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NTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 A SYLLABUS 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER JOHN GIFFORD 
 HARRISONBURG, VA. 
 

 
Introduction to Psychology 
 
 A SYLLABUS 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER JOHN GIFFORD 
 
 DEAN AND HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 HARRISONBURG, VA. 
 
 1922 
 THE GARRISON PRESS, 
 
 HARRISONBURG, VA. 
 
IN N 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1922, 
 By WALTER JOHN GIFFORD 
 
 ©CI. A66 1 g . I 
 
 ; 
 
 
STATEMENT TO THE STUDENT 
 
 This course unlike a good many courses stresses thinking rather 
 than memorization of facts. This latter should follow logically and is 
 provided for in reviews and by a certain amount of paralleling of the 
 first term's work with that of the second. Problem-solving or answering 
 questions has long been supposed to be a good method of study, but it 
 is infrequently incorporated into textbooks. Therefore, after ten years 
 of trying out various texts, the instructor has devised these questions 
 based on experience and most of them used at some time, hoping the 
 course will be easier, more practicable and more tangible, and better 
 rounded out than otherwise it would be. 
 
 Method of Daily Preparation. Ordinarily the method of preparation may 
 well include (1) review of the previous lesson, perhaps writing a 
 brief summary or making an outline, (2) reading the introductory 
 statement of the instructor, and then (3) a reading of the questions. 
 You would then take up the reading or readings and seek to answer 
 the questions or work the exercises. It is an excellent plan to do some 
 reviewing, (recalling or relearning), before the class meets for its 
 recitation. 
 
 Assignments Uneven. You will find the assignments uneven as it is not 
 possible to find topics of equal value or difficulty for each lesson, or 
 if they could be so weighted for one person they would not be such 
 for another. Consequently, expect to spend more time on one lesson 
 than on another. The instructor does not expect you to spend all your 
 time on this course, but hopes the time will run about as in other 
 courses. The time suggested in the catalog and elsewhere, namely, 
 two hours of preparation, is intended as a mean or average for the class. 
 
 Ability to Answer Questions. This will vary much and you may find 
 questions that prove an absolute stumbling-block, others you are 
 not certain about, and others where you misinterpret the matter and 
 will have to be set right in class. Don't feel that it is your right to 
 come to class unprepared, but do feel that it is the business of the 
 recitation to clear up difficulties. 
 
 Readings. As students vary greatly in the ability to read during a given 
 length of time, no absolute requirement in most cases is laid down. 
 No one could read all the references made with each lesson and there 
 is some danger of reading too much as well as of reading too little. The 
 instructor will usually discuss the readings on each topic in advance. 
 
 Note-taking. It is probably desirable to take some notes on what you 
 read. Most students take too many notes; some, too few. With these 
 exercises to guide you very likely most of the references can be read 
 with attention only to parts of the chapter or assignment, and the 
 notes might be taken briefly under each exercise. At any rate this 
 method is worth trying and if you do not like it later, and feel that 
 you would like to give it up, talk freely with the instructor. 
 
 The right hand page has been left blank because it was thought 
 that it would be more convenient for you in taking notes either in the 
 library or in class. Of course the one page will not always suffice. 
 You can easily unstaple the syllabus and place in your note book. It 
 is well to protect the eyelets with Denison rings. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The syllabus outlined here is the result of ten years experience in 
 teaching psychology and educational psychology in colleges and normal 
 schools. The author has found it usually a rather difficult subject, 
 especially for students just out of high school. He fell into the method 
 early, of assigning questions and gradually has turned from the fact ques- 
 tion as the major type to the so-called thought provoking question. For 
 the method, perhaps indebtedness ought to be acknowledged to Professor 
 W. H. Kilpatrick with his classes in philosophy of education (see his 
 recently published syllabus) and to the Outlines of Economics, by Marshall, 
 Wright and Field, published by the University of Chicago Press. 
 
 Such a plan finds its corollary in the use of questions following each 
 chapter in texts and will in time perhaps be carried out by interspersing 
 these questions in a sort of outline within the body of the text. It is 
 printed on. note-paper for the student and therefore can be easily changed 
 from year to year as new researches of especial importance or new ideas 
 about the desirability of the arrangement or the content come to the 
 teacher's mind. 
 
 For the content and the point of view, indebtedness is especially 
 acknowledged to Professors Thorndike and Woodworth and to Professor 
 Strong, a pupil of both, whose book, Introductory Psychology for Teachers, 
 lu.o been the most hopeful of all experiments in psychologizing psychoid 
 There is a great deal of borrowing without reference because the ideas of 
 these authors who are from time to time referred to, have given us notions 
 of such value that they have become incorporated into our thinking, just 
 as for example, every student and teacher of psychology unwittingly 
 utilizes constantly without recognition, the findings of that renowned 
 pioneer of modern psychology. William James. 
 
 This outline was written for the specific use of students just out of 
 high school, and is planned for one quarter, meeting three times a week, 
 the quarter being the first one of the first year of the course. The second 
 quarter is given over to a study of educational psychology very much 
 along the line of Professor Strong's text, stressing individual differences, 
 the learning process and the use of standard achievement and intelligence 
 tests for diagnostic purposes. The third quarter is. in some respects, a 
 continued application of the subject-matter of the first two. as it is given 
 to problems of classroom management and teaching. There are four 
 sections of the class, due to size and nature of work; those electing to 
 teach in the primary grades, the grammar grades, the junior hi Ji school, 
 and to teach the special subject of home economics, this being a Smith- 
 Hughes training school. Consequently, the bias given the course with 
 various groups should and will duffer considerably. 
 
 The syllabus is cast in the printed rather than the mimeographed 
 form because of repealed requests for copies as the result of the fact that 
 at the 1922 session of the Department of Superintendence of tin National 
 Education Association, a Committee on Standards and Surveys of the 
 Association of Presidents of Stale Teachers Colleges announced that 
 it was the prize syllabus of those ottered for this Committee's considera- 
 tion. It is the intention of the author to make revisions from time t<> 
 time and he is hopeful that his friends in the profession will freely (Her 
 siii*i*estions and criticisms. 
 
EXPERIMENT REPORTS: GENERAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 Note. It is important to learn to report accurately the results and con- 
 clusions drawn from a study of anything experimentally whether it 
 be chemistry, biology or psychology. The following outline is brief 
 and should be followed closely unless the instructor suggests that 
 it is not necessary to do so in the case of a given experiment. 
 
 Experiment Reports 
 
 1. Statement of the Problem. This may be and preferably should be 
 in the form of a question which you hope to answer, altho it will not 
 always be easy or worth while to put it in this form. 
 
 2. Apparatus and Procedure. If the experiment is at all complex, it is 
 well to divide your statement concerning each of these matters, say 
 by having different paragraphs. If you vary in any respect from the 
 method laid down by the instructor, note it here. You will ordinarily 
 not be censured for such variation but your conclusions are certain 
 to be different and as a good experimenter you want to be accurate 
 in every detail. 
 
 3. Results. The results will include all tabulations, charts, and facts that 
 grow out of your experimentation. Sometimes this will require a 
 separate sheet, for example, of graph paper; this should be placed 
 here and not at the end or beginning of your report. 
 
 4. Interpretation, Introspections, Applications, Conclusions. In this part 
 of the report it is important that you discuss freely the results, using 
 your former reading and class discussion where they apply, and that 
 you note any laws, or applications of a practical nature, or any 
 problems that are not answered but are of interest and apparent value. 
 This is the part of the report that requires thought and care ordinarily. 
 
 General Directions 
 
 Not always but frequently two people will work together, E the 
 experimenter or one in charge of the experiment and O the observer 
 upon whom the experiment is performed and who observes or intro- 
 spects. Usually E and O alternate; after the first performance of the 
 experiment they change places and perform it a second time. 
 
 Each time before handing in your report make sure of the following 
 items for the sake of uniformity and ease of looking over the papers: 
 (1) that the date and hour and name of the writer-up of the experiment 
 are placed in the upper righthand corner of the first sheet, (2) that the 
 name of the E and O appear in the lefthand corner and (3) that all the 
 sheets of the report be securely fastened together. 
 
 [ 3 ] 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Note. Only the books frequently used are listed here and they are 
 ordinarily referred to with the name of the author only. In case of 
 two texts listed here by the same author, the first letters of the main 
 words of the titles are used in addition to the name of the author. 
 
 Angell, Psychology 
 
 Averill, Psychology for Normal Schools 
 Bagley, The Educative Process 
 Bolton, The Principles of Education 
 Cameron, Psychology and the School 
 Colvin, The Learning Process 
 \ Colvin and Bagley, Human Behavior 
 Dewey, How we Think 
 Dewey, Moral Principles in Education 
 Freeman, How Children Learn 
 James, Brief Course in Psychology 
 Norsworthy and Whitley, Psychology of Childhood 
 Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology 
 Pyle, Science of Human Nature 
 Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach 
 Strong, Introductory Psychology for Teachers 
 Thorndike, Elements of Psychology 
 Thorndike, Original Nature of Man 
 Thorndike, Principles of Teaching 
 Titchener, Textbook in Psychology 
 Woodworth, Psychology 
 
 [ 4 ] 
 
CH. I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 Lesson 1. What Psychology is 
 
 Our first problem naturally is to find out something about this study, 
 which, because it it new and different from anything you have studied 
 before, may seem difficult at first, but which, because it concerns you 
 and your friends, and your future pupils, ought to prove a most interest- 
 ing and fascinating study. Do not read any of the references until you 
 read thru the questions. Probably the most interesting reference today 
 is that to Professor Strong's, Introductory Psychology for Teachers. If 
 you read that, note how he illustrates various kinds or branches of the 
 subject of psychology from stories, newspaper accounts and similar 
 material such as you are reading every day. 
 
 References: Strong, ch. 1; or Pyle, ch. 1; or Pillsbury, ch. 1; or any 
 other good general text in psychology if these are not available. Question 
 1 below, is adapted from Thorndike, E. P., p. 2. 
 
 1. Which of the following terms refer to mental facts? To physical 
 facts? Which may refer to either? How? Gas, tree, sympathy, 
 money, desire, wish, dog, stone, dreams, headache, inventiveness, 
 pound, taste, intelligence, heavy, sour, oxygen, fatigue, load, pleasure, 
 observe, remember, image, idea, brain. 
 
 To what kind of facts do the following refer? 
 Mob, race, fashion, custom, family, government. 
 
 2. What is suggested to your mind about the relationship of the three 
 sciences listed below, i. e. how are they dependent upon each other: 
 physiology (and biology), psychology, and sociology? Is psycho] 
 likely to utilize, or to be more or less dependent upon the sciences of 
 astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics? 
 
 3. From a reading of Strong, pp. 5-12, what do you notice regarding the 
 variety of problems of psychology? What arc the kinds of psychology 
 you can find in reading this chapter, e. g. animal psychology, adolescent 
 psychology, psychology of advertising, etc.? Can you suggest other 
 branches of the subject? 
 
 4. From different texts you will note the tendency of psychologists to 
 define psychology either as the science of consciousness or of behavior. 
 What does each mean? Which of these points of view is likely to be 
 more profitable for education? 
 
 5. What advantage if any, do you see in the statement that it is the 
 science or study of mental life. i. e., can you harmonise these two 
 points of view in that way? 
 
 [ 6 ] 
 
Lesson 2. Methods Used in Psychology 
 
 In the first lesson you found out something about the study of 
 psychology; therefore, before you begin the new lesson, write a paragraph 
 of perhaps 100 to 150 words at the end of the class-notes of the last les- 
 son, summing up that lesson, briefly and simply, under the question, 
 "What is Psychology?" Just as that lesson dealt largely with the prob- 
 lem of the subject-matter or content of psychology, so this one will deal 
 with the methods used. This is very important because, while a member 
 of this course at least, you are to be a young psychologist, and as far as 
 you are able with so little experience and training, you will want to re- 
 discover many of the things discovered by trained students of the subject 
 and, by application of what they have found, to be able to improve your 
 methods of work and study. One aim of your work might be that "sug- 
 gested by Professor Seashore, "Not psychology, but to psychologize." 
 Do not read or study question 6 below. 
 
 References: Consult the early chapters, usually the first or second 
 of several texts in psychology under the heading "methods" to find their 
 point of view concerning the methods of the subject; Pillsbury, Pyle, 
 Angell, Titchener, Cameron, Averill, Woodworth, etc. 
 
 1. Make a list or table of the methods discussed by the different authors 
 you read, giving credit to each for that which he mentions, and noting 
 agreement and disagreement among them. What seems to be the 
 fundamental difference between psychology and other natural sciences 
 in the matter of method, e. g. chemistry? 
 
 2. Titchener says "the method of psychology is observation." How do 
 you tie up with this the methods of introspection and experiment? 
 
 3. To which type of method is the "behavior" psychologist, who is likely 
 to work with animals, biased? The "consciousness" psvchologist .' 
 Why? 
 
 4. Whatever methods are being used, there arc certain precautions re- 
 guarding the tabulation of results and their use that must be borne 
 in mind. What are these? 
 
 5. Why is it that two or more witnesses who have seen the same event 
 may without perjury, give very different \i rsions on the witness stand? 
 Does this have anything to do with method in psychologj 
 
 6. Class Experiments illustrative of psychological method. 
 
 a. The instructor will display advertisements (not more than five 
 nor less than 3) and students will arrange them in an order of merit. 
 Why do you place them in this order? That is. what different effect 
 does the best one have upon you? 
 
 b. At a given signal "Go." the instructor will ask you to begin m a kin g 
 short vertical marks upon a paper, for a period of one-half minute. 
 How many do you make in comparison with other members of the 
 class? What helping or hindering ideas went thru your mind ? 
 
 c. The instructor will ask 15 01 20 members to stand in a circle so 
 that all are facing clockwise. At a signal "Go" one member will touch 
 the one in front, etc.. until the person who began is touched. The 
 instructor will keep the time and the average gives what may he called 
 the simple reaction-time for the average member of the group. 
 
 d. Which of the above experiments illustrates the method of intro- 
 spection? Of experiment? Do they form a sort of scries as regards 
 methods used? 
 
 [ 7 ] 
 
Lesson 3. The Major Topics or Problems in Psychology 
 
 Until very recently, psychologists, as indeed many other people today, 
 thought of the mind as a set of more or less independent functions or 
 faculties, such as memory, reasoning, perception, and so forth. Today 
 we are apt to liken it to a well organized telephone system, with its cen- 
 tral, its connecting wires, and its receivers and transmitters. In other 
 words we try to think of it as a unitary machine or organism, now learn- 
 in, now thinking, now remembering, in rapid succession or indeed per- 
 haps simultaneously. While a flower is no longer a flower when you have 
 taken it to pieces for study in the botany class, and the mind is no longer 
 mind when you analyze it into the functions that make it up, nevertheless 
 we shall have to take up these interrelated and closely interwoven func- 
 tions separately to come to know something of them in detail. Today we 
 shall make a brief acquaintance with a large number of them in prepara- 
 tion for the more detailed study of the rest of the term. 
 
 References: Consult tables of contents or indexes of any one or 
 more of the psychology texts noted in previous lessons, except perhaps 
 Strong. But as usual read the exercises below, first. 
 
 1. In the following paragraph is a hypothetical experience which you 
 might have had some time, in which a number of these major 
 psychological functions of the mind are found. The words used to 
 indicate them are in bold face, and where they are not used in the text 
 are listed in parentheses following the phrase or clause of description. 
 
 Suppose during a vacation, you are going down town and suddenly 
 as you walk along recalling experiences of the day before (memory), 
 a puff of smoke and a shrill noise (sensation), which you immediately 
 interpret as indications of an incoming train (perception), arrest your 
 attention. You quicken your step at the thought that perhaps some 
 of your friends who arc away at school may be returning on this train, 
 and decide (will) to go to the depot in the earnest hope (emotion) that 
 you may meet them. You arrive in time and your curiosity (instinct) 
 is satisfied, but there is no friend. You then turn your steps up the 
 street as you have been accustomed to do many previous times (habit) 
 and are soon at your original destination. 
 
 After you have thought over these experiences many of which follow 
 one another in more rapid succession than they can be described and 
 have tried to define them, turn to a text which you have used before 
 preferably, and find a psychologist's definition. Couch each in 
 simple terms as possible and give credit to the author in your notes. 
 Perhaps the following order would be best: instinct, emotion, sensa- 
 tion, perception, attention, memory, thought, will or volition, habit. 
 The following form of definition or description might be used. — 
 "Instincts are " 
 
 2. Similarly try to break up or analyze some one or more of the follow- 
 ing or kindred experiences: (a) sitting in the classroom when some- 
 one is reciting or the teacher is lecturing, (b) at the breakfast table, or 
 (c) at the study desk with perhaps your history text open before you. 
 noting which of the mental functions listed in 1 above, are to be found, 
 and what others. Write up your experience, beginning somewhat as 
 follows: "While sitting at my disk at half past eight o'clock 
 
 [ S ] 
 
Lesson 4. Situation, Bond and Response 
 
 Before we turn to the detailed study of these large problems in 
 psychology, it seems important to get a point of view that has recently 
 come into psychology, and that will undoubtedly help you to keep in 
 mind this unitary nature of mental life as we work along with the different 
 mental processes. That point of view is that all mental life or conscious- 
 ness or behavior, may be thought of as being comprised of situations or 
 stimuli (singular, stimulus), and bonds or connections, and responses or 
 reactions. We shall use the letters S, B and R, to denote these and try 
 today to get a preliminary view of these terms and their meanings. This 
 lesson should be of special profit to you if you apply the idea to what you 
 do in study or recitation or at any time during your waking life or indeed 
 in your dream life, that is that always you are reacting to situations pre- 
 sented and that you are reacting in one way and not another because cer- 
 tain bonds have been inherited or formed. 
 
 References: Freeman, ch. 1, or Strong, chs. 2-4 (to be sketched only). 
 Unfortunately, there are few good references on this subject but that 
 may make it all the more interesting if you will follow thru the problems 
 suggested below. Most recent texts treat these topics briefly. 
 
 1. If some one should make a thrust at your face, you would wink. 
 Similarly, if when you have your knees crossed, some one should 
 strike the upper knee, the foot would fly up. What is S and what is 
 B in each case? Do you also get a notion of what the B is like? 
 
 2. When you are called upon in this class (S) and make answer (R), 
 what do you notice about S compared with S in 1 above? Name in 
 detail in this case all the things that go to make up the S. Is the R 
 similarly complex? Are most S's and R's complex or simple? 
 
 3. In the following illustrations, note wherever possible, what, if any. 
 of the mental functions discussed in Lesson 3 are present, e. ii. if one 
 unexpectedly comes upon an old friend (perception), one is first struek 
 with surprise (emotion) and thin reaches out the hand in greeting 
 (habit) : 
 
 Situations Responses 
 
 Rumbling noise heard Person thinks "thunder" 
 
 Pupils sees word "s-c-h-o-o-1" Pupil thinks "school" 
 
 Teacher calls pupil's name Pupil goes to board 
 
 Person thinks of mail Person goes to postofiice box 
 
 Person sees approaching auto Person steps back in fear 
 
 4. The connections between S's and R's are called B's. What is the dif- 
 ference between the bonds in 1 and in 'A above, i. e. which are learned 
 and which did not need to he learned? Try now to define the terms 
 S, R, and B. 
 
 5. What is learning, and what is teaching, in terms of these three words 
 or concepts? What, in these terms also, is the purpose of the el 5S- 
 room recitation? 
 
 6. Now look back to your summary of Lesson 1 and see how you might 
 profitably supplement it or change it to incorporate this new idea of 
 mental life. Can you take a given period of your life, say five minutes 
 of the classroom period, and analyze it into the S's and R's that go to 
 make it up? (See Lesson 5, question 2). 
 
 [ 9 ] 
 
Lesson 5. Review 
 
 As far as possible it will be important for you to proceed in this 
 course according to the recognized laws and principles of psychology. 
 Information to be usable must not only be learned but reviewed or re- 
 learned. It is going to be a valuable thing for you at this time to see (1) 
 how quickly and fully you recognize the points which you have taken 
 up and learned in preceding lessons, (2) how difficult or easy these prin- 
 ciples or facts now seem to you as compared with the first time you came 
 upon them in your reading or class discussion, and (3) how well 
 you have formed the habit of keeping your readings and other work 
 up-to-date. If you have never tried the habit, it will be very much worth 
 while to make an effort now to substitute for last-minute preparation of 
 your psychology lesson, the practice of studying it immediately after your 
 recitation (or as shortly after as you have time) . What has this sugges- 
 tion to do with the matter of learning as making bonds? 
 
 1. Make up an outline-digest of the material covered thus far in the 
 course. It can follow fairly closely, the outline of the preceding les- 
 sons and should not have too many main topics. The instructor will 
 be of any help he can be in shaping this up after you come to class. 
 By the term digest, is meant the idea that an outline, to be useful, can- 
 not be a mere skeleton, but should include descriptive phrases and 
 clauses, e. g., if you wanted to include the topic, "Two opposing views 
 of psychology," you would not follow this simply with "(a) conscious- 
 ness and (b) behavior," but rather with "(a) consciousness: the 
 description of the contents of mind, its different processes, (b) be- 
 havior: " 
 
 2. As a supplement especially to lesson 4, and a review ( this word moans 
 a new view), write to hand in, a list of 20 situations and their appro- 
 priate responses, as in question 3, Lesson 4. It would be valuable if 
 you would make a few of these apply to preceding lessons, e. g. "Hear 
 the word situation — Think of psychology class." Or it would be 
 excellent to select experiences out of your daily life, securing as much 
 variety as time allows. 
 
 [ 10 ] 
 
CH. II. PHYSICAL BASIS OF MENTAL LIFE 
 
 Lesson 6. Relation of mind and body; nervous system, neurone, synapse 
 
 The purpose of this and the next two lessons is to give you a working 
 notion of the physical basis or background of your mental life. It may 
 seem to you that it is really a study of physiology, but it is rather physiolo- 
 gical psychology. Probably it could have been omitted or placed differ- 
 ently in the course but the instructor's experience is that it proves help- 
 ful to have this background early if it is not made too detailed or technical. 
 Just as one is better able to understand the products of a country if one 
 understands the physical conditions underlying those products, the nature 
 of the soil, the rock formation, the direction and nature of the winds, 
 so you will understand memory, perception, and thought better if you 
 get a few accurate notions about the nervous system and its functioning. 
 
 It will be valuable for you to begin at this time outlining your les- 
 sons either before or after the recitation or both, and it may be very 
 much worth while to continue making the brief paragraph summaries. 
 
 References: While practically all elementary texts in psychology 
 have chapters on the nervous system, it may be best for every one during 
 these next three periods, to make use largely, of Strong, chs. 40, 41, Pills- 
 bury, ch. 2, ch. 3, pp. 46-54, Thorndike, E. P. pp. 120-102, (excellent cuts). 
 If you want a brief statement before you begin the longer discussion, see 
 Cameron, ch. 2, or Averill, ch. 3. 
 
 1. Can you imagine a body without a mind or a mind without a body? 
 What is the relationship of the two? What evidence have we that 
 the mind depends upon physical structures? 
 
 2. What is that part of the body called which forms the physical basis 
 of mind (consciousness, behavior)? What are the main parts.' What 
 may be said to be its main functions? Explain this last in terms of 
 S, R, B, if possible. 
 
 3. What are the general physical characteristics of each of the nerve 
 cells, or neurones? Be able to draw at least three different types and 
 label the parts. 
 
 4. How are functions of the nerve cells unlike and how like those of 
 other cells? Into what three general classes are the neurones divided 
 according to function, and where is each largely located? 
 
 5. What is the nervous current? What are the important facts about it. 
 its rate, its paths, etc.? 
 
 6. What is the synapse? Describe and diagram it. Note in this connec- 
 tion, the probable function of each part of the neurone. What is the 
 relation of the synapse to the bond (B) ? 
 
 [ 11 ] 
 
Lesson 7. The Three Levels of Action 
 
 In the last lesson we saw how the central nervous system deter- 
 mines mental life, how it is composed of simple elements ( the nerve 
 cells), and how they join at the synapse, thus making possible the trans- 
 mission of the nerve impulse. Today we shall study action or behavior, 
 some of it not ordinarily conscious, and some of it representing the most 
 complicated acts that the human organism can perform. Do not expect 
 to be able to answer all of the questions without reading. 
 
 References: See lesson 6. 
 
 1. If you prick your hand slightly, it will be withdrawn involuntarily 
 thru reflex action, the control being on the lower level and thru the 
 spinal cord. Show how in turn (a) the mid-brain and (b) the cere- 
 brum become involved when (a) the prick is severe enough that you 
 are led to make a more vigorous response bringing into play other 
 parts of the body, and (b) still more severe so that you look at the 
 injured spot, consciously try to remove the offending object, and may 
 even consider further the question of the possibility of poison from it. 
 What are these three levels called and what distinguishes each from 
 the other? Is it probable that within the highest level, there are really 
 several levels? 
 
 2. Make an effort to find three or four illustrations of action on each of 
 these three levels. 
 
 3. Diagram each level in general terms or with the illustrations of exer- 
 cise 1 in mind. 
 
 4. Be ready to discuss the following statements: 
 
 a. Responses of the lower level are inherited or unlearned; 
 
 b. Responses of the second level are probably also unlearned, but 
 may depend in part, upon learning, e. g. co-ordinated responses; 
 
 c. Responses of the third level have to do with learning and eomplt \ 
 movements and include, therefore, the most automatic habits as 
 well as the most elaborate reasoning. 
 
 [ 12 ] 
 
Lesson 8. Cerebral Activity; Review 
 
 In preparing for today's study, go back over the main concepts you 
 have been thinking about in the two previous lessons, the nature and 
 function of the central nervous system, the neurone and its structure and 
 functions, the synapse, and the three levels of action. Bring to class 
 any questions about matters that are not clear, as they will prove real 
 stumbling blocks in the future. Today we shall concern ourselves partic- 
 ularly with mental life (behavior, consciousness) of the third level. You 
 will bring to class to hand in, one diagram under exercise 1 and one dia- 
 gram under exercise 2, and on a separate sheet, an answer to question 4. 
 The instructor will explain and illustrate 2 before you begin your work, 
 that is, in the assignment. 
 
 References: See lesson 6. 
 
 1. Draw a rough diagram of the exterior of the left hemisphere of the 
 cerebrum, and locate the two great fissures, and the more certainly 
 localized areas as to function, e. g. the visual, the motor, tactile, and 
 auditory. A cross section should also be made or at least studied 
 noting the thalamus and corpus callosum. R will help you to remem- 
 ber these locations if you will run the hand over the side of the skull 
 as you study a diagram. (A model will be brought to class.) 
 
 2. Diagram one or more of the following and be able to describe in the 
 large the brain action that takes place: 
 
 a. Copying a sentence with a pencil 
 
 b. Sewing a rather difficult stitch by hand 
 
 c. Speaking 
 
 d. Reading a sentence 
 
 e. Playing the piano by note 
 
 3. What are the physiological counterparts of S, R. and R? (Strong, 
 p. 228). Do you feel that you understand better, the problems raised 
 in Part I, especially in lesson 3-5? 
 
 4. Sit down now and write a paragraph on the topic. "My reactions to 
 psychology," just without giving it any thought, writing rapidly the 
 things you think and feel about the subject Don't try to be technical 
 
 and do aim to be frank and sine. re. 
 
 [ 13 ] 
 
CH. III. ORIGINAL NATURE: HEREDITY, INSTINCTS, EMOTIONS 
 
 Before beginning this new topic, take a couple of minutes to note the 
 "Statement to Students" at the beginning of this syllabus and to raise 
 the questions as to what part, if any, you have been slighting. Has your 
 instructor also apparently neglected to bear any part of it in mind? 
 
 Lesson 9. Heredity: Its Laws and Contributions 
 
 In this lesson the purpose will be served if you gain a clear notion 
 of the importance of heredity, that stock of original nature with which 
 we humans start in life. The two factors, heredity and environment, 
 "nature and nurture," are responsible for the vast multitude of responses 
 that we make daily. In most cases they are so complicated and the effects 
 of heredity and environment are so intertwined that it is hard to dis- 
 tinguish them. The practice of trying, however, is excellent, as it leads 
 one to appreciate each the more. It might be said in this connection, 
 that there was at one time a considerable controversy as to which was 
 more important, but this is hardly a valuable question, altho you will 
 probably find yourself leaning to one or the other. 
 
 References: Decidedly the best available reference will be Nors- 
 worthy and Whitley, ch. 1. Other references are: Pyle, ch. 2, Averill, 
 chs. 4-6, while most psychology texts touch upon the problem. 
 
 1. Write out to hand in, a list of say half a dozen physical traits in your- 
 self and others, such as brown eyes, red hair, short-fmgercdness, un- 
 usual height, etc., and in a parallel column, the ancestor or parent to 
 whom this seems to be traceable. 
 
 2. Make a similar table to hand in, trying to be rather more careful of 
 your facts, of mental traits, e. g. musical ability, inventiveness, ex- 
 cellent memory, etc. 
 
 3. In such common habits as eating, walking, talking, and observing 
 things as you pass along the street, can you trace to some extent at 
 least, the inherited and the acquired responses? 
 
 4. The hereditary contributions seem to be from three sources, race, s. \ 
 and family (or near ancestry). Can you suggest illustrations of each? 
 What is the value to a teacher, of the hypothesis, "Given a white l><>y 
 of the Hugh Smith family," . . . i. e. can certain conclusions be drawn 
 about the child's probable school achievements? 
 
 5. If the father in this case is a well-educated lawyer with a special inter- 
 est in social welfare in his community, will these acquisitions affect 
 the son's native ability? Why? What is the value of this fact and 
 the knowledge of it to the teacher? 
 
 6. It seems to be proved that the line of inheritance is thru the germ 
 plasm which is quite distinct from the body plasm ami that the indivi- 
 dual's abilities arc determined at the time of the fertilization of the 
 ovum. What importance has this fact for the minister, the teacher, the 
 social worker, in fact, any leader in society? 
 
 7. What is the difference between blended and alternate inheritance? 
 Cite illustrations. Which do you think is probably more important? 
 
 8. Of the two great laws of heredity that of resemblance, and of variation, 
 one forms the basis of general psychology and the other of individual 
 (differential) psychology. Which must this course largely take up? 
 Why is the other very important for the parent and teacher? 
 
 [ 14 ] 
 
Lesson 10. Instincts and Their Place in Education 
 
 This lesson will introduce you to the general problems of instincts 
 and their treatment, so that nature may become nurture to the greatest 
 advantage to the individual and the race. As you study, try to keep in 
 mind your own experiences and to review your own education in and out 
 of school, and also to think of the activities of younger children of your 
 acquaintance. This lesson will be continued in the next, but with refer- 
 ence to special instincts and the subject will be again taken up in the 
 next craarter when learning, or educational psychology, is the major 
 problem. 
 
 References: It will be well to read one of the first two or three of 
 the following references only, the rest being given to offer opportunity 
 to find the list of instincts which is called for in Lesson 13: Pillsbury, 
 ch. 10; Norsworthy and Whitley, pp. 21-31; Pvle, ch. 4; Angell, ch. lo; 
 James, ch. 25; Thorndike, P. T. ch. 3; Bolton, pp."l40-164; Colvin pp. 33-63. 
 
 1. Do humans have less or more instincts than the lower animals? What 
 is the more important difference between them ? Illustrate. 
 
 2. Explain briefly, the origin or source of instincts according to the bio- 
 logical law of natural selection? 
 
 3. If a boy is intentionally injured by another, what does he instinctively 
 do? If he fails to make this response, what may be the cause? Does 
 a soldier instinctively salute his officer? 
 
 4. Make a list of the differences between reflexes, instincts and capacities, 
 and find several illustrations of each. Which of these are more 
 educablc? Which may be ends as well as means in education? 
 
 5. What are the traits or characteristics common to human instincts? 
 What is the significance of each for education? 
 
 6. What are the various methods that may he used in handling ( a ) un- 
 desirable and (b) desirable instincts in home and school? What are the 
 relative merits of these methods? 
 
 7. List a half dozen instincts which you have exhibited during the last 
 twenty-four hours. Which are more like original nature and which 
 have been most overlaid with habit? 
 
 8. Begin a list of instincts which are of more or less importance in educa- 
 tion, not including the reflexes and not including highly specialised 
 and individualized capacities, to be handed in with lesson 13. 
 
 (While psychologists have recently come to the a inclusion that 
 such general terms as curiosity, pugnacity, etc.. are really group nanus 
 for scores or even hundreds of specialized tendencies, it will be easier 
 if we bear this in mind, but follow the general practice of using the 
 older terminology) . 
 
 [ 15 ] 
 
Lesson 11. Some Important Instincts 
 
 The teacher and the parent, as well as others interested in problems 
 of social leadership, find themselves confronted constantly with the prob- 
 lem of utilizing the tendencies, which we find in children, and this lesson 
 serves the purpose of giving you opportunity to find out some of the 
 methods of utilizing a few of the most important instincts. The question 
 will be taken up again, and you will be given a chance to study some one 
 instinct in detail next quarter. In this lesson, do not neglect to find out 
 something about each instinct in addition to answering the questions 
 asked, so that if you were asked to give a brief description of it you could 
 do so. Furthermore, this seems important at this point because it will 
 set you thinking about the relation of psychology to your chosen work, 
 teaching, and because it will give many suggestions regarding yourself 
 and cues as to what to look for and interest yourself in, in psychologizing. 
 The instructor will probably want to spend two periods with this lesson 
 or to omit some of the exercises. 
 
 References: See Lesson 10. Also Angell, ch. 16; Norsworthy and 
 Whitley, chs. 3-5; Averill, chs. 6-18; Colvin, pp. 55-63; Wordsworth, ch. 7. 
 
 1. Take some two or more instincts, e. g. fighting, and indicate carefully, 
 the S's and R's of which their appearance is made up. 
 
 2. Can you suggest important uses for the following instincts in the 
 school, particularly in the grade of work in which you are interested; 
 fighting, collecting, desire of approval, migratory instinct, leadership, 
 parental instinct, sex instinct? 
 
 3. In what sense is imitation not an instinct? Note diversity of activities 
 included under it, that is, of kinds of imitation. Give illustrations of 
 how imitation may be important and valuable and how it may be 
 unfortunate in the second grade, the eighth grade? How does imita- 
 tion change with age? 
 
 4. How can we use the tendency to physical activity? To mental activity? 
 Which is relatively more important in the kindergarten? In the high 
 school? What courses in school may be said to be based largely upon 
 each? 
 
 5. Is the curiosity of the 3-year-old child, the U-year-old child, the 16- 
 year-old child, different in important respects? How? How can the 
 elementary school make wider use of this important instinct? 
 
 6 Why and how is rivalry frequently misused in school? What are at 
 least two important changes in the modern school in the use of rivalry 
 (emulation)? Can you cite good illustrations of use of this instinct.' 
 
 7. Is there a "social" instinct? Is it the instinct of gregariousness or the 
 gang instinct? At what stages of education is this most important 
 andhow am it be best utilized? cf. 1st, 5th and 10th grades. 
 
 8 Play has been called the most fundamental instinct for education. 
 Justify this statement if you believe it, and show two extreme view- 
 points regarding play and the school and the desirable middle road. 
 
 9. Speech or language is based upon the instinct of vocalization. How 
 is learning to talk a matter largely of imitations.' What are common 
 errors that need to be corrected in elementary instruction and how do 
 you know they are errors? 
 
 10. Take up at least one subject of the typical primary, or grammar 
 grade, or high school course, and show what natural tendencies might 
 advantageously be relied upon by the teacher as furnishing motive- 
 power. 
 
 [ 16 ] 
 
Lesson 12. The Emotions, Feelings and Attitudes 
 
 In this lesson you will study a kindred topic to that of the last two 
 lessons, namely the emotions. Like the instincts, they are built upon 
 the solid foundation of heredity, but they are capable of much develop- 
 ment. Attitudes, moods and the higher emotions are probably very largely 
 a matter of education and training (environment). Some one has said 
 that the feelings (emotions) are the "mainsprings of life." While 
 therefore the psychologists have not been able as yet to make exact studies 
 of them, for when one tries to study a feeling it disappears from con- 
 sciousness, yet it is important to get acquainted with the data available 
 on this interesting phase of ourselves. 
 
 References: Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 5; Pillsbury, ch. 12; Bol- 
 ton, ch. 25; Titchener, pp. 471-503. 
 
 1. When one is angry, he may or may not strike the object of his anger, 
 but he is certain to feel angry. What seems to be the relation of 
 emotion and instinct? Is emotion hereditary? 
 
 2. What is feeling (or affection) according to the psychologist? What is 
 its place in emotion? How might you define emotion? 
 
 3. What is meant by calling fear and grief, "primary" emotions and hate 
 and disappointment, higher or compound emotions? These latter 
 may also be spoken of under such heads as esthetic, intellectual, moral, 
 religious, social emotions. Can you illustrate each of these groups? 
 Try similarly to define and illustrate attitudes, moods and "sentiments." 
 
 4. Recall some strong emotion which you may have had. How did it 
 affect the clarity and accuracy of your thinking, the accuracy and 
 effectiveness of your action? Would this hold generally? What of 
 attitudes and moods? 
 
 5. An emotion is always attended by much physical and organic activity. 
 What are some of these activities in the case of extreme fear or ex- 
 treme anger? Is this an important fact for the parent and teacher 
 to bear in mind? Why? 
 
 6. Apply the methods of handling instincts (Lesson 10. exercise 0), to two 
 emotions, either anger or fear, and either sympathy or reverence, or 
 courage or happiness. 
 
 7. Begin a list of emotions, which will be supplemented in the dan dis- 
 cussion and will be completed with lesson 13. 
 
 [ 17 ] 
 
, Lesson 13. Review of Lessons 1-12 
 
 In lesson 5 you saw the advantage of freshening up your informa- 
 tion and of checking up on your acquired stock of ideas about psychology. 
 This lesson is given at this time to assist you further in the same matters 
 as there is a rather definite break in the subject matter at this point. In 
 all likelihood the instructor will want to set a written lesson or test over 
 this matter, on account of the peculiar advantage such an exercise has in 
 giving the teacher a chance to note the nature of the responses of the 
 pupils when he tries to give all a fairly uniform situation. Therefore, 
 some of the questions will be like exercises 1-3, where the opportunity of 
 making the situation uniform for all is greater than in such questions as 
 "discuss" or "state." In answering these be entirely self-reliant the first 
 time and then check up on the answers by reference to your notes, your 
 favorite texts, or your room-mate, and make a score of the number of 
 correct answers that you made. Write out and hand in answers to ques- 
 tions 5 and 6 on separate sheets. 
 
 1. Psychology is today usually defined either as the study of or 
 
 of A somewhat broader statement of its aim is that it is 
 
 the study of Its general method like that of all natural 
 
 science is , which, when focused on one's self and one's own 
 
 mind, is called 
 
 2. The modern psychologist thinks of all the various mental processes 
 
 as being reducible to stimuli or and to or responses. 
 
 The connections between these are known as Learning may 
 
 therefore be defined as the forming of , teaching as the pro- 
 vision of those situations which will secure responses. 
 
 3. The individual both mentally and physically is a result of heredity 
 
 and The former factor is seen clearly in two great groups of 
 
 mental processes, the which usually involve action and the 
 
 which involve more of the feeling. The best method for 
 
 the treatment of the undesirable tendencies is while the 
 
 home and school must provide for wise of the desirable om s. 
 
 4. "What help do you find that you are getting from this course in 
 psychology for your own personal life? Can you suggest ways in 
 which it could be made more helpful by the instructor? 
 
 5. List the books you have been using rather frequently, in an order to 
 preference, stating either the quality you like about each, or giving 
 some reason for your preference. 
 
 G. Complete (a) the list of instincts and (b) the list of emotions which 
 you began in previous lessons. It might be well to limit yourself some- 
 what, say to twenty-five of the most important instincts and twenty 
 of the most important emotions. 
 
 [ 18 ] 
 
CH. IV. ATTENTION AND INTEREST 
 
 Lesson 14. Nature of Attention 
 
 We now turn for three lessons to the related problems of attention 
 and interest. You have noticed many times how teachers, parents and 
 others insist upon attention in dealing with children and inferiors. It 
 must be important, therefore. You have also learned by experience, that 
 you learn more easily when attention and interest combine to assist you. 
 In this lesson the general nature of the attention processes is treated and 
 you will notice that we now turn, as the scientist must sooner or later do, 
 to the statement of some of the laws of psychology. 
 
 References: Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 6; Pillsbury, ch. 6; Colvin 
 251-270; Strayer and Norsworthy, ch. 3; Averill, chs. 34, 35; Angell, pp. 80- 
 113; Woodworth, ch. 11. 
 
 1. If you have ever watched a baby of a few months, you will have noticed 
 his giving attention to various features of his environment and you 
 may have noticed an apparent parallel in his general mental develop- 
 ment. Is there an instinct of attentiveness? To what sorts of things 
 does a little child seem instinctively to attend? Note the motor accom- 
 paniments of its attention. Do these persist with the adult? 
 
 2. Familiarize yourself with some discussion of attention so that you 
 can illustrate it with some diagram, and explain that diagram, e. g. 
 the concentric circles. What is then the concentration of attention? 
 Inattention? Dispersed attention? 
 
 3. Remembering, therefore, that the psychologist believes tin- mind, is 
 always attentive or that attention is a feature of all conscious acts, 
 what is a good definition of attention, or, better still, a brief descrip- 
 tion of attention that will take the place of a definition ? Is there one 
 essential characteristic of attention? 
 
 4. Be able to define the following terms which represent aspects of the 
 attentive process; duration (rhythm) of attention, span or range of 
 attention, division of attention, distraction of attention. 
 
 [ 19 3 
 
Lesson 15. Nature of Attention (Continued) 
 
 As this lesson is a continuation of lesson 14, see the introductory state- 
 ment to that lesson. Before writing up the experiments it will be impera- 
 tive to look up the introductory statement about "Experiment Reports," 
 and it will be equally important at this point to sketch again the "State- 
 ment to the Student." 
 
 References: See lesson 14. 
 
 1. Be careful to perform the following experiments rigidly so that your 
 results will be accurate. This means keeping the directions listed in 
 "Experiment Reports" before you, starting early and recording results 
 and introspections at once. You are to hand in one experiment. 
 
 a. Rhythm (duration) of attention — Let one member of the pair 
 listen attentively to the sound of a faintly ticking watch and respond 
 to the fact of the loss of the sound of indicating it by the dropping 
 of the pencil held in the hand and holding it upright when the sound 
 is heard. Let the other member record in the listener's notebook a 
 
 scries of dots at as nearly a uniform rate as follows 
 
 the time of the periods when heard and not heard respectively. Study 
 and interpret the results. 
 
 b. Span or range of attention — Let E tap with a pencil an object 
 which will give a sound, making ten trials, the number of taps varying 
 in different trials from 3 to 12 but not in regular order, the time 
 interval being the briefest possible, yet which is necessary to dis- 
 tinguish the sounds. Let O estimate the number, not counting them, 
 and let E keep the record. Is it hard to keep from counting? Is this 
 partly a test of memory as well as the span of attention? 
 
 c. Division of attention — Let E hold a watch with a second hand 
 and let O in five successive trials, perform the two-fold task of counting 
 as rapidly as possible and of writing the Arabic numerals. 1. 2. .'$. etc, 
 of the same scries as fast aspossible. He must not allow his writ- 
 ing to slow down the counting so that he does not keep ahead. Record 
 introspections, c. g., inhibitions, etc. Note what gam, if any. comes 
 with practice and in the results record scores in both ways of count- 
 ing. What conclusions do you draw from the test, as to one's ability 
 to attend to two things at once? Cf. other experiences. 
 
 d. Distraction of attention— Select a passage of some fifteen or 
 twenty lines of printed matter and pick out the a's or pick out some 
 combinations of letters, such as er and count the Dumber. Immediately 
 after the task record introspections of your consciousness during the 
 act of counting and indicate irrelevant impressions, memor 
 thoughts, etc. What conclusions do you draw? 
 
 2. State laws regarding each of the terms listed in question I of less 
 14, and with which you have experimented in question 1 of this lesson. 
 If you draw upon some author give him credit, but you can as will 
 state them yourself, perhaps. There is probably a general law ol 
 attention or law of selection, see questions 2 and ,\ of lesson 1 I. Can 
 you state this? There are undoubtedly a -toil many other laws re- 
 garding attention and you may if you desire, state any of those. A 
 good method would be as follows: Law of repetition — The repetition 
 of any experience tends to increase its clearness up to a certain point 
 
 [ 20 ] 
 
Lesson 16. Attention and Interest; Practical Applications 
 
 In the last two lessons, by reading and experiments, you aimed to 
 find out some of the more important characteristics of the mental pro- 
 cesses called attention. It would be unsatisfactory to try to go on with 
 this lesson unless you outlined or summarized these lessons. 
 
 In this lesson we shall study the practical bearings of attention upon 
 your work as a student and as a prospective teacher. Just as therefore, 
 in the last lesson, you gave attention (note how quite by accident I used 
 the word, but nevertheless used it properly) to the laws of attention, 
 today you will be asked naturally to begin to form practical conclusions 
 in the way of maxims or rules of practice. 
 
 References: See lesson 14. 
 
 1. Psychologists are fairly well agreed that there are three different types 
 of attention, but they are not agreed upon the names. Find out what 
 you can about these and consider the desirability of the following 
 names: primary ( or spontaneous), secondary (or derived), and de- 
 rived primary (or sustained). Be able to illustrate each from your 
 own recent experiences. 
 
 2. Among the qualities of stimuli that attract attention are clearness, 
 intensity, novelty, pleasurcableness and expectedness. Which of tl. s 
 are more likely to be connected with each of the three types of atten- 
 tion? Which should a teacher always seek, in situations which she 
 presents to the pupil? Which should she use sparingly? Which have 
 to do with the importance of slating the aim of the lesson? Which 
 wear out with excessive use? Which makes a rough drawing often 
 preferable to a finished map? (Adopted from Thomdike. P. T., 
 p. 107). 
 
 3. Does interest depend upon knowledge? Do attention and in I 
 always go together? What is interest? When, therefore, is a thing 
 interesting? Can all school matters he made interesting? If not in- 
 trinsically interesting, what can he done to secure ink i 
 
 4. Interests arc in immediate or remote ends. Which are more appeal- 
 ing to little children? Why? What then must the teacher do? Can 
 you cite misuse of this fact in your school experience .' 
 
 5. Try to analyze your classroom experience, in the elementary school, 
 high school, and normal school, and list the things that have been the 
 occasion of your lagging of interest and attention. Prepare to hand in 
 under the caption or title. "Why my attention lags in class 
 
 6. Slate at least three or four very practical maxims for the teacher that 
 STOW out of the exercises above. 
 
 [ 21 1 
 
CH. V. SENSE-PERCEPTION 
 
 Lesson 17. Sensation: Illustration of Touch Sensations 
 
 Psychologists who have had the consciousness rather than the be- 
 havior point of view have usually given much stress to this subject, be- 
 cause they regarded sensations as the elements out of which the other 
 higher processes are made. You will readily see that the field is tempting 
 to the specialist and one is readily led off into problems of physiological 
 psychology. It will be sufficient for you as a prospective teacher if you 
 grasp at this time, the notions of the variety and richness of sensory 
 experience, and its general nature and significance. You may if you like, 
 look into the physiology of the eye and ear and other sense-organs. There 
 are no physical stuctures more complex and wonderful except the 
 brain itself. 
 
 References: Pillsbury, ch. 4; Strong, chs. 35-37; Colvin, ch. 4; Nors- 
 worthy and Whitley, ch. 7; Pyle ch. 3; Woodworm, ch. 10. It would be 
 well not to read any of these chapters in detail but only such parts as 
 bear on the questions; one text will probably not suffice. 
 
 1. As you sit at the desk now, in what ways is your nervous system being 
 affected (stimulated) by the outside world, or internally, e. g. by the 
 page before you, perhaps by a toothache, by noise or talking, etc. 
 Note the variety of situations and of sense-organs involved. 
 
 2. Study the terms sensation and perception and find the difference. What 
 do some writers mean by the terms pure sensation, elementary sensa- 
 tion, simple sensation? Justify the title sense-perecplion at the haul- 
 ing of this chapter? Arrange the following in a series, noting which 
 you think at one extremity, are more like illustrations of "pure"' sensa- 
 tion and at the other, complex perceptions; sight of friend, baby's 
 feelings when burned, sound of tuning-fork, familiar selection on vic- 
 trola. Give other illustrations of difference but likeness of the two 
 terms. 
 
 3. Touch (popularly mis-named "feeling") is a complex of at least four 
 senses, pressure, warmth, cold and pain. Perform and write up care- 
 fully the following experiment: 
 
 Measure off on the hack of the left hand (or right hand if you are 
 naturally left handed), a square approximately a square inch, ami 
 divide same into four fairly equal squares. Make a similar plot on 
 paper, preferably four limes as large, thai is two inches on the side. 
 (Practice each of the four parts of the experiment briefly on some 
 other part of the hand lest you fatigue the area marked off). 
 
 1. Take a fairly well sharpened lead pencil or nail and explore 
 the area systematically beginning on one side and running on 
 parallel lines, noting cold spots and marking same in the proper 
 place on the diagram. 
 
 2. Similarly, take a healed pencil or similar object and explore 
 for warmth spols (If no other means avails, place pencil from 
 time to [hvs against lamp bulb). As before, note spots hut with a 
 different symbol 
 
 3. Take a stiff hair or bristle or pin and explore for pain spots, 
 and mark with a third kind of mark. 
 
 4. Take a sharp pencil, sharpened tooth-pick or very still 
 bristle and explore especially at roots of hairs for pressure spots 
 and note on diagram. 
 
 In your write-up. cover any other important details, 
 
 especially in the nature of introspections, hut do not neglect to 
 answer the following questions: 
 
 a. Which of these four kinds of sensations is easiest to locate? 
 Arrange the four in an order of clearness of sensation, h. Did you 
 notice any other skin responses that might be taken for sensations? 
 Name them. e. What is the value to man of these sensations? 
 Is their value more to civilized man today or savage man in by- 
 gone ages? To the little child or adult, relatively? d. What gen- 
 eral notions do you draw from thus experiment that change your 
 
 [ 22 ] 
 

Lesson 18. Visual, Auditory and Other Sensations 
 
 Today we are to study other types of sensations. A part of the class- 
 work will be given to working out the details of the talbe. There are 
 numerous interesting experiments which you will find suggested to you, 
 for example in Strong, Pyle, Pillsbury, and Seashore, and which you may 
 care to try. 
 
 References: See lesson 17. 
 
 1. Visual sensations are of two kinds, color (chromatic) and brightness 
 (achromatic). Find out the different stimuli of each, the number of 
 qualities and be able to draw and explain the color pyramid (see Pills- 
 bury, Angell or Titchcner, etc.). 
 
 2. Explain and be able to illustrate and note practical implications for 
 any of the following features of visual sensations: negative and posi- 
 tive after-images, complementary colors, visual contrast, adaptation. 
 
 3. Given the situation "some one holds a color before your eyes and asks 
 you to name it," describe the complete details of your response in- 
 cluding both the reception of the stimulus and the answer by naming 
 the color. Write this out to hand in. 
 
 4. Auditory sensations are likewise of two kinds, tone and noise. Find 
 out the difference in stimuli and variety of qualities of each. What 
 seems to be the best or most acceptable theory, explaining auditory 
 sensations? 
 
 5. Find out something about the following sensations and be able to 
 illustrate them or give a simple experiment for locating them: olfac- 
 tory (smell), gustatory (taste), static, kinesthetic organic. Do you 
 find other names of sensations suggested .' 
 
 C. Which of the sensations seem to develop first in the little child? Which 
 later? Which two arc most used in education? Are we tending bo 
 stress others in education today, c. g. kinesthetic? 
 
 7. List sense defects which are likely to be a serious handicap to the 
 child in school? Which of these arc curable, remediable, at least by 
 artificial means, which neither remediable or curable? 
 
 [ 23 ] 
 
Lesson 19. Perception 
 
 You saw that sensations are primary or elementary experiences, some- 
 what as are feelings, instincts and reflexes. "We seem as adults, seldom, 
 if ever, to have such simple experiences, as they occur in connection with 
 each other or with still other experiences. The most natural and common 
 complex experiences with which sensations are allied or of which they 
 form a part, are perhaps perceptions (percepts). While this following 
 mathematical proportion is not exact and must not be taken too literally, 
 note its meaning — Sensations: perception:: reflex: instinct:: feeling: 
 emotion. 
 
 References: Pillsbury, ch. 7; Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 7; Colvin. 
 ch. 6; Strong, ch. 37; Woodworth, ch. 17. 
 
 1. What is apparently sensation and what perception in the following 
 experiences: seeing a horse, hearing an automobile, tasting an orange? 
 How many and what sensations might have gone together or have 
 fused to give you your present percept of apple? What else enters in? 
 Can you judge from these questions how to full-fledged mature percept 
 is probably formed, so that you habitually recognize an object when 
 it is presented to your attention? 
 
 2. Errors in perception are commonly known as illusions. Note what 
 is the cause of the illusion in the illustration below: 
 
 a. Proofreader's illusion — Pcyshology, if read rapidly in a sent- 
 ence, would probably be read psychology. Why? Did you so read it? 
 
 b. Artistotle's illusion — Cross two fingers, placing a marble or 
 pencil between them, so that it touches what otherwise would be 
 opposite sides of the fingers. How many objects do you notice? 
 
 c. Muller-Lyer illusion — Consult some text (e. g. Pillsbury) . 
 
 d. Try to explain other illusions, e. g. hearing a burglar when 
 alone, seeing a ghost, thinking the wrong train is moving, etc. 
 
 3. Reading, one of the most if not the most important school ex e rcise , in- 
 volves perception very largely (see Pillsbury. pp. 176-180). Watch 
 the eyes of some one reading the lines of this page and record the num- 
 ber of fixations made per line? Pillsbury notes three kinds of read- 
 ing, by letter, by word and by idea; be able to discuss these and nut. 
 relative importance. Do illusions enter definitely into the work of 
 teaching, e. g. spelling, reading, etc.? 
 
 4. In concluding this study of sense-perception, it would be well to write 
 out an outline or a brief summary of the whole discussion. Add some 
 
 statement of the importance of perception in education. 
 
 [ 24 ] 
 
CH. VI. IMAGINATION, MEMORY, ASSOCIATION 
 
 Lesson 20. Imagery and Imagination 
 
 As we turn from sensation and perception to imagination we are 
 turning from a study of present experiences to past (or possible future) 
 experiences. Impressions made upon the mind by the outside world 
 remain in consciousness as images; they affect our behavior markedly 
 even after the experience is long past. The "consciousness" psychologist 
 is inclined to class images with sensations and feelings as making up the 
 elements of all other higher mental processes. We are concerned with 
 getting a clear idea of these processes and their significance for memory 
 and thought in particular. Images are the stuff out of which dreams 
 and hallucinations are made largely. This is a very interesting by-path 
 that some one may want to follow for a little way at least. 
 
 References: Strayer and Norsworthy, ch. 6; Colvin and Bagley, ch. 
 13; James, ch. 19; Colvin, chs. 7, 8; Norsworthy and Whitlev, ch. 9; 
 Angell, pp. 196-206, 214-221 ; Woodworth, ch. 19. " 
 
 1. Write out to hand in under the title, "My Mental Imagery," the answers 
 to the questions following, in sufficient detail that when cold one can 
 get a good picture of your mental imagery: 
 
 A. Visual Imagery 
 Think of your breakfast or dinner table, as you sat down to it; call 
 up the appearance of the table, the dishes, the food on it, the persons 
 present, etc. Then answer these questions: 
 
 1. Are the outlines of the objects distinct and sharp? 
 
 2. Are the colors bright and natural? 
 
 3. Where does the image seem to be situated? In the head? Be- 
 fore the eyes? At a distance? 
 
 4. How does the size of the image compare with the actual size 
 of the scene? 
 
 B. Kinds of Imagery 
 
 5. Can you call to mind better, the tare or voice of a friend? 
 
 6. When "violin" is suggested, do you first think of appearance 
 of the instrument or the sounds made when played? 
 
 7. Can you call to mind clearly, the following: (a) sight of natural 
 scenery, (b) sound of musie. (e) taste of fruit, (d) moving of 
 a boat or hammock or swing, (e) odor of a rose, (f) strain of 
 lifting some heavy object? 
 
 8. What kinds of images are suggested to your mind by the words, 
 (a) dog, (b) railroad, (c) write, (d) pull, (e) storm, (f) infinity? 
 
 C. Conclusions 
 Write out a brief summary of the kind of images you seem to 
 have. Arc they largely visual or largely of some other kind? Do you 
 seem to be strong in imagery or not? 
 
 2. What is an image? cf. to percept? What is imagination? 
 
 3. Distinguish between concrete and verbal imagery. What type is the 
 little child more apt to have? The uneducated adult' The scientist? 
 Are some studies likely to call for one type and others the other? 
 
 4. Imagery is usually classed as reproductive and productive (or crea- 
 tive). Is the work of the inventor likely to demand one more than 
 the other? Of the teacher? Of the young student? Of the advanced 
 and older student in a subject? What bearing has productive im- 
 agination on the world's progress? 
 
 5. What are the general traits of the imagination of the little child' 
 What is the import of these for teacher and parent? 
 
 6. What definite educational principles have you discovered or thought 
 out in this lesson ? 
 
 [ 25 ] 
 
Lesson 21. Memory and Its Different Phases 
 
 Memories or memory processes are very closely allied to imagery 
 and imagination. We probably remember largely in terms of images 
 whether we are aware of it or not, that is, images are the materials out 
 of which memories are made. We might recall and add to a group of 
 members of a proportion which was brought to your attention in a 
 previous lesson, concerning which no claim is made for accuracy but 
 rather for suggestiveness. We would then have — reflex: instinct:: feeling: 
 emotion:: sensation: perception:: image: memory. It is doubtful if many 
 topics are more fruitful or practical to the student than this; therefore, 
 for the sake of your future success as a teacher, in instructing others to 
 use correct habits of memorizing, but also for your own economy of time 
 and your own efficiency, you will do well to study this and the three suc- 
 ceeding chapters with unusual care and thotfulness. 
 
 References: Woodworth, ch. 14; Pillsbury, ch. 8; Pylc, ch. 7; Nors- 
 worthy and Whitley, ch. 8; in each case study parts related to the 
 questions. 
 
 1. Would you say that you have a good memory or a poor memory? 
 How does it compare with some one's else, that is do you know some 
 fellow student who seems to have a much better memory? Can you 
 account for this? You will want to study two matters in this and 
 succeeding lessons, (a) the complexity of the memory process (so 
 that your memory may be good in one line and poor in another), and 
 (b) the problem in what ways you can and cannot improve your 
 memory. 
 
 2. Reviewing your study of imagination, which type of imagination would 
 you say is practically identical with memory? How. in general, d 
 memory differ from imagination? From sense-perception? Illustrate 
 your answers by concrete experiences as far as possible. Define 
 memory. 
 
 3. The psychologist finds four overlapping, but different processes in- 
 volved in memory; learning (or memorizing), retention, recall, and 
 recognition. Familiarize yourself with the meaning of these terms 
 and find an out-of-school and an in-school experience, each illustrating 
 these four phases. Note also how sometimes, you have the experience 
 of one of the processes failing to function when others do, for example. 
 recognition without recall. 
 
 4. Is forgetting natural? Is it entirely disadvantageous? Why? What 
 have psychologists found out about the rate of forgetting? Does this 
 agree with your experience? (This is the first lime that you conn 
 upon the use of graphing in psychology hut you will want to use this 
 from time to time in the future. Try. therefore, to understand what 
 the curve of forgetting means, and to In able to draw and explain it). 
 
 5. The instructor will give a kst with numbers, letters, Donsens 
 syllables, or unrelated words to find out the individual differences 
 and to measure the memory span of each member of the class during 
 the class period. Find out what is meant by the term, something 
 its importance at least in diagnosing the probable school achievement 
 of children and also hud out something of the differences between 
 children and adults in this regard. Apply this principle o( difference 
 of child and adult to memory in general and note that the current 
 popular view about children's memories, as many popular views aboul 
 psychological matters, is incorrect. 
 
 [ 26 ] 
 
Lesson 22. Types of or Kinds of Memory 
 
 In this lesson we shall pursue further the study of the nature of 
 memory. It would be well first to clear up any problems or difficulties 
 with the preceding lesson as far as possible. The first question is intended 
 to be answered after you have done this. Many interesting problems 
 raised here will be answered largely in the next quarter's work when we 
 shall connect up the general problems of psychology with learning, and 
 when we shall more definitely keep in mind the bearing of psychology 
 upon school work. 
 
 References: See lesson 21. 
 
 1. Fill in the incomplete statements below, first without the help of any 
 fellow-student, or any other help. Then check your answers and 
 see how far you are correct. 
 
 Memories are dependent to a large degree upon just as 
 
 depend upon sensations. While children appear to learn 
 
 than adults, this is due to their There are 
 
 at least four processes in, or phases of, memory, namely, 
 
 , and Forgetting is as natural 
 
 a process as remembering, and the curve of forgetting drops 
 
 at first and then later on. 
 
 2. In the last lesson you learned something about the term memory span 
 and you also found your own span in relation to that of the class 
 and of adults and children in general. This typo of memory is known 
 as primary memory. What is the psychologist's explanation of pri- 
 mary memory? Would secondary memory be illustrated by the fact 
 that you might perhaps remember one or more of these combinations 
 today? Is cramming related to primary memory? When is cram- 
 ming not wholly an unmitigated evil. e. g. with the student, the 
 teacher, the lawyer, the minister? 
 
 3. Distinguish between two other kinds of memory, namely, rote and 
 logical (or associative) memory. Which of these is natural to the 
 child and distasteful to the average adult? Why? Which requires 
 forming new bonds and which uses old bonds? Which, therefore, 
 is more economical? 
 
 4. The instructor will give a brief test in logical memory and the results 
 can be measured alongside those of the memory span which, while 
 a test of primary memory, is likewise a test of rote memory, is it not? 
 In other words, you will be able to tell something about your status 
 in regard to having a good memory or a poor memory if you rank 
 high in both, or low in both, or medium in both. You may rank 
 high in one and low in the other. What would this mean? Should 
 a teacher rank high preferably, in rote or logical memory? A mail 
 clerk or carrier? A telephone operator? A salesman? 
 
 5. The instructor will also give a test to show what the factors are in 
 associative memory. The experiment will prove very interesting and 
 will give you an insight into the way you remember when you do 
 remember, that is, what are the causes of retaining, recalling, and 
 recognizing, (lest adapted from Strong, Lessons 17-18). 
 
 [ 27 ] 
 
Lesson 23. Association; the Laws (Factors) in Association 
 
 The term association was once regarded by psychologists as offering 
 the solution of most problems of psychology, and as being a fundamental 
 principle of mental life very much as is the law of gravitation in the 
 physical world. Today we are inclined to look upon association as being 
 a phase of all consciousness (or behavior) very much as is attention, 
 and of its relationship as being closer to imagination and memory than 
 to other mental processes. The newer view also considers the term as a 
 practical equivalent of the term bond so that today we are really raising 
 the question that is phrased by Professor Strong, as follows: "What are 
 the factors that affect the strength of the bond?" Bonds, connections, 
 and associations, there must be, or situations wiuld not call out the same 
 or similar responses. One can scarcely imagine what sort of mental life 
 if any, we could have under those circumstances. 
 
 References: Strong, ch. 18; Colvin, ch. 10; Pillsburv, pp. 136-145; 
 Thorndike, E. P., pp. 238-250; Angell, pp. 206-21 1; Woodworth, ch. 15. 
 
 1. If I suggest to you the word "apple," and you immediately think of or 
 associate with it the word "tree," you no doubt do so because you 
 have associated them together some time in the past. Otherwise, some 
 other response would have been made. Note similarly the response 
 called up by "2 times 2," "the capital of Virginia," "discovery of 
 America," or "289 R" (which latter is the telephone number of the 
 X family). What then, is association? How docs the term differ 
 in meaning from the term bond? Do associations exist in rote learn- 
 ing or memory, as well as in logical? Look back to your list of situa- 
 tions and responses in Lesson 5, and note the associations that account 
 for the responses in a number of cases. 
 
 2. Returning to the experiment in exercise 5, lesson 22, study carefully 
 each of the responses, noting the factor that caused your answer to 
 be correct or incorrect. Familiarize yourself with Professor Strong's 
 discussion and try to bring to class at least one good illustration of 
 each of these factors out of your recent experience, 
 
 3. Which of these factors are of gnat importance in the work of tin- 
 school? Which of second-rate importance, and which of very doubt- 
 ful value? Which are greatly neglected in current school practice.' 
 Which should you heed very much more than you have been doing 
 for the improvement of results and economy of time in your study .' 
 
 4. Write and bring to class nol more than a page of this note-book paper 
 (nor less than a half page) of unlechnieal discussion of the terms, im- 
 agination, memory ami association, to show that you have a clear 
 notion of these concepts and their relatedness. What may W said 
 to be the general law of association (see indexes of various texts or 
 Thorndike. P. T., pp. 12-3); cf. the notion of apperception? 
 
 [ 28 1 
 
Lesson 24. Review of Memory and Association; Practical Applications 
 
 This lesson, like the last question of the previous lesson, aims to assist 
 you in summing up and clinching the main ideas of the last four lessons. 
 It also aims to help you to fix certain very practical maxims of memoriz- 
 ing. It is probable that the instructor will want to supplement this 
 review with a written lesson at the next period, this to act as a means to 
 a review of the work beginning with lesson 14. 
 
 References: Colvirt, ch. 11; Strayer and Norsworthv, ch. 5; Pillsburv. 
 pp. 191-213; Freeman, pp. 193-204. See also lessons 20,"21, 23. 
 
 1. Find out what you can about the experimental findings of psychologists 
 regarding the effects of sex and of age upon memory. In individual 
 persons, would the law of variation outweigh these factors, e. g. would 
 
 some boys be likely to excel some girls in ? At what age 
 
 are children likely to enjoy verbatim memory work? 
 
 2. You have found the question of a "good memory" resolving itself 
 into the matter of (a) natural retentiveness which probably cannot be 
 affected by education any more than the color of one's eyes, and (b) 
 improved methods or habits of memorizing. What have been found 
 to be the secrets of this improvement? (See Strayer and Norsworthv. 
 or Pillsbury). 
 
 3. What are the advantages or values in memory systems which you 
 frequently see advertised in the magazines? Of mnemonic or mechani- 
 cal methods of memorizing? Illustrate. What pitfalls lie in both? 
 And what is after all, the best single By stem? 
 
 4. Going back over the last four lessons, make a list <>f definite faets 
 that have been rather well established by scientific investigation in 
 
 the field of memory. This is a field in which much work has Inert 
 done that really bears upon formal or informal education. Couch your 
 statements briefly and see if they do not stand as laws ( ,f memcry. 
 (Cf. lesson 15, I \< rcise 2). 
 
 5. If you were to be given the task of learning a poem <>f twenty fines 
 
 or a prose selection of similar length, what are the most valuable 
 rules and maxims that you could use to make your memorizing effec- 
 tive? You may he able to build these- rules in a better order, perhaps 
 around some such cue-words as the following: meaning, recall, 
 repetition, distribution, wholes, association, threshold. Which of these 
 rules would not hold as well of learning history, mathematics, home 
 economics, or psychology? Which do you need to 1m ar in mind SO 
 make your work more efficient? 
 
 r 29 ] 
 
CH. VII. REASONING AND THE PROCESSES INVOLVED 
 
 IN REASONING 
 
 Lesson 25. General Nature of Reasoning 
 
 Some one has said, "Animals never reason and man seldom." How- 
 ever, simpler forms of thinking and the exercise of the various mental 
 processes involved in thinking are of frequent occurrence, even if the 
 more elaborate problem-solving is largely left to a few individuals. 
 
 You will find this and the succeeding chapter harder than usual 
 unless you check up your readings with your own experiences as you 
 have been asked always to do. There has comparatively little been done 
 in experimenting with the reasoning process as compared with memory 
 and, therefore, introspection is the more important. The best book on 
 the subject and one that you will want some time to have a mastery of. 
 is Dewey's "How We Think;" this book is largely an analytic study rather 
 than experimental, but it has influenced all later writers on psychology 
 and education decidedly. 
 
 References: Strayer and Norsworlhy. ch. 7; Woodworth, ch. 18; 
 Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 10; Pillsburv, ch. 9; James, eh. 22; Freeman, 
 ch. 11; Colvin, chs. 20-22. Dewey's "How We Think" is referred to in 
 connection with some of the exercises. 
 
 1. What are some of the different uses that people make of the term 
 thinking? Arc some of them incorrect? Does it seem to bear a dost 
 relation to association? What is the distinct characteristic, if any, in 
 reasoning? When and why do humans reason? Do animals reason? 
 
 2. Study the illustrations of thinking (reasoning) in Dewey's H. W. T.. 
 ch. 0, tracing out tin five steps in his illustrations. Then try to write 
 out to hand in, some fairly recent i Kperience <>t your own in think- 
 ing, noting in the write-up the steps of Dewey. Could one of these 
 steps be omitted in some bits of reasoning and the conclusions he 
 valid? What is meant hy reasoning a thing through? Do we of tin 
 stop short of the end? What is meant hy the statement that "it takes 
 time to think?" Is this principle Frequently violated hy teachers? 
 
 3. How can inductive and deductive thinking he distinguished ? Which is 
 the more natural with children? Which with an adult who is think- 
 ing regarding familiar lines of experience, e. g. his vocation? Do 
 both of these types lake place in your illustration above? Cff. gram- 
 mar, nature study, home economics, algebra, history, this course in 
 psychology? Can you in each case, suggest how a better organiza- 
 tion of the course would require more variety of use of these two 
 types? Or a change in emphasis from one to the other? 
 
 4. Before you leave this matter, write- out a brief summary of this dis- 
 cussion "in which is included: thinking, reasoning, the five steps, induc- 
 tion and deduction. Are you yourself, addicted too much to the habit 
 of accepting the conclusions of others as your own, without thinking 
 them out, or without, when possible, arriving at these conclusions 
 yourself? 
 
 [ 30 ] 
 
Lesson 26. Processes Involved in Reasoning; Practical Applications 
 
 Just as emotions are inconceivable without feeling and percepts with- 
 out sensations, so reasoning must be thought of as a complex of many 
 processes including concepts, judgments and inferences. It becomes the 
 whole business of logic, a sister science of psychology, to deal with the 
 results of reasoning, the statements and arguments such as we find in 
 texts and other books, and to establish norms by which to judge the cor- 
 rectness and validity of such arguments. In this lesson we are to see on 
 the other hand, how these various processes dovetail into one another and 
 to draw therefrom a list of valuable suggestions for our own thinking 
 and for our training of others to think. Do not spend too much time on 
 exercises 1 and 2, but save some for 3. 
 
 References: See lesson 25. 
 
 1. When you think of, have an idea of, say a "horse" or horses in general, 
 without at the time, any sensory experience (percept), this experi- 
 ence or process is known as a concept, or meaning. You will remem- 
 ber that a sensation became a percept when some meaning was 
 attached to the object, so now the concept represents this meaning, 
 come so fully into its own, that it can replace the object itself in our 
 thinking. Does this concept of horse carry with it an image of some 
 one horse or horse-ness in general? Is it necessary for it to do so? 
 When you think the square of "x plus y," do you have an image or 
 do you not? Briefly, what is a concept and the practice or process of 
 conception? Note how this process is a tremendous time-saving 
 device which probably animals have in a very small degree and that 
 our concepts not only grow in our own experience (ripen and develop), 
 but also in the racial experience? (What are good references on the 
 last two points?) 
 
 2. Judgment and inference are very closely related processes frequently 
 defined quite differently by different writers, and with conception form 
 the stages in the thought processes as a whole. 
 
 a. It is probably safe to say that the judgment represents the inter- 
 preting of a new experience in terms of the old, a judging. If I come 
 to the conclusion that "psychology is a difficult study," I link two 
 notions (ideas, concepts) together and I interpret my experience in 
 this course as against that in other courses 1 have taken. What judg- 
 ments have you made today or recently, that would illustrate the 
 definition and statements above? 
 
 b. Of inference, we learned something in exercise 3 in lesson 25, 
 where we saw that reasoning which carries us through a situation 
 demanding solution of a problem of any difficulty calls for the organi- 
 zation of knowledge with some care in order that the solution may be 
 correct, that is, based on the evidence. Inferences are prohahly there- 
 fore, extended and elaborate judgments just as these are developed 
 concepts. What is inference? ('.an you also show the close relation 
 of these three processes by noting how a concept may develop thru 
 judgment and inference? 
 
 c. Now go hack to Dewey, H. W. T.. pp. S2-S3. and note the con- 
 cepts, judgments and inferences, using the definitions given above. 
 The instructor will help clear flu mailer up in class. 
 
 3. Do not memorize the following general maxims about thinking in 
 relation to school work hut think them over carefully, try to illustrate 
 them, and to apply them to your own work as a student and pros- 
 pective teacher (if* Colvin, ch. 22; Strayer and Nors worthy, eh. 7). 
 
 i. Abstract thought (reasoning) is a capacity or ability that is pos- 
 sessed in varying degrees and in some persons to a \ery small 
 degree. 
 
 ii. Reasoning demands data sufficient to solve the problem (if the 
 pupil does not possess the facts, they must be gotten from texts. 
 from the teacher, from observation or other legitimate sources). 
 
 iii. Reasoning and the rational life require as attitudes, open-minded- 
 ness, self-criticism and originality. 
 
 iv. Training is essential at each step in the thinking process, in 
 defining the problem, in analysing it into its different elements, in 
 evaluating the tentative solutions, and in verifying the accepted 
 answer. 
 
 [ 31 ] 
 
CH. VIII. WILL AND CHARACTER 
 
 Lesson 27. Will, Voluntary Action, Character, Moral Training 
 
 There was a time when psychologists had a conception very much 
 like the popular one of today that the will was a separate faculty of the 
 mind which acted as a sort of commanding general of the other faculties 
 or processes. Today we conceive willing or volition as being a counter- 
 part of attention and characterizing our mental life when action follows 
 along the lines of our choices, ideas, ideals and intentions. Our character 
 or moral life is a complex of these ideals and habits that we more or less 
 consciously develop. 
 
 References: Pillsbury, pp, 284-9, 303-313; Straver and Newsworthy, 
 ch. 11; Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 13; Angcll, ch. 22; Averill, eh. 39; 
 Thorndike, E. P., pp. 276-284, 293-6; Dewey, M. P. E.; Woodworth, ch. 20. 
 
 1. Some of our acts are planned more or less and others not. What is 
 the actual difference? Has this anything to do with will? Look up 
 the hypothetical experience in Lesson 3 and note the place of willing 
 there. What willed or voluntary action has characterized your be- 
 havior today? What do you understand by the psychologist's state- 
 ment that the will is "the whole mind active?" (Angell. p. 4.°5). Try 
 to state as simply as possible what you regard as the best definition 
 of the term will or volition. 
 
 2. Note the meaning of the following terms: desire, choice, wish, decision, 
 conflict, intention, determination, effort. Can you suggest other terms 
 that have to do with willing? Could you arrange these in a series 
 according to degree? Degree of what? 
 
 3. It has been slated that "What hold attention determines action" 
 (James, p. 448). Illustrate this. Docs this hold of the inattentive 
 child in school? Does emotion enter in to determine will or choice? 
 Does habit? Try to take some experience where you have made an 
 important decision and note the presence of these three factors and 
 others that may be present? Is will more characterized by suppres- 
 sing or by expressing one's self? Does your answer g xilh the 
 popular notion? 
 
 4. What is meant by character.' In how far is it a question of habits 
 and ideals? What does it mean to have an impulsive will? an 
 obstructed will? a healthy will? i. e. while Hum phrases are now un- 
 acceptable, what is the idea behind each and how does it conned 
 with character? 
 
 5. What is will training? (see Angell and Pillsbury). Which is more 
 likely to further character training or the development of the will, 
 
 (a) moral instruction in wluit constitutes good citizenship or (b) 
 participation in student government? Why? What is the weak: ss 
 of moral instruction thai is. teaching precepts, or "preaching" in 
 school? Would you rule it out? Why is the teacher's example' fed- 
 lowed and her precepts ignored? 
 
 6. Bearing in mind thai the modern view is that the little child when 
 he comes to school is non-moral, what suggestions have you to make- 
 to show that Dewey is right in saying that there are three sources of 
 moral education or development in the school, the studies (curri- 
 culum), the methods used by the teacher, and the school life itself? 
 What arc three or four of the most important rules or maxims 
 the teacher to hold in mind as summing up the practical aspects of 
 will training or moral education? 
 
 [ 32 ] 
 
CH. IX. GENERAL PROBLEMS: RELATEDNESS OF FUNCTIONS, 
 SELF, MENTAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Lesson 28. Interrelations of Mental Functions: Personality, Self 
 You will recall that at the beginning of the course you were told 
 that there was an older and false view of mind, namely that it was com- 
 posed of a few rigid and separate faculties. On the other hand we now 
 conceive it to be in reality a unit, despite the millions of responses that 
 we perhaps daily make, like a great machine in respect to behavior but 
 frequently and usually conscious of its behavior. While therefore we 
 continue to use much the same terminology as the older view, e. g., 
 memory, emotions, and so forth, we do this to help in analyzing this com- 
 plex mechanism and to indicate how at one time it focuses in one way 
 and at another time in another way. Oftentimes the labels do not fit well 
 and could be shifted about without much difficulty. Reasoning is like 
 will (involving deliberation), like memory (depending upon recall), like 
 imagination (using images ordinarily), like association of ideas (and 
 almost identical in its simpler forms) , and is indeed based similarly upon 
 heredity or natural tendencies. Today we want to think a little while 
 about this general relationship of mental functions or processes and of 
 its bearing upon two interesting problems: (1) the transfer of training 
 from one function to another (see exercise 2), and (2) the meaning of 
 the terms self and personality (exercise 3). 
 
 References: Pillsbury, ch. 15; Colvin, pp. 221-217, 211-6; Strayer and 
 Nors worthy, ch. 12; Wood worth, ch. 21. 
 
 1. Show, as with reasoning above, how perception connects up with most 
 of the various processes or functions discussed this term. Does this 
 interrelation seem to hold of attitudes and emotions? Pillsbury 
 maintains that there are three general functions of mind, which you 
 have noted in connection with your study of situations, bonds and 
 responses: receiving impressions, retaining impressions, and selecting 
 among these. Arc these three in evidence when I perceive a falling 
 star, decide to walk instead of ride, remember the face of a friend 
 in a crowd, etc? Can you make oilier analogies than the one in the 
 introduction which suggest the unitary nature of mind? Does this 
 idea of interrelationship really clear up matters for you compared with 
 your notions before studying psychology? Why is it important for 
 the teacher? 
 
 2. If functions are so definitely and closely interrelated, when and why. 
 if at all, does training carry over from one to another, e. g.. memoriz- 
 ing poetry and prose, being accurate in arithmetic and writing and 
 keeping accounts and in one's statements about other people? Be 
 careful to get the correct view of this matter if you cannot answer the 
 above questions with certainty. Can general intelligence be trained 
 by training one function? Can it be trained at all? Suggest a half 
 dozen very practical rules for the teacher to bear in mind regarding 
 transfer of training (see Colvin). 
 
 3. Another problem which arises naturally is that of the nature of per- 
 sonality or self. Just as reasoning is the basis of the study of logic M 
 the study of tin- self and the not-self is of philosophy. We are con- 
 cerned only with getting a general and practical working notion etf 
 these. Try to describe some one's personality so that another will 
 recognize the person. Do you find yourself using the terms thai you 
 have' grown familiar with in this course. e>r other terms? What is 
 personality? How does the idea differ fre>m that of self? Do yon 
 have a concept of self (your self) very much as you have of tree or 
 chair? Is it the result of "thinking together" your various experi- 
 ences? (If you care te) read abeuit the' self, see Pillsburv. ch. 16; Angell, 
 ch. 23; Janies, ch. 12). 
 
 [ 33 ] 
 
Lesson 29. Mental Development: Different Stages of 
 
 Although there has not seemed opportunity or time to stress it, you 
 have noticed from time to time references to the fact that mental develop- 
 ment is a process that begins largely with birth and is never ended until 
 death or at least until senility comes on. A new-born babe can see, at 
 least it can distinguish light from dark, but it cannot reason; it has sensa- 
 tions but not percepts or concepts. Professor James has said that its 
 experience must be that of a "big blooming, buzzing confusion." How- 
 ever all these traits or functions we have been discussing begin to develop 
 early, not appearing full-fledged at one time as many people seem to think. 
 
 Our school work is divided more or less along the lines of child 
 development into primary, intermediate and high school phases. At this 
 time it is well for you to stop and check up on the traits of children at 
 these ages. The instructor will assist you and perhaps arrange one or 
 more observations. He may want you to specialize upon one of these 
 three phases or stages or to study each less thoroughly. This is an excell- 
 ent opportunity for you to try to find out something about other periods 
 of child life than that with which the course you have chosen deals be- 
 cause at this time you may want to change your course if you find your 
 talents, your interests and your probable future success lie in another 
 direction. 
 
 References: Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 15; Cameron, ch. 15; 
 Bagley, Educative Process, ch. 12; for the high school period or adolescent 
 period, consult Colvin, Introduction to High School Teaching, ch. 2 or 
 Monroe, Principles of Secondary Education, ch. 7, or Averill, ch. 45. 
 (Kirkpatrick, in his Individual in the Making, has the most detailed 
 account of the different stages of child development, if one will read it 
 with care and remember that what is reported is largely a matter of more 
 or less isolated observations). 
 
 1. There seems to be much evidence that general bodily development and 
 mental development go hand in hand. e. g. the changes that occur at 
 puberty. Can you cite other illustrations of this fact? Is it likely 
 that if a child is retarded physically he will in the majority of cases 
 be retarded mentally? In any study of children at different Ages or 
 stages, which would be more desirable to know, the chronological 
 age (that is, his age in years and months) or his mental age (repre- 
 senting his actual mental development) ? How would the latter be 
 found ? 
 
 2. Bagley calls the period from (>-S the transition period, that from S-12 
 the formative period, and from 12-10 the adolescent period Try to 
 suggest better terms or to point out the traits prominent in tii> m 
 periods. Then follow up one or more periods with a careful study, 
 centering a part or most of your thought in the following questions: 
 
 i. What are some of the better defined objectives (aims) of school 
 work at this period? 
 
 ii. What are some of the more important instincts that are prominent 
 at this period? 
 
 iii. What types of interests absorb the child's mind, vocational, scien- 
 tific, social, play, etc.? 
 
 iv. What are some of the characteristics of his perceptions, imagina- 
 tion, reasoning, memory, attention, etc.? 
 
 v. What do you consider as some of the biggest problems of this 
 period? Are you still most interested in it? 
 
 [ 34 ] 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
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