SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Published in conjunction with THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL Vol.1 No. 6 September, 1917 Whole No. 6 SURVEY of the KINDERGARTENS of RICHMOND, INDIANA By ALICE TEMPLE THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO. ILLINOIS Agents THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, London and Edinburgh THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA, Tokyo. Osaka. Kyoto, Fukuoka, Sendai THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY. Shanghai PUBLICATIONS EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO JOINT EDITORIAL COMMITTEE CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD, Chairman Articles and Editorials of The School Review Articles and Editorials of The Elementary ROLLO LA VERNE LYMAN School Journal KKANKLIN WINSLOW JOHNSON FRANK NUGENT FREEMAN HARRY ORRLNf GILLET Reviews HAROLD ORDWAY RUGG Supplementary Educational Monographs ROLLA MILTON TRYON WILLIAM SCOTT GRAY THE COURSE 0/ STUDY 0/ the Laboratory Schools of the School of Education of the University of Chicago HE course of study in schools is in constant process of enlargement and improvement. Methods of instruction are changing, and the subjects taught in classes must be enlarged so as to include all the suggestions that have been tried out and found to be of genuine value for the education of children. For some years past all the members of the Faculties of the High School and the Elementary School of the University of Chicago have been work- ing on the course of study. The results of their labors will appear from time to time during the next two years in the School Review, the Elementary School Journal, and in Supplementary Educational Mono- graphs, edited by the School of Education of the University of Chicago. This is not a body of theoretical material; it represents the actual practices of departments in these schools. It is not a hastily prepared statement of suggestions that are to be tried out. For a period of years each department has been revising and re-revising its course of study. The work is a democratic product in which all the teachers of these schools have participated. The course of study will be published in departmental sections. It will be subject, as the work of these schools goes forward, to enlargement and revision, but in its present form it is believed that it will be suggestive to other teachers and school officers. Subscription rates have been arranged for the two journals and the supplementary monographs. If the journals are taken separately, the price of subscription is $1.50 each. If the monographs are taken by the volume, each volume to be completed in one year and to contain approximately one thousand pages, the subscription price will be $5.00 with an additional cost of 50 cents for postage. A combination of all three pubHcations is offered for $6.00 plus 50 cents for postage on the monographs. Either one of the journals with one volume of the mono- graphs is offered at $5.50 plus 50 cents postage for the monographs. I. KiNDERHAUS OR SCREEN PlAY-HoUSE 2. Interior of Kinderhaus with Block Furniture SEP 10 1917 SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Puhlithcd in conjunction with THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL Vol. I September. 1917 No. 6 Whole No. 6 SURVEY of the KINDERGARTENS of RICHMOND, INDIANA By ALICE TEMPLE THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO. ILLINOIS Copyright 1917 By The UNivERSixy of Chicago All Rights Reserved Published September 1917 SEP loier/ kl.A47S409 Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. "He / TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Prefatory Statement v CHAPTER I. The Kindergartens i II. Room Equipment 8 III. The Teachers 15 IV. The Relation betwieen the Kindergarten and the First Grade 23 V. Curriculum and Methods of the Kindergarten 27 1. Subject-Matter and Methods 27 2. Manual Activities 31 3. Language and Literature 38 4. Physical Activities 45 5. Music 50 Bibliography 54 PREFATORY STATEMENT The material for this report has been gathered from the following sources : 1. Observations made during visits to the schools January 17-20 and February 12-16, inclusive. Each visit was from one to one and one-half hours in length, and each of the eight kindergartens was visited twice. All of the first primary grades were visited also. 2. Written answers to questions asked of all the kindergarten and first-primary teachers. 3. Five afternoons spent in conference with the teachers and several individual conferences with the teachers and the super- visor of manual arts. 4. Information supplied by the superintendent. 5. The course of study for the kindergartens printed in the Superintendent's Report of igi2. Without the friendly co-operation of all the persons concerned the task would have been far more difficult. The teachers were most cordial in their classrooms and more than willing to give to the conferences all the time that was asked. Many of the suggestions given in this report were discusse(^ quite fully and frankly in the conferences, and some of them have already been acted upon. It is hoped that when the report reaches the teachers it will be received by them in the friendly spirit which characterized the conferences. Alice Temple CHAPTER I THE KINDERGARTENS History of the kindergarten in Richmond. — Richmond may well be proud of the way in which it has for so many years provided for its children of kindergarten age. Prior to 1880 St, Louis was the only city in the United States having kindergartens maintained at public expense. Between 1880 and 1890 the kindergarten was adopted by twenty-five other cities. Richmond was one of these. Of the cities in the state Richmond was the second to give public support to the kindergarten. Laporte was the first. The example of these two progressive cities has made an impression on the state, as is shown by the fact that in 19 14 there were twenty- three cities in Indiana supporting public kindergartens.^ Nine of the eighteen cities having a population of from 10,000 to 25,000 and all of the cities with a population of over 25,000, except Indian- apolis, have incorporated the kindergarten as a part of the public- school system. Doubtless the failure of Indianapolis to adopt the kindergarten is due to the fact that there are in that city thirty-two free kindergartens supported by the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society.^ Compared to the neighboring states — Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa — Indiana is superior in the number of cities having a population of 10,000 or more which give public support to the kindergarten. Compared to Michigan and Wisconsin, the showing is not so favor- able. The last-named states are two of the five states in the country having the largest number of cities in which public kinder- gartens have been adopted. New York, New Jersey, and Massa- chusetts are the other three. Table I gives the figures for the West Central states. The kindergarten has become a part of the public-school system of Richmond, as it has of most other cities, through the efforts of ' Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1914. = U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 19 14, No. 6. I 2 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA private philanthropy. The first kindergarten was established by the Richmond Kindergarten Association in 1887.' Two years later its support was assumed by the Board of School Trustees, and since 1905 there has been a kindergarten in each of the district schools having primary grades, with the exception of the recently opened Joseph Moore School. This is a small school of four grades. There are not enough children of kindergarten age in the district to war- rant the opening of a kindergarten. The few who are eligible for the kindergarten are admitted to the Baxter School in an adjoining district. TABLE I Six West Central States with the Total NtnasER of Cities in Each Having a Population of 10,000 or More, Together with the Number of Such Cities Having Public Kindergartens Cities of 10,000 to 23,000 Cities of 25,000 and Over States Total Number Number with Kindergartens Total Number Number with Kindergartens Indiana 18 23 19 9 13 10 9 5 4 4 12 9 5 14 12 8 10 8 4 7 3 5 7 8 Ohio Illinois Iowa Michigan Wisconsin Enrolment. — ^The total enrolment in the Richmond kinder- gartens January i, 1917, was 285. This is 80 per cent of the esti- mated number of pupils entering school each year. The enrolment in a single school varies from 27 to 58. The Starr School being omitted, the largest number of children in any school is 37. This is as large a number of children as one teacher can handle and do good work. The problem of taking care of the much larger number of children attending the Starr School is solved by holding an after- noon session for those who are not admitted to the morning session. Age of admission and promotion. — ^The children are received in the kindergarten between the ages of four and one-half and six years. They have from four to fourteen months of kindergarten training, depending upon the age at which they enter. The major- ' Report of the Public Schools of the City of Richmond, Indiana, 191 2. THE KINDERGARTENS 3 ity have ten months, or one school year. The children are generally promoted into the first grade on the first promotion date after they have reached the sixth birthday. According to the Indiana state law, children under six years of age may not enter the first grade, but, since the compulsory school age is seven, children may be retained in the kindergarten beyond the age of six, if they are sufficiently immature to make a longer period of kindergarten train- ing desirable. The law is thus favorable to the slow children, but it may do injustice to the bright ones, as will be indicated below. Nationalities represented in the kindergartens. — Table II shows the distribution of the children in the different schools and the number and percentage of nationalities represented. Nearly 70 per cent of the children are of American parentage. Of the other 30 per cent, 6 per cent are half-American and 4 per cent Negro. In the remaining 20 per cent eight different nationalities are represented, the largest being German, about 8 per cent, and the next largest Italian, 5 per cent. An examination of the table shows that most of the Italians are in one school — the Whitewater. It is also true that 15 of the 35 children in this school have foreign- born parents. It is evident, therefore, that the teaching of English speech is one of the major problems in the Whitewater kinder- garten. Furthermore, there is in this kindergarten, according to estimates supplied by the teachers, a larger percentage of children who are in poor health, whose parents are unintelligent, and who come from homes of poverty than in any other. It is probable, therefore, that a large proportion of the children in this school would profit by an extra year or half-year of kindergarten training. In contrast to the conditions in the Whitewater district are those which prevail in the Vaile district. Here the foreign element is very slight, the parents of the children are intelligent, and only 2 of the 34 kindergarten children are regarded as below average in intelligence. There can be no doubt that some of the children in this kindergarten are ready for first-grade work much earlier than those in the kindergarten of the Whitewater school. If a number of them are thus ready before they reach the sixth birthday, some provision should be made in the kindergarten itself to give them the THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA \4 «i: »— 1 w W S vA pq f=3 < H H n OvOO Tt'iO 6 1) oj rt 6 C C CI c •d s.§ (U C ii c/5 t/3 '^ J^ 1-7 *-H S S-33 bC M C -g -S -^ -§ _(u oj j>; c c oj (J -g "c; ^q THE KINDERGARTENS 5 advanced work needed, since promotion is impossible with the present state law. Methods of control. — The social atmosphere in the kindergartens is very wholesome. The children are obedient, orderly, courteous, and very considerate of one another for children so young. The teachers have won the confidence and affection of the children through a sympathetic and respectful attitude toward them and through their own sincerity and earnestness. The children are unusually independent in distributing and putting away material, in getting on their out-of-door wraps, in passing through the halls quietly, etc. In all of these ways most desirable schoolroom habits are being established. The primary teachers testify in every case to the superiority in this respect of the children coming to them from the kindergarten over those who come directly from the home. Certain other modes of behavior which are being set up are not so good. For example, in some classes the children have learned to respond automatically to a series of four or five piano signals which direct them, in turn, to (i) stand, (2) lift their chairs, (3) march to ring, (4) place their chairs, and (5) sit. This is an example of routinized activity which makes the children too dependent upon specific directions. The method used in others of the kindergartens, in which a degree of self-control has been developed which makes it possible for the children to bring their chairs from the tables to the ring in quiet, orderly fashion in response to a single direction, is far better. This form of self-control can be developed in the kinder- garten with no more effort than that necessary in training the children to the automatic response described above and will be a much more useful habit for the children to take with them to the first grade. Other somewhat artificial devices for securing quiet and order, which make for too great dependence upon the teacher, are not infrequently used. One of these is a play in which the children imitate movements of the hands made by the teacher to the accom- paniment of a descriptive rhyme. It is used just after a change of the class from the circle to the tables, or vice versa, for the manifest purpose of getting attention before beginning the real work or play 6 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA at hand. The teacher begins with the movement and words of the play, and by the time it is over all the children, attracted by the song or movement, have joined her. When the last word has been sung, the teacher at once begins the exercise for the period. This method of securing attention should not be necessary. By the time children have been in school four months, as all of these children have been, it should be an easy matter to center their interest at once upon the next thing to be done. They should anticipate it with pleasure because of previous experiences. These are examples of methods which, if persisted in, will form habits of automatic response to specific directions or suggestions. The more desirable thing is to lead children gradually to recognize the necessity of certain requirements and regulations of the school and to secure their willing conformity to such requirements. The former procedure reduces the child's responsibility to a minimum, making him slavishly dependent upon guidance at every step, while the latter, because it secures his co-operation by appeal to his intelligence, develops in him independence and self-control, so that he is able to adjust himself easily to new situations. Summary. — i. Richmond was one among the first twenty-six cities in the United States to adopt the kindergarten. For twelve years it has provided for all of its children of kindergarten age. 2. Of twenty-three cities having a population of 10,000 or more, Indiana has thirteen cities which support public kindergartens. In this respect it is superior to the West Central states, Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa, but not equal to Michigan and Indiana. 3. The method of promotion into the first grade is not altogether satisfactory. According to state laws, children may be retained in the kindergarten beyond the age of six years, if necessary, which is a good provision for immature children, but they may not be pro- moted under six years of age. Injustice may thus be done to the unusually bright children unless the kindergarten itself provides advanced work for them. 4. There are eleven nationalities represented in the kinder- gartens. About 70 per cent of the children are of American parentage. The only other nationalities represented in appreciable numbers are the German, Italian, and American Negro. Each of THE KINDERGARTENS 7 these is confined largely to one or at most two schools; hence modification of methods to suit their needs is a simple matter. 5. The social atmosphere in the kindergartens is very whole- some, and the relation between children and teachers is all that could be desired. 6. The children have, in general, excellent school habits. There is some danger, however, that they may be made dependent upon particular forms of guidance rather than trained to habits of intel- ligent self-control. CHAPTER II ROOM EQUIPMENT Furniture. — The tables which are now in use are of the older type, 6 feet long or more and 2^ or 3 feet wide. They are made to accommodate children seated at all four sides. Narrow tables 18 inches wide lend themselves to a much more satisfactory arrange- ment of the children with reference to the light and to the teacher, but more of them are needed for the same number of children. It is convenient to have some of these narrow tables of the six-foot length and others of the three-foot length. They may then be used singly by small groups of children or combined in various ways, ac- cording to the number of children in the group or the type of material with which they are working. When the entire class is to do the same work, directed by the teacher, an arrangement by which all face the teacher is usually best. When the class is divided into groups of different sizes for different kinds of work, other arrangements are more satisfactory. Furthermore, in a room equipped with small tables as well as with larger ones the problem of seating the children at tables of the right height for them is very much simpUfied. One or more of the small tables may be made lower to accommodate the smaller children by cutting off an inch or two of the legs. Chair legs may be cut to correspond. The tables described are folding tables, which may be easily disposed of when the entire floor space is needed for games or other physical activities or when the room is needed for assembly pur- poses. Three tables 6 feet by 18 inches and six tables 3 feet by 18 inches would be adequate for a group of 30 children. Twelve of the tables 3 feet by 18 inches would serve the same purpose. The smaller tables are more easily handled, but they are relatively more expensive. An itemized list, with costs, will be found at the end of this chapter. It is desirable that new tables be secured. If this is impossible, the kindergartners should so arrange their work that no children need be seated directly facing the light. In a number ROOM EQUIPMENT g of rooms fully one-third of the children were so seated, even when the class was small enough for all to sit on one side of the tables. When the number is too large for this, work should be planned for part of the class which may be done on the floor, such as paper- cutting, building, clay-modeling, or at the blackboard, such as drawing. This would mean that for part of the time the children would have to work more independently than they do at present. This is very much to be desired, as will be shown in a later chapter. Decorations. — Some of the pictures on the walls are entirely suitable from the standpoint of subject, drawing, color, etc., and were evidently selected with the interests and tastes of the children in mind. Among them are illustrations of Mother Goose, by Lucy Fitch Perkins. Other pictures are decidedly inappropriate. Some of them are photographs of paintings the subjects of which can have little meaning for small children. Pictures of this type might well be replaced with some bright but harmoniously colored pictures of subjects that would be especially interesting to the children at certain times of the year and in connection with the special interests of the program. A few at a time might be put up and then give place to others. There are always quantities of pictures of this sort to be found in current magazines, which may be secured at little or no expense, attractively mounted on heavy paper of a neutral tint, and used as suggested above. Pictures of this kind were seen in one or two of the rooms. Musical instruments. — Each room has its own piano and the kindergartner has the use of the school victrola a large part of the time. This is especially advantageous when there is but one teacher in the room, for it leaves the teacher free to direct the skipping and other rhythmical activities or to take part in them when desirable. Plants and animals. — Some of the rooms are unusually well supplied with growing plants, while others have none. There were no pet animals in any of the rooms, either kindergarten or first primary, when they were visited in January and February. Gar- dening, both indoors and out, and the care of animals that are in- teresting in their habits furnish the very best means of encouraging the interest of little children in plant and animal life and should be made the basis of nature-study, therefore, in the first school lo THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA years. Indoor gardening is especially important in schools which have no out-of-door gardens. Such bulbous plants as the paper white narcissus, hyacinth, tulip, etc., are easily grown indoors in the winter. There are many easily grown garden flowers and some quickly maturing vegetables which may be raised in the out-of-door gardens in the spring. Goldfish, turtles, white mice, canary birds, and, in the spring, rabbits and chickens are examples of animals that are easily cared for in the schoolroom. If each kindergarten owned one such pet animal, and arrangements were made between the schools to exchange with one another from time to time, the expense would be slight in comparison with the value to the children of intimate acquaintance with a number of living creatures of this kind. Materials for play and handwork. — The kindergartens are supplied with the traditional materials, the so-called gifts and occupations. These include two-inch balls, each covered with zephyr of one of the six spectrum colors; boxes of building blocks, the cubes of which are one inch in diameter; "tablets," which are flat bits of polished wood of various geometrical forms, cut to the scale of one inch; small sticks ranging in length from one to five inches; steel rings, one, two, and three inches in diameter; colored papers, cut in four- or six-inch squares for folding; paper mats for weaving; colored one-inch circles and squares for design, etc. Experience has shown that of all these materials the building blocks are the most valuable. The several sets taken together contain a sufficient number and variety of forms to make of them satisfactory means of construction and expression. The blocks themselves are too small, however. The structures made of them are not substantial enough to be played with when completed, and the careful placing of the blocks, which is necessary in building, calls for a degree of hand control which should not be required of children under six years of age. The Richmond kindergartens are being supplied gradually with sets of these building blocks in enlarged form, the cubes being two inches in diameter. Blocks on a still larger scale, with cubes six inches in diameter and other forms in proportion, and boards of different lengths, with which the children can make buildings large 3- The Grocery Store 4. The Toy Store 5. Community Buildings ROOM EQUIPMENT ii enough to get into and furniture big enough to use themselves, have proved most valuable in making structures like those shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Blocks and boards of this kind, if cut in the school shops, can be provided for the mere cost of the wood. Following is a list giving the sizes and numbers of such blocks which have been found to serve the needs of a class of 30 children. Blocks 150 blocks 3X6X12 inches 100 blocks 3 X6X 6 inches 50 blocks 3X3X12 inches 25 blocks 6X6X 6 inches 25 blocks 6X6X 6 inches, divided in half diagonally Boards 40 boards 3 X i X 18 inches 40 boards 3X1X24 inches 20 boards 3X1X30 inches 20 boards 3X1X36 inches 12 boards 72X1X10 inches Most of the other materials indicated above are, like the blocks, too small for children to use without unduly taxing the eyes or nerves. Furthermore, some of them, especially the tablets, steel rings, and small colored circles and squares, are materials which have so few uses that they need not be included in a kindergarten equipment. It is true that the kindergartner of an earlier day regarded the whole series of gifts and occupations as essential, because each was supposed to have an intrinsic value peculiar to itself and to afford the children a type of experience on no account to be missed. On the other hand, and according to present-day theory, the various materials are now valued primarily as means by which the children may give expression to their ideas and carry out their play purposes. This means that any of the traditional materials may be discarded and that the teacher may go to any source to find other materials which serve more adequately the purposes of the kindergarten. Thus free to experiment, teachers have found that much better results may be obtained, measured in terms of the interest which 12 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA children manifest, the thought and effort which they exercise, and the actual products which they turn out, when some of these newer materials are substituted for the orthodox materials. Among these materials are papers of a much larger size and heavier weight, to be used for constructing toys and other objects; soft wood cut in blocks and small boards of various proportions, with hammers and nails, also to be used for construction; easily handled textile materials, such as roving, jute, and even rags for weaving, instead of the paper mats formerly used ; and materials with which children may make simple and crude clothing for dolls. It has been learned also that drawing and clay-modeling are forms of occupation which deserve a larger share of attention than they have been given in the past. Methods of using the materials are fully as important considerations as the materials themselves. This phase of the problem will be discussed in a later section under the heading "Manual Activities." As part of the permanent equipment a ''kinderhaus" is an invaluable adjunct to the kindergarten. It is similar to any five- part screen, except that in each of four of the sections there is a window and in the fifth a little door on hinges. This screen house serves to inclose a space which may be a house, store, or shop, the blocks referred to above being used to make the needed furniture or equipment. A photograph of such a playhouse is shown in Fig. i (frontispiece). Four parts of this one are 5 feet in height and 32^ inches in width. The part containing the door is 5I feet high, but the same width as the others. This particular playhouse was bought years ago and the cost cannot be ascertained. The frame for one of these screens, however, could be made in the school shop. It could then be covered with burlap or some cheaper material, such as cambric or even very heavy wall paper. Some of the teachers in Richmond are already planning to convert ordinary screens into playhouses of this kind. Other play materials commonly used in the kindergartens of today are large dolls which may be dressed and undressed; some doll furniture for these dolls; large rubber balls, six inches in diam- eter; and small toy animals, small dolls, toy utensils, and dishes to use in connection with building plays. Musical instruments, such ROOM EQUIPMENT 13 as toy drums, bells, tambourines, etc., for training in rhythm, are other valuable materials. Each of the Richmond kindergartens has a large doll, with a bed or cradle, and one or two have smaller dolls. More of these and the other toys mentioned above are needed. Of the consumable materials there is probably needed a more generous supply of larger paper for drawing and construction, plasticene for modeling, wood, hammers, and nails for the simplest kind of woodworking. Doubtless the money now spent for colored papers cut in small squares, weaving mats, parquetry papers, the laundering of tablecloths, etc., would pay for these other materials. As indicated above, the particular materials last mentioned have little value and might easily be dispensed with, while the expense of laundering the long tablecloths could be saved by using paper napkins as table doilies. The present budget appropriation of $250, if carefully expended, should be enough to keep the kindergartens adequately supplied with consumable materials, such as paper, clay, wood, crayons, textile materials, etc., and after the first supply such relatively permanent equipment as needs renewing occasionally, as rubber balls and other toys which wear out. Following is an estimate of the furniture and play materials which are needed now to equip a kindergarten of 30 children, together with the probable cost of the several items and the names of the firms from which they may be secured. The average enrohnent in the Richmond kindergartens is 35. This estimate is made on the basis of an average attendance of 30. , U unUned, 6X1^ feet $7 .00— $21 .00I Milton Bradley \6 unlined, 3X1I feet 5 00— 1500 |Co., Springfield, 5 rubber balls, 6 inches in diameter o . 60 — 3 . 00 J Mass. iTo be made in Floor blocks and boards, as listed on pp. 17-18. . . . 3° • 00 1 manual-training Kinderhaus (screen playhouse) 5 . 00 r ^P ' J mond schools Toys, to be selected according to needs of particular 1^ ^ kindergarten j Musical instruments, to be selected according to needs K ^^^g-^ g^^^g of particular kindergarten 1 1 ■ 00 J Total $85.00 14 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA An expenditure of $136 a year for five consecutive years would secure this equipment for the eight kindergartens. The Starr School would naturally need a larger proportion and the Warner a smaller proportion of the whole than the others. Summary. — i. The tables in the kindergarten rooms are gener- ally large and heavy. Smaller folding tables are needed in order to seat the children more advantageously with reference to the light and to make it possible to put the tables out of the way when the floor space is needed. 2. The pictures on the walls are not uniformly well selected. Those not interesting to little children should be removed. 3. More growing plants and some form of animal life are needed as a basis in experience for nature-study. 4. The materials for play and occupation are inadequate. New materials, as listed on page 13, are needed. CHAPTER III THE TEACHERS TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE OF KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST-GRADE TEACHERS The eight teachers in the Richmond kindergartens are graduates of the Richmond High School and of a professional school for the training of teachers. Three of them have had one year of college work plus two years of professional training; one has had two years of college and three years of professional training; and four have had three years of professional training. Table III shows the number of years of preparation and expe- TABLE III Preparation and Experience of Kindergarten and Teachers of Grade I B IN the Richmond Schools Schools Years in High School Years in Professional School Years in College Years of Teaching Experience Years of Teaching in Richmond Kdg. IB Kdg. I B Kdg. I B Kdg. I B Kdg. I B Baxter Finley Hibberd... Sevastopol . Starr Vaile Warner .... Whitewater 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 o 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 I o o 1-5 o o o I 2-5 o o I I o 1 3 O-S 2 O O O 2 12 i6 17 I 14 9 i6 12 17 7 28 36 43 40 46 36 9 16 17 I 12 9 16 9 17 4 28 25 43 40 46 32 Average 4 3 2.6 0.68 0.68 i.o6 12.12 31.6 II. 12 29 -37 rience of the kindergarten teachers as compared with teachers of Grade I B. The items were supplied by the teachers themselves and by the superintendent's office. In total number of years of preparation, including high school, normal school, and college, the teachers of the kindergarten average 7 .24 as against an average of 4.62 years for the teachers of Grade IB. On the other hand, the table shows that the teachers of IS 1 6 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA Grade I B have had an average of over two and one-half times as many years of teaching experience as the kindergartners have had. These differences may be explained by reference to the table. It will be seen that six of the first-grade teachers began teaching twenty-eight or more years ago. At that time preparation for prospective elementary teachers, beyond that which the high school offered, was a much less general requirement than it was even eleven years later, when the kindergartner who has been teaching longest in the Richmond schools began her work. Furthermore, the kindergarten, which was introduced into this country as a unique and highly organized system of education for little children, has of necessity required especially trained teachers from the beginning. The reconstruction of kindergarten practice makes summer study necessary. — While all the kindergartners of Richmond have had at least three years of professional training, they finished that training, with one exception, from nine to seventeen years ago. During the last ten to fifteen years the reconstructive movement within the kindergarten has made rapid progress. This movement, due largely to the influence of criticism of the kindergarten made by experts in the broader fields of education, is naturally most evident in the kindergarten departments of the progressive normal schools and universities, in which these departments have the benefit of association with other departments for the training of teachers, including graduate departments of education. Many kinder- gartners, therefore, who had their training several years ago have felt the need of further study at one of these institutions in order to keep pace with the best developments in kindergarten practice. The Richmond kindergartners would doubtless be glad of the opportunity to pursue such study during a summer session. It can hardly be asked of them under the present salary schedule, however, although the latter is good as compared with that of neighboring states, as is shown in Table IV. It would pay the Board of Educa- tion to make it possible for one or more of the teachers to spend part of the summer in study, as suggested above. There are a number of school systems which make it a practice to send some of their teachers to school each summer, the board paying part or all of their expenses. TEE TEACHERS 17 In the meantime it would be decidedly to the advantage of the schools if the young women of Richmond who are looking forward to teaching in their home city would go to one of the more progres- sive schools outside of the state for training. Richmond needs efficient kindergarten-primary supervision. — That the Richmond kindergartners have felt the need of contact with other kindergartners is evidenced by their unsuccessful efforts to secure, as speakers at their institutes, experts in their own field. Almost every one of them said that in all the years of her teaching TABLE IV Average Salaries of Kindergarten Directors in Twenty-eight Cities 1. Superior, Wis $760 2. Gary, Ind 750 3. Burlington, Iowa 733 4. East Chicago, Ind 731 5. Richmond, Ind 700 6. Canton, Ohio 666 7. Terre Haute, Ind 660 8. Marshalltown, Iowa 650 9. Mishawaka, Ind 636 10. Racine, Wis 634 11. Ironwood, Mich 634 12. Kalamazoo, Mich 627 13. Evansville, Ind 626 14. Fort Wayne, Ind 625 15. Marquette, Mich $610 16. Cedar Rapids, Iowa 609 17. Madison, Wis 600 18. Bay City, Mich 600 19. La Crosse, Wis 597 20. Sheboygan, Wis 586 21. Menominee, Mich 558 22. Springfield, Ohio 550 23. Jackson, Mich 546 24. Evanston, 111 542 25. Lansing, Mich 536 26. Mason, Iowa 514 27. Dubuque, Iowa 514 28. Escanaba, Mich 475 experience she had had no expert criticism and suggestion. As a group they are eager for such criticism and are ready and able to profit by it. With an efficient supervisor to direct them, a woman of experience in both kindergarten and primary grade teaching who had had at least a year of recent training in one of the progressive professional schools, the Richmond kindergartners would be capable of modifying and reconstructing their methods to conform with the best type of modern practice. In the meantime it would be de- cidedly to the advantage of the schools if the young women of Rich- mond who are looking forward to teaching in their home city would go to one of the progressive schools outside of the state for training. 1 8 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA SALARIES OF RICHMOND KINDERGARTNERS The salary schedule for the Richmond kindergartners is the same as that for the elementary-school teachers with the exception of the first-primary teachers. The maximum salaries compare favorably with those paid to kindergartners in other cities of Indiana and in cities of the neighboring states. Table IV shows the average salaries paid to directors of kindergartens in all cities reporting two or more teachers in the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. These figures supplied by the superintendent were taken from the U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 19 14, No. 16. The average salary for Richmond kindergartners for the year 1916-17 is $721 .98, an average increase of $21 .98 in three years. USE OF THE kindergartners' AFTERNOON HOURS It is only within the last fifteen or twenty years that any large number of public kindergartens have held both morning and after- noon sessions. Before that time the single session seemed to meet the demand in most cities. As the kindergarten grew in popularity, however, and especially in the larger cities, it was gradually extended by the addition of another group of children in the after- noon. ''Of the eight hundred sixty-seven (867) cities reporting for the school year 1911-12 to the U.S. Bureau of Education, five hundred forty-six (546) have morning and afternoon sessions." Richmond is one of the cities which is still able, with the exception of one school — the Starr — to provide adequately for its children of kindergarten age with one session held in the morning. For part of the year the attendance at the Starr is so large that it has to be distributed between morning and afternoon sessions. The other departments of the elementary school hold an after- noon session of two and one-quarter hours, and, since the kinder- gartners are under the same salary schedule as the regular grade teachers, they are naturally expected to employ the afternoon hours in school work of one sort or another. Part of the time is given to preparing work for their own classes and part to assisting the grade teachers in various ways. One of them teaches music in the sixth THE TEACHERS 19 grade, several others coach the children of the first grade who are backward in reading, and one said that she was called upon "for almost any odd job that needed to be done." Kinder gar tners spend too much time in preparing work for children. — Some of the kindergartners feel that they should be allowed a large share of the afternoon period to prepare work for the following day. Doubtless many a primary teacher feels that she, too, could use a good part of her afternoon time in preparation for classwork quite as advantageously as the kindergartner if she had it to use. Furthermore, there are unquestionably many kindergartners who spend much more time in work of this kind than is necessary or desirable. The work seen in the Richmond kindergartens goes to show that the teachers often prepare the work for the children so completely that there is little left for the children to do. For example, they draw outlines of objects for the children to cut instead of giving the children the more valuable experience of trying to cut forms without the help of an outline, or they cut out rather elaborate paper forms, drawing lines where the children are to fold, leaving for the children only the last step or two of the whole process of construction. The results are likely to be excellent, but they do not represent the children's work. If the teachers would plan simpler forms of occupation and would be satisfied with cruder products, they would be able to develop in the children a degree of independence in handwork which does not now exist, according to the reports of the first-grade teachers who receive the children from the kindergarten. This problem will be discussed more fully in the chapter on the " Curriculum and Methods of the Kindergarten." How time which is not used in preparing materials may he profit- ably spent. — Granted, however, that some time, say, an hour, may legitimately be allowed the kindergartner for preparation of material because her children are so young and lacking in skill, what is the best use to be made of the remainder of her time? This is a question which must of necessity be answered in terms of the needs of the particular school and community and of the special abilities of the kindergartner. Because the child's entrance to the school is by way of the kindergarten, the kindergartner has been trained to regard home visiting and mothers' meetings as necessary to efficient 20 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA work with the children. With the advent of the parent-teachers' association, and in districts where the mothers have leisure to visit the school several times a year, this becomes a less important feature of the teacher's work. In such communities as that in which the Whitewater School is located, however, some portion of the kindergartner's time might well be spent in home visiting and other phases of social service work. The following quotation from a primary teacher in the Hibberd School would seem to indicate the need of such home visiting in that district : If all the children of careless, indifferent, and shiftless parents could be persuaded or compelled to go to kindergarten, we might secure for all children a greater continuity of experience. Almost without exception my seventeen non-kindergarten pupils come from such indifferent homes, while the thirty kindergarten pupils come from homes in the majority of which the parents are interested in every move of the child. If the kindergartner is unusually well qualified to teach a particular subject, such as music or drawing, and help is needed in one or the other of these lines, by all means let the kindergartner's time be used for this purpose. It will be a developing experience for the teacher to do work in another field than her own at the same time that it serves the purposes of the school. A suggested plan for the profitable use of the kindergartner's afternoon hours. — -Another plan which would make for more efficient work in both kindergarten and first grade and which would help to bring about better co-ordination between the two is here offered. Let the classroom teachers concerned meet in conference with the supervisors of manual arts, physical education, and music for the purpose of discussing a plan by which the kindergartner may bring one group after another of first-grade children to her room during an hour of the afternoon period for work in the manual arts, games, singing, or story-telling, or any satisfactory combination of two of these subjects. They are all subjects which, by virtue of her training and experience, the kindergartner should be well qualified to handle. It would relieve the first-grade teacher of responsibility for one-third or one-half of her children for a good share of the afternoon, making it possible for her to meet the needs of individual children more satisfactorily. It would necessitate careful organiza- THE TEACHERS 21 tion of a kindergarten-first-grade course of study in these subjects, which would make for real continuity. It would serve to bring kindergarten and first-grade teachers into a closer understanding of, and sympathy with, one another's problems. It would make possible a more developing type of handwork and games than is practicable with the limited space and large groups of the first- grade rooms. It is possible that the particular type of work and program organization would need to be worked out for each separate school. It might be wise to try out the plan in one or two schools for half a year in order to discover the best methods of organization. In any case, it would prove a much more stimulating, as well as profitable, way for the kindergartner to spend her afternoon hours than in tutoring a handful of backward children in reading. This is not meant to minimize the importance of the latter or to say that the kindergartner should not help with it, but it stands to reason that the person who is responsible for teaching reading to beginners will be better able to bring up the backward children, if she has some leisure in which to do it, than the one whose only contact with the problem is through the slow children. If the kindergartner teaches first-grade children part of the time, she ought to have the stimulus and interest which come from full responsibility for the progress which they make in the subjects which she teaches. If a plan of this kind should be carried out, the monthly institutes might well be given over to discussion of the problems involved. Summary. — i. The average time which has been given to preparation for teaching by the kindergartners of Richmond is con- siderably longer than that of the first-primary teachers. On the other hand, the latter have had a much longer average teaching ex- perience than the kindergartners. 2. The reconstructive movement within the kindergarten has been rapid in recent years. Most of the Richmond kindergartners had their training several years ago, hence should now be given opportunity to come in contact with the newer methods in kinder- garten education through summer study at some one of the more progressive professional schools outside of the state. A well- trained and thoroughly efficient supervisor of kindergarten and 22 TEE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA primary grades is also needed to bring the work of the schools to the highest possible level. 3. The kindergartners are under the same salary schedule as the elementary-school teachers, with the exception of those teaching first primary. Their salaries are relatively high, Richmond being fifth from the top in a comparison of average salaries of twenty- eight cities in the West Central states. Nevertheless the salaries are too low to admit of summer study with its attendant expense. 4. The kindergartens are in session in the morning only, with one exception. The teachers spend more of their afternoon hours than is necessary or desirable in preparing material for the children. A larger part of this time might profitably be spent in directing the manual arts and games of the first-grade classes. This type of co-operation would help to bring about a better co-ordination between the kindergarten and the first grade and more continuity in the various activities than now exists. CHAPTER IV THE RELATION BETWEEN THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE FIRST GRADE There should he continuity between the kindergarten and the first grade. — ^Both kindergartners and first-grade teachers were asked to give written answers to a number of questions concerning the subjects of the curriculum, continuity in the course of study, the advantage of kindergarten training, methods of securing effective co-ordination between the kindergarten and the first grade, etc. The replies show that the first grade includes in its curriculum, in addition to reading, writing, and spelling, all of the subjects or activities of the kindergarten, but there is no indication that the first-grade work in these subjects is built upon work begun in the kindergarten. According to figures supplied by the first-grade teachers, 56 per cent' of their children have had kindergarten training. There is certainly no reason why the work planned for these children should not be based upon what has been accomplished by kindergarten training in each of the several subjects. That this is not done is due probably to the fact that there is no clear under- standing as to what are the results of kindergarten training in these various lines. It becomes very important, therefore, as suggested in chapter iii, that the teachers and the supervisors concerned work out a kindergarten-primary curriculum which shall provide for continuity in each of the subjects — namely, community life, industrial and fine arts, language, music, physical education, nature-study, and number work. One of the primary teachers suggests that "an outline of work planned more closely between the kindergarten and the primary teachers, particularly for the last few weeks of the kindergarten work," would be desirable. An excellent beginning in this direction has been made by the teachers in one of the schools. It was learned on the second visit to ' The total enrolment in the kindergartens is 80 per cent of the estimated number of children entering school each year. It would seem, therefore, as if a larger per- centage of first-grade children must have had kindergarten training. 24 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA Richmond that such a plan is already under way with the group as a whole. Advantages of kindergarten training. — There is very general agreement between kindergarten and first-grade teachers as to certain advantages of kindergarten training. Some of these are that the children's introduction to the school is made easy and natural by means of the kindergarten, that the mental content of kindergarten-trained children is much richer, that they are more alert and observant, that they have learned to be punctual and regular in attendance, to follow directions, to wait upon themselves in the dressing-rooms and lavatories, that they have been taught to play fairly and to be considerate and helpful in the schoolroom. Some of the primary teachers feel that they cannot take full advan- tage of these desirable habits because of the large numbers of their pupils and limited space and material. For example, a first-grade teacher often feels that she cannot take time to let the children distribute materials, put them away, etc., because she can do it more quickly than they. First-grade teachers find kindergarten children too dependent upon teachers^ help in handwork.— Concerning the disadvantages of kindergarten training, six of the primary teachers say that, while the kindergarten children are independent and self-helpful in the ways enumerated above, they are quite dependent upon the teacher for direction and help in handwork. The following statements from the papers of some of the primary teachers make clear their point of view: "The kindergarten child looks after his personal needs. When he works, he is not so independent. " "There is helplessness on the part of many in doing independent hand- work." "The kindergarten children are accustomed to more help from the teacher than we can possibly give them on account of our greater number of pupils. If the kindergarten children could be made more independent workers, it would be a help to us." Suggestions have been made elsewhere concerning types of handwork and methods that would develop more independent thought and work on the part of kindergarten children than is now evident. KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE 25 Kindergarten children in the first grade are inclined to talk and play instead of to work.- — One other disadvantage, mentioned twice, is that the kindergarten children want to talk and play instead of work. This may be regarded as a criticism of the first grade rather than of the kindergarten. Some of the seat work observed was not of a kind to call for either the thought or the effort of which six- year-old children are capable. Arranging one-inch sticks in rows according to color is an example. The teacher has no right to condemn a child who refuses to occupy himself for fifteen minutes with work so far below his ability. Occupations should be planned for children, whether in the kindergarten or in the first grade, which appeal to the children as worth doing and which demand concentra- tion and effort on their part. When this is done, there is little temptation on the part of the children to talk or to play. One group of first-grade children which was observed worked quietly and with great interest on the problem of designing and making valentines while the teacher was engaged with a reading class. Another class was absorbed in drawing the pail, stool, cup, crock, pans, churn, etc., which are needed by the dairyman. Interest in these various objects was the outcome of a dialogue between two boys, imaginary farmers, concerning their work. The teacher had sketched some of the objects mentioned on the board. She then left one class to draw while she worked with the second, and later the second group worked independently at drawing while the teacher devoted herself to a lesson with the first class. The first-grade children need more of active play. — Even well- planned occupation will not hold interest and attention, however, when the children are in need of physically active play. The first-grade children need more of this kind of play than they seem to be getting. It is understood that the large classes in the first-grade rooms, the floor space of which is occupied with non-movable desks and seats, makes the problem of providing for the children good seat work and enough physical play a difficult one. There is no doubt, however, that the situation could be much improved through the plan suggested in chapter iii in the section on the use of the kinder- gartners' afternoon hours. It might be possible, also, to arrange 26 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA for the first-grade teacher to send a group of ten or twelve children to the kindergarten during the morning for plays and games, as well as in the afternoon, and for all the primary grades to work out a program by which the hall space could be used more commonly for play. Co-operative effort more than anything else is what is needed to overcome many of these limitations and problems of which most of the teachers are keenly aware. Summary. — i. Fifty-six per cent of the children in the first grades have had kindergarten training, and yet the work planned for these children is not consciously based upon what they have accomplished in the kindergarten. It is urged, therefore, that the teachers and the special supervisors concerned co-operate in working out a kindergarten-primary curriculum which shall look toward continuity in the subjects which these two grades have in common. 2. Written replies to questions asked show that kindergartners and primary teachers agree on certain general advantages of kindergarten training. Kindergarten children are alert and observ- ant, they have more ideas, they have acquired some desirable school habits, etc. 3. A number of first-grade teachers find the children who have been through the kindergarten very dependent in handwork. Suggestions concerning methods of developing more independence in this respect are made in a later chapter. 4. Some first-grade teachers complain of a tendency on the part of kindergarten- trained children to talk and to play in school. This is due to the failure of the primary grades to provide good forms of occupation and enough physical play. The suggestions made concerning the use of the kindergartners' afternoon hours in chapter iii will help to solve this problem. CHAPTER V CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF THE KINDERGARTEN This section of the report is based upon material gathered from three sources: (i) two weeks spent in the observation of teaching in the kindergartens; (2) several group and individual conferences with the teachers; (3) the printed course of study found in the Superintendent's Report of 1Q12, pp. 177-88. The printed course of study is not now followed by any of the kindergartners. They write that it "was gotten up in great haste several years ago in order that a kindergarten program might be included in the manual then in course of construction." There would be no reason for considering it at all in this report except that its injQuence was felt in some of the work observed, and there- fore some reference to it may serve to clarify parts of this discussion of curriculum and methods. It must be remembered, however, that this printed program does not represent the work that is now being done in the kindergartens. I. SUBJECT-JMATTER AND METHODS When the kindergartens were visited during the third week of January, one of the following subjects was the center of interest for the week in every case: the work of the carpenter, the woodman, the blacksmith, the postman, or the fireman. In most schools these subjects had been preceded, or were to be followed, by con- sideration of other forms of industrial work, such as that of the baker, the shoemaker, and the coal dealer. In one case, however, the topic for the week before had been ''Lights — Artificial and Natural." During the week of the second visit to the kindergartens, the third week in February, the subject material was, in most schools, related to Valentine's Day and Lincoln's birthday. It was learned that the general plan at this time of the year was to take one of these or similar subjects each week for several weeks. 27 28 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA The particular trades or forms of service were selected with reference to the district in which the school was located. For example, if there were no blacksmith-shop in a given district which the children could visit, the subject of the blacksmith might be omitted. This principle of selection was not consistently followed, however, for in one school the teacher said they had taken up the miner the week before. Certainly this topic would have to be presented through pictures and description. The children could have no opportunity to see the miner at work. So far as it was possible to determine, the method of dealing with any one of these subjects was about as follows: 1. Language: Early in the morning of each day there would be some conversation about the blacksmith (for example) — the objects he makes might be enumerated one day, the tools he uses the next, etc., with emphasis always upon the industry of the blacksmith, the importance of his service, and our gratitude to him. Pictures would sometimes be used in this connection. 2. An excursion to the shop would be made if possible, usually early in the week. 3. Handwork: By means of block-building, stick-laying, drawing, paper- cutting, or some other occupation the children would represent on successive days the shop, the tools, the horse being shod, the objects made of iron, or something else related to the blacksmith's work. 4. Singing: A song about the blacksmith, accompanied by pantomime representation of his activities, would probably be taught. 5. A story about a blacksmith, emphasizing the importance of his service, would be told. Organization of subject-matter criticized. — There is no criticism to be made of the selection of some of these forms of industrial or civic occupation. There are objections, however, to using them in the manner described. In the first place, there is an attempt to cover too much ground. The children are introduced in the course of a few weeks to too large a number of objects, processes, and ideas. The treatment is, in consequence, very superficial, as the description of the general method of handling the subject for each week shows. There is not time for the children to become acquainted with the material. In the second place, there is no significant connection, for the child, between the work of one week and that of the next. While CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 29 ''the trades" are related in the teacher's mind as representing forms of work upon which we all are dependent and are utiHzed by her, in part at least, for the purpose of presenting to the children ideas and ideals of interdependence and co-operation, they fail to carry any such meaning to the children. Children of kindergarten age are too inexperienced and immature to appreciate such general conceptions, and it is a fundamental mistake in the organization of the program, therefore, to start with general ideas and then to select material to exemplify these ideas. We may profitably give the children an abundance of concrete experiences which will furnish material for this type of organization later, but this is not the type for the kindergarten stage. A similar objection may be made to the organization of subject- matter, in itself suitable, under such a general heading as "Lights." It is true that various objects which give light are interesting and attractive to children, but there is no particular value in bringing them to the children as a group of objects, in order to emphasize the diflferent kinds of lights and their various services. Each kind of light-giving object has associations and connections in the child's experience that are more interesting and significant than the class relation of one of these objects to another. It is in these more fundamental relationships, then, that such subject material should be brought to the children. For example, when a little community is being represented objectively, street lights, signal lights, and vehicle lights are necessary adjuncts, and it is in such connection that their purpose may be most effectively emphasized. Again, if a child is trying to tell through his drawing that it is night time, the moon and stars will naturally appear in his picture as one means to this end. Children, then, must be helped to organize their experiences on their own plane and in terms of their own activities. The manual occupations of the kindergarten furnish the most important means to this end, as will be shown in the following section. These should be fully supplemented, however, by expression through language and dramatization. Tendency of present-day practice in selection of subject-matter. — • The kindergarten of today realizes the futility of giving its children 30 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA intellectual food which they cannot digest. In planning the course of study, therefore, its tendency is to limit the source of subject- matter to the everyday experiences of the particular group of children concerned. It selects from these experiences those which are worth interpreting and extending, and it seeks to help the children to organize them through the different play activities and modes of expression which the kindergarten offers. Such a course of study might well include such familiar and important household occupations as cooking, cleaning, sewing, and such related sources of supply as the grocery, the market, and the dry-goods store. It might include also the home itself, with its furnishing and equipment; the several homes in a given com- munity; such provisions for community life and needs as are afforded by the school, the mail service, the fire department, the public park and playground, and public means of transportation. These latter phases of community life, involving the work of postman, fireman, car drivers, etc., would be taken up in con- nection with the homes, school, and other buildings representing the group life rather than as a series of "helpers" who exemplify social and moral ideals. Seasonal activities, such as preserving fruit, cleaning house, and gardening, as well as the characteristic plays and sports of the season, might legitimately constitute part of the subject-matter. The festival days which may have meaning for little children — Hallowe'en, Thanksgiving, Christmas, St. Valentine's Day, and May Day— should also be given childlike and suitable recognition. The following sections of the report will offer suggestions concerning the organization of subject-matter of this kind. SUMMARY 1. During January and February, when the kindergartens were visited, the "trades" were the chief source of subject-material for the program. About a week was given to each form of work considered. 2. The method of dealing with each trade or occupation usually included an excursion to the shop or place where the work could be seen, conversation concerning the service of the particular worker CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 31 to the community, representation through handwork of his tools or products, and probably a song or story about his work. 3. No criticism is made of the subject-matter as such, but objection is offered on two other grounds: (i) the too great quantity and variety of intellectual material introduced within a given period; (2) the evident utilization of the subject-matter to present to immature minds ideas and ideals which belong to a later stage of development. 4. The tendency of the kindergarten of the present day is to seek the content material of the program in the daily experiences of the children and to select those particular experiences which are worth interpretation and extension. Life in the home and in the immediate social and physical environment of the children furnishes abundant experience of this character. 5. Suggestions concerning childlike organization of such material will be found in the section ''Manual Activities." 2. MANUAL ACTIVITIES MATERIALS AND METHODS AS OBSERVED IN THE KINDERGARTENS As indicated in the foregoing section, in the work observed in the kindergartens the suggestions or directions given by the teacher for the use of concrete materials were usually in line with the subject-matter for the week, and it was learned that this is the common practice. In one school the carpenter was the subject; here tools or objects made of wood were represented. In another school, in which the postman happened to be the center of interest, envelopes were folded and the children played at writing letters. Sometimes the materials were well selected, and the exercise so or- ganized and motivated that the children were given opportunity and incentive to express their own ideas. At other times the choice of material was not so good and the conduct of the exercise quite formal and unchildhke. Following are detailed descriptions of work seen in two different kindergartens. The first is given as an example of what is regarded as poor method, because it admits of no real thought or expression on the part of the children; the second describes a series of exercises which are distinctly valuable from the standpoint of both content 32 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA and method. They deal with familiar and interesting material. Each exercise is related to previous and subsequent experiences, and is presented in such a way as to stimulate the children to put forth their best effort. A detailed criticism and evaluation of each exercise follows the description. BUILDING EXERCISE Presentation of material. — ^Twenty-five children were seated about the tables. While three children distributed small boxes, each containing eight one-inch cubes (the third gift), the others kept time to piano music by clapping. This was a device used to keep the children from handling the boxes until all were ready. Then followed an elaborate series of exercises, directed by the teacher, the purpose of which was to help the children to take the blocks out of the boxes in a uniform and orderly fashion. First, the lid of each box was pulled out a little way and the box was turned upside down with the lid projecting. The box thus placed was called a piano, the Ud representing the keyboard. Led by the teacher, the children imitated the movement of playing the piano and sang through one or two songs. Next, the lids were all with- drawn at the same moment and waved in the air as flags, while the children sang a flag song. The boxes were then lifted, the lids placed in them, and the boxes deposited under the chairs to the accompaniment of another song descriptive of the action. Subject-matter and method. — The teacher directed the children to lift the upper layer of four blocks and to place them on the table beside the lower layer. This was the carpenter's table or bench. The children were then asked to name some of the tools used by the carpenter and to make them. A form like that in the sketch I — I — ir^/^ appeared and was called a hammer. The teacher next ~~~Cy suggested that all make a carpenter's "measure." This she did with her own set of blocks by placing them in a row. She also suggested counting the inches in the rule. To one child she said, "What is wrong with your rule? It is not like ours." Another arrange- ment of the blocks was named "plane." And then, again following CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 33 the teacher's lead, the children sang a song descriptive of the activities of hammering, sawing, planing, etc. "Now you may make anything you want to," said the teacher. When the time was up, the teacher struck a chord upon the piano which meant that all hands were to be folded. The children were then directed to place the blocks in the form of a cube prepara- tory to putting them away. Criticism. — Presentation of material: To keep the children clapping to music and to lead them, step by step, in the manner described, through the simple process of getting eight little blocks out of a box, are artificial devices used to hold interest and attention and to secure order and uniformity. Instead of developing the power of attention, however, they overstimulate the children and create in them a demand for continuous change and variety. Furthermore, they make the children very dependent upon the teacher. If, in this case, an interesting plan for the use of these blocks had been decided upon before distributing the material, the children would have been ready and eager to get the blocks out and the boxes disposed of as promptly as possible in order to get at the real problem before them. If the thing to be done required that all wait in order to get further directions from the teacher before beginning to build, the children should be trained to exercise the control necessary to this end. Subject-matter and method: If the teacher's aim, as it seemed to be, was to supply the children with material through which they could express their ideas of carpenters' tools, the medium of expres- sion chosen was a very poor one, as the results all too plainly showed. Drawing materials or clay would have been far more suitable for this subject. The subject itself is not one which is likely to bring much response from little children unless an interest in it had been developed through some vital experience, such as making something of wood in which hammer and nails were used, or a visit to a shop where the work with the tools could be seen. Even this would need to be supplemented with pictures, description, etc., before one could expect real expression from the children. Moreover, there was no motive for the work beyond the desire to 34 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA please the teacher. There was no play possible with the objects constructed, no way of testing their efficiency. The wrong thing was that which was "not like ours." This exercise is an example of what one sees so often in the kindergarten — an effort on the part of the teacher to illustrate the various phases of the subject, which she has selected, with the particular materials which she believes the children should be using at the time. This method usually results in the illustration by the children of what is in the teacher's mind, rather than expression on the part of the children of what is in their own minds in regard to the subject. Requiring the children to fold their hands at the end of the period and in response to a signal, before putting the material away, is another illustration of a practice which tends to make automatons of the children. A habit of responding at once to the teacher's request to put material away would be a much more useful one to establish. DRAWING-LESSON In order to do justice to the lesson in drawing, it will be necessary to describe previous exercises. The children had made the paper furniture for a toy kitchen (represented by a hat box) a few days before the day on which the drawing-lesson was given. This had been a group project, each child contributing some piece of furniture which he had made without help or suggestion from the teacher. The products were extremely crude, but it was evident that each presented a child's effort to put into form his idea of the particular object, and each object served reasonably well the play purpose for which it was intended. The plan for the next week was to make a dining-room of this box by substituting dining-room furniture. On this particular day the teacher anticipated and prepared for this new project through free play, conversation, and the drawing-lesson in which we are interested. Free play. — 'At one side of the room stood a three-part screen, behind which was a little table spread with a cloth and set with toy dishes. There were pictures on the walls of this little room, which had been made by the children for the purpose, and a toy cradle and doll, standing in one corner, gave the realistic touch needed. Before CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 35 school the children had had an opportunity to play in the little room with the new dishes. Conversation. — After the singing period the teacher recalled to the class its plan to furnish the little box room as a dining-room and asked what furniture would be needed. A large table, several chairs, and a buffet were the articles mentioned. The fact was brought out that dining-room chairs are usually alike. One child said that there was a fireplace in the dining-room in his house. The teacher accepted this and said that they might be able to make one. She then suggested that they think of ways to make the dining-room furniture before Monday. Drawing. — A little later in the morning, when the time came for handwork, the teacher suggested to the children that they draw pictures of a dining-room with the necessary furniture in it. Paper and crayons were distributed, and the children went to work at once. Every child drew with interest, and the results showed perfectly definite, clear ideas. As they drew, the teacher went about, occasionally making a comment, or asking a question, which tended to lead the particular child addressed to better arrangement or truer representations. At the end of the period the drawings were shown the class and the interesting and excellent features were commented upon by the children or the teacher. Criticism. — 'This lesson in drawing was good for many reasons. The subject was familiar, interesting, and suited to the children's technical abihty. It was particularly well chosen at this time, because of the unusual interest secured through the play dining- room behind the screen and because of the plans for furnishing the box room. The children knew what they were to do before the material was distributed ; hence anticipation of the work to be done held interest for the time necessary to distribute the materials. Drawing was a good mode of expression for this subject. The chil- dren were able to represent the objects very well in simple outline and to show the essential articles of furniture in relation to one another. There was the opportunity also to include the human figure in the picture and thus to express life and action through the drawing. The previous play with toys and the conversation served to define the children's ideas and to enhance the interest, so that 36 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA attention was easily held by the subject when the drawing period came. The lesson had the further advantage of preparing the way for better construction the next week by directing attention to some of the characteristic features of the furniture forms and their relative size. THE ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS THROUGH OBJECTIVE PROJECTS This series of exercises, of which the drawing-lesson was one, suggests a method of organization of ideas through activities which is natural to little children and has value for them. Children spontaneously reproduce the familiar occupations of their immediate social environment in imitative play. They use toys and materials at hand for this purpose, or they make the objects which they need of materials which they can handle. This is their way of becoming acquainted with certain phases of the life which is going on about them, of getting some insight into the meaning of social activities and relationships and some control over concrete materials. As has been said, one of the functions of the kindergarten is to further the child's effort to interpret and to organize his daily experiences. The manual activities furnish one of the best means to this end if they are rightly used. The accompanying photographs illustrate the objective expression of group projects which have proved most valuable as means of holding interest and organizing activity for relatively long periods of time, say, five or six weeks. The kinderhaus. — The kinderhaus, Figs, i and 2 (frontispiece), as the center of housekeeping plays, supplies motive for building neces- sary furniture, for making bedding, table furnishings, kitchen uten- sils, and window curtains. The objects to be made are so familiar that the children have definite ideas to start with, and, given some suggestion and suitable material, they are able to work with relative independence. The intense interest in the project stimulates the children to put forth their best effort in planning and in making the necessary objects. The variety of things needed calls for the use of a variety of materials, and the objects made must stand the test of use in play. The children are thus enabled to judge their own products. The grocery store. — The building and equipping of a grocery store like that shown in Fig. 3, (facing p. 11) is a project still richer in CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 37 possibilities. It necessitates excursions to the store to learn how and with what it is stocked. It calls for a quantity and variety of provisions. It suggests dramatic plays of buying and selling, and its relation to the home (represented by the kinderhaus) is expressed through these plays. Wagons and baskets need to be constructed to deliver the groceries satisfactorily, and the buyers need pocketbooks and money to pay for them. The fourth photo- graph shows the toy store with its Christmas decorations. Community buildings. — The group of community buildings represented in the fifth photograph (facing p. 1 1) is the objective expression of community needs and relationships. It shows many houses, a school, a church, some stores and shops, the street, street lights, automobiles, etc. The remaining pictures (facing p. 41) show the children gardening and feeding their chickens. Other forms of expression. — These various illustrations represent the constructive occupations mainly, but drawing and design are not neglected. The interest in the various subjects represented above is keen enough to carry over into illustrative drawing, and many of the problems in construction call also for design. Patterns for rugs, designs for plate decoration, etc., are neces- sary. There is, also, ample motive for design in such minor projects as the making of room decorations for festival occasions, the making of Christmas presents, valentines. May baskets, Easter cards, etc. It is through work of this character, in which the objects to be made are familiar and interesting, the motive strong, the materials and process suited to the children's technical skill, that children of five or six years of age acquire the ability to attack problems in construction and representation and work them out with relative independence. SUMMARY 1. Both good and poor methods in manual work were observed in the kindergartens. 2. An inferior lesson is described in detail. It is criticized as exhibiting artificial and unnecessary devices for holding attention, a selection of material which did not lend itself to the expression of the subject-material, and a lack of childlike motive. 38 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA 3. An excellent lesson, described in detail, is commended as showing adequate preparation through previous play and con- versation, interesting and suitable subject-matter, well-selected material, and opportunity for thoughtful, independent work on the part of the children. 4. Objective group projects are valuable means of holding interest and of organizing activity over a period of several weeks. Illustrations of such projects are furnishing a playhouse (kinder- haus) ; building and equipping a store ; the setting up of a miniature community, using paper or blocks for the construction of the build- ings; making a garden; and raising chickens. Photographs show the objective expression of these several projects. 3. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE TIME AND ATTENTION GIVEN TO TRAINING IN LANGUAGE When the kindergartners were questioned concerning the time and attention given to language training, the general reply was that language training was carried on in connection with all other activities of the morning. Some few indicated a "morning talk" as part of the daily program; others referred to the memorizing of poetry (especially Mother Goose) and the retelling of familiar stories by the children as methods of language training. These are all excellent means of giving the children of kinder- garten and primary grades training in language. On the days on which the Richmond kindergartens were observed some time was given to repetition of rhymes, but there was comparatively little opportunity or incentive offered the children for free oral expression. The "morning talk" consisted of a succession of questions asked by the teacher which were answered by the children in single words. For example, "What did we wear to keep warm this cold morning ? " "Mittens, coat, sweater." "Yes, and what is the sweater made of?" "Wool." "And where do we get the wool?" etc. This question-and-answer method of conversation rarely calls for any thought on the child's part and so gives him no real training in expression. The answers are generally given by the one or two children who happen to have good memories. The rest sit passively by, giving but a half-hearted kind of attention. CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 39 AN EXERCISE IN ORAL EXPRESSION In contrast to the type of exercise just described the following was observed: The teacher sat down and asked the children to sit on the floor before her so that they might look at some things which had been brought. These things had been left on a table. As the children were called upon in turn, they brought the objects over to show to the class. One of the objects was a toy automobile which had been made at home. The children were much interested in this, but called attention to its shortcomings. In reply to the teacher's questions, they told where the steering wheel and running wheels should be placed. It was suggested to the child who made it that he try to complete it and then bring it back. A second treasure was a very attractive big blue marble. The little Italian who brought this had no English with which to tell anything about it, but at the teacher's suggestion the children arranged themselves in a ring and played with the marble as they had been accustomed to play with a ball. Before rolling it each child would say, "I am going to try to roll it to . " SOME METHODS OF SECURING FREE ORAL EXPRESSION We have here an example of the type of language exercise which brings better results than the one first described. Children usually talk with freedom about those things in which they are tremen- dously interested — their toys, their plays, any new article of clothing, their trips to interesting places, what their fathers and mothers do, what they have done or expect to do, etc. All of these subjects for expression are not equally valuable, but the wise teacher will encourage expression concerning any interest of the child and by tactful guidance lead it into profitable channels. An excellent device is the one just described — that of encouraging the children to bring and to show to the others any object of interest to themselves. With the object in hand the shyest child may be led to tell something about it, and the others will shortly begin to contribute bits of their knowledge or experience suggested by the object. Sometimes the object brought is wrapped in paper. Then the child may be asked to describe it without naming it. If the 40 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA children cannot guess, they begin to ask questions. This centers attention, stimulates thought, and tends to overcome self-conscious- ness on the part of all the children. Early in the year the children bring miscellaneous objects, but as time goes on they begin to bring pictures or objects related to the subjects of interest which are central in the program. THE teacher's CONTRIBUTION TO THE LANGUAGE EXERCISE The teacher may use this time to show the objects or pictures or to suggest the topics to which she wants the children to give attention. Suppose it is the carpenter and his work. The actual making by the children of something of wood, in which nails and hammers had been used, would be a good point of departure. We may assume that the children have done this the previous day. In view of this delightful experience they will discuss with much interest the cutting and planing of the wood which must have preceded their use of it. Examination of some of the actual tools will bring interested question and comment, and a good colored picture of a carpenter at work will stimulate further thoughtful expression. An excursion to a carpenter's shop or to the manual- training room of the school will give materials for conversation another day, and so on. After varied experiences of this kind the children will have something to tell through drawing, and another day their drawings may be used as a topic for conversation. These illustrations are given thus fully to make clear the fact that it is the teacher's function to create situations which will supply incen- tive and motive for free oral expression on the part of the children. When she gets this, she may then gradually correct the child's English, encourage him to use complete sentences in talking, and help him in his choice of words and expressions. GROUP COMPOSITION A short daily period, of about fifteen minutes, devoted to con- versation concerning things of vital interest to the particular group of children serves to supplement and helps to organize experiences gained through other activities at the same time that it gives training in oral expression. As the children gradually overcome 6. Preparing the Ground 7. l^LAMJM. 8. Fkkdinc; the C'hickens CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 41 any natural shyness and begin to express themselves with some degree of freedom, the teacher may help them tc further organiza- tion of their ideas by supplying motive for group composition. This may take the form of a letter to an absent schoolmate or to another grade, a story about an interesting picture, an account of an excursion, or a description of some work done by the children. After discussing with the children some of the things they would like or need to include in such a composition, the teacher may lead them to express their ideas in complete sentences and to arrange the sentences in somewhat logical fashion. The children's interest in this type of work is enhanced by keeping their compositions in a scrapbook and by allowing them to illustrate these descriptions or stories by means of their own drawing or cutting or by suitable pictures. Importance of the position of the children. — The physical position of the children has much to do with the success of an exercise of this kind. Tradition seems to have decreed that there are but two possible arrangements for the children in the kindergarten to take. For all work with materials they must be seated at tables; for all other exercises they must be seated or standing in a ring. The position in the ring is a good one for the playing of games, but for free conversation, or story-telling, or singing, the gathering of the children into an informal group, near to and facing the teacher, is a much more natural and satisfactory arrangement. This group arrangement was seen in one or two kindergartens, but it is not general. STORIES USED IN THE KINDERGARTENS It happened that stories were heard in but three kindergartens during the weeks the schools were visited. Two of the stories heard are stories which appear in the course of study and are two of the best to be found there. One of these, the story of the ''Little Red Hen," is a good and simple story. The other, "Dust under the Rug," by Maud Lindsay, is one of the few modern fairy stories which is at all comparable to the old stories. In fact, so seldom does the modern fairy story escape being weak, sentimental, and thoroughly inartistic that the teacher is wise who keeps to the more wholesome field of traditional stories and folklore. The third of 42 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA the stories heard, " Grandmother Gray," is an example of a guessing game put in story form. The grandmother brings to each of three children a present from her farm in the country. The children guess the nature of the gifts by asking questions about them. This feature is the main charm of the story and its chief reason for being. The play involved is good, but it does not need the story- setting. Especially should this type of story not be regarded as literature. It has none of the characteristics of the literary story and hence does not contribute to the realization of the purpose of story-telling in the kindergarten, which purpose is to make a begin- ning in the development of the appreciation of good Hterature. The course of study in literature. — The opportunity for observing the subject-matter and method in literature in the kindergartens was so limited that the following discussion of the printed course of study is resorted to as a means of presenting some suggestions that may have value. It is understood that the course of study criticized is no longer followed by the Richmond kindergartners, but it represents a type of procedure that is not uncommon. The course of study gives for each month a suggested list of stories from which choice may be made. The titles of these stories show that they have been selected with reference to the subject- matter for the month. Some of them were doubtless selected because they were stories about the particular topic for the month. The story of the "Three Little Kittens" in the September outline is an example. There are some advantages in thus correlating the literature with other parts of the program, if the stories selected meet the requirements of good literature for children. The story referred to is short, simple, suited in content and form to the needs and interests of young children. Used in September, it would doubtless enhance the interest in the general subject for the month — namely, "Pet Animals and Their Family Life." Correlation should not be a primary consideration in the selection of stories for the kindergarten. — Many of the stories in the course of study, selected because they relate to the general program, not only sacrifice literary values, but fail to accompHsh their chief purpose. Some of the stories for October, for example, were undoubtedly CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 43 chosen because they present in imaginative form certain facts and phenomena of nature with which the October program is concerned. Among these stories are ''Baby Bud's Winter Clothes," "Wait and See," and " The Chestnut Boys." Instead of defining and enriching experience, such stories are liable to result in mental confusion, because little children have not had sufficient intimate contact with natural objects and phenomena to be able to appreciate stories about them. The teacher knows the facts which the story tells through its fanciful analogies, and so the story has meaning for her. She often fails to realize, however, that the children's experience with nature has, at best, been extremely limited and meager. A further objection to these nature stories is that they are sentimental and without character. They lack the objectivity and vigor which should characterize story material for little children. There are other stories in the course of study which were evidently selected because they expressed the underlying thought or ideal for the month. "Nahum Prince," under the topic "Patri- otism," is an example. Here again is an effort to present through the story ideals and conceptions which may appeal to the teacher, but which have no meaning for the child of kindergarten age. The stories told in the kindergarten should be selected primarily for their intrinsic values. If they correlate with other parts of the program, well and good, but this is by no means the important con- sideration. Folk and fairy tales the best source of stories for young children. — It is the general consensus of opinion of specialists in the study of literature for young children that the best material for the kinder- garten is to be found in the field of folk literature, the fairy tales that have stood the test of generations. The child from four to eight years of age is on about the same intellectual level as the folk who produced these tales; hence they make strong appeal to his interest and imagination. From the mass of material available, however, very careful selection should be made. The story must be simple, interesting in content, sound in organization, full of action, and it must have a satisfying ending. For a child this is synonjnnous with a happy ending. 44 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA A few examples of stories which fully meet these requirements, together with the collections in which they may be found are listed below. The last two of the stories named appear in the course of study. Name of Story Name of Collection Author Publisher The Three Billy Goats Gruff] The Story of the Pancake 1 The Lad Who Went to thef East o' Ike Sun and West o' the Moon Gudrun Thome Thomsen Row-Peterson North Wind J The Story of the Three Little] Pigs The Johnny Cake J English Fairy Tales Joseph Jacobs Putnam The Shoemaker and the Elvesl Rumpelstilskin J Household Tales Grimm Macmillan The Little Red Hen 1 The Three Bears J Stories to Tell to Children Sara Cone Bryant Houghton SUMMARY 1. The daily program of the Richmond kindergartens does not, in general, make sufhcient provision for training in oral expression. The "morning talk" is often little more than a series of questions asked by the teacher and answered by one or two children. Such an exercise offers no incentive for expression. 2. Good results in oral expression are obtained when children are allowed and encouraged to talk about objects and experiences that are of vital interest to them. The teacher should endeavor to create social situations which will furnish natural motive for free oral expression. Having secured this, she may gradually lead the children to correct and adequate forms of speech. 3. A daily period devoted to conversation about subjects of real interest to the class serves to supplement and to organize experi- ence gained through other activities. This may lead in a natural fashion to group composition in the form of stories about pictures, descriptions of excursions, letters to absent playmates, etc. 4. The social atmosphere, which is conducive to freedom in conversation, is best created by gathering the children into an in- formal group near to and facing the teacher. 5. Two of the three stories which were told when the kinder- gartens were visited represented excellent choice when judged by CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 45 the standard set forth in this section. The third could not be regarded as having value from the standpoint of literature. 6. The stories listed in the course of study have been selected with reference to the subject-material of the program, with the result that literary values are sacrificed to correlation. 7. The best story material for little children is to be found in the folk literature. From this extensive field only those stories should be selected for use in the school which are simple in form, interesting in content, full of action, sound in organization, and happy in their outcome. 4. PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES The plays and games seen in the kindergartens represented a desirable variety. There was in every case an evident attempt to maintain a good balance between the games requiring bodily activity and the quieter games. The balance would have been good if the active games had provided for freer and more vigorous exercise of the muscles and had been planned so that a larger number of children could have taken part at one time. The exercises for physical activity took the form of marching, skipping games, folk games, and imitative movements. Marching affords little freedom of movement. — It seems to be the general practice in these kindergartens to give from five to ten minutes a day to marching. The children form a long line and march about the room to music. Sometimes they clap or swing their arms as they march. This form of exercise is one of the traditional practices of the kindergarten which has little value beyond such training in rhythm as it affords. Marching does not give the freedom of movement and vigorous exercise which little children need. Each child has to regulate his step to the step of the child just ahead, else he will tread on his heels, or fall behind, and thereby leave a gap in the line. If he falls behind and tries to catch up, he loses his rhythm, and thus even this value of the exercise is jeopardized. More active rhythmic plays are needed. — Little children need to walk, run, skip, hop, clap their hands, swing their arms, and whirl about, and they need space in which to indulge in these spontaneous 46 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA movements in order to get the full benefit from them. Many kindergartners are now using the time formerly given to formal marching to a variety of rhythmic plays involving these natural movements. Such plays are superior to the marching exercises in many ways. They give more rapid and vigorous exercise, more freedom and variety of movement, and hence greater opportunity for the development of physical control and grace. The steps and movements are those found in the folk games and dances. They afford, therefore, the best preparation for the learning of some of the simpler of these folk games. Free-movement play requires generous floor space. — It was sug- gested above that space is needed for exercise of this kind. More floor space for the purpose could be secured by pushing tables and chairs as near to the wall as possible and by requiring the children not taking part to stand where they are least in the way. If those not taking part are asked to stand together near the piano, it not only releases the floor space needed for those playing, but gives those not playing at the moment something definite to do while waiting their turn. The mere fact that they must leave their places in the ring and come to a certain definite place in the room, for a certain purpose, helps to concentrate attention and makes for order and control. It should be possible, in addition to using the floor space of the kindergarten room to advantage, to make some use of the ample hall space which is found in many of the buildings. If kindergartens and primary grades alike were to use the halls in this way more freely than they seem to do at present, the children would soon adjust themselves to the situation so that classwork need not be disturbed. Skipping games and folk dances. — Other forms of physical exer- cise which the kindergartens provide in addition to marching are skipping games, imitative movements, and folk games. The skip- ping games, such as skip tag, "How do you do, my partner ?" etc., are good so far as they go, but often only two children play at one time, so that the amount of exercise per child is slight. Further- more, these few games do not offer sufficient variety in steps and figures. The forward and side skip, the two-step, the hop-skip, are simple steps easily acquired by children of kindergarten age and, CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 47 with the help of the piano accompamment, may be organized into simple and childlike dance figures. For example, one child starts the skip. At the sound of the triangle he takes the hand of another child and the two dance. When the triangle sounds again, the two separate and each finds another partner. The game may go on in this way until all are dancing or until eight, perhaps, are on the floor. These may then join hands and skip in a ring, to the right, then to the left, and finally to the center, ending the dance with a bow. As the children skip in couples, they may skip forward, each taking one hand of his partner, or sideways, each facing the other and joining two hands. The hands should not be crossed, however ; it restricts the movement unnecessarily. It will be readily seen that such a skipping game as one now being used in the kinder- gartens, "How do you do, my partner?" etc., may be modified to include the figures just described. This is but one of many possible figures which the ingenious kindergartner may devise to suit the abilities of her particular group of children. Some very usable dancing games may be found in two of the recent books — Dances and Games for Little Children, by Carohne Crawford (A. S. Barnes), and Old English and American Games, by Brown and Boyd (Saul Brothers, Chicago). The imitative movements seen were exercises in which one child, as leader, initiates some form of exercise to music, such as clapping, swinging the arms, tapping the foot, etc., the rest of the class imitating. This type of play was indulged in frequently. There is no objection to some play of this sort. It gives a needed variety perhaps. It has no values not included in the rhythmic play described above, however, and some of the time now given to it might more profitably be given to the forms of play which lead more directly to physical control and grace of movement. The few folk games observed were simple and childlike. The children played them easily and well. "Looby Loo " is an example. Ball games. — Very few ball games were seen. There are many rolling, bouncing, and catching games which afford excellent means for developing alertness and skill. The balls with which the kindergartens are equipped are too small for the kindergarten child to bounce and catch. He is not skilful enough to do this with one 48 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA hand and so needs a ball that is the right size to be handled with both hands. The rubber ball six inches in diameter, referred to in the chapter on equipment, is the right size for this purpose. A good way to begin the bouncing and catching plays is for the teacher, standing in the middle of the ring, to bounce the ball to each of the children in turn. After a little skill has been gained a child may do this. Next, the play may take the triangular form, the leader bouncing the ball to a child, who bounces it to the child next to him, who then returns the ball to the leader; and in this way more complex forms may gradually be developed, the suggestions often coming from the children themselves. While children have to wait their turn in plays of this kind, their attention is held through interest in seeing whether each child remembers just what he is to do with the ball. Games of skill. — The sense plays which were seen were good. Even children of kindergarten age enjoy testing their power and ability to discriminate. These plays afford them the opportunity to discriminate forms, colors, and sounds. The two or three competitive games observed were also excellent. One was a race game in which two children carried a number of blocks, one at a time, from one side of the room to the other. The child who got the blocks over first was, of course, the winner. While competition should not be a prominent element in the games of children so young, such simple forms of competition as this seem to lend a spirit to the games which is very satisfying, especially to children who see older brothers and sisters engaging in competitive games of one sort or another. Some forms of play in the course of study. — The types of games observed in the kindergartens were the same as those listed in the printed course of study. The latter names two specific plays, however, of a type not observed — namely, dramatization of the rabbit and imitation of growing flowers. Possibly games of this sort are now never seen in the Richmond kindergartens, but for the sake of others who may read this report the following may be said: Games of this kind very often represent an effort to secure correlation which results in the selection of a poor medium of CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 49 expression for the ideas involved. A child is not able to reproduce the movements of such an animal as a rabbit. He would not be likely to attempt it unless the suggestion in the first instance came from the teacherf Nor can he represent with any likeness to truth the growing flower. Such unnatural forms of play are easily imposed upon children because children are docile, eager to be active in any way, and delighted to gain the teacher's commenda- tion. This very readiness on the part of children to accept what is offered, however poor it may be, makes it doubly important for the teacher to protect them from unprofitable forms of activity. As suggested in an earlier chapter, the child's interest in plants and animals should be encouraged through opportunities to observe and care for them. His desire to express ideas concerning these natural objects may be satisfied through the mediums of drawing, modeling, and language. Subjects for dramatic expression, on the other hand, should be selected almost entirely from the realm of social Ufe. Studies of children's spontaneous imitations show that 85 per cent of them are imitations of human activities. As has been noted in a previous chapter, the children's way of learning about the activities going on around them is to reproduce these activities in imitative and dramatic play. And so we see them playing at mother, father, store-keeper, driver, fireman, etc. The kindergartner should further this effort of the children to interpret experience by giving them opportunity to carry on these plays in connection with their manual occupations, and by helping them to give fuller and truer expression to the ideas and relations involved. SUMMARY 1. A variety of well-selected games are used in the kinder- gartens, but there is, in general, too much time given to formal marching exercises and too little time to rhythmic plays which call for free, varied, and vigorous activity. 2. The floor space needed for free rhythmic plays in the class- room could be secured by moving the tables close to the walls. When more space is needed, the large halls could be utilized more fully than they are at present. 50 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA 3. Simple dances having movements and figures similar to those characteristic of the folk games may be readily developed from the informal rhythmic play advocated. Such dancing plays are better adapted to the needs of kindergarten children than all but the simplest of the folk games. 4. The balls with which the kindergartens are equipped are too small. Larger ones are needed that advantage may be taken of the many ball games which develop skill and control on the part of the children. 5. Adequate provision is made for other games of skill. 6. The course of study lists among its games representations of rabbits and growing flowers. These are unnatural forms of play which are sometimes imposed by the teachers in an effort to secure correlation. 5. MUSIC Important factors in the child's musical training. — The factors which may contribute to the child's musical education at the kindergarten period are the development of the instinct for rhythm, the training of the singing voice, and the opportunity to listen to suitable music, both vocal and instrumental. Rhythm is fundamental and should be introduced through rhythmic activities of the whole body, such as are afforded by walking, skipping, running, hopping, swinging, clapping, whirling, etc., in time to music. This type of play has been discussed in a previous section and needs no further comment here. The training of the children's voices in the Richmond kinder- gartens is provided for through the singing of rote songs. The program provides also for their hearing some good and suitable piano music and also both vocal and instrumental music through the medium of the victrola. Singing is the only phase of the children's musical training which needs to be discussed at this time. Singing a part of the daily program.- — The singing of songs is a part of every day's program. In some schools the children sing with pleasure and with good tone quaUty, In others the voices are somewhat harsh and the response rather mechanical. The quaHty and accuracy of the teacher's singing voice and her ability at the piano are important factors in the problem. Other sig- CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 51 nificant elements which affect the result are (i) the choice of songs; (2) definite training in tone production; and (3) the position of the children during the singing period. The choice of songs. — ^The songs used in the various kinder- gartens, while good in themselves, are often too long, many of them having three stanzas and few less than two. When the songs used are so k)ng, the tendency of the teacher is to focus attention and effort on teaching the words, to the neglect of the far more important elements — musical tone and accurate pitch. Other songs are not only long, but very difficult to sing. ''The Blacksmith," and "I Am the Little New Year" are examples. Doubtless one reason for the selection of some of these long and difficult songs is that they give satisfactory expression to the seasonal interests or relate to the other subjects of the program. While it is often desirable to use songs which do give poetic and musical expression to some of the central ideas and interests of the program, other important considerations should not be sacrificed to this end. The present-day demand is for shorter, simpler, more childlike songs, suited in range to the young child's voice. Songs of one or two hues are appearing in the recent books and are given the preference by such musical authorities as Calvin B. Cady and Miss Eleanor Smith. Neidlinger was the first to compose and present these songlets in his volume Small Songs for Small Singers. Among the best of the more recent books are Songs of a Little Child's Day, by Smith and Poulsson; The Song Primer, by Alys Bentley; Child Land in Song and Rhythm, by Jones and Barbour, and the Congdon Music Primer. Training in tone production. — Parallel with the teaching of a few simple songs there should be some definite work in ear-training and voice-placing. Tone plays have proved of special value as means to this end. Through them drill may be given in tone-matching, in imitation of simple musical intervals and of the scale. Imitations of bells, whistles, horns, the sound of the violin, the sound of the wind, certain animal sounds, etc., give experience in tone-matching. Call-and-answer plays and echo plays give practice in imitation of intervals. Play ideas, such as descending a ladder, running down hill, etc., give motive for scale exercises. No work of this 52 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA kind was observed in the Richmond kindergartens. The children sang one song after another with practically no criticism from the teacher and little apparent effort toward securing improvement. There is no doubt that a more careful selection of songs, with some attention to tone plays, of the kind indicated, would do much toward securing more interest in singing and better singing than now exists in some of the kindergartens. The position of the children. — A third factor to be considered is the position of the children during the singing period. In the schools observed the children, with the exception of those in one kindergarten, were either seated or standing in a ring. Better results would be obtained if the children were gathered into a group standing near the piano where they could hear the teacher easily. They would realize then that this was the time primarily for sing- ing. When standing close together and near the piano, they get the effect of the blending of the voices; the teacher can easily place the monotones near her or near a child whose voice is true; a small choir may be assembled quickly for small-group singing, etc. Experience has shown that a short period of relatively intensive work of this kind brings better results than the more common practice which distributes the singing through the morning. The child's attention is centered on singing rather than divided between singing and play. It is possible, and often desirable, to interrupt the singing for the purpose of giving dramatic expression to the song, after which the children may return to their position near the piano. It is not suggested that there should be no singing except at this time. Songs learned at this time may sometimes be used to advantage at other times, in connection with the games or as introductory to, or closing, the school day. SUMMARY 1. The development of the instinct for rhythm, the training of the singing voice, and the opportunity to hear suitable music are the factors which contribute to the musical training of children at the kindergarten period. 2. The singing in the kindergartens is not uniformly good, owing in part to the kind of songs which are taught, insufficient CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF KINDERGARTEN 53 attention to ear-training and voice-placing, and the position of the children during the singing period. 3. The songs are generally too long and many of them very difficult to sing. Authorities on children's songs advocate very short, simple songs, carefully selected with reference to the range of the young child's voice. 4. No special exercises for ear-training and tone production were observed in the kindergartens. This is a serious omission. 5. Better results would be obtained by devoting a short period daily to the singing of songs and tone plays, with the children standing near the piano during the exercise. BIBLIOGRAPHY The brief list of references which are here given may serve to reinforce in fuller statement some phases of the foregoing discussion. Most of the suggested reading is to be found in educational journals and bulletins. There are a few references to specific chapters in books on elementary education. The titles of the articles and chapters referred to indicate with sufficient clearness their bearing upon the material of this report, Dewey, John. The School and Society (revised edition), chapter v, "Froebel's Educational Principles." Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Gesell, A. L. and B. C. The Normal Child and Primary Education, chapters on "Language," "Handwork," "Literature," "Reading," "Nature-Study," "Busy Work," "Outdoor Play," "Discipline," "FormaUsm," and "Child PersonaUty." Boston: Ginn & Co. Hill, Mary D. "The Educational Values Which the Child Carries Over from the Kindergarten into the Primary Grades," Kindergarten and First Grade, November, 1916. Hill, Patty S. "Some Conservative and Progressive Phases of Kindergarten Education," National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Sixth Yearbook, Part II. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. MacClintock, Porter Lander. Literature in the Elementary School, chapters on "Story," "The Choice of Stories," "Folk-Tale and Fairy Story." Chi- cago: The University of Chicago Press. Palmer, Luella A. "Adjustment between Kindergarten and First Grade," U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 191 5, No. 4. . "Practical Means of Unifying the Work of Kindergarten and Pri- mary Grades," Kindergarten and First Grade, January, 1917. . "Some Reconstructive Movements within the Kindergarten," Psychological Clinic, June, 1913. Sies, Alice Corbin. "Problems in Sensory-Motor Education Involving the Selection of Play Materials and Apparatus for Small Children," Kinder- garten and First Grade, February, 19 16. Temple, Alice. "The Occupations of the Kindergarten," Elementary School Teacher, April, 1909. "The Course of Study in Community Life, History, and Civics in the Uni- versity Elementary School, the University of Chicago," Elementary School Journal, February, 191 7. 54 INDEX INDEX Advantages of kindergarten training, 24. Afternoon hours: present use of, 18-19; suggested use of, 20-21. Age: of admission, 2; of promotion, 2. Automatic response, 6, 34. Ball games, 47-48. Balls, 12, 13. Bentley, Alys, 51. Bibliography, 54. Blocks and boards, 10, 11, 13. Board of education and summer study, 16. Brown and Boyd, 47. Building exercise: criticized, 33-34; described, 32-33. Cady, Calvin B., 51. Care of animals, 9. Community buildings, 37. Composition, 40; motive for, 41. Conferences with teachers, v, 27. Congdon music primer, 51. Control, methods of, 5-6. Correlation, 42. Course of study: continuity in, 21, 23; forms of play in, 48; not representa- tive, 27; printed — reference to, v; subject-matter of, 30. Crawford, Caroline, 47. Curriculum and methods, 27-53; lan- guage and literature, 38-45; manual activities, 31-38; music, 50-53; physi- cal activities, 45-50; subject-matter and methods, 27-31. Devices, artificial, ^$. Disadvantages of kindergarten training, 24. Dolls, 12. Dramatic play, 48. Drawing: design, 37; lesson criticized, 35-36; and lesson described, 34-35. Educative occupations needed in first grade, 25. Enrolment, 2. Equipment, 8-14; furniture, 8, 13; materials for play and handwork, 10- 12; musical instruments, 9, 13; pic- tures, 9; plants and animals, 9; present needs, 13. First grade and kindergarten: advantages and disadvantages of kindergarten training, 24; continuity in course of study lacking, 23; first-grade children need educative occupations and more play, 25. Folk and fairy tales, 43. Folk games, 46, 47. Furniture, 8, 13. Games: ball, 47; of skill, 48; skipping, 46. Gardening, 9. Grocery store, building and equipping of, 36. Habits: of automatic response, 5-6; of independence, obedience, etc., 5. Hibberd School, 20. History of kindergarten in Richmond, 1-2. Home visiting, 19. Imitative movements, 47. Interdependence and co-operation, ideals of, 29. Jones and Barbour, 51. Kindergarten and first grade: advan- tages of kindergarten training, 24; continuity in course of study, 23; disadvantages of kindergarten train- ing, 24-25; relation between, 23-26. Kindergarten children: dependent in handwork, 24; independent in distribut- ing materials, etc., 5, 24; obedient, orderly, etc., 5. Kindergartens, the, 1-7; enrolment in, 2; extent of, in Indiana, i; history of, in Richmond, 1-2; nationalities repre- sented, 3. 57 58 THE KINDERGARTENS OF RICHMOND, INDIANA Kinderhaus, 12, 13, 36. Language and literature, 38-45; teacher's contribution to, 40; time given to, 38. Literature, course of study in, 42. Manual activities, 31-38; building exer- cise criticized, 33-34; building exercise described, 32-33; drawing lesson criticized, 35-36; drawing lesson de- scribed, 34-35; related to subject- matter, 31. Manual arts supervisor, conferences with, V. Marching, 45. Materials for play and handwork, 10-12, 13- Methods, curriculum and, 27-53. Motive: kinderhaus supplies, 36; for design, 37; lack of, ^y, strong, 37; to please teacher, 33. Music, 50-53; choice of songs, 51; sing- ing, 50; training in tone production, 52. Musical Education, factors in, 50. Musical instruments, 12, 13. Nationalities represented in kinder- garten, 3. Nature study, basis of, 9. New materials substituted for traditional, 12. Oral expression: an exercise in, 39; methods of securing, 39-40. Organization of subject-matter, 28-30. Parent-Teachers' Association, 20. Physical activities, 45-50; ball games, 47 dramatic plays, 48; games of skill, 48 marching, 45; rhythmic plays, 45 skipping games and folk dances, 46. Pictures, 9. Projects: group, 34; objective, 36-37. Prospective teachers, training of, 17. Rhythmic plays, 45; need generous floor space, 46; superior to marching, 46. Salary schedule: compared with twenty- eight cities, 17; relatively good in Richmond, 16; same as that of ele- mentary teachers, 18. Seating of the children, 8. Singing: in daily program, 50; position of children for, 52. Skipping games and folk dances, 46. Songs, choice of, 51. Starr school, 18. Stories: correlation not primary con- sideration, 42; examples of good stories, 44; folk and fairy tales best source, 43; nature stories, 43 ; selected for intrinsic value, 43; used in kinder- garten, 41. Subject-matter: "Lights," 29; organiza- tion of, criticized, 28; organization through projects, 36-37; present prac- tice in selection of, 29-30; the trades, 27. Subject-matter and methods, 27-31. Summer study, 16. Supervision needed, 17. Supplies, annual cost of, 13. Survey material, how gathered, v. Teachers, 15-22; compared to first-grade teachers, 15; need of summer study, 16; prospective teachers, 17; training and experience, 15; use of afternoon hours, 18-21. Tone production, 51-52. Toys, 12, 13. Trades as subject-matter, 27. Traditional materials, 10, 11. Vaile kindergarten, 3. Visits to the schools, v, 27. Whitewater school, 3, 20. SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Edited in conjunction with The School Review and The Elementary School Journal Published by THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS VOL. I Monograph No. 1 Studies of Elementary-School Reading through Standardized Tests. By William Scott Gray, Ph.D., Instructor in Educa- tion and Dean of the College of Education, University of Chicago. Pp. viu-{-ij8. Price $i.oo. Monograph No. 2 An Experimental Study in the Psychology of Reading. By William A. 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