousseau's view, 3()9 Spartan, 07 Xenophon, 90 Z Zend Avesta, 36 Zoroaster, 38 Zwingli, p. 280 348 McEVOY PUBLICATIONS McEvoy's Methods in Education Third Edition, 433 Pages, S1.50 The first edition was sold within three months after being offered for pubKc sale. Why? Because this book avoids all vague theory and goes straight to the needs of pupils and teachers. It stands for the modern idea of clearness in teaching, and every chapter shows how to make that idea dominant in education. It gives adequate treatment of 783 topics in principles of edu- cation, school economy, school management and methods of teaching all elementary subjects. Every lesson is ready for use in the classroom. CONTENTS Chapter Page I. 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