^i;.^!. i;J ;.■;.;.;> ■; ; ,!.■'■■,:.,'■: : -.. :;i:. / ,\v ' - ..; : 'J.'' 1 GEOGRAPHY OF THE ALAN G. OGILVIE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL,. SOCIETY map of Hispanic America- PUBLrcAT.iON#o, t . Copyright N°- CQEXRIGHT DEPOSIT Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/geographyofcentrOOogil -HV OF THE ) , AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY MAP OF HISPANIC AMERICA PUBLICATION NO. i GEOGRAPHY OF THE CENTRAL ANDES A Handbook to Accompany the LA PAZ Sheet of the Map of Hispanic America on the Millionth Scale BY ALAN G. OGILVIE, M.A., B.Sc. (Oxon.) WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY ISAIAH BOWMAN PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK BROADWAY AT I56TH STREET 1922 Vzziz COPYRIGHT, 1922 BY THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK THE CONDE NAST PRESS GREENWICH, CONN. N-8'23 ©CH690901 CONTENTS PART I THE LA PAZ SHEET OF THE 1:1,000,000 MAP PART II GEOGRAPHY OF THE LA PAZ SHEET AREA CHAPTER PAGE I General View 13 II Geological Structure and Land Forms .... 31 III Minerals and Mines 49 IV The Ocean \ . . . 61 V The Climate 67 VI Drainage, Water Supply, and Soils 95 VII The Natural Vegetation 109 VIII Animal Life 122 IX The Inhabitants and Their Adaptation to the Environment 136 Appendix A, The Social and Religious Organiza- tion of the Plateau Indians ... 199 Appendix B, The Problem of Tacna and Arica . . 203 Appendix C, Selected Bibliography 211 Appendix D, Conversion Tables 224 Index 233 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE PAGE I Map showing distribution of population .... facing 146 II Map showing utilization of land facing 174 FIG. 1 Pisagua from the roadstead facing 18 2 Part of the Altiplano showing the Rio Desaguadero, facing 23 3 Source of the Rio Desaguadero, outlet of Lake Titicaca facing 24 4 Block diagram of the Cordillera Real and Altiplano ... 26 5 Sketch map pf natural regions in the Central Andes ... 29 6 (A) and (B) Sketch maps of ancient lakes on the Altiplano 43 7 Diagram illustrating relationship of two ancient lakes . . 45 8 Horizontal section of the ocean floor and Western Cor- dillera 62 9 Sketch map showing precipitation, belts of cloud, and meteorological stations 67 10 Graphs showing monthly variations in temperature ... 70 1 1 Graphs showing daily variations in temperature .... 73 12 Wind roses for Arica 76 13 Wind roses for Arequipa 77 14 Wind roses for Vinocaya 78 15 Wind roses for Puno 79 16 Wind roses for La Paz 81 17 Wind roses for Cochabamba 83 18 Wind roses for Sucre 85 19 (A) and (B) Diagrams illustrating cloud types and rainfall belts in the Eastern Andes 87 20 (A) and (B) Diagrams illustrating cloud types and rainfall belts on the Pacific slope 90 21 Graph showing monthly precipitation at various stations 92 22 The end of a river on the piedmont facing 10 1 23 Diagram of flow on the Rfo Chili 102 24 Sketch map showing distribution of natural vegetation . no 25 Yareta, tola, and ichu grass facing 1 14 26 A stack of yareta ready for burning facing 114 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS— (Continued) FIG. PAGE 27 Ichu grass in the Puna Brava facing 116 28 Cactus vegetation in the La Paz valley facing 119 29 Illimani from the Yungas, with forest facing 120 30 Uru Indian grinding quinoa facing 152 31 Isolated Indian dwelling in the high pastures . . facing 153 32 Colonos plowing and sowing facing 160 33 Procession of Indians at a fiesta facing 162 34 Abandoned artificial terraces (andenes) facing 163 35 Fishing balsas on Lake Titicaca facing 165 36 Farms in the Chili valley above Arequipa .... facing 167 37 The Yungas of Coroico with coca plantations 168 38 Sketch maps illustrating relative importance of routes . . 178 39 The port of Huaqui facing 182 40 The city of La Paz from the southwest 187 41 Sketch map showing boundary changes 195 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Figures 28, 29. and 32 are from photographs by George M. McBride. All other photographs reproduced were taken by Isaiah Bowman. PREFACE This regional account of an important part of the Central Andes and the first (provisional) edition of the map representing the area have been compiled simultaneously as the result of an effort to draw together much scattered information. Materials for map and book have been gathered from sources which vary widely in character and quality. The data utilized in the map, and the method of its construction, are discussed in some detail in Part I. The bibliography records most of the sources of mate- rial for the book. Existing scientific data are probably above the average for South American areas of this extent in both quantity and quality ; but, as a rule, they relate only to small parts of the country. Moreover, we can turn to no systematic description of the whole territory covered by the map. And modern geography requires more than mere description ; it demands that genetic relationships be brought out. This fact has been kept in view in writing a book which, because of the present state of knowledge, is a provisional edition, like the map that it accompanies. The reader will quickly appreciate that within the area dis- cussed there are several strongly contrasted natural regions, and he will surely ask himself what is the total extent of each. For, in fact, all of the more important of them extend far beyond the map limits. A diagram has therefore been placed at the end of Chapter I showing the relation of the various natural regions discussed to the sheets of the millionth map in general and to the La Paz sheet in particular. Thus it will be seen that many of the general observations which are made in this handbook would apply equally well in the description of a number of different map areas. I have great pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to a number of colleagues for their assistance. The section on soils was written after consultation with Dr. C. F. Marbut, of the V1U PREFACE United States Bureau of Soils, who kindly gave me his opinion on the probable conditions prevailing in the several regions. In collecting data for Chapter VIII, I have had the advantage of consulting Drs. F. M. Chapman, H. E. Anthony, R. C. Murphy, and other officers of the Department of Zoology in the American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Murphy has also read critically the manuscript of this chapter. My thanks are due to Dr. Isaiah Bowman, who placed at my disposal field notes, photographs, maps, and personal information, much of it unpublished, that he had gathered on several expedi- tions to the Central Andes; to Dr. George M. McBride for collect- ing most of the historical material included in Chapter IX and Appendix B, as well as for writing Appendix A; and to Dr. Gladys M. Wrigley, who permitted me to use her unpublished work on settlements and routes in the coastal zone. Alan G. Ogilvie. INTRODUCTION By Isaiah Bowman In 1920 the Society announced a plan for Hispanic-American research of which this book and the La Paz sheet on the scale 1: 1,000,000 are among the first results. Field studies in the Central Andes in 1907, 191 1, and 1913 had yielded me first-hand knowledge of the geography of highland Peru and Bolivia as well as the highly contrasted lowlands on either side, and this fact, together with the diversified character of the region, was the chief inducement to start the plan with the production of the La Paz sheet. Teh other sheets are in course of compilation or reproduction. They range in position from the peninsula of Lower California to the Gran Chaco of southeastern Bolivia. It is planned to complete the sheets in natural groups if the plan can be supported to that extent. In time, handbooks like the present one will summarize the regional aspects of the geography. Until the sheets of such natural groups are produced each map will be accompanied by a leaflet describing the cartographical sources which support it. The production of the first sheet has revealed a surprising amount of data, bearing upon the general geography no less than upon the map, that has been wholly unknown to geographers hitherto. To such an extent is this true that I know of no more fruitful means of advancing a knowledge of the Hispanic- Ameri- can realm than the plan upon which we have embarked. Having conducted exploratory expeditions, I am aware of the lure of field work and of its value to science. But there comes a time in the history of every subject when a broad and critical synthesis may be of even more value. At this juncture the millionth map sup- plies an indispensable medium for synthetic and comparative studies of a high order. The handbooks that form a part of the plan depend inevitably upon field work to be carried on from time to time as circumstances permit — field work that is guided x INTRODUCTION by knowledge gained in the compilation of maps from so many sources. In time this will bring us to the point where a general geographical study of Hispanic-America can be made upon a sound scientific basis. Parallel with these activities the Society has conducted others that may be enumerated here. There has been produced a map of Hispanic-America on the scale of 1 : 6,000,000, or a little less than 100 miles to the inch. It is drawn from nearly 250 sources, including a large number of original surveys. It shows railways, drainage indicated as surveyed or unsurveyed, international and administrative boundaries, and towns in graded sequence down to those with a population of 4,000. It is produced in three sheets which can be handled separately or assembled to make a wall map. Upon it in a separate edition will be represented in color the state of knowledge respecting the cartography of Hispanic- America, the population density plotted on a rational basis from most recent census returns, and eventually soils, forests, and the like. There has also been completed a List of Maps of Hispanic America. (I) Maps Contained in Periodical Publications, published as a volume of bound typewritten sheets in a very small edition. A second part of the work (II) is a list of miscellaneous maps in books and in sheet form, and a third (III) a list of official maps. The maps are arranged chronologically by countries. The second part of the work is well advanced and now consists of 10,000 entries chiefly of historical value; the third remains to be done, except in so far as the regular map collection of the Society includes portions of it. As a basis for physiographic research the Society has just published in book form A Catalogue of Geological Maps of South America, with an index map, as No. 9 in its Research Series. An intensive study of the Mexican land system is in press and one on Argentine colonization is in preparation. The last-named is a parallel study to Recent Colonization in Chile published in 192 1 as Research Series No. 6. The whole Hispanic-American program is necessarily based on maps because no thorough and systematic collation of such mate- INTRODUCTION xi rial whether published or unpublished has ever been attempted. It follows that the student of the human geography of Hispanic- America is frustrated at every turn by the paucity of a given map collection, or its unordered state, or the highly unequal quality of its parts. It is one of the aims of the Society to substitute for this great deficiency a set of maps of high quality so that from them and the collateral knowledge gained in their production there shall flow a series of truly scientific papers in the field of regional geog- raphy. PART ONE CHAPTER I THE LA PAZ SHEET OF THE i: 1,000,000 MAP It was thought worth while to compile the La Paz sheet of the millionth map for two main reasons ; first because from scientific and practical standpoints it is important to have at the present time the best possible map covering a complete section of the Andes at its widest part. This it is hoped will be furnished by the La Paz sheet and the Santa Cruz sheet to the east of it. And secondly, because a number of surveys and reconnaissances have been made in the areas of both sheets since publication of the most recent general maps of the region. No claim is implied that the present provisional edition of the map is uniformly reliable in all its parts. It represents careful compilation from all the maps and documents which could be collected in the circumstances. All published maps as well as the results of a considerable number of unpublished reconnaissance surveys have been studied. Perhaps the most serious obstacle to scientific compilation has been the lack in large areas of geographical positions of un- questionable reliability, a condition especially serious in regard to longitudes. In this respect the western part of the map is rea- sonably reliable, because based on a good hydrographic survey of the coast, as well as on the records of the astronomical observa- tory at Arequipa. But east of the Western Cordillera the diffi- culties increase. The geographical positions of several towns are given by Bolivian official publications, but the positions are re- corded differently, the variations being small in latitude and wide in longitude. Moreover, they differ considerably from the obser- vations of earlier surveyors such as Pentland and Minchin. It was most desirable to obtain if possible a continuous skeleton 2 THE CENTRAL ANDES from the Pacific Coast to the eastern foot of the Andes, and, so far as is known, there is but one source for such a series. Colonel P. H. Fawcett, in proceeding to the eastern boundary of Bolivia in 1913 to carry out survey work there on behalf of the Bolivian government, carried a series of observations from Puno on Lake Titicaca (whose position is known relative to Arequipa) right across to the Brazilian boundary; and most of the positions he recorded fall within the La Paz and Santa Cruz sheets. In making use of these points, however, another difficulty arose. Colonel Fawcett published his results in 191 5 in a preliminary map of small scale (1: 3,000,000) and with no records other than the plotting of the points. A tracing of the original of part of this map, on a larger scale, was obtained by the courtesy of the Royal Geographical Society of London ; but beyond this no information regarding the observations on the map was forthcoming, as Colonel Fawcett had already started on a further exploration in the heart of Brazil. It was therefore decided to accept his posi- tions only where they agreed closely with those of other surveys, and where no original surveys were available. As regards the La Paz sheet, one of the chief innovations was the movement of Cochabamba some 13 minutes to the east of its position on most other maps. The co-ordinates given in the Annuario Estadistico y Geogrdfico de Bolivia were accepted, as they agreed very closely with the position of the city on Fawcett's map. The positions in the southern part of the Altiplano are derived in the main from Minchin's surveys. The coast line was surveyed in 1836 by H. M. S. Beagle, 1 and the British charts based on this survey together with the Chilean plans covering a number of small areas have furnished the coastal and hydrographic data for the La Paz sheet. 2 All the recent com- piled maps save one have followed these charts. The exception is 1 The work was actually carried out by Usborne during the winter of 1835-1836 in the Constiiucidn which was used as a tender to the Beagle. 2 The coast line, however, was adjusted to the longitude of Iquique, as given on the map of the Departamento de Tarapaca, 1: 25,000, Oficina de Mensura de Tierras, 1918. The longitude of the lighthouse at Iquique is there given as 70° 10' 27" W., while British Admiralty Chart No. 1278 places it at 70 11' 48" W., a difference of 1' 21". THE LA PAZ SHEET 3 the compilation made at Arequipa in 19 12 by T. A. Corry of the Ferrocarril del Sur del Peru. In this map the entire coast line northwest of Arica exhibits many variations from the hydro- graphic charts, the most noticeable difference being in the trend for the first 25 kilometers north of Ilo which is almost due north instead of north-northwest as on the charts. This has the effect of placing a large bight between Ilo and Punta de Bomb6n. As it proved impossible to ascertain the nature of the observations upon which these changes had been based, the coast line of the Beagle survey has been allowed to stand. The only single survey covering a large area is that of the Chile- Bolivia Boundary Commission, which was based upon a triangu- lation of all the principal peaks of the Western Cordillera south of latitude 17 and was connected to the coast at Arica and at Iquique, just south of the map area. The sheets were published between 1908 and 1912 on the scale of 1 : 250,000. They contain a very large number of altitudes. There are three smaller areas of survey based on triangulation. The district between Lake Titi- caca and La Paz was surveyed by a French commission in the service of the Bolivian government in 1902- 1903. Access was obtained to a copy of part of this map, which, however, has never been published. Overlapping this survey is Conway's triangula- tion and survey of the Cordillera Real made in 1898 and published in final form in 1900 on the scale of 1 : 500,000. The triangulation and survey made about 1906 of the Pampa de Salinas east of Arequipa has' also been used. The detailed maps of the nitrate district in the southwest corner had been incorporated in the Chilean official map 1 : 500,000 mentioned below, and that source has been used. In the category of reliable traverses based upon a series of astronomical observations with chronometer longitudes, the most important are those of Minchin across the Altiplano and thence southeastward to Potosi, carried out about 1875. Minchin's points, adjusted in longitude to agree with the accepted position of Oruro and with that of Sucre determined by time signal by Steinmann and Hoek, have been accepted as a skeleton in the 4 THE CENTRAL ANDES southeastern part of the sheet. In part this was supplemented by an excellent unpublished compass traverse by A. P. Rogers from Challapata to Colquechaca and by others from Oruro through San Pedro to Colquechaca and from Potosf to Challapata, both by A. Stiles. Of other compass traverses, use has been made of that of Steinmann, Hoek, and von Bistram entering the area from the east and reaching nearly to La Paz. This long traverse — made in 1903-1904 — rests upon few fixed points and has been used mainly for its topographic detail. Two compass sketches of mountain groups — the Quimsa Cruz and the Cordillera north- west of Cochabamba — were made by Herzog in 191 1, and these have been accepted almost in their entirety. Unfortunately there are few checks upon the accuracy of their scale, but they are believed to give a good representation of the mountains, shown by carefully drawn form lines which agree with the descriptions of the land forms. For the eastern slope of the Cordillera Real north of the Quimsa Cruz range, data were furnished by a compass reconnaissance made in locating the Yungas railway, a stadia survey for the railway when located, a geological reconnaissance of the foothills, and a road survey. The La Paz River in its upper section appears on Conway's map. For the section of the Rio Beni below Coroico a stadia reconnaissance for a projected railway was used, while the inter- vening portion has been taken from the survey made by Heath between 1879 and 1881 and supplemented later by Garcia Mesa. Of railway surveys those of the Arica-La Paz and the Huaqui-La Paz lines give a valuable check upon longitudes in the Altiplano, while the map of the Oruro-Cochabamba railway furnished much additional topographic information derived from reconnaissances on both sides of the line. The shore lines of Lakes Titicaca and Poop6 have been taken, save for details, from the surveys of Neveu-Lemaire of the Crequi-Montfort expedition; and the Desaguadero River from the survey of Bergelund made in 1892 for the Peruvian Corporation. Previous compilations have had to be used in areas for which no original surveys were available. The compilers of these maps, THE LA PAZ SHEET 5 which are included in the list given below, undoubtedly had access to certain sources which the compiler of this map has not had. For instance, Huot, the cartographer of the Crequi-Mont- fort expedition, in compiling his "Carte des Andes Centrales," 1 : 750,000, which for most parts is the best general map of the Central Andes, was able to use the topographic information brought back by that expedition; and in Peru, Corry had infor- mation which enabled him to modify Raimondi's map in several respects. It is unfortunate that in most compiled maps there is no systematic discrimination between the known and the un- known; and this is especially true of maps published in South America. The conventional signs of the International Map, which have beeji adopted, enable us to make this important distinction quite clear. In the case of areas in which we are reasonably sure that no surveys have been made, we have had to interpret written accounts of the country in the light of our general knowledge of the main geological structure and the way in which it controls the surface features in this and other parts of the Andes. Thus in the case of the Eastern Cordillera we have drawn, without accurate knowledge, river valleys which are known to exist, as well as the very approximate contours between them. We have rarely followed exactly the river courses from any of the extremely variable previous compilations but have boldly inserted lines which we believe to have in general a more probable location than those of previous maps of these parts. We believe this action to be justified, provided the method be clearly stated, as it is in this text and in the reliability diagram on the border of the map. Except in the very few areas which have been contoured in the field, approximate contours have been drawn in the manner described. The advice of those who have seen the areas or others undoubtedly similar has been sought constantly. Thus, while the contours over much of the map are very approximate and while neither they nor the drainage lines have the detail which only survey can give them, yet we believe that the character of the contours is essentially correct. The kind of modification 6 THE CENTRAL ANDES which is made by survey upon the generalized approximate con- tours may be judged by a comparison on the map of the Pampa de Salinas (surveyed) east of Arequipa with the Pampa de Vis- cachas (unsurveyed) to the southeast of it; or again in the plateaus of the Eastern Cordillera by comparing the general hill forms (unsurveyed) with the very small surveyed portions northwest of Uncia and east of Chayanta. As mentioned above, geological knowledge has been utilized in determining the trend of surface features. In the case of the northeastern corner of the area it is probable that the topography is represented too diagrammatically; but, on the other hand, it is believed that on the Altiplano between the two Cordilleras subsequent mapping will bring out more clearly the parallel arrangement of ridges and valleys. The difference of treatment is based on the very different amount of topographic knowledge of the two areas. The lower ranges of the Andes east of the Rio Bopi are completely unsurveyed save for one compass traverse by Orbigny, and, while Orbigny's descriptions are valuable, his compass observations seem to be unreliable. But the Altiplano, on the other hand, has been mapped from a number of traverses which have been accepted in general. But these contain little detail, and in an area of such slight relief it is the smaller features which bring out the topographic pattern. Similarly in the high plateaus west of Lake Titicaca, Raimondi's map has been copied, and it is not known how much surveying this explorer did in the area. But it seems likely that a more detailed knowledge would reveal a marked regularity of valley direction conforming gen- erally to the geologic strike of the sedimentary rocks which in all probability are exposed in much of the area. The compilers have diverged somewhat from the requirements of the International Map Committee in regard to the contours. The "principal contours" demanded, which are all limits of hypsometric tints, have been inserted. But the color scale has been extended by providing an additional tint for land above 5,000 meters, this being necessary to bring out the higher moun- tains. No separate color is provided for the seven small areas THE LA PAZ SHEET 7 over 6,000 meters, most of these being above the snow line. The peculiar nature of the relief called for special treatment of the intermediate contours. The relatively slight but yet impor- tant relief at high altitudes demanded that these be inserted at every 200 meters above 3,000 meters in accordance with the international scheme. This has been done everywhere through- out the sheet for all parts above 3,000 meters (save in the Cor- dillera Real in a few spots where there was not room to draw the lines). Below 3,000 meters, where the postulated contour inter- val changes to 100 meters, the slopes in many parts of the map — especially in the east — are so steep that contours at this ver- tical interval would obscure the hypsometric tints. Moreover, in many areas the data are insufficient for their insertion. These contours have therefore been inserted only where they were called for to bring out special features. But the 100, 200, 500, and 700 meter lines, which are required as the limits of tinted areas, have been drawn throughout. Not the least difficult part of the compilation of such a map as this is the selection of names. Names of all sorts occurring in original surveys used have been accepted with certain altera- tions in spelling. Otherwise names of physical features have for the most part been culled from the compiled maps mentioned in the list, and in cases where these maps disagree preference has been given to the map whose source seemed to be most authoritative in the particular area in question. Some help was also obtained in this work from the various official gazetteers of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. In regard to the names of towns, villages, and settlements an effort was made to base the selection in the main upon the census reports of the three countries with some additional aid in the case of Bolivia, from the "Diccionario Geografico de Bolivia"; the intention being to eliminate names which applied to the smallest centers of population, such as iso- lated farms, and to obtain a more or less rigid grading in the importance of names. But the effort proved almost fruitless in that the documents mentioned give insufficient details. The only other course has therefore been followed, namely, to insert 8 THE CENTRAL ANDES as many place names as possible without marring the other features of the map. Moreover, the grading indicated in the legend can be accepted only as generally accurate. All names on the La Paz sheet are either Spanish or Indian, and of the latter all save a small number on the eastern slopes of the Andes are either Quichua or Aymara. The Indian names are given in the conventional Spanish transliteration. But it must be remembered that the Spanish alphabet has no means of representing accurately a number of Indian sounds. This is specially true of the gutturals, and the compilers have diverged from Spanish forms in one respect, to introduce the kh as repre- senting more accurately one class of Indian consonant. The bathymetric lines were interpolated from the soundings given on the charts supplemented by soundings from the volumes published between 1910 and 1920 in connection with the Carte Gen6rale Bathymetrique des Oceans. Submarine cables have been inserted in accordance with official data. Maps Used in the Construction of the La Paz Sheet* 1. La Laguna de Titicaca and the valleys of Yucay, Collao and Desaguadero in Peru and Bolivia by J. B. Pentland from surveys 1827-30. Published as a British Admiralty chart. 2. Carte generate de la Republique de Bolivia, by Alcide d'Orbigny from itineraries 1830-33. Ca. 1:1,575,000. Published in his "Voyage dans TAmerique meridionale," Paris, 1835-47 3. Itineraries et coupe geologique a travers le continent de TAmerique du Sud. Ca. 1 : 250,000. Francis de Castelnau. 1852. 4. Map of part of Bolivia from surveys of John B. Minchin. 1:850,000. Published with a paper by G. C. Musters, Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc, London, 1877. 5. Mapa de los Rios Beni y Yacuma segun las exploraciones del Dr. Eduardo R. Heath, 1879-1881, completado por L. Garcia Mesa. 1:800,000. 1903. (Unpublished.) 2 The La Paz sheet was compiled under my direction by Mr. William A. Briese- meister of the staff of the American Geographical Society. THE LA PAZ SHEET 9 6. Part of the Bolivian table land. Ca. 1:1,100,000. By John B. Minchin. Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc, London, 1882. 7. Mapa del Peru. 1:500,000. A. Raimondi. Sheets 29, 30, 31, 32. 1889 onwards. 8. French Admiralty chart 3337. (1894.) 9. The Cordillera Real, Bolivia. From a triangulation and plane table survey (1898) by Sir Martin Conway, and other documents. 1:500,000. Geogr. Journ., Vol. 15, 1900. 10. Piano de la Ciudad de Oruro. 1 : 10,000. Diccionario Geo- grafico de la Republica de Bolivia. Tomo 4. Departa- mento de Oruro. 1902. 11. Regions des Hauts Plateaux de l'Amerique du Sud. Carte dressee par Victor Huot d'apres lesTravaux des Membres de la Mission Crequi-Montfort et Senechal de la Grange, etc. 1 : 750,000. Paris, 1903. 12. Part of the survey by the French "Mission Schrader," 1:200,000, between La Paz and Lake Titicaca. Ca. 1904. (Unpublished.) 13. (a) Routenkarte der Expedition Steinmann, Hoek und von Bistram in den Anden von Bolivien. 1: 750,000. (b) Umgegend von Cochabamba. 1 : 3,750,000. Surveyed 1903-04. Published in Petermanus Mitt., .Vol. 52, 1906. 14. Proyecto preliminar de un camino de Herradura de la Paz a Puerto Pando por Julio Knaudt. 1:250,000. 1904. (Un- published.) 15. Carte bathymetrique du Lac Titicaca, 1: 525,000; Carte bathym6trique du Lac Poopo, 1: 420,000; dressees par le Dr. M. Neveu-Lemaire. Published in "Les Lacs des Hauts Plateaux," Paris, 1906. 16. Proyecto de Istunchaca. 1:200,000. Reduction del piano del ingeniero Carter del afio 1848. Published in Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peril No. 45, 1906. 17. Oficina Hidrografica Chile. Chart No. 128. 1906. 18. Mapa Hidrologico (coast of Peru). 1:1,000,000. In Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peril No. 45, 1906. io THE CENTRAL ANDES 19. Croquis geografico de la region estudiada por la Comision Hidrologica de Moquegua, 1 : 500,000, por H. C. Hurd. In Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru No. jp, 1906. 20. Piano topografico de la cuenca hidrogranca de la region de Salinas. 1:100,000 and 1:20,000. Published in Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru No. 49, 1907. 21. Surveys of the Comision Chilena de L unites, 3 sheets, i7°-20° S. 1:250,000. 1908 and 1912. 22. Mapa de los Pampas y Borde Occidental de la Cordillera de los Departamen tos de lea, Arequipa, Moquegua y Tacna. 1:500,000. V. F. Marsters. Published in Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru No. jo, 1909. 23. Correccion del Rio Rocha. 1:25,000. Julio Knaudt. La Paz, 1910. 24. Piano general del Rio Desaguadero. 1:633,000. Julio Bergelund. Published in Bol. Soc. Geogr. de Lima, Vol. 26, 1910. 25. Map of the islands of Titicaca. Ca. 1:33,333. Adolph F. Bandelier. Published in "The Islands of Titicaca and Koati," New York, 1910. 26. South Peru and north Bolivia. 1:2,000,000. Geogr. Journ., Vol. 34, 1910. 27. (a) Chile. 1:500,000, 2 sheets (i7°-2i° S.); (b) Chile with part of Bolivia. 1:1,000,000. Both published by the Chilean Oficina de Mensura de Tierras. 1910. 28. Reconocimiento de los Rios La Paz, Palca, Luribay y Araca por R. Capriles. 1 : 400,000. Direcc. Gen. Obras Publicas, 1911. 29. Mapa telegrafico de Bolivia. 1:2,400,000. 191 1. 30. Canalizacion del Rio Rocha. 1:100,000. Ca. 1912. (Un- published.) 31. Route survey, Challapata to Colquechaca. 1: 250,000. A. P. Rogers. (Unpublished.) 32. Piano general minero de la Provincia Bustillo. 1 : 20,000. Cuerpo Nacional de Minas e Servicio Departamental, La Paz, 1912. THE LA PAZ SHEET n 33. Piano de la Ciudad de La Paz. 1:60,000. By J. S. Castagne. 1912. 34. Mapa mineralogico de los Departamentos de Oruro, La Paz, Potosi e Cochabamba. (4 maps.) 1:1,000,000. 1912. 35. Mapa del Peru. 1:1,500,000. Sociedad Geografica de Lima, 1912. 36. Ferrocarril Antofagasta a Bolivia, Ramal Potosi. 1 : 400,000. Published in Memorias de Gobierno y Fomento, La Paz, 1912. 37. British Admiralty charts 1282 (1913), 1278 (1915). 38. (a) Die bolivische Ostkordillere, westlicherTeil. 1:500,000. (b) Die Quimzacruz-Kordillere. 1 : 200,000. Theodor Her- zog. Petermanns Mitt. Vol. 59, I, 1913. 39. Mapa del surTeru y parte de Bolivia. 1:1,000,000. F. A. Corry. 1913. (Unpublished.) 40. Mapa del sur del Peru y parte de Bolivia. 1 : 500,000. F. A. Corry. Ca. 1913. (Unpublished.) 41. Sketch map to illustrate the explorations of Major P. H. Fawcett, R. G. A. in 1913-14. 1 : 3,000,000. Geogr. Journ., Vol. 45, 1915. 42. U. S. Hydrographic Office charts, 1565 (1914), 11 99 (19 15), 1219 (1917), 1253 (1917), 1203 (1919), 1218 (1919). 1 156 (1920), 1566 (1920). 43. Maps showing constructed portion of the La Paz-Yungas railway. 1 :io,ooo. Ape n dice a la memoria presentada a. la legislatura. 1916-1918. 44. Ferro-Carril de Arica a La Paz. 1 : 250,000. Ca. 1916. (Unpublished.) 45. Mapa de Bolivia. 1:1,000,000. Eduardo Idiaquez. Ca. 1918. (Unpublished.) 46. Corocoro mining district. 1 : 100,000. Reproduced in "The Mineral Deposits of South America, "by Miller and Singe- wald, New York, 1919. 47. Trazo proyectada del ferrocarril de Arequipa a. Salinas. 1 : 200,000. Anales del Congreso Nacional de la Industria Minera, Vol. 5, 1919. Lima. 12 THE CENTRAL ANDES 48. Mapa del Departamento de La Paz. 1 : 750,000. Eduardo Idiaquez. 1919. 49. Mapa del ferrocarril de Oruro a Cochabamba. 1 : 400,000. 1920. (Unpublished.) 50. Itinerario a traves de los Departamentos de Oruro, Potosi y Chuquisaca. 1 : 500,000. Adolfo Siles. Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz., Vol. 28, 1920. 51. Reconnaissance map showing country between La Paz and Yungas by the Antofagasta a Bolivia Railway Company. 1 : 100,000. (Unpublished.) 52. Plan of Lake Titicaca and Desaguadero River, by the Peruvian Corporation. 1:250,000. (Unpublished.) 53. Plan of an Automobile Road, Eucalyptus to Caracoles mines. 1 : 250,000. (Unpublished.) 54. Distrito salitrero de Tarapaca. 1 : 400,000. 55. Reconocimiento para un ferrocarril en la Republica de Bolivia entre Puerto Salinas (Rio Beni) y Coripata. 1 : 20,- 000. (Unpublished.) 56. Carte generate bathymetrique des oceans. Albert I, Prince of Monaco. 2nd edit. 1913. PART TWO CHAPTER I GENERAL VIEW Three events in the physical history of the land covered by the La Paz sheet have been of chief importance in determining the distribution of life and the activities of man in the area. The first is the upheaval of a block of the earth's crust of such great width and to so great an altitude. From this results a rare atmosphere over most of the surface and a climate which is very dry, save on the eastern slopes of the Andes and which is also cold in all but the two small sections of low altitude. These cli- matic conditions restrict the natural vegetation, the possibilities of agriculture, and consequently the density of the population; while the great difference of altitude between the highlands and the marginal lowlands discourages movement from one to the other. The second feature is the mineralization of the rocks forming the cordillera which took place both before and during the up- heaval of the highlands. One result of this has been to raise the number of inhabitants considerably above the normal for such a region; moreover, the mineral wealth of these cordilleras has greatly increased their importance to the outside world from the Spanish Conquest right down to our own time. Thirdly, there is the fact that prior to the great upheaval of the land a large part of it — the eastern section — had undergone a long period of denudation and another large part — the western section — had been covered with great lava sheets. This accounts for the relative smoothness of the greater part of the highland surface. Save for the volcanic cones and occasional residual ranges the core of the high block presents few serious obstacles to free movement, be it of air, plant, beast, or man. Further, it 14 THE CENTRAL ANDES is to the intensive erosion in the eastern part that we owe the discovery at the surface and the easy mining of the various minerals. All other facts which we shall have occasion to state will prove to be of less general importance than these three. The section of the Andes between latitude i6° and 20 S. can be described briefly as a greatly elevated peneplane formed upon disordered rocks, mostly sedimentary, with a northwest-southeast strike. The peneplane, which bears an important residual range — the Cordillera Real — near its northeastern edge, is warped down and probably also broken by normal faulting on both margins, forming the two flanks of the Andes; and the central portion of it — the Altiplano — stands at a lower level than its two rims, probably on account of trough faults, thus forming a basin of interior drainage with its lowest portion in the southeast. The western rim of the elevated peneplane has been subjected to warping and fracturing in various parts, so that it is not every- where as striking a feature as it is, for instance, in the extreme south of the area. Moreover, it is surmounted by an almost continuous chain of volcanic peaks, forming the Maritime Cordillera, while lava flows and volcanic detritus cloak the western margin of the Altiplano. Both flanks of the Andes are deeply scored by valleys eroded during and since the uplift of the land. In the west this dissection is much less complete than on the east, where the rainfall is very much greater. On both flanks, but especially in the east, the summits and valleys bear the marks left by the Pleistocene glaciation. As a result of this dissection the flanks of the Andes are bordered by extensive, gently sloping, piedmont surfaces. On the northeastern side only a small portion of these is included in the area; but on the Pacific side they form a continuous and important band in some parts reaching to the coastal hills. These last represent the broken remnants of a greatly denuded surface formed on dis- ordered rocks, for the most part crystalline. They can probably be taken to be the vestiges of a crustal block now foundered to an abyssal depth in the Pacific Ocean. On account of the long denudation which preceded the main GENERAL VIEW 15 uplift of the Andes the geological composition and structure have been of relatively small importance in determining the relief in its major aspects. The chief exceptions to this are the two main Cordilleras: the Western, where the surface features conform closely to the rock structure of the young volcanoes and lava flows, and the Cordillera Real where a hard granitic core amongst the folded shales and sandstones has preserved the crest of this range from the fate of the surrounding country. But the composition and structure of the crust have an important bearing upon the most fruitful source of wealth to the country — its minerals. The granitic core of the Eastern Cor- dillera, as well as some of its shales, appear to be streaked with threads of gold too small to be economically worked in situ but yielding sure returns to the placer miners in the gravel deposits of the valleys; and innumerable fissures have become filled with rich ores of silver, tin, antimony, and bismuth. The crumpled sandstones and other sediments of the Altiplano have been broken along a line running northwest-southeast by an intrusion of diorite, which appears at the surface today in chains of low hills; and with this intrusion is associated one of the largest known deposits of native copper. The volcanic activity in piling up the summits of the Western Cordillera has brought to the surface quantities of native sulphur, while the association of volcanic vents and lakes has resulted in the formation of borax in a number of intermont basins, and perhaps a somewhat similar cause will ultimately be held to account for the nitrates of the western piedmont. Both of these soluble compounds owe their preservation to the intense dryness of the climate of the region in which they occur. The existence of the interior basin in the highlands and its relative aridity account for the immense deposits of salt which cover its lowest expanses. The map area lies to the north of the Tropic of Capricorn ; and if it were a flat lowland its temperature, humidity, wind, and rainfall conditions would vary directly and uniformly with the apparent movement of the sun. The thermal equator and the 16 THE CENTRAL ANDES equatorial rains would follow the sun and pass over the area twice annually, moving southward in the end of November and again northward early in January. And during all but the height of summer the southeast trade winds would blow over the land. This theoretical condition is greatly modified however by the shape of South America and by the existence of the Andes. Owing to the relative narrowness of the continent in these latitudes, to the height and width of the Andes, and to the nearness of the Pacific Ocean with a cold coastal current, neither the thermal equator nor the equatorial rains ever reach the area, and the trade winds do not blow with their accustomed regu- larity. Still, the hottest period of the year for all parts of the area is between November and January, the coldest is in June or July, and the rainy season is from November to March. Probably the ultimate origin of most of the moisture, save on the Pacific slope, is the Atlantic Ocean; and the bulk of the precipi- tation is from the trade winds, as they are forced up the eastern flanks of the Andes, so that the only really wet part of the area is its northeastern corner. The main climatic characteristics of the highlands are low precipitation and a great daily range of temperature, the thin air and high percentage of clear days promoting rapid heating by day and cooling by night. These highlands are classed among the semideserts of the world. The prevailing winds on the coast are south or southwest — more or less from the ocean, but in view of the high temperature inland they bring but little rain. The most they are able to provide as a palliative to the hot desert climate of the lowlands is a prevalent fog bank on the seaward slope of the coastal hills. We shall see that the geological history of the Central Andes has a good deal to do with the nature of the existing flora and fauna, that is to say with the reason for the presence of certain species and the absence of others. But the present climatic divi- sion of the land accounts sufficiently for the zonal arrangement of the vegetation, while the more detailed distribution within the zones is determined in part by the soil and water supply. The GENERAL VIEW 17 hot wet zone of the northeastern flank is occupied by dense tropical forest, most luxuriant at the foot, becoming less so upwards to the cold tree line at about 3,500 meters. Physiologic dryness which stunts vegetation may be effected by cold or simply by absence of water. This eastern tree line is determined by the first and probably also by wind. In the huge expanse of the high plateaus trees other than occasional plantations are extremely rare. It is the Puna country, covered naturally by low shrubs, mosses, and bunch grass but totally bare of vege- tation where the soil is intensely salt. In the main the humble nature of the vegetation is accounted for by a combination of low temperature, wind, and absence of sufficient water. Super- ficially there is little change in the character of the vegetation down the western flank of the Andes, but closer examination shows that here the poverty is due more to real absence of water. The western foot of the Cordillera is marked by transition in most parts to complete desert, which continues o\er the lowland to the coastal hills and is broken only by the verdure bordering the sparse streams — permanent and intermittent. The coastal hills, or Lomas ("backs"), with their mantle of fog and occasional rains, support a winter vegetation of grasses and shrubs. The Andean highlands have been occupied for an unknown period by a sedentary Indian population engaged primarily in agriculture but dependent also on the more ancient pastoral pursuits of their less settled ancestors; while, as culture pro- gressed from the settlement onwards, the Indians gradually gained a knowledge of mining and metal working. In this, as in their methods of agriculture and standard of living, they had already reached a relatively high level under the despotism of the Incas before the coming of the Spanish conquerors in the six- teenth century. But this culture was restricted to the plateaus and to the few spots on the coastal lowland where irrigation was possible. The Quichua and Aymara tribes to which these Indians belong do not extend far down to the forested valleys and lowlands of the northeast, which are sparsely peopled by the much more primitive groups of Amazonian Indians. Today 18 THE, CENTRAL ANDES the total population of the area is about 828,000 or 3.6 per square kilometer (9.3 per square mile) ; but it is by no means evenly distributed. It is densest in the lower parts of the plateau coun- try such as the basins of Arequipa in the northwest and Cocha- bamba in the east, where low temperatures are infrequent and where irrigation can be practiced on good soil. In the upper parts of the eastern valleys and in the mining districts all of the most valuable agricultural land is held by the descendants of the Spanish conqiiistadores who represent but a small proportion of the total population, the estates being worked by the peon labor of the Indians. Some agricultural land is still held by Indian communities, but this for the most part is in the less favorable localities. In view of the physical conditions briefly set forth above it is easy to understand that the map area is divisible into well marked natural regions and that these consist of a number of parallel belts following the general trend of the Andes from northwest to southeast (see Fig. 5). It will be useful to summarize at this stage the salient impressions of a traveler who follows each of these zones through their entire length in this area and to note the outstanding changes he would observe in passing from one region to the other. From the deck of a vessel coasting along the almost harborless Pacific seaboard the observer is struck with the inhospitable appearance of the coast. A recent upheaval of the land has left everywhere a wave-cut terrace ranging in width from several kilometers in the north to a few meters in the south. Behind this rise the Lomas, or coastal hills, with numerous deep ravines and sparse verdure, to be seen only in winter. The aspect south of Arica is exceptionally forbidding (see Fig. 1). The coast is bold and precipitous broken only by the few deep gashes of the streams many of which carry no water for years at a stretch. The coastal escarpment, with an average height of 700 meters and rising in places over 1,000 meters, while maintained by the attack of the waves, can scarcely be due primarily to this. It is probably a modified fault plane which marks the break be- GENERAL VIEW 19 tween an old land and the Pacific abyss. Apart from the canyon mouths the coast is low only in two short sections, in the alluvial flat at the mouth of the Tambo and near Arica. On the Pampa of Tambo there is sufficient water to support a number of villages and farms. But elsewhere agricultural activities are restricted to isolated farms at wide intervals. Otherwise population is clustered in the ports, mere roadsteads with little shelter but each at the end of a railway. Three of them — Arica, Pisagua, and Caleta Buena — are of great importance to the interior, the first as the terminus of the most direct railroad to the Altiplano, and the others — crowded on to a narrow shelf at the foot of very steep slopes with local precipices — from their export of nitrates. These are mined on the Pampa behind and brought by rail over the rugged Lomas and, in the case of Caleta Buena, lowered down the 800 meters of cliff by a cable way. Between the Lomas and the Andes lies the long belt of desert, to which is given locally the name "Pampa." But it is a very different pampa from the huge grassy plains of central Argentina. It is part of a continuous strip of desert extending from central Chile to a point some 80 miles beyond the western edge of the map area and continuing in patches to the northern limit of Peru. For the most part it is absolute desert and, except for widely separated river beds, is never better than semidesert with an exceedingly sparse cover of drought-resisting grasses. This piedmont surface between the quebradas is smooth or rolling, and rises slowly to east and northeast. Its soil varies from fine sand to coarse and angular rock fragments, the former being more characteristic of the lower and the latter of the higher parts. The surface layers are impregnated with salts to a greater or less degree. In most parts the lomas' crest is higher than the lower edge of the piedmont and overlooks it; but in places, such as north of Pisagua, there is a steady descent from the foot of the Andes to the cliff tops on the coast. The desert surface is roughened here and there by low hills which appear to be recent lava flows that have issued in general from local vents. Where the surface deposits contain much sand this is 20 THE CENTRAL ANDES blown by the prevailing southerly wind and built into crescentic moving dunes. Throughout the whole stretch the Cordillera forms the distant horizon; and it frequently presents a strikingly smooth edge — generally the line along which the uplifted pene- plane has been warped up to form the highlands, but often the summit of a great mass of accumulated lava flows that obscure the older and rougher topography. In such places only the summit of the highest volcanoes, which stand farther back, appear to break the monotony of the crest line. In other places, as northeast of Arica, peaks like Tacora and Taapaca rise upon the western brink of the high plateau. The traveler through the desert zone finds few evidences of life of any sort. For long stretches between valleys there is no water. But where the valleys carry streams which permanently reach the piedmont there are thinly peopled settlements along their banks, each with its small fields of alfalfa or vegetables making the most of the shade provided by plantations of willow and chanar trees. Two such settlements near the lower limit of abundant water are the towns of Moquegua and Tacna, each lying beside a wide alluvial valley. These are veritable oases, and their importance as market towns serving many valleys above them is marked by their connection by rail with the ports of Ilo and Arica respec- tively. But by far the largest population of the zone is found in the nitrate fields of the south. These lie in complete desert, unlovely groups of barracks, vats, and railroad sidings dumped on the sun-baked pampa around the flat salars. The climate has allowed the nitrates to form and remain, and the workers in this surprising hive of industry have to put up with the climate while nearly all their food is brought to them from outside, and all of their most precious water has either to be pumped from wells carefully placed and sunk so as to be untainted by the salts or piped from distant springs and streams in the piedmont. The Western, or Maritime, Cordillera forms a belt within our area of 575 kilometers (some 360 miles) in length and is rarely much less than 125 kilometers (some 80 miles) in width, if we take the 1,500-meter contour as its foot. The landscape GENERAL VIEW 21 in this belt includes elements of great regularity which cannot be lost sight of — the smoothness of the western flank which is the warped portion of the peneplane above mentioned, the strong "family likeness" which all the steep-walled ravines and gorges incised on this flank bear to one another, and so on. But it is the supreme irregularity of the peaks together with their barren grandeur which most impresses the traveler. The belt of summits is no system of parallel ridges and valleys which may be looked for in most of the world's great mountain chains. Rather does it resemble some gigantic breastwork hurriedly built of any ma- terials which came to hand, the large and the small mixed indis- criminately. The atmospheric elements of denudation can be trusted to work to a plan; so can most of the great mountain- building forces. But we are here reminded that geologists have no basis for forecasting the nature and the scale of the out- pourings of volcanism. For all of these peaks are volcanoes old or new, and within the limits of their zone they seem to conform to no plan of distribution. Large and small mountains stand side by side, and if they stood upon a low plain instead of on the brink of a high plateau they would scarcely merit the name of cordillera. Again, while all are "volcanic" peaks we must not suppose that they are necessarily symmetrical cones surmounted by craters. Many have this form indeed, such as El Misti, Tacora, and Sajama; but these are the youngest. The older members of the family have more or less lost their original shape under the influence of erosion. But, speaking generally, the slopes in the Western Cordillera are more or less the original slopes of deposit, whether of the lava flows or of the agglomerates and ash beds which have fallen round some center of eruption (see Fig. 36, page 167). So much for the form of the landscape. The other important element — color — is supplied not so much by the vegetation, as in more humid districts, but by the rocks themselves. These are painted again and again in the most vivid tints and with the finest mineral pigments from the purples and reds and pinks of the lavas to the pure yellow of the sulphur; two important 22 THE CENTRAL ANDES elements are the gleaming white of salt or borax crusts, which frequently fill the hollows, and the snows on the peaks themselves. The Cordillera is not a desert like the piedmont. The western flank and the lower slopes of many of the volcanoes themselves are clothed, although the cover is rarely complete. The traveler climbing from the west passes through a thirsty scrub dotted about with cacti of the candelabrum and pillar variety, which here and there close up to form a low cactus forest. Higher up the vegetation is also limited to scrub, but this time of tola and yareta with stretches of a pampa grass, and in many of the high valleys are grassy swards. A journey from end to end of this Cordillera is perfectly feasible, but it would be slow and would follow a very sinuous trail, and it is safe to say that no man has ever made it. Nowhere would animals be far from pasture or water. Groups of Indian habitations, all of the humblest variety, lie in nooks and corners everywhere throughout the entire range. The Indians are mainly occupied with the growing of crops, especially of potatoes and quinoa, sufficient for their sustenance. But they are also the owners of llama herds which they hire for the transport of ore and merchandise. Here and there they gather sulphur and borax and salt; and this, together with fuel consisting of scrub and llama dung, they carry on the backs of the llamas to the piedmont villages of the lowland. Thus they are able to satisfy the balance of their modest requirements. The major part of the Altiplano falls within the map area, but it extends beyond the limits for some 200 kilometers to the northwest and 300 kilometers to the south. Its eastern edge is well defined by the sharp rise and straight front of the Eastern Cordillera; but the western margin is less clearly cut for the reason aforementioned, that the volcanic debris has encroached upon it and forms hilly districts of irregular outline. Moreover, in the south the plateau is divided into two basins of interior drainage by a line of volcanoes and hills extending from the Western nearly to the Eastern Cordillera. Little is known of the country west of Lake Titicaca, but it seems probable that it consists of a plateau so much dissected by GENERAL VIEW 23 valleys as to have the appearance of a mountainous region. It probably is a part of the raised peneplane on which the volcanoes have been built farther west. In any case it is distinct in character from the Altiplano, which is lower and smoother, so that almost the entire width of the interior basin is here occupied by the waters of the lake. The Altiplano differs from most of the interior basins of the world in that it possesses a large, deep lake of fresh water — Titicaca — and an important permanent river drainage — the Desaguadero (see Fig. 2). This is accounted for by the existence of a deep tectonic depres- sion to hold the water in close proximity to a high mountain range to windward which keeps it supplied with water. South- wards the Altiplano becomes more and more typical of other interior semideserts; for the windward mountains become lower, so that they condense less moisture. They also quickly become immensely broader, so that the precipitation is more widely distributed. But most important of all is the fact, in part accounted for by these conditions, that south of Titicaca all important streams flow eastward from the drier Western Cor- dillera and not from the Eastern Cordillera, which receives the heavy rainfall. Thus it is not surprising to find that the Desa- guadero, with but one affluent of importance — the Mauri — and an aridity increasing southward, grows smaller downstream and feeds only a shallow water body — Lake Poopo. From this there is only a small outflow to a salt lake or swamp — Coipasa — on the fringe of the huge expanse of salt crust almost perma- nently dry. South of. the volcanic barrier which separates the salars of Coipasa and Uyuni there are no fresh-water lakes and no permanent streams on the plateau. The traveler in the course of a journey over the Altiplano from Titicaca southward is struck by a monotony of landscape almost as complete as in the case of the piedmont desert of the Pacific slope. It is true that in the south there are the lines of barren volcanic cones and at their foot the huge flat salars which have their own glistening monotony, and again there is the wide sheet of Poop6 with its marshy rim. But save for these one bit of the 24 THE CENTRAL ANDES immense plateau is like another. It is a rolling plain, almost bare of trees and in many parts bare even of scrub. But more generally it is covered with tola and yareta bushes, coarse grass, and other humble plants. It is swept by winds and often by dust storms. The higher swellings of the plain are the rough edges of the harder rocks which have withstood the attacks of erosion; and these are frequently kept bare of soil by the wind. Much of the soil of the lower parts is impregnated with salt. 1 1 is primarily a pastoral country, and large droves of llamas and sheep with occasional flocks of alpacas give the chief touch of life to the scene; or the long strings of llamas and donkeys laden with ore, fuel, or merchandise, resembling the camel caravans of Africa or Asia. But the owners of the llamas are also farmers in a small way. Villages, or rather groups of huts, may be found in almost any sheltered spot where the soil may be tilled; and there will be the potato, oca, and quinoa patches of the Indians with perhaps haba beans and a little barley raised for straw. There are many signs of early mining operations all over the plateau ; but two centers now eclipse all others in importance, Corocoro in the middle of the Altiplano and Oruro at its eastern edge. Apart from Oruro this margin has many groups of rela- tively dense population each occupying a small area of irrigable land at the mountain foot. Near Titicaca the scene changes. Steep slopes approach the lake and alternate sharply with carefully tilled patches of good land, while even the slopes where not too rocky are terraced and cultivated (see Fig. 3). Villages with trees and churches are near together, and the traveler has the feeling of being in an inhabited country. The hilly peninsulas — Copacabana and Huata — thrust forward and almost sever the lower lake from the main depression of Titicaca. The connecting strait is flanked by steep precipices. The scene is one of great beauty and wants only woods to make it rival the charm of the Italian lakes. For all the other elements are there, the islands, the steep terraced slopes, the rugged rocks, and the villages clustering picturesquely in nooks and hollows. Moreover, there is the alpine background, GENERAL VIEW 25 for the great chain of the Cordillera Real rears its gleaming summits with cloud banners and hanging glaciers against a sky which is nearly always blue. The northern end of the Altiplano was the cradle of an ancient civilization which has left as its only evidence wonderful mega- lithic structures, the ruins of its temples and dwellings. Lake Titicaca and its neighborhood again was one of the chief centers of the later Inca civilization. Today, as then, the shores of Titicaca are more densely peopled than most other parts of Bolivia, while the situation of La Paz near by marks it as the real heart of the Republic, although close to its western frontier. East of Titicaca the plateau rises gently over a piedmont to the foot of the Cordillera Real. But for the traveler who makes his way by road v or rail eastward from the lake's outlet by the valley of the Rio de Tiahuanaco a surprise is in store. He has barely reached the rising piedmont when he finds himself on the brink of a wide chasm separating him from the mountain front. This is the valley of the La Paz River, and the city of La Paz is spread over its floor and lower slopes six hundred meters beneath him. He may follow this canyon lip southeastward for nearly forty miles (60 km.) with the river bed deepening all the way (see Fig. 4), and then he must continue for nearly fifty miles more around the southern ramifications of the La Paz valley before he can start the ascent of the Cordillera. This great slice has been cut from the Altiplano by the La Paz River which is a head stream of one of the great tributaries of the Amazon, the Rio Madeira. So great is the erosive power of water fed by continuous condensation on the windward slope of the Andes that the Amazon has been able to break the resistance of one of the most powerful bulwarks of the Cordillera and so to begin the attack upon the interior basin of the Altiplano. The scale and grandeur of this evidence of power cannot fail to im- press the man who stands for the first time on the Alto of La Paz and sees below him a world apart. We shall see, however, that in spite of its apparent separation from the world above the inhabitants of La Paz valley cling to the links which bind them 26 THE CENTRAL ANDES ~ o o o — 0J •a, a '.3 <" <5 «0h GENERAL VIEW 27 to the Altiplano with its inhospitable climate and to the Pacific, and not to the soft and luxuriant world immediately below and the far distant Atlantic. The explanation of this lies in the fact that the people came from the plateau, as well as in the nature of the Cordillera and the plains to the east of them. The Eastern Cordillera in the area of the map falls into two quite different divisions, a northern section where it is relatively narrow and a southern where it is wide. The inner margin of the northern section runs from northwest to southeast while that of the southern is oriented nearly north-south. In the north the map includes practically a complete cross section of the Cordil- lera; but south of latitude 17 barely one quarter is included. The consequences of this division are many and important. The original character of an uplifted peneplane has been almost completely destroyed in the north, for the concentration of the rainfall in a narrow belt and the relatively steep gradient of the initial rivers have combined to enable these streams to cut the old surface to pieces. Moreover, the Cordillera Real even at the time when the peneplane surface had been developed else- where remained as a high range of hills above it. In the more southerly division perhaps the most striking feature is the general accordance of level of the summits and the complete absence of important peaks above the general summit level. At the highest altitudes, then, the old peneplane is in evidence, though by far the greatest part of the surface is hilly. The slopes are gentle and the valleys wide. This surface seems to have been formed by a long period of erosion after the pene- plane had been raised but long before it was pushed up to its present level. In places, as about Cochabamba, the surface has been warped or faulted down and the hollows are now filled with detritus, providing a rich soil which is occupied by the densest agricultural population in Bolivia. The process of rapid dis- section, which has gone so far since the great Andean uplift in the northern part of the Eastern Cordillera, has affected the southern division only on its outer edge — in the northeastern corner of the sheet — and where the main head streams of great 28 THE CENTRAL ANDES rivers such as the Grande and Pilcomayo have cut their beds in narrow gorges; and even these have barely touched the area included in the map. Thus the two mountain areas are strongly contrasted in their form, the northern being a region of tremendous declivities, sharp spurs, and swift rivers, while the southern consists almost entirely of wide hilly plateaus and graded rivers. Furthermore, there is a great difference of climate, already alluded to, the north receiving almost daily rain — or snow near the summit — the valleys constantly humid and lying for much of every day under great rolling clouds. In the south rainfall is much lighter, and save on the outer edge there are no hot and humid valleys. The valleys and basins of this section have perhaps the most delightful climate in South America. It is that of almost per- petual spring. All the products of temperate lands and many of the fruits of the tropical lowlands will grow there. Moreover, there is much good pasture on the valley slopes. But on the higher parts conditions are even more rigorous than on the Altiplano. A humble scrubby vegetation and sparse Indian settlements hugging the sheltered hollows in general are the signs of life on this hilly upland. But there remain the mines. Colquechaca, Uncia, and Huanuni are three of the most impor- tant centers of tin-mining in the world. The La Paz River makes its break in the Cordillera Real in an immense gorge over twelve miles (20 km.) across in an air line from peak to peak and 3,500 meters deep, its slopes being ex- ceedingly steep in the lower part and more gentle above. North and south of this gorge the range has been heavily glaciated and in all respects is thoroughly alpine in character. Snow-clad peaks and sharp aretes rise from rounded cirques and lake- studded, troughlike valleys, in many of which small glaciers still remain. Mines of gold and silver and tin are worked at a number of points along the slopes even up to the snow line, and for every mine now open there are remains of many others; while scattered Indians cultivate their patches in most inhos- pitable spots even close to the snows. GENERAL VIEW 29 20 21 Fig. S — Natural regions of the Central Andes. 1. Coastal hills with moisture and vegetation in winter. 2. Desert piedmont with oases in some of the valleys. 3. The Puna: high, dry Cordillera with intermont basins in the south, unforested. 3a. The Altiplano: an intermont basin with "Puna" characteristics. 4. Broken mountain slopes, moist and forested. 5. Broken plateaus and intermont basins with scrub and some woodland. 6. Plains, hot, moist, and mostly forested. 7. Plains, with cover of bush, grass, and scrub, gradually changing from north to south. 30 THE CENTRAL ANDES From these summits the eastward descent leads to another world with astonishing abruptness. Yungas, as the region formed by these eastern slopes is called, is characterized by its intricate topography (see Figs. 29 and 37), its warm, humid climate, becoming hotter with every foot of descent, its dense forest of varied trees and impenetrable undergrowth, and its rich fauna. All products which require heat and moisture will grow there, and the only obstacles to its development as one of the world's leading areas of tropical agriculture are its inaccessi- bility and its lack of level spaces. As it is, however, there are many narrow river flats where sugar cane and tropical fruits are intensively cultivated. Moreover, its most valuable products are coffee and coca, which are suited to cultivation in terraces and require a considerable rainfall and warmth without too much sun. The villages for the most part lie near the valley floors, or else on spurs which are of sufficient width, but always where the country permits of trails to connect them with other villages and ultimately with the Altiplano. For the plateau is their market; and even this district, so difficult of access from the west, looks up rather than down. Its connections with the Amazonian plains have yet to be made. The Indians of Yungas are still mainly of Aymara stock, which means that they hail from the plateaus. The limit of civilization and of economic life falls near the foot of the Andes and just touches the corner of our area. We have here reached the low sandstone ridges which form the outworks of the great Cordillera. A mantle of high tropical rain forest covers the land. It is unpenetrated save by the savage tribes which live along the rivers and by a very few missionaries and planters. Their numbers as well as their wants are small. The inhabitants of one valley have little intercourse with their neighbors on the next, and indeed they often speak different languages. CHAPTER II GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS The median line of the southern Andes from i8° S. to 56 S. approximates very closely to a meridian. Within the areal limits of the La Paz sheet this line swings abruptly to a north- westerly direction, and the Cordillera enters upon the great curve to the west which gives the northern Andes (from 18 S. to io° N.) a nearly semicircular trend. The largest of the physical features in the area reflect this important change in direction. Thus in the northern half the coast line and the two chief Cordilleras have the northwest-southeast trend, and rivers in the main follow this trend or run perpendicularly to it. In the southern half of the coast line, the Western Cordillera and the western edge of the Eastern Cordillera trend almost north and south. But each of the tectonic forces which have affected the crust in this area has left its marks throughout both sections. Thus in the northern we find an important line of summits west of Titicaca which trends from north to south and continues the coastal direction south of Arica. And again the parallel line of escarpment east of Lake Poop6 is continued northward through the cordillera by a furrow of lower land, the basin of the Ayopaya River. Moreover, in the southern half the meridional direction is not coincident with the strike of the folded rocks. For the folds, in so far as the volcanic rocks allow us to see them, follow the same direction as they do in the northern part — northwest- southeast — a direction which has been taken by the headstreams of the Grande and Pilcomayo rivers. The most outstanding contrast between the Andes immediate- ly north and south of the La Paz area is their much greater width to the south. This increase in width is abrupt; and it takes place about latitude 17 , or approximately the position of the bend in the cordillera and coast. It is natural to seek for surface 32 THE CENTRAL ANDES features about this line of change which may be connected with the tectonic conditions which account for it. If we draw a straight line from the coastal bend at Arica to the point of bend- ing on the inner face of the eastern Cordillera just north of Oruro, we find this line passing through the two highest volcanic peaks in the area — Payachata and Sajama, the cone of the latter standing out to the east of the main Cordillera; while beyond these the line traverses a swelling which forms a minor water parting on the Altiplano. Moreover, its continuation in the Eastern Cordillera coincides with the divide between the basins of the Rio Grande and Rio Beni systems; while still farther to the east it forms the axis of the basin of Cochabamba, which has been recognized as a region of crustal weakness and hence of sub- sidence. Thus there is strong superficial evidence of the existence of an important tectonic feature running east-northeastward from the Pacific at Arica. Beyond the map area in this direction the topography is not well known, but it is probably significant that the line if prolonged would reach the Amazonian plains under ioo kilometers; while a line drawn due east from Arica and produced beyond the area would leave the Cordillera at a point nearly 280 kilometers to the east. It is noteworthy that the Poop6-Coipasa basin on the Altiplano is divided from that of Uyuni by a range of hills — volcanic in its western part — which trends east-northeastward. This would seem to indicate a second line of crustal weakness following this direction and some 200 kilometers distant from the first. Geological knowledge of the area is not sufficient to permit the compilation of a complete map. Investigations have been made over a number of routes — by Orbigny, Castelnau, Pissis, Forbes, Steinmann, Sundt, Dereims, J. A. Douglas, H. E. Gregory, Block, Rogers, Kozlowski, Washburn, and others. Of these geologists Orbigny and Forbes made geological maps of the whole region. But neither of these can now be accepted as accurate. In addition to this, much detailed work has been done in the limited areas of the mines, and the Bolivian Gov- ernment has published maps of each department showing areas GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 33 which are supposed to yield the various minerals. These maps also show the distribution of hot springs, which throws some light upon the situation of geological faults. The physiography of the area has been studied by Bowman, who has been able to compare it with that of the adjoining regions to north and south. The glaciation features of the Eastern Cordillera have been examined by Hauthal and later by Sefve. Several special physical features have been examined scientifi- cally, amongst them the hydrographic system of the lakes on the Altiplano by Neveu-Lemaire of the Crequi-Montfort expedi- tion, the La Paz gorge by Gregory, and the sand dunes of the Pampa de Islay by A. E. Douglass. The relation of the geology to the minerals as well as the mining activities of the area have been admirably summarized by Miller and Singewald after an inspection of all the more important mining localities, and they have also published a valuable bibliography of these subjects. 1 While the total amount of geological knowledge is too incom- plete to permit a general geological map to be drawn, it is possible with the help of the writings above mentioned and from observa- tions made in other parts of the Andes to arrive at a fairly rea- sonable account of the physical history of the region from Silurian to Cretaceous. 2 For our present purpose it is unnecessary to go into this; but without some conception of the region as it must have appeared about the middle of the Tertiary it is impossible to understand the present physical features of the Andes. Sedimentary rocks of nearly all geological ages and of very varied character occur in the region, and all alike are folded with a northwest-southeast strike. The general arrangement and posture of the rocks in the northern half may be studied in the four cross sections of Forbes 3 and of J. A. Douglas 4 although these two authors differ considerably in their interpretations. Similar sections have been made in the southern part by A. P. 1 References to the published writings of the geologists above mentioned are given in Appendix C, Bibliography. 2 The structure and paleogeography of the Central Andes is discussed by Guido Bonarelli in a recent paper (59). » David Forbes, (57). * James Archibald Douglas, (61, 62). 34 THE CENTRAL ANDES Rogers and Washburn, but these remain unpublished. It is clear that the present high Andes had an ancestor, probably of much lower elevation, which owed its origin in the main to the crumpling of the rocks above mentioned. There is ample evi- dence of the later destruction of this range by denudation. The various folded strata of the Altiplano, which is the part least disturbed by later erosive agencies, remain truncated and worn almost to a plain — now greatly elevated, and the general ac- cordance of summit level in the Eastern Cordillera south of latitude 17 bears further witness of this. The Cordillera Real was apparently a residual mountain area, but the smooth slopes of the present Western Cordillera have been recognized by Bow- man 5 , where he studied them just south of the map limit, as a warped peneplane surface. It may be further surmised with reason that an old erosion surface, if not a peneplane, extended out over the edge of the present Pacific Ocean. That a moderate uplift of the peneplane in our area followed is evidenced by the dissected nature of the peneplane surface and especially on the eastern side of the range. That the uplift was slow or that a long period elapsed after this moderate eleva- tion is clear from the fact that the dissected surfaces of the Eastern Cordillera are mature. This uplift was probably accom- panied by a sagging in the middle — as if it were the keystone of an arch — in that the Altiplano has remained protected from this mature erosion. The sagging was probably accomplished at least in part by faulting. Any fractures at the western border are of course concealed by volcanic rocks, but the eastern margin of the Altiplano south of Oruro is a dissected fault scarp truncating the strike of the rocks and having hot springs at its foot. More- over, at least two important faults have been mapped, at Coro- coro and at Coniri, 45 kilometers north-northeast of that place. The Strait of Tiquina apparently coincides with a fault line, and the form of the submerged slopes of Lake Titicaca and the rectangular shape of its basin led Gregory 6 with reason to describe this as a warped and down-faulted section of the crust. In the 'Isaiah Bowman, (74). B Herbert E. Gregory, (76). GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 35 Eastern Cordillera two important faults with their downthrow to the east have been recognized by Block 7 at the crest of the mountains northeast of La Paz; and it is most probable that the straight edge of the hills bounding the subsidence basin of Cochabamba on the north is a fault scarp. The earlier elevation of the Andes — the first which has exer- cised direct influence upon the relief of the Andes of today — went on through Tertiary time, and it had the further accom- paniment of vast volcanic activity in the western part and igneous intrusions in the east. Amongst the intrusions we may include the porphyrite boss which forms a hill group on the southwestern side of Lake Titicaca, the diorite which accounts for the Cerro de Comanchi norths of Corocoro and probably other hills in its neighborhood, the igneous mass of the hills of Oruro — which bears its ores, and a number of separate intrusive sills on the Altiplano west of Oruro described by Orbigny as of trachite. All of these form isolated hills to roughen the surface of the Altiplano. Beyond the escarpment of the Eastern Cordillera the plateaus about the Cerro de Morococalla are composed for several hundred square miles of andesite, which appears to have overflowed a surface already dissected to maturity and must therefore be regarded as one of the most recent intrusions. Lastly we must mention the granite which crops out in the Cordillera Real both in its summits and to the east of them. The injection of this rock may, however, be much older than all the others mentioned above. From these brief indications some idea will be gained of the extent to which the land forms of this part of the Andes owe their origin to the processes of mountain building and crustal fracture anterior to the greatest uplift of the Cordillera. We have to look back to a picture in the mid-Tertiary of a belt of upland much lower than the present Andes but having already many of the existing surface features. And without this portrait of the earlier form the significance of the present mountain 'Henry Block, (66). 36 THE CENTRAL ANDES surfaces cannot be appreciated. Thus the folding of the rocks to their present postures had already been accomplished, and most if not all of the igneous injections in the eastern part had taken place. The surface of the folded rocks, which long before had been reduced to a peneplane save in the Cordillera Real, had again been etched to a mature relief in most parts; the chief exception being the Altiplano, which had by this time sagged down to its present relative position. Already the volcanoes had begun to pile up in the western part of the area. It cannot be stated with any certainty that the Pacific waters had yet taken the place of a land area beyond the present coast line, or whether the subsidence of this land took place in its entirety contem- poraneously with the great uplift of the Andes. This lower Andean land must have offered a much less serious barrier to the mobile elements — atmospheric, vegetable, and animal; and the intensification of contrasts of climate, vegeta- tion, and fauna which now exist in the region must have been brought about gradually throughout the progressive uplift of the Andes after this stage. The present constitution of the flora and fauna can be understood only by taking into account this condition which prevailed prior to the upthrust of the great land mass; and the existing climatic belts are manifestly the result of the great differences in altitude of land lying athwart the normal currents of air circulation. After detailed study in a surveyed portion of Peru (73rd meridian) Bowman 8 has calculated that the recent uplift of the Andes in that section amounts to at least a mile (1,610 meters). In this uplift the entire Cordilleran belt seems to have behaved as a unit, although there were probably local warps and frac- tures which broke the uniformity of the surface of erosion along the line now followed by the Western Cordillera. The increased height is not the result of renewed crumpling of the rocks, and the uplifting force may be presumed to have acted vertically. The further modification of the landscape in our area results in large measure from this rapid uplift. The change in form 8 Isaiah Bowman, (8) Chap. n. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 37 effected by the elevation appears to be a warping of the surface along the western margin of the highland; on the eastern side, a tilting of the plateaus towards the east. Apart from the con- tinued and perhaps increased volcanic outbursts in the Western Cordillera most of the physical features which remain to be accounted for are due to the denudation processes acting on the high block from the time of its maximum elevation. The rejuvenation of all the rivers save those draining to the central depression gave a fresh start to erosion in their valleys. On the eastern slopes the greater height of the cordillera occa- sioned increased rainfall and so added to the erosive power of the rivers there. On the other hand, the decreased humidity on the western slope somewhat neutralized the effect of uplift upon the activity of the streams or at least restricted rapid valley deepening to the beds of the larger streams. At the same time it initiated complete desert conditions on the coastal highland and gave effective play to the mechanical disintegration of rock and to the eroding and transporting power of the wind. To a lesser extent similar characteristics developed on the Altiplano; but there the surface features were greatly modified by the dis- tribution of water, of which more remains to be said. The eleva- tion of the Andes brought their crests above the line of permanent snow where they still remain, the present limit being at about 5,000 meters. But the cold climate now characteristic of the higher parts of the region is warm as compared with the rigorous conditions which prevailed throughout the periods of Pleistocene glaciation. The long-drawn cold phases of this climatic episode caused the formation of snow fields and groups of glaciers on the mountains — widespread on the Eastern Cordillera, smaller on the volcanoes of the western range. There were certainly two and perhaps three such glacial epochs, and between the cold phases came an interval — or intervals — of mild climate. The glaciers radiating from the eastern snow fields reached to the piedmont on the rim of the Altiplano, on the one hand, and extended far down into the gorges of the Yungas, on the other. The ice tongues from Illimani and Tres Cruces met in the bottom 38 THE CENTRAL ANDES of the La Paz gorge during the last great extension of the ice, at the point where it cuts through the Cordillera, and probably dammed back the waters of the upper valley to form a temporary lake. The glaciers which now lie in the fastnesses of the Cordillera Real and Quimsa Cruz are mere vestiges of these giants. But the ice caps have left their mark in profound modification of the mountains which nourished them. The summit of the Cordillera is a succession of alpine pyramids connected by knife-edged ridges which are the limits of great ice-chiseled cirques and troughs. In the cordillera north of Cochabamba the ice cap found a different type of site for its work. Here the ice must have lain upon smooth plateaus creeping downward over their edges much as the ice fields of Norway do today. The valleys which notch the plateaus have been deeply modified by ice, but the high surfaces display as evidences of glaciation mainly the shallow lake-filled hollows and morainic litter of dying glaciers. To appreciate the nature of the surface and underlying rocks on the Altiplano it is necessary to have some conception of the recent physical history of the plateau. We have seen that among the chief irregularities of surface in this long structural depres- sion are its deepest hollow — the bed of Titicaca — and a shallower saucer to the south of latitude l8° S. The residual ridges on the plateau corresponding to the outcrops of stronger rocks — for the most part the folded sandstones with interbedded rhyolites in some of the western ridges and igneous intrusive rocks in places — follow the strike of these rocks. While more or less parallel, these ridges are neither continuous nor straight, and on account of the bends their directions vary between east-southeast and south-southeast (see Fig. 4). It is specially important to notice the course of the most easterly of the ridges. North of the Alto of La Paz this appears as a line of low discontinuous hills closely hugging the piedmont, but south of the Alto it forms an un- broken and widening rampart dividing the plateau from the La Paz gorge, while the next ridge lying en echelon performs the same function in regard to the valleys of the Rios Sapahaqui and Luribay (see Fig. 4). GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 39 These ridges are the last outcrops of the folded sedimentary rocks of the Altiplano. They are superficially separated from the folded sediments (shales, quartzites, etc.) of the Cordillera Real by an apron of piedmont deposits north of La Paz, and south of that by immensely thick detrital beds — of gravel, sand, and clay with some intercalated tuff and lignite — in which the valleys of the La Paz, Luribay, and Sapahaqui Rivers have been incised to a depth, in the case of the first, of nearly 2,500 meters and have been carved into fantastic buttresses and pyramids. Over large tracts of the Altiplano in its lower parts is a mantle of deposits which have been named the Puna beds. These lie horizontally on the truncated edges of the folded rocks of the peneplane. They consist of reddish and yellowish sands with irregular lenses of gravel and occasional marl and clay bands. The beds are coarser in character near the ridges and finer at a distance from them. They contain, at Ulloma and other places, the fossil remains of large mammals which required in life a luxuriant vegetation for their nourishment and presumably a milder climate. The Puna beds are believed to have been laid down in standing water probably of a lake or lakes, and in their waters the mammals must have perished. The elements of an important geological problem are provided by these features : the La Paz gorge and its moraines, the La Paz basin deposits, and the Puna beds with their mammalian remains. Contro- versial views have long been stated regarding each of them; and even now, while they can be recognized as elements of the same problem, no complete solution can be offered. Nevertheless since the unraveling of the latest stages in the physical history of the region with which these elements are so closely related must be based on the keenest examination of the existing surface features and probably upon accurate leveling which has still to be carried out, it will be useful to state briefly the views of those who have studied the question. Philippi 9 believed that the animals whose remains are now 9 A. R. Philippi: Vorlaufige Nachricht iiberfossile Saugthierknochen von Ulloma, Bolivia, Zeitschr. der Deutschen Geol. Gesell., Vol. 45, 1893, pp. 87-96. 40 THE CENTRAL ANDES found at 4,000 meters above the sea lived in a tropical lowland and that the elevation of the Puna region took place after their extermination. Sundt at first believed that the Puna beds were of marine origin and that their fossils were probably contem- poraneous with those of the Argentine pampa, which necessitated an elevation of some 4,000 meters since the advent of man. In 1900 10 he renounced this view in favor of the opinion that the Puna beds were laid down in a huge Quaternary lake stretching from Lipez in southern Bolivia nearly to Cuzco in Peru, whose waters were dammed by glaciers; but he adds that since it is improbable that the mammals could have lived in the glacial climate it is possible that the beds are post-glacial and were deposited in lakes of reduced size. In 1902 Pompeckj made a careful examination of the Ulloma locality and stated his belief 11 that the Puna beds were formed after the elevation of the Andes. Sefve in a similar investigation in 1910, examines the whole question of origin 12 in considerable detail and in the light of previous researches. Beyond stating that the change in the hydrography of the plateau after its peneplanation was due to the filling up of valleys — probably on account of fluvioglacial agency — resulting in the formation of lakes, he reaches no very definite explanation of the presence in their deposits of mammals such as the mastodon; but he concludes that the critical point at which to find evidence regarding the damming of the drainage outlet is the La Paz valley. Many geologists have studied the La Paz sedimentary deposits. Their results are briefly summarized by H. E. Gregory, 13 but he omits to mention the important observations of Hauthal made in 1908. 14 Gregory confines himself to a geological description of the strata, and while stating that they are deposits of low-grade pied- mont streams with temporary lakes, he draws no conclusion 10 Lorenzo Sundt, Bol. Soc. Nad. de Mineria, Ser. 3, Santiago de Chile, 1900; also Rev. Chilerra de Hist, y Geog., Vol. 36, 1920. 11 J. P. Pompeckj, Paleonlographica, Vol. 52, Stuttgart, 1905. 12 Ivar Stfve, (77). 13 Herbert E. Gregory, (76). » Rudolf Hauthal, (73). GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 41 regarding their age or the regional significance of their formation. Hauthal regards them as of interglacial age, relying upon his dis- covery of glacial till below them at Ananta, while he, like other observers, found moraines resting upon them. Sefve, returning to his investigations in 1920, followed the La Paz valley to the An- gostura gorge where the valley enters upon its northeastward trend through the Cordillera. In a provisional account 16 he states that he found no evidence of the La Paz valley above that point having been occupied by a glacier but is satisfied that immense ice streams from the Illimani group on the one hand and the Quimsa Cruz group on the other converged at the gorge of Angostura and that these were sufficient also to flood the Alti- plano. Sefve further reports the recent discovery by Kozlowski that the materials resting upon the till found by Hauthal at Ananta are not the La Paz beds but are deposits formed by the river. 16 The La Paz beds, therefore, are probably preglacial. The complete geological history of the La Paz gorge remains to be written. Unfortunately the thick detrital deposits in which the existing valley is cut have furnished no fossils. If the deep and wide hollow in which they lie was carved by a river, it seems evident either that the latter was a large and powerful stream perhaps having its source in the present bed of Titicaca or be- yond or else that an immense space of time was occupied in excavating the hollow. Equally clear is it that another long period elapsed in which this longitudinal furrow became filled to the level of the Altiplano by the La Paz deposits. If Gregory's view be the right one, it would seem that the deep furrow con- taining the deposits — whatever its origin — is a very old feature, probably an important feature of the older and lower precursor of the present high Andes. The period of deposit here would then correspond to the long period in which other surfaces attained maturity in their development; while the re-erosion of a deep valley in the deposits — the present gorge of the La Paz River — would correspond to the main uplift of the Andes. In addition to the detailed examination of the Puna beds at Ulloma if Iv&r Sefve, (75). 16 Ibid. 42 THE CENTRAL ANDES and vicinity, scattered observations on their distribution have been made by a number of scientists from Orbigny onwards. Of these J. B. Minchin probably had the widest knowledge of the Altiplano, and after numerous journeys made during his long residence in Bolivia he was able to construct a tentative map of what he called a former high-level lake now represented by shrunken fragments like Titicaca and Poopo. This map is represented in Figure 6 (A). It was sent to Dr. Bowman only a few weeks before Minchin's death and has not been published hitherto. But Minchin and many others based their interpreta- tions upon notions that were much too simple. They assumed but one lake period whereas there were several. The precise level of each lake and its real extent will not become known until a detailed topographic survey has been made. It will then be revealed also to what extent deformations have occurred of shore lines and marginal and bottom deposits from the end of the lake period down to the present. Only an outline of the lake history can be given from the fragmentary information now available It is theoretically sound to conclude that by the end of the period of greatest erosion lakes were probably absent from the Central Andean landscape. There followed a period of deforma- tion, and great lakes were formed; and in respect to them and to other local and especially marginal base levels mature slopes were carved in a second erosion cycle whose effects are among the most prominent today. But all these changes took place at a much less elevation than the surface has today. Moreover, the deposits are of far greater age than those directly associated with the existing levels of lake basins. When a second period of deformation set in with contempo- raneous elevation a second opportunity was given for lakes to form; but whether or not they did form depended upon climatic conditions as well as relief. A high-lying series of calcareous deposits, old and weathered in appearance and fragmentary in occurrence, mark an earlier lake period; as the benched hills and spurs, fresh tufaceous deposits, and far more continuous GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 43 £ ai E -i 2 i y<^>> *\ "' V. 1 .3 O vfe^C ^f^^*$ir c3 a ^^\r~^ Supposed Shore of Lake Minchin Existing Rivers Salars Railways 50 N < -i 5^2?** Sg^/y^grff y Ob, - V J To 8 ,^ B "i r ^= * / N < I\ * \\ JfMo a. < "^ s to re iS _i P^tf l\ ^ < A? -*W CO 3 *»*!j-Jtf vv>" 3 O". jfcJF ^ j? •00 ^ H#C ■2" a •ad 3 < _A^" O" 3 \ O ® 2£ I* S £ d — ■a t> a . -.2 .M i-l ~ 2 cs a v cd y a 44 THE CENTRAL ANDES distribution of shore forms mark a later period of lake develop- ment. Each of these periods may be divisible into several phases, but of the existence of at least two main periods there can be little doubt. To the first and higher of these lakes Bow- man has given the name Lake Ballivian, and to the second and lower, Lake Minchin. In the second of the two periods the general position, level, and outlines of Lake Titicaca did not differ materially from their present condition. In Figure 6 (B) an attempt has been made to represent the probable outline of Lake Minchin. The level of the highest bench top at the Cerro de Oruro (with reference to the railroad) corresponds with the level of laminated near-shore clays and other deposits in the Desaguadero valley near Naza- cara, six meters below even the present surface of Titicaca. Whatever extra water supply Titicaca may have had was com- pensated by increased discharge. On the contrary, the Poopo basin, without outlet, was all but filled up. Its northern arm was but six meters below Lake Titicaca. Had the climatic conditions been only a little more extreme an actual junction with Titicaca would have been made. Whether the successive benches and calcareous shore deposits on the border of the Poop6 basin mark stages in the lowering of the lake as a drier climate intervened or whether the former lake dried up altogether to come again into existence and rise to a lesser level than before, has not yet been determined. In any case, the whole series of changes ended with the almost complete drying up of the Poop6 basin. Poopo itself and Coipasa are but shallow pans of extremely saline water bordered by wide marshes and salars. In 1914 Bowman gave an interpretation of the rela- tions of the two main lakes to each other 17 and to their sur- roundings, and his diagram is reproduced herewith (Fig. 7). The ancient Lake Minchin extended up the Desaguadero valley as far as Ulloma, and northward beyond it, and we may conclude tentatively that it was in this water body that the fossil remains were originally submerged. If the glacial dam in 17 Isaiah Bowman, (75). GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 45 FAIRWEATHER GAP Fig. 7 — Sketch showing relations of lake levels at Fairweather Gap, ten kilo- meters north of Calacoto. Lake Minchin, a temporary lake of glacial times, came into existence long after the Desguadero had cut down its valley from the level of Lake Ballivian to that of Titicaca. the lower La Paz gorge was the agent which caused the im- pounding of the water, we may further conclude that this lake and its deposits are of Pleistocene age. In this connection we may note that in other sections of the Central Andes fossiliferous lacustrine deposits have been assigned with good reason — on geological and paleontological evidence — to the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene; for instance, the strata examined by Herbert E. Gregory and G. F. Eaton 18 in the Upper Apurimac basin. These beds near Ayusbamba lying at an altitude of about 3,800 meters — approximately the same as the Ulloma deposits — were found to contain remains representing the Camelidae, Equidae, Elephantidae, and Mylontidae. The Drainage Systems Recalling the outlines of the probable physical history of the Central Andes, we may discern interesting relations of the present drainage systems with the rock structure on the one hand and 18 Herbert E. Gregory: Geologic Reconnaissance of the Ayusbamba (Peru) Fossil Beds, Amer. Journ. of Sci., Ser. 4, Vol. 37, 1014, pp. 123-154; George F. Eaton: Vertebrate Fossils from Ayusbamba, Peru, ibid., pp. 141-154. 46 THE CENTRAL ANDES the various surfaces of erosion and deposition on the other. The earlier and lower predecessor of the present high Andes pre- sumably was originally drained in the first instance by conse- quent rivers running generally to the northeast and southwest. We do not know where the original divide of these ancient moun- tains lay; but it is worthy of note that the existing hollow in the Western Cordillera now followed by the Mauri River and by the railway is approximately west-southwest of the gorge of the La Paz River where it pierces the Cordillera Real. Owing to the volcanic nature of the Western Cordillera it is unlikely that any other similar valleys can be found; but it is possible that de- tailed surveys would reveal remnants of an ancient drainage system — possibly consequent — in the non-volcanic parts of the high plateaus west of Lake Titicaca and in the Eastern Cordil- lera south of the La Paz gorge. The long period of erosion which supervened before the Andes were elevated to their present position and which sufficed to produce mature surfaces in most parts of the land undoubtedly brought into existence the type of valley which prevails today in the Eastern Cordillera and on the Altiplano — the "subse- quent," or "strike," valleys, in which rivers have incised their courses in the weakest rocks and so follow the general direction of their strike — north-northwest to south-southeast. Such val- leys are numerous in the basins of the Rio Grande and Rio Pil- comayo, as well as on the Altiplano. The present network of rivers, then, on the Altiplano and east of it probably conforms in general to the net which was already developed before the greatest uplift of the Andes. The chief effect which this uplift has had upon the rivers is the progressive and rapid deepening of their beds. The Desaguadero is a "strike stream" from Titicaca at least down to Ulloma. Beyond this it may be occupying a slight structural depression. In the Cordillera west of Titicaca it looks as if the present divide were older than the line of volcanoes which stand upon the western brink of the high country. The Chili and Tambo Rivers have succeeded in maintaining a south- GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND LAND FORMS 47 westward course in spite of this volcanic barrier. Elsewhere in the Western Cordillera the rivers of the Pacific slope have their sources amongst the volcanoes. Their relatively straight courses are consequent in general upon the warped slopes which date from the great uplift. In detail they depend doubtless upon local conditions such as the form of lava flows. The various agents of erosion and transportation act differ- ently in the various parts of the area of the La Paz sheet. Me- chanical disintegration of rocks plays a much greater part than chemical decomposition in the puna and the desert littoral. The intense insolation on the mountains and high plateaus followed by rapid radiation at night or when the sky becomes overcast causes a crumbling of the rocks which probably takes place at as rapid a rate as anywhere in the world. In the drier regions occasional rain storms quickly fill the dry quebradas, and the streams bring down quantities of rock fragments to the Altiplano or to the coastal desert, where they are added to the alluvial fans that mark the lower end of every gorge. Where streams are absent on the mountain slopes the downward creep of the frag- ments is less rapid but no less sure. The wind carries the sifting of the debris a stage further, rolling the lighter grains, lifting the lightest and building them into sand dunes. These probably occur sporadically all over the Altiplano and the desert. But they are particularly characteristic of the plain southeast of Oruro and of the Pampa de Islay, where they are well known from the fact that the Arequipa railway goes through them. These dunes, which are known as medanos, are crescentic in form like the barchans of central Asia. They lie with the horns of the crescent away from the effective wind which puts them frequently in motion. The undrained hollows of the Western Cordillera and Altiplano act as local base levels, below which gravity cannot act, and their surface is being gradually raised by deposit. Where water brings salts in solution to these hollows, or where gaseous vol- canic emanations reach the stagnant water from below, the water becomes highly saline; and on its evaporation the salts crystal- 48 THE CENTRAL ANDES lize. Thus the salars are formed. Their composition varies from the surface downwards and from the edge towards the center. But in general they form nearly fiat expanses of dazzling white- ness. Their surface generally is much broken and is difficult to cross, and the sharp buckled salty crust injures the feet of ani- mals. Where rails are laid over their surface the bed has con- stantly to be remade, since crystallization goes on and causes the surface to bulge by pressure from below. In the foregoing description much has been said of volcanoes and of geological faults. Both of these of course are evidences of the instability of the earth's crust; and before leaving the subject it is necessary to add a few words on present conditions in this respect. There are now no volcanoes in the area under discussion which are in active eruption or which are definitely known to have erupted in historical time. But several of the peaks of the Western Cordillera still emit steam and volcanic gases from their craters or from fumaroles on their flanks. This is true of Misti, Ubinas, Tacora, and Taapaca. That the earth's crust is now more stable in the east of our area than on the Pacific slope is made clear by the fact that serious earthquakes occur only in the latter; although some geological faults in the Eastern Cordillera are still marked by the presence of springs of high temperature. Earthquakes on the Pacific littoral have been numerous and severe in historical times. Arequipa was destroyed by an earthquake in 1746, Pisagua in 1868, and Arica successively in 1605 and 1746. CHAPTER III MINERALS AND MINES Incomparably the most important facts regarding minerals in the area are, first, that Chile produces 99 per cent of the world's supply of nitrates and, secondly, that Bolivia produces about 21 per cent of the world's tin. 1 In 1918, 2,919,000 tons of nitrate were exported by Chile, and of this 495,000 were embarked at the ports of Caleta Buena, Caleta JunJn, and Pisagua, the re- mainder of the Chilean export coming from ports to the south. Thus approximately 19 per cent of the world's supply of nitrates comes from a narrow strip of land in the La Paz sheet area lying for the most part immediately to the west of the longitudinal railway south of Jazpampa. In 1915, Bolivia exported 36,492 metric tons of tin concen- trates, which on smelting produced 21,900 tons of metal; and this was 17 per cent of the world's supply. Of the 36,000 tons of concentrates about 21,000, representing about 10 per cent of the world's tin supply of that year, were produced in thirteen groups of mines situated in the map area. Moreover, the world importance of these mines presumably increased after 1915, for in 1917 and 1918 Bolivia supplied not 17 per cent of the total tin but 21 per cent. The region also supplies important contributions of borax and of copper and could turn out a somewhat larger proportion of each. The special demands for tungsten and bismuth during the World War resulted in an intensive production of these minerals in Bolivia; but it remains to be seen whether the coun- try's importance as a source of them will be maintained under normal conditions. The silver and gold production of this part 1 The mineral deposits of the region and their extraction have been so admirably treated by Miller and Singewald in their recent work (55) that the brief statement made on this subject in the introductory chapter will be elaborated here only in its most salient geographical aspects. 50 THE CENTRAL ANDES of Bolivia has now merely local importance, and this is true also of sulphur and salt, although the sulphur deposits on the Chilean side of the border have a prospect of becoming very important. Moreover, it is a matter of great interest to the world that the chief commercial source of iodine is the nitrate deposits of Chile. The various minerals occur in distinct geographical zones which follow broadly the outcrop of the various geological sys- tems and therefore lie more or less parallel, trending from north- west to southeast. The nitrate zone, although it does not ex- tend much north of Pisagua, lies parallel to the coast. The sul- phur, being found in active or extinct volcanoes, lies entirely in the Maritime Cordillera; likewise the borax, ultimately derived from volcanic exhalations, is now found in the lake beds of this Cordillera, where it has crystallized. Copper occurs in the native form and has been injected into the interstices of the reddish sandstones of the western Altiplano from Corocoro southeastwards; while other copper ores are found in continua- tion of this zone northwestwards along the shores of Titicaca. The other minerals — tin, tungsten, bismuth, silver, and gold — are all found in the rocks of the Eastern Cordillera, while gold is extracted from the alluvial valley deposits derived from them. Lastly, if oil be later found in this section of Bolivia, it will lie in the sub-Andine zone which crosses the northeast corner of the La Paz sheet and possibly also on the Altiplano, contained in the anticlines which follow the general strike of the rocks there. The region as a whole has long been one of the most famous mining countries of the earth, and it is well known how the treasure of the Incas was the original lure of the conquistador es. Before the Spanish Conquest silver, gold, and copper were mined by the Aymara and Quichua Indians of the plateau. 2 Although the mineral wealth of the Andean region probably meant little to the Indians in the earlier stages of their develop- ment, yet as their culture advanced they exploited some of the deposits of gold, silver, and copper for the manufacture of tools, 1 A fuller statement of general conditions in this early period will be found at the beginning of Chapter IX. MINERALS AND MINES 51 household utensils, and ornaments. With the growth in the demand for such metals, mining became an important industry, and the making of metal objects became one of the features which characterized their culture. Gold was obtained from placer mines, one of the most notable of the gold-yielding districts being the valley of La Paz, known in ancient times (and still known among the Indians) as Chu- quiapo, "heritage of gold," with its neighboring district Chuquia- guillo or Orco-jahuira. The region of Inquisivi also contains gold deposits that are said to have been worked in pre-Conquest days. In fact, from those regions of the Colla (or Aymara) country, and particularly from the region about Carabaya, just north of Lake Titicaca and just beyond the border of this sheet, came a large part of the gold of the Inca empire. Silver was mined in a number of places. One of the most noted of the silver-bearing districts was Porco, which like the world-famous Potosi lies just over the southeastern border of this sheet. Some of the veins in the Oruro hills were also said to have been worked before the Conquest. The Indians had learned to smelt the silver by means of pottery furnaces (guayras), which were set up upon the higher slopes of the hills so as to receive a constant natural draft. The molten metal ran out from openings left in the bottom of the furnace. Charcoal brought from the timbered hills of the eastern slope of the Andes was used for fuel, as was also probably the dried dung of llamas (taquia), still the most common combustible on the plateau. Copper was very generally used among the Indians for their tools, weapons, and such ornaments as the tupus, long pins with the head in shape of a spoon, with which the women fastened their shawls. Sometimes pure copper was used, sometimes a bronze which was long thought to have been an accidental alloy but which is now known to have been made by the Indians. 3 The copper was obtained from the copper belt that runs south- eastward from Lake Titicaca through the Altiplano. Ancient mines are spoken of at Cerro de Scapi near Chuyca in Lipez, at Tara- 3 Erland Nordenskiold, (113). 52 THE CENTRAL ANDES buco in Chichas, and at Caraguara (modern Corocoro) in Paca- jes. It is thought that the art of producing bronze was known even in the very ancient period represented by the ruins of Tia- huanaco, although it did not become common or widespread until late Inca times. It has been ascertained that tin was added to the copper in the making of tools and weapons, in order that the articles might then be better hardened by cold hammering, 4 and it is thought that a still larger percentage of tin was used in bronze ornaments in order that they might be more easily molded. That tin was used alone seems doubtful, although in one instance pure tin objects that seemed to be of pre-Conquest origin have been found. A number of tin deposits were worked in this region, however, in Inca times, notably that at Carabuco near Lake Titi- caca, and it is probable that barter carried this material to dis- tant parts of the empire. About the mining centers settlements had grown up, composed of men trained in the process of ore extraction and in the arts of simple metallurgy. Mining, however, did not reach any exten- sive development even during Inca times, since the uses to which metal objects were put were quite restricted. All the precious metals were claimed for the royal household, either for adornment of the person, or for the beautifying of palaces and temples. No metals were used for money, so far as known, commerce being carried on entirely by barter. When the Spaniards had become masters of the Inca empire in the sixteenth century they at once initiated a feverish campaign of mining activity, devoting their attention almost entirely to the precious metals. With the establishment of a system of forced labor (repartimientos and mitas) the mines already being worked by the Indians were extended, and every Spaniard became a pros- pector for new deposits. As a result of this it is probably no great exaggeration to say that every square league of hilly country occupied by the Spaniards bears some sign of having been ex- plored for its mineral wealth. The richest of all silver mines — * H. W. Foote and W. H. Buell: The Composition, Structure, and Hardness of Some Peruvian Bronze Axes, Amer. Jour, of Sci., Vol. 34, 1012, pp. 128-132. MINERALS AND MINES 53 those of Potosi and Porco — lay just beyond the area we are dis- cussing; but the Cerro de Oruro, opened in 1568, was soon almost as important. The Spaniards introduced improvements in the extraction of the metals. Extensive deposits of mercury were found in Peru (near Guamanga) in 1567, and this metal was imported and applied to the reduction of silver, thus making possible the working of lower-grade ore than formerly. The ore was milled by horse power or by water power, where that was available, reservoirs being constructed to increase the resources. With the richer and more accessible ores of silver worked out, and with gold more easily obtainable elsewhere, mining activity fell off in the eighteenth century; and, when the attention of prospectors was again directed to the Bolivian plateau in the nineteenth century, it was no longer gold and silver but the baser metals — tin and copper — which drew them thither. In comparing the output of metals during the earlier periods with that of today it is necessary to bear in mind, first, that under the Incas and earlier Spaniards there was no question of making a mine pay, for the amount of labor available was limited prac- tically only by the population — the labor being forced, and, secondly, that mining for the most part took place at or near the surface; and we must remember further that many mines formerly rich in silver ores now yield only tin and that the depreciation in the value of silver some thirty years ago greatly restricted the output of the less valuable ores. The Nitrate Fields For nearly a century scientists have sought to explain how nitrogen has become fixed in these coastal pampas as sodium nitrate or "Chile saltpeter" on such a large scale, and while the problem is still unsolved it is clear that a very important element in the genesis of the mineral is the regional peculiarity of the nitrate fields. This peculiarity results from the coincidence of several features. The high range of the Maritime Cordillera causes regular precipitation of moisture which drains westward. The range is bordered by a piedmont belt of detrital material — 54 THE CENTRAL ANDES thicker near the mountains and sloping gently westward. The surface of the water table in this detritus also slopes westward and comes nearer to the surface in that direction; but the water is prevented from escaping to the sea by the coastal hills, com- posed of crystalline or other compact rock and higher than the lower piedmont east of them. The climate, as we have seen, is arid, and evaporation by day is intense; but humidity often reaches saturation at night, when sea fogs drift over the coastal lands. Discussion regarding the origin of the nitrates has recently been summarized by authors who come to different conclusions. 6 The explanation offered by Miller and Singewald may perhaps be stated in a few words. They point out that the ground water is evaporated in proportion to its nearness to the surface, and the process therefore is most intense near the western edge of the piedmont where more water will be raised by capillary action than elsewhere. Such water if it contain nitrates in solution will deposit them on evaporation at or near the surface — in the same way, indeed, that sea salts are deposited near the shores of the Red Sea above sea level. These authors are not convinced that the underground waters of the district necessarily carry an un- usual amount of nitrate in solution and consider that the coin- cidence of such soil and atmospheric conditions with the resulting long continued efflorescence of the salt may be sufficient to ac- count for the unique deposits of northern Chile. Previous investigators, however, have mostly sought for some abnormal fixation of nitrogen in the region. Their theories may be divided into four classes. The first attributes the nitrates to the slow oxidation of masses of seaweed accumulated when the area formed a shallow sea bottom. The second group assumes that a guano deposit about the shores of a salt lake or sea inlet was either flooded by salt water and so formed sodium nitrate, or after forming calcium nitrate was slowly liquefied by night dews and then coming in contact with the salt of the salars was 6 Joseph T. Singewald, Jr., and Benjamin L. Miller: The Genesis of the Chilean Nitrate Deposits, Econ. Geology, Vol. n, pp. 103-114; 1916. W. L. Whitehead: The Chilean Nitrate Deposits, ibid.. Vol. 15, 1920, pp. 187-224. Both papers con- tain bibliographies. MINERALS AND MINES 55 converted to sodium nitrate. The third group attributes the work of nitrification to organisms acting upon ancient vegetable matter in the soil, the nitrates being concentrated by water and evaporated as outlined above. The last group invokes the aid of electricity as an oxidizer of atmospheric nitrogen — either electrostatic tension accompanying the coastal fogs which invade the pampas at night or electric storms in the cordillera. One author believes that the nitric acid from the atmosphere forms nitrates only when rocks containing a high percentage of sodium are present, which is the case in the porphyries of this part of the Andes. Whitehead 6 believes that the source of the nitrates is volcanic material, especially tuffs, in the neighborhood. He points out that the deposits lie on the gentle hill slopes on the west above the level of the pampa, and he shows how the salts, dissolved mainly by dews from the rocks of the hilltops to the west, have been carried progressively downward by the occasional rains. He regards the ground water as a possible source only in rare cases, since the debris of the pampa is of too loose a character to allow extensive capillary action to take place. It would seem possible, however, that even if this theory is the right one in general it is necessary to invoke another in the fields east of Pisagua, for the hills there are not composed of volcanic rocks but of limestone. The process of mining or "extracting" the nitrates is simple. The upper layers which vary as to composition and thickness are broken by blasting; and the rich caliche, which has an aver- age thickness of about one foot, is dug out for the most part in open workings. The material is then taken to the mdquina or refining plant where after being crushed it undergoes a succession of boilings in vats. Thence the solution flows by gravity to huge evaporation pans where the salt is recrystallized. If it has 95 per cent purity, it is exported for agricultural purposes; if its purity exceeds 96 per cent, it is marketed for chemical manufactures. Iodine is obtained as a by-product by a very • Op. cit. 56 THE CENTRAL ANDES simple treatment of the mother liquor after the nitrate has been crystallized out. Nitrate extraction has produced an industrial oasis in the desert. Machinery, food, and fuel all have to be imported, the latter being mainly oil from Peru or California. The refining could not be effected without adequate water; and this, as we shall see below, is obtained from the ground water. It is interest- ing to note that the materials for the manufacture of blasting powder are found locally — saltpeter, sulphur from the Cordillera, and charcoal (formerly) from the roots of extinct forests buried in the sands. But charcoal is now replaced by imported coal dust. Mining in the Western Cordillera As there is no other important mining activity west of the Maritime Cordillera we may pass to this range, merely noting that the lomas of the coast and the crystalline foothills have in the past produced valuable copper ores, notably near Ilo and about the headwaters of the Rio de Moquegua, and at any time metal mining may take a fresh start along the western side of the Andes. One copper mine, at Cerro Verde south of Arequipa, has already been reopened and is exporting its ore to Mollendo. The group of volcanic peaks east of Arequipa encloses a basin with no outlet — the Pampa de Salinas. Formerly it contained a lake, but now water lies there only in the wet months, so that the bed is virtually a salar. A large part of the salt beds consist of boronatrocalcite (ulexite) which is the chief source of borax. The position and impermeable character of the bed points to an origin due to boric exhalations — derived from the volcanoes — having penetrated the water from below. The material from this bed is dried in ovens and exported on llama or mule back to Arequipa. At present this salar produces only a small proportion of the world's borax supply, the major part of which comes from the similar but greater salar of Ascotan, south of our region. But, when the projected railway to Arequipa is built, a much greater output is anticipated. A further source of borax has MINERALS AND MINES 57 been located at Chilicolpa on one of the head streams of the Mauri, but this is as yet undeveloped. There are probably few volcanic peaks in the Western Cor- dillera which do not have sulphur deposits as a witness of their recent activity, and the digging and collection of it form one of the occupations of the mountain Indians — the crude sulphur being carried by them down to the nitrate fields, there to be used in making blasting powder. From the standpoint of pro- duction, however, the volcano of Tacora is by far the most im- portant locality in the Andes, while there are other important deposits in the vicinity of the volcano of Isluga (19 10' S.). The deposits of Tacora are still in process of formation in solfa- taras; the sulphur is extracted simply by digging, which is car- ried on by Aymara Indians who come from the Bolivian side for periods of work. The mining is often interrupted in winter by snow. The sulphur is refined by sublimation in iron retorts, the local yareta shrub supplying the fuel. With the railway station of Ancara a few miles away these mines can undoubtedly look forward to supplying foreign markets with sulphur. Mining in the Western Altiplano Native copper is of commercial importance in only two places in the world — on the shores of Lake Superior and at Corocoro. The occurrence on the Altiplano of the metal in its pure state was of great importance in prehistoric times since it led to the malleable copper being employed before sufficient metallurgical knowledge had been acquired to enable the miners to extract the metal by smelting the commoner ores of copper. The native copper at Corocoro is intimately associated with the grains of the sandstone and occurs in the neighborhood of one of the main geological faults of the piateau, to which reference has been made. The copper ore, like other minerals of the Altiplano, was formerly exported on llama back to the coast; and the cost of exporting the heavy product in this manner long delayed the full development of the mines. But improved transport facilities 7 7 See below, p. 182. 58 THE CENTRAL ANDES culminating in the opening of the railroad to Arica have greatly simplified the export of the copper concentrates, from which about 6,000 metric tons of the metal are now procured annually, and the mines are probably entering upon an era of increased prosperity. Mining in the Eastern Cordillera The map on Plate II shows the position of the more impor- tant mines falling within the La Paz sheet. For the metals tin and copper conventional signs are inserted indicating the amount of concentrated ore produced in 191 5, the last year for which the writer has had access to detailed statistics. It will be seen from this map that the mines of the Eastern Cordillera fall in two zones extending from northwest to southeast, the one in the Cordillera Real including all the mines from Milluni to Beren- guela, and the other beginning at Oruro and including all mines to the southeast of it. It will be noted that the second zone starts at the latitude of the supposed structural break in the Cordillera, to which attention was drawn in Chapter II. It is not necessary here to draw attention to the mineralogical distinctions between these two zones; but it must be pointed out that, while both produce the metals tin, silver, tungsten, and bismuth the more southerly has by far the greater output of tin and it alone still carries a large amount of silver. In passing it should be noted that in the extension of this zone, beyond the sheet limit, occur the remaining important tin and silver mines of Bolivia. Gold is practically restricted to the northern zone. This metal, while it occurs in thin threads in many of the rocks of the Cor- dillera Real, is not found in sufficient quantity to repay the working of the lodes. It has been extracted by washing in the valleys since very early times; but the only placer mine which has been successful in recent years is in the Chuquiaguillo valley north of La Paz. We have seen that silver was the main attraction for the early Spanish settlers in this region, and with easily accessible lodes and practically unlimited labor they produced enormous MINERALS AND MINES 59 quantities of the metal. It has been estimated that from 1553 to 1910 the mines of Bolivia produced 48,800,000 kilograms of silver, and of this 30,000,000 were credited to the silver mountain of Potosf which lies just outside our area. Oruro, Colquiri, and Colquechaca have all been great silver producers; and the city of Oruro in 1678 had a Spanish population of nearly 38,000 and at least as many Indians, or a total of about five times its present population. Today the chief silver mines of Bolivia are outside the region under discussion, and only Colquechaca and Colquiri are producing this metal in quantity. On the other hand, the tin mines in the Uncia-Llallagua dis- trict are amongst the richest in the world and together they produce about three-sevenths of the Bolivian supply of that metal, while the Oruro, Huanuni, Morococala, Totoral, and Avicaya tin mines are of great importance today. A wide stretch of the high plateaus southeast of Oruro is formed of thick beds of andesite lavas which in the past have flooded the older denuded surface. These volcanic beds doubtless conceal much of the metalliferous rocks, as the richest lodes occur about its southern and western margins — Llallagua, Huanuni, and Negro Pabellon — or, as at Morococala, in hills of the older rock which protrude through the andesite. One of the most striking features of the mines of the La Paz sheet is their great altitude. Some of them are responsible for leading important population groups far above the limit of com- fortable living and into a zone which would otherwise be unin- habited. The heights above sea level of the leading mines are in round figures: Morococala, 5,000 meters, Colquechaca and Caracoles, 4,800 m.; Milluni and Araca, 4,500 m., Uncia, 4,400 m.; while Oruro, Huanuni, Colquiri, Totoral and Avicaya and Llallagua are all at about 4,000 m. Manual labor at such alti- tudes is of course possible only for the native Indians. The mines formerly had to rely entirely upon the local sources ol fuel, either taquia, yareta, or charcoal from the forests. But imported fuel, and especially oil, is gradually taking their place. The ores of all metals are concentrated mechanically or by hand 60 THE CENTRAL ANDES sorting at or near the mines and until recently have all been ex- ported in this condition. But tin smelting has made a start both at La Paz and Arica. Since 191 3 the mines have had two railroads at their disposal — to Antofagasta and Arica respec- tively, and at present it looks as though the export of all ores in the area will eventually take place from Arica. 8 « See below, p. 183. CHAPTER IV THE OCEAN The part of the Pacific Ocean which is included in the La Paz sheet requires some description, for certain of its characteristics are of peculiar interest in themselves and have in addition an important bearing on the geography of the land. The South Pacific Ocean is shallowest in the center; near its eastern and western limits it exhibits profound depth. The marginal hollow on the east is known as the Atacama Trench, which extends from about latitude io° S. to 28 S. and forms part of a wider and longer though shallower basin. The basin and trench form a feature comparable in magnitude to the Andes themselves, and these land and ocean features have to be considered together in discussing the major relief of the earth's crust. Without entering into such topics we may note here in passing that in the spheroidal surface of the earth it is such depressions as the Atacama Trench which alone form concave hollows. The sound- ings in this trench are few in number, and we have consequently but a very general idea of its shape. But it seems certain that its depth varies considerably from place to place; and while its slopes in general are probably so gentle that, were the sea removed, they would scarcely be perceptible to the eye, yet in places there are high submarine precipices. This has been demonstrated by Agassiz, who recorded soundings close together in the latitude of Callao of 836 and 5,706 meters. The only men other than scientists who are directly interested in the form of the ocean floor at such great depths are those concerned in the laying of submarine cables. All three of the main cables on the west coast of South America cross the area represented on this map, one close to the shore and the other two at depths of be- tween 2,000 and 4,000 meters. These latter link Callao with Iquique, and, instead of following the most direct track between 62 THE CENTRAL ANDES ^j these ports and so traversing the deep trench, they keep to shallower floor and follow contour lines rather closely. From the recorded soundings it is possible to recognize four — perhaps five — separate abysses in the Atacama Trench . The deepest of these, which reaches at least to 7,635 meters (4,175 fathoms), lies to the south of our area; and Krummel Deep, of which a large portion appears on the La Paz sheet, exhibits a bottom below 6,500 meters (max- imum recorded, 6,827 m.). This represents a somewhat greater depression below sea level than the elevation above it of the Western Cordillera. The horizontal distance between these parallel features — the Cordillera crest and the trench — is about 300 kilometers, and the present coast line is about midway be- tween them. The comparative relief on land and sea is shown on Figure 8, which represents the slopes on the true scale. The waters which are represented on the map form part of one of the major ocean streams of the earth — the Humboldt, or Peru, Current; the entire body of water within a range of about 100 miles of the coast being constantly on the move northward with an average velocity of from ten to fifteen sea miles in every twenty-four hours at the surface decreasing downwards prob- ably to a slow creep along the bottom. We shall see that the consequences of this fact are far-reaching. Without discussing here the causes of oceanic circulation let us recall that an important element in setting up the currents is variation in density, which THE OCEAN 63 depends largely on temperature and on relative salinity; and this in turn leads us to evaporation, which is closely related to atmospheric temperatures. On the other hand, surface drifts are set up by the prevailing winds, and the deeper waters tend to be carried along with these by friction. All these elements help to bring a mass of water from the sub-Antarctic Ocean northward along the west coast of South America to the neighborhood of the equator as an ocean current. Moreover, since moving objects of all kinds in the southern hemisphere are deflected to the left by the earth's rotation, the current would move more and more strongly towards the north- west as it approached the equator. This deflection is accelerated in the case of the Humboldt Current by the changed trend of the coast beyond Arica. Apart from this the upper layers are blown along more rapidly in the same direction by the pre- vailing southerly and southeasterly winds, and the current in places attains the velocity of l>£ knots (2.75 km. per hour). Over the open sea in this area the southeasterly trade wind predominates to a greater extent than it does on the coast, where it is pulled notably inwards to the land; and the result is that the surface water is constantly being driven away from the coast south of the latitude of Arica and north of that place is carried along parallel to the coast more rapidly than the lower strata. To maintain the level there is a steady up-welling of deep water to the surface, and this water is relatively cold. Deep ocean water coming to the surface in any part of the world would be relatively cold, but here, owing to the Humboldt Current the ocean on its floor has a lower temperature — below 35 F. (1.67 C.) — than the water to the west of it. The records concerning the water actually represented on the map are meager. The data assembled by Hoffmann 1 bring out the very gradual increase of average surface temperature from south to north. In the lati- tude of Arica this average is given as 18. l° C. (65 F.), whereas the average for the South Pacific Ocean between latitude 16 and 20 S. is 23. 5 C. (74.3 F.). 2 Murray in his maps of ocean 1 Paul Hoffmann, (80), p. 76. 2 Otto Kriimmel, (79), Vol. 1, p. 400. 64 THE CENTRAL ANDES surface temperature shows 3 the area as having a minimum (Aug.) between 50 and 6o° F. (io° and 15. 56 C.) and a maximum (Feb.) between 70 and 8o° F. (21.11 and 26.67 C); but this annual range would appear to be too great, for Coker 4 after taking over 300 readings between January, 1907, and July, 1908, along the whole coast of Peru as far south as Mollendo (western limit of the La Paz sheet) arrived at the tentative con- clusion that the surface waters of the current undergo little change of temperature either from month to month or place to place. This at least is true of the water near shore where the maximum up-welling takes place. Here the surface tempera- tures are lowest and most uniform. Hoffmann gives tempera- tures for Valparaiso (33 S.), Coquimbo (30 S.), and Callao (12 S.) which show less than 1° C. of difference between Co- quimbo and Callao in March and a similar difference between Valparaiso and Callao in November and December. Observa- tions further point to an increase seawards of at least l° C. for every 15 miles. Buchanan 5 who made temperature and other observations on this coast in April, 1885, records 67 F. at Arica and 73 crossing the bight to the west and emphasizes the con- trast in color from the green, cold water of the coast to the deep ultramarine water from ten to fifteen miles off shore. We have seen that the Humboldt Current is cool and stable in temperature. In winter, sea and air temperatures are almost identical. The British survey ship Beagle in sailing from Iquique to Callao (in July, 1835) records both as between 6o° and 63 F. (15.6 and 17.2 C.). 6 But in summer the water is cooler than the air over it and much cooler than the air over the coast lands. The early conquistador es realized this fact and made a practice of submerging their wine to cool it in the absence of an ice supply. The important climatic features which result from this tempera- ture difference have already been noted. Equally important is the effect which low ocean temperature has in the development • John Murray, (82). «R. E. Coker. (83). « John Y. Buchanan, (81). • Robert Fitz-Roy, (30). THE OCEAN 65 of living things in its waters. Wherever the cold bottom water wells up — as in the northwest and southwest coasts of Africa, off California and northern Mexico, and in our region — the ocean abounds with life of all sorts. But Buchanan, with wide oceanographical experience, states 7 that "no waters in the ocean so teem with life as those of the west coast of South America. A bucket of water collected over the side is turbid with living organisms (visible and microscopic), the food of countless shoals of fish who in their turn afford prey for innumerable schools of porpoises" and, as we shall see, for immense numbers of seals, sea lions, and birds also. Four physical features of these waters combine to make them a leading area for the propagation of marine life. These are the relatively low salinity, the lowness and stability of tempera- ture, and the upward movement of bottom water. Low salinity and temperature help absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air at the surface, and the marine plants and animals are able to retain these elements in the water by their physiological processes. Moreover, low salinity favors solution of silica by water. Silica is supplied constantly by the volcanic and other dust from the land, and it is an essential to the skeletons of many of the humbler forms of life. The microscopic plants such as algae, whose nitrogenous tissue feeds the Crustacea, etc., live in the light zone, i. e. near the surface. At death they sink and in most parts of the ocean remain below; but here the coastal up-welling again restores them to the light zone, there to be de- composed and so to furnish an unending source of material for new plant life and hence an unending supply of the higher forms of life. The Pacific as a whole is a relatively calm ocean, and in this section storms are most infrequent. The trade winds blow with a moderate force — on the Beaufort scale 3>£ in winter and 4 to \yi in summer. A sailing ship before a wind of this force with shortened sail would travel under 5 knots in winter and some 6)4 knots in summer. But, as the current and wind act together, 7 John Y. Buchanan, op. cit. 06 THE CENTRAL ANDES these speeds are increased by nearly I knot. It is worthy of note that the coasting steamers charge a 10 per cent increase in fare on the southerly as compared with the northerly journey. For some two centuries after the Conquest the Spanish navigators sailing southward to Chile hugged the coast, and the voyage from Callao to Valparaiso commonly occupied twelve months or more. It was not until the early eighteenth century that a bolder spirit sailed out on the ocean and, by utilizing the pre- vailing westerlies in southern latitudes, reduced the passage to one month. While storms are seldom experienced, the sea is never still, and the constant swell produces breakers along the whole coast. This makes it impossible for larger vessels to come alongside anywhere, and landing is often difficult for small ships and lighters even at the ports and coves. These are few in num- ber, as is to be expected in such a smooth coast line. Caleta Buena, considering its exposed position, is singularly free from bad surf, and the loading of nitrates from the cliff railroad to the lighters and so to the vessels is seldom interrupted. Caleta Junin, another nitrate port, on the other hand, has many "surf days" on which loading work is suspended. Pisagua with its southern protection of Punta de Pichalo is a relatively good port for this coast. Caleta Chica is small and well protected but is used chiefly as a refuge. The port of Arica, although it has a mole 250 yards long, has wharfage only for lighters. The anchorage is the best on the coast, but from June to August the rollers are often so heavy as to stop all traffic in the port. The roadstead of Ilo forms one of the best harbors, since "surf days" are unknown. On this coast tides scarcely enter into naviga- tional considerations, the average rise at spring tide being only in the neighborhood of five feet (1.5 m.). CHAPTER V THE CLIMATE Continuous meteorological records, mostly for short periods, have been kept at six stations within the area of the La Paz sheet and at six around its borders. The following discussion of climatic conditions is based upon these records and upon iso- lated observations made by travelers and residents. Such de- ductions as are drawn regarding cause and effect must be taken as tentative, in view of the character of the data available. The facts regarding stations for which continuous meteorologi- cal records are available are as in Table I. Fig. 9 — Distribution of the mean annual precipitation and of the belts of cloud. Names of stations for which meteorological data exist are printed in capitals. 68 THE CENTRAL ANDES Table I — Meteorological Records Nature of Records w z Station Altitude (Meters) Period s < H 1/1 > 5 H < g g w a. 5 w H w 3 a u w oi % *Arica . 5 1905 onwards 1 + + + + + + Iquique 9 1900 onwards 1 + + + + + + Mollendo 25 Nov., 1888-May, 1890 2 + + + Mollendo Apr., 1892-Dec, 1895 2 + + + + Mollendo Apr., 1894-Dec, 1895 2 + *La Joya 1,261 Apr., 1892-Dec, 1895 2 + + + + *La Joya Apr., 1894-Dec, 1895 2 + *Arequipa 2.456 Nov., 1888-June, 1890 2 + + + *Arequipa Nov., 1888-Apr., 1890 2 + *Arequipa Jan.-Oct., 1889 (less Mar.) + Vinocaya 4.380 Nov., 1888-Apr., i890 2 + + + + Chosica 2,013 May, 1889-Sept., 1890 2 July, 1889-Sept., 1890 8 + + + Puno . 3.825 Nov., 1888-Mar., 1889 2 + + + + *LaPaz. 3.630 Mar., 1898-Apr., 1898 3 + + + + + + Aug., 1899- June, 1903 3 + + + + + + *Cocha- bamba 2.557 Jan.-Aug., i874~Jan.-Mar., 1876 4 + *Cocha- bamba Jan., 1882-Dec, 1885 4 + + + + *Oruro . 3.706 Jan., 1885-Dec, 1888 8 + + Sucre . 2,848 May, 1882-Feb., 1898 3 + Feb., 1915-Mar., 1918 6 + + + + + + Irregular observations of varying character were made in the mountains near Arequipa as follows: *Chachani Ravine, Jan., 1892 — Mar., 1893; *E1 Misti summit, Oct., 1893 — Dec, 1895; *"M. B. Station," Dec, 1893— Dec, 1895; Alto de los Huesos, Mar— Dec, 1895. 6 * The asterisk indicates stations within the map area. 1 , 2 , 8 , *, 6 , denote sources given in Appendix C, Bibliography, viz: 1 (86), 2 (87). 3 (88), 4 (89), 5(90). + denotes that records are available. 8 Source for all these records is (87). THE CLIMATE 69 Temperature In order to appreciate the great climatic variation throughout the area of the La Paz sheet we must bear in mind above all the very wide differences in altitude which occur — from over 6,000 meters down to sea level on the one side and to some 300 meters on the other. With the pressure at sea level normal this means a difference of temperature of some 30 C. (54 F.) between our lowest and highest zones. This difference of temperature is the most outstanding of the climatic features. It made such an impression on the white settlers that they recognized well-defined natural zones of altitude and temperature, the names of which are in common use: the Puna Brava from the snow line (about 5,000 meters) down to about 3,900 meters; the Puna, 3,900 to 3,350 meters; the Cabezera de Valle or valley head, 3,350 to 2,900 meters; the Valle 2,900 to 1,600 meters; and the Yungas below that. These names for the two lower zones apply only to the eastern slopes of the Andes. Mean annual temperatures in these zones, for places in each case about the middle of the zone, may be taken in order from highest to lowest as approxi- mately: 7 C, 12°, 15 , 20 , 25 ; the Fahrenheit equivalents being approximately 45 , 54°, 59 , 68°, and 77 . 7 Of the meteoro- logical stations above-mentioned Vinocaya is in the Puna Brava, Oruro, Puno, and La Paz are in the Puna, none are in the Cabezera; though Cochabamba, Arequipa, and Sucre are near the upper limit of the Valle, which is sometimes referred to as the Medio Valle; La Joya is in the desert, and Mollendo, Arica, and Iquique are on the coast. Almost everywhere on the plateau and in the low desert west of it the amount of cloud is small, and consequently radia- tion after sundown is very rapid. The examples given of daily variation of temperature (Fig. 11) for summer and winter periods bring this out clearly. The contrast of sun and shade temperatures is most striking in the Puna and higher. Figure 10 shows a series of temperature curves for seven stations of which 7 On later pages centigrade degrees only will be given, but a table of equivalents will be found in Appendix D. 70 THE CENTRAL ANDES ^ c CO r- CO u ~> -* cjo OJ -p cc t— CO u ■5 - * r> CVI — CO CO -< nz o o -5 a z o CO ^» ^ co -7 CO < Ll_ — ) Q co Z co CO 1 / O cu / \ \ - < 1 V ( 1 O " \ \ O " 1 \ / y > / ,..- \ < => cr uJ < ""3 S O < °> / / N 1 i \ / 1 N 1 f -J Q Z o to < Q co z°f O i-O cog <~ ~ o —> C 1 - < < / 1 ■ X N 1. jS ^x •-,. \ o N — 1 c" ~ CO -3 CO s < u. —J Q CO CO ct \ \ i ZD \ ' DC / .--' O / ..-■ V , / / ! I 1 / , < -J — •^ cr> < — -3 CD z o CO o -,& < Q Z CT> °s CO — < 2 o < _l | z en \ \ ' \ i \ h \ / / l / CO CO ■^ UJ < 0- 1 .' \ \ \ \ 1 1 \ / \ ^ 1 , i / / / 1 \ / VjLL / \ 1 \ } \ \ ^< \ \ i V" < o < i o z o CO < ~3 CD < -J < _J \ I \ / i i * t / / 1 / i 1 / \ \ — / i I — \l — V / 1 / „ / \ \ / / \ \ 1 \ \ LO O i-O O i-O O lO ? £ S E •2 6 ft cd Og -J < J3 0, H « to c * 5 ^ Si: 5 ° s< 3 e c Si 2g m m 88 THE CENTRAL ANDES reason for snow and rain on the cordillera in winter, while in summer both causes act together to produce much heavier con- densation and precipitation on the mountains and over the plains of the Amazon basin. These meteorological conditions in the two seasons are illustrated by the diagrams (Figs. 19-A and 19-B) which, while they refer to a more northern portion of the Andes, still apply in our region, the only difference consisting in the longer dry period in the Bolivian mountains. Figure 9 is a tentative map of the annual precipitation in the La Paz sheet area. It is based upon exceedingly meager data, dis- cussed below, and upon deduction. But in spite of its problemat- ical nature it will serve as a connecting link in visualizing the approximate physical conditions of life. Precipitation on the Eastern Cordillera No rainfall measurement has been recorded east of the Cor- dillera Real, and no isohyets have been drawn in that area. It is certain, however, that everywhere the annual amount is over 600 millimeters, and in the zones described as "maximum" the total is over 1 ,000 millimeters. From the geographical standpoint a very important feature of these eastern slopes is the cloud which is constantly formed and driven up the valleys to the passes, where it dissolves. This serves to reduce the temperature. It keeps the ground and the vegetation saturated and accounts for the very dense undergrowth of the Montana forest. It makes possible the growing of fine coca and coffee. The cloudy area, which is represented by a stipple on the map, is somewhat reduced in the winter months (see Fig. 19). The importance of convection currents is indicated by the frequency of thunder and hail storms in the valleys. Occasionally the latter are so severe that fruit trees are stripped bare of leaves and fruit. Two rainfall stations lie just on the lee side of the Cordillera, La Paz and Cochabamba, for which the mean annual rainfall is 538 and 462 millimeters respectively. 14 The precipitation at La Paz must be derived from air which continues to rise after over- 14 These and other means are derived from Ernst Ludwig Voss, (8s). THE CLIMATE 89 topping the mountains and so has still more moisture wrung from it. December, January, and February are the wettest months, and June is the driest (see Fig. 21). At Cochabamba we have seen that winds from the north and east are rare, and it is likely that much of the rain is brought by the southeast wind from over the wide lower plateaus of the Eastern Andes. The same is true of Sucre, which is farther east and receives 694 millimeters of rain. Here the wind, however, is northeast. The graphs for Cochabamba show two years with slight winter rain and two with practically none. Precipitation on the Western Cordillera and Coast Given an ocean and a prevailing on-shore wind striking a mountain range, the obvious result would at first sight appear to be a copious rainfall and well-filled rivers. And yet the Western Cordillera is very dry, and its piedmont is a desert. The solution of this enigma lies, of course, in the relative temperatures of sea and land. These are in strongest contrast in summer. At that season the wind from the warmer outer ocean is cooled in travers- ing the waters of the Humboldt Current and the still colder up- welling water of the shore. Fog, therefore, is common over the sea. The wind, still charged with humidity, is then forced up- ward on striking the low but steep coast range; but apparently these hills have absorbed sufficient heat to cause reevaporation, for cloud rarely hangs over them at this season. The strong after- noon winds of summer, as they rise gradually with the land and are probably urged upward by convectional currents, form more and more cloud and at about 2,000 meters begin to form fog at ground level. Above this altitude there is more cloud in the sky, and rain or snow falls at intervals. But even here on the upper slopes of the cordillera the mountains are sufficiently warm to prevent regular or heavy precipitation. Figure 20 (A) and (B) illus- trates the cloud conditions in summer and winter on the Pacific slope. It seems probable that precipitation is connected in some way with the mingling or contact of air currents from ocean and plateau, since on all rainy days at Arequipa between December 90 THE CENTRAL ANDES and March 1888-1889, wind blew from the northeast or north- northeast in the morning or evening at least. On Figure 21 the monthly rainfall for four summers at Arequipa is given, and the mean quantity for these is only 113 millimeters. The wettest period falls between January and March, the maximum being usually in February. Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, and it is probable that a longer series of observations would bring out the cyclic character of this variation. The virtual absence of rain in some years, as in 1888-1889, when less than 10 milli- meters fell, makes the storing of water imperative for the success EASTERLY WINDS ATHIGH ELEVATION DRY SEASON SEA BREEZE 'iS^Mt^r^r ^r h1!n'fit.:iV F[G. 20-A — The wet and dry seasons of the Coast Range and the Cordillera are complementary in time. The "wet" season of the former occurs during the southern winter; the cloud bank on the seaward slopes of the hills is best developed at that time and actual rains may occur. EASTERLY WINDS FEEBLE RAINY SEASON SEA BREEZE HUMBOLDT CURREW Fig. 20- B — During the southern summer the seaward slopes of the Coast Range are comparatively clear of fog. Afternoon cloudiness is characteristic of the desert and increases eastward. Both figures are from Bowman: "Andes of Southern Peru," 1916. of agriculture. 15 Above the level of Arequipa precipitation is heavier and on the higher mountain groups is mostly in the form of snow or hail. In the upper basin of the Rio Chili, which lies behind the line of high volcanic peaks, the mean rainfall is believed to be about 200 millimeters; and at Vinocaya, still farther north, it is 263 millimeters. In winter, conditions on the Pacific slope are different. Then the winds from the ocean must carry a smaller amount of hu- midity. But as they traverse the cooler coastal waters some of 15 See below, p. 102, and Figure 23. THE CLIMATE 91 this is condensed as cloud. Then on rising abruptly over the Coast Range the air gives up more moisture, and both cloud and rain are typical of these hills in late winter — a condition known as the Tiempo de lomas, by which is meant the season of rain on the lomas. 16 While the foregoing description of climatic features in the coastal belt is true in general, there are certain exceptions which require mention. Indeed, it is the abnormalities of climate which make the most lasting impression on the inhabitants. We have seen that the only strong winds as a rule are from the sea; but in February, 191 1, occurred a phenomenon which seems to be experienced periodically. A hurricane from the mountains de- veloped in central Peru and extended southwards through 20 degrees of latitude. It followed a heavy snowfall in the cordillera and reached the lowland towns as a warm northeast wind bring- ing heavy rain and hail, flooding the valleys. Inundations caused havoc at Moquegua, Tacna, and Tarapaca. A still more notable phenomenon occurred in the Pampa of Tamarugal in January and February, 1885, when there were forty consecutive days in which rain fell continuously from 1 to 7 P. m. The direc- tion of the wind in this period unfortunately is not recorded. Precipitation on the Altiplano On the Altiplano of Bolivia the most outstanding climatic variation is its decreasing humidity from north to south. This feature is abundantly proved by the southward succession of a large freshwater lake, Titicaca, through a salt lake, Poop6, to a group of salars in the southern part of the interior basin, which may indeed be regarded as a great evaporating pan. An attempt has been made to bring this out by the isohyets on Figure 9. These are supported by few instrumental records, which, how- ever, are probably drawn from almost the wettest and driest portions of the plateau and are therefore specially useful. At Puno measurements are available for only one summer — No- 16 The question of rainfall in this section is more fully discussed by Bowman, (8), Chaps. 9 and 10. 92 THE CENTRAL ANDES « /\ / A \ /r-A 1 1 1 !■ ■ 1 i i m ; ■ Mb ll 1 1 . 1 1 1 ll ..1. ill J J 1 1 ■ 1 1 t 1 ill III nil JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONC JFMAMJ JASOND JFMAMJ JASOND eM JFMAMJ JASOND It J FMAM J J ASOND JFMAMJ JASOND Fig. 21 — Graphs showing monthly precipitation: A, at Cochabamba, 1882-1885 and means for that period; B, Oruro, means for 1885-1888; C, Sucre, means for 1883-1897; D, La Paz, Aug. 1890-Oct. 1901 and means for 1898-1902; E, Arequipa, Nov. 1888-Mar. 1890 and Jan. 1902-Nov. 1903. Constructed from data published as follows (numbers refer to App. C, Bibliography): A (89); B and C (88); Mar- Apr. 1898; D (88) and, for means (8s); E (87). vember, 1888, to March, 1889, and during these months rainfall was approximately equal, giving a total of 737 millimeters. This is almost three times the annual rainfall recorded in the same period for Vinocaya, which lies higher and farther west. It appar- ently indicates the importance to the western shore of Titicaca of the off-lake winds already mentioned. The country bordering this lake is almost certainly the wettest section of the plateau. La Paz with 538 millimeters of rain is in a special situation, dealt with above, but it gives some indication of conditions on the eastern edge of the plateau as far south as latitude 17 . Oruro with only 54 millimeters of rain is clearly in the arid portion of THE CLIMATE 93 1899 1900 1901 •n\ ITT vj | ■ | U || | 1 II | zt :: i. Aft ll Mean Annual ASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASO JFMAMJJASOND 1888 1889 1890 1902 I9°3 I- 1 b <— . |_ 1 1 t I NO JFMAMJJASOND j •MAM i JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASON Fig. 2i continued. For description of figure see opposite page. the plateau; and the great difference between its annual quota and that of Sucre, with a mean of 694 millimeters, points to a westward decrease which is probably gradual over the higher plateaus and sudden at their western escarpment. It is impossible to say whence comes the moisture which is precipitated on the Altiplano south of Titicaca. Precipitation in the form of snow, hail, or rain is nearly always associated with violent winds, presumably connected with the local depressions referred to above. It takes place in the afternoon or night during the summer and rarely in the forenoon. The entire area of the La Paz sheet save the coastal hills re- ceives the bulk of its rain in the summer months, the month with the highest precipitation for most places being February; but in 94 THE CENTRAL ANDES occasional years the maximum comes as early as November. On the Altiplano and Maritime Cordillera there is a progressive shortening of the rainy season from north to south, corresponding to the increasing aridity in that direction. The rains do not as a rule start suddenly but are heralded for at least a month by an increase in the amount of cloud, and in the same way a cloudy month follows, after the rains have ceased. A paper published when the above chapter was in proof indi- cates that some of the statements regarding precipitation on the eastern slopes of the Andes require modification. Rusby, discussing botanical results of a journey over the Quimsa Cruz Cordillera to Quime and thence to Espia on the Bopi by the trail marked on the map, describes 17 a number of drought resist- ing elements in the vegetation of the lower slopes (below 3,000 meters) in all but certain exposed situations which are known as "rainbelts." This would indicate that the ranges to the east are somewhat higher than they are shown on the map, and that the local contrasts in precipitation conditions require to be more em- phasized. It would seem that in these interior valleys there is a well marked dry season in winter. 17 Henry Hurd Rusby: Report of Work on the Mulford Biological Exploration of 1021-1922, Journ. New York Bot. Garden, Vol. 22, 1922, pp. 101-112. CHAPTER VI DRAINAGE, WATER SUPPLY, AND SOILS With our knowledge of the rocks, land forms, and climate we may assert with confidence that the great majority of the streams shown on the La Paz sheet west of the Eastern Cordillera are intermittent in character and contain water throughout their whole course only in the wet season. The only part of the map in which surveyors have noted the nature of rivers — permanent or intermittent — is the Western Cordillera and piedmont in Chile. For the rest of the territory it may be said in general that the per- manent streams include all those which rise in the Eastern Cor- dillera north of the latitude of Cochabamba and the larger water- courses to the south of that; on the plateau they comprise the Desaguadero and the larger rivers which rise in the Western Cor- dillera such as the Blanco, Mauri, Cosapa, and Lauca. But even these are likely to dry up in their lower reaches in dry seasons. Of the rivers which flow to the Pacific all which drain the main crest of the Cordillera are permanent in the greater part of their courses, and a few have permanent outflow to the ocean. All other rivers shown are wet- weather streams. Throughout the entire territory the contrast between summer and winter is very great. In the Yungas of the Eastern Cordillera (see Fig. 29), the large daily precipitation of summer and the waters from snowfields keep the valley bottoms filled with swiftly flowing rivers. Waterfalls are numerous, and the soil of the steep hillsides, sodden after weeks of rain, breaks loose and causes landslides which leave great scars of bare rock. It is in this season that the debris of the winter's weathering is removed by the scavenging torrents, and the work of valley cutting by rivers must be virtually concentrated in the summer months. Throughout the entire rainy period travel in the Yungas is difficult or, where trails follow valley bottoms, impossible. 96 THE CENTRAL ANDES On the Altiplano the slopes are relatively slight, and the sum- mer precipitation is carried off much more slowly. Over vast tracts the bare soil is porous, and the first falls of rain are rapidly absorbed ; but after recurrent storms the water fills the steep-sided gullies and accumulates on the lower flat lands such as those to the north of Lake Poop6, there to be slowly dissipated by evapo- ration. In the Maritime Cordillera the rivers are nourished by snow and rain but not by glaciers; and, in proportion as streams are snow-fed, their regimen is regular. If we may judge from the flow of the Chili at Arequipa those of the Peruvian section derive their water almost entirely from rain. Figure 23 shows the flow of the Chili for five years in cubic meters of water per second. Figure 21 (p. 93) gives the monthly rainfall for two of those years at Arequipa. The general agreement of the two figures is at once apparent, and if rainfall statistics were available for a station farther up in the Chili basin it is probable that a full river bed would be seen to follow immediately upon heavy rainfall there. The river graph shows almost complete absence of flow from April to November or December; and in this period as a rule no rain falls. These western rivers are all torrential, the slope and ab- sence of forests contributing to the rapidity of the run-off. Snow and ice as a source of water are surprisingly unimportant considering the great altitude of the mountains. The snow line in the Andes is at its highest — about 6,500 meters — not at the equator as might be expected but at 25 south, and throughout the whole of the sheet area it is abnormally high. This anomaly seems to be due ultimately to the existence of the wide plateau between the Cordilleras, but it is not clear to which of the meteoro- logical elements we must turn to understand fully the reasons for the exceptional height of the snow line in these latitudes. In the Western Cordillera in this section there are no glaciers, and per- manent snow exists only on the highest peaks of the southern part — Tacora, Huallatiri, Sajama, etc. It is absent from Misti, and nearly absent from Chachani. The snow line is in the neighbor- hood of 6,000 meters. On the Eastern Cordillera it appears to be DRAINAGE, WATER SUPPLY, AND SOILS 97 about one thousand meters lower. On the northeast side snow seems to lie permanently down to 5,100 or 5,200 meters, and on the southwest side to 4,800. As previously mentioned, there are still numerous glaciers in the cirques of these mountains; and the fronts of these of course are found well below the snow line. In the southeastern part of the sheet reliable information is lacking regarding the highest summits, but no permanent snow is be- lieved to exist there, although in the Ice Age there must have been considerable snow fields to nourish the glaciers whose tongues reached down to the Altiplano. It is at least certain that no gla- ciers remain, and this is apparently sufficiently accounted for by the lower precipitation on these interior mountains as compared with the front ranges. Water Supply Enough has been said to emphasize the great water resources of the Cordillera Real and the front ranges to the south of it. There such disadvantages as exist arise from the excess of water interfering with communications. But, unfortunately, in this well-watered region the topography is unfavorable to dense agri- cultural settlement. The bulk of the Bolivian population lies west of and just outside the zone of abundant water (see PI. I), and the question of extending the cultivated area in the future is in part bound up with the possibility of diverting water from these mountains. The former glaciation of these Cordilleras is respon- sible for the existence in them of a large number of rock basins near the summit, many of which contain permanent lakes; and, given sufficient capital, such basins could be made the nucleus of increased water supply for the drier valleys and the eastern fringe of the Altiplano. Again, nature has endowed the region with all the physical requirements for hydro-electric energy. Many of the mines already utilize water power for their own purposes; and it would seem that the lack of funds and of indus- trial life alone delays its much wider application. In Bolivia de- mands for domestic water supply cannot be called exacting, and it is only in the larger towns that any effort has been made to sub- 98 THE CENTRAL ANDES stitute a modern system for the common well and the often dis- tant stream bed. La Paz now obtains its water by aqueduct from a glacial lake, artificially enlarged, 15 miles (25 km.) north of the city. Oruro has a pipe line leading water westwards from a reservoir in the valley above Sepulturas. But the supply falls far short of the needs of a modern town, and water has to be carried from a number of public fountains. A project, however, has been approved by which water will be led to Oruro by a canal of 35 kilometers from the Desaguadero. In Cochabamba the domestic supply is piped from the Cerro Tunari, where there is also a power station. The city has further had to solve the prob- lem of putting a stop to the periodic damage due to the River Rocha overflowing its banks and taking to the streets. This work has been accomplished by diverting part of the river water four kilometers upstream and carrying it in a tunnel through a ridge to a natural depression lying southeast of the city, where it is used for irrigation. Hydrography of the Altiplano As has been mentioned (p. 23), the Altiplano is drained in general from northwest to southeast. Lake Titicaca, of which the greater part lies north of latitude 16 , has an area of about 5,100 square kilometers and is the largest lake in South America (about one sixteenth of the size of Lake Superior). The lower lake is shallow, but a large part of the main lake is over 200 meters deep (deepest sounding 272 m.), so that the volume of water is very considerable. This water, which is fresh save in the shallow lower lake where it is slightly salt, is derived in the main from the Cor- dillera Real, although the area tributary to the lake is much more extensive on the west and northwest. All observers are agreed that the average contributions to the lake very greatly exceed the amount of overflow by the Rio Desaguadero. But the im- mense evaporation which takes place over its surface, as on the plateau to the south, would appear sufficiently to account for this. The progressive though slight reduction of Titicaca in area and depth in historical time may be mentioned. There is also a slight DRAINAGE, WATER SUPPLY, AND SOILS 99 annual fluctuation in level (from one to two meters) following the seasonal precipitation, and it is probable that in addition the average level exhibits a cyclic oscillation in conformity with the supposed seven-year cycle of rainfall. The Desaguadero (see Fig. 2 opposite page 23) when in flood is estimated to carry eight times the amount of water which flows at its minimum, this contrast being produced in part by the changes in lake level and in part by the periodic contributions of its tributaries. These contributions themselves are also thought to vary according to the season in the proportion of eight to one. The Desaguadero down to Nazacara is practically an arm of the lake, relatively deep, falling only six centimeters per kilometer and having a surface velocity (in flood) of only 23 centimeters per second. At Nazacara the river crosses a threshold, and down to Concordia, just above its confluence with the Mauri, it has a slope of 17 centimeters per kilometer. At low water this stretch is everywhere over 90 centimeters deep. From this point to La Barca (northwest of Oruro) the river has a nearly uniform fall of 2.25 meters per kilometer, and in two places (La Barca and near Ulloma) it crosses sandstone thresholds with only 55 centi- meters of depth at low water. But, in spite of the increased fall, the average velocity in this section is less than above Concordia, since the stream bed is wider. Below La Barca the fall is only 25 meters in no kilometers. The detailed examination of the river made in 1903 by the geographical service of the Bolivian army, whose observations are summarized by Sever, 1 has shown that the losses by evaporation during the low-water period are slight but appreciable at high water (i. e. in summer) and that the average flow of the river is about 20 cubic meters per second in low water and 170 cubic meters in high water. The river was navigated up to the date of the opening of the railway to Corocoro by flat-bottomed stern-wheel boats as far downstream as Naza- cara, and, thence southward to the ore docks, box-like boats of steel were poled or towed. It is estimated that by dredging naviga- tion could be extended to Lake Poop6 without great difficulty. 1 Jacques Sever, (96) . ioo THE CENTRAL ANDES Lake Poop6 has an area of about 2,530 square kilometers and is everywhere shallow (deepest sounding 3.95 m.). These figures refer to the low-water period (winter) ; in summer, although there is probably only a very slight rise in level, the area increases con- siderably, as the shores are very low. Lake Poop6 may be thought of as an immense evaporating saucer. It receives from the Desa- guadero at low water 20 cubic meters of water per second and per- haps 2 meters from other streams, while about 6 cubic meters run off at its outlet. The lake, then, receives a daily net increase of 16x60x60x24= 1,382,400 cubic meters. This divided by the superficial area gives the amount by which the surface would rise daily, viz. 0.00054 meter; and, as the lake is more or less in a state of equilibrium, this figure represents approximately the daily amount of evaporation. In the high-water period — Decem- ber to February — the intake from the Desaguadero is about 170 cubic meters per second and the outflow about 120 cubic meters; but, as the area for the lake at that period is unknown, it is fruitless to attempt to calculate the evaporation. The outflow by the Lacahahuira appears to be permanent, but in the section nearest the lake no well-marked watercourse is developed — the water disappearing under the sand, and several explorers who have encircled the lake reported that it had no outlet. The water of Poop6 is brackish and undrinkable. A sample taken by Neveu-Lemaire was found to contain over 23 grams of salts per mille, nearly 17 being common salt and over two each being sulphates of sodium and calcium. The Salar de Coipasa is intermittently flooded over wide stretches by the Lacahahuira and other streams, but the only permanent water now lies in the residual lake or swamp in its northwestern hollow, which must be highly saline. The numerous small settlements over the Altiplano depend for water upon wells, springs, and streams; and it must be remembered that the water requirements of this population are very small. Hydrography of the Pacific Slope On the Pacific slope water is of the highest importance. While it is the absence of water which has permitted the accumulation DRAINAGE, WATER SUPPLY, AND SOILS 101 of the nitrates, the most valuable resource of the coast lands, it is the ability to get water which determines the distribution of population in general. As has been pointed out, precipitation on the Maritime Cordillera takes place for the most part only along the higher summits of the chain, save in the short rainy season when it extends to the seaward slopes but not on to the piedmont. It will be readily understood, then, that only those rivers which possess a considerable gathering ground amongst the high peaks have sufficient content to carry them to the ocean as permanent streams. These rivers are, from north to south, the Tambo, Lo- cumba, and Sama, while the southern Vitor in virtue of excep- tional springs is also permanent in its whole valley. The next group consists of rivers which have smaller basins, or have their headwaters in the zone of annual rains, and are permanent in their upper courses but reach the sea only in summer. It includes the Vitor, Moquegua, Lluta, Azapa, Camarones, and Camina; and some of these are permanent to within a few miles of the coast. In the south the Aroma and Tarapaca are important streams, but they do not reach the sea; they are in fact the first of a long series of rivers extending more than six degrees to the south which lose themselves in the desert of Atacama (see Fig. 22). In addition to these many stream courses are shown on the map which carry water only most intermittently. Of all the rivers of the Pacific slope the Tambo has by far the largest basin, and it alone carries large quantities of water to the ocean. The Peruvian Corps of Mining and Water Engineers as well as Chilean government engineers have made detailed examinations of the regimen of a number of rivers with the view of improving the water conditions in the valleys, and from their reports it is possible to gain some idea of the real nature of the streams. The Chili, already alluded to, is one of the two main branches of the Peruvian Vitor, and it is specially important because it waters Arequipa and its densely peopled agricultural neighborhood (see Fig. 35). It may be taken as typical of rivers which have a moderately sized basin in the heart of the Cordillera with a high summer rainfall but probably with no great accumulation of 102 THE CENTRAL ANDES in o z o CO o < -D S 3E ■< • Z , Ls_ ^~ "3 ...I O Q Z © C/3 <£ -a -3 Z < Z u. ~3 ~j CO o mm Q z O C/3 ■< -3 -^ IS » On this and other aspectsof land tenure see George McCutchen McBride, (143)- POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 159 an agriculturist only by proxy, living in a town and visiting his finca for the harvest and the sowing; the mayor domo, generally a cholo, to whom the proprietor delegates his authority and who is in effect master of the farm; and, lastly, the colono, or peon. The colonos, or Indians bound to the estates, are by far the most numerous class. They receive small patches of land in the estate — about three hectares on the average — to be worked for their own use, and these in common with the owner's land are reallot- ed from time to time. The number of colonos families on each estate varies with its size and character; for instance an estate of 5,000 hectares near Oruro has sixty families, while on another, in the Cochabamba basin, 750 hectares are worked by 150 families. The price of a farm generally varies according to the number of Indians upon it rather than to its extent. The colonos remain on the land in case of transfer of ownership. Examples of Peasant Life and Utilization of the Land We may now examine in greater detail the manner in which life is controlled in different situations by the physical environ- ment and by the social system of the country. The map (PI. II) showing the distribution of different types of land utilization will be found to illustrate the examples. Let us first consider a typical finca on the Altiplano. It is centered round a small alluvial fan at the foot of one of the low ridges which rib the plateau. It extends, on the one hand, to the banks of the Desaguadero and includes a wide stretch of the hills as well as of the pampa between. It is bleak and wind-swept. The most sheltered spot is occupied by the houses of the owner — rarely occupied by him — and of the mayordomo. About these there is a plantation of eucalyptus — the only trees visible on the wide landscape. A small church, distinguished from other build- ings mainly by its size, stands near the center. It may be used as a granary; but at least once a year it is visited by the padre, and the entire population comes to service. If the farm be called San Antonio, the priest will probably choose St. Anthony's Day for his visit. The houses of the colonos are dotted about within 160 THE CENTRAL ANDES a short range of the main farm buildings and enclosures. The alluvial fan is the center of things, not because it is capable of permanent irrigation — as it would be in a better watered area — but because the soil is thicker and because there are permanent wells around its margin. Near the Desaguadero and along the flat bottom of a wet-weather tributary there are strips of pasture of a fairly good quality. Elsewhere on the flat pampa the light soil is scarcely concealed on the numerous fallow fields, and the fields under crops are rather widely scattered. The hills show many outcrops of bare rocks and stony hollows with patches of tola bushes, puna grass, and other humbler plants, sometimes thick but mostly isolated, giving a speckled appearance to the hillside. The fields and pasture land of the Indians are not distinguish- able from those of the patron, save that they do not occupy the best land. The limits of the finca are not clearly marked on the ground except on the good land, where a rough stone wall is the boundary. Heaps of stones gathered from the fields dot the pampa, and these are often placed at the corners of fields. Each family knows exactly what is expected of it by the pro- prietor. Two days in every week they must work on his fields bringing with them their own oxen for plowing (see Fig. 32). Moreover, each year the group as a whole has to designate one or two of their number as herdsmen as well as to maintain for the master a house servant (pongo) — in this case probably in La Paz — who is changed each week. They also deliver to his house so many loads of fuel, tola shrubs or taquia (dried llama dung). Throughout the year a few men find a continuous occupation in herding the sheep and alpacas. In this case the latter are owned only by the master, for the area of short, green grass required by alpacas is small, and the Indians are not allowed to use this pasture. In the summer at a convenient week the flocks will be corralled and shorn, and the Indians, after keeping what they need of the wool, will carry the remainder of their own share as well as all of the patr6n's to the market at La Paz or Huaqui, using their own asses or llamas. K *. vjf, .«M>> «• it. J'd fc POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 161 The average temperature of the soil here is low, and its recov- ery after cropping is slow; so the fields lie fallow — in some cases as much as twelve years — before recultivating, the weeds which spring up being used as pasture. In such land manure is very valuable, and every particle of dung and ashes which can be gathered after the fuel has been provided for is put upon the fields to be cultivated. But in this farm they must use much taquia as fuel, for both tola and yareta are scarce or their sources distant, and they grow very slowly. • Winter is the slack time, when clothing and implements are made in the cottages, while the patr6n takes advantage of it to have ditches dug, or building and other odd jobs done. But when the spring rains begin in September or October all get busy with the sowing of quinoa and the planting of early potatoes and ocas. With all of these crops the farmer need have no fear of damage from frost, for they are natives of the Puna, and most of the many Andean varieties of potato are also remarkably immune from pests. About November other varieties of potato are put in to give a later harvest. With the human food supply for the year thus provided for, the Indian thinks of his beasts. We have seen that pasture here is poor and thin. The owner may have taken care to have part of his moist land sown with alfalfa which will meet most of his requirements. But for the Indians another crop must be sought, and it is found in barley. This cereal will ripen only in sheltered spots near Lake Titicaca, but if sown before the height of the summer rains it may be cut while green in the autumn for fodder purposes. This crop is scarcely sown when the first potato harvest is at hand. The owner's crop has to be carried to market, but most of the workers' yield is turned over to the women who are occupied as oppor- tunity offers with the preparation of chuno, which takes two or three weeks. The potatoes are first put out to be frozen through, and thereafter in turn are tramped with the feet in water, dried in the sun and again tramped in water to remove the skin. The starchy product will then keep for years. There follow in quick succession in the autumn a second 1 62 THE CENTRAL ANDES potato harvest and the cutting of the fodder barley and the quinoa — generally in May. The quinoa is cut just before it is fully ripe to prevent loss of the grain. The heads are threshed by primitive flails and winnowed by throwing in the air. The conclusion of the agricultural year is the plowing carried out shortly before the sowing, by which soil is merely scratched to the depth of a few inches by the ancient wooden plow of Spain with or without an iron tip. Such is the annual routine, but there are notable interruptions to all work at the fiestas as well as after the principal harvests. When occupied with digging pota- toes every one is notably happy, and much jollification takes place. The chief religious festivals are celebrated by the entire population. Attendance at mass in the village is merely an incident preceding traditional revels which include dances of pre-Christian origin, in which the dancers wear masks and gaudy trappings of skins and feathers. Dances and drinking bouts alternate and are kept up for an entire week in the case of the greater occasions such as the carnaval, thus putting a complete stop to the autumn labor, important though it is. That this traditional and spasmodic drunkenness is so important and universal a feature of the high Andes may be due to the rigor of the climate and extreme monotony of life. The visits to the market furnish opportunity for the purchase or bartering of alcohol or more commonly aguardiente from the Yungas or coast, as well as of coca which the Indian chews more or less as other men smoke tobacco, so that every family is well stocked with stimulants when the fiesta breaks out. The type of life on the fincas throughout the Altiplano varies but little from that described. These farms are widely scattered over most of the plateau and cluster more closely where there is better soil and a more certain supply of water or a milder climate. On Plate II this feature has been shown by distinguishing be- tween the main area described as "pasture with intermittent agriculture" and a number of smaller patches of "agriculture more or less permanent." This means that in the agricultural fringe round Titicaca and along the piedmont of the eastern •»•*, h POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 163 Cordillera fields are closer together, and a smaller proportion of them are fallow at one time than out on the plateau. Moreover, on the alluvial fans east of Lake Poop6 a limited area is under irrigation at least for part of the year, and this of course renders the land more valuable. In the La Paz sheet it has not been possible always to distinguish fincas from villages; and, further- more, it is probable that many of the smaller farms are not located. The village of the plateau is for the most part the domain of the cholo who is engaged in trade, and the number of them who live there as a rule is small, though such villages often present an animated scene owing to the presence of Indian visitors from the surrounding farms, particularly on market days or at reli- gious celebrations. The slopes of the hills about Lake Titicaca and the Altiplano as well as the ridges which rise from the plateau are marked in many places by parallel terraces known as andenes (see Fig. 34). These are clearly artificial and have been made to retain the soil and facilitate the cultivation of steep slopes. But they are now almost entirely abandoned; and this fact has often been quoted as evidence that the population of the Central Andes was formerly much greater, the decrease usually being attributed to diminished rainfall. But it would appear unnecessary to postulate any such climatic change to explain abandoned andenes. The modern development of mines, railroads, and towns has drawn large numbers of the Indians from the fields, and the hillside farms would be the first to be deserted, since the main- tenance of the terraces demanded considerable labor. Further- more, much of the land passing from small to large owners has been found to give better results when devoted to pasture. Plate II shows a large proportion of land under irrigation in the high valleys of the western Cordillera, much of it over 4,000 meters in altitude. The information upon which most of this is based was derived from the Chilean boundary surveys, and while the representation is presumably accurate in extent it may be somewhat misleading if we fail to remember the altitude. 164 THE CENTRAL ANDES The population density in these mountains is low, but the flocks are large, and the colored areas on the map for the most part do not represent irrigated crops, but rather pasture improved, in part artificially, by waters from the melting snows of the high peaks. An interesting example of this type of land has come to light. 14 The small group of Chipayas — or Urus — living north of Lake Coipasa have developed an industry called forth by the demands for lard by the nitrate workers of the coastal pampas. The Chipayas, by damming the Lauca River, have made suf- ficient pasture to feed herds of swine; and from these they obtain the lard which they carry down to the coast for sale. There appear to be numerous community Indians in this Cordillera, and information is lacking as to the extent of occupation by Chilean landowners. Probably the grazing limits of the various proprietors and communities are more fluid here than anywhere else in the region. Even the international boundary is frequently disregarded by the shepherds of the Bolivian side, who are naturally tempted by the greener hollows to the west. A con- siderable amount of seasonal movement of flocks takes place between the high pastures and the lower valleys on the Chilean side, but here again exact data are lacking. Cattle are kept in small numbers about Lake Titicaca, and an important source of food for these is the aquatic weed growing in the shallow water. Through long habit of diving for their dinner these animals have become almost amphibian, and they spend much of their time in the water. The annual round of the community Indians on the Altiplano is more varied than that of the colonos. As has been pointed out the free Indian's life today approximates much more nearly to that of the pre-Conquest Aymaras than does that of their peon brethren. The agricultural year makes the same demand in both cases, but the free Indian has time to make use of other oppor- tunities of gaining a livelihood. There are the chinchilla, viscacha, and vicuna to be hunted; and in this they display infinite patience, for when they have carried the skins down to M Arthur Posnansky, (119). POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 165 Tacna, Arequipa, Puno, or La Paz they will receive payment which to them is almost a king's ransom. There is fish to be caught fn Lake Titicaca, and here their community organiza- tion comes into play; for the most effectual method demands the collaboration of a number of boats dragging a net between them. But fishing from individual boats is also carried on, both the net and the spear being used. The scarcity of wood on the plateau is evident from the nature of the Titicaca fishing boats, or balsas, built, save for the mast, entirely of reeds bound to- gether, and the sails are likewise made of reeds woven like a mat (see Fig. 35). Fishing with the spear is carried on in shallow water, the boat being propelled by a long pole. The wood for these and for the masts is brought from the Yungas. The fisher- men of the Pacific coast also employ the reed balsa propelled by paddles, and examples still exist there of the floats in common use at the time of the Conquest made of inflated sea-lion skins, which the fisherman bestrides. But the wooden fishing boat of Mediterranean type has been generally employed since the Spaniards settled on the coast; and, while even this is too primi- tive a craft with which to develop an up-to-date fishing indus- try commensurate with the immense supply, yet it is much more useful than the balsa. These boats are now also constructed on Lake Titicaca from imported boards. On Titicaca there are no better practical meteorologists than the fishermen. They are accustomed to predict breezes which will take their boats out in the evening and bring them back in the morning in time to get their catch to market in La Paz the same evening. The community Indians of the southern Altiplano can occupy the winter months in gathering salt from the great salars, pack- ing it on their beasts, and hawking it round the country. Every- where there is the demand for fuel, the taquia of the farms and vicinity is often insufficient, and the best growth of the resinous yareta is generally far from the settlements and at higher and higher elevations. It is the free Indians who gather and sell it, incidentally pulling it up by the roots and so preventing its spread. The arriero, as the carrying Indian is called, is a feature 166 THE CENTRAL ANDES of the landscape on every road and trail, never riding but leading or driving his little caravan of llamas, asses, and occasionally mules. He is indispensable to trade, and till within the last few- years he was essential to the export of minerals. It is to the Indian community that the mine agent, the railway engineer, and the public works officer must go for their laborers, since the colonos are not available. And this means frequently a tem- porary draining of population from long distances. In the districts more favored climatically than the plateaus and Cordilleras — the Cabezas del Valle, the Medio Valle, the Yungas, and the coastal valleys — life differs in many respects. In the first place, of community Indians there are none; the land is too valuable. There are, it is true, in some parts — in the Cocha- bamba basin for example — other free Indians engaged in agri- culture who farm their own land. But, generally speaking, these regions are occupied by valuable fincas worked by numerous colonos. Secondly, since the climate permits the cultivation of a much greater variety of crops, agricultural operations are more complicated; and, while modern machinery and implements are still rare, the more numerous alternative crops present oppor- tunity for development of greater agricultural skill than in the zones of the Puna and the Puna Brava. It is noteworthy that the most accomplished farmers are often found amongst these peasant proprietors, a fact which recalls the dictum of Arthur Young in 1789 when visiting peasant farms — then rare — in France, "the magic of property turns sand into gold." In the coastal valleys irrigation is essential, and it is greatly valued in the valley heads of the Eastern Cordillera; so that in both regions a new complication is introduced in the distribution of water; and water rights are a constant source of broken heads and of litigation. In the zone of the Medio Valle is found the densest agricultural population of the area — about Cochabamba and Arequipa (see Fig. 3 d )- To illustrate the valuable nature of this land with its fine alluvial soil and sufficient water we may note the composi- tion of a typical farm near Luribay in the deep basin below the POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 167 Quimsa Cruz Cordillera and at about 2,700 meters altitude. The farm evidently includes some hill pasture, for it supports a flock of 600 sheep; but its real value rests upon ten hectares of grapevines for wine and a ten-hectare orchard containing 1,000 fig trees, 2,000 pear trees, and 800 trees of apple, peach, and that most luscious of all Andean fruits — the cherimoya. In addition, there are five hectares in alfalfa or other pasture supporting six cows, four oxen, and twenty-two horses, asses, and mules. This farm is worked by 101 families of colonos. 18 The majority of the fincas have a smaller proportion of fruit land and many fields of cereals; for not only does barley always ripen at these altitudes, but wheat, oats, and maize are grown, as well as large quantities of beans and alfalfa. Another feature of this fine agricultural zone is the possibility of obtaining by irrigation several harvests of alfalfa, as well as reaping two different crops in the same year. For instance beans will be sown in May and reaped in July (midwinter), and then by immediate plowing and sowing in August or September a good crop of maize, grown under the summer rains, will be harvested in May. In the Cochabamba basin the irrigated land is mostly under maize, and the best crops come from the fields watered by streams carrying much silt. In such places the grain will yield as much as two hundred fold as compared with the forty fold return on unirrigated land. Moreover, no manure and no fallow time are needed on such land. The greater part of the unirrigated fields produce wheat and barley, the wheat giving a tenfold yield, the barley somewhat more. The ground as a rule is not manured and lies fallow for only two years. In the Pampa of Arequipa, which is lower than the Cocha- bamba basin, the crops are similar; and there is a noticeable response to local climatic differences in the higher yield of crops, especially of maize, in the lower and more sheltered district of Tiabaya as compared with the environs of Arequipa. Similarly the colder winter of the higher section accounts for a difference of from two to three months in the time of plowing and sowing 15 Karl Kaerger, (141), Vol. 2, p. 311. 1 68 THE CENTRAL ANDES 3Q £ 4) S E 3 O wheat and barley. Manuring is much more prevalent about Arequipa than at Cocha- bamba, and the Peruvian district has the advantage of being able to procure cheaply the guano of the coast. The map on the scale 1:1,000,000 is rather too small to bring out clearly the real nature of habitable land in the Yungas; but study of Figure 37 will reveal the fact that valley floors are of very limited extent and that the wealth of the region is derived from the slopes. Moreover, this drawing, made from a photograph unfortunately too large for reproduction here, demonstrates better than any description the importance of the altitudinal zone in the Eastern Cordillera. The vil- lage in the foreground is Coroico, and we are looking westward towards the Cor- dillera Real. The summits of the range are hidden by clouds, and the even crest lines of the background represent remnants of the ancient peneplane surface ly- ing to the east of the snowy peaks. The highest visible point is about 3,600 meters in POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 169 altitude. Coroico is at 1,725 meters, and the stream is runningsome 700 meters below it. Perhaps the most striking feature of the view is the upper limit of terrace cultivation following almost with pre- cision a contour line as far as the eye can reach. The level of this is about 2,000 meters, and nearly up to this height every- where the close-packed fields are coca plantations like those in the foreground. This land has once been forested, and we may note that timber still remains above the zone, climbing to the top of the nearest ridge but concealed by distance in the farther valleys. The upper Montana was probably never so dense here as at similar levels on the outer slopes behind us, for the valleys in view form a rather sheltered basin. This, then, is the coca belt of the Yungas, which represents the chief wealth of the Atlantic slope of the Andes. It winds about in the valleys and is more or less continuous from southern Peru to the Yungas of Cochabamba east of the map limit, never varying far from the altitudinal limits illustrated in the figure. The zone, however, is not everywhere so intensively cultivated as it is here, and the coca production is of distinctly smaller importance south of the La Paz-Bopi River, the chief centers of the industry being Coroica, Chulumani, and Irupana. The climatic requirements of coca — warmth and moisture with a cloud shield from a blazing sun — are also those of coffee, and the two cultures are associated ; but by far the greater area in the belt is under coca, and the coffee bushes are planted largely in hedges between the coca fields and along the paths. When the traveler, making his first descent to the Yungas, thinks of the immense benefit which the human race derives from the cocaines, extracted from the leaf of Erythroxylon coca, his journey becomes in a sense a pilgrimage to the birthplace of the precious drug; and, moreover, he can recall that the same zone is the home of the cinchona tree, whose bark provides another alkaloid and an equal treasure to mankind — quinine. It happens, however, that the Yungas of Bolivia are no longer of first importance to the world in furnishing these precious remedies, for both plants have been introduced to southern 170 THE CENTRAL ANDES Asia, which now yields the greater proportion of the drugs. But coca is an essential to the life of the entire native population of our region, not as an anaesthetic but as a stimulant. The dried leaves have been a leading staple of internal trade since prehis- toric times. No Indian will work or travel without his ration of coca, which he mingles with ashes of the quinoa and chews systematically three or four times a day. His nervous system is adjusted to this practice, and he cannot do without it. While the effect is primarily stimulating, the coca dulls the sensation of hunger. In the coca belt we have an exception to the rule that free Indians do not occupy the valuable land. The bulk of the harvest is reaped by Indians who cultivate their own land ; but the best quality of leaf is produced on the haciendas. In the view from Coroico we are struck by the paucity of isolated dwellings. Most of the workers are grouped in the village. We may note also the groups of trees scattered amongst the fields on the slopes. Some of these are merely original forest trees left for shade; but most of them are fruit trees, largely orange and cherimoya. The Yungas Indian, then, is occupied throughout the year with his coca, his coffee, and his fruit — all of which when ready he will sell to the middlemen in the market of his village for export to the highland or beyond. To maize, sweet potato, beans, and other vegetables he devotes just sufficient land and time to supply his own limited needs. Although the Yungas are always moist, there is a seasonal rhythm in the agricultural year, for irrigation is not practiced, and the preparations of new planta- tions as well as the biggest harvests of the mature bushes take place during the heavier rains of the summer. The seed for a new coca field is sown in November in beds and covered with a layer of grass. Then as the plants spring up a low shade canopy of grass or banana leaves is raised over them. At the end of a year the foot-high plants are ready for planting out in the deep trenches of the field, and another year must elapse before the first harvest can be made. The life of a plantation (cocal) is from twenty years in the warmer parts to forty in the cooler POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 171 parts of the belt. The leaves are picked from three to four times a year, and female labor is the rule. The two big harvests are early and late in the rainy season, in November — Mita de Santos (All Saints) — and March. In June comes the third — Mita de San Juan, and, if the winter rains are plentiful, a fourth between June and November. Similar preparations are necessary in planting coffee, but three or four years elapse before a yield. The three harvests fall, with some variation, respectively in October or November, January to March and May to July — the last being the heaviest. Coffee picking as a rule does not clash with the coca harvest. The drying of coca leaves and coffee berries alike is carried out on the stone- paved seccador. The Yungas coffee, which is famous for its aroma, is exported with the parchment covering still on the bean. The above description of life in the coca belt accounts for the life of the largest number of people in our area east of the Alti- plano. But both above and below this zone men live and in entirely different conditions. In a belt limited below by the coca fields and above by the talus slopes of the mountain core there are widely scattered haciendas, most of them centered on the narrow alluvial playas of the valley, but some of them on the flat-topped spurs high above the rivers. A little agriculture is practiced about these — maize and the temperate fruits in the valleys; barley, potatoes, and quinoa on the high spurs. But the belt is chiefly known for its cattle pastures. Where the forest thins out and above that on all the gentle slopes the grass is thick and good. The herds are small, and they graze untended where the topography limits their range naturally. This zone is one of the two sources of draft oxen and of beef, the other being the clearings and possibly also natural savana country of the hot lowlands. Where the natural forest — the upper Montana — still exists, as it does almost everywhere south of the La Paz- Bopi River, it is the haunt of the cinchona gatherers. These Indians live a hard life in the dense forest. The best trees are found in the valleys between 2,000 and 3,000 meters altitude. All the bark which they cut they must transport on their own backs. 172 THE CENTRAL ANDES The remaining area to be mentioned lies below the coca belt. It is naturally forest, and the scattered population is grouped round isolated plantations or missions along the rivers. It is the upper limit of the Montana, the forest whose natural re- sources of timber are scarcely tapped and where the rubber pain- fully gathered by the miserable cascarilleros has now but small importance in face of scientific cultivation elsewhere and of the enormous difficulties of export. On the farms, which are situated on the playas, or flat strips on the river banks, the patr6n is the master of his colonos in a much more absolute sense than on the plateau. The finca is here a plantation in the accepted sense. Cacao and sugar cane are the main crops of the patr6n. The products of these are easy of export either separately or mixed, as chocolate. Moreover, the patr6n operates his own distillery and finds in alcohol his most remunerative commodity. In addition to these crops all the tropical fruits, including the pine- apple and various bananas, grow with the minimum of cultiva- tion ; and the natives themselves need put very little energy into supplementing these by other food crops such as yuca and sweet potato. In early chapters we have learned to appreciate a number of physical causes for the restricted nature of cultivated land near the Pacific coast. Topography, soil, and climate combine to limit agriculture to the narrow strips of the valley oases. Since the river water is the life blood of these, it follows that success or failure in raising crops depends upon its even distribution on the land ; and here again physical conditions are modified by the historical circumstances of its occupation. It has been a case of first come, best served. The irrigable land is held almost entirely by hacendados, only the higher valleys remaining in the hands of Indian communities; and, since the first grants were naturally made for the lands nearest to the source of water, the proprietors with the longest line of landholding ancestors are often in effect the masters of the valley, the water rights of estates lower down being usually much less valuable. Recent changes have certainly been in the direction of equity in this matter; but it would appear POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 173 that the irrigable land as a whole could be made more productive if the interests of all were considered equally. The valley oases within the limits of our sheet are farmed almost entirely by Peruvian or Chilean landholders; and it would seem that with the limited amount of water and of initiative at their disposal the population is sufficient to provide the requisite labor. It may be noted, however, in passing that such is not the case in the Peruvian oases farther north where many foreign proprietors, in striving to develop the land to its maximum capacity, have constantly been thwarted by lack of hands and have made various attempts to introduce foreign labor such as coolies from China. In our own area we have seen that there is a marked strain of negro blood in the coastal valleys, derived from the numerous African slaves introduced by the early Spaniards to work their newly settled land. Agriculture in the valleys in Tacna and Arica has labored under a further disadvantage in the last half-century — the uncertainty of the political future of the two departments. Temperature is always sufficiently high to produce the crops of the coast; but the water comes in its full measure only when the rivers are filled by the summer rains on the Cordillera, so that the seasonal distribution of work in most of the oases is not very different from that in other parts of the country; although the crops in most respects are those characteristic of the Medi- terranean, where they depend upon winter rains. But there is another point of similarity which may be mentioned. Many of the coastal farmers own cattle, and it is in the winter — as in the Mediterranean — that these are driven to the valuable if fugitive pastures of the Lomas. The most favored areas, however, such as the lower Tambo valley, can command water at all seasons, and here we find sugar cane in quantity. These coastal oases serve as the garden of Bolivia and northern Chile, and agriculture is perhaps more varied than elsewhere in the region on account of the production of the numerous Medi- terranean crops. Thus there are the olives to pick and press, olive oil to can and export, vines to tend, grapes to pick, and wine 174 THE CENTRAL ANDES to make — much prized despite a flavor described as "foxy" or "mousey." The Bolivian Indian would almost as soon go without his coca as his universal seasoning of aji — known to the world as chili or red pepper; and the coastal valleys annually send several hundred tons of these to the plateau. The Chilean nitrate workers are without local food supplies for man or beast save for the small production in the canchones described below. A proportion of the meat can be obtained from the herds above- mentioned. Hay and alfalfa are raised in the oases in quantities for export as dried forage. Likewise vegetables and fruits of all sorts are produced, and the coastal farmers have an ever ready and increasing market for these in the ships which call to pro- vision at Arica. Maize is the chief food staple of the Indians in the valleys themselves, and in point of production it is probably the most important crop. But wheat and barley are also grown for home use, the grain being roasted and ground to meal by hand. The farmers of the valleys are very careful in the use of the precious irrigation water. For instance, where aji is the chief crop the soil is raised about the edges of the beds, and wheat or barley is sown on the embankments in clumps about a meter apart. This holds the bank together and helps to keep the water on the aji beds. The cold coastal water is probably responsible for the fact that the southern limit of true tropical products lies in our area and not farther south. Cotton is not cultivated with suc- cess south of the oasis of lea in Peru, and no Egyptian cotton at all is raised in our area. Sugar cane, however, thrives where the water is sufficient, and a large part of the alluvial Tambo valley and delta is occupied by cane plantations. The contrast of arid desert slopes and wide verdant flats is here most striking. The eye is further attracted by the lines of poplar trees along the ditches between the fields. These trees, however, can have no good effect upon the yield of the sun-loving cane. The plants need two years to come to maturity and may then be cut twice where the soil is shallow and from three to five times on the deeper alluvium nearer the mouth, the harvest taking place Plate H Plate IT Kilometr Scale l»2,ooo,ooo Se.^, ,<, 1 10 ,,, ID .0 *, »o igill.mil.. ,0 s o to »° »0 J" » >" POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 175 between August and December. The bulk of the cane in these valleys is devoted to the production of alcohol, which, as we have seen, is in great demand throughout the country and especially on the plateau. Sugar extraction, when carried out locally, is primitive, there being no separation of the crystalline and colloidal materials. The solidified mass (chancaca) is exported in cakes. Where the soil is salt but yet is not far from the water table, as is the case in parts of the Pampa del Tamarugal, a remarkable form of cultivation has long been carried on. The superficial saline layer is removed and built up in long banks known as canchones, set at right angles to each other. The intervening spaces are now fit for cultivation, the hollows being sufficiently deep to allow roots to penetrate to the ground water, or perhaps to allow the water to reach the roots by capillarity, while the banks serve as a protection against wind and reduce evaporation. Vegetables or wheat and even trees such as a mesquite (Prosopis dulcis) are sown in separate holes. As they sprout the plants are surrounded with good earth, and while they are still small they are protected by individual shelters. Mining We have so far omitted to deal with an important element in the life of the region and especially of the Puna. Throughout the century following the Conquest every Spaniard was a pros- pector, and individuals obtained valuable mining concessions subject to the payment of a fifth to the royal treasury. For the working of the mines the government established the system of forced labor (repartimientos and mitas) by which concessionaries were allowed to impress the Indian laborers, many of whom were already skilled in mining. The great initial prosperity of mining came to an end when silver fell in value and also became more difficult to extract. But the increasing value of tin in the nine- teenth century led to a great recrudescence of the industry helped by foreign capital. The mines today are nearly all in the hands of foreign companies or of a few Bolivian individuals. 176 THE CENTRAL ANDES While the foreign companies are mainly European and North American, there is an important and growing Chilean interest in Bolivian mines, especially at Corocoro and Llallagua. The population about a mine consists, as a rule, of a small number of white engineers, a larger number of cholo overseers, who live with their families, and the much larger number of Indian miners. The latter, as pointed out, are free Indians drawn from the old communities. Some of them have settled in the district, espe- cially where the mines are long established; and these have with them their wives and families who often cultivate a little land near the mine, generally with poor results, since the mines are mostly situated at high altitudes. But the great bulk of the miners are transitory, the Indians engaging voluntarily in many cases but leaving their community only for a period of months. Where located far from centers of population it is so difficult for mine owners to obtain the necessary hands that they some- times adopt methods which are far from being above criticism. The revels of the fiestas are favorite occasions for the visits of the cholo mine agents to the communities. Liquor is flowing freely, and it is easier to persuade the Indian to agree to serve then than at other times. A large advance of money — promptly spent on drink — clinches the bargain, and the Indian when sober becomes the slave of the mine, to remain so until his debt is paid off. Of the total population of the province of Tarapaca, given in the census of 1907 as 110,000, 23,000 were Peruvians, and 12,000 were Bolivians. A large proportion of these were un- doubtedly workers in the nitrate fields, so that we have to note an important movement of Indians from the plateaus to the coast for mining purposes. Many of these are engaged by con- tract; and, taking their families with them, they remain for long periods. Others come down with caravans and take service for a few months before returning to their homes. Movement Figure 38 consists of three sketch maps, showing approximately the relative importance of traffic routes in the area at different POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 177 periods, and a fourth map on which are indicated the dates of construction of the various railways. On maps A, C, and D the thickness of the lines mark in a general manner a grading of the amount of traffic on the routes; and such lines are to be compared only with other lines on the same map. On map A, illustrating conditions in the colonial period, all of the lines, of course, indicate pack roads. On maps C and D only the most important of these and of the coach roads are shown, the majority of them being feeders of the railways. In prehistoric times prior to the rise of the Inca dynasty it would appear that Tiahuanaco was the kernel of the whole puna region of South America. It was a large city whose inhabitants could not have been fed by the immediate neighborhood, evi- dently a center of government supported by tribute from distant provinces, like Rome at the height of its splendor. With the decay of Tiahuanaco and the rise of the Inca capital at Cuzco the center of gravity in the Puna shifted north of our area, and arteries of communication developed, leading from the heart of empire to the outer marches which lay well beyond the La Paz area. Throughout the Inca period, then, the maximum move- ment of people must have been along roads following .the north- south trend of the Puna, with branches to the coast lands by Arequipa, to the Yungas by La Paz, and to the eastern Andes by Cochabamba. The Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru was governed from Lima, and the same roads which served the Incas became the means of interchange between the various mountain provinces of the new state. But the Spaniards sailed upon the sea and so developed ports, Quilca, at the mouth of the Rio Vitor, to serve Arequipa ; lea, by which some of the coastal valleys were tapped ; and Arica, as the main point of access to the Altiplano. Moreover the Spaniards occupied Chile, far beyond the domain of the Inca; and, since it often took twelve months to reach the Chilean settle- ments against adverse winds and currents, they developed the desert road along the foot of the Cordillera. The great mining activity of the early Spaniards caused them to seek an outlet 178 THE CENTRAL ANDES POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 179 for their minerals. Arica, the first accessible port north of the Atacama desert, was the obvious goal; and so there developed a great fan-shaped concentration on this port reaching out to the eastern Andes as far south as Potosi. A considerable pro- portion of the Potosi silver, however, went southwestward to the port of Cobija. Such were the main currents of movement up to the time of railroad development; and, since the Indian population is not yet given to railway travel, it may be said that the old roads still have great though somewhat lessened importance. Let us examine in more detail the location of these. Of the longitudinal routes by far the most important is that leading from Puno in Peru, following the west shore of Titicaca, crossing the Desaguadero by a bridge at its source, and thence leading by Viacha, with a branch to La Paz, along the foot of the eastern ridges and Cordillera. At Paria this road divides, one branch continuing southwards by Oruro and the other leading over the hills to Cochabamba. The southward road splits at Rio Mulato, as does the modern railway, its branches leading respectively to Potosi and Sucre and to the Argentine border via Uyuni and Tupiza, both beyond our limit. From Paria to Cochabamba the easier route now followed by the railway provided for normal traffic while a hill road, passing through Tapacari, comes into more general use during the wet weather when the Arque River causes obstruction on the lower road. Beyond Cochabamba the main road passes eastwards into the basin of Cliza and so, by a gradual descent, to Santa Cruz at the eastern foot of the Andes. Prior to railroad construction the mineral output from the southeastern part of our area found its way to Arica by a caravan trail which strikes west-southwest from Oruro across the plateau and then, after passing through the pastures about the upper Lauca River, descends either by the Lluta or Azapa valleys to the coast. Of the trans-Cordillera roads, however, the one which has been of most constant importance is that which leads from the town of Tacna northeastward and succeeds in maintaining 180 THE CENTRAL ANDES an almost straight course to La Paz, striking the upper Mauri River and then keeping to the higher ground north of it, and crossing the Desaguadero at Nazacara. The direct road from Arequipa to the Puna finds fairly easy gradients by passing east- ward over the Pampa de Salinas and then northeastward over the high plateaus to Puno on Titicaca. La Paz has always been the main starting point for the Bolivian Yungas. The bulk of the through traffic which moves along the eastern shore of Titicaca is going to or from Sorata, the collecting point in the northern Yungas, and an even more important traffic is main- tained on the road over the pass at Rinconada and thence down either to Coroico or Chulumani. An observer has counted 1, 600 laden animals making their way up from Yungas on this road in one day, and that not the chief market day of La Paz. The traffic from Arequipa to the coast formerly went down the Vitor valley to its mouth where Quilca was long maintained as the port of Arequipa. But since the railroad was built Mollendo has become the port, and the Vitor road has lost in importance. The position of the desert road, followed during the conquest of Chile by Almagro on his return and by Valdivia on his outward march, is determined by the points at which limited supplies of food, water, and fodder can be obtained. It therefore passes over the piedmont from oasis to oasis, keeping as near to the edge of the desert as is possible without climbing far on the slopes of the mountains. This route is said to have been in con- stant use by the Spaniards up to the time when the ocean sailing track — as opposed to the coastwise course — was discovered early in the eighteenth century. These were the chief avenues of movement up to the period of railroad construction. Other routes are either of purely local importance or serve as tribu- taries to these main arteries. The term "road" has been used in the above description as well as in the legend printed on the La Paz sheet. It cannot be too strongly emphasized, however, that roads in this area are not like those of more progressive parts of the world. So far as has been ascertained, there is but one metalled road within the POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 181 sheet area, and that has been built by a mining company to bring their ores from the Caracoles and other mines in the Quimsa Cruz Cordillera over the Abra de Tres Cruces and down to the railway at Eucalyptus. Elsewhere on the sheet the symbol for a "coach road" where shown implies that passenger or mail coaches and other wheeled vehicles, such as occasional auto- mobiles, use them or have used them in recent years. It does not imply that the surface is maintained or that streams are all bridged; but the roads are kept in repair and graded in many places — especially where cut along a mountain slope to avoid the washouts which damage roads at lower levels. On the other hand, the symbol used for "pack roads, trails, and paths" includes routes of all qualities, from the trail linking villages on the Altiplano which are often difficult to distinguish from the pampa on either side to the main pack roads of the mountains, such as that from La Paz to Chulumani, upon which an immense amount of labor and money has been spent in cutting, embanking, paving, and bridging. In Bolivia it is such caminos de herradura that are the chief concern of the Department of Public Works. Railways The Revolution led to increased interest in this region on the part of foreigners, and it is only natural that the first railway construction took place in the most accessible part — the coast lands. The line from Moquegua to its port of Ilo was opened in 1873 to serve for the export of the products of the Moquegua valley — largely wine and brandy. This railroad, however, was destroyed in the War of the Pacific and was not rebuilt until 1907. Another and more important result of the introduction of foreign capital was the development of the nitrate industry with the foundation of the port of Pisagua (see Fig. 1) and construction of a railway to it in 1875, to be followed in the early nineties by the opening of lines to the newer ports of Caleta Buena and Caleta Junin. An essential feature of the political and strategic organization of Chile has been the building of the longi- tudinal railroad throughout its great length north of 40 S. 182 THE CENTRAL ANDES Only the final section of this remains to be built, the plan being to connect Zapiga on the Pisagua line with Arica. The Peruvians, encouraged by the success of the Moquegua railway, and to meet a similar need, constructed the line from Tacna to Arica; and this was long thought of as the first section of a railway to Bolivia. But the continuation was never undertaken. The greatest feat in opening up the Central Andes — the build- ing of railways up to the high plateaus — still remains to be treat- ed; and the great importance of topography in this elevated region is brought home to us in a remarkable manner when we consider the facts of route selection, railway competition, and movement of commodities in the last half-century. Primarily of course railways have penetrated to the heart of the Cordilleras in order to tap the ores they produce and so to promote mining; and we may note with advantage the swift changes which have taken place in the direction of this export, as the various railways in turn crept up to the plateau and pushed their heads nearer to the different mining centers. The Peruvian Corporation was first in the field with its line from Mollendo along the shore and up over the desert pampa to Arequipa and thence by severe gradients to the plateau and Lake Titicaca, which it reaches at Puno. This line was opened in 1874. In addition to serving Arequipa and tapping the agri- cultural and pastoral resources of a wide area of Peru, it opened a new route for export of Bolivian ores; for after some delay a steamer service was established on Lake Titicaca from Puno to Huaqui, which had the effect of diverting much of the ore from the llama caravans on the Tacna road. In particular, the new route took the entire production of the Corocoro copper mines and greatly stimulated production there. This is all the more striking in that the distance by the new route was so much greater, while the ore had to be handled six times between mine and ocean steamer, viz.: loaded on mule cart or llama back; carried to the Desaguadero; shipped in shallow-draft barges on that river; transshipped to the lake steamer at Huaqui (see Fig. 39); loaded on the train at Puno; and finally at Mollendo, *r<.-' : € 4 POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 183 where steamers cannot come alongside, first put into lighters and thence hoisted into the steamer hold in the roadstead. In 1902 La Paz was linked to this sytem by the building of a rail- way to Huaqui. The port of Antofagasta is over 400 kilometers south of our limit of 20 degrees. From this port a narrow-gauge railroad was constructed in a northeasterly direction to tap the rich copper mines of northern Chile and pushed up over the plateau, reaching Oruro in 1892 and thus at once draining the bulk of the mineral districts of Bolivia southwards to Antofagasta. In 1912 the facility of export in this direction was further increased by opening of the line from Rio Mulato to Potosi; but it is worthy of note that even after the Antofagasta railroad had reached Oruro a constant stream of freight from the plateau as far south as that city continued for many years to be moved by caravan to Arica, and the extension of the Antofagasta line from Oruro up to Viacha in 1909 did not completely drain the produce of this region to the southern port. The last stage in this contest for the traffic of the plateau was initiated in 19 13 by the completion of the Arica-La Paz railroad. This line was not made an extension of the Arica-Tacna railway but was constructed in the Lluta basin, reaching the summit near Lago Blanco, continuing down the Mauri River, and taking an easy course over the plateau which brought it within a few miles of Corocoro. About the same time the railway from Oruro to Cochabamba by way of the Arque valley was finished. In consequence of these recent developments the freight routes at the present time are again undergoing readjustment but prob- ably for the last time. To help in visualizing the changes in the relative importance of routes, three sketch maps are given (Fig. 38) representing conditions in different periods. As far as the country south of La Paz is concerned, com- petition is now entirely between the ports of Arica and Anto- fagasta, Mollendo having dropped behind, presumably on account of the transshipment difficulties. In 1916 the relative volume of exportation by the three ports in metric tons was as 1 84 THE CENTRAL ANDES follows: Antofagasta 80,977, Arica 43,563, Mollendo 4,957. It seems clear that the figure for Arica does not represent the posi- tion which that port and its railway will hold in the future. The new line suffered greatly for the first two years from the lack of rolling stock, and it is unlikely that by 1916 complete adjust- ment had taken place. We may usefully compare certain fea- tures of the three railway routes to La Paz. Summit in Port Length in the Cordil- Time from Time to Kilometers lera Occi- La Paz La Paz dental Arica . . . 439 4,257 meters 17 hrs. 25 hrs. Antofagasta . 1. 157 3,956 meters 48 hrs. 53 hrs. Mollendo . . 850 4,470 meters 35 hrs. 45 hrs. Considering distances from the ports along the various routes we may note that a point which is halfway between Arica and Antofagasta on the now continuous railway linking the ports by way of Viacha and Oruro would form a natural divide for freight north bound and south bound. This point is just south of Challapata, east of Lake Poop6, and it would appear that under present conditions the Viacha-Arica railway should form the avenue for all freight derived from or destined for all the plateau area represented on the La Paz sheet save a small strip in the south. Furthermore, a railway project which has been much favored by mine owners south of Oruro is the construc- tion of a line from Charana, the frontier station on the Arica railroad, directly to Oruro, keeping to the south of the middle Desaguadero. There is no geographical reason for thus doubling the line in the Mauri valley, and great economy would evidently be effected by making a junction in the neighborhood of the Mauri viaduct near Viscachani. But, whatever be the detail of this railway construction, it remains true that, if it be carried out, the imaginary line which we term the "freight divide" POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 185 would be moved southward beyond Rfo Mulato. By this the Arica railroad would be the gainer, having tapped the heavy traffic from the Potosi district. Of the railways so far mentioned probably the only one that serves agricultural interests to any great extent is that from Oruro to Cochabamba. This line serves as distributor of produce emanating not only from the Cochabamba basin itself but also from the southern Yungas and the warm valleys drained east- wards to the Rfo Grande. There is a project to extend the existing railway, on the one hand, into the former district and so to reach the head of navigation on the Chapare, a tributary of the Mamor6, and, on the other, to Santa Cruz and so on to the Parana River at Puerto Suarez. In the latter direction there is already a short electric road as far as Punata in the rich agri- cultural basin of Cliza. East of La Paz lies the best-developed section of the Yungas. And we have seen that traffic up and down these valleys is heavy. It would seem, then, that the Bolivian government is fully justified in the construction of the mountain railroad up the Chuquiaguillo valley and down the Unduavi. This railway will undoubtedly be prolonged to Chulumani, but it remains to be seen whether it will ever connect with navigation on the Beni River. A railway route has been surveyed from Coroico to Rur- renabaque, some 200 kilometers to the north, so that in time the traffic link between La Paz and the Amazon may be forged in that direction. In discussing railroads in this region we have not had to make reference to projects in any great degree. The riches of the mines have made realities of most of the projects here. Development of additional mines will probably mean new branch lines or at least new automobile roads, but of trunk lines there would seem to be room for no more, unless it be the linking of the Peruvian and Bolivian systems by a line along the western shore of Titicaca from Puno to Huaqui. 16 16 For related discussions see Isaiah Bowman: Trade Routes in the Economic Geography of Bolivia, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc, Vol. 42, 1910, pp. 22-37, 90-104, and 180-192; and idem: Regional Population Groups of Atacama, ibid., Vol. 41 1909, pp. 142-154 and 193-211. 1 86 THE CENTRAL ANDES Leading Cities and Centers The La Paz sheet includes five cities and towns which demand special attention from their importance, not only to this parti- cular area but to the Central Andes as a whole. These are La Paz, Arequipa, Cochabamba, Oruro, and Arica. We have seen how the early Spanish settlers gradually pushed their dominion southwards from Peru towards the pampas of Argentina, and it has already been noted that it was found convenient to establish an important post about halfway between Cuzco and Potosf. This post, which has become the city of La Paz, was founded in 1548 under the name, El Pueblo Nuevo (The New Town). Had the post been fixed actually upon the route, it would have stood in the neighborhood of the present Viacha, that is on the bare plateau itself; and it is most unlikely that it would have developed into the greatest city in the Central Andes. La Paz holds this position in virtue of its being the center of government in Bolivia; and the government is centered there and not at Sucre, the legal capital, because of the nodal position required by a metropolis. 17 The city enjoys a climate which, while it is not ideal, is yet far more supportable than that of Viacha, and its disadvantage of lying nearly 20 miles off the main road on the plateau and 600 meters below its level is now met by two railroads which descend to the city itself. Thus La Paz is now in a position to draw almost the maximum advantage from its nodality. This advantage will be complete if and when the Yungas railway has been extended to the head of navigation on the Beni River. The population of Bolivia is crowded — rela- tively — in this western section of the country. From south, from west, and from both shores of Titicaca routes converge here. Moreover, La Paz is the starting point of the easiest road from the plateau to the Yungas and ultimately to the Amazonian plains. Successful government in the less accessible parts of South America is largely a matter of communications. Where these are difficult the government is ill-informed of happenings 17 It is in virtue of this that La Paz is indicated on the map by the symbol for capital city. POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 187 in its more remote territories, and it is in these that revolutions tend to break out. A President at Sucre would be hopelessly out of touch with affairs in the Yungas, and that city stands on the very edge of the mining zone and beyond the well-peopled region of Bolivia. La Paz as the center of government and of business has grown very rapidly in recent years. Its population has increased from 60,000 in 1900 to 78,000 in 1909 and 101,000 (estimated) in 1920. With its public buildings, churches, plazas, markets, busy thoroughfares, the city really looks like a capital. The foreign visitor to La Paz carries a lifelong memory of its wonderful setting, unique among capitals. From the Alto the Fig. 40 — The site of the city of La Paz, from the southwest. In the distance are peaks of the Cordillera Real with Caca-Aca and Huaina Potosi (left) ; the smooth upper surface in the middle distance is an extension of the Altiplano; the glaciated valleys of the upper La Paz (left) and Chuquiaguillo (center) are incised below this surface. The city is partly on a terrace and partly on the lowest slopes of the main valley. Drawn from a photograph. city is seen to nestle far below, not quite at the head of the deep trench in which it lies but near the spot where the torrential Chuquiaguillo River tumbles down to join the La Paz River, which threads the city itself. The steep valley sides contrast with the smooth upper edges of spurs and plateau, and these remnants of an ancient topography rise gently as they recede, till they lap against the rugged walls of the Cordillera with its crown of snow and ice. The latter is visible in more than half its extent — from Caca Aca on the left to Illimani on the right. Towards the latter the middle distance is occupied by a labyrinth of spurs and narrow valleys cut in the weakest of rocks. Light and shade bring out the valley sculpture in its finest tracery of 1 88 THE CENTRAL ANDES earth pillars and dendritic scrolls. Perhaps aesthetic apprecia- tion of this magnificent situation as well as the city's history contributed, when the New Town was rechristened under the dignified title: Nuestra Sefiora de la Paz, which name, after independence had been won, was changed to its present form, La Paz de Ayacucho. Arequipa is the metropolis of southern Peru and the second city in that country. Throughout its long history it has derived its relative importance mainly from three facts: that it possesses a considerable stretch of irrigable land on a gently sloping pampa; that in all of southern Peru this is the only extensive agricultural area intermediate in altitude — Arequipa is at 2,295 meters — between the hot coast lands and the Puna; and, lastly, that it is situated on a relatively easy route between a port — Quilca — and the thickly peopled Puna north and west of Lake Titicaca. Arequipa is therefore admirably placed as a center for exchange of the products of Puna and coast. The city stands on the open pampa on the eastern bank of the Rio Chili which flows in a deep quebrada. It is a well built city of stone laid out in rectangular blocks, and slopes gently from north to south. Above the city stands the astronomical observa- tory maintained by Harvard University. From the scenic stand- point it is the background which makes Arequipa. Seen from the southwest the city appears to be crowned by the perfect cone of El Misti with its peak, snow-capped for most of the year, 3,500 meters above the town and 18 kilometers distant. To left and right stand respectively the triple peaks of Chachani and the rugged ridges of Pichu Pichu, the first separated from El Misti by the profound canyon of the Chili and the second standing out from the flat horizon of the Pampa de Salinas. The census of 1876 credited Arequipa and its suburb of Miraflores with a population of 29,000, while the number today is not much less than 40,000, and it would appear that the greatest increase took place soon after railway communication was opened. One result of this was the development of industry, such as cotton and grain mills. Arequipa, like Cuzco, is noted as a hotbed of revolution. POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 189 Both are centers of outlying departments, and the lack of direct railway communication with the capital is doubtless a con- tributory cause. In 1574 the Spaniards, appreciating the kindly climate and good soil of the "wet plain" (khocha pampa) of the Rocha, founded the Villa de Oropeza there. The city remains under the Indian name as Cochabamba. Its site in the enclosed basin which it dominates is determined by a rocky prong of the southern hill, which causes a constriction in the pampa threaded by the Rocha. Just below the city that river receives the tributary which drains the wide basin of Cliza to the southeast. Cochabamba is the meeting point of the ways leading, on the one hand, through this basin and spreading fan-wise over wide tracts of the eastern Andes and, on the other hand, up the Rocha valley and over to the Yungas and the Rio Chapare. The impression left in the mind of the visitor to Cochabamba is of a pleasant, hospitable city with many trees and animated by the life of an important market brimming with the fruits of the soil. As such it has an importance much greater than is indicated by the number of its permanent inhabitants. These were esti- mated in 1918 at 31,000; the census of 1900 giving a total of 22,000. The pampa presents a smiling aspect with its well-grown crops and innumerable fruit trees. The rushing Rocha forms an alluring foreground in this arid land, and the bold scarp of the Tunari, while it does not match the background of La Paz, yet fits the landscape, and without the presence of this protecting range the fertile basin is unthinkable; indeed it would not exist. Cochabamba is the most Spanish of all the cities in our area. Its climate and the fertility of its soil caused the early settlers to make it their home, and today the customs of old Spain prevail to a marked degree. A greater contrast in aspect and life could scarcely be found in the region than that between Cochabamba and Oruro. The con- vergence of the road from the former with the piedmont road of the Altiplano would naturally be an important place, especially as it is halfway between La Paz and Potosi. But its location 190 THE CENTRAL ANDES would be that of Paria, close to the hills. But Oruro is the real junction of roads as it is of railways. The cause for the momen- tum acquired by this city is the small group of hills which raise their bald heads from a still more barren pampa, which separates them by ten kilometers from the escarpment of the eastern pla- teaus. To this inhospitable spot the early Spaniards were at- tracted by the silver lodes of the hills, and they made their settlement as best they could on the east side of the group where they obtained at least some shelter from the cold and dust-laden winds which sweep the Altiplano in the winter. The city was styled the Villa de San Felipe de Austria, but its aboriginal name Uru Uru — probably derived from the presence of a group of Uru Indians — has survived in the present form. But Oruro has been little better than a mining camp throughout its long history. It is in no way favored by nature ; at no season is its climate pleas- ant, scarcely a tree is to be found in or about the city, and even the inadequate water supply has to be piped across the pampa from the Cordillera. The drab aspect of the blocks of low adobe houses is only heightened by the artificial pretentiousness of the ornate government buildings in the main plaza. Oruro was founded as a mining center in 1568, and such fever- ish activity reigned in the following century that by 1678 there were some 38,000 Spaniards living there, and the Indian popula- tion must have been at least as great, making a total of 76,000. The extent to which silver mining had fallen off by 1859 is re- flected in the population of that date — 7,980. From then on- wards the Cerro de Oruro has again been known as a great tin- mining center. By 1900 its population had grown to 15,900, and, as this industry received a great impetus from the advent of the railroad, it is not surprising that the city in 1920 numbered about 31,000 inhabitants. Arica, little more than a village with its 5,000 inhabitants, merits special treatment here because of its future rather than on account of its past. Yet even in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it would have maintained a greater population, had it not been for a well-grounded fear of the English raiders, of whom POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 191 Sir Francis Drake was the first and best known. This, as well as the frequency of earthquakes, discouraged settlement in the little port. Arica is of great importance strategically and commercially. At the present time it is occupied by the strongest naval power in western South America, Chile, which holds the nitrate fields. Early in the War of the Pacific the capture of Arica was effected by Chile, and it was a vital stroke. So long as attack by neigh- bors is likely the holder of the nitrate fields must be able to dom- inate Arica and its relatively sheltered harbor from the sea. We have seen that as the terminus of the La Paz railway the port of Arica is destined to deal with an ever-increasing traffic with Bolivia. Without a doubt it must soon become Bolivia's first port. The town with its limited resources of water and food will probably never grow to be a large city, but with the future development of warehouses and possibly of smelters a consider- able increase in its population is to be expected, and its impor- tance to the Central Andes will always be greater than its size would imply. The absolute dependence of the Andean Indians upon the produce of the soil accounts for the deep-seated desire on their part to propitiate the natural elements, or rather the spirits which they conceive to control them. Their religion, while nom- inally that of the Roman Catholic Church, at bottom consists in the worship of such spirits, and, while the celebrations of the Church are observed, these often coincide with the time-honored festivals of the pre-Christian period. Thus the celebration of Corpus Christi about the end of May coincides with the primitive festival marking the conclusion of chuno making. The ancient festivals, or holidays, were combined with periodic fairs, and so today there is a general agreement of the dates of the important Christian celebrations with the holding of annual fairs in one place or another. There is however, a general absence of fairs in the rainy season, for there is much work to be done in the fields, and roads are then difficult to traverse. These annual fairs are a feature in the life of all large villages which are centers of districts; but there are two places in our 192 THE CENTRAL ANDES area whose fame spreads beyond these limits. Each of them draws thousands of people from far and wide for one week in the year. These are Copacabana, on the western side of the penin- sula of that name in Titicaca, and Huari, on the eastern side of Lake Poopo. Copacabana is the reputed birthplace of the Chil- dren of the Sun, and the wise ecclesiastics of the Conquest in their effort to convert the natives erected on this most sacred spot of the Indians the shrine of Our Lady of Copacabana. There is a weekly market at this place — as in hundreds of others — but mar- ket day here is Sunday, so that trading may be combined with religion. Moreover, it is the idea of annual pilgrimage which renders the Copacabana fair so important when it is held. Were it not for its religious importance Copacabana would probably not have been chosen as the location of a leading fair. Huari is a small village situated on the narrow piedmont strip between Lake Poop6 and the eastern Andes. For fifty-one weeks it is a much less important place than Challapata, ten kilometers north of it. But in the week following Holy Week the village may contain ten thousand people, and during that time a busy trade is carried on. From its location Huari is a convenient point for such a concourse. By the road from Sucre which reaches the piedmont at Challapata come the farmers of the warm valleys in the Rio Grande basin as far as Santa Cruz bringing their grain, sugar, wine, and fruit. By the roads from the north come the traders of Yungas with their coca and other tropical produce. By the southern road come grain from Tupiza and chinchilla skins from Lipez, and from distant Argentina come droves of fattened cattle, mules, and donkeys for sale. The Puna itself sends its products in quantities — woolen fabrics, wrought silver, chuno, etc. Since the resources of Huari are limited, elaborate preparations have to be made. The fair is administered by the municipality of Challapata for which a contractor organizes temporary shops, corrals, etc., paying a high price for the privilege but deriving good profit from his week's labor. 18 18 For details see Gladys M. Wrigley, (i4S). POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 193 Geography and Political Organization Just as the physical characters of the land have largely deter- mined the course of man's occupation of it and his distribution upon it, so also the political organization of the country has always been guided at least in part by geographical considera- tions. This is best seen in the positions and movements of politi- cal boundary lines. In the earlier periods of their history — and prehistory — territories of clans, races, and empires were probably separated not by boundary lines but by frontier zones which were contested incessantly by neighboring tribes. Archeology has revealed the existence of a prehistoric empire, of whose cul- ture the chief feature is megalithic structures. This empire is believed to have extended over the high Andes from 12 S. north- wards to 5 S. and down to the coast between 5 and 15 . The later Inca empire from its nucleus at Cuzco was extended gradu- ally in both directions along the Andes, until at its apogee, be- tween 1488 and 1530 A. D., it included all of the ancient megalithic empire and more, reaching on coast and mountains to the equator and along the Pacific coast to the site of Valparaiso. These great empires, then, furnish a wonderful example of polit- ical units extending throughout entire natural regions — the Puna on the mountains and the desert on the coast. All the high lands and dry lands came under their sway, but never the wet and forest lands. The Inca empire in fact corresponded in marked degree with the range of the condor — the animal king of the Andes. 19 The frontier zone with the forest tribes was the eastern slopes of the Andes. Where this frontier was regarded as vulnerable, in parts of Peru and in the plateaus east of our area for instance, it was defended by forts dominating the valleys. But apparently the Cordillera Real was considered as a sufficiently strong natural barrier, for no undoubted remains of fortifications have been found there. Similarly throughout the whole of the Spanish 19 The maps in the papers of Philip A. Means, (in), and Erland Nordenskiold, (128) may be consulted. 194 THE CENTRAL ANDES period, while various expeditions went down into the forest, mostly in search of gold, many never returned, and the forested lowlands were never occupied. They were organized as "military governments." We have seen that Lake Titicaca from an early period has divided Quichuas from Aymaras; and ever since the Spanish Conquest a political boundary has existed, running from the Cordillera Occidental in the neighborhood of the Arica-La Paz route in a general northeasterly direction to the Cordillera Real. This was first the limit of the Audiencia de los Reyes (i.e. Lima) and the Audiencia de los Charcas out of which the modern Bo- livia has grown. These were two of the five principal divisions of the Viceroyalty of Peru. 20 That the line between the two audi- encias was subject to variation from time to time is apparent from the sketch map shown on Figure 41, but it is also clear that Titicaca has always been in a frontier zone traversing the Puna region. The importance of the boundary was increased when in 1777 Alto Peru was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Vice- royalty of La Plata or Buenos Ayres — a change which resulted largely from the development of lines of communication across the eastern Andean plateaus to the Argentine pampas. With the wars of independence in the early nineteenth century this divid- ing line again acquired increased importance as the international boundary between Peru and Bolivia. The line, from a point on the main divide east of the village of Ancomarca to the point where it meets the Rio Desaguadero, is always referred to as the traditional boundary. It is shown on the La Paz sheet in con- formity with the most recent available official Bolivian map. 21 This position does not agree with the delimitation contained in the Treaty of 1909, 22 which describes it as starting at Ancomarca, following the summits of Lucilla and Tapara, and thence extend- 20 The Audiencia y Chancellaria de la Plata, Provincia de los Charcas, com- monly known as the Audiencia de Charcas, was established by Philip II in 1559. It came to be known as Alto Peru. It is described by Rene-Moreno, (133), pp. 201-325. 21 Mapa del Departamento de La Paz por Eduardo Idiaquez, 1 : 750,000, 1919. 22 Quoted by Luis S. Crespo, (17). POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 195 Fig. 41 — Sketch map showing boundary changes in the Central Andes. Sources for boundaries are as follows: for 1656, Map by N. Sanson d'Abbeville, Le Perou etc., Paris, 1656; for 177s, Carte du Perou by M. Bonne in Atlas moderne, Paris, 1771, and Mapa Geografico de America meridional by La Cruz Cano y Omedilla, Madrid, 1775; for 1859, Mapa de la Republica de Bolivia by Ondarza and Mujia, I 859- 196 THE CENTRAL ANDES ing down to the source of the Yaro, which it follows to the Desa- guadero. But it seems likely that the topography in this area has become better known since 1909 and modifications of the line consequently adopted. This section of boundary has not yet been surveyed or demarcated. From the outlet of Lake Titicaca the position of the boundary is accurately known on the ground, but later accurate surveys of the shore line will necessarily modify its position on the map. Where the line traverses the peninsula of Copacabana it follows a very sinuous course, determined by the limits of properties owned by Peruvians and Bolivians. A more obvious natural frontier is the summit of the Western Cordillera. Soon after the Spanish Conquest it was decided that the whole of the territory within the La Paz sheet should belong to the Viceroyalty of Peru, the northern boundary of Chile being fixed at the Rio Copiapo, and by the creation of the Audiencia of Charcas the Altiplano south of Titicaca and the coast lands be- tween the Tambo and the Copiap6 were included in this single political unit. Thus for a period the cordillera in our area was not a political boundary. But even at this time the coastal strip south of Arica was virtually disregarded by the Spanish colonists of the plateau, and the barrier shutting off the desert was none the less real. Between 1760 and 1770, however, there was a change in organization of the Kingdom of Peru by which the partido of Arequipa had been extended down the coast to the vicinity of Pisagua 23 and the cordillera thus became the boundary between the two Audiencias. Again, after Charcas had been transferred to the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres we find an official map 24 showing Peru as extending well beyond our area — to the Rio de Loa, thus pushing the coast line of Charcas to the south of that river. Thus the Cordillera Occidental became established as the political boundary which after 1 8 10 separated Peru from Bolivia. In the War of the Pacific, 1879-1883, Bolivia lost to Chile all of her coastal territory and Peru her province of Tarapaca, lying to the south of the Rio Camarones, while Chile occupied the 29 Cf. map by M. Bonne, "Carte du Perou," in Atlas Moderne, Paris, 1771. 24 "Piano General del Reyno del Peru," by Dr. Andres Baleato, 1796. POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 197 Peruvian provinces of Arica and Tacna. The boundary in the cordillera thenceforward separated Bolivia from Chile and the occupied provinces of Peru. It was delimited in a treaty between Bolivia and Chile in 1904 and a protocol in 1907, and the whole frontier zone was surveyed, and the boundary demarcated, by a mixed commission operating in 1904 and 1905. The entire sec- tion of the Bolivian boundary lying north of 20° S. is situated well to the east of the continental divide in the cordillera. This at first sight seems strange and unwise, and we have already noticed some of the disadvantages to Bolivia of this fact. The explana- tion is simple. The cession by Peru to Chile of her province of Tarapaca and the occupation by Chile of Tacna and Arica meant that the existing eastern limit of Tarapaca became the Chile- Bolivia boundary, while the existing limits of Arica and Tacna for all practical purposes from 1883 till the present time have been regarded as the boundary between Chile and Bolivia. The task of the mixed commission, then, was to establish and de- marcate these old provincial limits. Going further back, it may be presumed, in the absence of evidence, that the audiencia of Lima in extending its territory down the coast in the eighteenth century went somewhat beyond the divide in the cordillera, be- cause individual settlers in the coastal oases were interested in utilizing the high pastures of the mountains, while the Spaniards in Charcas who were much farther off, on the east side of the Altiplano, were not interested in such developments. The boun- dary claimed by Chile as corresponding to the limits of the old Peruvian provinces does not seem to have been seriously con- tested by Chile. With the conclusion of the War of the Pacific, Bolivia became an inland state, while Peru shrank northward on the coast. The boundary between her territory and that of Chile remains unsettled on account of the dispute over Tacna and Arica. This subject is treated in some detail in Appendix B, and I shall only refer here to the nature of the various boundaries which are af- fected. In the event of the old provinces being returned to Peru the international boundary will be the northern limit of Tara- iq8 THE CENTRAL ANDES paca. This line, which is marked on the La Paz sheet, lies in the Rio Camarones and its more northerly head stream, the Aja- tama, as far as a point west of Tarahuire, whence it runs north- east to the Cerro de Puquintica where it meets the Bolivian boun- dary. In the event of the occupied territory becoming Chilean the international line will presumably be the Rio Sama from its mouth to a point above Caribaya. Beyond this its position would be in doubt. Chile occupies all the land up to the boundary shown on the La Paz sheet which follows the Rio Cano to its source and thence crossing the upper Mauri runs eastward to the Bolivian boundary at the Cerro Chipe. The Peace Treaty of 1883 allowed Chile to occupy the provinces of Tacna and Arica "bounded on the north by the Rio Sama from its source in the Cordilleras which limit Bolivia to its mouth." Peruvians hold that Chile went beyond her rights in selecting the westernmost branch of the Sama for her boundary and claim that the district of Tarata, which corresponds roughly to the basin of the Sama within the cordillera, was wrongfully occupied by Chile. The line dividing two Chilean departments of Tacna and Arica, shown on the La Paz sheet on the synoptical index only, follows the Quebrada de Caunani, crosses the Arica-La Paz railway north of the station of Puquios, and passes by the Cerro de Tarapaca to the Bolivian boundary on the Nevados de Payachata. If this line were to be adopted as the international boundary, by way of compromise, two railways would be cut by it — the Arica-La Paz and that from Tacna to Arica. It is noteworthy that all the boundaries mentioned on the Pacific slope follow rivers which feed oases in the desert; and the inconvenience that must result from making a frontier out of a river, of which every drop is required for irrigation, must be apparent. APPENDIX A THE SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION OF THE PLATEAU INDIANS By George M. McBride From very early times the social organization of the Indians was based upon the clan, as among other American aborigines; and the kinship group, which was the unit of their society, was the ayllu. It would seem that after the establishment of the Indians as a sedentary agricultural people, the ayllu had become an agrarian unit as well as a social bond, since the land was held collectively by this body and was administered by the head man of the community. Each year the land was distributed anew; one portion being set aside to be cultivated by the people for religious purposes and for the sustenance of those engaged in this, another portion — usually the best — for the head chief (in later times the Inca) and his attendants, the remaining land being distributed among the heads of individual families. The land, however, was not alienable. All parts of it continued to belong to the ayllu, even that assigned to the rulers and the priests. These latter re- ceived only the fruits of the land, the people in this way (in cul- tivating these portions for their superiors) paying taxes or tribute. This constituted, in fact, about the only form of tribute exacted from the people. Neither were the individuals who received annual allotments permitted to alienate any portion of it. Apparently even the houses in which the people lived could not be alienated, although, today at least, a man is entitled, if he moves, to take the thatch roof of his house with him. Thus true property in land or buildings was almost if not entirely unknown among the Indians of this region, as in other parts of America, before the coming of Europeans. It is not known whether the office of chief among the Colla 200 THE CENTRAL ANDES people before the Inca conquest was hereditary, as was that of the Inca ruler, or whether a chief was elected, as among the Mexicans. The list of ancient kings, given by Montesinos, and thought by some to refer to the dynasties that ruled in Tiahua- naco, records direct lineal succession in most cases. At the present time, however, both the alcaldes and the ilacatas — the police and the administrative officers respectively — of the Aymara communities are elected. While the local organization of society was that of the consan- guineal group, there had been superimposed upon this a system of government by the conquering Inca dynasty. It is somewhat difficult to distinguish what features of the government pertained to the central authority and what to the local communities; but, as the policy of the Incas was generally to leave the already exist- ing customs and institutions of conquered peoples as far as possi- ble undisturbed, it would seem that the central government con- cerned itself chiefly in the collecting of revenue and in the mili- tary organization of the country — even in this, operating, for the most part, through the recognized chiefs of the local communi- ties. Since there are repeated references to the clan organization among the Spanish writers who describe the social institutions of the Indians and since many features of such kinship organiza- tion, characteristic of almost all American aborigines, are pre- served among the Indian communities today, it would seem that the Inca's government did not at all supersede this form of polity but rather recognized the local units and ruled the country through them. The religious life of the Collas was a mixture of a primitive animistic worship of hills, mountains, rocks, and many other natural objects and the more elevated concept of the sun as the giver of all life. There are evidences, too, of the worship of a Great Spirit, thought of as superior to all of these other deities. Reverence for ancestors also approached a form of worship. The first of these, a superstitious regard for the spirits of familiar inanimate objects, probably had most intimate influence upon their daily lives, since they lived in constant dread of the displeas- SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION 201 ure of these spirits. The same is true of the Aymaras of today, who build tiny stone houses to the spirits of the hills at every high pass, throw an offering of masticated coca leaves upon overhang- ing cliffs along the roads, dash the blood of a slaughtered animal upon the gable of their adobe houses, spill a little of every cup of liquor which they drink, in reverence to Pachacmama (Earth Mother) , and hear the movements of spirits in every rolling rock upon the hillside. The worship of the sun was probably more remote in its appeal to them, although a very natural result of the desire for its heat in the penetrating cold of their native high- lands. Some of the great religious festivals were connected with the movements of the sun; and careful observations were made with astronomical instruments, constructed of masonry, to deter- mine the equinoxes and solstice. 1 The most notable sun festival — the Intip Raymi — is still observed in many parts of the high- lands but with the Christian name of St. John's Day. This oc- curred at the time of the winter solstice (southern hemisphere) on June 21 and was apparently a combination of harvest celebra- tion and an attempt to bring back the sun from the most distant point of his yearly journey. In the old Spanish accounts the former feature is most prominent, but at the present time the observance consists principally of the lighting of fires in the streets, in the house yards, on the hillsides, and wherever bundles of grass or other combustible can be collected. For several days and nights, but particularly the first night, the whole country seems ablaze. Bundles of weeds and brushwood are lighted about every cottage, bonfires are made in the streets, and the bunch grass and weeds upon every hillside are lighted, continuing the ancient custom of calling back the sun, the source of heat and light and life. For several days before the solstice, trains of mules and donkeys loaded with the combustibles make their way into the towns, while for several days afterwards the valleys are filled with smoke, so dense, sometimes, as completely to shut out sight of the surrounding hills. Among the objects of special veneration were the jaguar, 1 See Clements Robert Markham, (113), pp. 115-116. 202 THE CENTRAL ANDES llama, puma, condor, and serpent, if we may judge from the appearance of these objects among their sacred symbols. Each household also had its own particular huaca (object of worship) or reverenced that of the ayllu to which it belonged, usually repre- senting the person or object from which tradition said that the ancestor of their clan had sprung. With the establishment of the Inca dynasty the worship of the sun apparently took on new importance, inasmuch as the Incas considered themselves the children of the sun, and the sun cult was quite directly connected with allegiance to the royal family. Cuzco, the Inca capital, was also the seat of the great temple of the sun, a structure whose exquisite masonry (a part of which still stands) and elaborate ornaments of gold caused wonder in all who saw them. The Island of the Sun (Isla de Titicaca) also was a place of sacred character to the Incas, and they had a temple of the sun erected there. The Incas themselves came to worship there, either because of some superstition connected with the natural Rock of the Cat, which stands upon the island, or perhaps because of the tradition that the island was the cradle of the Inca rulers themselves. It seems, however, that the island had already long had something of a sacred character before it was made a place of Inca pilgrimages. Copacabana was also a place of pilgrimages, where a huaca existed. In place of this huaca there now exists the Virgin of Copacabana, and thousands of Indians journey long distances each year to worship at this time-honored shrine. It is possible that in pre-Inca times these shrines and perhaps also Tiahuanaco were principal religious centers of the Aymaras, but at the time of the Spanish Conquest they were secondary to Cuzco, which had become the religious as well as the political capital. APPENDIX B THE PROBLEM OF TACNA AND ARICA Dispute over this territory dates from the War of the Pacific (1879-1883), in which Bolivia and Peru united against Chile. Up to a few decades before that time the entire desert of Atacama which lay on the border of the three countries, had been consid- ered practically worthless, except for the silver mines of Guanta- jaya and Santa Rosa near Iquique, and the boundaries were but ill defined. About the middle of the last century, however, there developed a demand in Europe for the guano which was found on the coast and among the adjacent islands. This impelled the three countries to assert their respective claims. The discovery of rich nitrate deposits (1830-1850) and the development of steam navigation — the first line on the west coast was established in 1840 — greatly accentuated the interest in these hitherto valueless territories. Chile created the province of Atacama (1843), with undefined northern limits. Peru developed a state monopoly of the newly discovered resources in her desert provinces; and Bo- livia, for the first time, organized an effective administration over the section that traditionally belonged to her. Both guano and nitrate were developed chiefly for export to Europe, and the trade that resulted was almost entirely maritime. The most active exploiters of these natural resources were foreigners resi- dent in Chile or citizens of that country itself. To the Chileans the traffic in these commodities was of greatest interest, because, on their way to Europe, all the vessels trading in guano or nitrate passed the length of her thousand miles of coast and frequently put in at her ports, while to both Peru and Bolivia it meant the exploitation of resources that lay on the extreme borders of their possessions. Consequently it was Chile which first learned to prize the desert region and became most active in advances into it. Treaties of 1866 and 1874 with Bolivia pushed the Chil- 204 THE CENTRAL ANDES ean frontier northward from El Paposo (latitude about 25 ) to latitude 24 S., just south of Antofagasta, and guaranteed Chilean citizens against the imposition of increased exportation duties in the territory between that and latitude 23 . An alleged violation of these rights, in the imposition of an additional export tax, brought about war between the two countries (1879). Peru, in compliance with a secret treaty of mutual defense which she had signed with Bolivia in 1873, was drawn into the conflict. This secret treaty was evidently intended to check Chile's ag- gressive advance northward and to prevent her acquiring the newly discovered wealth of the desert. The war thus sprang from economic causes, the desire of each nation to secure the greatest gain from the valuable guano and nitrate deposits. The conflict proved disastrous to the allied nations. Chile early established her superiority on the sea and thus commanded the coast with its line of ports, upon which almost all life in the desert depended. Peru and Bolivia were unable to move their armies across the desert to attack the Chilean forces which, landing at convenient points on the coast, had overrun all the nitrate prov- inces and had even established themselves in the fertile oases of the Tacna and Arica valleys. Further naval successes and the decisive defeats inflicted upon the allies at the battles of the Campo de Alianza near Tacna and the Morro of Arica permitted Chile to capture Lima and dictate the terms of peace, Bolivia having already withdrawn from the war. 1 As a result of the war Bolivia was compelled to cede to Chile her entire littoral, containing the major portion of the nitrate depos- its. She became an inland country dependent upon the goodwill of her neighbors for all outlet to the sea. This lack of coast line has accentuated her already embarrassing isolation and has greatly retarded her progress. By the treaty of Anc6n (1883), which terminated the war between Peru and Chile, Peru was forced to surrender outright her southernmost province, Tarapaca, containing the rest of the 'See Isaiah Bowman: The Military Geography of Atacama, Educational Bi- Monthly, ion, pp. 1-21. THE PROBLEM OF TACNA AND ARICA 205 nitrate deposits, Chile thus gaining what had apparently been her goal in the war, complete possession of these enormous sources of wealth. Since that time the export duty on nitrate has been her principal fount of national income, supplying some three- fourths of her total revenue. Chile also made a determined effort to secure the cession of Tacna and Arica, the two succeeding Peruvian provinces, not because of any natural wealth that they contained, for they were not only desert but, as far as was known, held no important mineral deposits. They offered, however, a far better protection to her recently acquired treasure than any fron- tier farther south and, in the hands of Peru, would be a constant menace to Chilean possession of the nitrate fields. The distance from seacoast to cordillera at this point is considerably less than it is to the south. Moreover, the fertile, irrigated valleys of Sama, Tacna, and Tarata afford supplies whereby an army could subsist independent of the sea, and they are the only valleys north of Copiapo where such is the case. The port of Arica also is a key position in this section of the coast, in that it gives easy access to the valleys mentioned above, is the most feasible entrance to Bolivia for either trade or war, and affords the most favorable point of attack against the nitrate fields of Tarapaca. Peru, while resigning herself to the loss of the valuable mineral deposits in her southernmost province — largely developed by Chileans and containing relatively few Peruvian inhabitants, stubbornly resisted all attempts of Chile to appropriate Tacna and Arica with their old-established Peruvian towns. A compro- mise was finally effected whereby Chile was to occupy these two provinces for a period of ten years, at the expiration of which a plebiscite should determine their ultimate destiny. The nation favored by the plebiscite should then pay to the other 10,000,000 pesos (from $2,000,000 to $3,000,000). Unfortunately, the conditions of the plebiscite were left undefined, the two countries were later unable to agree upon satisfactory terms, and Chile continued to hold Tacna and Arica, which under her administra- tion have become the two departments composing the province of Tacna. 206 THE CENTRAL ANDES Since the expiration of the ten-year period, during which time the provinces were to be held and completely administered as Chilean territory, the question of ownership has constantly agi- tated the two nations concerned. Its influence has also extended far beyond the bounds of these coun tries and has constituted a problem which at any time might throw a large part of the conti- nent into war. More than any other problem this affair has been a source of discord in South American international relations. It has caused a multitude of attempts at forming defensive or of- fensive alliances among the various republics and thus creating a South American balance of power, as each of the disputants has sought to secure the support of neighbors or to align other nations against its opponent. Bolivia in particular, as the country most directly affected, has suffered both in her international affairs and in her domestic politics from the inquietude engendered by this vexing problem. Her recent revolution (19 19) was brought about largely as a result of divergent views and sympathies in regard to the Chile-Peru embroglio. Both Chile and Peru have agreed that the plebiscite provided for by the treaty of Anc6n should be held. They have main- tained, however, quite diverse views as to the real purpose of that vote and as to the manner in which it should be carried out. Peru has demanded that a bona fide vote should be taken to as- certain the desire of the permanent residents of the occupied provinces. She has felt confident that such a vote would restore her provinces to her, believing that the sparse population, always predominantly Peruvian, has remained loyal in spite of adverse conditions throughout the lapse of nearly forty years. Chile, on the other hand, has insisted that the plebiscite be conducted in such a way as practically to assure her permanent possession of the provinces and of late years has clearly stated that she has no intention of allowing them to pass out of her power. In fact she has indeed asserted that it was never the intention that the ple- biscite should be more than a mere form of transfer whereby the national pride of the Peruvians might be spared the humiliation of an outright cession. She has held that the plebiscite is neces- THE PROBLEM OF TACNA AND ARICA 207 sary merely as the formal act of transfer provided by the treaty. Since both nations wish to see the plebiscite carried out, the dispute has centered about the form in which the voting should be conducted. The history of the negotiations has been one of proposals and counterproposals, each nation seeking a form that would be acceptable to her opponent and at the same time would assure her own success in the vote. The principal questions at issue have been the following: First, Who shall be entitled to vote? Peru claims that only Peruvians or at least bona fide residents whose residence has been established by a term of years, shall be given this right. This would include few Chileans, since the resources of the provinces are so limited that few actual settlers have entered the region since the War of the Pacific. By far the greater part of the Chileans found in the territory are officials or members of military forces stationed there. Most of both of these classes are tran- sients. There are many more or less permanent Bolivian resi- dents, constituting perhaps half of the population other than Peruvians. These Peru could probably count upon to vote for her. Chile insists that all inhabitants, even those with a short residence of a few months, shall be allowed to vote, not excluding Chilean officials and soldiers. This point Peru has hitherto been willing to arbitrate, while Chile has not. Second, By what authority shall the plebiscite be conducted? The two nations have agreed that each should have a represen- tative upon the commission named to carry out the vote. Chile has insisted upon her right to preside over such a commission, since the departments are actually under her administration. Peru has been willing that any neutral representative should preside, but not a Chilean. She has been prepared to arbitrate this point also, while Chile has not. Third, What shall be the method of balloting? Peru wishes the vote to be public, Chile that it should be secret. Peru is also willing to arbitrate this point. Fourth, In what form shall the 10,000,000 pesos due to the loser be paid? This apparently has never concerned Peru since 208 THE CENTRAL ANDES she has not doubted the result of a popular vote. Chile has found all guarantees offered by Peru acceptable. Controversy over these points was maintained almost con- stantly from 1892-1894 (the final years of the ten-year period) until 1 90 1. Negotiations were often seriously interrupted by changes of ministry in Chile and by unstable political conditions in Peru. The nearest approach to a settlement was reached in 1897 in the Billinghurst-Latorre Convention. In this document the two nations agreed to submit to the Queen of Spain as arbi- trator the questions numbered one and three above. They also agreed that the plebiscite should be conducted by a commission over which a neutral representative should preside and that the 10,000,000 pesos should be paid by installments within a period of four years. This treaty was ratified promptly by the Peruvian Congress and by the Chilean Senate but was delayed in the Chilean Chamber of Deputies and finally shelved. The usual explanation of Chile's willingness to settle at that time her con- troversy with Peru, is that the Chile-Argentine boundary ques- tion was just then threatening trouble and there was a very nat- ural desire to dispose of all possibilities of complications on the west coast. Before the convention was completely ratified, how- ever, the crisis had passed, and it is supposed that Chile found it no longer necessary to accede to Peru's demands. After the failure to reach a settlement Peru severed diplomatic relations with Chile and for several years had no representative at Santiago. Relations were finally renewed, only to be broken again in 19 10 when another attempt at settlement failed. In the meantime Chile had actively carried on attempts to develop the two departments left indefinitely under her juris- diction. In compliance with a treaty with Bolivia in 1904, she constructed the Arica-La Paz railway, which forms part of her system of state lines. She has organized (1884) the two provinces as one political unit which she now calls the province of Tacna and which she divides into the two departments of Tacna and Arica. The Department of Tacna is divided into two Municipios — THE PROBLEM OF TACNA AND ARICA 209 those of Tacna and Tarata. The latter comprises the subdelega- ciones of Pocollai, Pachia, Palca, Tarata, Sama, and Calana and includes practically all the territory of the department save a small portion near the town of Tacna. This arrangement is con- fusing, since the Peruvian organization also included a Province of Tarata which comprised the whole basin of the Sama in the Cordillera but not the lower country traversed by that river south of Caribaya. In 1884 Chile occupied the territory up to the Rio Cano, which is the most westerly head stream of the Sama, claiming this interpretation of the treaty and thus going beyond the limits of the Peruvian province of Tacna. The port of Arica is being improved, and the hills about it have been fortified. Education is being fostered in accordance with the Chilean system. Ecclesiastical authority has been trans- ferred from Peruvian to Chilean priests, many of the Peruvian priests having been expelled as instigators of disloyalty to Chile. The colonization of the departments by Chileans has been at- tempted, although little has so far been accomplished. In 191 8 it seemed that war would break out between the two nations as a result of Chilean activities in the "captive prov- inces." But a note from President Wilson, urging them to avoid an appeal to arms was effective in averting actual hostilities. At present (1922), upon invitation from President Harding, the two claimants have agreed to meet in Washington in an at- tempt to reach a satisfactory solution of the matter. Prior to this conference nothing has transpired publicly to indicate that the positions of the two governments have altered, viz., that Peru has refused to surrender her sovereignty; Chile has stated her determination to retain the territory, and no agreement has been reached regarding the plebiscite. Compromise would therefore seem to be essential to the success of the conference. The entire problem of Tacna and Arica has been complicated by the desire of Bolivia to secure an outlet to the sea. Arica has always been her most natural port, and a large part of her for- eign trade has been carried on through this gateway; formerly by mule and llama train, more recently by railway. Since the loss 210 THE CENTRAL ANDES of her littoral and her own ports of Antofagasta, Cobija, and Mejillones she has come to covet the port of Arica and a strip of territory leading back from the coast to her mountain boundary. In 1895 a secret treaty was actually signed with Chile, in which the latter country agreed to turn over Tacna and Arica to Bolivia in case the plebiscite resulted in favor of Chile. The treaty failed to obtain ratification in the Chilean Congress, but the effort has been renewed in a more or less open way on later occasions. APPENDIX C SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Systematic Geographical Works i. Sievers, Wilhelm. Slid- und Mittelamerika, 3rd edit., revised. Leipzig and Vienna, 1914. [The standard geographical work on the continent.] 2. Sievers, Wilhelm. Die Cordillerenstaaten, Vol. 1, Einleitung, Bolivia und Peru. (Sammlung Goschen.) Berlin and Leipzig, 1913- 3. Reclus, Elisee. Nouvelle geographie universelle; La terre et les hommes. Vol. 18, Amerique du Sud; les regions andines. Paris, 1893. 4. Keane, A. H. Central and South America. (Stanford's Compen- dium of Geography and Travel.) 2nd edit., revised, 2 vols. London, 1909-11. [Vol. 1 deals with South America.] 5. Martin, Carl. Landeskunde von Chile, Publikation des Geo- graphischen Instituts der Universitat Jena, Hamburg, 1909. 6. Reck, Hugo. Geographie und Statistik der Republik Bolivia. Petermanns Mitt., Vol. 11, 1865, pp. 257-261 and 281-295; Vol. 12, 1866, pp. 299-305 and 373-38i; Vol. 13, 1867, pp. 243-251 and 317-329- 7. Reck, Hugo. Geographische Skizze uber das Hochland der Re- publik Bolivia. Jahresbericht Geogr. Gesell. zu Hannover, No. 6, 1884-85, pp. 1-19. 8. Bowman, Isaiah. The Andes of southern Peru: Geographical reconnaissance along the seventy-third meridian. New York, 19 16. [While this work refers almost entirely to country outside the area here discussed, the observations and deductions are of the highest importance in understanding the geography of the La Paz area.] 9. Bowman, Isaiah. The highland dweller of Bolivia: An anthropo- geographic interpretation. Bull. Geogr. Soc. of Philadelphia, Vol. 7, 1909, pp. 159-184. 10. Middendorf, E. W. Peru: Beobachtungen und Studien tiber das Land und seine Bewohner wahrend eines 25-jahrigen Aufent- halts. 3 vols., Berlin, 1894-95. [Vol. 2, Das Kustenland, and Vol. 3, Das Hochland.] 212 THE CENTRAL ANDES ii. Hettner, Alfred. Regenverteilung, Pflanzendecke und Besied- lung der tropischen Anden. In Festschrift Ferdinand Freiherm von Richthofen zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, pp. 199-233. Berlin, 1893. 12. Uzarski, Julius. Bolivia: Natur und wirtschaftliche Verhaltnisse. Inaugural-Dissertation. Bonn, 191 1. Works Mainly Descriptive and Statistical 13. Pentland, J. B. On the general outline and physical configuration of the Bolivian Andes; with observations on the line of perpetual snow upon the Andes between 15° and 20 south latitude. Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc, Vol. 5, 1835, pp. 70-89. 14. Huot, Victor. Geographie des hauts-plateaux des Andes; Pub- lication de la Mission G. de Crequi-Montfort et E. Senechal de la Grange. Paris, 1908. 15. Paz Soldan, D. D. Mateo. Geografia del Peru, corregida y au- mentada por M. F. Paz Soldan, Vol. 1, Paris, 1862. 16. Bravo, Carlos. La patria boliviana, estado geografico. La Paz, 1894. 17. Crespo, Luis S. Geografia de la republica de Bolivia. 2nd edit., revised. La Paz, 19 10. 18. Van Brabant, William. La Bolivie. Paris and Brussels, n. d. ' 19. Walle, Paul. Bolivia, its people and its resources, its railways, mines, and rubber-forests. London and Leipzig, 19 14. 20. Bollaert, William. Observations on the geography of southern Peru, including survey of the province of Tarapaca, and route to Chile by the coast of the desert of Atacama. Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc, Vol. 21, 1851, pp. 99-130. 21. Billinghurst, Guillermo E. Estudio sobre la geografia de Tara- paca. Santiago, 1886. 22. Latrille, Roch. Notice sur le territoire compris entre Pisagua et Antofagasta, avec la region des hauts plateaux boliviens. Bull. Soc. de Geogr. de Paris, Ser. 7, Vol. 18, 1897, pp. 473-495. 23. Lopez Loayza, Fernando. La provincia de Tarapaca (Al rededor de su industria i de Iquique, su principal puerto). Iquique, 1912- I9I3- 24. Knoche, Walter. Communicaciones breves sobre algunas ob- servaciones hechas en la cordillera de Quimsa Cruz. Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz, Vol. 7, 1909, Nos. 27, 28, and 29, pp. 22-24. 25. Paredes, M. Rigoberto. Altiplanicie Pacena. Bol. Oficina Nad. de Estadistica, Year 1912, Nos. 81-84, PP- 375-393. La Paz, 1913. 26. Paredes, M. Rigoberto. Provincia de Inquisivi. Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz, Vol. 6, Nos. 24, 25, and 26, pp. 75-137. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 213 Accounts of Exploration and Travel 27. Azara, Felix de. Voyages dans l'Amerique meridionale . . . 1781-1801. 4 vols., Paris, 1809 [contains (2)]. 28. Haenke, Tadeo. Introduction a l'histoire naturelle de la prov- ince de Cochabamba et des environs, et description de ses pro- ductions. [Contained in (1), Vol. 2, pp. 391-541.] 29. Orbigny, Alcide d'. Voyages dans l'Amerique meridionale de 1826- 1833. 9 vols. Paris, 1835-47. [Vol. 3 deals with the area of the La Paz sheet.] 30. Fitz-Roy, Robert. Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's ships Adventure and Beagle, 3 vols., London, 1839. 31. Castelnau, Francis de. Expedition dans les parties centrales de l'Amerique du Sud, de Rio de Janeiro a Lima, et de Lima au Para . . . 1843-1847. 7 vols, and an atlas, Paris, 1851. [Chaps. 37 to 40, Vol. 3, deal with the route from Potosi to Arequipa via La Paz, Desaguadero, and Puno.] 32. Tschudi, Johann Jacob von. Reisen dm eh Siidamerika. 5 vols. Leipzig, 1866-1869. [Chaps. 2-4, in Vol. 5 include the journey from Arica to Oruro via Tacna and thence by Puno to Arequipa and Islay.] 33. Weddell, H. A. Voyage dans le nord de la Bolivie et dans les parties voisine du Perou. Paris and London, 1853. [Journey from Arica to La Paz, Achacachi, and thence by Sorata to the northern Yungas, up the Rio de Coroico and Unduavi to La Paz; thence via Desaguadero and Puno to Arequipa and Islay. Contains numerous references to the flora.] 34. Grandidier, E. Voyage dans l'Amerique du Sud ; Perou et Bolivie. Paris, 1 86 1. 35. Ursel, C. d'. Sud-Amerique, sejours et voyages en Bolivie. Paris, 1879- 36. Wiener, Charles. Perou et Bolivie: Recit de voyage suivi d'etudes archeologiques et ethnographiques et de notes sur l'ecriture et les langues des populations indiennes. Paris, 1880 [Routes from Ilo to La Paz by Arequipa, Puno, and Desaguadero; Ascent of Illimani.] 37. Musters, George Chaworth. Notes on Bolivia, to accompany original maps. Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc, Vol. 47, 1877, pp. 201- 216. 38. Heath, Edwin R. Exploration of the River Beni in 1880-1. Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc, Vol. 5, 1883, pp. 327-347. 39. Minchin, John B. Notes of a journey through part of the Andean table-land of Bolivia in 1882. Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc, Vol. 4, 1882, pp. 671-676. 214 THE CENTRAL ANDES 40. Bresson, Andre. Bolivia; Sept annees d'explorations, de voyages et de sejours dans l'Amerique australe. Paris, 1886. [Part IV deals with northern Bolivia; Part V contains notes on Bolivian cartography and agriculture in Bolivia.] 41. Hettner, Alfred* Berichte iiber seine Reisen in Peru und Bolivia. Verh. der Gesell. fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin, Vol. 15, 1888, pp. 402- 407, Vol. 16, 1889, pp. 154-160, and Vol. 17, 1890, pp. 232-237. [Contain accounts of the coast, the desert northwest of Arica, the southwest shore of Titicaca, and the Yungas of La Paz.] 42. Balzan, L. (i) Da Asuncion a La Paz. Boll. Soc. Geogr. Italiana, Ser. 3, Vol. 4, 1891, pp. 452-472 and 561-580. (2) Da La Paz a Irupana, Ibid., pp. 725-737. (3) Da Irupana a Covendo, Ibid., pp. 911-929. 43. Urquhart, D. R. The Bolivian Altiplanicie. Scottish Geogr. Mag., Vol. 10, 1894, pp. 302-312 and 360-371. [Deals mainly with the eastern border.] 44. Con way, William Martin. The Bolivian Andes: A record of climbing and exploration in the Cordillera Real in the years 1898 and 1900. New York and London, 1901. 45. Hoek, Henry and Steinmann, Gustav. Erlauterung zur Routen- karte der Expedition Steinmann, Hoek, v. Bistram in dpn Anden von Bolivien, 1903-04. Petermanns Mitt., Vol. 52, 1906, pp. 1-13, and 25-32. [Refers to the Eastern Cordillera south of La Paz.] 46. Hoek, Henry. Exploration in Bolivia. Geogr. Journ., Vol. 25, 1905, pp. 498-513. [Eastern Cordillera.] 47. Hoek, Henry. Bergfahrten in Bolivia. Zeitschr. Deutschen und Oeslerreichischen Alpenvereins, Vol. 36, 1905, pp. 165-192; 1906, pp. 162-190. Innsbruck. 48. Bandelier, A. F. The basin of Lake Titicaca. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc, Vol. 37, 1905, pp. 449-460. 49. Zalles, Jorje E. Quinientas leguas a traves de Bolivia: Relacion del viaje de reconocimiento practicado para establecer un sis- tema de ferrocarriles en Bolivia, 1904-1905. La Paz, 1906. [Routes described include the entire eastern edge of the Altiplano, south of La Paz; Machaca marca to Colquechaca and beyond; Oruro to Cochabamba and through Yungas to Coroico; thence back to La Paz.] 50. Therese Prinzessin von Bayern. Reisestudien aus dem west- lichem Sudamerika. 2 vols. Berlin, 1908. [Vol. 2 contains an account of the journey from Mollendo by Arequipa, Puno, La Paz, and along the eastern edge of the Altiplano.] 51. Meyendorff, Conrad de. L'Empire du soleil: Perouet Bolivie. Paris, 1909. [Route as in preceding work.] SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 215 52. Bryce, James. South America. London and New York, 1912. [Especially pp. 166-204.] 53. Herzog, Theodor. Vom Urwald zu den Gletschern der Kordillere; zwei Forschungsreisen in Bolivia. Stuttgart, 1913. [Describes the cordillera from the Quimsa Cruz southeastward.] 54. Herzog, Theodor. Die bolivischen Kordilleren. Petermanns Mitt., Vol. 59, I, 1913, pp. 192-195, 247-250, and 304-308. Geological Structure, Physiography and Mining 55. * Miller, Benjamin L., and Singewald, Joseph T., Jr. The mineral deposits of South America. New York and London, 1919. [Discusses minerals in relation to geology. Contains chapters on Bolivia, Chile, and Peru each with a bibliography.] 56. Orbigny, Alcide d'. Estudios sobre la geologia de Bolivia, tradu- cidos y acompafiados de algunas notas y un mapa geologico de Bolivia por V. E. Marchant Y. La Paz, 1907. [The numerous footnotes in some measure correct the faults of the original and give additional information. The Appendix contains several papers by L. Sundt.] 57. Forbes, David. On the geology of Bolivia and southern Peru. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Vol. 17, 1861, pp. 7-84. 58. Romero, Belisario Dias. Bolivia geologica y mineralogica, bosquejo sinoptico. Bol. Dir. Nad. Eslad. y Estud. Geogr. segunda ipoca. Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 5-13; Nos. 7 and 8, pp. 12-36. La Paz , 1918. 59. Bonarelli, Guido. Tercera contribution al conocimiento geologico de las regiones petroliferas subandinas del norte. Anal. Minist. de Agric: Section Geol., Mineral, y Minas, Vol. 15, No. 1, Buenos Aires, 192 1. [Discusses structure and paleogeography of the Central Andes.] 60. Adams, George I. An outline review of the geology of Peru. Ann. Rept. Smithsonian Instn. for 1908, pp. 385-430. Washington, D. C. [Contains a bibliography.] 61. Douglas, Jame& Archibald. Geological sections through the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: I — From the coast at Arica . . . to La Paz and the Bolivian "Yungas." Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Vol. 70, 1914, pp. 1-53. 62. Douglas, James Archibald. Geological sections through the Andes of Peru and Bolivia: II — From the Port of Mollendo to the Inambari River. Ibid., Vol. 76, 1920, pp. 1-58. * The present list may be supplemented by use of the bibliographies given in this work. 216 THE CENTRAL ANDES 63. Dereims, A. Geologia nacional, excursiones cientificas en 1901 y 1904. La Paz, 1906. 64. Dereims, A. Le haut plateau de Bolivie. Ann. de Geogr., Vol. 16, 1907. PP- 350-359- 65. Courty, G. Explorations geologiques dans l'Amerique du Sud. Publication de la Mission scientifique G. de Crequi Montfort et E. Senechal de la Grange. Paris, 1907. [Studied eastern border of Altiplano.] 66. Block, Hans. El corte geologico del ferrocarril a Yungas. Anuario Geogr djico y Estadistico de la Republica de Bolivia, appendix, La Paz, 1919. [Contains a geological map and section.] 67. Kozlowski, Roman. Informe sobre un viaje en el Norte de la Pro- vincia de Carangas. Bol. Direcc. Gen. de Estad. y Estud. Geogrdf., No. 88, pp. 34-48. La Paz, 1914. 68. Kozlowski, Roman. Informe sobre una excursion geologica de la region petrolifera de Pacajes, . . . 1914. Bol. Direcc. Nad. Estad. y Estud. Geogr. segunda tpoca, Nos. 3, 4, pp. 30—39. La Paz, 1918. 69. Kozlowski, Roman. Apuntes acerca de un viaje geologico por los departamentos de Oruro, Potosi y Chuquisaca. Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz, Vol. 28, Nos. 51 and 52, pp. 37-92. La Paz, 1920. 70. Marsters, V. F. The physiography of the Peruvian Andes, with notes on early mining in Peru. Annals New York Acad, of Sci., Vol. 22, 1912, pp. 225-258. 71. Tight, W. G. Glaciation of the high plateau of Bolivia, South America. (Abstract.) Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, Vol. 15, 1904, pp. 584-586. 72. Steinmann, Gustav. Diluvium in Sudamerika. Zeitschr. der Deutschen Geol. Gesell., Vol. 58, 1906, pp. 215-229. Berlin. 73. Hauthal, Rudolf. Reisen in Bolivien und Peru, ausgefuhrt, 1908. Leipzig, 1911. [Author made hasty observations along the east- ern edge of the Altiplano and detailed geological and glaciological studies in the Cordillera Real; contains many photographs and an extensive bibliography.] 74. Bowman, Isaiah. The physiography of the Central Andes. Amer. Journ. of Sci., Ser. 4, Vol. 28, 1909, pp. 197-217 and 373-402. [Results of an expedition along the Pacific coast, over the Western Cordillera just beyond the southern limit of the La Paz sheet, along the eastern edge of the Altiplano, with detailed study in the Cochabamba region, the Quimsa Cruz, and Cordillera Real.] 75. Bowman, Isaiah. Results of an expedition to the Central Andes. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc, Vol. 46, 1914, pp. 161-183. [Continues the investigations on the Altiplano by a study of the ancient lake system there.] SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 217 76. Gregory, Herbert E. (i) The La Paz (Bolivia) gorge. Amer. Journ. of Sci., Ser. 4, Vol. 36, 1913, pp. 141-150. (2) Geologic sketch of Titicaca Island and adjoining areas. Ibid., pp. 187-213. [Contains a bibliography.] 77. Sefve, Ivar. Uber eine neue Art der Gattung Macrauchenia aus Ulloma, Bolivien. Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, Vol. 12, pp. 205-256. [Mainly paleontological, but discusses physical conditions in recent geological time.] 78. Sefve, Ivar. Rektor Ivar Sefves resai Sydamerika. Ymer, 192 1, PP- 77 _ 8o. Stockholm. [A provisional account — sent from Bolivia — of investigations on Quaternary glaciation.] Oceanography 79. Krummel, Otto. Handbuch der Ozeanographie, 2nd edit., 2 vols. Stuttgart, 1907. 80. Hoffmann, Paul. Zur Mechanik der Meeresstromungen an der oberflache der Oceane. Berlin, 1884. 81. Buchanan, John Y. On similarities in the physical geography of the great oceans. Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc, Vol. 8, 1886, pp. 753- 770. 82. Murray, John. On the temperature of the floor of the ocean, and of the surface waters of the ocean. Geogr. Journ., Vol. 14, 1899, pp. 34-51- 83. Coker, R. E. Ocean temperatures off the coast of Peru. Geogr. Rev., Vol. 5, 1918, pp. 127-135. 83a. Murphy, Robert Cushman. The oceanography of the Peruvian littoral with reference to the abundance and distribution of marine life. Geogr. Rev., January, 1923 (in press). Climate 84. Hann, Julius. Handbuch der Klimatologie, 3rd edit., 3 vols. Stuttgart, 1910. [Especially Vol. 2, pp. 360-379.] 85. Voss, Ernst Ludwig. Die Niederschlagsverhaltnisse von Siida- merika. Pelermanns Mitt. Erganzungsheft No. 157, 1907. 86. Annuario MeteorolSgico de Chile, 1905 onwards, Santiago. 87. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, Vol. 39, Parts I and II. Cambridge, Mass., 1899 and 1906. 88. Boletin del Obsetvatorio MeteorolSgico de La Paz, published from time to time with the Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz between March, 1898, and June, 1903, and between August, 1899, and June, 1903. 2i8 THE CENTRAL ANDES 89. Boeck, Eugen von. Klimatologie von Cochabamba in Bolivien. Mitt. K. K. Geogr. Gesell. in Wien, Vol. 29, 1886 (Vol. 19, N. S.). pp. 45S-46S. 90. Boletin del Observalorio Meteorologico, Sucre, from February 1915 to March 1918. [The observations are conducted and the bulletin published by the members of the Monastery of the Society of Jesus in Sucre.] 91. Hann, Julius. Eugen von Boeck iiber das Klima von Cochabamba. Meteorol. Zeitschr., Vol. 5, 1888, pp. 195-197. Hydrography 92. Agassiz, A., and Garman, S. W. Exploration of Lake Titicaca. Bull. Museum of Comp. Zool. at Harvard College, Vol. 3, 1871-76, PP. 273-286. 93. Agassiz, Alexander. Hydrographic sketch of Lake Titicaca. Proc. Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sci., Vol. 11, 1875-76, pp. 283- 292. Boston. 94. La Puent^b, Ignacio. Estudio mOnografico del Lago Titicaca, bajo su aspecto fisico e historico. Bol. Soc. Geogr. de Lima, Vol. 1, 1891-92, pp. 363-391. 95. Neveu-Lemaire, M. Les lacs des hauts plateaux de l'Amerique du Sud, Publication de la Mission de Crequi Montfort et Senechal de la Grange. Paris, 1906. 96. Sever, Jacques. Le Desaguadero (Bolivie). La Giographie, Vol. 36, 192 1, pp. 35-44- 97. Aguirre Acha, Jose. La desviacion del rio Mauri (controversia boliviano-chilena). La Paz, 1921. 98. Alayza y Paz-Soldan, Francisco. Informe sobre la provincia litoral de Moquegua y el departamento de Tacna. Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru No. 3, Lima, 1903. 99. Hurd, H. C. Estudio para aumentar las aguas del rio Chili. Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru No. 34, Lima, 1906. 100. Hurd, H. C. Informe sobre el aprovechamiento de aguas en el valle de Moquegua, Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peril No. 39, Lima, 1906. 101. Adams, George I. Caudal, procedencia y distribucion de aguas en los Departamentos de Arequipa, Moquegua y Tacna. Bol. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peril No. 45, Lima, 1906. Vegetation and Zoogeography 102. Reiche, Karl. Grundziige der Pfianzenverbreitung in Chile. Die Vegetation der Erde, Vol. 8, Leipzig, 1907. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 103. Weberbauer, August. Die Pflanzenwelt der peruanischen Anden. Die Vegetation der Erde, Vol. 12, Leipzig, 1911. [Both of these works contain extensive bibliographies.] 104. Murphy, Robert Cushman. The seacoast and islands of Peru. Brooklyn Museum Quart., Vol. 7. 1920, pp. 69-95, 165-187, and 239-272; Vol. 8, 1921, pp. 1-28, 35-55. 91-105, and 142-155; Vol. 9, 1922, pp. 44-70, 95-107, and 141-154- [These papers on the animal life of the coast are particularly valuable for the numerous graphic descriptions they contain, and on account of the con- stant allusion to geographical setting and ecology. In Vol. 7, p. 249, there will be found reference to useful papers by H. O. Forbes and R. E. Coker.] 105. Nichols, John Treadwell, and Murphy, Robert Cushman. On a collection of marine fishes from Peru. Bull. Amer. Museum of Nat. Hist., Vol. 46, 1922, pp. 501-516. 106. Chapman, Frank Michler. The distribution of bird-life in Colom- bia. Bull. Amer. Museum of Nat. Hist., Vol. 36, 1917. Also pub- lished separately. [This valuable study throws much light upon the similar conditions on the eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes.] 107. Menegaux, A. Estudio de una coleccion de aves proveniente de los altiplanos de Bolivia y del sud del Peru. Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz, Vol. 11, No. 39, pp. 1-50, 1913- [Translated with notes by B. Diaz Romero.] 108. Eigenmann, Carl H. The nature and origin of the fishes of the Pacific slope of Ecuador, Peru and Chili. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, Vol. 60, 1921, pp. 503-523- 109. Evermann, Barton Warren, and Radcliffe, Lewis. The fishes of the west coast of Peru and the Titicaca basin. U. S. Natl. Museum Bull. 95, Smithsonian Instn., Washington, D. C, 1917- Works Mainly Archeological, Historical, and Ethnological Dorsey, George A. A bibliography of the anthropology of Peru. Field Columbian Museum Publ. 23 (Anthropol. Ser., Vol. 2, No. 2), Chicago, 1898. Means, Philip A. An outline of the culture-sequence in the Andean area. Proc. 19th Internatl. Congr. of Americanists held at Washington, Dec. 27-31, 1915, PP- 236-252. Smithsonian Instn., Washington, D. C, 1917- [Contains a chronological table and sketch maps and a bibliography.] , Joyce, Thomas A. South American archaeology, London, 1912. 220 THE CENTRAL ANDES 113. Markham, Clements Robert. The Incas of Peru. London and New York, 1910. 114. Squier, E. George. Peru: Incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas. New York, 1877. 115. Nordenskiold, Erland. The Copper and Bronze Ages in South America. Goteborg, 1921. 116. Bandelier, Adolph F. The Islands of Titicaca and Koati. New York, 1910. [One of the most distinguished works of scholarship in the Hispanic-American field.] 117. Posnansky, Arthur. Eine praehistorische Metropole in Siid- amerika. Berlin, 1914. [An elaborate description of Tiahuanaco, text in German and Spanish.] 118. Posnansky, Arthur. Templos y viviendas prehispanicas. La Paz, 192 1. [Contains a bibliography of the author's previous works, 40 in number, mostly dealing with the prehistory of the Altiplano.] 119. Posnansky, Arthur. Los Chipayas de Carangas. Bol. Soc. Geogr. de La Paz, Vol. 16, 1918, No. 47, pp. 137-145. 120. Stubel, A., and Uhle, M. Die Ruinenstaette von Tiahuanaco im Hochlande des Alten Peru; eine kulturgeschichtliche Studie. Leipzig, 1892. 121. Ballivian, Manuel Vicente. Monumentos prehist6ricos de Tia- huanacu, Homenaje al XVII Congreso de los Amencanistas. La Paz, 1910. 122. Forbes, David. On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru. Journ. Ethnolog. Soc, Vol. 2, 1870, pp. 1-113. London. 123. Crequi Montfort, G. de, and Rivet, P. L'Origine des aborigines du Perou et de la Bolivie. Comptes Rendus de I'Acad. des Inscrip- tions et Belles-Lettres [de Paris], 1914, pp. 196-202. 124. Crequi Montfort, G. de. Linquistique bolivienne: La langue Uru ou Pukina, Internatl. Archiv. filr Elhnogr., Vol. 25, pp. 87-113, Leiden, 1921. [To be continued.] 125. Polo, Jose Toribio. Indios Urus del Peru y Bolivia. Bol. Soc, Geogr. de Lima, Vol. 10, 1900-01, pp. 445-482. 126. Chervin, Arthur. L'Anthropologie bolivienne. Extrait des Comptes Rendus de V Assoc. Francaise pour V Avancement des Set., Congres de Rheims, 1907. 127. Rouma, Georges. Les Indiens Quitchouas et Aymaras des hauts plateaux de la Bolivie. Brussels and La Paz, 1913. 128. Nordenskiold, Erland. The Guarani invasion of the Inca empire in the sixteenth century; An historical Indian migration. Geogr. Rev., Vol. 4, 1917, pp. 103-121. 129. Cieza de Leon, Pedro de. The travels of Pedro de Cieza de Leon, A. D. 1532-50, contained in the First Part of his Chronicles of Peru. Transl. and edit, with notes and an introduction by C. R. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 221 Markham. Hakluyt Soc. Pubis., Ser. 1, Vol. 33, London, 1864; Second Part, ibid., Ser. i, Vol. 68, London, 1883. 130 Prescott, William H. History of the conquest of Peru with a pre- liminary view of the civilization of the Incas. New York, 1847. 131. Acosta, Joseph de. The natural and moral history of the Indies, by Joseph de Acosta. Reprinted from the English translated edition of Edward Grimston, 1604, and edited by C. R. Mark- ham. Hakluyt Soc. Pubis., Ser. 1, Vols. 60 and 61. London, 1880. 132. Markham, Clements R. Pizarro and the conquest and settlement of Peru and Chili; in Vol. 2 of Justin Winsor's "Narrative and Critical History of America," pp. 505-578, Boston and New York, 1889. 133. Rene-Moreno, G. Bolivia y Peru: Noticias historicas y biblio- graficas. Santiago de Chile, 1905. 134. Bourne, Edward Gaylord. Spain in America, 1450-1580. (The American Nation: A History, Vol. 3.) New York and London, 1904. 135. Alcedo, Antonio de. Diccionario geografico-historico de las Indias occidentales 6 America. 5 vols., Madrid, 1786-89. 136. Relaciones geograficas de Indias: Peru. 4 vols. Madrid, 1881- 1897. 137. Ballivian Y Rokas, V. de. Archivo boliviano: Coleccion de documentos relativos a la historia de Bolivia durante la epoca colonial. Vol. 1 (the only one issued). Paris, 1872. [Contains a catalogue of printed and manuscript documents relating to Alto Peru on the colonial period.] 138. Urquidi, Jose Macedonio. Nuevo compendio de la historia de Bolivia. 3rd edit. La Paz, 192 1. 139. Markham, Clements R. The war between Peru and Chile, 1879- 1882. 4th edit. London, 1883. 140. Wambaugh, Sarah. A monograph on plebiscites, with a collection of official documents. Publ. of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. New York, 1920. [Contains a statement of the Tacna-Arica Question, pp. 156-165, and extracts from offi- cial correspondence, pp. 985-1050.] Agricultural and Social 141. Kaerger, Karl. Landwirtschaft und Kolonisation im Spanischen America. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1901. 142. Pfannenschmidt, E. Boliviens Land- und Volkswirtschaft. (Be- nch te liber Land- und Forstwirtschaft in Auslande Mitgeteilt vom Auswartigen Amte, No. 24.) Berlin, 1916. [Contains a bibliography.] 222 THE CENTRAL ANDES 143. McBride, George McCutchen. The agrarian Indian communi- ties of highland Bolivia. Amer. Geogr. Soc. Research Ser. No. 5. New York, 192 1. 144. Wrigley, Gladys M. The traveling doctors of the Andes; The Callahuayas of Bolivia. Geogr. Rev., Vol. 4, 1917, pp. 183-196. 145. Wrigley, Gladys M. Fairs of the Central Andes. Geogr. Rev., Vol. 7, 1919, pp. 65-80. 146. Ross, Edward Alsworth. South of Panama. New York, 1915. [Contains valuable observations upon social conditions in South America; Chapters 2 and 3 deal especially with Peru and Bolivia.] Official Statistics, Etc. 147. Censo general de la poblacion de la Republica de Bolivia segun el empadronamiento de i° de Septiembre de 1900. 2 vols. Oficina Nacional de Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica. La Paz, 1904. 148. Censo de la Republica de Chile levantado el 28 de Noviembre de 1907. Santiago de Chile, 1908. 149- Republica del Peru; Direccion General de Estadistica, Censo general, 1876. 150. La linea de frontera con la Republica de Bolivia. Republica de Chile. Oficina de Mensura de Tierras. Santiago de Chile, 1910. 151. Sisson, W. Lee. Informe del reconocimiento sobre el proyectado sistema de ferrocarriles bolivianos (transl. by J. E. Zalles). Edi- cion Oficial, La Paz, 1905. [Contains maps and profiles.] 152. Diccionario geografico de la Republica de Bolivia. Vol. i, De- partamento de La Paz, 1890; Vol. 2, Departamento de Cocha- bamba, 1901; Vol. 4, Departamento de Oruro, 1904. 153. Crespo, Luis S. Guia del viajero en Bolivia, Vol. 1. La Paz, 1908. The following official and societies' publications contain occasional data bearing upon one or other of the aspects discussed in the present work. BOLIVIA 154. Botelin de la Direccion (up to 1913 Oficina) Nacional de Estadistica y Estudios Geogr dficos. From 1901. 155. Sinopsis Estadistica y Geogr dfica de la Republica de Bolivia, 3 vols., 1903-04. 156. Annuario Nacional, Estadistico y Geogrdfico de Bolivia, 1917 and 1919. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 223 157. Revista del Ministerio de Colonization y Agricultura, Seccidn de Estadistica, 1905-07. 158. Anexos & las Memorias que presenta el Ministro de Colonization y Agricultura al Congreso. [Irregular.] 159. Ministerio de Gobierno y Fomento (after 1918 Fomento e Induslria) . Appendices a las memorias presentadas a la Legislatura. [Ir- regular.] 160. Informe del Director General de Obras PubUcas. [Annual reports.] CHILE 161. Memoria de la Inspection Jeneral de Colonization e Inmipraci6n. From 191 1. 162. Boletin de la Inspection de Geografia y Minas. Ministerio de In- dustria y Obras Publicas. From 1905. 163. Boletin del Ministerio de Relaciones Esterioras. From 1911. 164. Annuario Estadistico. Oficina Central de Estadistica. From 1909. 165. Memorie del Director. Oficina de Mensura de Tierras. Annually from 1908. 166. Revista de Agricultura. Sociedad Agronomica de Chile. From 1915. 167. Revista Chilena de Historia y Geografia. Sociedad Chilena de His- toria y Geografia. Santiago, from 191 1. 168. Boletin de la Sociedad National de Mineria, Santiago, from 1888. PERU 169. Boletin del Ministerio de Fomento. From 1903. 170. Statistical Abstract of Peru. Ministerio de Fomento, Bureau of Sta- tistics. 1919. 171. Boletin del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas y Aguas. 172. Boletin de la Sociedad Geogrdfica de Lima. ADDENDUM 109a. Rusby, Henry Hurd. Report of Work on the Mulford Biologi- cal Exploration of 1921-22. Journ. New York Bot. Garden. Vol. 22, pp. 101-112. APPENDIX D CONVERSION TABLES Table I Millimeters into Inches i mm.— o. 03937 inch. i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. 0.0000 0.0394 0.0787 0.1181 0.1575 0.1968 0.2362 0.2756 0.3150 0.3543 10 o.3937 0.4331 0.4724 0.5118 0.5512 0.5906 0.6299 0.6693 0.7087 0.7480 20 0.7874 0.8268 0.8661 0.9055 0.9449 0.9842 1.0236 1.0630 1. 1024 1 .1.41 7 30 1.1811 1.2205 1.2598 1.2992 1.3386 1.3780 i-4i73 I-4567 1. 496 1 1-5354 40 1-5748 1.6142 1-6535 1.6929 1-7323 1. 7716 1.8110 1.8504 1.8898 1.9291 50 1.9685 2.0079 2.0472 2.0866 2.1260 2.1654 2.2047 2.2441 2.2835 2.3228 60 2.3622 2.4016 2.4409 2.4803 2.5197 2.5590 2.5984 2.6378 2.6772 2.7165 70 2.7559 2-7953 2.8346 2.8740 2-9134 2.9528 2.9921 3-0315 3.0709 3.1102 80 3.1496 3-1890 3.2283 3.2677 3-3071 3-3464 3-3858 3-4252 3.4646 3.5039 90 3-5433 3-5828 3.6220 36614 3-7oo8 3.7402 3-7795 3-8189 3.8583 3.8976 Milli- meters Inches Milli- meters Inches Milli- meters Inches 100 3-9370 500 19.6850 800 31-496 200 7.8740 600 23.6220 900 35-4330 300 11.8110 700 27.559 1000 39.3700 400 15.7480 CONVERSION TABLES Table II Meters into Feet i meter — 39.3700 inches — 3.280833 feet. 225 M. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet 0.00 3-28 6.56 9.84 13-12 16.40 19.68 22.97 26.25 29-53 10 32.81 36.09 39-37 42.65 45-93 49-21 52.49 55-77 59-05 62.34 20 65.62 68.90 72.18 75-46 78.74 82.02 85-30 88.58 1.866 95.14 30 98.42 101.71 104.99 108.27 in-55 114-83 118. 11 121.39 124.67 127.95 40 131-23 134-Si 137-79 141.08 144.36 147.64 150.92 154-20 157.48 160.76 50 164.04 167.32 170.60 173-88 177.16 180.45 183.73 187.01 190.29 193-57 60 196.85 200.13 203.41 206.69 209.97 213-25 216.53 219.82 223.10 226.38 70 229.66 232.94 236.22 239-50 242.78 246.06 249.34 252.62 255-90 259-19 80 262.47 265.7S 269.03 272.31 275.59 278.87 282.15 285.43 288.71 291.99 90 295.27 298.56 301.84 305-12 308.40 311.68 314-96 318.24 321.52 324.80 Meters Feet Meters Feet Meters Feet 800 2624.7 100 328.08 900 2952.7 4000 13123.3 200 656.17 1000 3280.8 45oo 14763.7 300 984.25 1500 4921.2 5000 16404.2 400 1312.33 2000 6561.7 55oo 18044.6 500 1640.42 2500 8202.1 6000 19684.8 600 1968.50 3000 9842.5 6500 21325.2 700 2296.6 35oo 11482.9 7000 22965.6 226 THE CENTRAL ANDES Table III Kilometers into Miles i kilometer — 0.621370 mile Km. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mi. Mi. Mi. Mi. Mi. Mi. Mi. Mi. Mi. Mi. 0.0 0.6 1.2 1.9 2.5 3-i 3-7 4-3 5-0 5-6 10 6.2 6.8 7-5 8.1 8.7 9-3 9.9 10.6 11.2 11.8 20 12.4 13-0 13.7 14-3 14.9 15-5 16.2 16.8 17.4 18.0 30 18.6 19-3 19.9 20.5 21. 1 21.7 22.4 23.0 23.6 24.2 40 24.9 25-5 26.1 26.7 27-3 28.0 28.6 29.2 29.8 30.4 50 3i. 1 3i-7 32.3 32.9 33-6 34-2 34-8 35-4 36.0 36.7 60 37-3 37-9 38.5 39-1 39-8 40.4 41.0 41.6 42.3 42.9 70 43-5 44-i 44-7 45-4 46.0 46.6 47-2 47-8 48.5 49-1 80 49-7 50.3 51-0 51.6 52.2 52.8 53-4 54-i 54-7 55-3 90 55-9 56.5 57-2 57-8 58.4 59-o 59-7 60.3 60.9 61.5 Kilo- meters Miles Kilo- meters Miles Kilo- meters Miles 100 62.1 600 372.8 2000 1242.7 200 124.3 700 435-0 3000 1864.1 300 186.4 800 497-1 4000 2485-5 400 248.5 900 559-2 5000 3106.8 500 310.7 1000 621.4 CONVERSION TABLES 227 Table IV Square Kilometers into Square Miles 1 km. 51 — 0.3861 16 mile 2 a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 Mi. 2 0.000 0.386 0.772 1. 158 1-545 1. 93 1 2.317 2.703 3-089 3-475 10 3.861 4.247 4-633 5.020 5.406 5-792 6.178 6.564 6.950 7-336 20 7.722 8.108 8-495 8.881 9.267 9-653 10.039 10.425 10. 811 11. 197 30 11.584 11.970 12.356 12.742 13.128 I3.5I4 13-900 14.286 14.672 15-059 40 15-445 15-831 16.217 16.603 16.989 17-375 17.761 18.148 18.534 18.920 50 19-306 19.692 20.078 20.464 20.850 21.236 21.623 22.009 22.395 22.781 60 23-167 23.553 23-939 24.325 24.711 25.098 25.484 25.870 26.256 26.642 70 27.028 27.414 27.800 28.187 28.573 28.959 29-345 29-731 30.117 30.503 80 30.889 31-275 31.662 32.048 32.434 32.820 33-206 33.592 33-978 34.364 90 34-750 35-137 35-523 35-909 36.295 36.681 37.067 37-453 37-839 38.226 Km. 2 Mile 2 Km. 2 Mile 2 100 38.61 600 231.67 200 77.22 700 270.28 300 115.84 • 800 308.89 400 154-45 900 347-50 500 193-06 1000 386.10 Table V Hectares into Acres Hectares Acres Hectares Acres 1 2.471 6 14.826 2 4.942 7 17.297 3 7.413 8 19.768 4 9.884 9 22.239 5 12.355 10 24.710 228 THE CENTRAL ANDES Table VI Centigrade Scale to Fahrenheit Cg. .1 .2 •3 •4 •5 .6 • 7 .8 •9 ° °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. + + + + + + + + + + + 60 140.00 140.18 140.36 140.54 140.72 140.90 141.08 141.26 141.44 141.62 59 138.20 138.38 138.56 138.74 138.92 139-10 139.28 139-46 139.64 139-82 58 136.40 136.58 136.76 136.94 137.12 137.30 137.48 137-66 137.84 138.02 57 i34-6o 134-78 134-96 135.14 135.32 135-50 135.68 135-86 136.04 136.22 56 132.80 132.98 133-16 133-34 133.52 133-70 133.88 134-06 134.24 134-42 55 131.00 131-18 131-36 I3L54 131.72 13190 132.08 132.26 132.44 132.62 54 129.20 129.38 129.56 129.74 129.92 130.10 130.28 130.46 130.64 130.82 53 127.40 127.58 127.76 127.94 128.12 128.30 128.48 128.66 128.84 129.02 52 125.60 125.78 125.96 126.14 126.32 126.50 126.68 126.86 127.04 127.22 5i 123.80 123.98 124.16 124.34 124.52 124.70 124.88 125.06 125.24 125.42 + + + + + + + + + + + 50 122.00 122.18 122.36 122.54 122.72 122.90 123.08 123.26 123.44 123.62 49 120.20 120.38 120.56 120.74 120.92 121. 10 121.28 121.46 121.64 121.82 48 118.40 118.58 118.76 118.94 119.12 119-30 119.48 119.66 119.84 120.02 47 116.60 116.78 116.96 117.14 117.32 117.50 117.68 117.86 118.04 118.22 46 114.80 114.98 115. 16 "5-34 115-52 115.70 115.88 116.06 116.24 116.42 45 113.00 113-18 113.36 "3-54 113.72 113-90 114.08 114.26 114.44 114.62 44 in. 20 111.38 in. 56 111.74 111.92 112. 10 112.28 112.46 112.64 112.82 43 109.40 109.58 109.76 109.94 no. 12 110.30 110.48 110.66 110.84 in. 02 42 107.60 107.78 107.96 108.14 108.32 108.50 108.68 108.86 109.04 109.22 4i 105.80 105.98 106.16 106.34 106.52 106.70 106.88 107.06 107.24 107.42 + + + + + + + + + + + 40 104.00 104.18 104.36 104.54 104.72 104.90 105.08 105.26 105.44 105.62 39 102.20 102.38 102.56 102.74 102.92 103.10 103.28 103.46 103.64 103.82 38 100.40 100.58 100.76 100.94 101.12 101.30 101.48 101.66 101.84 102.02 37 98.60 98.78 98.96 99.14 99.32 99-50 99.68 99.86 100.04 100.22 36 96.80 96.98 97.16 97-34 97.52 97.70 97-88 98.06 98.24 98.42 35 95.00 95-18 95.36 95-54 95.72 95-90 96.08 96.26 96.44 96.62 34 93-20 93-38 93.56 93-74 93 92 94.10 94.28 94.46 94.64 94.82 33 91.40 91.58 91.76 91.94 92.12 92.30 92.48 92.66 92.84 93-02 32 89.60 89.78 89.96 90.14 90.32 90.50 90.68 90.86 91.04 91.22 3i 87.80 87.98 88.16 88.34 88.52 88.70 88.88 89.06 89.24 89.42 CONVERSION TABLES 229 Table VI (Continued) Centigrade Scale to Fahrenheit Cg. .1 .2 •3 •4 • 5 .6 •7 .8 •9 • °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. + + + + + + + + + + + 30 86.00 86.18 86.36 86.54 86.72 86.90 87.08 87.26 87.44 87.62 29 84.20 84.38 84.56 84.74 84.92 85.10 85.28 85.46 85.64 85.82 28 82.40 82.58 82.76 82.94 83.12 8330 83.48 83.66 83.84 84.02 27 80.60 80.78 80.96 81.14 81.32 81.50 81.68 81.86 82.04 82.22 26 78.80 78.98 79.16 79-34 79-52 79.70 79.88 80.06 80.24 80.42 25 77.00 77.18 77-36 77-54 77.72 77.90 78.08 78.26 78.44 78.62 24 75-20 75-38 75.56 75-74 75.92 76.10 76.28 76.46 76.64 76.82 23 73-40 73.58 73.76 73-94 74.12 74-30 74-48 74.66 74.84 75.02 22 71.60 71.78 71.96 72.14 72.32 72.50 72.68 72.86 73-04 73.22 21 69.80 69.98 70.16 70.34 70.52 70.70 70.88 71.06 71.24 71.42 + + + + + + + + + + + 20 68.00 68.18 68.36 68.54 68.72 68.90 69.08 69.26 69.44 69.62 19 66.20 66.38 66.56 66.74 66.92 67.10 67.28 67.46 67.64 67.82 18 64.40 64.58 64.76 64.94 64.12 65-30 65.48 65.66 65.84 66.02 17 62.60 62.78 62.96 63.14 63.32 63-50 63.68 63.86 64.04 64.22 16 60.80 60.98 61.16 61.34 61.52 61.70 61.88 62.06 62.24 62.42 15 59-00 59.18 59.36 59-54 59-72 59-90 60.08 60.26 60.44 60.62 14 57-20 57.38 57.56 57-74 57-92 58.10 58.28 58.46 58.64 58.82 13 55-40 55.58 55.76 55-94 56.12 56.30 56.48 56.66 56.84 57-02 12 53-6o 53-78 53-96 54-14 54-32 54-50 54-68 54-86 55.04 55-22 II 51.80 51.98 52.16 52.34 S2.52 52.70 52.88 53-06 53.24 53.42 + + + + + + + + + + + 10 50.00 50.18 50.36 50.54 50.72 50.90 51.08 51.26 51-44 51.62 9 48.20 48.38 48.56 48.74 48.92 49-IO 49.28 49.46 49.64 49.82 8 46.40 46.58 46.76 46.94 47-12 47.30 47.48 47-66 47.84 48.02 7 44.60 44.78 44.96 45.14 45-32 45-50 45-68 45-86 46.04 46.22 6 42.80 42.98 43.i6 43-34 43-52 43.70 43-88 44.06 44.24 44.42 5 41.00 41.18 41.36 41.54 41.72 41.90 42.08 42.26 42.44 42.62 4 39-20 39.38 39.56 39-74 39.92 40.10 40.28 40.46 40.64 40.82 3 37.40 37.58 37.76 37-94 38.12 38.30 38.48 38.66 38.84 39-02 2 35-60 35.78 35.96 36.14 36.32 36.50 36.68 36.86 37-04 37-22 1 33.80 33-98 34.16 34-34 34.52 34.70 34-88 35-06 35.24 35.42 + + + + + + + + + + + 32.00 32.18 32-36 32-54 32.72 32.90 33.08 33-26 33-44 33-62 230 THE CENTRAL ANDES Table VI (Continued) Centigrade Scale to Fahrenheit Cg. .1 .2 •3 -4 • 5 .6 • 7 .8 •9 o ° F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. - + + + + + + + + + + 32.00 31.82 31.64 31.46 31-28 31-10 30.92 30.74 30.56 30.38 i 30.20 30.02 29.84 29.66 29.48 29.30 29.12 28.94 28.76 28.58 2 28.40 28.22 28.04 27.86 27.68 27.50 27.32 27.14 26.96 26.78 3 26.60 26.42 26.24 26.06 25.88 25.70 25-52 25-34 25.16 24.98 4 24.80 24.62 24.44 24.26 24.08 23.90 23.72 23-54 23.36 23.18 5 23.00 22.82 22.64 22.46 22.28 22.10 21.92 21-74 21.56 21.38 6 21.20 21.02 20.84 20.66 20.48 20.30 20.12 19-94 19.76 19.58 7 19.40 19.22 19.04 18.86 18.68 18.50 18.32 18.14 17.96 17.78 8 17.60 17.42 17.24 17.06 16.88 16.70 16.52 16.34 16.16 15.98 9 i5-8o 15-62 15-44 15-26 15.08 14.90 14.72 14-54 14.36 14.18 - + + + + + + + + + + 10 14.00 13-82 13.64 13.46 13-28 13-10 12.92 12.74 12.56 12.38 ii 12.20 12.02 11.84 11.66 11.48 11.30 11. 12 10.94 10.76 10.58 12 10.40 10.22 10.04 9.86 9.68 9-50 9-32 9.14 8.96 8.78 13 8.60 8.42 8.24 8.06 7.88 7.70 7.52 7-34 7.16 6.98 14 6.80 6.62 6.44 6.26 6.08 5-90 5-72 5-54 5-36 5.18 - + + + + + + + + + + 15 5.00 4.82 4.64 4.46 4.28 4.10 3-92 3-74 3.56 3-38 + + + + + + + + + + 16 3-20 3-02 2.84 2.66 2.48 2.30 2.12 1.94 1.76 1.58 + + + + + + + + - - 17 1.40 1.22 1.04 0.86 0.68 0.50 0.32 0.14 0.04 0.22 18 0.40 O.S8 0.76 0.94 1. 12 1.30 1.48 1.66 1.84 2.02 19 2.20 2.38 2.56 2.74 2.92 3-io 3-28 3-46 3.64 3.82 20 4.00 4.18 4-36 4-54 4.72 4.90 5.08 5-26 5-44 5.62 21 5.80 5-98 6.16 6.34 6.52 6.70 6.88 7.06 7.24 7.42 22 7.60 7-78 7.96 8.14 8.32 8.50 8.68 8.86 9.04 9.22 23 9.40 9-58 9.76 9.94 10.12 10.30 10.48 10.66 10.84 11.02 24 11.20 11.38 11.56 11.74 11.92 12.10 12.28 12.46 12.64 12.82 25 13-00 13-18 13.36 13-54 13-72 13.96 14.08 14.26 14-44 14.62 26 14.80 14.98 15-16 15-34 15-52 15.70 15.88 16.06 16.24 16.42 27 16.60 16.78 16.96 17.14 17.32 17.50 17.68 17.86 18.04 18.22 28 18.40 18.58 18.76 18.94 19.12 19.30 19.48 19.66 19.84 20.02 29 20.20 20.38 20.56 20.74 20.92 21.10 21.28 21.46 21.64 21.82 30 22.00 22.18 22.36 22.54 22.72 22.90 23.08 23.26 23-44 23.62 INDEX INDEX Acha, J. A., 105 Adobe, 152, 153 Agriculture, Pacific coast, 172; social basis, 157; Yungas Indians, 170 Aguardiente, 151, 162 Aji, 150, 174 Alcaldes, 200 Alcatraz, 127 Alcohol, 150, 162, 172, 17s Alfalfa, 161, 167 Alpacas, 24, 128, 160 Altiplano, 3, 4, 6, 14; description, 22; drainage, 96; hydrography, 98; isolated hills, 35; looking across near Nazacara (ill.), opp. 23; mineraliza- tion, 15; mining in western part, 57; part, with Cordillera Real and La Paz valley (block diagr.), 26; precipitation, 91; soil, 108; surface and underlying rocks, 38; typical finca, 159; winds, 79 Altitude, 13; life at high altitudes, 128, 155; of mines, 59; population and, 145; zones, 69 Alto Peru, 194 Amazon River, 25 American Geographical Society, His- panic American program, ix, x American Museum of Natural History, viii, 124 Ananta, 41 Ancestor worship, 200 Anchovetas, 126 Ancomarca, 194 Ancon, treaty of, 204, 206 Andenes, 163, opp. 163 (ill.) Andes, change of trend, 31; earlier form, 35; north and south of La Paz, con- trast, 31; recent uplift, extent and effect, 36; Tertiary conditions, 33, 35 Angostura gorge, 41 Animal life, 122; Atlantic slope, 132; belts of distribution, 123; coast, 124; desert pampa, ii7; reproduction, climatic control, 134; Western Cordillera and Puna, 128 Anthony, H. E., viii Antofagasta, 183, 184 Araca, 59 Arequipa, 18; agriculture near, 166-167, opp. 167 (ill.); borax, 56; buildings, 152; daily temperature variations, 73 (graph), 74; earthquake, 48; importance, 188; monthly tempera- ture variations, 70 (graph), 71, 72; precipitation, 90, 92 (graph), 93 (graph); railway, 182; traffic, 180; winds, 77 (with diagr.) Arica, 60, 177, 178, 182, 209; coast near, 19; daily temperature variations, 73 (graph), 74; earthquakes, 48; im- portance, 19, 190; monthly tem- perature variations, 70 (graph), 71; port and railway, 66, 184; tectonic feature from, 32; wind roses, 75. 76 (diagr.). See also Tacna-Arica prob- lem Arica-La Paz railway, 107, 183, 184, 208 Aridity, 15 Arriero, 165 Ascotan, 56 Atacama, 101, 203 Atacama Trench, 61 Audiencias, 194, 196 Avicaya, 59 Ayllu, 199 Aymara Indians, 17, 30, 136, 138; fishermen on the shore of Lake Titicaca (ill.), opp. 165; procession at a. fiesta in La Paz (ill.), opp. 162 Ayopaya River, 31 Ballivian, Lake, 44, 45 (diagr.) Balsas, 165, opp. 165 (ill.) Barley, 151, 161 Bathymetric lines, 8 Beagle (ship), 2, 64 Beans, 24, 118, 150 Bears, spectacled, 123, 130, 134 Beni River, 4, 185, 186 Bibliography, 211 Billinghurst-Latorre Convention, 208 Birds, Atlantic slope, 132; Chapman, F. M., on, 126; desert pampa, 127; guano-producing, 124; Puna, 130 Bismuth, 49, 58 Bolivia, lack of coast line and seaports, 204, 209; population, 142; vital sta- tistics, 156 234 THE CENTRAL ANDES Bolivian census, 140, 141 Boobies, 126 Borax, 15, 49, 56 Boundaries, political, 193; changes (map), 195 Bowman, Isaiah, vi, viii; Introduction, ix; on Lakes Ballivian and Minchin, 44, 45 (diagr.); physiography, 33; uplift of Andes, 36; Western Cor- dillera slopes, 34 Bronze, 51, 52 Buildings, 152 Cabezera de Valle, 69 Cables, 61 Caca Aca, 187 Cacti, 114, us, 150; La Paz valley (ill.), opp. 119 Caleta, 147 Caleta Buena, 66, 181; importance, 19 Caleta Chica, 66 Caleta Junin, 66, 181 Caliche, 55 Callahuayas, 158 Callas, soundings near, 61 Camanchaca, 112 Caminos de herradura, 181 Canal, Mauri River to Palcota valley, 104 Canchones, 106, 174, 175 Cano River, 198, 209 Carabaya, 51 Carabuco, 52 Caracoles, 59 Carnaval, 162 Cascarilleros, 172 Cattle, 151. 164, 171, 173 Cavies, 129, 139 Ceja de la Montana, 119, 120, opp. 120 (ill.) Census returns, 141 Cere us, 114 Cerro Verde, 56 Chachani, 188 Challapata, 192 ChaHar trees, 20, 112, 113 Chancaca, 175 Chapman, F. M., viii; on bird life in Colombia, 132; on birds of the coast, 126 Charcas, 194. 196 Charcoal, 51, 56, 59 Charqui, 151 Chasquis, 150 Cherimoya, 167 Chicha, 150 Chile, longitudinal railway, 181; nitrates, 49; population, 142; war with Bolivia and Peru, 203 Chile-Bolivia Boundary Commission, 3 Chile saltpeter. See Nitrates Chilean census, 141 Chili pepper, 150, 174 Chili River, 78, 90, 96, 106, 188; des- cription, 101; flow at Arequipa (graph), 102 Chili valley, farms (ill.), opp. 167 Chilicolpa, 57 Chinchillas, 128, 129 Chipayas, 137, 152-153; swine-raising, 164 Cholos, 140 Chulumani, 185 Churio, 150, 161, 191 Chuquiaguillo River, 51, 58, 185, 187 Chuquiapo, 51 Cinchonas, 121, 169, 171 Cities, 186 Clan, 199, 200 Clay-eating, 151 Climate, 13, 16, 28, 67 Clothing, 153 Clouds, 88; precipitation and cloud con- ditions (map) , 67 ; types and rainfall belts on eastern border of Andes (diagrs.), 87 Coach roads, 181 Coast, faunal studies, 124; features, 18; precipitation, 89, 90 (diagrs.); towns, 147; valley oases, 172; winds, 75 Coast line, survey, 2 Coast Range, wet and dry seasons (diagrs.), 90 Coastal desert, 108 Coastal escarpment, 18 Coastal hills, 17. See also Lomas Coca, 30, 121, 162; cultivation, 169, 170 Cocaines, 169 Cocal, 170 Cochabamba, 18, 27, 146; agriculture in the basin, 166-167; basin, 32, 35; monthly temperature variations, 70 (graph), 71, 72; precipitation, 88, 92 (graph); railway to Oruro, 183, 185; situation, 2, 189; soil, 108; water supply, 98; winds, 82, 83 (diagr.), 84 Coffee, 30, culture, 169, 171 Coipasa, salar of, 23, 32, 44, 100 Coker, R. E., 124 Collas, 136, 138, 139, 199, 200. See also Aymara Indians INDEX 235 Collasuyo, 138 Colonos, 159; farming in La Paz valley (ill.), opp. 160 Colonization, Incas, 139, 140 Color, 21, 118, 128 Colquechaca, 28, 59 Colquiri, 59 Comanchi, Cerro de, 35 Community Indians, 157, 164; annual round of life on the Altiplano, 164 Compass traverses, 3 Compilations, 4 Condors, 123, 125, 131, 193 Coniri, 34 Conquistador es, 18, 50, 14s Contours, approximate, 5; treatment, 6 Conversion tables, 224 Conway, Sir W. M., 3, 4 Copacabana, 24, 202; fair, 192 Copaos, 114 Copiapo River, 196 Copper, 49; Altiplano, 15, 57; Corocoro mines, 182; occurrence, 51 Cordillera Real, 3. 4, 7, 14; looking toward, from the Yungas (with ill.), 168; part, with Altiplano and La Paz valley (block diagr.), 26; structure and relief, 15; water resources, 97 Cormorants, 126, 127 Corocoro, 24, 105, 176; copper mines, 182; fault, 34; native copper, 57 Coroico, 168 (with ill.), 170, 185 Coroico River, upper basin, with plan- tations, and the town (ill.), 168 Corry, T. A., 2, 5 Cosecha de la muerie, 80 Costumes of plateau Indians, 154 Cotton, 153, 174 Creoles, 149 Crequi-Montfort expedition, 4 Crustal weakness, 32 Culli, 117 Cuzco, 139, 140, 150, 177, 188, 193, 202, Deer, 133 Denudation, 13 Desaguadero (ill.), opp. 24 Desaguadero River, 4, 23, 105; descrip- tion, 99; near Nazacara (ill.), opp. 23; source (ill.), opp. 24; "strike" character, 46 Desert, 19; fauna, 127; piedmont, 19; road, 180; vegetation, 112 Desert bird, 127 Dew, in Diseases, 155 Distichlis grass, 112 Dogs, wild, 127, 130 Dolores, 106 Donkeys, 24 Doors, 153 Douglas, J. A., 33 Drainage, 45, 95 Drake, Sir Francis, 190 Drunkenness, 150, 162 Dunes, 47, 80 Dust, 80 Dwellings, Indian, 152; Indian, in high country west of Lake Titicaca (ill.), opp. 153; Uru house and woman (ill.), opp. 152 Dyes, 154 Earthquakes, 48, 147 Eastern Cordillera, approximations, 5; divisions, 27; faunal barrier, 123; minerals, 15; mining, 58; pasture (ill.), opp. 153; precipitation, 88; vegetation, 118; winds, 79 El Misti, 21, 48, opp. 165 (ill.), 188 Encomiendas, 145 Environment and population, 136 Epidemics, 156 Equatorial rains, 16 Erosion, 14, 34, 37, 47, 107 Eucalyptus, 118, 159 "Eyebrow" of the forest, 119, 120, opp. 120 (ill.) Fairs, annual, 191 Farms, Altiplano, 159; Chili valley (ill.), opp. 167; peon laborers, La Paz valley (ill.), opp. 160; typical farm near Luribay, 166-167 Faults, 34, 35 Fauna, 122. See also Animal life Fawcett, P. H., 2 Festivals, 162, 201; procession of Aymara. Indians in La Paz (ill.), opp. 162 Fiebre amarilla, 155 Fincas, 159, 163 Fish, as food, 150; marine, 125; plateau, 131 Fishing in Lake Titicaca, 165 Flamingos, 123, 130 Floods, 105, 106 Flora, 109 Fog, 89, 112 Food, 149 Forbes, David, 33; geological map, 32 Forbes, H. O., 124 236 THE CENTRAL ANDES Forests, 17; bird life, 132; "eyebrow" of the forest, 119, 120, opp. 120 (ill.); mammals, 133; tropical rain forest, 30 Fossils, 39. 44. 45 Foster, C. W., 80 French commission survey, 3 Frogs, 132 Frontiers, 193 Fruits, 30, 113. 114. 151. 167, 172 GarAa, 108, in Geological structure, 31 Geologists' investigations, 32 Geology, extent of knowledge, 32 ; utili- zation in mapping, s Glaciation, 37 Glaciers, 37, 96, 97 Goitre, 155 Gold, 28, 49, 58; Eastern Cordillera, is; occurrence, 51 Grande River, 28, 46 Grass steppe, 117, 119 Grassiere, R. de la, 137 Grebes, 130 Gregory, H. E., on La Paz beds, 40; on Titicaca basin, 34 Guanay, 127 Guano, 124, 203 Guano-producing birds, 124 Guayras, 51 Guemal, 133 Guillaves, 114 Guinea pigs, 130, 130 Haba beans, 24, 118 Harvard University, Astronomical Ob- servatory, 77. 78, 79. 188 Hats, 154 Hauthal, Rudolf, on La Paz beds, 40, 41 Health, 155 Highlands, climate, 16; population, 17 Hispanic-American research plan, ix Hot springs, 33. 34. 48 Household implements, 153 Houses. See Dwellings Huaca, 202 Huanaco, 128 Huanuni, 28, 59 Huaqui, port (ill.), opp. 182; winds, 80 Huari, 192 Huata, 24 Humboldt Current, 62, 89 Huot, Victor, 4 Hurricanes, 91 Hydrographic data, 2 lea, 177 Ichu, opp. 23 (ill.), opp. 114 (ill.), 116; pasture land in Eastern Cordillera (ill.), opp. 153; Puna Brava zone (ill.), opp. 116 Ilacatas, 200 Illimani, 82, 187; from the Yungas (ill.), opp. 120 Ilo, 66, 181 Inca empire, 138, 139. 193; local Indian government and, 200; movement of the people, 177 Indian names, 8 Indians, community Indians, 157; cul- ture, 17; diet, 150; habitations and occupations on Western Cordillera, 22; mine workers, 176; mining and metal-working, 50, 51; mixture with Spaniards, 148; plateau, costume, 154; plateau, social and religious organization, 199; religion, 191; Spanish control, 146; Yungas, occu- pations, 170. See also Community Indians Inquisivi, 51, 146 International Map Committee, 6 Intip Raymi, 201 Inundations, 91 Iodine, 55. 155 Iquique, 75 Iron, 153 Irrigation, 163, 166, 167; projects, 103 Island of the Sun, 202 Isluga, 57 Junin. See Caleta Junin Kings, 200 Krtimmel Deep, 62 Labor, forced, 139, 175 Lacahahuira River, 100 La Joya, daily temperature variations, 73 (graph), 74; monthly tempera- ture variations, 70 (graph), 72; Lakes, 97; development, 42 Land, absorption by whites and mes- tizos, 157; utilization, 159, opp. 174 (map) Land forms, 31 Landowners, 158 Landscape, 21. See also Scenery La Paz, daily temperature variations, 73 (graph), 74; from the southwest (ill.), 187; monthly temperature variations, 70 (graph), 71. 72; preci- INDEX 237 La Paz (continued) pitation, 88, 93 (graph); railway routes to the sea, 183, 184; situation, 25, 186; traffic, 180; water supply, 98; winds, 81 (diagr.), 82 La Paz, Alto of, 25, 38 La Paz area, compilation of sheet, ix, 1; geological structure, 14; maps used in constructing sheet, list, 8; natural regions, 18; physical history, 13 La Paz River, 4, 25, 38, 39. 187; gorge, 28, 41, 45 La Paz valley, cactus vegetation (ill.), opp. 119; part (block diagr.), 26; sedimentary deposits, 40 Lard, 164 Lauca River, 164 Lava flows, 19. 20 Lima, 177, 194. 204 Linguistic researches, 136 Llallagua, 59, 176 Llamas, 22, 24, 128; as beasts of burden, 156; domestication and wool, 154 Lobos, 126 Lomas, 17. 18, 108, 173; tiempo de lomas, 91 ; vegetation, 1 10 Luribay, farm near, 166-167 Luribay River, 38, 39 McBride, G. M., vi, viii; on the social and religious organization of the plateau Indians, 199 Madeira River, 25 Maize, 150, 151, 167 Malaria, 155 Maps, index map of natural regions, 29; list used in constructing the La Paz sheet, 8; previous compilations, 4 Mdquina, 55 Marbut, C. F., vii Marine life, 122, 125 Maritime Cordillera, 14. See also West- ern Cordillera Masonry, 152, 202 Mauri River, 23, 46; diversion project, 104 Mayordomo, 159 Meat, 150, 151 MSdanos, 47 Medio Valle, 69; agriculture and life, 166 Megalithic structures, 25, 138, 193 Mercury, 53 Mesquite, 175 Mestizos, 140, 148, 149 Meteorological records, 67, 68 Milk, 150 Miller and Singewald, on minerals, 49; on nitrates, 54 Milluni, 59 Minchin, J. B., 1; sketch map of an ancient lake, 42, 43 (map A); tra- verse, 3 Minchin, Lake, 43 (map B), 44, 45 (diagr.) Mineralization, 13 Minerals, 49; geology and, 33; occur- rence, 50 Miners, 176 Mines, 49; altitude, 59 Mining, 24, 175; Eastern Cordillera, 28, 58; western Altiplano, 57; Wes- tern Cordillera, 56 Miraflores, 188 Misti, El, 21, 48, opp. 165 (ill.), 188 Mita, 52, 139, 175 Mollendo, 180, 182; port and railway, 184; winds, 75 Montana forest, 119, 121 Moquegua, 20. 103, 181 Morococala, 59 Mountain sickness, 15s, 156 Mulatos, 149 Murphy, R. C, viii; 124; on anchovetas, 126 Names, selection, 7 Natural regions, vii, 18; map — index to international map, 29 Natural vegetation, 109; distribution (map), no. See also Vegetation Negroes, 149, 173 Nitrates, 19, 20, 49, 203; extraction, 55; origin of fields, 53; ports 66; work- ers, 174 Nitrogen fixation, 53, 54 Oases, 112, 172, 173 Obrajes, cactus vegetation (ill.), opp. 119 Oca, 115, 118, 150, 161 Ocean, 61 Oil, 50, 59 Olives, 173 Opuntia, 114, 115 Orbigny, Alcide d', 6; geological map, 32 Oruro, 24, 59; hills, 35. 5L S3", monthly temperature variations, 70 (graph), 71, 72; precipitation, 92 (graph); situation, 189; water supply, 98; winds, 80 238 THE CENTRAL ANDES Oruro-Cochabamba railway, 183, 185 Otters, 127 Pachacmama, 201 Pacific Ocean, 61; currents, 62; marine life, 65; navigation, 65; soundings, 61; surface temperature, 63 Pacific slope, desert vegetation, 112; hydrography, 100 Pack roads, 181 Padua, 133 Palcota valley, 104 Pampa, 19 Pampa de Salinas, 3 ; borax, 56 Pampa del Tamarugal, cultivation, 175; name, 112; water conditions, 105 Parinacota, 131 Pasto de miel, 113 Patrdn, 160 Payachata, 32 Peasant life, 159 Peasant proprietors, 166 Peneplane, 14, 27, 34 Pentland, J. B., 1 Peonage, 157 Peons, IS9 Peru, population, 142; Viceroyalty, 177, 194, 196 Peru Current, 62, 89 Peruvian census, 141 Peruvian Corporation, 182 Peste, 155 Pichu Pichu, 188 Piedmont, desert nature, 19; end of a river on (ill.), opp. 101 Pilcomayo River, 28, 46 Piquero, 127 Pisagua, 181; earthquake, 48; from the roadstead (ill.), opp. 18; importance, 19; port, 66; water supply, 106 Place names, 7 Plebiscite, 20s Pleistocene glaciation, 36 Podsol, 107 Political organization, 193 Polo, J. T., 137 Pompeckj, J. P., on Puna beds, 40 Poncho, 154 Pongo, 160 Poopo, Lake, 23, 32, 91; description, 100; development, 44; reed beds, 117; shore lines, 4 Population, 18; agglomerations, 143; distribution, 141, opp. 146 (map); distribution — comparisons with oth- er countries, 144; environment and. Population (continued) 136; life in the various zones, 157; mode of life, 149; modifications of arrangement in the past, 14s; move- ment, 176; Spanish Conquest and, 145 Porco, Si. 53 Ports, 19, 66, 147, 177, 184 Potatoes, 22, 24, us, 118, 150, 161 Potosi, S3. 59, 179 Powder, blasting, 56, 57 Precipitation, 86; Altiplano, 91; Are- quipa, 90, 92 (graph); cloud condi- tions and (map) , 67 ; cloud types and rainfall belts on eastern border of Andes (diagrs.), 87; Eastern Cor- dillera, 88; monthly, for five sta- tions (graphs), 92-93; Western Cordillera and coast, 89, 90 (diagrs.) Prehistoric empire, 193 Pressure, 74 Property, 199 Pueblo Nuevo, El, 186, 188 Puna, 17; bird life, 130; fauna, 128; vegetation, 115 Puna beds, 39, 41-42 Puna Brava, 69, n6;ichu (ill.), opp. 116 Puno, daily temperature variations, 73 (graph), 74; railway to, 182; winds, 79 (with diagr.), 80 Puquina language, 137 Quenua trees, 116 Quichua Indians, 17, 136, 138, 140 Quilca, 177, 180, 188 Quime, 146 Quimsa Cruz, 4 Quimsachata, Cerro de, opp. 24 (ill.), opp. 182 (ill.) Quinine, 121, 169 Quinoa, 22, 24, 115, 118, 150, 162 Races, 136, 148 Railways, 4, 178 (map), 179, 181 Raimondi's map, 5, 6 Rainfall. See Precipitation Red pepper, 150, 174 Reeds, 117, 130 Religion of the plateau Indians, 199 Repartimienlos, 52, 175 Rivers, 46; as frontiers, 198; diversion schemes, 103; end of a river on the piedmont (ill.), opp. 101; Maritime Cordillera, 96; nature, 95; Pacific slope, 101; regularizing flow, 103 Roads, 176, 179, 180. See also Routes INDEX 239 Rocha River, 98, 189 Rodents, 129, 134 Rogers, A. P., traverse, 3 Roofs, 152, 153 Routes, traffic, 176, 178 (maps) Rubber, 172 Ruins, 25; Tiahuanaco, 138, 152 Rurrenabaque, 185 St. John's Day, 201 Sajama, 21, 32 Salars, 20, 23, 44, 48 Salt, is, 47. SO, 151, 165 Saltpeter, 56. See also Nitrates Sama River, 198, 209 Sapahaqui River, 38, 39 Sardinas, 125 Scenery, Cordillera Real, 25; La Paz, 187-188; Titicaca, 24 Seccador, 171 Sefve, Ivar, on Puna beds, 40, 41 Serfdom, 146, 147 Shade and sunshine, 72 Sheep, 24, 154, 160 Shelter, 151. See also Dwellings Silver, 49, 58, 175; occurrence, 51; Oruro, 190; shipment, 148; Spanish production, 58 Singewald. See Miller and Singewald Snipe, 131 Snow line, 37, 96, 109 Social system 157; plateau Indians, 199 Sodium nitrate. See Nitrates Soils, 107 Soroche, 155, 156 Spaniards, descendants, 140; lomas vegetation and, in; mining, 52, 145; mixture with Indians, 148; population redistribution, 145 Spanish towns, 146 Spectacled bears, 123, 130, 134 Spellings, 7 Spirits, 200 Steinmann, Hoek, and von Bistram traverse, 4 Steppes, grass, 117, 119 Stiles, A., 4 Stone, building, 152, 153 Streams. See Rivers Strike valleys, 46 Submarine cables, 61 Subsequent valleys, 46 Succulent vegetation, 113 Sucre, 186, 187; precipitation, 92 (graph) ; winds, 84, 85 (diagr.) Sugar, 17s Sugar cane, 30, 173, 174 Sulphur, is, so, S7 Sun, Island of the, 202 Sun worship, 200, 201 Sundt, Lorenzo, on Puna beds, 40 Sunshine and shade, 72 Surveys, 3 Sweets, 150 Swine, 164 Syphilis, 155 Taapaca, 20, 48 Tacna, 20, 182; water supply, 104, 106 Tacna-Arica problem, 203 Tacora, 20, 21,48, 57 Tamarugal. See Pampa del Tamarugal Tambo, Pampa of, 19 Tambo River, 101, 103, 105; valley, sugar cane, 173, 174 Taquia, 51, 59, 160, 161, 165 Tarapaca, 176, 197, 204 Tarata, 208, 209 Tayra, 134 Temperature, 15, 16, 69; daily varia- tions at six stations (graphs), 73; monthly variations at seven stations (graphs), 70; ocean surface, 63 Terraces, abandoned artificial, 163, opp. 163 (ill.) Terral, 75 Tertiary conditions, 33, 35 Thermal equator, 15, 16 Tiahuanaco, 136, 14s; importance, pre- historic, 177; ruins, 138, 152 "Tidal" waves, 147 Tides, 66 Tiempo de lomas, 91 Tin, 28, 49, 58, 17s; smelting, 60 Tiquina, Strait of, 34 Titicaca, Isla de, 202 Titicaca, Lake, 3, 23; air circulation, 79; as boundary, 194; basin, 34; descrip- tion, 98; development, 44; fish, 150; fishing, 165, opp. 165 (ill.); Inca civilization, 25; outlet (ill.), opp. 24; port of Huaqui and (ill.), opp. 182; reed beds, 117; shore lines, 4; steam- er service, 182 Tola, 22, 24, 114, opp. 114 (ill.) Totoral, 59 Towns, Spanish ports, 147; twin towns, 147 Trade winds, 16, 65, 75, 82 Traffic routes, 176, 178 (maps) Trails, 181 Transport, 156 240 THE CENTRAL ANDES Traverses, 3 Tree line, 17. "9 Tree planting, 118 Tribute, 139, 146, 199 Tunari, Cordillera de, 98, 189 Tungsten, 49, 58 Tupus, 51 Ubinas, 48 Ulexite, 56 Ulloma, 39, 40, 41 Uncia, 28, 59 Uru Indians, 136, 190; woman grinding (ill.), opp. 152 Uyuni, 23, 32 Valle, 69. 166 Vegetation, 16; divisions, 109; Eastern Cordillera, 118; lomas, no; past influences, 109; Puna, 115; succu- lent, 113; tola, 114; Western Cor- dillera, 22, 113 Venereal diseases, 15s Viacha, 186 Viacha-Arica railway, 184 Viceroyalty of Peru, 177, 194, 196 Vicunas, 128, 154 Villages, 24; plateau, 163; Yungas, 30 Vinocaya, daily temperature variations, 73 (graph), 74; monthly tempera- ture variations, 70 (graph), 71, 72; winds, 78 (diagr.), 79 Virazon, 75. 76 Viscacha, 128, 129 Vitor River, 101 Volcanic activity, 35, 37. 147 Volcanoes, 20, 21, 35, 36, 48 War of the Pacific, 196, 197. 203, 204 Water rights, 166, 172 Water supply, 97 Western (Maritime) Cordillera, 3; as boundary, 196; description, 20; drainage, 96; fauna, 128; mineraliza- tion, 15; mining, 56; precipitation, 89, 90 (diagrs.) ; structure and relief, IS; vegetation, 22, 113; winds, 7S Wheat, 151 Whitehead, W. L., on nitrates, 54, 55 Winds, 74, 86; Altiplano, 79; Arequipa, 77 (with diagr.); Arica, 75, 76 (diagr.); coast and Western Cor- dillera, 75 ; Cochabamba, 82, 83 (diagr.), 84; Eastern Cordillera, 79', Iquique, 75; La Paz, 81 (diagr.), 82; Mollendo, 75; Puno, 79 (with diagr.), 80; Sucre, 84, 85 (diagr.); Titicaca basin, 79; Vinocaya, 78 (diagr.), 79 Wine, 173-174 Wool, 153. 154 Wrigley, G. M., viii Yareta, 22, 24, 57, 59, opp. 114 (ills.), 116, 165 Young, Arthur, 166 Yuca, 151 Yungas, 30, 69, 107; coca belt, 169; drainage, 95; plantations in Coroico basin (ill.), 168 Zambaigos, 149 Zambos, 149 Zoology, 124