S'f.r**^ ^-sffFV* v : --* 4 4r V*^^> o» « • •• "^ ^ /j i\ % <& ^isSC^ ^ . '.rfSStw*- O **o* 0* %, *s?7Z*' A ? .0 *°V %. A.^^- ^ ^ ***** / %'™>° V^V %-™V v ^6 * i •jj^J^i.fcf- ^ J ^ -* . •^tfS&w*- o jp-i ..iii.'. > V S .«♦•- ^V aO*..'^', *> V N .IV- ^V ^ ->' oK STANDARDIZED BARBERS* MANUAL Revised and Adopted by THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL of the ASSOCIATED MASTER BARBERS of AMERICA PRICE $5.00 !• Co TTo, : is Copyright 1911 by A. B. MOLER Revised Edition 1920 Revised Edition 1924 Revised Edition 1926 Revised Edition 1927 Revised Edition 1928 REVISED JANUARY 1. 1928 by THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL of the ASSOCIATED MASTER BARBERS OF AMERICA i! nAR2^7H©CU1068837 THE BARBER PROFESSION LIVERY professional should know the history and the individuals who have been or are contributors to the advancement of his profes- sion, therefore the effort has been made to place before you in this Textbook all of the present day national leaders and the organiza- tions which they represent, and to the memory and honor of these men and the organized bar- ber interests of America who have made this edition possible this volume is dedicated. The fact that barbering is a profession ne- cessitates this Standardized Textbook, that the student may not only acquire a practical knowl- edge, but that he may learn the Theoretical, Ethical, Legal and Scientific principles or ele- ments of the profession in order to be skilled professional practitioners. The Kansas Supreme Court, in the 63rd Kansas 471, July 6, 1901, held that barbering is a professional service. Among other things the court said: ''Like the surgeon and dentist, when the barber moves he attracts to himself those having confidence in his ability, and the greater his professional skill the more difficult it is to alienate from him those to whom his services have given satisfaction." CONTENTS Page Pictorial History Prelude, Barbering Selection and Care of Tools 5 Honing and Stropping 26 Shaving 33 Haircutting 60 Sanitation 110 Electricity 115 Chemistry 118 Anatomy 134 Amplified Facial 156 Facial Treatments 159 Scalp Treatments 179 Hair Dye 204 Ethics and Salesmanship 219 Business 225 Definitions 242 J. B. RIGGS Akron, Ohio President. Standardised Bar Schools Association Mr. Riggs has 27 years in the profession to his credit, 15 of which have been spent in the barber school business, as well as two years in the study of medicine. A. B. MOLER Chicago, Illinois Secretary -Treasurer, Standard- ized Barber Schools Association A. B. Moler bears the distinc- tion of being the founder of the first barber school in the world. His schools constantly keep abreast of the latest develop ments applicable to the profes- sion. Sponsors of Better Instruction for Barbers DR. EDGAR B. WILSON, D. C., Ph. C. The barber profession owes much to Dr. Wilson for the thorough knowledge of the human anatomy and the proper manipulation of the muscles and nervous system which he has been so instrumental in spread- ing throughout the profession. He is a Doctor of Chiropractic, thus possessing an anatomical under- standing that proved of inestimable value while as- sisting the National Educational Council in promot- ing its standardized barber school curriculum and program. Dr. Wilson is no stranger to the barber profession, as he served therein for 25 years before taking his place in the chiropractic field, and to him must be given the credit for the scientific material contained in this textbook. Origin of Standardized Barber Schools THE Associated Master Barbers of America, in convention assembled at Des Moines, Iowa, November, 1926, adopted a resolution creating a Na- ( tional Educational Council of three members, with instructions to investigate and determine the methods used by other professions in controlling their educational institutions. C. B. Hypes of Topeka, Kan., C. N. Good of Elgin, 111., and F. H. Tramp of Memphis, Tenn., were elected as members of the Educational Council. The Council organized by selecting C. B. Hypes as Chairman, C. N. Good as Vice-Chairman, and F. H. Tramp as Secretary. This Council made its investigations and submitted its report to the Execu- tive Board on January 16, 1927, and the two foregoing pages contain the program proposed by the Council and approved by the Executive Board. The National Barber Schools Association, Inc., was formed in Cleveland. Ohio, September 18, 1922. J. B. Riggs of Akron. Ohio, is President, and A. B. Moler of Chicago, 111., is Secretary. This Association meets annually. Reproduction of Certificate Issued by National Educational Council to Standardized Barber Schools At a meeting of the National Barber Schools Association of America, held in the Stevens Hotel, Chicago, October 31 and November 1, 2 and 3. 1927, 42 of the leading barber schools of the country signed the Council's contract making the standardized school program a reality. Other schools have since signed the contract until the number is well over half a hundred. For a student to receive a diploma signed and sealed by the National Educational Council it is necessary that he complete the full six-month course in a standardized barber school, and that he then work under an approved Master Barber as an apprentice for 18 months. These regulations are not for the purpose of penalizing or discouraging barber students but to assure them that they will receive adequate and proper instruction and train- ing to make them efficient and professional practitioners. Every student in a standardized barber school should insist upon the school complying with all of the Council requirements as they may affect his education. National Educational Council Associated Master Barbers of America c. B. HYPES Topeka, Kansas Chairman Mr. Hypes is an advanced thinker and an educational enthusiast, and is responsible for much of the program of the National Educational Council. He was elected chair- man of the Council at Des Moines in 1926. F. H. TRAMP Memphis, Tennessee Secretary Mr. Tramp was elected to the Educa- tional Council in 1926, was made secretary of the body, and was re-elected at the De- troit convention. C. N. GOOD Elgin, Illinois Vice-Chairman Mr. Good has always been a consistent advocate of higher education, was elected to the Educational Council at Des Moines in 1926, and re-elected at the Detroit cor vention in 1927. THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL OF The Associated Master Barbers of America AGREEMENT THIS AGREEMENT, made this . day of _ , 192 , between , owner and operator of a barber school or college, at County of , State of . _.., party of the first part, and The National Educational Council, of The Associated Master Barbers of America (Incorporated), of 440 South Dear- born St., Chicago, Cook County, Illinois, party of the second part. WITNESSETH, That the said , party of the first part, hereby covenants and agrees, that he will accept, establish, and enforce the Curriculum, Regulations and Supervision (a copy of which is hereto attached- and made a part of this agreement) of The National Educational Council, party of the second part, in his barber school or college for a period of ..year from date And the said The National Educational Council, party of the second part, in consideration of the prompt and faithful performance of this agreement by the said , party of the first part, agrees to furnish the said . , party of the first part, with a certificate of standardization for said school or college and to permit said school or college to be advertised as a Stand- ardized school or college by and with the consent of TheNational Educational Council, party of the second part, dur ing the life of this agreement. The second party further agrees to, in every way consistent, to aid and co-operate with said first party in the conduct and operation of a standardized barber school or college as is herein defined and agreed upon. This agreement shall be binding upon the successors, heirs, executors and assigns of the parties hereto IN WITNESS WHEREOF The parties to these presents have hereunto set their hands and seals, the day and year first above written First Party THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL. Second Party By , Chairman. , Vice Chairman Attest , Secretary THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL The Associated Master Barbers of America CURRICULUM, REGULATIONS AND SUPERVISION OF STANDARDIZED BARBER SCHOOLS ENROLLMENT. Preliminary Requirements — Over 16 years of age; an eighth grade grammar school education or its equivalent as determined by the Council by an examination; good moral character and temperate habits. Matriculation — Tuition fee of not less than $150, payable in advance, or at least $50 in advance and the bal- ance in weekly or monthly installments over a period of six months or less. COURSE. Time — Two years is required to complete the course. The first six months must be in the school or college proper as a student apprentice. After six months as a student apprentice, and on making satisfactory grades the 6tudent ap- prentice shall be advanced to the grade of Junior apprentice and farmed out to an approved Master Barber for practice and to earn wages for six months, when he shall be advanced to the grade of apprentice on a satisfactory showing of skill and knowledge, and continue to practice and earn wages under an approved Master Barber for one year After one year of study and practice as an apprentice under an approved Master Barber, he shall take a final exam- ination by the Council and if passing grades are made he shall have issued to him a DIPLOMA of graduation and the degree of BARBER. Said diploma shall designate the school or college with the proper official signatures and seal of the college and the signatures and seal of THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL. Subjects — Barbering; Practical; Theoretical; Business and Ethics; Scientific: and Treatments Practical; Shaving; Hair Cutting; Shampooing; and Massage. Theoretical; Personality; Art; and History. Business and Ethics; Bookkeeping; Management. Scientific: Anatomy; Bacteriology; Elementary Chemistry Treatments; Dead Hairs; Acnae; Sycosis; Ringworm; Alopecia; Seborroeh; Eczema; Syphilis; and Sorisis Sub-Subject, Shaving; Tools; Kinds; Materials; and Technic. Hair Cutting; Tools; Kinds; Materials; and Technic. Shampooing: Tools; Kinds; Materials, and Technic Massage: Tools; Kinds; Materials; and Technic. Personality: Education; Sociability; Confidence; Movements; and Touch Art: Contour; Outline; Mental Photography; and Hair Gravitation History: Ancient, Medieval and Modern History of Barbering. Supervision — The National Educational Council shall supervise all Standardized schools and colleges, prescribe the curriculum, texts and courses of study, sanitary rules and regulations, hold and pass on all examinations for advance- ment or graduation, furnish or prescribe application blanks for Master Barber wishing permits to work apprentices and pass on said applications and prescribe such other regulations as supervision may from time to time require. Supervision Fees — Preliminary examination for entrance . $3.00 Junior apprentice examination and certificate _ _ 1.00 Apprentice examination and certificate 1-00 Barber degree examination and Diploma . 20.00 Inspection — The National Educational Council shall, by its supervisor, or individually, inspect all standardized schools and colleges and order necessary changes in equipment, conduct or management to meet the Council's require- ments, and shall withdraw its supervision and standardization from any institution failing to comply with its require ■ments. INSTRLCTORS. Qualifications — All instructors must be of good moral character and temperate habits; free from contagious or infectious diseases, and of clean personal habits and life. All instructors will have six months time, from the date of standardization, to fully equip themselves as standard- ized instructors; if not already equipped, by taking a course in an approved training school or college of higher instruc- ion Classification — Instructors shall be classified into three classes viz, Primary Intermediate, and Advanced Sub-Class — Primary: Instruction in practical barbering. Intermediate: Instruction in theoretical and business and ethics of barbering Advanced: Instruction in scientific and treatments of barbering Primary instructors must -also be qualified in the intermediate and advanced class and Intermediate instructors must also be qualified in the primary and advanced, altho they may teach in only one classification, and all must wear the regulation uniform when on duty INSTRUCTION, 1,000 Hours Classification— Primary 750 hours; 5 hours per day for 150 days within a period of not less than six months. Prac- tice and Demonstrations. Intermediate: 100 hours; 2-3 hour per day for 150 days within a period of not less than six months Recitations and Lectures. Advanced: 150 hours; 1 hour per day for 150 days within a period of not less than six months Recitations, Lec- tures, Demonstrations and Laboratory clinics. REGULATIONS No. 1— All standardized barber schools may divide the six months student-apprentice course into four semes- ters of six weeks each. Students leaving school after one semester may return at any time to complete the full course and receive credit for each semester completed; or they may transfer from a standardized school in one city to another city and receive credit for semesters completed, but switching from one standardized school to another in the same city will not be allowed without the consent of the supervisor. No. 2— Standardized schools may establish a preliminary course of instruction for students who have not fin- ished the eighth grade grammar school requirement, to enable them to make the preliminary examination to be con- ducted by the Council's Supervisor The Associated Master Barbers of America FOLLOWING a growing sentiment among leaders in the profession for the organization of a national association, the first convention, which was practically a meeting for organizing purposes, was held at the Sherman Hotel in Chicago, November 17, 18 and 19, 1924. Enthusiasm was the key- note of this convention, and it was plain to be seen that the future of the organization was assured. Immediately after the Chicago convention the work of issuing charters began, and by the time of the Kansas City meeting, a year later, the Associated Master Barbers of America had 2,800 members on its rolls. The 1926 convention was held in Des Moines, Iowa, and that of 1927 at Detroit, Mich. At Detroit the delegates present represented a membership of nearly 10,000, evidence of the recognition by the shop owners of the United States of the need for such a national association and of their increasing support of the organization and the principles upon which it functions. These principles are defined in the preamble to the Constitution and By- Laws of the Associated Master Barbers of America. We give them here, that the student may become aware of the high ideals which permeate every action of the members thereof: The purpose of organizing nationally is to get that strength and intelligent unity necessary to accomplish nation-wide needs and reforms. These are in part as follows : First, to elevate craft ideals. That is to say, to implant in all craft workers a higher appreciation of themselves and their work. Second, to increase the phases of shop service (widen the field of service) to promote uniform shop practices and to establish uniform fees for such services throughout the entire country. Third, to promote neighborly tolerance among all branches of chiroton- sory. That is, to establish' a working co-operation of barbers, hairdressers and cosmeticians, especially for the purpose of educating the public to a wider appreciation and patronage and to establish uniform, just, noncon- flicting laws governing the business. Fourth, to assist toward technical craft education to an extent sufficient to compel, or at least to command and hold public confidence. Fifth, to propagandize the newspaper press of the country through recog- nized journalistic channels, that is, to inject into the literary current of the day a stream of reading matter in behalf of modern chirotonsory. Sixth, to sustain a line of scientific and economic investigations up to the limits of current research in behalf of the craft. Seventh, to unify the craft by means of full nation-wide mutual infor- mation and dependable craft news. Eighth, to declare and make clear that this program is not a program of selfish and commercial interests, but a legitimate cog in the wheel of better things. Final Declaration In the furtherance of these ends The Associated Master Barbers of America declares its determination and its eagerness to co-operate honestly and fairly with all creeds, all organizations, and all crafts connected directly or indirectly with the barbers' work. President, Secretary and Treasurer •C>M<>- Associated Master Barbers of America OTTO EWERT Chicago, Illinois General President At Springfield, 111., in 1923, Mr. Ewert was elected temporary president to form the National Association. At the first na- tional convention in Chicago in November, 1924, he was elected General President, and has been re-elected at each convention LOUIS E. McILVAIN Chicago, Illinois General Secretary and Organiser At the first national convention, held in Chicago in November, 1924, Mr. Mcllvain was elected General Organizer, and at the 1925 convention, held in Kansas City, he was elected General Secretary and Organ- izer. He continues to hold these offices. JAMES H. MANTLE Bloomington, Illinois General Treasurer Mr. Mantle became affiliated with the As- sociated Master Barbers of America in No- vember, 1924. He was elected treasurer of the national organization at that time, and each succeeding convention has seen him returned to office. HENRY WEVER Chicago, Illinois Henry Wever was born August 29, 1849, at Liberty, Ohio. In his early youth the profession of barbering claimed his attention, but later years saw him turn to other activities, which included teaching, writing, selling in the commercial field, and editorial work. In 1921 he became editor of The Reflector, which was then the name of The Master Barber Magazine and Beauty Culturist, and in the years fol- lowing his contributions to the profes- sion by reason of a tremendous amount of research work, inspired and backed by several years spent in the study of medicine, have been of invaluable aid to the profession in the raising of its standards. His writings and teachings have brought out a mass of informative data which has in this way been trans- lated into shape for practical use by barbers everywhere, and the inspira- tion of his teachings has been a beacon light marking the shining goal toward which the face of modern barbering is turned. Their Editorial Pens Have Done Much for the Barber Profession JULE GORDON Des Moines, Iowa Jule Gordon was born in Chicago, 111., September 25, 1900, and was edu- cated at McKinley high school, Chi- cago, and Northwestern university, Evanston, 111. Mr. Gordon is editor of The Square Deal, a magazine devoted to the barbers and beauty operators of America, published by the Square Deal Publishing Company of Des Moines, Iowa. This publication has a national circulation and has done much to pave the way for nation-wide organization, and Mr. Gordon and his editorials have done much to bring to the barbers of America a realization that a better and higher education is needed in order to secure and hold the confidence of an enlightened public. The barber profes- sion owes much to Mr. Gordon for his untiring efforts and intelligent, un- selfish devotion to their cause. General Vice-Presidents Associated Master Barbers of America T. C. MacDUFFEE Des Moines, Iowa First Vice-President Mr. MacDuffee joined the Associated Master Barbers of America on January 21, 1926, and was elected as First Vice- President at Detroit in 1927. ALDEN WARMELIN Chicago, Illinois Second Vice-President Mr. Warmelin attended the 1924 convention in Chicago, where he was elected Second Vice-President, and he has continued to hold that office. ANTHONY PANASCI Buffalo, N. Y. Third Vice-President Mr. Panasci was elected Third Vice- President at the second annual conven- tion at Kansas City in 1925, and has been re-elected since. C. A. BELMONT Sacramento, California Fourth Vice-President Mr. Belmont was made Fourth Vice- President of the organization at Kansas City in 1925, and has been returned to office each year. Educational Committee .< u<>. National Beauty and Barber Supply Dealers' Association W. L. SCOTT Peoria, Illinois Chairman A. H. SCHROEDER Fort Wayne, Indiana C. A. GREEN Lincoln, Nebraska The National Beauty and Barber Sup- ply Dealers' Association has always formed a harmonious unit in the cycle which constantly strives to educate the profession as a whole and elevate its status in the world of affairs. To the Student Barber '"PHE ultimate success of our great cause, and the ideals for which it stands, depends on three great qualities, namely, the quality of Confidence, the quality of Courage, and the result of the union of these two qualities, which is Harmony. Each depends on the other, and all three form the perfect triad. They should be acquired by all who wish to succeed in their chosen line of endeavor, and strict adherence to these principles will bring success to him who makes their practice part of his daily conduct. Knowing this, we unhesitatingly recommend them to the students with the hope that they will become his guiding spirit all through life. Confidence comes from a complete belief in the justice and virtues of the line of endeavor you are choosing for yourself. It cannot be acquired in ignorance, for ignor- ance never bred confidence. Rather, it is the result of knowledge, and this essential knowledge of your chosen profession must come from those who have preceded you, and who have, by hard-won experience, gathered that wisdom, so it is the better policy to heed their teachings and gain profit thereby. Knowledge is gained by exchange of thought, and it is only through organization that this can be accomplished. Organiza- tion means a method whereby the recipient of that knowledge gains the most from it, to an immeasurably greater extent than could he, as an individual, working alone. Courage is the result of confidence, and confidence in yourself and your ability will supply the courage which will inspire you, and which will never fail. Confidence is the very foundation of life itself. A man's strength to work and to enjoy his daily existence depends on confidence. A man must have confidence in his home, confidence in his friends and confidence in his business. Applied to business, it is this confidence that supplies the courage to face his every problem with the strength and bearing of a conqueror. The man with confidence is the winner in the great game of life. It is the breath of life of courage, its inspiration, the reason for its very existence. If you have confidence and courage you are in harmony with life itself. Harmony means a willingness to submerge self and let common welfare rule supreme. Harmony comes when self is forgotten and the common cause for forward movement becomes the only motive. Harmony means the one accord of each, and all taken together. It is the music of life, the satisfaction of soul which characterizes freedom from all discord and a united seeing of the common welfare. It is at last the recognition and the appre- ciation of harmony which completes the circle and governs the working conditions in our great profession. It is the due recognition of these cardinal principles which supplies the need for and the existence of the Associated Master Barbers of America. Our organization is built on the foundation-stones of Confidence, Courage and Harmony, and our every effort is to perpetuate in practice the benefits to be derived from their observance. These principles lie behind the issuance of this Manual, so that the ambitious student may have placed in his hands the accumulated knowledge that comes from organization, that he may derive, in his status, the incalculable benefits that organization makes possible, and so assimilate in his daily duties the inspiring lessons contained in the three principles which are the constant guide of our organization. We wish to acknowledge the whole-hearted co-operation of the National Beauty and Barber Supply Dealers' Association in the educational work in which our association is engaged. On the opposite page we reproduce the pictures of the Educational Committee of that association. This committee has labored long and well in the work of education and uplifting of our profession, and is deserving of much praise and the fullest con- fidence for its efforts. History of State Barber Laws THE first state barber law enacted in the United States was passed in Minnesota in 1897, and since that time the following- states have passed statutes governing the profession : Illinois, Wisconsin, Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, South Dakota, California, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, Colo- rado, Oregon, Delaware, Utah, Connecticut and Washington. On the follow- ing pages are shown pictures of the members of various state boards as of January 1, 1928. The model license law, which is used as a basis for the formulation of beneficial legislation in the various states of the Union, was drafted and approved at a joint session of the general executive boards of the Associated Master Barbers of America and the Journeymen Barbers' International Union of America, together with representatives of the National Association of Barber and Beauty Culture Schools, in Chicago, Illinois, on Julv 19 and 20, 1926. The Minnesota law, as passed, provided for perpetual licenses. The stat- ute was amended in 1921 and again in 1927. The Wisconsin law was passed in 1903. The Kansas law was enacted in 1913 and was amended in 1927. Michigan's first barber law was passed in 1899, and superseded by a new one in 1927. The South Dakota law was passed in 1927. The California law, containing all the best features of the model bill, was passed in 1927. The Iowa law, passed in 1927, contains many features of the model bill. The Missouri law dates back to 1899. The North Dakota law, enacted in 1927, contains many of the more im- portant features of the model bill. The Colorado law was enacted in 1909. The Oregon law was first passed in 1899, amended in 1903, 1905 and 1925. This law was repealed and a model law enacted in 1927. The enactment of legislation looking to the betterment of the barbering profession and the members thereof is the result of organized effort along these lines, and of the combining of many ideas of many supporters of a belief that barbers should and could have these things. That their faith was sound and the labor fruitful may be readily seen today, when from the working of this legislation is apparent the many benefits contained in the various state laws. IT PAYS TO LOOK WELL" MINNESOTA STATE BARBER BOARD P. H. TlMMINS Minneapolis J. P. McGill St. Paul Walter Dunlop Duluth ILLINOIS STATE BARBER BOARD Frank J. Bishop Chicago J. H. Hoyt Peoria James H. Mantle Bloomington WISCONSIN STATE BARBER BOARD Chas. E. Mullen Madison Wm. L. Smith Milwaukee John W. Hacker Kenosha KANSAS STATE BARBER BOARD H. P. Miller Topeka Chas. H. Look Concordia W. M. Roberts Manhattan MARYLAND MICHIGAN Louis Reuling Baltimore ( iLenn Brown Belding SOUTH DAKOTA STATE BARBER BOARD Chas. P. Bowell Aberdeen Judson Miller Sioux Falls F. C. Foster Rapid City CALIFORNIA STATE BARBER BOARD J. T. Haywood San Francisco C. E. Rynearson Marysville C. L. Butts Los Angeles IOWA STATE BARBER BOARD John T. McGruder Des Moines Frank O. Moffitt Sioux City MISSOURI STATE BARBER BOARD John H. Parshall Kansas City George A. Luce Jefferson City Wm. F. Rebsamen St. Louis NORTH DAKOTA STATE BARBER BOARD Melvin T. Simley Finley Calvin P. Wick Fargo Fred K. Ode Bismarck COLORADO STATE BARBER BOARD Carl E. Bruhx Denver R. W. LlCHTENHELD Denver OREGON STATE BARBER BOARD Roy Neer Portland Ed. L. Johnson Oregon City C. D. Winston Corvallis PRELUDE Barbering Ancient, Medieval and Modern For much of the following article we are indebted to the F. IV. Fitch Co. HPHE word "barber" comes from the Latin word "barba," meaning beard. It may surprise you to know that the earliest records of barbers' show that they were the foremost men of their tribe. They were the medicine men and the priests. This was because primitive man was very superstitious and the early tribes believed that every individual was inhabited by good and bad spirits which entered the body through the hairs on the head. The bad spirits could be driven out only by cutting the hair, and so various fashions of hair cutting were prac- ticed by the different tribes and this made the barber the most important man in the community. In fact, the barbers in these tribal days arranged all marriages and baptized all children. They were the chief figures in the religious ceremonies. During these ceremonies, the hair was allowed to hang loosely over the shoulders so that the evil spirits could come out. After the dancing, the long hair was cut in the prevailing fashion by the barbers and combed back tightly so that the evil spirits could not get in or the good spirits get out. This rule by barbers was a common thing in ancient Asia. In fact, wher- ever there were legends and supersti- tions about the hair, the barbers flour- ished. To this day in India, the ven- eration of the hair continues and those who cut and dress the hair are important characters. SHAVED HEADS AND BEARDS In Egypt, many centuries before Christ, barbers were prosperous and highly respected. The ancient monu- ments and papyrus show that the Egyptians shaved their beards and their heads. The Egyptian priests even went so far as to shave the entire body every third day. At this time the barbers carried their tools in open-mouthed baskets and their razors were shaped like small hatchets and had curved handles. The Bible tells us that when Joseph was sum- moned to appear before Pharaoh, a barber was sent for to shave Joseph, so that Pharaoh's sight would not be offended by a dirty face. In Greece, barbers came into prom- inence as early as the fifth century, B. C. These wise men of Athens rivalled each other in the excellence of their beards. Beard trimming be- came an art and barbers became lead- ing citizens. Their shops were fre- quented by statesmen, poets and philo- sophers, who came there to have their hair cut or their beards trimmed or curled and scented with costly essences. And, incidentally, they came to discuss the news of the day, because the bar- ber shops of ancient Greece were the headquarters for social, political, and sporting news. The importance of the tonsorial art in Greece may be gathered from the fact that a certain prominent Greek was defeated for office because his opponent had a more neatly trimmed beard. In the third century, B. C., the Macedonians under Alexander the Great began their conquest of Asia and lost several battles to the Per- sians who grabbed the Macedonians by their beards, pulled them to the ground and speared them. This re- sulted in a general order by Alexander that all soldiers be clean-shaven. The example of the soldiers was followed by the civilians and beards lost their vogue. Barbers were unknown in Rome until 296 B. C., when Ticinius Mena THE BARBERS' MANUAL came to Rome from Sicily and intro- duced shaving. Shaving soon became the fashion and the barber shop be- came the gathering place for the Ro- man dandies. No people were better patrons of the barbers than the Romans. They often devoted several hours each day to tonsorial opera- tions, which included shaving, hair cutting, hairdressing, massaging, mani- curing and the application of rare ointments and cosmetics of unknown formulas. The great ladies of Rome always had a hairdresses among their slaves and the rich nobles had private tonsors, as they were then called. Bar- bers were so highly prized that a statue was erected to the memory of the first barber of Rome. When Hadrian became emperor, beards became the fashion again — and for a very good reason. Hadrian had a face covered with warts and scars. He allowed his beard to grow to cover these blemishes. The people of Rome imitated the emperor and grew beards whether they needed them or not. The fashion changed again to clean- shaven faces. We know that Caesar was clean-shaven. As we will see repeated in history many times, the leaders of the state were the leaders of fashion and the people were always ready to follow the prevailing styles. There are many passages in the Bible referring to the barber profes- sion. Moses commanded that all who recovered from leprosy should be shaved. This was done as a health precaution, because throughout history the Jews have honored the beard as a badge of manhood. To this day, the orthodox Jews have little respect for clean shaven men. During periods of mourning, the ancient Jews allowed their beards to go untrimmed, but ordinarily their beards were trimmed regularly. The prophet Ezekiel refers to an ancient custom in these words : "Take thou a barber's razor and cause it to pass upon thy head and upon thy beard." The razors of those days were made of flint and oyster shells. ASSISTANTS TO CLERGY During the first centuries of the Christian era, the barbers of Europe practiced their profession wherever it was the custom to shave the face and trim the beard. Charlemagne made long, flowing hair the fashion, but each new conqueror changed the fash- ion according to his whim and per- sonal needs. During the first ten centuries after Christ, the great ma- jority of the people and even the no- bles were uneducated and could neither read nor write. The most learned people of the times were the monks and priests who became the physi- cians of the dark ages. There were no professional surgeons at that time. Most of the diseases which are easily curable now, were fatal then. "Blood- letting" was the popular method of curing all ills. This was first done by the clergy who enlisted the barbers as their assistants. This was the first step in the upward progress of the barber profession. Barbers continued to act as assist- ants to the physician-clergy until the 12th century. At the council of Tours in 1163, the clergy were forbidden to draw blood or to act as physicians and surgeons on the ground that it was sacrilegious for ministers of God to draw blood from the human body. The barbers took up the duties re- linquished by the .clergy and the era of barber-surgeons began. The con- nection between barbery and surgery continued for more than six centuries ■ and the barber profession reached its pinnacle during this time. FIRST BARBER ORGANIZA- TION The earliest known organization of barbers was formed in 1096 in France when William, archbishop of Rouen, prohibited the wearing of a beard. The barber-surgeon, or chirurgeons, began to thrive all over Europe. They were the doctors of the times and the royalty as well as the common people came to the barbers to have their ills treated as well as for shaving and haircutting. The physicians proper THE BARBERS' MANUAL were in continual conflict with the barber-surgeons. The barbers em- braced dentistry as well as surgery and this brought down on them the enmity of the dentists of the times. A long strife, whose settlement required the interference of kings and councils, followed between the barbers and the regular surgeon-dentists. But the bar- bers retained the privilege of practic- ing dentistry and surgery for several centuries. FOUNDED SCHOOL OF SURGERY In the middle of the 13th century, the barber companies of Paris, known as the Brotherhoods of St. Cosmos and St. Domain, founded the first school ever known for the systematic instruction of barbers in the practice of surgery. This school was later enlarged and became the model for schools of surgery during the middle ages. Many of the foremost surgeons of the times were students of the School of St. Cosmos and St. Domain. The establishment o? this school was one of the greatest contributions ever made toward the progress of hu- manity. The oldest barber organization in the world, still known in London as the "Worshipful Company of Bar- bers," was established in 1308. Rich- ard le Barbour, as the Master of the Barbers, was given supervision over the whole of his trade in London. Once a month he had to go the rounds and rebuke any barbers whom he found acting disgracefully or entering on other trades less reputable. The master of a city company not only had this power, but he successfully prevented unauthorized persons from practicing the barber profession. The Barbers Guild of the 14th Century was undoubtedly more powerful than any of the modern unions. The Guilds were sanctioned by the king and coun- cil and so they could enforce their regulations. It was not uncommon for violators of Guild regulations to suffer prison terms for their misde- meanors. BARBERS AS SURGEONS Up to the year 1416, the barbers were not interfered with in the prac- tice of surgery and dentistry. But it was soon evident that they were at- tempting too much. It was impossible to expect ordinary human beings to competently practice surgery, dentistry and the various tonsorial operations. People began to complain that the barber-surgeons were making them sick instead of well. Many barber- surgeons resorted to quackery in order to cover up their ignorance of medi- cine and anatomy. These abuses came to the attention of the mayor and council of London, and in 1416 an or- dinance was passed forbidding barbers from taking under their care any sick person in danger of death or maiming, unless within three days after being called in, they presented the patient to one of the masters of the Barber- Surgeon's Guild. Until 1461 the barbers were the only persons practicing surgery. The prac- tice of surgery was still in its primi- tive stage, but new discoveries were being made regularly and the barbers found it impossible to keep up with the new discoveries and at the same time maintain their skill in dentistry and barbering. The surgeons began to forge to the front and became increas- ingly jealous of the privileges ac- corded the barbers. But for a long time they could do nothing to prevent the barbers from acting as surgeons. In 1450, the Guild of Surgeons was incorporated with the Barbers Com- pany by act of parliament. Barbers were restricted to bloodletting, tooth- drawing, cauterization and the tonsor- ial operations. However, the board of governors, regulating the opera- tions of the surgeons and barber-sur- geons, consisted of two surgeons and two barbers. Every time a surgeon was given a diploma entitling him to practice his profession, the diploma had to be signed by two barbers as well as two surgeons. The surgeons resented this, but the barbers were very much favored by the monarchs and preserved their priv- THE BARBERS' MANUAL ileges until the middle of the 18th century. Henry VIII, Charles II and Queen Anne presented the barber-sur- geons with valuable gifts and raised many of them; to high offices. Under a clause in the Act of Henry VIII, the Barber-surgeons were entitled to receive every year the bodies of four criminals who hod been executed. The dissections were performed four times a year in the Barber-Surgeons Hall which still stands in London. ORIGIN OF BARBER POLE The modern barber pole originated in the days when bloodletting was one of the principal dutiess of the barber. The two spiral ribbons painted around the pole represent the two long ban- dages, one twisted around the arm before bleeding and the other used to bind is afterward. Originally, when not in use, the pole with a bandage wound around it, so that both might be together when needed, was hung at the door as a sign. But later, for convenience, instead of hanging out the original pole, another one was painted in imitation of it and given a permanent place on the outside of the shop. This was the beginning of the modern barber pole. ALLIANCE DISSOLVED As the science of medicine, surgery and dentistry advanced, the barbers became less and less capable of per- forming the triple functions of barber- surgeon-dentist. The surgeons wished to be separated entirely from the bar- bers and they petitioned parliament to sever the ancient relationship of the barbers and surgeons and compel each profession to adhere strictly to its own provinces. A committee was ap- pointed by parliament to investigate the matter and the petition was fa- vorably reported to parliament. By an act of parliament, which received the sanction of the king, the alliance between the barbers and surgeons was dissolved in June, 1745. Two separate companies were formed and the prop- erty, formerly owned by the barbers and surgeons jointly, was divided among the two companies. PROFESSION DECLINES This marked the decline of the bar- ber profession. Similar action was taken in France under the reign of Louis XIV. Toward the end of the 18th century the barbers of Europe had completely relinquished their right to perform any of the operations of surgery and dentistry, except in the small towns and out-of-the-way places where doctors and dentists were not obtainable. After the barbers were prohibited from practicing medicine, surgery and dentistry, they became mere mechan- ics and servants, subject to the whims of fashion. When wigs became the fashion during the 18th and part of the 19th century, barbers became wig- makers. Their profession had lost its ancient dignity and barbers had be- come laborers, instead of professional men. In England, America and all over the civilized world, the decline of the barber was a spectacle for all to see. Barber shops became hangouts, places where low characters assembled. Smutty stories, malicious scandal and gossip of all kinds characterized bar- ber shops until a few years ago. A barber shop was a place where men showed their lower instincts and where women dared not enter. AN UPWARD TREND Late in the nineteenth century there were several noteworthy events in the barber profession that gave it an up- ward trend, and the effects are still carrying onward and upward. How long it will be before the barber may be looked up to as a professional man, taking his place by the side of the dentist, chiropodist, chiropractor and other kindred professions, cannot be foretold, but it would seem both the public and the profession are ready for better things. In 1893 there was established by A. B. Moler in Chicago, a school for barbers, the first institution of its kind in the world, the success of which was apparent from its very start, for it stood for higher education in the THE BARBERS' MANUAL ranks, and the parent school was rap- idly followed by branches in nearly every principle city of the United States. In the beginning of schools, simply the practical work of shaving, hair- cutting, facial treatments, etc., was taught as neither the public nor the profession were ready to accept sci- entific treatments of hair, skin and scalp. Not until about 1920 was much ef- fort made to professionalize the work. The Manual^ for instance, the text- book, issued by the Moler System of Colleges, included a brief study course and a compend of diseases. From time to time as the public would accept, this was increased and elaborated upon until today the curri- culum of the Moler System of Col- leges embodies elementary chemistry, histology, bacteriology, and anatomy in addition to the practical training course. In 1916 there was another advance of importance enacted, a system of barbering known as the "Terminal Methods." It had its origin in the mind of a Mr. Schuster, an Austrian by birth, who came to New York City and seeing the great advancement in barbering over that of the old country, was inspired to do still greater things, and with the assistance of Mr. Mc- Adoo, who was then in charge of the Pennsylvania Railway, established a super-sanitary shop in the Terminal Station in New York City. The shops throughout New York that were later established by this system, were known as the "Terminal Methods," and now embrace most of the leading shops of the large cities everywhere. The work of the Terminal Methods included the boiling in water of every instrument used in plain view of the customer ; the sealing of brushes in airtight glass- ine bags after the instruments had been thoroughly sterilized, either by baking, boiling or dipping into a ster- ilizing solution ; and it carried this strict sanitation and more professional work into every act of the barber. Altogether it was apparent Terminal Methods would eventually win the hearts of the public. It was not until 1924 that the Moler System endorsed and put into effect this service in their Post Graduate Departments. Another event, the most recent and probably the most important of the twentieth century, was the establishing in 1924, by the Master Barbers of America, an educational Council whose duty it was to pass on the quali- fications of graduates from recognized schools, and to recommend them to standard shops for employment. The work of this Council doubtless had more to do with the standardiza- tion and uplift of barbering than any other act in recent history, for it not only provided the service but looked after the application of it. Too much cannot be said regarding this Association whose foresighted- ness led to so effective a work. Lesson Subject TOOLS One Selection and Care of Tools nr\HE fact that a barber can be no better A than his outfit, makes the selection of tools second in importance only to the actual work, for no one, no matter how well trained, can do good work with poor tools. Razor Let us talk of the razor first. In select- ing a razor, you have this to consider ; the style of grind, the width and length of the blade, the handle that gives it a general balance, the material in the blank from which the blade is ground and the finish or polish. Things to Remember Heat expands and cold con- tracts ; both affect the fine edge of razors. Razor blank made of welded steel wire I show you here the razor blank and you will note, by the twisted ends at the shank, that a razor is not made of one solid piece of metal, but of a number of twisted wires welded into one. The object of mak- ing blanks in this way is that the ends of the wires brought to the edge of the blade, Steel tvill retain poisonous germs that can best be elimin- ated by boiling. Page five THE BARBERS' MANUAL oint Names of razor parts Things to Remember A razor blank as it comes from the forge is wedge shaped and may be ground into any concave desired. gives a better grain or a blade that will be less susceptable to the climatic conditions, heat and cold. It may be information to you to know that nearly all razors are made from very much the same blanks. While it is true some factories may have a better process of making blades than others, many razors of Page six THE BARBERS' MANUAL many processes and names are made from exactly the same blanks, the differences in prices generally being made up in the bet- ter or lesser methods of tempering, grind- ing and finish. In selecting a razor, you have nothing to be guided by as to the softness or hardness of the steel, for the manufacturers them- selves will tell you they are not able to actu- ally detect this, yet you will see barbers making all kinds of tests and telling the dealer it is too hard or too soft with ab- solutely no way of proving their state- ment. There are few barber razors or those of national reputation handled by the deal- ers throughout the country that are not properly tempered. They are so carefully scrutinized and selected in the process of manufacturing that seldom or ever is a de- fective barber's razor found on the market. This is probably not true of the general hardware or department store razors, but it holds good with the razors in which you, as a barber will come in contact, if you are buying through the regular barber supply dealers, so you have little that need concern you regarding the temper. The style of grind, however, has much to do with the cost of the razor. A full concave is the highest priced grind we have and you will be able to detect this grind by looking at the blade from the end, which shows a thinner part of the blade next to the heavy back and a heavier point be- tween this thin metal and the point. Things to Remember Only the expert can detect the hardness, softness or tem- per of a razor blade. A barber is not competent to judge. A poor blank could not be full concave and give satisfac- tion. Page seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The most delicate razor is the full concave. The most undesirable is the wedge. To test the flexibility of a blade by running the thumb nail along the side of the blade detects nothing and frequently spoils the edge. Dealers object to this. TT She wing degree of concaves It is easy to detect the concave towards the point of the razor, but frequently the razor is concaved only at the point and re- mains heavier toward the heel. This can be detected by running the finger and thumb from the back towards the .point, first at the end nearest point, and continue to make the same test each time a little farther back on the blade until you reach the heel. If you find by the feel of the blade, that it is not quite as thin towards the heel, it need not necessarily follow that it is a cheaper razor, but it should have a fairly good concave from point to heel. There is a small gauge made by which the exact concave can be tested, but this would be of little value to you as your se- lection is made from the blade that balances well in your hand and in general size and make-up. A half concave blade is less of a hollow- ing than the full concave and the three- quarter or plain grind has still less or none. There is on the market now, an old-fash- ioned type known as the Wedge that has no concave and it is having more or less recommendation with the younger barbers Page eight THE BARBERS* MANUAL Things to Remember The practice of grinding or breaking off the point of a ra- zor denotes lack of skill. Showing different shape points who do not know it was an old obsolete type many years ago. If, however, it seems to suit best there is no serious objections to using it. It does, however, require a good deal more honing to keep in condition, is heavier and more awkward to use. The point of the razor may be square or rounded, but we always recommend that even though a square point seems more difficult to use that you accustom your- self to it right from the beginning for there are so many places in the shave that you need the square point that you are working at a disadvantage if you allow the point to be ground off. There are different styles of head, square and round, but the round head is much more desirable than the square. It does not scratch the strop, gives a nicer balance to the razor and generally a better appearance. Nearly all high priced razors have the round head and square point. The finish can be either a polished steel, crokus or, in some instances, a nickel finish. The crokus finish on a razor is the most The illustrations above shozv old fashioned heads and points, not the modern styles. Page nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Frequently an expensive polish is given to a cheap blank. Most barber razors are plain steel polished. expensive. It has the brighter, more pol- ished appearance, but for real value has nothing to do with the cutting qualities, although when the razor is new it enables you to hone it a little easier. The plain steel finish that frequently shows that bluish tinge that gives the name of blue steel to many a razor, is for all practical use just as good as the crokus and a little less expensive. If you see a bluish caste here and there through the blade, do not be led to believe it is a defect or a burned spot, rather it denotes good steel. The nickel finish should always be avoid- ed, as it is almost impossible to re-hone a nickled blade. This is the finish that you frequently see on hardware razors and the cheaper grades that are made for looks rather than service. The longer the blade, the more cutting surface you have, and the less frequent honing required. The length of the blade should be se- lected simply to your own liking. If a short blade seems most likable in your hand, select it, or if the longer blade seems to have a better feel, use it, for there is really nothing to choose as far as the real shaving is concerned in the longer or shorter blade. The width of the blades are gauged by eighths, such as 4/8, 5/8, 6/8, etc. The 5/8 is generally selected in purchasing a new blade even though it may be a trifle larger than you like to work with for razors always grow smaller with use and Page ten THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The several sizes of blades if too small a blade is purchased in the be- ginning, it shortens the life or the useful- ness of your razor. That is why the professional razor trader, who visits the shop is always de- sireous of getting the bigger blades for in his rounds he is loaded up with the blade that has become too small. The profess- ional trader, however, should be avoided. He lives off the man who is notional not professional, for barbers, like every artist, frequently become temperamental and lay their, faults to the instrument. The handle of a razor is generally se- lected by the manufacturer to properly bal- ance the blade and seldom, if ever, can you change the handle and be as satisfied as before. In purchasing a razor, one should guard against the handle that may warp and al- low the blade to strike the handle in closing, but we seldom find this fault in a barber's razor. The ornamentations on a handle, as you know, is solely for looks, but the one who takes pride in his outfit will select with an eye to beauty as well as prac- ticability. The wide blade has greater expansion and contraction than the narrow one and more fre- quently loses its edge by chang- ing temperatures. If a razor handle warps, causing the edge of the blade to strike, it can be straightened by heat, either moist or dry. Page eleven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A hone ivill "steel-bind." Washing in gasoline or like material zvill free it. Hone . Razor hones are of two varieties — quar- ried and manufactured. The quarried hone is sometimes called a lather hone, some- times a hickory and sometimes an oil stone. This hone comes from the quarries of Bel- gium and is found deep down in the earth's crevices or caves of that country. It is a formation of seepage through the rock and has the appearance on the inside of the cave of icicles. The grain of a hone can be tested by running the finger or thumb nail endwise on the sur- face. Belgium hone The one illustrated is of two colors, all in one piece of material. That is the one that is sawed from the rock next to the alkali deposits caused by the seepage. There are others of this variety where the two colors are glued together. This is where a part of the rock is sawed and simply furnishes a foundation of strength of background to hold the cream color part of the stone, the real hone. The rock is not a hone, simply the strength of the cutting part. This hone is not as popular at this time as it has been in the past, mainly because it does not do this work as fast, but it does give a more lasting edge than the faster cutting hones. Water hone Page twelve THE BARBERS' MANUAL The dark colored hone is known as a water hone and also comes from Belgium and Germany. It is also a quarried hone and is obtainable in a number of grades, usually called blue, dark blue, green or yellow green, and is without doubt the best hone for a beginner as it cuts very slow, does not over hone and enables one to practice honing without ruining the razor, as with the faster cutting hone used by one not familiar with their work or who knows when his blade is taking an edge. Things to Remember Selecting a good hone is largely speculative except by experts of which there are but few. S. R. Drocscher, New York, is our authority. Swaty hone The manufactured hone is of a number of varieties. Some are made to cut reas- onably slow while others are made to cut medium or over fast, but none of the manu- factured stones have the real soft cutting edge of the quarried stone. However, this need not condemn them for the fast cutting hone is used success- fully by many barbers, however, nearly every barber has one fast cutting and one slow cutting hone in his kit. Carborundum hone Among the manufactured hones is the Swaty, a stone imported from Austria, the Carborundum, made in this coun- try and the composition made from oil resi- dus under a great many names. However, I believe the Swaty gives the most univer- sal satisfaction of all manufactured hones. A hone zvhile in use should be kept at the temperature of the room as should also the materials used with it. Other- wise the edge of the razor zvill be effected by the change of temperature. Page thirteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A shear should balance ivell in the hand, not fit the finger or thumb. Ferrule must fit loosely and the knack of hand- ling acquired by practice. A shear blade will spread disease as readily as a razor and should be boiled as fre- quently. Shears The barber's shear is generally the type known as all steel, which, according to the name, is one solid piece of steel from point to ferule. There was a time when steel laid shears and cast steel was tried out in the barber shop, but you find very few of this make now in the barber's hands. The all steel shear may be hand forged, which means hammered out as the black- smith would sharpen an instrument or it may be stamped in shape and not ham- mered in shape. A steel laid shear is one in which a thin layer of steel is welded to a blank giving only a partial steel blade. The cast steel is the cheaper variety such as the house- hold shear. French pattern hair cutting shear The pattern of the shears vary more in regards to handles and ferules than in blades. The all steel shear may be ground to a thinner blade and be serviceable than would be possible with the steel blade or cast, but the handles and ferules are known as the French type or the German type, although the French type is made in Ger- man shears as well as of French manufac- ture. Page fourteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL inx >o mts movino Wade C- / £ j O hinder rerule rhumb rerule Names of shear parts The French type ferules are the small round ferules illustrated, while the Ger- man type is the flatter or broader ferule made to fit the finger and thumb. The French type is most in demand and finds general favor among the barbers, for the German type, if it were to give the comfort for which it is designed, would really have to be made for each individual. Things to Remember The French patterned shear can be used for either the right or left hand. The only dif- ference being that the sharp point is on the wrong blade. This, hoivever, is not a serious objection. Page fifteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember An inexperienced workman usually prefers rubber shear pads for the ferrule but will discard them when he becomes more skillful. Any one aside from an ex- pert grinder who advises he can re-edge or re-set a pair of shears properly, is to be avoid- ed. The screw holding the blades should never be adjust- ed by the barber. Another point in favor of the French pattern is it's lightness, general delicacy and refinement. Shears are made with a "set", which means a curve to each blade, that, when closed, brings the points close together enabling them to cut clear to the point and will show space between the blades with the exception of a little at the point when they are closed. You may be led to believe this is a defect. It is not, it is the spring or set they must have. Shears like razors may have a plain steel finish, a crokus or a nickel and like the razor and for the same reason a crokus is the most expensive. The sizes may be 6 1/2, 7, 7y 2 or 8 inch, but probably the 7 inch finds greatest favor. This, however, is according to your own likes or dislikes. Shears should never be given to the grinder to be sharpened and it is not ad- visable for you to attempt to re-edge your own shear. If one is experienced, he may possibly renew an edge temporarily on a grinding wheel, with a small file or on the hone, but this is only a temporary relief for shears usually need a re-set if they need a re-grind and only the experienced grinder can give this. Do not give your shears to the street grinder, the barber supply house is the place to re-grind a bar- ber shear. Page sixteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL Clippers Clippers are made of any number of styles, sizes and qualities, but the same rule that applies to the other instruments applies to the clipper, only the very best obtainable should be purchased. A style most favored by the barber is the one with the coil spring that never breaks, the one that can be easily taken apart and put together and the one that has the best feel in the hands. By this, I mean the one that handles best. There are many imitations to this pat- tern, but if the imitation was better it would not be made an imitation to this standard make. High grade hand clipper The size or length of cut is to be taken into consideration. Generally a barber will have in his kit, two or three sizes, but many use only one and do very good work. The sizes No. 1, No, 0, No. 00 and No. 000 are used, but probably the No. 0, if only one clipper is in the outfit, is best. The No. 00 and No. 000 cut proportionately shorter, the No. 1 is the longest cut the barber uses. Things to Remember The clipper blade zvill innoc- ulatc as readily as a razor or shear and should be boiled as frequently. The usual cause for clipper pulling is improper adjustment of the tension screw at the top of the plate. It can be too tight as well as too loose. Illustrating corrugated bottom Paje seventeen THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Anxiety to use the electric clipper in place of the hand machine is the cause of much hair cutting trouble. The use of the hand clipper must be acquired first, otherwise when the electric fails the barber fails with it. The corrugated bottom plate is so made that it will slide readily over the surface. A flat bottom plate will stick to the neck especially if the surface is moist, which is the case when a customer perspires. The finish of the clipper is generally the polished steel not nickel. The cheaper va- rieties are made with a round spring in the mechanism that frequently breaks and has not the strength of the coil or barrel spring just referred to. Magnetic clipper works suc- cessfully only in alternating currents. Standard clippers are universal and can be used on either direct or alternating cur- rents. Electric hand clipper Electric standard clipper Electric clippers are universally used, but a student must first learn to use the hand clippers very successfully before at- tempting to use the electric. Electrics are made to operate by motor and flexible shaft or by magnet like a doorbell. Page eighteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL ;!ifffp?!ffnpf Metal back hair brush. Permits boiling- Hairbrush The hairbrush is the instrument that may seem less important but equally as great care should be given to the selection of it as any other instrument in the kit. A hairbrush is dangerous because it is a germ carrier, difficult to sterilize and fre- quently harmful if too penetrating. Many states have passed laws forbidding a hair- brush in a barber shop unless as the cus- tomer's own individual property, and they are prohibited on all sleeping cars for pub- lic use. Things to Remember The metal back hairbrush can be boiled and is the best method of sterilization. Wood backs cannot. Air cushion hair brush It is, therefore, important that you se- lect one that can be sterilized, the metal back or one with bristles set in vulcanized rubber that is detachable from the handle. I illustrate one of each that have passed most State Board examinations. Hair- brushes should be sterilized after each ap- plication. In selecting a hair brush, sice, shape, width and length of bristles must be taken into consideration. Paijc nineteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The "break in" of a strop is the biggest part of it, if you are breaking in on good ma- terial. Strops should never be fold- ed closely, as it spoils the sur- face. Be especially cautious of this if carrying in a kit. Leather and canvas strops Strops Strops should always be used in pairs, canvas and leather. . The canvas strop should be a good quality linen hose, for when well broken in it will last a lifetime and becomes better with age. Generally canvas strops are machine fin- ished at the factory, but as a rule require additional work. Dry soap rubbed into the strop that may be fastened to a smooth surface and rubbed with a bottle is a good method of dressing strops, but this should not be done until the strop begins to be rough from use. The strop should be kept as dry as pos- sible for the moisture swells it and makes it rough. It is, therefore, not advisable to use lather in rubbing the strop unless it may be to remove the grit that accumu- lates on the surface of an old strop. When this is done, apply the lather freely and immediately scrape it off with the blade of the shear before the canvas has time to soak up the moisture. It is well occasionally to wipe the surface of the strop with cotton saturated in alcohol. The leather strop is made of a number of grades of leather. The heavy Russia, the lighter weight Shell, and the Horse- Hide. The Russia leather gets its name from the imported article of years ago, but as we get little or none of the imported goods now, we use the American cow-hide Page twenty THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Canvas strop or some heavy leather and give it the stamp on the back the same as the im- ported gives. This you will see is the red corrugated finish. This heavy leather requires a great deal of work to break in or make satisfactory for the barber's use, as it continues to be- come rough by stropping until a great deal of work has been put on the finish. Russia leather strop The Russia Shell is simply a piece of shell leather which in reality is more a muscle over the rump of the horse than a leather, and as only a few strops can be cut from a hide, it makes this a rather expensive strop. It needs no work or breaking in to put it in condi- tion. It has a smooth surface and remains smooth no matter how much service you give it. It is frequently stamped on the back by manufacturers the same as the Russia strop, and this is what gives it its name, "Russia Shell." A horse-hide strop is not desirable for barbers' use. It is the kind that is put in strops for private use, but does not have a sufficient grain to draw out the edge of a razor or a sufficiently smooth service to put on a good edge. A strop, like a violin, im- proves with age only if prop- erly used. A strop can poison your ra- zor, therefore should be steri- lized by treating with carbol- ized vaseline. Page tzveiily-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The tip ends of the neck duster that come in contact zvith the individual, can be kept sanitary by frequently dipping into a mild sterilizing solution. Neck Dusters Neck dusters are made with and with- out a fountain handle. The fountain han- dle carries talcum powder that is dis- charged into the roots of the bristles by using the neck duster and enables the bar- ber to powder the neck without the incon- venience of picking up the powder can to sift into the neck duster A wide band of paper slipped over the hair of the neck duster will keep it straight when not in use. Fountain neck duster, contains powder The hair of the neck duster, if of good quality, is horsehair, but frequently cheap- er grades are made of fibre. Neck dusters are made with wood handles without the fountain compartment, but as dusters must be washed frequently, the celluloid or metal handle is preferred. Wood handle neck duster The neck duster is cleansed by washing in a germicidal soap and warm water and the ends of the bristles dipped in a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid and water, then dry thoroughly by whirling the neck duster between the two hands. Be sure the brush is thoroughly dry before putting it into your kit for if it is left moist and allowed to dry out of shape, it spoils its bristles. Page twenty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL Lather Brush The lather brush should be one so made that it will stand boiling in hot water, which means that the bristles should be vulcanized in rubber and the handle of Rubberset lather brush showing construction celluloid or metal that could not be af- fected by the heat. The wood handle lather brush or the old-fashioned twine bound no longer have a place in the sanitary shop. Mug The plain glass mug, where mugs are used, has taken the lead over the china mug, for they have a more cleanly and sanitary appearance, but in using a glass mug one must be careful not to dash hot water into it. It can be poured in on the lather brush, but in no event should extremely hot water be used where soap is 1 Things to Remember PREDICTION Neither a lather brush nor a mug zvill be used in the barber shop of 1930. Gold band crystal glass mug in the mug for it scalds and renders the soap useless. Both the cup and brush should be thoroughly rinsed before each usage and it should be done conspicuously enough so that your customer can see he is getting fresh, clean lather. A sloppy mug driveth away patronage. Page twenty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A number of threads held tightly between the fingers and thumb provides a good comb cleaner. Rough edges of the teeth may be smoothed by scraping with broken glass. Comb A comb of either rubber or horn is ac- ceptable. Possibly the rubber is prefer- able as it does not warp or lose its shape and is equally durable as any other. The horn comb, however, has its friends among the barbers and probably there is little to choose between them. They should Hard rubber hair cutting comb be thoroughly washed and dipped in the sterilizing solution after each customer. A comb with a thin end for close haircutting is the style that is necessary and one with one-half coarse and one-half fine teeth is preferred. A razor pocket is a con- venience, not a necessity. If used, must be kept clean. Leather Roll A razor roll with pocket for combs, shears, etc., is convenient for carrying the instruments, but if a sterilizing cabinet is preferred for the barber, the roll is not needed on the workstand. Razor pockets Page twenty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Uniform Barbers should be uniformed in white, but many use only a white coat, still the white trousers and shirt or white trousers and jacket gives a much nicer appearance. The uniform in the high-class shop should be changed daily. Many shops adopt a plan of sealing the brushes, combs, and other instruments in a glassine bag (a transparent container that keeps them free from dust), breaking the seal when the instrument is used for each customer. This requires a number of brushes and combs but the effect on a high class trade warrants the extra ser- vice. Things to Remember A long belted jacket gives a professional look, but in hot zveather is burdensome. White shirt and trousers are appro- priate. To encase instruments in sealed packages has a favor- able psychological effect on patronage. Regulation barber uniform Page twenty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A smooth even draw just heavy enough to feel the cut gives the best edge. It is well to practice on an old razor or on a slow cutting hone that you do not damage a perfectly good instrument and continue to practice this until it becomes perfectly easy and natural. After the mechanical skill has been ac- quired, the testing of the edge to determine its fitness is next in importance. Line of direction for razor on hone An uneven edge cannot be kept sharp. Hone evenly from heel to point. You determine the edge by testing it on the nail. Usually the barber moistens his thumb nail, and by drawing the edge over the nail lightly, it will tell you the condition. If a razor has a thick blunt edge, it will ride over the nail without making any im- pression as would any blunt instrument, but if it is honed thin, it will cut in and draw as you move it over the surface. If it has a rather gritty grating feeling, it will indicate that the razor is too rough and this may be when it is not quite honed to an edge or when it has been over-honed to the Page twenty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A nick in the edge of the razor causes it to jump as it is drawn over the nail. Finish with light even stroke degree where the edge breaks and crumbles giving it that disagreeable gritty feeling. It is necessary to test the edge frequently as you hone, in order to detect its condition, and as you find it is taking an edge, hone Testing edge after honing very cautiously for an over-honed edge is as bad or worse than one not sufficiently honed. There is little danger of over-hon- ing when a water hone is used. This is why it is recommended from the beginning, but as the water hone is a little too slow for the workman who wants to make time, the Swaty hone here has its place in the kit. An overhoned edge feels rough, like a file. It can be smoothed by drawing over a match or like surface, a few times, then rehoned. Page twenty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Neither the razor nor strop should be colder than the tem- perature of the room when stropping. Stropping A razor unless freshly honed should al- ways be stropped on the canvas strop first just enough to draw out the edge and finish on the leather. There is a friction in stropping on the canvas that heats the metal, thereby expanding it and bringing it out to a keener edge so enough stropping should be given on the canvas to heat the blade, from one-half to one dozen strokes. The strops should be held tight and a sufficient pressure given the razor on the strop to feel the draw and the razor must be held perfectly flat on the strop. It can be drawn perfectly straight, but there will be no harm if drawn diagonally on the sur- Freshly honed razors need only the leather strop. A freshly honed razor is one just off the hone. Stropping position Page thirty THE BARBERS' MANUAL face and it should be turned on its back for each stroke without lifting it from the strop. There is quite a knack turning the razor in the hand without turning the hand it- self. It should be so held that it can be easily rolled in the hand, making the pro- cess of stropping much easier and more graceful. After the proper number of strokes on the canvas, turn the strop over, bringing the leather side up, and strop on this the same as on the canvas, generally about the same number of strokes. If a razor is freshly honed it should not be put on the canvas strop but should be Things to Remember The more shaves you give, without honing, the more stropping will be needed. First with canvas, second with leather. Too much stropping or too heavy is as bad as\not enough, and too lightly. Turning razor on strop Page thirty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A stropped razor gives its answer to the flesh, not the nail. The razor should be stropped just before the shave; no other time. This is on account of the heat given to the razor by the friction of stropping. The heat expands the metal, giving a better edge. stropped immediately on the leather and usually a little more stropping at first than will be required after the edge has been smoothed. Testing edge after stropping You test the edge of your razor after stropping by drawing it over the flesh or ball of your finger. Draw the razor care- fully over the surface or you may draw your finger over the edge, to detect its con- dition. If in perfect shape, it will have a smooth, keen cut that will not permit you to draw very far without cutting through, but if it is rough it will have a rather dis- agreeable feeling, although it may cut into the flesh just as quickly as the keen edge. This, however, would not give a satis- factory shave where the smooth, keen edge is necessary to do the work properly. If you were to look at the blade through a microscope you would find it has teeth like a saw and the honing and stropping is given to obtain just the proper set or size to the teeth. Page thirty-two Lesson Subject SHAVING Three Exercises PRECEDING our lesson in shaving, we give a number of exercises that are essential in enabling one to take the pro- per positions in handling razor and to put the hands in proper condition for shaving. These exercises can be practiced to ad- vantage preceding the actual work at the chair but in your endeavor to put this into effect, if for home practice, be sure that you have followed instructions carefully. You must note that a razor is never car- ried straight forward toward the edge; it must always be held so that the cutting edge will strike the object to be cut at an angle or like sawing, for it is the teeth or roughness in the edge (too fine to be de- tected with the naked eye) that does the work like the teeth in a saw, therefore every stroke with a razor blade must be a sliding stroke. Too much emphasis cannot be given to this particular point, for if not practiced properly, your exercises would be of no avail. The several positions that one must ac- quire in getting at all parts of the face, are four in number called Free Hand, Back Hand, Double Back Hand and Reverse Hand. The object in using the left hand while working with the right is to imitate the actual shaving movements. The left hand is always used to draw the skin tight under razor and the exercises must be with the left hand, either back or in front, ac- cording to the number you are working on. Things to Remember A razor is carried over the face, not dragged or pushed. Cutting strokes like cutting remarks, penetrate if not hand- led skillfully. Page thirty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 1 A cutting stroke is a move- ment straight forward, not a swing, with the point of the blade carried ahead. FREE HAND This movement is used in actual work at the chair for shaving the right side of the face, the left side of the chin, and the upward movement of both right and left sides of the neck. It is the most general and one of the easiest movements used in shaving. No, you haven't it yet; try again. Page thirty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 1 Keep the wrist stiff, but bend the elbow. EXERCISE NO. 1 Take razor in right hand, handle between little and third finger. Raise elbow nearly level with the shoulder. Take position as if shaving. Hold left hand back of razor as if stretching the skin tight under the razor. Move razor in right hand toward you with a diagonal stroke toward the point, a sliding movement, then back and forth like sawing. The length of strokes should be from 8 inches to a foot. Muscle control is acquirea by continual practice. Page thirty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 2 Keep the elbow up and carry the razor with a straight, slid- ing stroke, not a swing. LACK HAND This movement is used in actual work at the chair for shaving the right side of the chin, the left side of the face, the left side of the neck shaving down and the left side of the upper lip. It is one of the most difficult movements and next in importance to the Free Hand. Do not get behind your razor and push. Give it a chance to cut by using a cutting stroke. Page thirty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 2 Keep the point ahead, car- ried at an angle. EXERCISE XO. 2 Take razor in right hand with handle bent back, the shank of the razor resting on the first two joints of the first two fingers and held in place by the thumb on the back of the bhank of the razor, — the blade from you and the handle pointing toward you. Raise the elbow nearly as high as the shoulder, the back of the hand directly from you, the wrist slightly bent downward. Hold the left hand as if stretching the skin tight under the razor. Stiffen the wrist and forearm to better control the stroke. Page thirty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 3 Draw toward the heel, mov- ing forward at an angle. Keep the wrist and elbow stiff. Move up from the shoulder. REVERSE HAND This movement is used in actual work at the chair for either right or left side of the neck shaving up. It is not as generally used by the barber as the other two movements for it is one of the most difficult movements to acquire. It is a labor saver and should be mastered. Page thirty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 3 Do not let the blade swing. Carry it up, held at an angle. EXERCISE NO. 3 Take razor in right hand with the edge toward you jus* the reverse of Movement No. 2. This will bring the handle between the ends of the little and third finger. The handle bent slightly back. Move the razor toward you with a slightly upward move- ment drawing toward you and toward the heel in a diagonal direction. The length of the movement is from 4 to 6 inches. Hold the left hand as if pulling the skin tight under the razor. Both hands in position are necessary with all of these ex- ercises. Page thirty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 4 This is a hard position re- quiring a limber wrist and per- fect muscle control. DOUBLE RACK HAND This movement is used in actual work at the chair for making the outline of the hair cut. It is used on the left side, back of the ear. The position is quite difficult, but practice will attain it. This stroke when mastered, saves many steps. Page forty THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Shave Exercise No. 4 i This is not a sliding stroke, rather a chop. EXERCISE NO. 4 Take razor in right hand as in Movement No. 2. Drop the elbow close to the side, turn the palm of the hand up with the razor in a position that will bring the point down. Raise the left arm and hand in a position as if drawing the skin tight under th° razor. The movement is a slight forward movement toward the edge of the razor. Practice is required to attain the position. The movement ls not difficult. This movement is a short downward stroke from the shoulder. Page forty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Deviations from the chart instructions are made for growth of mustache, partial j • j , 3 — rRct HAND zvhiskers, etc. I-FREEHAND 2-BACKHANO 4— FREE HAND DOWN 5-FREEHANDUP BACK HAN 0-8 BACKHANO— 6 FREEHAND— 7 BACK HAND DOWN— 9 -FREE HANDUP-IO 14-FREEHANDUNDERLIP / / ll-FREEHANDACROSS \ ♦. 1 3-FREE HANGUP 12— FREEHANO DOWN Diagram of Face for Shave. Don't recline your chair too speedily, or drop it with a slam. As your customer takes your chair, raise the headrest several notches and try to turn the chair in a manner that will make it easy for him to be seated, and as you swing the chair in position, also recline it at the proper angle, making it comfortable for the customer, still easy for you to op- erate. Avoid letting the chair down to its ex- treme limit and pumping it up to height to suit you for the customer is never com- fortable laying perfectly flat. The head should be higher than the feet. The chair will be partially reclined always. Page forty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL Now cover the customer with a chair cloth by swinging it over the customer, not by standing back of the customer and swinging it over the head. There are con- ditions, such as extremely hot weather, when the chair cloth is not spread over the customer, but this is the unusual, not the usual procedure. Now take your face towel from the stack on your workstand right by your el- bow, unfold it and place it diagonally over the customer's chest and with the first fin- ger of the right hand lifting the neck band at the collar button and tuck the edge of the towel in at the neck band with a slid- ing motion with the first finger of the left hand. Now cross the other end of your towel over, turn the customer's face toward you and tuck in the other side, changing hands. See that the linen is smoothly and neatly spread for the manner of handling linen often decides in the boss's mind whether or not you will hold your first job. Now pick up your cup and brush and if you are working with an individual washstand in front of your customer, do the rinsing of the mug in a manner that will show your customer, if he may be looking, that you are giving him sanitary service. This should be done quickly and noislessly and only a little mixing after the water has been emptied from your cup, just a suffi- cient amount to fill your brush with a lather about the consistency of thick cream. If the lather in the brush is too moist, it will run down the customer's neck; if too Thing6 to Remember A neat linen good start. 'set-up 1 ' is a A man well lathered is half shaved. Page forty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Too many fingers in the froth spoils the broth. Lather brush in hand To rattle your brush in the mug keeps your customer awake. If he wants to sleep, let him. stiff, it will dry quickly on the face and you will not get the benefits that the lather is intended to give to the operation. You apply the lather with the handle of the brush in the palm of the right hand, allowing the ends of your fingers to work down into the bristles to keep them from spreading too much and to enable you to handle the brush more easily. It must be used with a rotary movement, which not only works the lather into the roots of the hair, but enables the brush to make more lather in itself as you go over the face in a rotary movement. Apply the lather to all parts of the beard that is to be shaved using care around the mouth at the nostrils and at the ears. After the face has a good coat of lather, take the brush between the thumb and finger of the left hand, holding the hand at the headrest, not at the customer's forehead, in a manner that will enable you to turn the head from right to left without raising it from the headrest, and with the right hand rub the lather well with a rotary movement so that the soap will be worked well into the roots of the beard. After a little rubbing, generally from two to three minutes, you re-place your lather brush in the cup, pick up a turkish Page forty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Lathering. Left hand turning head or steam towel. Fold it once lengthwise, hold it under the hot water until thor- oughly saturated, wring it out reasonably dry, having it as hot as the hands will bear it comfortably, and spread it over the face by holding it at the two ends, bringing it from the lower part of the neck over the enti e face, including the forehead and eyes. Applying hot towel Allow the towel to remain on the face to steam while you strop the razor, then remove the lather and be careful not to rub against the grain of the beard. Re- lather the beard and proceed with the shave. There is a difference be- tween a steamed tozvel and a soaked one. Steam your totv- els. Cut and scald and you zvill have more time for the ball- game tomorrow. Page forty-jive THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember This illustration shows the improper position of the razor. The dotted lines show the pro- per position. This precau- tionary illustration should as- sist you to the right position. As much depends upon keep- ing the skin tight under the ra- zor as does the condition of your razor, for comfortable shaving. Right side free hand (No. 1.) Movements The razor is to be held in the right hand with the handle between the little and third ringer and in such a manner that it will enable you to draw the razor forward with a diagonal cutting stroke. The razor must not be drawn straight while shaving, it must have a sliding, cutting stroke. After stropping the razor start at the right side of the face at the hair line, shaving down with a free hand stroke to the jaw bone, holding the surface that you are going over smooth and tight with the left hand. As you continue to shave continue to bring the left hand close to the surface that you are shaving that you may draw the skin tight, and continue with the same kind of a stroke until the right side of the face has been shaved to the corner of the mouth. This is move- ment No. 1. Page forty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Another precaution regard- ing the back hand stroke may help. Keep the elbow up and carry the razor; do not push it. Position for back hand Allow me to caution you at this point regarding the use of lather paper. The regulation size for lather paper is 4x6 inches. Always wipe your razor off in the center and not around the outer edge as you are apt to do. At this point you use the back hand stroke, which is reversing the razor in the hand, and so held that it will enable you to give a sliding stroke with the point of the razor in advance and shave to the point of the chin. Also be careful that you shave the cor- ner of the mouth with the back hand move- ment. This is movement No. 2. The proper placing of a cus- tomer in a chair that he may be comfortable is as important as the actual shave. Avoid dropping the headrest too low or reclining the chair too much. Page forty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The left side of the upper lip is frequently shaved with the free hand stroke from the corner of the honth toward the nose, but it is not advisable in case of a heavy growth. Back hand (No. 2.) The direction the hair points coming out of the skin is called "with the grain." The opposite is called "against the grain." Shave with the grain all that it is possible. When you have completed this section of the face, which is from the corner of the mouth to the point of the chin as far down as the jaw bone, you will again use the free hand movement over the right side of the upper lip. With the left hand you will touch the nose lightly to enable you to place the razor on the upper lip, shaving first the portion under the nose. Finish the right side of the lip with the free hand movement. This is movement No. 3. There is some question, by barbers, re- garding the best manner of shaving the upper lip. Some prefer to shave against the grain, shaving from the corner of the mouth to the nose on either side, but ex- perience has taught us the beginner can better master this stroke by using the free hand on the right side and the back hand on the left. Page forty-eighl THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember In shaving the upper lip, avoid pinching the nose with the left hand ; just touch it lightly. Free hand down (No. 4.) You now start at the point of the chin, holding the skin tight between the thumb and second finger of the left hand and shave down on the side of the neck as far as the grain of the hair will allow, being cautious always not to touch a hair against the grain. Continue to shave over this sur- face as far back as the ear. This is move- ment No. 4. You will now step back of your cus- tomer for movement No. 5, a free hand stroke shaving the lower part of the neck up with the grain, stretching the skin on the neck between the thumb and fingers of the left hand, shaving on the surface that is so stretched. // the finger of the left hand is placed lightly against the side of the nose and the thumb at the corner of the mouth, the skin on the upper lip can be stretched, making the shave much easier. Page forty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember In shaving the left side of the face, a great deal depends upon the position in which the customer's head is placed. It should be turned to the right but done without cramping the neck. Keep the shave clean with- out scattering bits of lather over the shaved portion of the face. It looks mussy and in- terferes with your drawing the skin tight under the razor. Left side back hand (No. 6.) Now turn the face toward you with the left hand placed at the back of the head at the headrest. You turn the head while slightly lifting it and the customer will let it roll either direction you choose to place it, again strop your razor and re-lather — if the lather has become dry — and learn to use your razor and lather brush in the same hand. Take your position directly back of the chair and with the back hand stroke start at the hair line on the other side of the face, shaving down as far as the lower part of the ear. This is movement No. 6. Now use the free hand and shave the side of the face to the point of the chin as far down as the jaw bone. Also be care- ful that you shave the corner of the mouth with this free hand movement. This is movement No. 7. Page fifty :E BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember There is a knack in keeping the fingers of the left hand dry to better stretch the skin; and a knack in stretching the skin when the fingers are moist. Never use alum. Left side down back hand (No. 9.) Now with the back hand shave the op- posite side of the upper lip, movement No. 8, then continue shaving the oppo- site side of the neck, starting at the point of the chin, shaving down as far as the grain will allow. This is the back hand stroke No. 9. Now step back of your cus- tomer, with the free hand stroke, shave the lower part of the opposite side of the neck up, No. 10. The careful barber watches carefully the grain of the beard on the neck, and shaves zvith it. Left side up free hand (No.10.) Page fifty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The nat u r a I inclination seems to require the razor han- dle between the second and third fingers but it should be held between the third and fourth. Across chin free hand (No. 11.) There is a nicety in handling the shaving paper as well as the linen. It easily musses. Learn to keep it neat, and your sleeves out of the lather spread on it. Now turn the face up, always using the left hand for this purpose. Shave across the chin toward you with the free hand movement No. 1 1 , and hold the skin tight under the razor by stretching it between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Your first stroke is with the point of the razor, beginning at the upper part of the chin; your next stroke is with the center of your razor just a little lower on the chin, and the third stroke is with the heel of the razor still farther down. I wish to caution you here to be sure and use every part of your razor in shaving the chin. Now shave down with the free hand stroke No. 12 as far as the grain of the hair will allow, then step back of your customer and shave lower part of the neck up, free hand No. 13. Now you have left only the under lip to be shaved and you keep your position back of the customer, shaving up Page fifty-tzvo THE BARBERS' MANUAL with the free hand and stretch the skin down by placing the fin- ger of the left hand around the chin holding the skin tight. This is movement No. 14. Under lip free hand (No. 14.) You now apply the hot towel as before and allow it to remain on the face while you strop your razor. Now hold your ra- zor as for the free hand stroke except that you are sliding the razor further into the hand and with the ends of the fingers of the same hand, hold the water bottle and give a dash of water into the palm of the left hand, moistening it so it will slide over the surface o f t h e face readily while go- ing the second time over. Things to Remember Number fourteen is a pecu- liar sliding and dipping stroke. It can only be acquired by practice. If the floor is not to be scrubbed, confine the spray of water to moistening the hands, not the floor. Moisten only sufficiently to wet the palm. The customer may not be ready for his Saturday night bath. Water bottle and razor Page fifty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The difficulty here is to keep the finger and thumb from slipping on the moist surface of the skin. There is a knack to it. If there weren't, bar- tering woidd be easy. Second time over Ascertain whether your stroke is too light or too heavy by trying on a true friend who will tell you the truth, then let him try on you, and you will learn a lot. Remove the towel and start the second time by shaving rather crosswise of the grain, not entirely with it, as you did the first time nor entirely against it as most barbers do. The first stroke can be on the right side of the face from toward the eye to the ear, continuing down the side of the face to the jaw bone. You now continue down the side of the neck with the grain and up on the lower part of the neck as you did the first time over. Turn the face toward you and shave the opposite side giving the first stroke on the side of the face from the ear toward the eye, always being careful not to scrape or use undue pressure. Just a firm steady stroke for it can be too light as well as too heavy. You will be able to use the free hand stroke over nearly the entire surface the second time over and there is no rigid or set rule about doing this part of the work. If your first time over has been carefully Page fifty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL performed, there should be little shaving necessary the second time. It is intended only to catch the rough spots. Now lay your razor down, pick up the steam towel used before, saturate it again with hot water and place it over the face as hot as the customer can comfortably stand it. Sometimes a cream or menthol preparation is applied to the face before the hot towel that steams it into the pores of the skin, but this may be according to the method of the shop or your customer's desires. You may now remove the steam towel, and this is the time to talk Facial treat- ments, but as it is not part of this les- son we will omit it. Now apply your face lotion, going through several of the facial movements, after which you remove from the breast the towel tucked in around the neck, straighten it, lay over the face and dry first by rubbing it over the face, always taking note of the spots that may be left moist, the corners of the eyes, around the nostrils, the lower parts of the ears, etc. Always thoroughly dry the face before proceeding with any other part of the work, as it is uncomfortable for the cus- tomer if the face is only partially dry. Just a little fanning with the towel held at each end is sufficient and in many instances no fanning at all is the customer's wish. You now apply talcum powder by sifting a very little into the towel folded in the hand. Things to Remember The art of turning the head on the headrest is an important one. In this, the customer de- tects the barber's disposition or state of mind. An easy, care- ful movement is necessary. If a razor is put on the face too lightly, it denotes lack of confidence. If too heavily, it denotes carelessness. Have confidence without careless- ness. Page fifty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Never lay a razor down open; close it carefully with the finger and thumb at each side of the shank to keep the edge from striking the handle. Dry the customer's face well. You know how it feels to wash your face and let the wind dry it. Wipe dry, be- fore fanning. HANDLING TOWEL This movement in actual work at the chair is used noi only for drying every part of the face but for washing it as well, and the properly trained barber never picks up a towel for this use that he does not handle it in this manner. There is a nicety in handling linen that commands business, and it should be practiced until all movements become easy and graceful. It can be practiced with a handkerchief or *ny cloth of convenient size. I wish to caution you about applying powder, do not pat a customer's face but go over the face in a downward stroke, and after having been applied, wipe off all you can with the dry towel or with the hands. If the face has been left moist, the powder will show in white spots. This is one reason why careful drying is essen- tial. Now raise your chair with the customer to an upright position in the chair, ascer- tain what other work may be desired, and Page fifty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Tonic or even water can be so poorly applied to the scalp that it loses its effect. It must be carefully distributed through the hair and well rubbed in to be effective. EXERCISE NO. 8 Hold the right hand directly in front of you with palm up, using the left hand to spread the center of the towel over the open palm. Now with the left hand, grasp firmly all of the lower folds of the towel and turn the fingers of the left hand toward the left, bringing them down underneath the left hand, raising the left hand as you turn, bringing the folds at the back of the right hand and at the same time turning the right hand over with back up. The folds of the towel are now held in the left hand at the back of the right hand. The towel is easily shifted in the hand as it takes up the moist- ure from the face by simply sliding it from the center of the towel slightly toward one or the other edges. This enables you to hold the; towel smoothly over the palm of the hand, thereby giving use of the entire palm of the hand with its naturally soothing effect. ' if no tonics or scalp treatments are to be given, consult your customer as to whether he desires the hair to be combed wet or dry. If wet, apply the moisture from the water bottle, a sufficient amount of water to be used to moisten all of the hair, not a part of it, for it must all be moistened if any. Apply it with the bottle held in the right hand and with the left hand rub the mois- ture through the hair using a rotary move- ment. The reward for good hair combing is like the reward for painting a good picture. The pleasure of looking at it. Ar- tistic temperament recognizes this. Page fifty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember // hair is to be combed dry, a touch of brilliantine sprayed over the brush, with an atom- iser before using will help hold the hair in place. A friendly greeting may put a customer at ease and sell you more goods. A kindly part- ing word will have much to do toward bringing him back. When you have a sufficient imount of water, set the bottle down on the work- stand, step directly back of the customer and rub the hair and scalp until the mois- ture is evenly distributed through the hair. Be careful that you have not an overabun- dance that will run from the hair onto the customer's garments. If you have noted, when your customer comes in, how his hair was combed, you will not need to ask him this when you are ready for the combing. If the hair is to be combed straight back, take your position back of the chair. Al- ways use the comb in the right hand and the brush in the left, lean the head back just a little by taking the two hands and place it where you want it, still not in an uncomfortable position for your customer, start your comb and brush from the front, using them alternately until you have re- moved all of the tangles from the hair, and smooth it out. If you are to part the hair, take your po- sition back of the chair and take your comb and throw the hair forward over the fore- head and then take your position on the side that your customer parts his hair and make the part with your comb, and be care- ful to make the part straight in itself and straight with the head. Then take your comb and simply throw the hair on the op- posite side out of the way until you are ready to step around the chair to comb in position. I wish to caution you to be sure and use the brush by coming down with the lower edge of the brush first. In this Page fifty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL way you are using the full width of the brush and will give a much smoother ef- fect. As you walk around the chair, you follow your comb with your brush. Also, avoid your brush coming in contact with the ear, as this is very annoying to your customer. You will note, you may comb the hair on this side down perfectly flat and smooth, or may roach it up in front to show the different effects. Careful combing is as important as care- ful shaving for no matter how good the shave may have been, if your customer is not turned out improved in appearance, he is not satisfied. If, at any time a customer steps into the shop, and you are not engaged, you attract his attention when you are through with your work and your chair is vacant by gently calling "next," or some movement that will signify you are ready to serve him. Avoid the loud, boisterous "next" that will have a tendency to scare him from the shop. If he is an old customer whose name you have had an opportunity, in the past, to learn, speak his name as he passes you or as he looks in your direction deciding upon the barber he will select. If he chooses another chair you may take your seat on the stool provided for you at the side of your workstand but never allow yourself to sit in the barber chair. This is one of the most unethical things a barber can do. Things to Remember To gracefully handle linen is high art. Get the swing of spreading the chair cloth and handling the tozvels. Often this is the part of your work that impresses the boss, and holds or loses your job. Your thoughts are detected in the touch of your finger- tips. Never wait upon the trade when in a bad humor. Page fifty-nine Lesson Four Subject HAIRCUTTING Pompadours "\^7E will divide our subjects of haircut- * * ting into two lessons, one the shorter trims and one the longer cuts. In this one I will give a Lesson on the longer cuts with their several variations. Haircutting is an art and the degree of perfection that you attain will depend quite largely upon your artistic taste. There is the same expression in the back of the head that you find in the face and the barber must use the same skill in form- ing his haircut that is displayed by the sculptor in molding a statue. A simple forming of a clay figure does not indicate art ; it is the expression of the features or the pose that gives it the artistic touch, and so it is with the haircut. The trim- ming of a little here and there, bringing out the proper formation or expression, is the real art of the work, and this must be studied as well as practiced. As clipper work is important with all haircuts, I give here an article on the use of clippers by courtesy of the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co. Page sixty THE BARBERS' MANUAL How to Use Clipp ers By A Head ^Barber [By courtesy of the Brown & Sbarpe Mfg. Co.l Providence, R. L, U. S. A. J DURING my twenty years or more of expe- rience as a barber I have had the oppor- tunity to observe a great many barbers at work; especially is this true in later years when, in the capacity of an employer of barbers, I have watched more keenly their methods and the completed work. In this time I do not recall ever having seen two barbers who work in exactly the same manner, each having his own method of cutting hair — a method which is peculiar to his own particular style. In the olden days a first-class job was accom- plished almost entirely with scissors, but since the introduction of hair clippers for cutting human hair the tendency has been gradually to use clip- pers more and more. We are now all acquainted with the present practice of using the clipper al- most entirely for trimming the back of the neck and the sides of the head. The early history of the hair clipper is interest- ing. As I understand it, about forty years ago, so the story goes, some boys in Providence, R. I., hit upon the novel idea of clipping their own hair with a pair of horse clippers to keep themselves cool. The experiment was a great success. Some wit called it "the pineapple clip" and it soon be- came the prevailing style for summer haircuts. Page sixty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Of course barbers were not satisfied to use the heavy and awkward horse clippers that were oper- ated with two hands and as a result a smaller and easier-working model was developed especially for the barber's use. The neat, handy clipper that you can buy today at almost any hardware store is the ultimate result of the improvements which have been made in the old style horse clippers. As the use of clippers became more general, barbers quickly appreciated the time and labor saved in using them. Today clippers are an essen- tial part of the barber's equipment. Different Methods As I have previously said, I believe no two barbers cut hair in exactly the same way. Con- sequently there may be some barbers who would advise other methods than mine. But as the re- sult of my own practical experience I believe I am safe in offering the following general suggestions for the use of clippers. How To Hold the Clipper First of all I cannot emphasize too strongly the importance of holding the clipper properly because the balance of the clipper itself and the appear- ance of the finished job are largely dependent upon it. I f you will examine the handles you will see that one of them is stationary and that they differ slightly in shape. I suppose that they were so designed after a good deal of thought and experience in order to fit perfectly in the hand, and that is why I believe they should be held as illustrated in Fig. 1. Notice that the thumb is held flat along the handle and that the little "ear" comes just back of the first ioint. The handle runs back along the thumb, with Page sixty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL Hold the clipper with a natural grip and use a full strode Fig. I its end well into the palm of the hand; thus, when the fingers operate the lever of the clipper, a good support is provided for the stationary handle. The lever should be operated by the fingers at approxi mately the first joint. Permitting the fingers to extend too far around the lever results in a cramped position that soon tires the hand. When properly held the clipper may be operated for a considerable length of time without fatigue and still maintain throughout a full stroke of the clipper blades. I have observed barbers holding clippers in many different ways and yet all follow out more or less the method outlined above. The most com- mon difference is the position of the thumb as some barbers have a tendency to crook it slightly about the ear on the handle. Use a Full Stroke The proper operation of the clipper depends to a great extent upon taking a full stroke. By taking a full stroke is meant that the operating lever Page sixty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL should be pressed in to the limit and, when released, be permitted to return to its extreme position. You will notice that the upper plate has fewer teeth than the lower. Therefore it is necessary to take a full stroke so that the upper plate may travel the full width of the lower plate, allowing all the teeth to cut, otherwise all the teeth will not cut and the clipper will "pull." This, as you undoubtedly know from experience, is unpleasant and is usually due to the barber's carelessness. It is also very important to start operating the clipper with a full movement before entering the hair and to continue operating it until after it is out of the hair. I have acquired a little personal habit of operating the clipper when I take it from the cabinet. The few seconds it takes to walk from the cabinet to a working position beside my cus- tomers is sufficient to make sure that the clipper "feels" in good condition and that it is taking a full stroke before cutting the hair. If the opera- tion of the clipper is stopped while the plates are in the hair, or if the clipper is fed or pushed into the hair too fast for the speed at which the handles are operated, it will surely "pull." One of the difficult things for the beginner to learn is to feed the clipper into the hair steadily and at the right speed. Most barbers sprinkle a little talcum powder on the neck if the skin is moist, as it assists in obtaining a smooth and even "feed." Clipping and '"Tapering" I begin clipping at the back of the neck, yet I know that many barbers prefer to start on the sides of the head. In either case the results ob- tained are the same and this is a matter of per- sonal choice. With a No. 1 "Bressant" Brown & Page i'ucty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL In starting to clip up the back °f the neck, the heel is raised slightly, being lowered gradually as the cut progresses Fig. 2 Sharpe Clipper (and, by the way, I have used Brown & Sharpe Clippers exclusively for twenty years or more) I start to clip at the base of the neck as shown in Fig. 2 with the heel or the extreme back of the bottom plate of the clipper slightly raised, gradually lowering the heel as I clip upward. At the point where it is desired to begin to taper the hair, lift the front part of the clipper slightly from the neck by tilting the clipper so that it rests on the heel of the clipper, as illus- trated in Fig. 3. This tilting motion should be gradual and increase in proportion to the amount r< To taper, lift the front of the clipper slightly away from the neck., tilting the clipper so that it rests on the heel of th bottom plate Fi S . 3 i'age sixty- five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Use the clipper this way when hair grows upward. Always run the clipper opposite to the way the hair grows Fig. 4 of taper that is desired. Carry these upward strokes around the back of the neck from in back of one ear to the back of the other ear. This gives a very good finish to the back of the neck for all ordinary cuts. In doing a first-class job I usually change clippers, using a No. 00 "Bres- sant," repeating the same operations at the base of the neck to obtain a closer cut. This permits a little closer cut at the extreme base of the neck and gives the job a more finished appearance. If the hair on a person's neck grows upward instead of downward, you should clip down the neck, as shown in Fig. 4. Always run the clipper in the direction opposite to the growth of the hair. On the Sides In clipping the sides of the head, practically the same method is employed. In commencing the cut for trimming the side in front of the ears, first hold the clipper with the heel slightly raised as shown in Fig. 5. As the stroke progresses upward and a taper is desired, gradually lower the heel and lift the front of the clipper by tilting it oack in the Page sixty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL The hair in front and above the ears is tapered in the same way as the back of the neck by grad- ually tilting the clipper back Fig. 5 same way as in clipping the back of the neck. In trimming the sides around the back of the ear, hold the clipper in a slanting position as shown in Fig. 6. The taper is obtained by tipping the upper side of the clipper slightly outward — that is, the upper side of the clipper is tipped slightly away from the head and the lower side is held against the head at a point close to the ear. In cutting the hair directly above the ear some barbers hold the ear down and cut upwards from a point directly above the ear. Personally I prefer to cut from the front, going back as far as possible, To clip aboce the ears, cut from the front as far back as possible and then cut forward from back °f the ear as shown Fig. 6 Page sixty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL /%» • JY- Often a comb is used to obtain the taper. The clipper is held flat against the comb which is tipped slightly outward as the cut progresses Fig. 7 To obtain a taper on the sides and above the cars, a comb can be used in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 7 Fig. 8 A good taper is also obtained in this way: Place the index fingel beneath the heel, us- ing finger as fulcrum o tip clipper as the cut progresses Fig. 9 Page sixty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL and from the back going forward as far front as possible, keeping the clipper tilted as previously explained. I consider this is much the easiest method to obtain the desired taper of the hair on the sides of the head. Methods of Tapering The beginner may find some difficulty in taper- ing a haircut smoothly and evenly. Barbers use various methods to do this properly; the two most common are to use a comb or the index finger of the other hand. Figs. 7 and 8 show the clipper in use with the comb on the back and sides of the head. Holding the clipper plate flat against the comb and tilting the comb slightly outward at the top as the cut progresses upward will result in a very good taper. The second method is well illus- trated in Fig. 9. The point of the index finger is held under the heel of the bottom plate, and as the cut progresses upward the finger is retained under the heel and the clipper is tipped outward at the cutting edge, using the finger as a fulcrum. In cutting very thick hair this method eliminates any tendency of the cut hair to roll up and inter- fere with the action of the clipper. The finger at the heel of the bottom plate also serves admirably to help advance the clipper smoothly. By pushing the clipper ahead with the finger at the heel, a steady, regular feed can be accom- plished without "jumping" the clipper, especially if the skin is moist or sticky. After finishing the taper, the result can be in- spected by standing aside and looking at the out- line of the head. The taper can be noted in this way and any roughness or "steps" observed and corrected. Page sixty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL To get a very dose cut <,< trimming up the back °f the neck,, the heel of the clipper is held slightly away from the neck Fig. 10 Bobs and 'Dutch Cuts In recent years, with the style of bobbing girls' hair prevailing, I have always made use of the clipper in trimming up the back of the neck as shown in Fig. 10. This makes it possible to trim the hair very close as far up as the bob, and gives the job a very neat and finished appearance. The same is true in the case of a Dutch cut, as illus- trated in Fig. 11. With the Dutch cut. use the same method shown in Fig. 10 to trim the back, of the neck closely Fig. 1 1 Page seventy THE BARBERS' MANUAL THE method of using clippers as outlined is that generally employed by professional barbers. You will notice that I have mentioned using two sizes of hair clippers, as this is the common practice of barbers who want to do a quick job. For home use, however, satisfactory results can be obtained by using an intermediate size of clipper, such as the No. Brown & Sharpe "Bressant" model. The style of haircut determines to what extent the clipper can be used. For the average haircut it is used only in trimming the back and sides of the head as I have explained. Cutting or trim- ming the hair on the top of the head is usually done with the scissors, although some barbers claim that they can do a first-class job using the clipper only. Cutting the hair with hair clippers is an opera- tion that requires but little practice. The average person can very soon learn to operate a clipper sufficiently well to do a neat job of trimming the back of the neck or sides of the head between trips to the barber. Several of my customers keep a clipper at their summer home or include one in their vacation out- fit, as they like to keep their hair trimmed neatly for appearance and fairly short because it is so much cooler. Anyone who has a family of boys and girls will find a clipper especially useful. As a last suggestion, I would like to emphasize three things : Hold the clipper right, keep it oper- ating a full stroke, and always cut in the op- posite direction to that in which the hair grows. Page seventy-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember To allow a haircloth to come n direct contact with the cus- omer's neck is not sanitary inless a clean one is used, for •ach customer. State laws equire protectors. In this lesson here we omit the instruc- tion given in another lesson on the bar- ber's position at the chair. You will get that at another time, so we will pro- ceed by seating our customer, spreading the hair cloth from the front, and by plac- ing the protecting towel around the neck before bringing the hair cloth in contact with the customer. Using prepared tissue for haircloth protector Protection strips are less ex- pensive than laundry work, md used with less effort than i towel. If a towel is used for this purpose, it should be the face towel, and one side, the long way of the towel, tucked carefully under the neck band from the back toward the front on each side, then the balance of the towel raise and fold around the neck from the back and held in place under the chin with the left hand. Now bring the hair cloth up to the towel and with both hands hold it close to the towel. Pin at the back of the neck and fold the part of the towel that protrudes above the hair cloth down over the hair cloth, making a neat protection that in addition to protecting Page seventy-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL the hair cloth prevents the cut hair from working down the neck. If a cotton strip or a prepared paper pro- tector is used the hair cloth is pinned over it in the same manner and the edges folded down as is the towel. Now sift a little talcum powder from your neck duster around the neck to pre- vent the cut hair from sticking. Now use your brush and comb to straighten the hair and put in its proper position to be cut. After having given the proper study, and frequently it requires your step- ping back from the chair a distance to bet- ter observe the lines, you are ready for the actual work. Generally the clipper is used on the lower part of the neck with all haircuts, but not elsewhere for the long trims. Start at the lower growth of the hair on the left side and clip up to the point at which you want to leave off, then gradually bring the blades out from the hair as you continue to cut, thereby making a gradual taper at the clipping line. After completing with the clipper you now use your shears and comb. The shear should be so held in the right hand with the points nearly toward you, as illus- trated, and the comb held in the left hand parallel with the blade of the shear, which enables you to cut rather at one side in- stead of directly in front, and it enables you to get at the work more easily. If you were cutting directly in front of yourself, there are many places in the trim Things to Remember Many barbers maintain the part need not be combed from the hair before cutting, but the writer's experience and advise is to the contrary. With the prevailing styles, little clipper zvork is required. Hand made haircuts take the lead at present. Page seventy-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember ^^i) Handling the shear and comb properly seems to be an awkward position, but the bar- ber must learn not to cut di- rectly in front of himself, or he will grow round shouldered in the service. A shear and comb artist has the same opportunity to display skill as does the sculptor or painter; therefore acquire skill and become famous. EXERCISE NO. 7 Hold shear in the right hand with the third finger in the ferrule and the little finger resting on the short lip that is made for it. The first and second fingers are to be bent over the handle of the shears in such a manner that it will hold it firmly in the hand. The ferrule should never be allowed to pass be- yond the second joint of the finger. The thumb in the other ferrule never allowed to pass the first joint. that would require you to stoop very low to get the proper vision and to handle the in- struments. Acquire this habit first of all, as it will save you much time in becoming a professional hair-cutter. Start your shear and comb work on the right side at the lower edge just in front of the ear, cutting only a little at a time, and as you continue to cut up, gradually run out of the hair by turning the teeth out each cut, generally leaving off about the hat-band line. The comb must be so held that it can be easily turned in the hand to comb up while cutting and down through the hair to straighten it. Page seventy-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL If while cutting up through the hair it tangles or folds under, bring the blade of the shear underneath the comb to hold the hair straight and comb up through the hair so that it will fall straight over the blade of the shear, then bring the comb underneath the shear again in place for the next cut. I wish to caution you here in the man- ner of using your shears. Always use the full length of the blade by starting at the end of the comb, with the heel of the shear, and close them quickly, which will give a smooth cut. Continue around, changing the position of the shears and comb back of the ear from a parallel line to about a 45 degree angle back of the ear. As you cut back of the ear, you are to change the angle of the shears and comb as you did on the other side back of the ear, to avoid cutting a bare spot as you would if you were to hold the shears and comb horizontally. This is necessary on account of the change in direction of the growth of the hair back of the ear. Use the same care as you work over the ear and around in front of it, that you did on the other side, and keep the length of the hair on both sides as nearly the same as possible. There will be a pronounced ridge at the point where you left off with the shears and comb. This will be reduced by cut- ting over the fingers. It is known as the finger work. Things to Remember The hair line has more to do with the expression of a hair- cut than any other one thing. Draw graceful lines. The gradual taper from the short hair to the lower edge to the longer hair at the crown is the most shapely. Avoid abrupt edges. Page seventy-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Styles are elastic. They ad- mit of many variations in length, outlines, and tapers. It is the artistic hair cutter zvho builds them to fit. Trimming long pompa- dour. Shear and comb in right hand, bringing hair in position for fingers of left hand The pompadour is trimmed by taking your position at the side of your customer, start your work back of the ear at the ridge and work from you, combing the hair up through the fingers, trimming it lightly, and work around to the other side of the head back of the other ear. Good judgment in laying out styles is as important as the actual cutting. Shear in right hand. Comb transferred to left. Fingers holding hair for cut, point of shears out. to increase length of hair going up Page seventy-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Trimming ends of long pompadour combed for- ward, working from right to left. Only alight trim required Now start at the point where you have just left off and come back just the oppo- site direction from the way you have cut, cutting over the fingers in the same man- ner, working back and forth in this way cutting a little at a time until you have re- duced the ridge, and if the entire top and front is to be shortened, continue to work in this manner back and forward until you have gone over the entire surface, finishing with the longer hair at the forehead. If the long hair on top is not to be cut, you can use what is known as the reducing cut on the side of the head by combing all of the hair over to one side, picking up the ends with the comb the same as cutting over the comb, trimming the ends lightly. Comb the hair back in place and if the ridge still shows, repeat until the hair will lay smooth at the sides as it is combed back. Treat both sides alike. When you have completed the cutting, use your neck duster quite briskly in brush- The more times over the same surface, not only spoils the original design in mind but adds that many more nicks. To get proportion is more important than smoothing the surface. Page seventy-seven THE BARBERS* MANUAL Things to Remember Careless emptying of a hair- cloth disturbs waiting patrons and appearance of the shop. In most foreign countries barbers do not shave the neck. Why isn't this good practice ? Only the primitive Chinaman shaved the scalp. Who wants to be primitive? ing the cut ends of the hair from the head and especially around the neck. Empty the hair from the hair cloth by picking it up from the lower end, bringing it up to the upper edge, pick it carefully off the customer in order that the hair does not drop onto the garments, turn from your customer, drop the top edge of your hair cloth, holding to the lower end, and shake well to remove all of the cut hair. Now spread it again as before, bringing the hair cloth close up to the neck band, but do not bring it in contact with the cus- tomer's neck, and use the towel that you have had in use around the neck to tuck in over the hair cloth at the back of the neck. This is to protect the customer's garments while combing and shaving the neck. Now use fresh lather around the hair line over the ears and down the back of the neck. Whether or not the neck is to be shaved clear around, it is best to lather the neck to avoid showing a high water mark on the sides where you have put the lather. Rub the sides a little to prepare them for the shave. Strop your razor a little before shaving the neck. It will not need as much strop- ping as would be required for the face shave, for the hair on the neck is easier shaved. Now shave the neck, starting in front on the right side, make the outline true and even and work carefully around the ear to the point where the shear has indicated the line, at the same time combing the hair to- Page seventy-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Careless combing is unfor- givable; it is even more im- portant than cutting. ibing long pompadour with comb and hand. Gives smooth, glossy effect. ward the line. The free hand stroke will be used for the riglrhand side, but the back hand stroke will be used on the left side in front, and the double back hand, back of the ear. This is the only place a double back hand stroke is used with the razor. For the long pompadour we comb straight back, and you may do this by standing directly back of your customer, first using the brush and comb alternately. After you have straightened the hair on the top and sides, untangling it all, laying it in its proper place, lay your hairbrush down and with the comb follow through the hair from the front to the back with the hand instead of the brush. This will give a smooth and more finished appear- ance and is pleasing to your customer. IV ill it be an artistic finish or yours, with this customer ? Page seventy^nmc THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Because a certain style is be- coming in one instance, do not use it in all. Learn to deviate. Fuii round effect in Increase your stock in trade JS '»*', "poTpadour bv 7jarictV front and short burnsides. Many barbers would be good haircuttcrs if they did not so often run out of hair. If the shape of the head seems to be rather long and narrow, it will be your at- tempt to broaden the appearance by leav- ing a sufficient amount of hair on the sides of the head to fill out and overcome the narrowness, at the same time combing the top of the hair rather flat, which helps broaden the appearance of the features. If a head seems to be rather flat in the back and wide, a sufficient amount of hair should be left at the back of the head to fill out and give the head a longer appear- ance. If the head seems to be rather flat and wide on top, you must try to leave enough hair on top so that it may be loosely combed back from the forehead or roached up in a manner that will overcome the flat- ness, and if a head seems to be round like a ball an attempt should be made to so draw your lines that it will give it a longer effect. Page eighty Side vteu\ short pompa- dour shaved straight. Clippers slightly used on sides and lower neck. Avoid a ridge by cutting over comb with teeth turned out THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Cutting to overcome defects is a part of the barber's work. A trained eye detects defects at a glance. MEDIUM POMPADOUR This style is very popular, as is also the longer pompadour, and differs only as fol- lows: Use the clipper just at the very lower edge entirely around, and gradually taper with the shears and the comb from the clip- per line, finishing the haircut as described for the long pompadour. The combing of the long pompadour, in fact, the combing of any haircut — where a sufficient amount of hair has been left to permit of nice combing — is as important as the actual cutting, and this will prove your worth as a tactfully skillful barber. A haircut, to be most becom- ing, like a suit of clothes, must be built to order. Page eighty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The, time was when the bar- ber who could cut the best pompadour was most in de- mand, but there is not much demand these days. More time is necessary to trim a perfect short pompa- dour than any other style. Trimming short pompadour. Position in front In cutting a short pompadour, if you have trouble in keeping the hair on end, you must use hair dressing, or even a stick of mustache wax, applied by run- ning the wax back and forth through the hair over the comb. The wax holds the hair in place while you make your form. You take your position for this work on the left side of the chair and turn your customer's head slightly toward you and start your work at the forehead in the cen- ter, getting the length you desire, and cut straight back over the comb until you reach the crown, gradually running shorter as you comb back. You will notice you are combing and cutting from you in making your form through the center. The pompadour should have a flat ap- pearance across the top unless the head is unusually broad, so you must be careful about trimming the sides too close. Trim Page eighty-Hvo THE BARBERS' MANUAL WMllilMMtHi/j. Things to Remember Front view showing flat square effect, the style required by exacting young men a little from the cut you have made, first on one side and then on the other to get the proper shape, and after you have it formed as illustrated, continue to cut lightly over the top to give it a softer and more velvety appearance. The porcupine effect of a short pompadour probably quilled it. Side view shows straight line effect from front to crown, gradualaly taper- ing to shorter hair at crown. Clipper line carefully trimmed away. An exact eye measurement is required for perfect pom- padour work. Page eighty-three Lesson Five Subject HAIRCUTTING Things to Remember Cutting over the fingers en- ables the barber to get his measurements. Going over the surface must be done system- atically, not promiscuously. The fault zvith most barbers in cutting a trim is in taking too much off. Trims Trims vary in length according to the customer's wishes and that they may be better classified, we will call them long, me- dium and short trims, each cut by the same general rules or principles, the only differ- ence being the length of the cut. You will start the work at the lower edge, using the clipper just on the back of the neck if your customer prefers, or en- tirely around the lower part of the haircut, starting just in front of the ear on the right side, working around the lower growth of the hair to the opposite side, ob- serving the instructions regarding the clip- per that is given in the preceding article on clippers. Always be careful about using the clippers too high. The tendency is to do too much clipper work. You will now start with the shears and comb cutting from the edge you left with the clippers, up through the hair, cutting close to the clipper line or scalp at first and gradually running out of the hair from two to three inches above the clipper line. Fcrge eighty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Cutting side over finger. Comb and shear in same hand. Comb just releasing hair shown in fingers All haircuts must be propor- tioned. The trim, most exact- ing of all cuts in this regard. This is called the shear and comb work. When you have trimmed away the clipper line around the entire head you are ready for the part of the work called cutting over the fingers. Right side cutting over fingers. Position back of customer, just the reverse from left side. Both right and left sides cut from front to center of head in back Baldness, scalp scars and defects may interfere with the general rule of Jiaircutting. Good judgment must be dis- played in these cases. Page eighty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Allowances must be made for age, profession, counten- ance, etc. Study conditions. A carefully made outline is like striping a painted job. It gives the expression. Left side, cutting over fingers. Comb trans- furred from right to left hand before making cut. Position, facing customer Make your start at the ridge you have left with the shears and comb, starting on the right side, working around the direc- tion as illustrated for cut No. 1. You will work from front back to the center of the head in the back, then step around your chair and cut the opposite side just the same, working back with the second No. 1, just as you did the first one, then take No. 2, which is a cut just a little higher. Cut first one side and then the other, then fol- low by No. 3 and No. 4. This covers the entire surface, but you must remember each cut, No. 1, 2, 3 and 4, is left a little longer than the one below it so that the longest hair will be on the top of the head. There are variations from this rule ac- cording to the length of the hair, the size of the head, etc., but generally this is a very good rule to be guided by in all long or medium trims. Always avoid cutting it short directly over the crown. Page eighty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Diagram of the cuts from one to four, show- ing position or direction of fingers for each cut. The diagram above is intended to make the work more plain, but a good deal of practice will be necessary to enable you to acquire the positions for the several cuts. As there is no diagram of exercises for this cut, about all that you can do for your benefit before actually doing the work will be to get your hands and wrists limbered and in condition to take the position easily. Your position at the chair cutting the left side will be rather at the side in front of your customer, working from the front back, where your position for cutting the right side will be back of your customer, cutting from the front back or toward you, each time going to the center of the head in the back. When you have reached the top of the head for No. 4, your fingers will be hori- zontal, one side of the top of the head, No. 4, should match with the other side, No. 4, and it is well to make an extra cut or a proof of your work by combing straight back over the top in the center of the head to see that both sides are cut evenly. In cutting over the fingers, they may be bent. The shape of the head and a slight curve given to each cut, with the shear blades to make a smooth- er job or a nicer fit. A barber cannot judge all of his work at close range. He should step back frequently to get a better view of the work. Page eighty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Many barbers disagree zvith the instructions given here for front outline, but there will be no mistake if this rule is fol- lowed. Front outline. Heel o/ shear at temple, point near eyebrow. Left sidt illustrated After completing- the cut, you may make your front outline by combing all of the hair over on one side and trimming it just lightly at the edge, then comb it all over to the other side of the head and trim it lightly as shown in the illustrations. A final touch may be given to the haircut zvith the shears and comb after combing the hair, but very little should be necessary. Front outlines. Varied in height according to length of hair. Right side illustrated Page eighty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL When work is properly done, front hair combs to a "V" When it is combed down straight over the forehead, if the work is properly done, it will form a perfect "V." You may now trim the outlines back and over the ear as illustrated, making an even distinctive edge that gives the nicer finish to your haircut. Things to Remember If each front outline is trimmed while the hair is part- ed, and one side higher than the other, difficulty will arise the next time the hair is part- ed. Long, ragged edges will comb over the short ends. Making feather edge back outline and around ear. Blade of shear must follow the outline cut by points. Comb holds hair ends at out- line. Thumb of left hand holds ear out of the way Unless the feather edge out- line is combed tozvard the edge, there will be an irregidar out- line when the work is com- pleted, that is difficult to over- come and is unsightly. Page eighty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Salesmanship is a much abused word. True salesman- ship works best, if you are sold on what you are trying to sell. Side view, short trim shaved neck, short burn- sides, side part combed up Back view, short trim with shaved neck. Styles now point to very little neck shaving Customers do not want to be annoyed but are susceptible to suggestions. Have you a "good number" to offer? Back view, medium trim. Neck may be shaved at dotted line, if required- Center part combed down and back Page nmetv Lesson Six Subject HAIRCUTTING Half Crown You have learned to handle your clipper in the exercises and preparatory training, so we will start by learning just how high we are to use the clipper for the half crown. The clippers should be run about as high as the hatband line clear around the head, Things to Remember The difficult part is erasing the clipper line. This re- quires careful shear and comb work. Using clipper for half crown A shorter taper is necessary zvhere clippers have been used around the lower edge of the haircut. Page ninety-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The mind's eye is the bar- ber's blue print, and like all blue prints is expensive to al- ter after the plans are laid. Until the fingers become ac- customed to the shear ferrule there will be a desire to use rubber shear pads, but the ex- perienced barber has learned they are only a handicap. although frequently the line is left a little lower for the style we will call the long half crown. You will note that a long half crown differs only slightly from a short trim, but we so name them that you will be able to better classify styles. If a medium or a short half crown is to be cut, you would, of course, cut the hair on the top and sides proportionately longer or shorter. Clip clear around, being cautious to run the clipper out of the hair at the lower edge to taper it gradually. This saves work with the shears and comb. After having completed the clipper work start with the shears and comb at the tem- ple on the right side, cutting away the ab- rupt edge and tapering it with the short hair left by the clippers into the longer hair at the edge of the line. In doing the shear work, you will note the shears and comb must be handled in a manner that will enable you to work more at one side of the work rather than directly in front of it. This avoids stooping to an awkward position in parts of the work that will be difficult to get at if you were cut- ting directly in front of yourself. The cutting out of this clipper line is the most difficult part of this haircut, for if the pronounced ridge shows where the clip- per left off, the haircut has the apearance of a wig placed on the head, and this you must overcome by carefully trimming away the lines. This is accomplished by using the fine end of your comb at the Clip- Pa^ ninety-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A wig effect must be guard- ed against in all half and full crown cuts. It is overcome by a carefully trimmed clipper line. Shears and comb for half crown per line, running up and out of the hair as you cut. If the hair tangles underneath the comb, or folds under, place the blade of your shear underneath your comb, straightening the tangled ends before making the cut. Always be careful to turn the teeth of the comb outward, as this will allow the hair to fall into the teeth of your comb, and pull your comb out of the hair sufficiently This illustration would indi- cate a quantity of hair being removed at one cut. Note the error and remove but a little each cut. reducing cut for side of half crown Page ninety-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember This cut would indicate the finger work is being done be- fore the clipper line is cut away. Note the error and trim the clipper line first. A careful study of style is essential in all haircutting, and there is to be the same careful gauging of length in crozvns and half crowns as there is in trims. Cutting over fingers, half crown to enable you to work with your shears close to your comb. Work around, keeping the taper the same in the back and on both sides. When completed, start cutting over the ringers, starting just a little above the temple on the right side and work back to the crown. Always avoid cutting it short directly over the crown. You will note we illustrate and de- scribe this finger work for the longer trims, as cuts No. 1, 2, 3 and 4, but with the half crown we will eliminate No. 1, taking No. 2 at the side of the head just where you have left off with the shears and comb starting at the temple on the right side in front and work back to the center of the head in the back. This re- quires about six to eight cuts. Page ninety-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL You now step around to the other side of your chair, starting at the temple in front cutting No. 2 back to the center of the head, just opposite on the No. 2 on the other side that we have just finished. Now No. 3 which is just a little higher, working from the front back to the crown, usually from five to six cuts. Next, No. 3 on the opposite side, being careful to get both sides the same length. Now you use No. 4, which is directly on the top of the head on one side, cutting back from the forehead to the crown, each cut a little shorter than the last one, about four to five cuts in all. Now No. 4 on the other side is made on top, cut in the same manner about the same number of cuts, that both sides will be alike. You have now gone over the entire sur- face and are ready to make your front out- line. You will do this by combing all of the hair over to one side and make your outline about the height of the clipper line on the side and about parallel with it, al- though this will vary according to the length of hair your customer desires for the half crown. Now step around to the opposite side and comb all of the hair over on the oppo- site side, leaving no part, and trim the front outline on the other side in the same manner and the same length. After this is done, if the hair is combed down over the forehead, it will be a per- fect "V" shape. Things to Remember No set rule will make an artistic haircut. It is only a foundation upon which to build. The finish is a matter of good taste. Seasons of the year govern styles. A full or half crown is a summer haircut. Page ninety-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Have you ever sat in a bar- ber shop and been sprayed by the sprinkle of cut hair from the haircloth? If you have, you won't do it to others. If a customer desires the freedom of his arms above the chaircloth, so adjust it that he may feel free and at ease. You will now use your neck duster with a little powder sifted into it, if it is not a fountain neck duster, carefully brushing the cut ends of the hair from around the protecting towel, brushing the hair quite vigorously to remove all of the cut ends, and lightly brushing over the face to re- move the ends that may have lodged there, and which are always disagreeable. Now remove the haircloth by brushing and lifting one side at a time, then remove the protecting towel, carefully dusting the cut ends of the hair as it is removed. Now pick up the lower end of the haircloth, bring it up to the upper edge and carefully lift it off your customer, being careful not to drop the cut hair on the customer's gar- ments. You will now cover your customer again with the haircloth by spreading it from the front, being careful not to let the haircloth come in direct contact with your customer, and cover it from the back with the towel you have used as a protector, tucking in the edge of the towel, as you did previ- ously. This protects the garments while shaving the neck and combing the hair. We will now shave the neck and you will use fresh lather to apply to the sides, over the ears, and down the sides, and you will lather clear around even though the neck is not going to be shaved across the back. We apply the lather in this way as it con- stitutes better barbering. For shaving the neck you will strop your razor but slightly as the growth of hair is not as heavy on the neck as on the Page ninety-si: THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Back view oj low, full crown or short trim, a compromise between the two. Illustration shows too pronounced clipper outline, result of 00 clipper work Side view shows effect o / same exaggerated style, too abrupt taper; very dressy otherwise The reason a half crown cut is difficult is that there is so little chance to display real taste. face. Start on the right side, using the free hand stroke, generally making your outline straight back from the point of the eye, running into a graceful curve over the ear, just at the hairline, or the outline may be lower on the side in front of the ear, according to your customer's wishes. Shave straight down the back at the hair line, being careful that your line is drawn so that it will be the most becoming to the customer. There are variations here that only practice and study will enable you to accomplish. // the hair on the crown of the head is inclined to stand up when cut for a half crown, the use of hair dressing may be necessary to make it lay smooth. Page ninety-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember You have seen barbers wipe the lather from their razor blades onto their hands; a re- pulsive operation. Don't get that habit. Sometimes a part is straight in itself, but not straight with the head; and sometimes it is straight with the head but crooked in itself. It must be straight in itself and with the head. Now step to the other side of your cus- tomer and, with the back hand stroke, make your outline on the opposite side just the same height and as near the same shape as you did the other, making a grace- ful curve over the ear at the hairline, but we change to the double back hand stroke, to shave back of the ear. This is the only place the double back hand stroke is used. Now wash the lather from the neck with a hot towel, and dry with a dry towel. The same care must be given in drying the neck as in drying the face after shaving. To comb the hair, moisten as you would for a tonic, thoroughly moistening and thoroughly rubbing the moisture through the hair. Replace the water bottle on the stand. Now step back of your customer and give a few light massage movements to thoroughly distribute the moisture. Now take your position back of the chair with your comb in the right hand and brush in the left, take your comb and throw the hair forward over the forehead, and then take your position on the side that your customer parts his hair and make the part with your comb and be careful to make the part straight in itself and straight with the head, then take your comb and simply throw the hair on the opposite side, out of the way, until you are ready to step around the chair to comb in position. As you walk around the chair you follow your comb with your brush. And, also, avoid your brush coming in con- tact with the ear as this is very annoying to your customer. Page ninety-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL Side view finished half crown. Hair roached up Back view finished half crown You will note, you may comb the hair on this side down perfectly flat and smooth, or may roach it up in front to show the different effects. Now step around to the opposite side, brush and comb the hair smooth, and now comb the hair down perfectly smooth and observe the effect. Then again comb it up to get just the right artistic touch to the work. This completes the half crown, and I want you to note, it is only a few degrees removed from a close trim. Things to Remember There are as many ways of combing the same head of hair as there are ways of cutting each. Learn the most becom- ing styles and comb becom- ingly. Have you ever had a barber comb your hair to feel as well as you comb it yourself? If you can do this for your cus- tomer, he will come a long way to patronize you. Page ninety-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Boys in summer time enjoy this cut. Mothers like it for their children os it requires little combing. Full Crown We will now change this style to the full crown cut. By again using the clipper, this time to the temple, leaving your outline from one to two inches higher than for the half crown. This brings the line about to the crown in the back of the head, and leaves this portion horse-shoe shape on top of the head. You will use the same care and skill in running the clippers out of the hair at the line, that you have been cautioned about using for other cuts. You can make your work much easier if you use your clipper, starting at the tem- ple with one side of the clipper blade up, working back and around to the crown. This so tapers the line that it makes your shear and comb-work much easier. The barber names the full crown the "money maker." It is short in length and time. Using clipper for full crown Page one hundred THE BARBERS' MANUAL Frequently there is a curl on the back of the neck and the clipper must be turned in different directions to cut it properly. This is also true in cutting well up on the sides of the head where the grain of the hair changes. You are now ready to cut over the comb with your shears, and the shear and comb work must be carefully done at the edge where the clipper has left off. Take your position at the side of your customer and start on the right side of the temple, cut- ting back to the crown. You will note this is quite similar to the cutting of the half crown at the edge, but as the grain of the hair changes toward the crown, you must change the angle of your shears and comb accordingly, to cut against the grain. Trimming the outline is the biggest part of this haircut. As you note, there is little shear work to be done. The full crown is the easiest hair- cut that we have and requires the least work. It, however, is not adaptable to men Things to Remember A good clipper worker can do most of this cut with the machine, especially the elec- tric. Boys dnjoy the electric clipper more than grown ups. Be careful of the side out- lines on the full crozvn. You frequently cut into the growth of the hair instead of the out- line. Cutting over comb full crown Page one hundred one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember It is better to leave a pro- nounced clipper line than to cut nicks trying to get it out. Strike the happy medium by trimming smoothly and not overdo. A full crozvn may be roached or combed flat. Judge the style from the countenance. of all ages. It is generally preferred for little boys or for laboring men who do not care to have the abundance of hair on their head to keep clean. After both sides have been trimmed, comb the hair up between the ringers, working from the front back, cutting over the fingers instead of the comb. You will note, with the other cuts we use cuts No. 1, 2, 3 and 4, but with the full crown cut, we will need only No. 3 and No. 4, or perhaps if it is a short crown cut, you will need only No. 4, starting from the front to the angle and position of No. 3, cutting back to the crown over the fingers, each cut a little shorter than the last, usu- ally four to five cuts. Now trim the opposite side in the same manner over the fingers from the front back, giving about the same number of cuts. Now you have No. 4 on one side of the head from three to four cuts and No. 4 again on the other side of the top of the head about the same number of cuts. We have now completed the shear and comb work over the fingers and you will comb the hair all over to one side of the head as we did before, making the front outline about the height of the clip- per line and at the same angle. This makes the outline just a little higher than for the half crown. Now step around to the other side and cut your outline the same as the other side, the same height and the same angle, then comb the hair down over the forehead and Page one hundred two THE BARBERS' MANUAL if the work has been properly done it will form a perfect "V" with the longest hair in the center of the forehead. We will now dust the hair and linen again, remove our haircloth, comb the hair to give you the effect. Moisten the hair as before, thoroughly rubbing the moisture through the hair and scalp, giving a light scalp massage, and brush and comb again. This time, you may comb all of the hair over to one side, making no parts, and this may be roached up in front or it may be combed flat. Study effects when combing hair and try to turn out the best looking job you can. Now we will show another effect, this time making a part near the center or at the center, if your customer prefers, roach- ing both sides up, slightly back. The comb- ing is the most fascinating part of barber business, and you must acquire a taste for this if you expect to enjoy your work. Things to Remember A double ought clipper may be used at the lower part of the neck, but should not go higher. As much pains should be taken in combing the short trims as the long. Frequently they are more difficult to make look well. Side view finished full crown. Hair roached back Page one hundred three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember There are many differences in ladies' and men's haircut- ting, but if one has become a good men's haircutter, it zvill not be difficult to acquire la- dies' work. Never make lower outlines the exact height you desire them; allow for retrim. LADIES' AND CHILDREN'S HAIRCUTS HTHE proper cutting and arranging of •*- bobbed hair has become one oi the most important and profitable part Of the barber profession, and we are extending a great effort toward the attainment of the best results in ladies' haircutting. You will find that ladies are the most critical customers, and are expert judges on this class of service. First, and the most important part, is to ascertain just what style hair cut your customer prefers, and after deciding on the style you should picture in your own mind iust how that hair cut ought to look after vou have completed the work. Outline for the first cut Page one hundred four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Retrim for straight bob If you are trimming a long head of hair that is being bobbed for the first time, you will find out just how your customer de- sires the work. If it is to be a straight bob, see that the hair is properly parted and combed smoothly and evenly straight down all around before making the trim. If the hair is to be curled later, you must allow for shrinkage, but if not your outline should be one-half inch lower than you in- tend to have it when you have completed for you will be obliged to trim around a number of times to even it after your first In all ladies' haircuts, as- certain whether or not the hair is to be ivorn straight or curled. If curled, allow for the shrinkage. This illustration shoivs trim- ming with the points of the shears from the outer edge. This is only desirable for rag- ged edges, not for thinning. Thinned outline with shear points Page one hundred five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The English process is most desirable as it thins from un- derneath, leaving the longer hair on the outside to be combed into a swirl, if desired. cut. inch. Thinning by English trimming This will shorten it about one-half If this head of hair is to be shingled, after making the first outline you will trim the heavy hair in the back by a method known to us as the English cut, holding a strand of hair in the left hand, cutting from underneath with a half open blade of the shear, closing it slightly each stroke as you slide the blades up the strand of hair. The work of cutting over the shears and comb for ladies' work can only be used at the back of the neck, unless the boyish bob is given. Back trimmed with shears and comb Page one hundred six THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember // the lower hair line at the back of the neck grows irreg- ularly, it may be scalloped with a pronounced edge, like drap- ery, but this is one of the ex- tremes. Pointed outline This thins the heavy hair away, leaving it fairly smooth, better than it can be done by working over the fingers as you do for the men's haircut. You start about one-half inch back of the ear on the right side and thin around to within one-half inch of the ear on the left side. After having completed this thinning process, you may use your clipper on the back of the neck to the proper height either to an outline you may have designat- ed, which may be a ''V" shape or straight around or any other design your customer prefers, and from the clipper line trim the In lifting a strand of long hair as illustrated, it may be thrown out of the way and the shorter hair underneath, trim- med with the shears and comb. Thin edge produced by outside cut Page one hundred seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember // hair is to be combed straight back flat like a man's pompadour, it can be cut the same except that it should be longer on the sides and in combing back, partly cover the ears. An artistic ladies' haircut- ter must be an artistic hair- comber. Water waving, finger waving and like waves are nec- essary for proper effect. balance of the back of the head by cutting over the comb about as high as you would for a long trim. Now blend the sides just back of the ears by using the English trim slightly which will smooth the abrupt edge from the long hair covering the ears to the short hair back of them. If a heavy, blunt line is left on the sides, thin just the lower edges by using the English cut, but do not allow the shears to slide up the strand of hair more than an inch or two from the ends. This process is to thin away the underneath part of the blunt edge which will allow the outer edge to turn in, giving a better style to the cut. Be careful that you have the hair combed out well around the ears as quite frequently the hair will fold around back of the ear and if it is not combed out when cutting it will show ragged ends later. And if you will part the hair around the ear, you will not only be getting these long- ends but you can gauge your work better, as the lobe of the ear is your gauge in cut- ting the proper length. If your customer wears a dip on the side, be careful that you leave this hair that lies in front of the ear longer, as the dip will take up the length and blend in with the rest of the cut. There are various styles of ladies' hair cuts, and I would advise that you study the charts carefully and become familiar with the various styles. However, after vou have become a haircutter and have a Page one hundred eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Bangs are dangerous. It is easy to make and unmake good effects. Heart shaped bang fair knowledge of the work you will be able to cut any style if you will first con- sult your customer and ascertain the exact style that she wishes. If bangs are worn, they may be trimmed in any manner your customer desires. You can part from the forehead about an inch back from the hair line, the amount you want to cut into bangs, and trim it the shape or style your customer desires. Sometimes the bangs are trimmed in what we know as the heart shape or they may be trimmed diagonally across the forehead or straight across or "V" shape, rounding or any other style your customer may desire. If this were a child's haircut, I would bring the outline nearly to the top of the ear and use the clippers to that point. Children's haircutting does not vary greatly from the women's straight bob, ex- cept in the height of the outline. To specialise in ladies' hair- cutting, one should also spe- cialise in ladies' hair-dressing. Page one hundred nin Lesson Seven Subject SANITATION Embracing 1. Bacteria 2. Infection 3. Disinfectants 4. Antiseptics 5. Sterilization This is one of the most import- ant subjects to be considered in the work of the better barber and should be thoroughly un- derstood, as it has to do with the cleanliness of your instruments, linens, and in fact your entire es- tablishment. It involves Steril- ization, Disinfectants, Antisep- tics, and the use of Chemicals in the destruction of Bacteria that may cause infection. BACTERIA These are the lowest form of the vegetable kingdom and are the smallest living structures known. They are composed of single cells of protoplasm. They occur in the soil to a depth of several feet and in the air to a certain height. They are usually found within all cavities of the body which are open to the external air. The majority of bacteria are not in- jurious or harmful to the hu- man race; in fact, the great ma- jority are helpful and useful to 6. Moist Heat 7. Dry Heat 8. Chemicals 9. Vapor 10. Solutions man and only a comparatively few are really dangerous and detrimental to bodily health. On the other hand, bacteria of the pathogenic type are disease producing and are man's greatest scourge. Many diseases are now scientifically recognized as being entirely caused by the presence of bacteria. There are certain well under- stood requirements for the growth of bacteria. These are: Food, Moisture and Tempera- ture. There are at all times produced in the bodies of persons, sub- stances which are capable of hin- dering the growth of bacteria. These are spoken of as immuniz- ing substances. When bacteria, capable of causing disease, finds lodgment in the body of an indi- vidual, the condition is known as one of infection. In order to prevent infection, it is necessary to pay strict at- tention to the sanitation in your shop. Page one hundred ten THE BARBERS' MANUAL With the rigid laws exercised by the various health depart- ments in all cities, the steriliza- tion of all instruments, proper cleansing of the hands, use of clean linen, such as towels, jackets, chair cloths, and head covering, are necessities that must be carefully considered as being of utmost importance to the Barber Shop owner. INFECTION In implanting in the tissues of the body living pathogenic organ- isms, or germs, in such a way as to favor their growth and permit their toxins to impure the tissues. Infection of the body with mi- cro-organism is means of ent- rance of these organisms into the body through certain ports of entry, the principal ones being the skin, the respiratory, alimen- tary, the genito-urinary tracts of the body. While some micro-or- ganisms may enter the healthy and normal skin, this is rare and the usual mode of entrance is through cuts, abrasions, wounds, etc. The skin is a port of en- trance and admits certain ani- mal and vegetable parasites, such as fungus, scabies, etc. Sanitation is classified as fol- lows: Sterilization, Disinfect- ants, Antiseptics. STERILIZATION Sterilization means extreme cleanliness, destroying all germs by chemical or mechanical means. It is the destruction of all organic life, whether infective or not. This can be accomplished by dif- ferent means, such as: Moist Heat, Dry Heat, Chemicals or Vapor. MOIST HEAT This means steaming or boil- ing instruments in water for twenty minutes. In order to ac- complish this an electric heating element can be used. This attach- ment can be fastened to a glass of water and attached to an elec- tric light socket. When the elec- tricity is turned on it will boil the water in from one to two min- utes. The instruments, after washing them in soap and water, are then dipped in boiling water and left there for a few minutes, after which they are placed in an air tight cabinet sterilizer until used. Electric heating element for boil- ing instruments. DRY HEAT Only such instruments as will stand heat such as metal or glass are adaptable to this method. Page one hundred eleven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Cabinet sterilizer. This is used by means of baking in an oven for 20 minutes. The oven is heated to a temperature used for baking. This method is used for sterilizing linens, towels, etc. CHEMICALS This method is most commonly used in the Barber Shop work. A sterilizing solution should be placed in an open mouthed jar, the opening to be large enough to admit instruments easily. It should be tightly covered when not in use and the solution should be changed every day, as sedi- ments begin to form at the bot- tom of the jar. VAPORS By this means, chemicals of a gaseous nature that produce a va- por, such as Formeldehyde, are used. A cabinet sterilizer is used for this purpose and after instru- ments are placed in it, it is kept tightly closed and air tight. A small glass tray is used on which a piece of blotting paper or piece of cotton is placed. On this blot- ting paper place 1 tablespoon borax. 1 tablespoon formaldehyde. This creates the vapors neces- sary for the purpose of keeping instruments steril after they have been washed and dipped in a ster- ilizing solution, then dried thor- oughly and placed in cabinet ster- ilizer. STERILIZING COMBS AND BRUSHES Combs, brushes and like in- struments should first be washed with soap and water. Common laundry soap will do if you have no other, and then dip instru- ments into the following solu- tions. The favorite solutions are: 10% solution of carbolic acid. This is made by adding Liquid carbolic acid, 1 part. Water (boiled or distilled), 10 parts. also 4% solution of formalin, or 5% phenol. This is made by using 4 oz. formaldehyde. Yi gal. water. WORK STANDS, LAVATORIES, BOWLS, TOPS OF TABLES, ETC. These should be washed well and the same solution used as for combs and brushes. MANICURE INSTRUMENTS Manicure instruments should be dipped in a 2 per cent solution of Formalin or by use of moist heat. Thev should be freed from Page one hundred twelve THE BARBERS' MANUAL Jar for sterilizing solution. all foreign substance before ster- ilizing. A solution for this pur- pose can be made by using. 2 oz. formaldehyde y z gal. (boiled or distilled) water Then place them in the steril- izing cabinet until they are to be used. DISINFECTANTS Disinfectant is an agent capa- ble of destroying germs. Dis- infection differs from steriliza- tion in this regard. Sterilization is the absolute destruction of all organic life whether infective or not. It is, therefore, more than a disinfectant which destroys the germs of infection only. Infec- tion is denned as disease spread from sick to well by direct or in- direct innoculation. A room may be disinfected by fumigation with Formaldehyde or similar gasses. Linens can be disinfected by boiling in hot water and soap. The hands and skin can be disinfected by wash- ing with a germicidal soap or us- ing a light solution of Formalin. A 1 per cent solution is used for this purpose and is made by add- ing 1 oz. formaldehyde y z gal. water (boiled or distilled) ANTISEPTICS Antiseptics are agents which restrain the growth of Bacteria. A disinfectant must be an anti- septic, but an antiseptic need not be a disinfectant. Alcohol when used full strength is one of the best antiseptics known. It is also the safest and most economical cleansing me- dium that can be used and is es- pecially good to cleanse electrical appliances such as electrodes for Hy Frequency, Faradic and Gal- vanic batteries. A pad of cotton is saturated with alcohol and used to cleanse them. Alcohol will penetrate the lay- ers of the Epidermis and destroy bacteria located between them. Boric Acid is a powdered anti- septic which can be used for pads for eyes, also as a cleansing me- dium and for hot packs in infec- tion. When used for this pur- pose prepare in the following manner : Boric acid crystal, V/\ oz. Water, y 2 gal. When used in small quantities as a cleansing medium for Hy- dro-vacu, it can be prepared in the following manner : 1 teaspoonful of boric acid crystal 1 cup boiling water Page one hundred thirteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL Peroxide of Hydrogen is a mild antiseptic and can be used full strength. It can be used on the skin. Rules for making solutions: 5 drops to 1 oz. makes 1% solution 25 drops to 1 oz. makes 5% solution 5 drops to 1 oz. makes 1% solution 8 drops to 1 pint makes 1 to 1000 solution 60 drops to 1 gal. makes 1 to 1000 solution 1 teaspoonful equals 60 drops Ordinary glass, 8 oz. Teacupful, 6 oz. 1 pint, 16 oz. 1 quart, 32 oz. The Beauty Specialist is privi- leged to use the following chem- icals in preparing solutions: Alcohol, this is used full strength Bichloride of Mercury, 1 to 1000 Carbolic Acid, 10% Iodine, 75% Lysol, 1% Formalin, 4% Formalin is considered the cheapest of the different solutions used for sterilizing. It does not stain or corrode metal. The hands should be thor- oughly disinfected; the nails should always be cared for espe- cially if your work has been on the scalp or face. Personal hy- giene is very important in a Barber Shop. Jackets should al- ways be clean as the personal ap- pearance of an operator adds much to the popularity of the shop. Other methods of sterilization besides those already mentioned can be accomplished through Decomposition, by strong acids, Burning, with fire. The Laws of Sanitation gov- erning Barber Shops, prohibits the use of the fingers in removing cream from the jar. A small spatula or spoon that can be ster- ilized should be used instead. Cosmetics must be removed by means of cotton gauze pledg- ets or paper tissue, or other ster- ilizable materials such as soft towels. Powder must be in sifter top containers or covered powder boxes. All creams and lotions and other cosmetics must be kept in a clean and closed container. Hands must be thoroughly cleansed and sterilized before and after each patron. DEFINITIONS Asepsis — Absence of septic matter or free- dom from infection. Aseptic — Free from Septic Material. Ab- sence of living pathogenic micro-organ- isms. Antiseptic — A substance destructive to poisonous germs. Bacteria — The lowest form of vegetable kingdom consists of a single cell, the basic principle of which is everywhere except in high altitudes, deep water and deep soil. It requires to live, food, moisture and temperature of 70 to 90 degrees. Disinfection — The act or process of free- ing from Bacteria by means of chem- icals. You can sterilize instruments and materials, but you disinfect your hands by dipping in a 1% solution of Formalin. Germ — A microbe or bacillus. Germicide — A chemical agent, capable of destroying. Infection — Disease spread from sick to well by direct of indirect innoculation. Pathogenic — Germs that are disease pro- ducing. Sanitation — The application of measures to promote public health. Sterilization — Simply means extreme cleanliness, which prevents disease, by killing the germs or neutralizing their action. Sterile — Free from germs. Page one hundred fourteen Lesson Eight Subject ELECTRICITY Embracing 1. Galvanic 2. Faradic 3. High Frequency 4. Negative 5. Positive 6. Voltage 7. Amperage 8. Lights 9. Red 10. Blue PLECTRICITY is a current of motion or some other form of action of that form of matter called ether. Ether permeates all matter, pervades all space and is affected by the matter of the body in which it is. It cannot be weighed, seen or measured. As used in the work of the Barber Specialist it is available in the shape of dry cells as used for bat- teries or 110 voltage used for lights and power purposes. Electricity as used in the work of the progressive barber is in three forms: Galvanic, Faradic, Hy Frequency. GALVANIC CURRENT Galvanic current is a current of electricity that has a decided chemical effect on the tissues. It is an uninterrupted current flow- ing constantly in one direction from the positive to the negative pole. It is always used in Elec- trolysis, also for cataphorisis in- troduction of medicines through the unbroken skin, or for coagu- lation (to form a clot). Galvanic current is produced by immersing plates of zinc or copper in an exciting fluid, such as salt water or acid, and con- necting them with a wire. A sin- gle cell of a battery is made. This cell produces the Galvanic or constant current. The acid produces a chemical decomposition by attacking the zinc, causes a current to flow through the fluid from the zinc to the carbon and then out from the carbon through the connecting cords. The galvanic current can be used through a wall plate which is an electrical instrument which turns electricity into galvanism or Faradism, or through the use of a dry cell battery. It is often necessary to de- termine the polarity (this is the chemical action or reaction which takes place at the point where the current enters and leaves the Page one hundred fifteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL binding post, cell or battery). This is done by immersing the tips of the conducting cords in a glass of water, never metal. Ob- serve the "bubbles" which appear, on them. A few may appear on the positive and "stick," but the negative releases them. It is not necessary to test for polarity on a dry cell battery, as this is already determined by the wiring or construction of the bat- tery. It is very important to re- member that each pole has a defi- nite action upon which we de- pend for results. ACTION OF POSITIVE POLE IN GALVANIC CURRENT This has a sedative effect. It decreases pain and also reduces inflammation; has an astringent effect and contracts the pores it hardens, also dissolves all metal except gold, platinum and alumi- num. It is the pole to which the water or moist pad is attached in Electrolysis. ACTION OF NEGATIVE POLE IN GALVANIC CURRENT This dissolves, softens and liquifies, therefore, it is always used for the needle when electro- lysis is done. It also increases inflammation, does not dissolve metals. FORCING MEDICINES INTO THE SKIN Forcing medicines or liquids into the unbroken skin can only be done with the Galvanic Cur- rent. It is necessary to reverse the polarity, that is, a patron would be required to hold the electrode which is attached to negative pole, rather than the positive as is usual, while the liquid is applied to the sponge, and is attached to the positive pole. This is called Castophor- esis. A metallic taste in the mouth is usually experienced with the Galvanic current. TO CONTRACT PORES WITH GALVANIC CURRENT The galvanic current is often used by some operators at the close of an ordinary facial to contract the pores. When this method is used, it is applied over the entire face in a rotary move- ment for about 10 minutes with a felt electrode. The poles are reversed also for this purpose and this operation is called Gal- vanic Contractility. CAUTERIZATION WITH GAL- VANIC CURRENT Galvano Cauterization as used in Electrolysis, is the change of the galvanic electricity into chem- ical action and the cauterization is caused by the releasing of the acids and alkalies. This is the destruction of living tissue, as in the removal of warts and moles. FARADIC CURRENT The faradic current is an in- terrupted or induced current. It is an alternating current and has little or no chemical action on the tissues and is of high voltage and low amperage. It is especi- ally beneficial in facial and scalp Page one hundred sixteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL work, through finger manipul- ations, the current passing through the fingers. It is a current that develops the muscles, circulation is im- proved by it, sleep is induced and mental faculties are strengthened. Through it stimulation is sup- plied, and wasted tissues are built up. HY FREQUENCY Hy Frequency is a current of high voltage and low amperage. It is claimed that it produces stimulation and must, therefore, have sufficient electric . force to ''jump," but must be of such vol- ume as not to be difficult to con- trol, and when brought into con- tact with the skin, it produces ozone and antiseptic gas. The High Frequency generates great quantities of ozone during its flow, similar to phosphorus. This ozone is oxide of oxygen and one of the most beneficial and health- giving elements known to man. It also improves glandular activ- ity, stimulates oxidation, in- creases elimination and has an anesthetic effect. It passes through the body without meet- ing any apparent resistance and does not stop anywhere in the body long enough to cause any discomfort to the nerves or mus- cles, yet this penetrating vapor- like current will saturate every cell in the body from head to foot, filling it with new life and re- newed resistance, as it has a deep and superficial effect on the tis- sues. It acts as a deep cellular mas- sage. Cellular massage is more penetrating and beneficial than muscular massage. This cur- rent of electricity is applied through an insulator. This is of thin glass or an electrode that is silvered inside. When this elec- trode has been freed from air and then sealed by turning on a high voltage current, it throws off a purplish light within. It is through this light it gets its name of Violet Ray. When the bulb electrode is held a slight distance from the face it acts as a stimu- lant and as a germicide as in treatment of Acne, etc., and this stimulation is deeper and more lasting than any other method. A Volt is a unit of push power and electro force. An Ampere is a unit of cur- rent strength. LIGHTS Red Light has very strong heat rays. It has astringent and tonic effect on the tissues and renders it resistant to bacteria. It is used in the treatment of large pores to dry the mud pac. It also brings the blood to the sur- face and in this manner promotes the absorption of creams, etc. Blue Light has an antiseptic effect on the skin. It has seda- tive effect on the nerves and can be used as a germicide. It also has penetrative qualities. Caution — Never use electricity around water when attached to street current. Page one hundred seventeen Lesson Nine Subject CHEMISTRY Embracing 1. Elements 2. Chemical Change 3. Analysis 4. Nomenclature 5. Combinations 6. Reactions 7. Radicles 8. Acids 9. Volume 10. Stoichiometry For this article we are indebted to Victor Olsen, Chemist And The Compend of Chemistry By Dr. Leffmann ELEMENTS Chemistry is an abstract-concrete science that investigates the composi- tion of matter. Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. Changes may be physical or chem- ical. Physical change is in general that which occurs without change of composition. The development of mag- netic properties in iron is a good ex- ample of a physical change. The most frequent instances of true physical change are those known as changes of state. Matter is considered to exist in at least three states — solid, liquid, and gaseous. The change from one of these conditions to the other takes place under the influence of change of temperature, and is not necessarily attended by any alteration of compo- sition. Such is the case in the con- version of ice into water, or water into steam, or the reverse. In many cases the conversion of a solid into a liquid, or of a liquid into a gas, is attended by change of composition, and, therefore, is not merely a physical change. Chemical change, the proper study of chemistry, is that attended by alteration of composition. The rusting or iron, burning of coal, rot- ting of animal and vegetable matter are familiar instances of chemical change. Forms of Chemical Change.^ — These are combination, decomposition, and re-arrangement. Combination is the association of substance to form a new substance; decomposition is sep- aration into raw substances. Rear- rangement refers to cases in which new substances are formed without combination or decomposition^ Under present knowledge decomposition can- not be carried on indefinitely. No matter what substance is taken for ex- periment, limits will be reached that are incapable of further decomposi- tion by any method known. For ex- ample, chalk may by heat be decom- posed into two substances, one a col- orless gas, called carbon dioxid ; the other a white powder, called calcium oxid, or, commonly, lime. These prod- ucts are different from the chalk and from each other, but they do not rep- resent the limit of decomposition, for by special methods each can be made to yield two substances. The lime yields a solid (called calcium) and a gas called oxygen; the carbon dioxid yields a solid (called carbon) and a gas which is the same as that from the lime, namely, oxygen. The sub- stances thus obtained are incapable of further decomposition by any process as yet known. By proceeding in this woy with all known substances, chem- ists have determined limits of decom- position, and have established that all Page one hundred eighteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL material objects may be regarded as formed from a limited number of sub- stances. * These are called elements and are generally supposed t> be un- decomposable bodies, not capable of conversion into each other, but this view has been modified by recent dis- coveries. About eighty elements are now known. Each substance known is either one of these elements or an as- sociation of two or more of them. Consequently all substances are di- vided into two classes, elementary and compound. The main object of chem- istry is to discover what elements are present in any substance and what are the laws governing the action of the elements upon each other. Analysis and Synthesis. — When the composition of a substance is deter- mined by separating and recognizing the elements contained in it, the pro- cess is called analysis; when substances are produced by combining elements the process is called synthesis. Following is a tabulated list of the more common elements with their symbols and atomic weights. Atomic Atomic Element Symbol Weight Element Symbol Weight Aluminum . Al 27.1 Magnesium Mg 24.32 Antimony Sb 120.2 Manganese Mn 54.93 Argon A 39.88 Mercury Hg 200.37 Arsenic As 74.96 Molybdenum Mo 96.0 Barium Ba 137.37 Neon . . .• Ne 20.2 Bismuth .... Bi 208.0 Nickel Ni 58.68 Boron B 11.0 Nitrogen N 14.01 Bromin Br 79.92 Oxygen O 16.00 Cadmium Cd 112.31 Phosphorus . . . P 31.04 Calcium Ca 40.13 Patinum Pt 195.2 Carbon C 12.00 Potassium K 39.1Q Chlorin CI 35.46 Radium Rd 226.96 Chromium Cr 52.0 Rhodium Rh 102.9 Cobalt Co 58.97 Selenium Se 79.18 Copper Cu 63.54 Silicon Si 28.3 Fluorin F 19.0 Silver Ag 107.88 Gold Au 197.2 Sodium Na 23.00 Helium He 3.99 Strontium Sr 87.63 Hydrogen H 1.008 Sulphur S 32.07 Iodin I 126.92 Tin Sn 119.0 Iridium Ir 193.42 Titanium Ti 48.1 Iron Fe 55.84 Tungsten W 184.0 Krypton Kr 82.92 Uranium U 238.5 Lead Pb 207.10 Vanadium V 51.0 Lithium Li 6.94 Zinc Zn 65.37 Page one hundred nineteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL Chemists have been generally of the opinion that a limit does exist and that every substance is made up of particles of definite size and incap- able of further division. Such par- ticles are very small, and equally hard, no matter what the nature of the mass which they constitute. They are called atoms (a word signifying indivisible) ; any mass of elementary matter consists of a collection of a greater or less number of these atoms. It is believed that the atoms are rarely perfectly free, but associated in groups, called molecules. When, therefore, the sul- phur is powdered, the molecules are merely separated from each other. Molecules consisting of one kind of atoms are called elemental molecules; those containing more than one kind are called compound molecules. Atoms and molecules are believed to be in a constant state of vibration, the rapidity of which increases with increase of temperature, and is, there- fore, more rapid in the liquid than in the solid state, and still more rapid in the gaseous condition. Atomic Weights.— Chemists have never been able to render visible in- dividual atoms or molecules, but the progress of research has developed some general principles. 1st. That the atom of each elemem has a constant and definite weight. 2nd. That the atom of hydrogen is the lightest of all. 3rd. That combination takes place among most atoms under the action of chemical affinity. Starting with the first two princi- ples numbers have been obtained which are supposed to represent the weight of each atom compared to the atom of hydrogen. These numbers are called atomic weights. In any compound the sum of all the atomic weights is called the mo- lecular weight. Thus, its molecular weight is 40. Na = 23 = 16 H= 1 40 NOTATION In chemistry, a symbol is an abbre- viation of the name of an element ; in most cases an initial letter is used, as C for carbon, P for phosphorous. Since some elements have names be- ginning with the same letter, pro- per distinction is obtained by as- signing the single letter to the most common, and attaching small letters to the other initials. Thus C stands for carbon, Ca for calcium, CI for chlorin, Cd for cadmium. Some ele- ments have different names in differ- ent languages, and for these the sym- bol is formed from the Latin name. Iron, for instance, is represented by Fe(ferrum) ; lead by Pb (plumbum) ; silver by Ag (argentum) ; potassium by K (kalium). To express combinations between elements — in other words, to express the composition of a compound body or of a molecule— the symbols are to be written together like the letters of a word. Such a collection of sym- bols! is called a formula. The symbol, however, not only rep- resents the element, but one atom of it. The expression CaO not only shows a compound consisting of cal- cium and oxygen, but also indicates that it contains a single atom of each element. Ca0 2 shows that two atoms ' of oxygen are present and one of cal- cium. In writing these expressions certain rules are followed: — 1st. To multiply an atom, a small number is attached to the lower right hand, as seen above, where 2 indi- cates two of oxygen. The formula GILO:: shows a combination consist- ing of two atoms of carbon, four of hydrogen and two of oxygen. 2d. To multiply several atoms by the same number, a large figure is placed in front. Thus 2HC10 is equal to H2CI2O2; that is, the large figure multiplies the whole expression. 3d. To multiply a portion of an ex- pression, several methods are in use. The part to be multiplied may be placed in parentheses, and the proper number attached to the right-hand corner. Ba(NO.) a , for instance, Page one hundred twenty THE BARBERS' MANUAL equals BaN,0„ ; C 6 H,(N0 2 )A equals C 6 H 8 N 2 9 . The effect of the small figure is limited to the part within the parentheses. This method is es- pecially adapted to multiplying sym- bols in the middle or at the end of a formula. To multiply the symbols at the beginning of a formula, it is usual to point off or punctuate the part to be affected, and place a large figure in front. Some irregularity prevails as to the particular sign used, the comma and semicolon both being employed. It is sufficient for the student to bear in mind that a punctuation mark or arithmetical sign in a formula will stop the multiplying effect of the large figure at the beginning of the expres- sion. For instance, 2C 2 H.,, H 2 N is equal to C4H:oH 2 N ; similarly, in 2FeS0 4 + HC1 the letters following the plus sign are not affected by the figure 2. If it is desired to carry the multiplying effect to the end of the expression, it is enclosed in paren- theses; thus, 2(FeS0 4 + HC1). Here all the letters are equally influenced. Since the symbol of each element represents one atom, it follows that every symbol carries with it an idea of quality. HC1 means not merely that hydrogen and chlorin are in com- bination but that the amounts by weight are in the proportion of the atomic weights ; *". c, 1 (atomic weight H) to 35.46 (atomic weight CI). When the symbol is multiplied, the weight is also multiplied. For in- stance, H 3 represents 2 parts by weight of H to 16 of O ; HgCl 2 rep- resents 200 parts of mercury and 70.92 (35.46 X 2) parts of chlorin. Empirical, Rational and Structural Formulas. — When symbols are writ- ten so as to show merely the total number of each of the atoms present, the formula is termed empirical. When some arrangement of the atoms is in- dicated the formula is termed rational. A structural formula is one that is intended to show the supposed rela- tive positions of atoms in space. H 3 PO a is the empirical formula of hypophosphorous acid; (HO)H 2 PO» is the rational formula. NOMENCLATURE The names of chemical compounds are regulated by a system which de- pends essentially upon the employment of certain terminations. In the old division of the elements into metals and non-metals, the metals were usually distinguished by the ter- mination "um." A change of this termination into "a" indicated combi- nation with oxygen. Potassium (K) becomes by oxidation potassa (K 2 0) ; sodium (Na) becomes soda (Na 2 0) ; magnesium (Mg) becomes magnesia (MgO). As the names of many of the common metals do not end in "um" unless the Latin name is used, this rule is only of limited application. The tendency of the modern nomen- clature is to make but little change in names ending in "um." Chemical compounds which contain only two elements are called binary compounds. They are usually named by joining the names of the elements present and attaching to one of them the termination "id." This termina- tion may be conveniently regarded as an equicalent of the phrase "nothing else;" that is, wherever it occurs it indicates that nothing else is present except what is expressly mentioned. Potassium iodid, for instance, can con- tain nothing else but potassium and iodin ; copper sulphfd can contain nothing but copper and sulphur. PbO — Lead oxid. NaCl — Sodium chlor/J. AgBr — Silver bronuW. The syllable "id" is usually attached to the members of the oxygen, chlorin, nitrogen and carbon groups, and pref- erably to those of the first two groups. Thus, a compound of iron and carbon is called iron carbid, but a compound of carbon and chlorin is called carbon chlorid. In many books, especially in older works, the word "of" will be found frequently used in the names of com- pounds. Instead of copper nitrate, we see nitrate of copper, for potas- sium iodid, iodid of potassium. This is not regarded as proper form. Page one hundred twenty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL As elements may combine in sev- eral proportions, forming several dif- ferent compounds, this termination id does not suffice. The bodies Cu 2 and CuO are both properly called copper oxid, because they contain only copper and oxygen, but they are dif- ferent bodies. In the same way, SO> and S0 3 are both sulphur oxids. The distinction is made by prefixes, Cu 2 — Copper suboxid. CuO — Copper monoxid (formerly proto was used.) SOa — Sulphur dioxld (formerly deut or bin was used.) CO» — Sulphur triox'xd (also ter- oxid.) CCU — Carbon tetrachlorid or quad- richlorid. PCls — Phosphorus pentachlorid. Some elements form compounds in which the proportion is as 1 to IV2, but as fractions are not allowed in formulas, the whole expression is mul- tiplied by 2, which gives the proportion 2 to 3. FeOlVk becomes, therefore, FeaOs. These are called sesqui-com- pounds. Fe 2 Oj is iron sesquioxid. The word sesqui means one and a half, and conveys the idea that the relation be- tween the two elements is as 1 to IV2 (2 to 3). In the case of few binary compounds especially when they are obviously supersaturated, the term "per" is em- ployed in preference to syllables indi- cating number. Thus H : 2 is called hyldrogen peroxid rather than hydro- gen dioxid. It is doubtful if anything important is gained by this method. There is no uniform method for giving names to compounds containing more than two elements. Sometimes the system is the same as that just given; all the elements are mentioned and the termination "id" is attached. Thus KHO is potassium hydroxid, NaHO is sodium hydroxid. In other cases a portion of the compound is included under a group name, and this is joined with the names of the other elements according to the above rule. Thus KCN is not called potas- sium carbonitrid, but CN is called cyanogen, and the entire compound is called potassium cyanid. Among the compounds containing three elements are those which arc called salts. If zinc or zinc oxid be placed into sulphuric acid, a zinc salt is formed, in this case zinc sulphate ; also by direct union of many oxids ; for instance, when calcium oxid, CaO, forms with carbon dioxid, C0 2 , we get calcium carbonate, CaCC>3, which is a salt. Most salts contain three elements, of which oxygen is one, and the names are made by joining the names of the other two elements and adding to them certain syllables which not only in- dicate the presence of oxygen, but also partly the amount. These syllables are ate and ite. The former indicates the greater quantity of oxygen. The pot- assium sulphate and potassium sulphite both contain oxygen, but the former (sulphate) contains the more oxygen. Sodium nitrate and sodium nitn'te con- tain the same elements, but their com- position is NaNO. and NaN0 2 , re- spectively. It has been pointed out that the syllable id could be regarded as equi- valent to the phrase "nothing else." In the same manner, the syllables ate and ite may be regarded as meaning "something else", generally oxygen. Thus, while in sodium sulphio* but two elements are present, sodium sulphate and sulphite will contain three. These two terminations are not suf- ficient. Potassium, chlorin and oxygen unite in four dinfferent proportions, forming KCIO4, and KClOs, KC10 2 , KCIO. In such cases the important or most common compound is dis- tinguished by the termination ate, and the one containing the next lower amount of oxygen by the termination ite. The other compounds are indicated by the use of certain extra syllables, hypo and hyper, the latter now gen- erally abbreviated to "per." LAWS OF COMBINATION The great law of chemistry is the law of constant proportion. Every chemical compound is definite in its Page one hundred twenty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL nature, the proportion of its constitu- ents being constant. Water, for in- stance, when pure, always consists of 11.2 per cent, hydrogen and 88.8 per cent, of oxygen. Elements, however, are not limited to one proportion of combination, but in each proportion a different body is produced. Thus, there is a compound containing about 6 per cent, of hydro- gen and 94 per cent, of oxygen. It is, however, very different from water. So, also, there are five compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, all different bod- ies. When the proportions present in different compounds are expressed in terms of atomic weight, it is gen- erally found that a simple multiple relation exists. For instance, the two compounds of hydrogen and oxygen have the formula, respectively, H 2 —Water. H3O2 — Hydrogen dioxid (peroxid.) The five compounds of nitrogen and oxygen are N 2 0, NO, N2O3, NO*, N 3 5 . The fact has given rise to a second law, or rather rule, called the lazv of multiple proportion When elements combine in more than one proportion, the higher proportions are simple mul- tiples of the lozver. The same simplicity and constancy of proportion is observed in the com- bination of compound bodies. The combining weight of a compound body equals the sum of the atomic weights of its constituents. Thus, lime (cal- cium oxid), CaO, has the combining weight — Ca = 40.1 = 16 CaO = 56.1 When lime and water are mixed they combine in definite proportions of their molecular weight — H 3 = 2 = 16 H,0 = 18 56.1 parts by weight of lime with 18 parts by weight of water, forming 74.1 parts of slacked lime — CaO + H 2 -» CaH 2 2 Elements, as noted, may combine in several proportions. When com- pounds containing the same elements are compared, there is usually one proportion which seems to be the most natural ; it is either most frequently or easily produced, or it is the one least liable to change. Hydrogen and oxygen combine in two proportions, thus : 2 parts by weight H 16 parts by weight O. = H 2 0. Hydrogen monoxid. 2 parts by weight H\ 32 parts by weight Oj = H 2 2 . Hydrogen dioxid (peroxid.) These bodies are very different. The first is water, a compound not liable to decompose. The second substance is difficult to prepare and to preserve; it is liable to explode. It may be as- sumed, therefore, that the normal proportion of combination between H and O is H 2 0. Carbon forms with oxygen two well marked compounds, CO and CO*. CO is formed when carbon is burned in a deficient supply of oxygen, but C0 2 is formed when the carbon burns under natural con- ditions in a free draft of air or oxy- gen. CO, besides, shows a tendency to take up more oxygen, especially when heated, and it will combine with chlorin, even at ordinary temperatures. C0 2 , on the other hand, shows no tendency to combine with either oxy- gen or chlorin. The atom of hydrogen is taken as a point of comparison, and each ele- ment compared acording to the number of hydrogen atoms with which it forms the most permanent combination. For instance : CI combines with H, forming HC1. Br combines with H, forming HBr. O combines with H 2 , forming H 2 0. S combines with H, forming H 2 S. N combines with H 3 , forming H S N. As combines with H, forming H 3 As. C combines with H«, forming HiC. Page one hundred tiventy-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL These are not the only compounds that can be formed from these ele- ments, but they are those which show only a slight tendency either to take new atoms or give up what they al- ready possess. The number of hydrogen atoms with which any element combines is called its valency. REACTIONS Chemical symbols are employed not only to show composition, but also to show exactly the nature of the chem- ical changes which occur when dif- ferent substances are brought in con- tact. When so used, the expression is called a reaction. Strictly speaking, the statement in symbols is the "equa- tion of the reaction", but the shorter term is generally used. Some com- pounds, much used for producing re- actions, are called reagents. When vinegar is poured upon marble, it is usually said that the marble is cor- roded, but, in fact, the vinegar is equ- ally acted upon. Both substances are changed in composition, both are rend- ered unfit for their original uses ; in other words they have not only acted, they have reacted, and are, therefore, both reagents. A reaction is substantially an expres- sion of the result of an experiment, and, when correctly written, gives the proportion in which bodies are to be used and the proportion of the result- ing substances. Speaking absolutely, the correctness of any equation is not assured until the experiment is made and the result analyzed ; but the pro- gress of chemistry has made known certain laws of change, which enable one to predict, or infer, many results without the necessity of actual obser- vation. Every now and then, however, the analogy fails, and experiment dis- appoints the suggestions of theory. Reactions are written by placing in proper proportion and connected by + signs the formulas of the bodies concerned, then writing the sign = or — » and following this by the for- mulas of the resulting bodies. For instance, AgNOi+NaCl-*AgCl + NaNO. expresses that on bringing together silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid, a chemical change occurs by which silver chlorid and nitric acid are pro- duced. This statement also shows the exact relations by weight in which the substances react, so that if, for example, the amount of silver nitrate used is known, the amount of sodium nitrate and silver chlorid produced can be calculated. (See later, under "Stoichiometry.) The sign = is still generally used with reactions, but to avoid suggestion of algebraic equations the sign — > is coming into use. It will be used in this work; it should be read "pro- duces" or "results in." In writing reactions, three difficulties are en- countered: 1st. To know whether a given change will take place. 2d. To know the quantities of the bodies to be used. 3d. To know the nature of the resulting bodies. These difficul- ties may be taken up in order. 1st. In the simplest cases, the nature of the reaction will be determined by the affinities of the elements as governed by their electrical relations, the change taking place in such a way that the element having the stronger electric affinity will drive out and supplant the element of similar but weaker affinity. When chlorin acts upon the bromids they are decomposed, the bromin being expelled, and bromin, in turn, expels iodin from combination. Therefore, such reactions as KBr + CI KI +Br KC1 + Br KBr + 1 are simply illustrations of the general electrical relations of elements con- cerned. If these affinities were the only active causes of chemical change, the subject would be quite simple, but circumstances may modify the play of affinities, so as to produce an endless variety of chemical action. All the modifying influences are not yet known but some of them are understood, and are of importance. (a) Insolubility. — When in any liquid substances are brought together which are capable of forming a body insoluble in the liquid, that insoluble Page one hundred twenty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL compound will be produced in spite of the general relations of affinities This influence of insolubility is the basis of a large number of tests and other chemical operations. When the formation of the insoluble compound would require a powerful chemical agent to be set free, the change will not take place, unless, of course, the added substance is stronger than the one to be liberated. Carbonic acid forms with calcium a body nearly insoluble in water, but this body can- not be formed by passing carbonic acid into calcium sulphate. The rea- son is shown at once by examining the conditions of the experiment. The reaction would have to be CaS0 4 + H 2 C0 3 -*CaC03 (insoluble) +H*SO«, that is, sulphuric acid would be set free. The activity of H 2 C0 3 is under ordinary conditions, so much below that of H2SO4 (see pp. — , — , — ,) that the former will not drive out the latter. The condition becomes changed if the action of the carbonic acid is assisted by some substance which will react with sulphuric acid and will pre- vent it being set free. CaSC>4+Na 2 - CO3 will produce immediate action resulting in CaC0 3 +Na 2 S0 4 . This reaction illustrates a common method of keeping the powerful affinities in abeyance, and thus allowing second- ary influences full play. Some of the arsenic tests show the principle strik- ingly. Arsenous acid added to cop- per sulphate produces no action, be- cause the affinity of the S0 4 is too strong, but by adding a little alkali, the strong affinity this has for SO* assists in breaking up the copper sul- phate and immediately a precipitate of of copper arsenite falls. (b) Volatility. — This is the second influence that disturbs ordinary affini- ties. If a body is capable of being converted into a gas, this fact will diminish its chemical power ; fixed sub stances that have ordinarily less affinity will drive it out of combination. Boric acid, for instance, is one of the weak acids, yet at a red heat it will decom- pose sulphates. The cause is, in the main, that at this temperature sul- phuric acid is volatile, while boric acid is fixed. The ease with which hydrogen is driven out of combination may be regarded as due to its volatility, as it is a gas even at low temperatures. (c) Concentration. — Chemical action is often governed by the proportion of substances. If water vapor is pas- sed over red hot iron, iron oxid is formed and hydrogen is set free; if the hydrogen is passed back over the iron oxid, steam is formed and iron set free. In the first case, the water is in excess, and exerts an oxidizing influence ; in the second, the hydrogen is in excess, and exerts a deoxidizing influence. It will be seen to be a deduction from these statements that no substance can be set down as absolutely the strong- est in affinity. Chemists cannot de- termine, for instance, what is the strongest acid or the strongest alkali, except under specified conditions. Un- der ordinary conditions, the greater the degree of ionization, the stronger the acid or base. Sulphuric acid ionizes readily, hence is a very strong acid. 2d. The proportion in which bodies react is determined by their valencies. Let it be required to write the re- action between mercuric chlorid and potassium iodid. The formulas are HgCl 2 and KI, but the bodies • will not react in this proportion, for the Hg will require I 2 and CL will require K2. The proper reaction is HgCl 2 + 2KI=HgI 2 +2KCl. In the same way, antimonous sulphid and hydrochloric acid can only act upon each other in the ratio Sb 2 S3+6HCl because Sb be- ing a triad, Sb 2 will combine with Cln, and S being dyad, Sa will require Ho. 3d. If a chemical change occurs when two given substances are brought in contact, the nature of it will depend principally upon the electrical rela- tions of the ions concerned. In the reactionHgCl 2 +H 2 S, the or.lv possible result is the combination of S with Hg and H with CI, as is shown at once by placing the proper signs over the elements, + — + — HgCl 2 H 2 S. Page one hundred twenty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Such a combination as + + HgH 2 or CUS is improbable, since like electrocitis do not attract. In beginning with re- actions, the student will do well to place the proper signs over the ions and these will be useful guide and control. When acids or salts, contain- ing three elements, are part of the re- action, the positive sign is put over the hydrogen or the metal, and the negative sign over the remaining ele- ments — + - +—+—+•- Ba(N03) J +K 2 SO^BaS04+2KN0 3 The placing of the single sign over two elements is simply an evidence of the fact that in ordinary reactions these two elements act as a unit, that is, an ion. The following formulas will further illustrate the general principle: — + — +_+—+ — AgNO»+NaCl-»AgCl+NaNoi + + H,0+Cl.-*2HCl+0 + — ++ — BaCU+KHSOr + - +— +- •>BaS04+KCl + HCl In the last reaction, the electro-posi- tives K and H may seem to be in union, but this is not the case. Each is independently united to the SO4, which is a dyad. The formula show- ing the ionization might be written — K, H SO* Reversible Reactions. — Many reac- tions can take place in either direction, that is, the products under given con- ditions will under other conditions pro- duce the original substances. The experiments mentioned in the para- graph on "concentration" onp. 21 are instances. When steam is passed over hot iron the effect is represented thus : Fe 5 +4H*O^Fe 3 04+4H 3 When hydrogen is passed over the iron oxid the reaction is Fe,04+4H 3 ^Fe 3 +4H,0 Both actions can, therefore, be ex- pressed in one statement, thus : Fe 3 +4H 2 O^Fe 3 4 +4H a Usually one of the reactions is more likely to occur than the other and this may be indicated, if desired, by a heavier arrow. RADICLES A radicle is any group of atoms having unsatisfied valency ; the num- ber of the unsatisfied degrees is the valency of the radicle. The following formulas illustrate the principle. The degrees outside the parentheses indi- cate in each case the valency of the radicle, being the difference between the valencies of the constituent at- / v 11 \ r / v 11 \ 1 / iv in \ 1 v\ t oJ Vno,/ UnJ / iv 11 \ 11 /in \ 1 / 1 iv \ in V CO/ VHO / VHC / The electrical relations of a radicle are generally determined by the elec- trical character of the preponderating valency, but not invariably. While the combining capacity and general functions are dependent on the un- saturated valency , yet, in chemical combinations, the whole molecule takes part, and hence the electrical char- acter is influenced by that of each . ( v I\ . atom present. Thus in I mjj ) !t mav seem that the nitrogen valency would only give to the radicle indifferent or intermediate electrical relations, but experiment shows that this is a group having distinctly positive affinities; the four atoms of positive hydrogen, though insufficient to saturate all of the nitrogen valency, yet impress on the molecule their function. Page one hundred tiventy-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL In many cases the influence of the preponderating valency is more de- • ( v " \ cided. Thus in ( -kjq J the oxygen valency is in excess, and the radicle is negative. The general chemical relations of radicles depend on ionization. If the compounds containing them ionize readily and to a large extent, the so- lutions will be active and each radicle will take part in reactions as an ele- ment. If the compound does not ion- ize the radicles will not react readily. The compounds of carbon show very well the principle on which the valency of a radicle depends : I V H«C. . . Saturated. H 3 C. . . Monad. H a C. ..Dyad. HC. . .Triad. C .. . . Tetrad. The last is the free element which might be regarded as the final radicle, so that there are elemental radicles and compound radicles, but the term is usually limited to the latter sig- nification. The following formulas give the compositions, valencies and names of some important radicles : v I NH«. in i NH,. i ii HO . i ii HS . iv in NC . I iv H,C. IV II CO . . . . Ammonium Monad . . . Amidogen Monad . . . Hydroxyl Monad . . Hydrosulphyl Monad . . Cyanogen Monad . . Methyl Monad . . Carbonyl Dyad ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS Acids are compounds that ionize so as to give one or more ions contain- ing hydrogen only. In all of them, in the non-ionized state, the hydrogen is united directly to negative elements. Two important classes of acids may be distinguished. Hydrogen acids — commonly called hydro-acids — HC1. . . .Hydrochloric acid. HBr. . . .Hydrobromic acid. HI . . . .Hydriodic acid. HF ....Hydrofluoric acid. Oxygen acids — H a CO«. HN0 3 . H 3 PO*. H 2 COa. HCIO*. .Sulphuric acid. . .Nitric acid. . Phosphoric acid. .Carbonic acid. .Chloric acid. Experiment shows that in each of the oxygen acids, the hydrogen is in more direct relation with some oxygen atoms than with the rest of the mole- cule, so that they may be formulated as follows : (HO) 2 S0 2 (HO)NO, (HO)sPO (HO) 2 CO (HO)CIO, It will be seen that in the non-ion- ized state all the hydrogen is in the form of hydroxyl. Hydrogen which is not in this con- dition in a molecule is not easily re- placed by a positive element. Thus in HC1 the hydrogen is easily replace- able by a positive, but not in NHs. The two conditions of hydrogen may co-exist in a molecule. In hypophos- phorous acid, H 3 P0 2 , experiment shows that only one hydrogen atom is easily replaceable, and the arrange- ment is considered to be as follows : H H— O— P— H il O Only one hydrogen atom is directly united to a strongly negative element. It must not be overlooked that the above formulas represent merely the non-ionized acids, and, therefore, show them in the inactive condition. On Page one hundred twenty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL complete ionization, hydrogen be- comes the positive ion, and the oxy- gen forms, with the other elements, the negative ion. Hydrogen, that is not associated in the original molecule with a negative substance or group, also remains in the negative ion. The number of hydrogen ions that are pro- duced from any given acid determines the basicity of the acid. The above formulas are re-arranged thus on ion- ization : Empirical Name formula Sulphuric acid H.SO4 Nitric acid HNOi Phosphoric acid HsPC>4 Carbonic acid H 3 CO> Chloric acid HCIO, Hypophosphorous acid..HiPOi Rational Ionization formula formula + — Basicity (HO)=SO» H.SO« dibasic (HO)NO, H,NO, monobasic (HO).PO H s ,PO. tribasic (HO) 2 CO H 2 ,CO, dibasic (HO)CIO, H,C10 monobasic (HO)PH,0 H ,PH,O a monobasic Differences in the position and func- tion of hydrogen in the same molecule are unusual in the inorganic acids, which generally have all their hydro- gen in either the hydroxyl position or in some similar relation, but nearly all organic acids contain hydrogen which is not replaceable. In thiocarbonic acid, H 2 CSs, in which sulphur takes the place of oxy- gen, the non-iodized arrangement is (HS) a CS. Sulphur, selenium and tel- lurium may in the same manner take the place of oxygen in the molecule and render the hydrogen replaceable. When the molecule contains bodies of high positive character, the power of replacing the hydrogen by other positives does not exist, unless sev- eral molecules of oxygen (or S, Se or Te) are also present. It appears then that as the proportion of oxygen is increased in any molecule, without other change, its acid character will be gradually developed. Thus, Cr(OH) 3 possesses no acid character, but if two atoms of oxygen are added to the chromium, making (HO) 2 Cr0 2 , that is, H 2 Cr04, a well marked acid, chromic acid, is produced. It is then according to the number and position of the negative elements in any mole- cule that the function of the hydrogen is determined. When strongly posi- tive elements are present, either with- out negatives or with only relatively few atoms of them, the hydrogen is not easily replaceable by positives, the body is not an acid, but has power to interact with acids and neutralize them. Thus the above mentioned compound, Cr(HO) 3 , will dissolve easily in sul- phuric acid and neutralize it, that is, take away the characteristic properties of the acid, the sour taste, effect on organic colors (see below > and gen- erally chemical activity. Substances that act in this manner are called bases. The action in the case of chromous hydroxid and sulphuric acid would be thus represented : Cr(HO) a +H a SO«-»CrSO«+2H,0. Page one hundred twenty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL The activity of these bases depends like the activity of acids upon the ionization. The hydrogen in the pres- ent case, however, does not become the positive ion, but remains with the oxy- gen (or other member of the oxygen group). The following examples will illustrate these points : Name Empirical Rational formula formula Solium hydroxid NaHO NaOH Barium hydroxid BaH.Oa Ba(OH), Ionization formula + — Na.OH Ba,(OH), Acidicity monacid diacid When acids and bases are mixed, mutual re-arrangements occur. The hydrogen ions of the acid combine with the hydroxyl ions of the base ; the positive ions of the base combine with the negative ions of the acid. The resulting compounds as will be seen by the annexed reactions are water and a compound derived from the acid by substitution of its hydro- gen by some other positive. These latter compounds are called "salts." If the amount of base is not sufficient for complete reaction, only part of the hydrogen ion of the acid is removed, and an acid salt is produced. If the amount of base is larger than required, some of it is left unchanged. The reacting substances are largely ion- ized, but one of the products, water, is but slightly ionized ; it follows that a discharge of energy must occur in such reactions. This, is usually mani- fested in the form of heat, reac- tions of the type shown below be- ing always attended by evolution of heat. Such a reaction is termed exo- thermic. Reactions attended by ab- sorption of heat (which are unusual) are termed endothermic. Care must be taken not to confuse the term "salt" with the common name of sodium chlorid. Illustrative reactions : Base Acid Salt Water NaHO + HC1 -*NaCl + H 3 NaHO + H 2 SO< ^NaHSO< + H 2 2NaHO + H 2 SO< ->Na 2 S04 +2H,0 KHO + HNO3 ->KN0 3 + H 2 Cu(HO) + H 2 SO, ^CuSO* +2H a O BI(HO), +3HC1 ->BiCl. +3H 2 Fe a (HO) e +3H 2 SO, ^Fe.(S0 4 )3+6H a O A salt may, therefore, be defined as the result of the interaction of an acid with a base. Since the function of the base in these reactions depends essentially on the strongly positive element, it is not necessary to have it in association with hydroxyl. The formation of salts may take place by the action of acids upon oxids, upon the elements themselves, and also upon compounds containing weaker acid radicles than those exist- ing in the acid employed. Zinc sul- phate, for instance, may be made by any of the following methods : Zn +H,SO«-»ZnSO»+H, ZnO +H 2 S04-^ZnS0 4 +H a O Zn ( HO ) ,+ H«SO.-»ZnSO*+2H»0 ZnCO, +H,S04->ZnSO«+H,0-+CO, Page one hundred twenty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Theoretically, therefore, and fre- quently practically, there may be many methods of producing salt, but in many cases the affinity of the acid radicle is not sufficient to bring about the change, unless the positive is either in the form of oxid or hydroxid. Thus the reaction — Ag+HCl-^AgCl + H will not occur, but either AgHO + HCl-*AgCl+ H 2 0, or Ag a O+2HCl-^AgCl+2H,0 will occur. Intimately connected with this subject is the meaning of the term acid, alkaline and neutral, as applied to the conditions of substances. If a drop of sulphuric acid is added to a solution of litmus, the liquid turns red; by the addition of sodium hy- droxid the color will be restored. The sodium hydroxid is a base ; it has in- teracted with the acid and deprived it of its chemical activity. By this com- bination the sodium hydroxid is also neutralized. Litmus is a color much used for these tests. It becomes red on the addition of an acid, and has the blue color restored on the addition of a base. It is usually sold in the blue condition, and is used either in solu- tion in water or in the form of litmus paper — strips of paper soaked in the solution and dried. A number of artificial colors from coal-tar products are now used as sub- stitutes for litmus. Among these are : Phenolphthalein— red when alkalin, nearly colorless when acid. Congo red — red when alkalin, blue when acid. Lakmoid — similar changes to litmus. Methyl orange — pale yellow with acids, pink with alkalies. These color reactions are of import- ance in practical chemical operations, but they have little value in determin- ing the theoretical relations between acids, bases and salts, since there) are substances which are theoretically acids, yet act on the colors as if alka- lin, and the reverse. The ion of an acid is sometimes called the residue of the acid. For instance SO* is the residue of sul- phuric acid; N0 3 is the residue of nitric acid. The acid radicle proper is the body obtained by deducting all the hydroxyl or hydrosulphyl, etc., from the acid. S0 2 is the radicle pro- per of sulphuric acid. This distinction in nomenclature is convenient in ex- pressing some of the reactions of these acids. Some writers now use the word "ion" as a termination indicating a negative ion, thus, SO* is called "sul- phion," N0 3 , "nitrion." Salts may be divided into four classes : Normal Salts, in which the hydro- gen of the acid is replaced by a single element, according to its valencies. The acids themselves are normal salts of hydrogen : Na 2 CS 3 Sodium thicarbonate KNOa Potassium nitrate Mixed Salts, in which two or more positives are present. When some re- placeable hydrogen remains, the body is usually called an acid salt: HKCOs . . Acid potassium carbonate KNaSO*. .Sodium potassium sulphate Double Salts, in which two complete salts of either of the above classes unite to form -a definite compound, which is generally distinctly crystal- line: FeSO*, ( NIL) 2SO4. .Ammonium fer- rous sulphate Oxy Salts (sometimes called basic salts or sub salts), in which oxygen takes the place of one or more of the acid radicles : BiN0 3 Bismuth oxynitrate SbOCl Antimony oxychlorid VOLUME COMBINATION If equal volumes of elements in the gaseous state are weighed under the same conditions, the relative weights will, with a few exceptions, be in ex- act proportion to their atomic weights. For instance, a vessel which holds Page one hundred thirty THE BARBERS' MANUAL 1.008 grain of hydrogen (about 47 cu- bic inches) will hold the following quantities of other elements, it being understood that all the bodies are in the state of gas and at the same tem- perature and pressure : Wt. of Vol. Equal to Element Atomic Wt. Vol. of H 16 16 s 32 32 CI 35.46 35.46 I 126.9 126.9 Br 80 80 Some of the elements cannot be con- verted into vapor, and consequently cannot be compared on this system. Among these are carbon, silicon and many of the common metals. These practically resist the action of the highest temperature which can be used in such experiments. A few elements show results which are exceptional ; among these are — Wt. of Vol. Equal to Element Atomic Wt. Vol. of H As 75 150 P 31 62 Hg 200 100 In the case of phosphorus and ar- senic the weight is twice as great as analogy would require; in the case of mercury, half as great. The following general law has been established by mathematical and phys- ical investigation : Equal volumes of elementary gases contain equal num- bers of molecules. The relative weight of the atoms of each element may be determined by this law. If a given volume of hydro- gen contains, say, 1000 molecules, the same volume of oxygen will contain the same number ; and as the oxygen volume is 15.88 times as high as the hydrogen, it is clear that the weight of es'di molecule of oxygen will be 15.88 times that of each molecule of hydro- gen. The molecules of hydrogen and oxygen each contain two atoms, hence, the atomic weights will also be in the proportion of 15.88 to 1. In gases the spaces between the mol- ceules are very large in proportion to the size of the great molecules them- selves. Elementary gases combine so as to produce a volume of gas which is equal to twice the volume that would be occupied by one atomic weight of hydrogen. The following instances are taken from among the commonest chemical compounds : One volume of H and one volume of CI combine and produce two vol- umes of HC1. Two volumes of H and one volume of O combine and produce tzvo vol- umes of H 2 0. Three volumes of H and one volume of N combine and produce two vol- umes of NH3. Some examples will make this plain : 47 cubic inches of H, weighing 1 grain, will combine with 47 cubic inches of CI, weighing 35.5 grains, and produce 94 cubic inches (i. e., 47 X 2) of hydrochloric acid (HC1), weighing 36.5 grains. The ratio of weights of equal bulks of hydrochloric acid and hydrogen is not 94 to 1, for the figure 94 is calculated for a mole- cule of HC1, while 1 represents an atom of H. Molecule must be com- pared to molecule, that is HC1 to HH, hence 94 to 2 :: 47 to 1. By dividing 36.5 by 2 the weight of a quantity of hydrochloric acid equal to one atomic weight of hydrogen — viz., 18.25, is ob- tained. This figure 18.2 represents, therefore, the density or specific grav- ity compared to hydrogen. 94 cubic inches of H, weighing 2 grains, will combine with 47 cubic inches of O, weighing 15.88 grains, and produce 94 cubic inches of steam, H 2 0, weighing 17.88 grains. Dividing 17.88 by 2, gives, as before, the density of steam compared to hydrogen — viz., 8.94. 47 cubic inches of N, weighing 14 grains, will combine with 141 cubic inches (47 X 3) of H, weighing 3 grains, and form 94 cubic inches of ammonia, NHs, weighing 17 grains ; and this weight, divided by 2, gives 8.5 as the density of ammonia com- pared to hydrogen. Page one hundred thirty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL These principles are employed in determining the formulas of bodies. N and O combine to form a body called nitric oxid, which is sometimes written NO and sometimes N 2 2 . The following calculation will show which is correct : The formula NO requires — One volume of N = 14 One volume of O = 16 30 -r- 2 = 15 30 The formula N 3 3 will require — Two volumes of N == 28 Two volumes of O == 32 H 2 (2 X 1) = 2 O =-16 60 30 60 In the first instance the formula would indicate a vapor about fifteen times as heavy as hydrogen ; in the second case thirty times as heavy. Ex- periment shows that the gas is about fifteen times as heavy as hydrogen, and therefore justifies the formula NO. Since the introduction of a large number of atoms into a molecule does not increase the bulk occupied by a collection of such molecules, it seems reasonable to assume that the inter- molecular spaces are much larger than the molecules themselves. STOICHIOMETRY This term (from two Greek words, which together have, figuratively, the meaning "to measure primary things") is applied to calculations of the com- position of compounds and of amounts required for reactions. The exact quantitative relations which exist in compounds, and the fact that symbols refer to definite propor- tions of the elements, permits the use of the method of simple proportion to calculate the amounts involved in, or resulting from, any chemical combina- tion. If it is required to know how much hydrogen is contained in 40 parts by weight of water, the formula expressed in quantitative ratio is as follows : H 3 = 18 That is, 18 parts by weight of water contain 2 parts of hydrogen. Hence, 18 : 2 : : 40 : x; the fourth term will be the amount required. Percentage composition is ascertained by the same rule. The percentage of oxygen in water is obtained by the following proportion : 18: 16:: 100:* In ordinary calculations it is rarely necessary to use the axact fractional atomic weights. The nearest whole number will suffice. In a close calcu- lation it would be necessary to use 1.00075 as the atomic weight of hydro- gen. In the last example, the fourth term will be found to be 88.8, which is therefore the percentage required. Any chemical formula or reaction may be calculated to exact expression of weight. To determine, for instance, how much potassium iodid is required to exactly precipitate 1 gram of mer- curic chlorid, the reaction, that is, the equation, must first be stated. This is as follows : HgCl a + 2 KI=2KCl + HgI a The proportions by weights are: Hg CI, =200 = 70.92 K = 39.1 I =126.9 HgCl«=270.92 KI=166.0 The proportion will be, as the mol- ecular weight of the mercuric chlorid is to that of the potassium iodid, with which it reacts, so is the given weight to that of the iodid required. Care must always be taken to use the mol- ecular weights in the full proportion. In the present calculation, for instance, the molecular weight of the iodid must be doubled, because the chlorid reacts with two molecules. Hence, HgCU 2KI 270.92:332(166X2)::!:* Page one hundred thirty-two THE BARBERS'- MANUAL Calculations of this character are of value to the student, who should practise them. Among other points of interest, they will serve to impress on the mind that formulas give only ra- tios by special factors, and do not convey directly the simple proportion. Thus, hydrogen iodid, HI, does not contain equal quantities of H and I, but only equal numbers of atoms. The calculation shows this : H = 1 I =126.9 HI=127.9 Therefore, HI I 127.9: 126.9:: 100:99.1 per cent iodin; by which it is seen that hydrogen iodid contains less than 1 per cent of hydro- gen. GROUPS OF ELEMENTS A table of known elements with symbols, and atomic weights will be found on p. 98. The following is a summary of the characteristics of some well-marke*d groups. Some elements have properties that ally them to several groups. They are "connecting links." Thus, fluorin connects the oxygen group with the chlorin group, boron connects the nitrogen group with the iron group, through aluminum. 1. The Argon Group, often called the zero group, on account of the ap- parent lack of chemical affinity, in- cludes helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon. They are gases, existing in minute amounts in the atmosphere. Helium occurs in some minerals and in the emanations from radium. The members of the group form, so far as is at present known, no compounds, and, therefore, the valency is zero. 2. The Potassium Group includes hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potas- sium, rubidium and sesium. They are positive monads, and have high affin- ity for members of the oxygen and chlorin groups. With oxygen most of them produce powerful corrosive compounds called the alkalies, and on this account are sometimes called the "alkali metals." In the periodic ar- rangement as usually given, copper, silver and gold are classed as an ac- cessory sub-group. Of these three, sil- ver shows the closest relation to the potassium group. 3. The Calcium Group includes calcium, barium, strontium and radium. They are positive dyads, and form oxids which are slightly soluble in water, but much less caustic or cor- rosive than the alkalies proper, and are often called alkalin earths. Their sulphates, carbonates and phosphates are practically insoluble in water. Magnesium, zinc, cadmium and mer- cury are classed as an accessory sub- group. Magnesium is closest in its resemblance to the main group. Mer- cury connects the group with the first group by the resemblances of copper and mercury in many of their chemi- cal actions. Lead also has some re- lations to this group . In earlier classifications, the four elements, mag- nesium, calcium, strontium and barium constituted the group of "alkalin-earth metals." 4. The Carbon Group includes car- bon, silicon and tin. They are tetrads, and generally positive. Boron, lead and platinum have some resemblances to this group. 5. The Nitrogen Group includes nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth. They are of uneven valency, triads or pentads ; their elec- trical relations are irregular, but mostly positive. Boron and gold have some resemblances to this group. 6. The Oxygen Group includes oxygen, sulph»r, selenium and tellu- rium. They are negative dyads. Chromium, molybdenum and uranium form an accessory sub-group. This system of classification will not be rig : dly followed in the des- cription of ihe elements and their com- pounds ; the most important substances will be described out of the regular order. In the description of elements, the atomic weights are given to the near- est fi'st decimal or when this is small, to the nearest whole number. Page one hundred thirty-three Lesson 1. Muscles 2. Nerves 3. Bones of Face 4. Bones of Head 5. Salivary Glands Subject ANATOMY Embracing Ten 6. Muscle Chart 7. Nerve Chart 8. Bone Chart 9. Action 10. Location CORRUOATOR SU Dilatator naris anterior dilatator nar;s posterior compressor narhim minor oepresso.; *l* nasi LEVATOR MENTI. — Muscles of the head, face, and neck. Page one hundred thirty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, FACE AND NECK NAME ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Epicranius, or Occipito-frontalii Superior curved line of Oc- ciput and Mastoid process of temporal bone, also from eyebrow to root of nose The tendon which cov- ers the vortex of skull Moves scalp backward and forward Orbicularis Palpebrarum Internal margin of the or- bit External margin of orbit Closes eyelids Corrugator Supercilli Superciliary ridge of fron- tal bone Thick skin between eye- brows Draws eyebrows down- ward and inward Pyramidalis Nasi Compressor nasi Occipito Frontalis To depress the eyebrows Compressor Narium Skin of the cheek Insert in a thin skin over bridge of nose Compresses nostrils Levator Labii Superioris Lower margin of orbit Middle of upper lip Elevates upper lip Levator Labii Superi- oris Alae-que-nasi Nasal process of submaxil- lary bones Ala of the nose and up- per lip Elevates upper lip and dilates nostrils Dilator Naris Anterior Cartilage of ala Border of integument of ala Dilates nostrils Dilator Naris Posterior Nasal notch of upper max- illa Skin at margin of nose Dilates nostrils Compressor Narium Minor Located at upper portion of nose Upper part of depressor ali-nasi Compresses nostrils Depressor Ali-nasi Upper lip In septum and wing of nose Depresses nostrils Levator Anguli-oris Beneath orbital foranima Inserted in upper lip Raises angle of mouth Zygomaticus Major Malar bone Angle of mouth Raises lip outward Zygomaticus Minor Malar bone anteriorly Angle of mouth Raises lip outward Levator Menti Incissive fossa of man- dible Skin of chin Elevates chin Depressor Labii Inferioris External oblique line of mandible Angle of mouth Draws lower lip down- ward Depressor Anguli Oris External oblique line of mandible Angle of mouth Draws angle of mouth downward Orbicularis Oris Surrounds mouth ; is form- ed by fibers of several mus- cles Into its fellow at an- gles of mouth Presses lips together and pushes them outward Buccinator Alveolar arches of max- illae and mandible Orbicularis oris ; forms lateral walls of the mouth Compresses and inflates the cheeks Risorius Fascia over Masseter muscle Angle of mouth Draws corner of month back Masseter Upper part of Maxillae Lower part of inferior maxillary bone Raises lower jaw, presses it against upper; also grinds Temporal Temporal fossa and fascia Coronoid process of in- ferior maxillary bone Raises lower jaw ; presses it against upper Platysma Myoides On Deltoid and Pectaralis In lower jaw and angle of mouth Wrinkles the skin and depresses mouth Sternocleidomastoid Two heads from sternum and clavicle Mastoid process of the temporal bone Bends head forward and to one side ; also ro- tates head Omohyoid Upper border of Scapula Hyoid bone Depresses and retracts hyoid bone and assists in swallowing Retrahens Auriculan Posterior Mastoid process Cranial surface of the concha Retracts ear tip Attrahens Aurem Anterior Rises from occipito front- alis muscle Into projection in front of helix Raises the tip of the ear Attollens Aurem Superior Occipito frontalis In the upper part of ear Elevates tip of ear Trapezius Dorsal vertebra Inferior rig of occipito bone Draws head backward or sidewise Page one hundred thirty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Nerves Chart NERVES THE functions of the nervous system are numerous. Jt must control all visible movements; it must control many in- visible activities such as the secretions of the glands, movements of intestines, and the beating of the heart. However, it is more concerned with the higher functions, such as feeling, thinking. remembering, willing, and other mental acts. The functions of the nerves are to con- vey impulses. A nerve is a cord-like struc- ture bound together in a common sheath of connective tissues, which conveys impulses from one part of the body to another. There are motor and sensory nerves. The motor nerves are the nerves that move arm, foot or muscle. Motor nerves are com- posed chiefly of motor fibres and operate while the body is in action. The sensory nerves are the nerves that convey the sense of touch to the skin. Therefore, the nerves convey the sense of rest and relaxation in the facial massage. There are two distinct divisions to the nervous system. The Cerebro-Spinal and the Sympathetic us System. The Cerebro-Spinal Nervous_ System con- sists of the brain and special cord and spinal nerves. It controls the speech, taste, and the sight, and the voluntary muscles are governed by it. The Sympathetic Nervous System acts on the stomach and bowels, circulation, diges- tion, and skin, and the involuntary muscles are under its control. Motions are voluntary and involuntary, but all are under the control of the nervous system. Each spinal nerve has two roots, the dorsal, which is sensory, and the vent- oral, which is motor. There are twelve cranial nerves. Page one hundred thirty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL NERVES OF HEAD AND FACE NAME 1st Cranial Nerve, Olfactory 2nd Cranial Nerve, Optic 3rd Cranial Nerve, Motor Oculi FUNCTION Special nerve of smell Special nerve of sight ORIGIN Olfactory bulb Cortical center in Occipital lobe This is purely a mo- tor nerve and has to do with the motion of the eye 4th Cranial Nerve, Trochlear Sth Cranial Nerve, Trifacial, or Trigeminus 6th Cranial Nerve, Abducens 7th Cranial Nerve, Facial 8 th Cranial Nerve, Auditory 9th Cranial Nerve, Glossa- pharyngeal Also nerve of mo- tion. Acts upon su- perior oblique mus- cle of the eye Nerve of motion, sensation and taste Motor nerve This is a motor nerve. It controls secretion of mu- cous membranes of nose, supplies soft and hard palates. Controls taste This nerve supplies the inner ear ; it controls hearing This is a vasomo- tion nerve ; controls the sense of taste. The pharynx assists in swallowing Floor of Aque- duct of Sylvius Floor of Aque- duct of Sylvius Oblongata and floor of fourth ventricle DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL Schneiderian Mem- brane Retina of eye BRANCHES 20 branches None Muscles of eye ex- cept Superior Ob- lique, external rec- tus, Orbicularis pal- pegrarum Superior oblique of eye tentorium Fasciculus teres Floor of fourth Ventricle Restis Floor of the fourth Ventricle Lachrymal gland, skin of forehead, up- per part of nose, cornea of eye, eye- lid, eyebrow, tongue, teeth, and skin of Controls external rectus muscle of eye Face, ear, palate and tongue Cochlea, Vestibule, canals Middle ear, phrynx, tonsils and tongue Inferior Superior Recurrent and term- inal 3 branches, Opthal- mic, Superior and In- ferior Maxillary divi- sions Tympanic, Posterior Auricle, Digastric Stylo, Hyroid, Tern poral, Infraorbital Buccal, Supermaxil lary, Inframaxillary Cochlear, Vestibular Tympanic Cartoid, Pharyngeal, Muscu- lar Lingual, Tonsil- lar 10th Cranial Nerve, Pneumo- gastric This is a nerve of sensation and mo- ti"n Floor of the fourth Ventricle Ear, pharynx, lar- ynx, heart, lungs, esophagus, and stomach Auricular Pharyn- geal, Laryngeal, Car- diac, Pulmonary, Es- ophageal, Gastric, Pepatic, Communi- cating 11th Cranial Nerve, Spinal Accessory This is a nerve of motion, controlling the vocal sounds. Floor of the fourth Ventricle Sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, pharynx, larynx 12th Cranial Nerve, Hypo- glossal This is a motor and vasomotion nerve ; controls the lips, also the tongue. It assists in mastica- tion and articula- tion Floor of the fourth Ventricle Middle ear, pharynx, tonsils and tongue Tympanic Carotoid, Pharyngeal, Muscu- lar, Lingual Page one hundred thirty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Bones of the Head and Face BONES OF THE HEAD CRANIUM, 8 BONES OF THE FACE 1 — Occipital, 1 2— Parietal, 2 3— Frontal, 1 4 — Temporal, 2 5 — Sphenoid, 1 6— Ethnoid, 1 Location: The Occipital is situ- ated at the back of the head. The two Parietals on either side of the head above the Temporal. The Frontal is situated over the forehead and resembles a cockle shell in form and consists of two portions, one a Vertical portion, also a Horizontal portion. The Temporals are situated on either side of the head, just below the Parietals. 7— Nasal, 2 8 — Superior Maxil- lary, 2 9 — Lachrymal, 2 10 — Malar, 2 11— Palate, 2 12— Inferior Turbi- nated, 2 13 — Vomor, 1 14 — Inferior Max- illary, 1 The Sphenoid is situated at the anterior of the base of the skull and articulates with all of the other cranial bones, which it binds firmly and solidly together. The Ethmoid is situated at the anterior fossa of the base of the skull, and is received into the Eth- moid notch. Inferior Maxillary is called by some authorities, the Mandible. Page one hundred thirty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL The nasal bones are two small oblong bones situated at the middle and upper part of the face forming the bridge of the nose. Superior Maxillary are two on either side of the face and form the upper jaw bones. They are the largest bones of the face, except the mandible, and are the ones that contain the upper teeth. Lachrymal are the smallest and most fragile bones of the face and are situated on either side at the front part of the inner walls of the orbit and resemble in form, size and thickness that of a finger nail. Malar are two bones situated on either side of the face at the upper and outer part of the face. They form the prominence of the cheek, part of the outer walls and floor of the orbit, and part of the Temporal and Zygomatic fossa. Palate are situated at the back part of the nasal fossa. They are wedged in between the superior maxillary bones and the Pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone. Inferior Turbinated are situated one on each side of the outer walls of the nasal fossa. Each consists of a layer of thin spongy bone curled upon itself, like a scroll, hence it gets its name (turbinated), and ex- tends horizontally along the outer walls of the nasal fossa immediately below the walls of the antrum. The Vomor resembles a plow shear, is a single bone, and is situ- ated at the back part of the nasal fossa, forming a part of the septum of the nose. Inferior Maxillary, also called the Mandible by some authorities, is the largest and strongest bone of the face, and it serves for the reception of the lower teeth. It consists of curved horizontal portion of the body, and two perpendicular por- tions called the remi, which join the back part of the body nearly at right angles. It is convexed in its general outline and curved some- what like a horse-shoe, and forms the lower jaw. Of these the upper and lower jaws are fundamental bones of mastication and the others are accessories for the chief function of the facial bones is to provide an apparatus for mastication, while sub- sidiary functions are to provide for sense organs (ear, nose, tongue), and a vestibule for the respiratory organs, and also the vocal organs. SALIVARY GLANDS We have six Salivary Glands, three on each side which are very important, in the manipulation of the muscles of the face. These glands pass their secretion into the mouth. The names of these glands are as follows: Two parotid, two submaxillarys, and two sublinguals. PAROTID GLANDS The largest of the salivary glands varies from 15 to 30 grams in weight. It is located below and in front of the ear. From the Zygo- matical arch above to the Ramus of the jawbone below. It is wedge shape with three surfaces and cov- ered with the skin and fascia of the lower part of the platysma. The anterior front part overlaps the front of the masseter muscle, and extends back to the posterior or back of the Ramus of the Mandible, with the Posterior part of the Platy- sma muscle, the posterior or back part is in contact with Sterno-Cleido Mastoid muscle. It receives its lymphatics from the external auditory. The soft palate, and the nasal fossae. The parotid gland has a duct known as Stet- sons duct. This duct is formed by a number of smaller ones origin- ating at the anterior border and forming one large one, about the size of a quill emerging from the an- terior border of the gland crossing the massiter muscle and turns im- mediately forward between the mu- cous memberane and the ramus of the jawbone to penetrate the fatty portions of the cheek and terminates into the mouth opposite the second Molar tooth. It receives its sen- sory fibres from the Otic, Ganglion conveying fibres from the Glosso- pharyngeal, the Oricular Temporal branch of the fifth cranial nerve and the motor branch of the carotid- plexes. Page one hundred thirty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Descriptive Locations of Salivary Glands 1. Internal Parotid. 2. Accessory Parotid. 3. Duct of Parotid Gland. 4. Bristle inserted into duct. 5. Frenulum Lingue. 6. Major Lingual. 7. Sub-lingual Gland. Sub-lingual Duct. Hyoid Muscle. SUBMAXILLARY GLAND 9. This is considerable smaller than the Parotid. It only weighs from 7 to 10 grams and is about the size of an ordinary walnut flattened out. It consists of two parts, a superficial part and a deep process. The larg- er portion is located in the dia-gas- tric triangle, and presents three surfaces, superficial, deep, and lat- eral. Superficial portion lies just beneath the Platysma muscle and the deep fascia which forms a tri- angular socket around it. It is crossed by branches of the facial nerve. The lateral surface is small- est of the three. It lies about the middle of the mandible or the jaw- bone. The posterior or back portion is in contact with the Milohyoid 10. Anterior Belly of the Digastric Muscle. 11. Deep portion of Sub-Maxillary Glands. 12. Parotid Gland. 13. Masseter Muscle. 14. Sterno-cleido-mastoid Muscle. 15. Posterior Belly of the Digastric Muscle. 16. Lingual Nerve. 17. Sub-Maxillary Gland drawn back. 18. Loop of Fascia. 19. Hyoid Bone. muscle and behind the hyoglossus and inferior belly of the Digastric. It also contains a duct known as Wartons duct which springs from the deep portion and passes forward into the surface of the deep lobe and opens by a small orifice or opening of the side of the frenulum of the tongue. SUBLINGUAL GLAND The sublingual gland is the small- est of the three glands. It is situ- ated beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth at the side of the frenulum lingue, in contact with the sublingual depression on the inner surface of the mandible. It is a narrow flat shape, somewhat like an almond and weighs nearly two grams. Page one hundred forty Lesson Subject ANATOMY Eleven Continued 1. Circulation 2. Heart Action 3. Lungs 4. Nerve Supply 5. Blood Vessels Embracing 6. Arteries 7. Pulse 8. Digestion 9. Respiration 10. Glands We are indebted for this article to Edgar B. Wilson, D. C, Ph. C. THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION THE circulation of the blood is brought about by a complicated series of tubes and channels, ex- tending through every portion of the body, and all communicating with each other and with a power- ful muscular central organ called the heart. The tubes are called, according to their structure, size, and function, Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries. Structure of Heart THE HEART The heart is a strong, hollow, muscular organ, lying behind the breast-bone with its greater portion to the left of it. It is shaped some- what like a cone, with both ends rounded, and the larger end directed upward and toward the right. The lower end, or apex, is free to move in any direction, not being attached to anything, while the upper and larger end is held in place by the large blood vessels which are con- nected with it, and also with the spinal column. The whole organ is covered with serous membrane called the pericardium, and lies in a cavity which is also lined with a serous membrane. Its constant movements can go on with the slightest amount of friction. In order to understand the ac- tion of the heart, it is necessary to know, first, that there is a double action or circulation going on in the body at the same time. At every contraction of the heart, a portion of the blood is thrown into the lungs and another portion into the remainder of the body, and these two portions never mingle with each other. To be more pre- cise, and follow a particular mass of blood in its course through the body, we may state it thus: The blood starts from a certain part of the heart; it goes directly to the lungs; then it returns to the heart, Page one hundred forty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL but to a different part of the or- gan; then it goes out of the heart to the arteries to what is called the general circulation, i. e., to all parts of the body, excepting the lungs. Thence it is collected by the veins, and returned to the heart. At the next contraction it goes to the lungs again, and begins the same process. So that in this way all of the blood passes through the lungs, and visits all parts of the body; but in doing this it visits and passes through the heart twice. In short, it flows (1) from the heart to the lungs; (2) back to the heart; The Heart (3) to the rest of the body; (4) back to the heart. Thus there are two systems of circulation, one called the pulmonary circulation, from the heart to the lungs and back again; the other, the general circulation, from the heart to the body and back again. The double and simultaneous cir- culation cannot be brought about by a heart containing but one cav- ity. And, accordingly, we find that the heart is divided by a muscular partition, running lengthwise of the organ from front to the rear, into two parts of nearly equal size, called the right and left sides of the heart. The right side carries the pulmonary circulation, and the left side the general circulation. So that the course of blood is as fol- lows: From the right side of the heart to the lungs; thence from the lungs to the left side of the heart; thence from the left side of the heart to all parts of the body; thence back to the right side of the heart. If this order of circulation be carefully observed, it will be seen that the right side of the heart never contains anything but dark venous blood, and the left side al- ways contains bright or arterial blood. Each side of the heart is divided into two cavities, making four in the whole organ. These cavities are called the auricles and ventricles. The ventricles constitute the greater part of the heart, and it is in their walls that the greatest muscular power is located. The auricles are the smaller cavities, situated on the upper extremity of the organ, and their walls are much thinner and weaker than the walls of the ven- tricles. The blood passes from the veins into the auricles, from the auricles into the ventricles, and from the ventricles it is forced out into the body. The course of the blood, then, is from the body in general through the veins to the right auri- cle; from the right auricle to the right ventricle; from the right ven- tricle to the lungs; from the lungs to the left auricle; from the left auricle to the left ventricle; from the left ventricle out to the body in general, whence it is collected by the veins and brought back to the right auricle, to begin the same course. At the mouth of the veins, where they empty into the auricles, there are no valve, and they are not really needed at this point, for the auricles do not contract with much force, and as there is always a cur- rent in the veins running toward the heart, and as the ventricles lie below the auricles, the blood nat- urally flows into the ventricles, where it meets with no resistance, rather than backward, where it Page one hundred forty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL Plan of Circulation would meet with considerable, hav- ing to oppose the force of gravity and also the current in the veins. In this manner the ventricles be- come filled with blood, and, when they contract, the case is very dif- ferent. Here there is an enormous pressure to overcome. The right ventricle must contract with force sufficient to send its contents into the lungs, pushing before it the column of blood already in the ves- sel. The left ventricle has to con- tract with a force sufficient to send its contents to the remote parts of the body, also pushing along the blood which is already in the ves- sels. On the other hand, the re- sistance backwards toward the veins is not strong, and, even supposing that the resistance were equal in both directions, it is plain that the circulation would soon come to an end. The ventricles in contracting would force blood backward into the arteries, and then, when the heart relaxed the blood would flow back again into the ventricles from both directions. This danger is averted by the introduction of four sets of Valves, one between each auricle and ventricle, and one at the opening of the ventricle into the arteries, through which the blood passes during its contraction. The valves of the heart are double folds of serous membrane which lines all the cavities of the organ, and are stiffened somewhat by a few fibers which run between the folds. All of the valves have three flaps, ex- cepting the one which separates the left auricle from the left ventricle, and this has only two. The Valves are all so consti- tuted as to allow the blood to pass only in one direction. The valves between the auricles and ventricles will allow blood to pass from the auricles into the ventricles, but not from the ventricles back into the auricles; and the valve at the mouth of the arteries will allow blood to pass from the ventricles into the ar- teries, but not from the arteries back into the ventricles. The large veins, by which all of the blood from the general circula- tion is poured into the right auricle, are called the Vena Cavae (i. e., the hollow veins). The larger artery, by which the blood passes from the right ventricle to the lungs, is called the Pulmonary Artery; the large veins, by which the blood returns from the lungs into the left auricle, are called the Pulmonary Veins; and the large artery, by which the blood goes out from the left ven- tricle to all parts of the body, is called the Aorta. The blood then, coming from all parts of the body into the veins, enters through the Vena Cavae into the right auricle; when the auricle is filled, its walls contract, and the blood passes into the Pulmonary Artery, its return into the auricle being prevented by the closure of the valves between the auricle and the ventricle. The blood then goes through the lungs, and becomes changed into arterial blood. It re- turns to the heart into the left aur- icle, and passes from there into the Pane one hundred forty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL left ventricle. The contraction of the ventricle then forces the blood into the aorta, its return into the auricle being prevented by the valves, from the aorta at the mouth of the pulmonary artery and the aorta prevent the blood which has entered them during the heart's contraction from flowing back into the cavity of the ventricle which has become relaxed. The contraction of the heart does not run successively from one aur- icle to the corresponding ventricle, and then from the other auricle to the other ventricle, but the con- traction of both sides of the heart is simultaneous. It begins at the auricle and extends downward un- til the ventricles are both firm and hard and reduced to their smallest size. The organ then becomes re- laxed, and is for an exceedingly short time quiet. During this stage of relaxation the auricles are be- ing filled with blood from the veins, and there is also a current running into the ventricles from the auricles. During the stage of contraction the blood is being forced into the cir- culation through the aorta and pul- monary artery. The alternate contractions and re- laxations of the heart are accom- panied by sounds, which are very audible to any one who applies his ear to the region of the heart in a living person. These sounds are two in number, the first beat be- ing a prolonged rumbling sound, and the second sound is short and sharp. The first sound is made during the time the heart is con- tracting and the second sound is just at the end of the contraction or beginning of relaxation. The first sound is supposed to be pro- duced by the closing of the Large Valves between the auricles and ventricles, which occurs just at the moment when this sound begins, and partly by the contraction of the muscular fibers of the heart. The second sound is positively known to be produced by the clos- ing of the pulminary and aorta valves. It is by the variation in distinctness and quality of these sounds, and the addition of other sounds to them, that physicians are enabled to determine with wonder- ful accuracy the condition of the valves of the heart. THE NERVE SUPPLY TO THE HEART THE heart is plentifully supplied with nerves, which regulate its movement. One set belongs to the cerebro-spinal system and have the power to check or arrest the heart's action, and are therefore called the inhibitory nerves of the heart. An- other set, having an opposite func- tion, i. e., that of increasing the heart's function or action, rather, are called the accelerator nerves. If the inhibitory nerve is destroyed or temporarily paralyzed, the pulsa- tions of the heart are suddenly in- creased. If the accelerator nerve is paralyzed, the heart ceases to beat. The contractions of the heart take place with regulation, and average in the adult about seventy beats Nerve Supply to the Heart Page one hundred forty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL per minute. The rate is higher in women and children than in men. The heart pulsations appear to be slower in proportion as the indi- vidual is cool and deliberate in his judgment. The pulse of Napoleon Bonaparte is said to have averaged only forty-four to the minute, and is one of the slowest on record. Sudden emotions may increase its rapidity and force. On the other hand, they may cause it to stop for a moment altogether, to skip a beat, as it were, producing the sensation of "fluttering" at the heart. Al- though the action of the heart is thus affected by our feelings, it is beyond our control. Its pulsations are ceaseless and regular, until in- terrupted by disease or death. BLOOD VESSELS '"PHE heart, although a very pow- erful organ, would not be able to force the blood through the whole body and back to itself again without assistance, and this assist- ance is furnished by the structure of the blood vessels themselves. The blood leaves the heart by the arteries and comes back to it through the veins, and these two systems of vessels differ very much in their structure. The arteries are tubes with strong walls, described by anatomists as having three layers. The inner- most is a delicate, smooth mem- brane. The middle one is composed of elastic fibers of non-striated or involuntary muscular tissue. The outer one is made up of strong connective fiber tissue. Thus the walls of the arteries are very elas- tic, and if the tube is distended, it returns to its former size as soon as the internal pressure is removed. THE PULSE WHEN the heart contracts, its contents are driven with great force into the arteries, and as the blood already contained there re- sists somewhat the advance of fresh supply, the walls of the ar- teries are stretched to accommodate the mass of blood which is thrown into them. When the heart relaxes and the pressure from that direc- tion is removed, the elastic walls of the arteries react upon their con- tents, and, if it were not for the valves, would drive the blood, or a portion of it, back into the heart. At the slightest backward pressure, however, the valves close, and elas- ticity of the arteries thus gives the blood another impulse forward to- wards the surface of the body. The impulses given by the heart's ac- tion, together with that caused by the recovery of their natural posi- tion by the walls of the" arteries, gives rise to the pulse, which can be felt at any point in the body where an artery runs near enough to the surface. The common place of feeling for it is in the wrist, merely because that is the most convenient and accessible; but it may also be felt in the neck, in the temple, or in the upper arm. The large vessels, by which the blood leaves the heart, viz., the pul- monary artery and aorta, divide and subdivide continually, the branches grow smaller and smaller as they approach their termination. Their walls at the same time undergo a change in structure. The elastic tissue, which is so abundant in the larger arteries, gradually disappear as the vessel diminishes in size, and the muscular tissue becomes more prominent, until even this vanishes and the smallest blood vessels are called capillaries. They are com- posed of a thin membrane, not di- visible into layers. Thus the large arteries are very strong and very elastic, while the smaller ones lose in elasticity, but from the amount of muscular tissue they contain, are very contractile. The capillaries, in which the ar- teries finally end, are only about 1/3000 of an inch in diameter — just large enough to allow the blood corpuscles to pass through them, so to speak, in single file. Their number is beyond computation. They are so thickly strewn in the blood that the point of a pin or fine cambric needle can not anywhere be inserted between them. As ev- Page one hundred forty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL eryone knows, it is impossible to find an instrument with a point so fine as not to wound a blood ves- sel if introduced through the skin. These vessels are entirely indis- tinguishable to the naked eye, and before the discovery of the micro- scope it was a great problem for the anatomists to explain how the blood got from the arteries to the veins, as they could find no direct communication. After passing through the capil- laries, the blood enters the veins. These vessels contain in their walls much less muscular and elastic tis- sue than the arteries, and more con- nective tissue. The consequence of this is, that the walls of the veins are flacid and yielding, and if they are cut across, the sides fall to- gether and tend to close the open- ing. If an artery, on the other hand, is cut, the tube remains open and in a sense rigid, although, as will soon be shown, its caliber is somewhat diminished. The veins, very minute at first, gradually unite and become larger and larger, un- til finally all the veins of the gen- eral circulation form two large ves- sels called the Vena Cavae, which dis- charges its contents into the right auricle of the heart, one vena cava receiving all of the blood from the head and upper extremities, and the other that from the rest of the body. The circulation of the blood in the veins is brought about in three ways. In the first place, the act of respiration has its influence. When the chest is expanded by muscular action, every fluid which is outside of it tends to rush in and fill the enlarged cavity. The chief space is filled by air, as that is more per- fectly fluid and meets with the least resistance from friction. But the blood is also drawn in from the veins, and the real extent and power of this suction can very easily be seen whenever the entrance of air is impeded. In such cases the veins in the neck can very easily be seen to become swollen and full during expiration, and emptied again dur- ing exhalation. In the second place, the contrac- tion of the voluntary muscles aids in the return of the blood to the heart. While the arteries, as a rule, run deep in the body, out of reach of injury, the veins are largely near the surface, and the whole exterior of the body is more or less streaked by the blue lines which indicate their course. Now, during the con- traction of the muscle, it not only shortens but becomes broader and thicker, and, of course, compresses to a greater or less degree every- thing near it. Thus the veins are continually being pressed upon here and there, in various parts of the body, during the whole of our wak- ing hours, and even to some extent when we are asleep. But merely pressing the blood out of the certain portion of the vein might send it in either direc- tion. It would be almost as likely to send it away from the heart as toward it. This reflex of blood in the veins is prevented by valves, which allow the blood to pass through them readily toward the heart, but not away from it. The discovery of the valves and circu- lation of the blood was first made by Dr. William Harvey, who was a great physician to the king of England, just a few years before the pilgrims sailed across the At- lantic in the Mayflower. He died in 1657, about forty years after he discovered the circulation of blood. He was scoffed and ridiculed for his theory and disputed, at first, by the other doctors. These valves are particularly numerous in the lower extremities, for here the force of gravity acts in opposition to the current of blood and would seri- ously interfere with circulation if there were no special provision with reference to it. Thus when blood is forced out of a portion of a vein by pressure, it cannot go backward on account of the valves, but must go forward in every case. This fact and the ac- tion of the valves may be beauti- fully seen in the arms of any per- son where the veins are not ob- scured by too much fat beneath the skin. Page one hundred forty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL If a place be chosen where a vein is visible, with no branches for an inch or so, and one finger be placed upon it so as to stop the flow of blood, the portion of the vein on the farther side from the heart will be seen to fill with blood. This slight swelling marks the situation of the valve. If a finger be pressed along a vein toward the heart, pressing upon it all of the time, the vein will be seen to be filled behind the finger; while if the finger be pressed in the opposite direction, away from the heart, the vein will be empty and collapsed behind the finger, and perhaps hardly notice- able. This clearly indicates the di- rection of the current of blood. But the third cause of the venous circulation, and the most important of all, is the blood which is con- stantly accumulating in the capil- laries and exercising pressure on the column of blood already in the veins. This pressure is unceasing and powerful. These three causes acting together keep up a free and steady flow of blood in the veins toward the heart. In both arteries and veins, there are numerous communicating branches, so that when the blood vessel is obstructed, the blood passes out into other vessels and around the point of stoppage, and, excepting in extraodrinary cases, the nutrition of the part is not in- terfered with. The arteries, then, carry the bright scarlet, highly oxygenated blood from the heart out to all parts of the body for its nutrition. It is sent to the remote capillaries, partly by the contraction of the heart, and partly by the elasticity of the arteries. From the arteries it enters the capillaries, where the essential but very obscure processes of nutrition are carried on. It has been found that the current of blood rushes through the arteries with an average velocity of twelve inches per second, but, in conse- quence of the smallness of capil- laries and their distance from the heart, as well as the magnitude of their combined areas as compared with that of the aorta, the blood moves through them very slowly, not faster, it is thought, than one- thirtieth of an inch per second. When the capillary circulation is looked at through a microscope, as it may be in the web of a frog, it is seen that the red corpuscles pass along through the minute vessels, sometimes together, but often in single file, and without much trou- ble; but the white corpuscles are affected by friction, and drag along, sticking fast here and there until they are started again by the cur- rent. During the passage of the blood through the capillaries, cer- tain of its ingredients transede through the walls of the vessels, and lie in immediate contact with the tissues outside. These are the nutritive materials by which the various tissues of the body are kept in repair. The cells select their nourishment, and what is left, to- gether with waste and used-up mat- ters from the cells, is taken up by the lymphatic vessels and returned to the large veins near the heart. These matters constitute what is called the lymph. Changes in the gaseous constituents of blood also take place in this part of the cir- culation, and so we find that, when the blood emerges from the capil- laries into the veins, it has become of a dark purple color, and unfit for further use in the body until it is refreshed. So the process which takes place in the capillaries is in some degree the reverse of that which takes place in the lungs. The blood enters the lungs of a black or deep purple color and comes out bright purple. It passes back to the heart through the veins, the steady flow being maintained partly by suction and partly by the act of respiration, partly by muscular con- traction and consequent pressure of the veins, and mainly by pressure form the capillaries, which con- stantly forces the blood onward. Page one hundred forty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL DIGESTION "T\IGESTION is a physical and chemical process by which the food is introduced into the alimen- tary canal, is liquified, and its nu- tritive principles transformed by the digestive fluids into new substances capable of being absorbed into the blood. The Digestive Apparatus consists of the alimentary canal and its ap- pendages, viz.,' teeth, lips, and tongue; the salivary, gastric and in- testinal glands, the liver and pan- creas. Digestion is divided into many different stages which are as fol- lows: Prehension, mouth digestion, which is mastication and salivation; deglutition, which is swallowing ; gastric and intestinal digestion, and defecation. PREHENSION The act of conveying the food into the mouth, is accomplished by the hands, lips and teeth. THE MOUTH Mastication is the mechanical di- vision of the food, and is accomp- lished by the teeth, and the move- ments of the lower jaw, under the influence of muscular contraction. When thoroughly divided, the food presents a larger surface for the sol- vent action of the digestive fluids, thus enabling them to exert their respective action more effectively and in a shorter period of time. MOVEMENTS INVOLVED Though originating in an effort of the will and under its control, the movements are, for the most part, of an automatic or reflex character, taking place in the m'edulla and in- duced by the presence of food with- in the mouth. The nerves and nerve- centers involved in this mechanism are as follows: Lingual branches of the trigeminal nerve. The Glos- sopharyngeal are the sensory branches. The motor are as fol- lows: The small root of the trige- minal, hypoglossol and the facial nerves. The impression made upon the terminal filaments of the sens- ory nerves are transmitted to the medulla. Motor impulses are here generated which are transmitted to the muscles involved in the move- ments of the lower jaw. INSALIVATION This is the incorporation of the food with the saliva secreted by the parotid, sublingual and submaxil- lary glands. The parotid saliva is thin and watery and is poured into the mouth through Stenos duct. The submaxillary and sublingual saliva is thick and viscid, and is poured into the mouth through Wartons and Bartholonis ducts. Deglutition is the act of trans- forming food from the mouth into the stomach, and is divided into three stages as follows: First, the passage of the bolus from the mouth into the pharynx. Second, from the pharynx into the Esophagus. Third, from the Esophagus into the Stom- ach. In the first stage the move- ments are entirely voluntary, and the second and third movements are peristalic movements. So the food is voluntarily taken into the mouth and passed from the mouth into the Esophagus and then from the Esophagus to the stom- ach, and from the stomach to the duodenum, from the duodenum into the small intestines, from the small intestines to the secum, thence to the ascending colon, then the trans- verse colon, thense the descending colon, and out by the way of the anis. THE MOUTH (SALIVA) The saliva found in the mouth is an opalescent, slightly viscid, alka- line fluid, having a specific gravity of 1.005. Microscopic examination reveals the presence of salivary cor- puscles and epithelial cells. Chem- ically it is composed of water, pro- tein materials, and inorganic salts. The amount secreted daily has been estimated at about 2 pounds. Saliva moistens and softens the food, unites its particles into con- sistent mass, and thus facilitates swallowing, and converts boiled starch into sugar, known as Ery- throdextrin and Maltose. Page one hundred forty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL DEGLUTITION OR SWAL- LOWING The Stomach lies immediately be- yond the termination of the Esoph- agus. Here the alimentary canal ex- pands and forms a receptacle for the temporary retention of the food, and this receptacle is called the stomach. It will hold about 1500 cc. or about two quarts. It presents two orifices, the cardiac or esophageal, and the pyloric. Two curvatures, the lesser and greater. The walls have three coats, the serous, muscular and the mucous. The mucous lies in folds or wrinkles, and is covered with tall narrow columnar epithelium. Em- bedded in the mucous membrane are the gastric glands, which consist of long tubes opening into a short, common duct, which opens by a large mouth onto the surface of the mucous membrane. There are about five million of these glands at the fundous of the stomach, and they secrete the gastric juices which di- gest the food in the stomach. These juices are of a clear, colorless fluid with a constant acid reaction, a slightly saline and acid taste, and a specific gravity of 1.002 to 1.005. The materials composing this fluid are Pepsin, Rennin, Lipase, and Hy- drochloric Acid. It has been established that the fact that production and discharge of gastric juice is under the control of a nerve center situated in the medulla. From this center nerve fibers pass by the way of the vagus nerve to the glands of the stomach. The production and discharge of gastric secretion, just preceding and during a meal, is the result of the action of two different stimuli, a pri- mary and a secondary. The action of the gastric juice is the transfor- mation of the different proteins of the food into peptones. As soon as any one of the proteins is penetrated by the acid it is converted into acid- proteins. After this is accomplished the pepsin becomes active and trans- forms the acid-protein into peptone. Then the ammonium and magne- sium sulphates change it to pro- toses. From this stage it is capable of passing through animal mem- brane and is thus absorbed into the blood stream. Thus you see how the proteins are absorbed into the blood from the stomach. INTESTINAL DIGESTION The physical and chemical changes which the food principles undergo in the small intestines, and which collectively constitute intes- tinal digestion, are complex and probably more important than those taking place in the stomach, for the food is, in this situation, subject to the solvent action of the pancreatic and intestinal juices, as well as the action of the bile, each of which ex- erts a transforming influence on one or more substances and further prepares them for absorption into the blood. To rightly appreciate the physio- logic actions of the digestive juices poured into the intestines, the na- ture of the partly digested food as it comes from the stomach must be kept in mind. This consists of water, inorganic salts, acidified pro- teins, proteoses, starch, maltose, liquefied fats, saccharose, lactose, dextrose, cellulose, and the indigest- able portions of meats, cereals and fruits. Collectively they are known as kyme. As this acidified mass passes through the duodenum its contained acids excite a secretion and discharge of the intestinal fluids, e. g., pancreatic juice, bile, and in- testinal juice. In as much as these fluids are alkaline in reaction they exert a neutralizing and precipitating in- fluence on various constituents of Kyme. As soon as this has taken place gastric digestion ceases and those chemical changes are inau- gurated which eventuate in the transforming of all the remaining undigested nutritive materials into absorbable and assimilable com- pounds which collectively constitute intestinal digestion. Page one hundred forty -nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL THE SMALL INTESTINES The small intestines is that por- tion of the alimentary canal which is a convoluted tube, measuring about 22 feet in length and extends from the pyloric orifice of the stom- ach to the beginning of the large intestines. The walls of the small intestine has four coats, viz; Serous, muscle, submucous, and mucous. The small intestines are supplied with blood and nerve supply as well as Lymph vesicles, which carry the nutriment from the food we eat into the blood stream, and is used to build up the broken down tissues, or replaces them with new, healthy tissue. The glands of the intestines which secrete the intestinal juices are two those in the duodenal portion are known as Bruners glands, and those in the intestines are known as Lieb- erkuhan's glands. The pancreas is a very important organ lying im- mediately behind the stomach and secretes a juice which is transparent, colorless and strongly alkaline, and viscid, and has a specific gravity of 1,020. It is one of the most important of all the digestive fluids as it exerts a transforming influence upon all classes of alimentary principles and has been shown to contain at least three distinct enzymes, viz., amy- lopsin, stepsin, or lipase. These juices are entered into the intestines through the pancreas duct to the common bile duct then in the duo- denum. THE BILE This fluid is a product of the se- cretor activity of the liver cells, after its formation by the liver cells, it is conveyed from the liver by the bile capillaries which unite finally to form the main hepatic duct. This duct emerges from the liver at the transverse fissure. At a short dis- tance it is joined by the cystic duct, the distal extremity of which ex- pands into a pear shaped reservoir, the gall bladder in which the bile is temporarily stored. The duct for- med by the union of the hepatic and Digestive Organs WHAT THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS ARE 1. Aesophagus or Gullet. 2. Stomach. 3. Duodenum or second Stomach 4. Small Intestines. 5. Ilio-Caecal Valve. 6. Ascending Colon. 7. Transverse Colon. 8. Descending Colon. 9. Sigmoid Flexure. 10. Rectum. 11. Anus. 12. Vermiform Appendix. 13. Liver. 14. Gall Bladder. 15. Hepatic Duct. 16. Cystic Duct. 17. Bile Duct. 18. Pancreatic Duct. 19. Pancreas. Page one hundred fifty THE BARBERS' MANUAL cystic ducts is the common bile duct and it passes downward and for- ward for a distance of about seven centimeters, and pierces the walls of the intestine and passes obliquely through its coats for about one cen- timeter and opens into a small re- ceptacle, the ampulla of Vater. The flow of bile into the intestines are steady, but is greatly increased while eating, and after eating, it increases the flow of the pancreatic juice and mixes with it and neutralizes the gastric juices and increases the in- testinal juices. If the gall bladder is removed you will find in the feces fats and other undigested materials that have not been di- gested, especially fats. LARGE INTESTINE The large intestine is that part of the alimentary canal situated be- tween the termination of the ileum and the anus. It varies in length from one and one-quarter to one and a half meters which one meter is 39-37-100 inches in length. The diameter is three and one-half to seven centimeters. It is divided into the cecum, the colon; subdivid- ed into an ascending, transverse and descending portion, including the zignoid flexure and the rectum the walls consisting of three coats, viz., serous muscular and mucous. After the absorption of the pre- pared food in the intestine, the re- maining of the contents of the small intestine, together with certain in- testinal secretions pass into the large intestine, and here form the feces. THE FUNCTION OF THE LARGE INTESTINE Is therefore to receive, to reduce to a proper consistency, to tempor- arily store and subsequently dis- charge its contents, consisting of indigestable residue of food, to- gether with excretions of intestin- al glands, which have descended from the small intestines and which constitute in part, the feces. ABSORPTION The term absorption is applied to the passage or transference of the materials into the blood stream from the tissues, from the serous cavi- ties, and from the mucous surface of the body. The most important of these surfaces, especially in its relation to the formation of blood, is the mucous surface of the alimen- tary canal; for it is from this or- gan that new materials are derived which maintain the quality and quantity of the blood. The ab- sorption of materials from the in- terstice of the tissues is to be re- garded rather as a return to the blood of liquid nutritive which has escaped from the blood vescles, for nutritive purposes, and which if not returned, would lead to an accumu- lation of such fluids and the develop- ment of dropsical conditions. The anatomic mechanisms involved in absorptive processes are, primarily, the lymph-space, the lymph-capil- laries; secondary, the lympathic ves- sels and larger blood-vessels. RESPIRATION In spite of all the importance we have ascribed to the blood, food and water, they are equaled in import- ance by air. We could live from forty to sixty days without food, and about a week without water, but we can't live ten minutes with- out air. For in the air you breathe you get that very important ele- ment, Oxygen. Every bit of blood in your body passes through your lungs every three minutes, therefore every one should take a breathing exercise every night and morning. Get out into the open air if pos- sible, and if you cannot do this, raise up the windows and stand as close to it as possible. During these three minutes every bit of the blood in your body passes through your lungs, and the Oxygen you have taken in will oxidize the pois- on out of your blood. It is just like washing your face in the morn- ing, and it is just as necessary, for it washes your blood. Page one hundred fifty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Your lungs are in the upper part of your chest, just under your shoul- ders. They are composed of about six hundred million little air cells and they are clustered together like so many toy balloons. They look very much like pink rubber sponges you see in the drug stores. In or- dinary breathing very few people breathe deep enough to open up all the air cells in the upper part of the lungs. This is often the cause of much disease. To do this prop- erly you must breathe with your arms well above your heads. You should take into your lungs daily about sixty barrels of air. That is the amount of air that your lungs need. Very few people get this much air. People who work in- doors in sedentary occupations never get this much air, and people who work out-doors seldom get this much air. If you work over a desk or bench or a piece of ma- chinery it is impossible to get the proper amount of air, because you are leaning forward all of the time. That is why it is absolutely neces- sary for every one to take breathing exercise with their arms well above the head to get every air cell pro- perly areated. Sebaceous Glands GLANDS OF THE SKIN GLANDS are secretory organs of the body. They separate any fluid from the blood. They are arranged in two classes, tubular and saccular glands, and are developments of the epidermis, also appendages of the skin. Each gland has its function to perform, and while the Beauty Specialist does not treat the glands, she should know and be able to rec- ognize the diseases resulting from the improper functioning of them, as a great many conditions arise in which the glands are involved. 1 he skin has two kinds of glands, the Sebaceous or oil glands, and the Suderiferous or sweat glands. The Sebaceous glands are a part of the hair follicle and are of the saccular type of gland. They are oval in shape and secrete an oily substance called sebum which keeps the skin soft and pliable and the hair glossy. They are situated in the deeper layers or conum ot the skin. When the sebaceous glands fail to function properly the following conditions arise: Comedones, Mi- lia, Acne, Seborrhea, Steatoma or Cyst. COMEDONES Comedones, commonly called blackheads, are usually caused from an increased activity of the se- baceous glands. The duct of the gland is filled with plugs of waste matter, which prevent the gland from functioning properly. The un- derlying cause may be attributed to faulty elimination caused from Dys- pepsia or Constipation. See treat- ment, page 186. MILIA Milia is a disease of the sebace- ous glands and are small white or pearly elevations or nodules beneath the outer layer of skin. They are caused by a retention of sebaceous secretion and are usually found around the eyes or eye-lids, also on the cheeks. They usually occur in dry skin. Page one hundred fifty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL ACNE The different forms of Acne are: Acne Vulgaris, Acne Rosacea, Acne Artificialis, Acne Cachecticorum, Punctata, Albida, Indurata. ACNE VULGARIS This is the most commonly found type of Acne and is a chronic in- flammation of the sebaceous glands. It is generally found on the face. However, it is often found on shoul- ders, neck and back. The disease appears in the form of papules, pus- tules, and nodules. This disease clogs the excretory ducts leading to the surface of the skin, with an oily secretion called sebum. As the pores of the skin retain this se- bum an inflammation takes place. The papules and pustules appear slowly and usually contain a germ. If these pustules are not properly taken care of pits and scars result. A correct diet is of the utmost importance in the treatment of Acne Vulgaris as it shows an improper elimination through the regular channels. (For treatment see page 183.) ACNE ARTIFICIALIS This is an acute eruption and is attended by severe itching. It is usually caused from using cosmet- ics that irritate the skin. It is also caused from improper food. The treatment consists of sooth- ing lotions, such as zinc ointment or Lozzars paste and to discontinue what is causing it. ACNE ROSACEA This is a chronic congestion of the skin of the face. The blood capillaries are often broken and greatly dilated near the surface of the skin, causing tiny red lines espe- cially near the nose. The tip of the nose usually is red and congested. This condition is often attributed to the excessive use of alcoholics. Spicy foods should be avoided. Electrolysis can be used to treat the capillaries and in this way cut off the blood supply that causes the broken capillaries. The treatment is the same as for Acne Vulgaris. However, in Acne Rosacea the treatment of the capil- laries is very important as this is done with the Galvanic current. A common sewing needle can be used for this purpose. It can be in- serted in the needle holder. The face is then sterilized with Peroxide of Hydrogen or pure alcohol. Needle is attached to negative pole, using water for positive pole. The flesh is then pressed between the fingers and needle is inserted into each capillary in the direction in which it runs. Treat each one separately after which the face is bathed with Perox- ide of Hydrogen and zinc ointment applied. ACNE CACHECTICORUM This form of acne is frequently found among persons that are greatly run down from illness. The skin lesions are usually very deep owing to the general health of the person. These lesions are usu- ally found on the back. A physician should be consulted as this is not the work of the Beauty Culturist. ACNE INDURATA This condition of Acne shows very little on the surface as it is caused from the deeper seated se- baceous glands, but when they do they are in the form of tubercules with a large hard base. The treat- ment is the same as for Acne Vul- garis. (See page 183.) ACNE ALBIDA The skin is usually very dry in this condition of Acne, frequently pustules and comedones are found. However, Milia is found in profu- Page one hundred fifty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL sion. Treatment same as for Mi- lia (see page 185.) In all cases of Acne the High Frequency current is highly recom- mended as it assists in relieving the tendency to scar or pit. Acne on the face, is usually ac- companied hy Seborrhea on the scalp, as Seborrhea is one of the diseases of the Sebaceous glands. WENS, OR STEATOMA, AND SEBACEOUS CYSTS Wens or Cysts are formed be- neath the skin and are often called Steatoma. In color they vary from white to pink and sometimes have a purplish hue. They are tumors or meinbrattons sacs, filled with an accumulation of sebaceous matter. They are usually located upon the scalp, face, neck or back and vary in size from a pin head to an orange. They are generally single but have been known to form in different portons of the body. They are more frequently found in women. They are in shape either round, oval or flat, and are seft or hard to the touch, but are often movable beneath the skin. They are usually due to the stop- ping up of the ducts of the oil __^fZJWPJT glands. Electricity, galvanic cur- rent, can be used in removing them or an operation by a reputable physician. SUDORIFEROUS OR SWEAT GLANDS THESE are the sweat glands and are located over the entire body in the subcutaneous connective tis- sues. They are the simple tubular glands and their work is to assist in the elimination of the waste mat- ter from the body through perspira- tion. The duct of the suderiforous gland enters the epidermis between the two layers of skin and finally opens into what is known as the sweat pores. Any disease of the sweat glands causes either a de- crease or increase of the flow of the secretions and often has a bad odor. These glands are the most numer- ous on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet and they number 2,700 to the square inch, on the fore- head, 1,200, and on the cheek about 500 to the square inch. The total number on the whole body about 2,400,000, which with an average body, if placed end to end, would make a chain 28 miles long. The skin eliminates one-sixtieth of the body in a day or two, or about two pounds of organic salts and 150 grains of Carbon Dioxide gas. The diseases of Suderiforous glands are: HYPERDROSIS This is excessive perspiration and is a functional disorder. If it is localized it is usually confined to the face, hands, and feet. It is often caused by certain types of dis- ease. Sudoriferous Glands Page one hundred fifty-fout THE BARBERS' MANUAL ANIDROSIS This is lack of perspiration. In this condition the skin is very dry and at times there is a burning sen- sation. Anidrosis may exist from birth. If so, there is nothing that can be done. However, some physi- cians contend that hot baths and drinking a great deal of water will assist in relieving this condition. CHROMIDROSIS This condition occurs mostly in nervous persons and is manifested by a discharge of colored perspira- tion from the pores. It is not a common disease. A reliable physi- cian should be consulted. BROMODROSIS This is a condition where the per- spiration is fetid or foul smelling. It usually occurs under the arm pits or on the feet. Nervous disorders as a rule are partly the cause of this condition. Absolute cleanliness is essential. URIDROSIS This is a condition that is defined as the presence of urinous materi- als in the sweat, such as uric acid, etc. SUDAMEN This disease is characterized by whitish blisters due to the reten- tion of sweat in the upper layers of the skin. MILARIA RUBEA This is commonly called prickly heat and is an inflammatory dis- order of the sweat glands. It makes its appearance in small red sacs, or papules, and is attended by burn- ing and itching. This usually makes its appearance in warm weather. All of these conditions should be treated by a reputable physician. However, exercise in the open air, frequent bathing, electric and vapor massage are very beneficial. Eczema Page one hundred fifty-five Lesson Twelve Subject AMPLIFIED FACIAL Embracing 1. Exercise 2. Stimulation 3. Relaxation 4. Nerves 5. Glands 6. Circulation 7. Muscles 8. Sub-vibration 9. Twin forces 10. Make up 'T'HIS treatment derives its name from the more ample and scien- tific system of exercise and manipu- lation, than has ever been given before, in any facial work, and when under- stood and practiced, we hope, will redeem much of the lost patronage that has resulted from lack of skill and the knowledge of the underlying principles of this work. In order to give a Scientific Treat- ment, one that will build up, stimulate and relax the tense nerves and tissues, it is necessary to understand some- thing of the functioning of the skin, nerves, muscles and glands, in order to give a beneficial, as well as enjoy- able, facial to your patron. The skin in itself acts as a protection to the nerves, blood vessels and glands ; also regulates the heat of the body, elimin- ates by means of the Suderiferous glands the impurities from the body ; it also absorbs fatty substances such as creams or lotions, through massage ; the skin also breathes ; it expels water and gas, and absorbs oxygen. The skin is supplied with sensory nerves, and therefore convey the sense of touch. However, the nerves have only an indirect relationship to facial exercises, they play their part in blood supply and stimulation, and are closely associated with the muscles of the face. They also convey a sense of relaxation and rest, so necessary in this work. The distribution of the nerves of the skin follows the same course as the blood vessels. However, the muscles of the face play the most important part in the facial treatment, owing to the fact that the face is pe- culiar in having attached to it many small muscles, whose movements, along with the movements of the eyes, causes the play of expressions on the face. It is the contraction of these facial muscles that cause wrinkles. The face and body are also supplied with voluntary and involuntary mus- cles. The voluntary muscles are gov- erned by the cerebro-spinal nervous system, and are controlled by the will, while the involuntary muscles are un- der the control of the sympathetic nervous system, and acts more upon the stomach and bowels and to a great degree upon the skin. Each muscle is supplied by dif- ferent arteries, and sends branches to the veins. They also act as a pad- ding for the bones and as a support to the body. They are composed of white, fibrous cords, and are respon- sible for the movements and appear- ance of the facial expressions, and therefore play a very important part in this treatment, as the manipulations are for the purpose of blood supply, which gives nourishment to the mus- cles, and in this manner keeps them in good condition. When muscles lose their elasticity wrinkles result, there- fore it is so necessary to know their location in order to work in the pro- per direction, for if you work against the muscles you pull them out of shape, or may flatten them and cause wrinkles or give the face an unnatural appearance, while proper manipulation Page one hundred fifty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL stimulates the circulation, yet this can be overdone with many of the move- ments, if one has not the correct un- derstanding of them. The correct movements can be found elsewhere in our Manual, which describes minutely the location of the muscles, and all that is necessary to give com- plete and scientific facial treatments of all kinds. It describes in detail the treatment suitable for each indi- vidual case. It also gives complete into the pores of the skin and removes the secretions as well as the dust and grime from the outer surface, after which moist heat is applied either in the form of hot towels or a vaporizer. If towels are used, three are sufficient. The next step after an application of tissue food, is to use your twin vibra- tors ; they are attached to the operat- or's hands by means of a specially constructed appliance which fits over the hands. This appliance is placed The Amplified Moler massage, twin vibrators in use treatise on other branches of the art. In giving the Amplified Facial, in which the twin vibrators are used (one vibrator works in opposition to the other) the proper amount of stimul- ation and blood supply is produced through artificial exercise rather than by the slow process of finger mani- pulation. The twin vibrators there- fore produce a more complete vibra- tion than the single, as it reaches the deep-seated blood vessels, nerves and glands, and all structures that go to make up the body. In order to give this treatment properly, it is necessary to prepare patron first, as described in Leson 13 of our Manual. Always see that patron is thoroughly relaxed and comfortable before be- ginning treatment, then cleanse the face with a good cold cream) (we use the Moler product which is a very pure cold cream) which penetrates over the second and third fingers of both hands. The deep soothing vibrations to the face are produced through the finger tips of the operator, with a firm, gentle pressure, following the outline as set forth in our Manual. Briefly, the hands are placed on the forehead, going over the Occipito Frontalis muscle, which is located at the forehead, with an upward and downward movement, from temple to temple. The Occipito muscle moves the scalp backward and the Frontalis muscle draws the scalp forward, orig- inates at the root of the nose and raises the eyebrows. You are also working over the Sinus, a hollow cav- ity in the forehead, and this action stimulates the nerve supply to the Si- nus, and in this way relieves a head- ache or cold at once. It also stimu- lates the Frontalis muscle, thereby Page one hundred fifty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL removing the lines which form on the forehead. This is followed by a deep rotary movement over the fore- head, and from temple to temple, working again to the Frontalis mus- cle ; also across the Semi Lunar Gang- lion, which supply the impulses or life to the organ ; then proceed with the exercise with an up and down movement on the temples, on the lines that radiate from the corner of the eyes back toward the hair. You are now working on the Temporal muscle ; a deep vibration should be given at this point, then permit your hands to pass over the Masseter muscle by placing them at the lower portion of the jawbone, and then move them in an upward straight movement toward the temples three times, releasing the pressure as you glide down. This stimulates the Inferior branch of the Fifth Cranial nerve and the Parotid glands, which increase the flow of saliva. However, care must be taken at this point not to overdo your work, as too much pressure could injure or bruise these glands. From this point you work back of the ear which brings you over the mastoid process. Glide your fingers back light- ly in front of the ear to the ramous of the jaw. Now work back over the lamina of the atlas to the spinous process of the axis. At this point avoid working too far down the neck as it would over stimulate the vagous nerve at the fifth cervical. Now proceed by giving a circular movement around the eyes, working over the Orbicularis Palpe- brarum muscle. This muscle controls the opening and closing of the eyes. This movement may be repeated sev- eral times, but avoid undue pressure, as it might bruise or discolor the eyes. Great care must be taken to avoid getting cream into the eyes, as it would make the patron uncomfortable. The hands are again brought down to the Ramous of the jawbone, working back and forth under the chin with a strok- ing movement, stimulating the Omo- Hyoid muscle upward in a rotary stroke, on the expression lines, work- ing on the Zygomaticus muscles, which draw the corners of the mouth up and back. The lack of natural exer- cise to this muscle is the cause of the deep lines near the corner of the mouth. Now proceed across the cheeks in a soothing stroking move- ment, over the Masseter muscle, which raises the lower jaw and presses it against the upper one. Then with a rotary movement back and forth, over the neck and chin, you stimulate the Platysma muscle and the Sublingual glands. Then move the hands back- ward to spine and back of neck, over the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid muscle, which bends the head forward to one side ; also over the Mastoid process and the Thyroid glands. Great care must be taken in working over these glands, not to over-do the exercise, as they secrete a poisonous fluid, and when over-stimulated throw this out through the system. Now place the fingers over the jaw- on each side and with a stroking move- ment of the thumbs on each side of the nose, you work down, repeating three times. Now remove the cream from the face with a dry towel or cotton and proceed as with other facial finishes. Page one hundred fifty-eight Lesson Thirteen Subject FACIALS Finger Manipulations We will proceed with this lesson. Place the customer in the chair, spread your haircloth from in front as you do for a shave, and place the towel straight across the back, tucked in over the customer's garments to protect them from the cream on the hands, while giving the manipula- tions on the back of the neck. Place a face towel over the head rest. Now recline your chair, spreading the towel diagonally over the haircloth, tucking one side in, folding it diagonally across tucking the op- posite side, making a neat protection for the garments. Now bring the towel that you have on the head rest up and around the head in this manner and pin or fasten with a clamp, which forms a protecting cap for the hair. A face to be properly treated should first be steamed, either with a hot towel or some other device, of which there are a Things to Remember A nice linen spread for a fa- cial is as essential as for a shave. The time will come when towels will not be used in fa- cial treatments. Page one hundred fifty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A professional soothing touch is to be acquired if a facial treatment is more than a face wash. number on the market. For the barber, the hot towel is generally used, and as you place the first towel over the face, ask your customer to relax and become just as passive as possible. If a shave has just been given, from two to three steam towels are used, but if not, from four to five are necessary to put the face in the proper condition, always being careful that the towels are evenly heated and to a temperature that will be comfort- able, as a towel overheated will contract the muscles rather than relax them. The towel should be quite thoroughly wrung out to avoid water running down the neck, and it is advisable to carry the towel from the basin to the customer folded in such a manner that it will retain the steam and heat, and so it will be easily unfolded and handled as you spread it over the face. Steaming the face before the manipula- tion is essential as it relaxes the muscles, opens the pores of the skin and generally puts the face in better condition to receive the treatment. I would suggest about two minutes of steaming. The selection of proper face cream is important. This is ivhere chemistry serves well. We now apply the cream, but for this manipulation it must be a cleansing cream and skin food, not a rolling cream or a van- ishing cream, as the rolling cream would roll from the skin too quickly, leaving it dry, and the vanishing cream would leave no lubricant for the manipulations. You will have in the palm of your hand, just a sufficient amount of cream to cover the Page one hundred sixty THE BARBERS' MANUAL face well before removing the towel, in or- der to apply it quickly as the towel is re- moved. You will apply the cream by first quickly rubbing the two hands together to thor- oughly spread it over the hands, then ap- ply it to the face. You will start your manipulations over the Sinus at the center of the forehead. This Sinus is a hollow or cavity in the forehead and is the part that becomes infected when one has a cold. We are now working over the Frontalis muscle in a stroking movement, down to the temple and back to the center of the forehead, re- peating this eight times on each side. This we call the Rotary Frontalis movement. This manipulation stimulates the nerve supply to the Sinus, often relieving a headache or cold at once. It also strength- ens the Frontalis muscle by bringing it back to its natural healthy condition, there- by removing the lines of the forehead that form as the muscle contracts. There is little danger of over-exercising this mus- cle. Now start with a frictional move- ment with the balls of your fingers at the temples and with a rotary frictional move- ment work your way back to the forehead, repeating this about eight times. Now with a rotary frictional movement from the temple down to the Ramous of the jaw-bone, which is working over the Masseter muscle. This exercises the Mas- seter muscle and stimulates the inferior branch of the fifth cranial nerve and the Things to Remember No exact or rigid rules can be adhered to in facial treat- ments. You must display judgement with skill. The tendency is for a face let your movements be upward, to sag. Bear this in mind and Page one hundred sixty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Diagram of facial movements for new Moler massage 1 — Rotary Frontalis. 8 — Straight Orbicularis 2 — Up and Down Frontalis. 9 — Straight Nasal. 3 — Rotary Temporal 11— Straight Thyroid. 4 — Rotary Occipito. 12 — Orris Pick Up. 6 — Rotary Platysma. 13 — Helix. 7 — Circular Orbicularis. Page one hundred sixtv-twu THE BARBERS' MANUAL Parotid gland. This is the gland that by manipulation increases the saliva of mas- tication. It is the one that is affected when one has the mumps. This manipulation we will call the Rotary Temperal and it should be repeated only about eight times. There is danger of overdoing your work at this point, as too much pressure would bruise and otherwise injure the glands, and again if this muscle is over-exercised it will give the face a stern or hard look. From this point, work with a rotary f ric- tional movement below and back of the ear, which brings your manipulation over the Mastoid Process. This gives not only a soothing effect, but is beneficial in case of inflammation at this point. We will repeat this eight times, stroking back each time with a sliding movement. In case of a headache or tired feeling, you will, from this point, work down with a rotary fric- tional movement over the Lamina of the Atlas to the back of the neck, which is manipulating the Occipito muscle. This movement we call the Rotary Occipito. We will now start again at the temple, working with a frictional rotary move- ment over the cheeks toward the nose. This is manipulating the zygomatic major and minor muscles, the two muscles lying over the cheeks, whose uses are to draw back and raise the corner of the mouth. Repeat this eight or more times according to the face. If fat, ten to twelve times will not harm and will reduce the fatty secretions, but if the face is thin, too much manipula- Things to Remember Be sure that you do not con- verse with your customer when giving a facial. A treatment without rest or relaxation is valueless. Pleasant thoughts are de- tected in the touch. Keep a smiling disposition. Page one hundred sixty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The heavy double chin is the result of high living. It denotes rich field for oper- ation. Extreme care must be dis- played in working over and around the eyes. They are easily discolored. tion on the muscles will give it too mus- cular a look. We now start at the Ramous of the jaw- bone at the point of the Parotid gland and work with a rotary frictional movement forward to the point of the chin. This is manipulating the Platysma-Myodes mus- cle which raises and lowers the chin, also the Sublingual glands that secrete the sal- iva for mastication, thus not only improv- ing the facial expression, but, if present, would remove the double chin and improve the general health of the body. In the event of a heavy double chin, you could give ten to twelve or more of these move- ments without injury to the muscles or glands, but avoid using too heavy a pres- sure as the object now is to work on the fatty portion rather than on the muscle. In the event of a fat face, generally no muscle exercise is needed, but if it were a thin face, needing a better muscle elas- ticity, the object would be to work on the muscle, but in this event repeat each move- ment only about eight times. This move- ment we call the Rotary Platysma. We now work over the eye. This is on the Orbicularis Palpebrarum muscle that opens and closes the eye, and the movement is a straight stroking movement, starting at the inner corner of the eyes, rubbing out to the outer corners over the eye-ball and in to the inner corners underneath the eye- ball, always being careful to avoid pres- sure that might discolor or allowing the cream or materials to be worked into the Page one hundred sixty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL eye. Repeat this movement about eight times. This we call the Circular Orbicu- laris. Now with the second finger and thumb of the left hand stretch the skin at the outer corners of the eye and with the first two fingers of the right hand manipulate with a vibrating movement from the cor- ner of the eye back to the ear over the Temperal muscle. This is to remove the crows-feet at the corners of the eyes and to further exercise the muscle. Repeat this about eight times, but there is little danger of injury by over-exercising at this part. This movement we call the Straight Orbicularis. Things to Remember Straight nasal. Movement No. 9 The nasal movement is next and covers a series of strokes downward from the in- ner corners of the eye down to the base of the nose, up over the lip back to the base of the nose, up to the end and straight back over the nose, continuing over each eye-brow, finishing at the outer corners of Hands must be kept flexible and under absolute muscle con- trol to give proper manipu- lation. A body masseur spends three years preparing for a license. The same skill is required in facial work. Page one hundred sixty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember We frequently see the un- trained barber removing black- heads between the thumb nails. This is malpractice. the eyes. This manipulation is with the thumbs as you see and repeat each about eight times. This assists in removing black- heads, should they be present, helps to re- move the sebaceous matter from the side of the nose, helps to reduce the expression lines and helps shape the nose. I wish to caution you here against too much pin- ching or rubbing to remove blackheads as it frequently tears the tissues which is more injurious than beneficial. This move- nent is called the Straight Nasal. Straight thyroid. Movement No. 11 Proper muscle exercise builds it up. Improper man- ipulation tears it down. Our next manipulation is from the point of the chin with both hands, down, back, under and up. This is operating on the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid muscle. This muscle's action is to rotate the head and move it forward and backward. We also manipulate over the Thyroid glands, one of the most important glands in the body. In connection with this is the motor and centuery nerves, but unless manipula- tion is properly done it may result in in- jury to the general health of your cus- Page one hundred sixty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL tomer for if the manipulation extends down too far at the back of the neck, the manipulation may be on the motor nerve that may excite the gland and cause it to discharge a poisonous secretion in the sys- tem. This movement we call the Straight Thyroid. You will now manipulate on the upper lip with a straight stroking movement from the corners of the mouth to the nose. This is exercising the Orbic- ularis Orris, the muscle that closes the lips and pushes them out. In your manipula- tion of the upper lip, be careful that you preserve the cupid's bow or natural shape of the lips by pressing with the first finger of the right hand into the hollow of the upper lip as you work with the finger and thumb on the lip. In exercising this move- ment, avoid too much pressure on either the upper or lower lip, for too continuous a pressure on the muscle would serve to flatten it, spoiling the natural shape of the mouth. This movement we call the Orris Pick-Up. Repeat about eight times. Things to Remember It is claimed that personal magnetism has much to do with the success of a treatment. This magnetism is kindly thoughts. The barber sometimes pulls and zvools and mauls his cus- tomers. This is acrobatic, not scientific. Page one hundred sixty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember There is a springtime odor to a high frequency treatment. Fresh ozone is beneficial. A lasting blemish may be the result of carelessness zvith this instrument. ELECTRIC FACIAL High Frequency This conveys electricity directly to your customer through the electrode or glass tube, and as electricity is a germicide, this instrument is especially desirable in cases of facial blemishes or skin diseases, such as Acne, Milia, Comedos, etc. High Frequency or Violet Ray, a germ destroyer Pedestal vibrator with hand attachments In giving this treatment it is necessary to move in the general direction of the nerves as electricity follows the nerves as it would an electric wire. However, if you were not to do this scientifically, the elec- tricity would jump to the nerves as it has an affinity there. But to have a knowledge of the nerves you are enabling it to operate with the nerve you seek to reach. In using the High Frequency, it must be kept constantly in motion while passing over the face, and one must be cautious not to overdo or overextend the, period of this treatment, for if the instrument were to be left in one spot too long, it would burn the tissues, and even much greater dam- Page one hundred sixty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL ages have been known as a result of ig- norance as to the handling of this instru- ment. Not over five minutes should be devoted to work with the High Frequency and the flow or current should be so regu- lated that there will be no severe stinging or burning as the electrode is placed on the face. The strength may be increased after the electrode is put to work if the customer requires it. If this precaution is taken there can be no damaging results follow- ing a treatment. We will start our treatment over the Semilunar Ganglion to the center of the forehead and back, now down over the inferior branch to the Otic Ganglion and back, now operate over the Medial branch with a rotary movement over the cheek. Now the opposite side in the same manner over the Semiluner Ganglion to the center of the forehead and back, now down over the inferior branch to the Otic Ganglion and back, then over the Medial branch in a rotary movement over the cheek, now down over the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid mus- cle, over the Thyroid glands, and the same on the opposite side. Now under the chin over the Digastric muscle. In working over the Orbicularis Palpe- brarum you soften the current by working over the fingers as we did with the vi- brator, working around the Orbicularis Orris and the nasal movement as you see. Never use the High Frequency on the back of the neck for the same reason that we do not use the vibrator. Things to Remember Test the strength of the cur- rent on your own flesh before trying it on your customer. Avoid direct contact with the electrode over the eye. Page one hundred sixty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A single vibrator is a farce if not properly manipulated. A soft rapid stroke is pre- ferred to a longer one given with less rapidity. Watch carefully the adjustment of your machine. We will use the skin food again and proceed with the vibrator. We start operation over the Sinus, working with a back and forth movement to the temple and back, which is operating over the Frontalis muscle. Do this twice and then with a rotary movement over the forehead to the temple. Continue now over the temperal muscle moving down to the Ramous of jaw-bone or Parotid gland. Now continue back to the ear three times. This is stimulating the Mastoid Process. Now move below the jaw-bone, work back and forth over the Platysma muscle and Sublingual glands. You now return and manipulate the cheek, working with a rotary movement over Zygomaticus muscle. Now to the opposite side of the face in the same manner, going over the Frontalis Temperal and Mastoid Process. Now again over the Platysma muscles, which also stimulates the Sub-lingual glands, again over the Zygomaticus muscle and sub-maxillary glands. Now we will ex- ercise the Orbicularis Palpebrarum mus- cles by placing the hand over the eye with the vibrator used in a rapid rotary move- ment to soften the vibration over the Or- bicularis Palpebrarum. Great care must be exercised that this treatment over the eyes is not heavy enough to blacken or discolor underneath the eye-ball. Page one hundred seventy THE BARBERS' MANUAL Now continue over the nose. I wish to caution you against using the vibrator di- rectly over the nose as it frequently causes the customer to sneeze. We now operate over the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid muscle by moving down and up with a rotary move- ment, repeating on each side about three times. Now work underneath the chin over the Platysma muscle in a rotary movement, re- peating about three times. Now move up to the mouth, moving across over the up- per lip and back over the under. This is exercising the Orbicularis Orris muscle. Complete by a slight manipulation of the ears. This completes the vibrator. You now complete the treatment by re- moving the cream, carefully avoiding too much pressure, but generally with an out- ward and upward movement to avoid giv- ing the face a drooping effect. You now use one or two hot towels folded and put on as we did the first ones, being careful that they are not uncomfortably hot. There is quite a little knack in placing of the hot towels that should be practiced. If simply put on to cover the face without pressing it down with the hands, it has not the same steaming effect and is less comfortable. You should, of course, always give your customer breathing space at the nose and mouth. Now we will apply the cold towels and the number will be according to your cus- tomer's wishes. Always let your customer know before applying the cold towel that Things to Remember A small piece of cotton is desirable for removing cream from the face, and it saves linen. Avoid shocking your cus- tomer with the sudden appli- cation of a cold towel. Advise him first of your intent. Page one hundred seventy-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A certain amount of make- up is desired by most men at the finish of the treatment. Do not hesitate to use the eyebrow pencil, lipstick, or rouge if your customer desires it. It is a part of modern bar- bering. you are doing this, for if he does not know of the change from the hot to cold, it is too sudden a shock. The cold towels are to close the pores and harden the tissues before the customer leaves your chair. Now the manner of general finish is ac- cording to the shop practice. An astring- ent is recommended after the cold towels, and I wish to caution you against the in- ferior grades. Lotions can contain too great a quantity of alcohol to be beneficial or so little that there is no benefit. The well-known brands are usually satisfac- tory for this purpose. After applying the lotion, the face should be carefully dried, and in this re- gard many barbers are rather careless. Not too much rubbing with the towel over the face, but rather the hand over the towel as it lays on the face is a better method, and care should be given to every part to be thoroughly dried before the powder is applied. Now as to the matter of powder, a straight talcum would be satisfactory, but as with women, so with men, a tinted and scented powder of a higher quality than straight talcum is preferred, so I suggest that you give some thought to the buying of better powders to finish your facial treatments, and use a little more care in applying them. There is something to make-up in men's facial massage as well as women's. We will now raise the chair and remove the protecting towel from the head and Page one hundred seventy-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL lather the back of the neck and wipe off with a hot towel. This is to remove the cream that may have collected on the neck from giving this treatment. Be sure and dry the neck thoroughly before applying powder. Now is the time to suggest your tonic or scalp treatment while you are go- ing over the head with a few light finger manipulations, but as it is not part of this lesson we will omit it and proceed in the combing of the hair. Careful comb- ing is as important as any other part of the barber profession, for no matter how sci- entifically your facial may have been given, if your customer is not turned out im- proved in appearance he is not satisfied. There are many other methods of giving the facial treatment, those that are put into effect for women's work, but there has been nothing devised for the barber — un- til the present — that in any way resembles a scientific treatment, and the abuse that has been imposed upon the trade has well nigh ruined one of the best paying parts of barbering. It is to be hoped the graduate will be able to reclaim this part of the profes- sional service by showing the old barber how to give scientific treatments. The Vibrator is used the same as the Violet Ray but does not convey electricity to the customer. Electricity simply furnishes the power to drive the machine. Things to Remember // you have given a good treatment, you have sold your- self to your customer and only a reminder will be necessary to sell your goods. "Tell me not in mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream, Nor the soul is dead that slum- bers, And we are what the barber makes us seem. Hand vibrator Pjge one hundred seventy-three Thirteen (Continued) Lesson Subject FACIAL TREATMENTS Things to Remember The clay pack is not bene- ficial unless the material is quite heavily applied and thor- oughly dried. Remember your customer is muscled with your face mask; do not encourage him to talk. Continued Packs n^HE facial packs are of two kinds, the clay and bleach. The application of the clay packs should be given after the face has been prepared as for cream, as previously described. We will also omit the instructions in preparing your customer and arranging your linen as this will be identically the same as the instructions set forth in our lecture on Scientific Facials. The face should be steamed and put in the same con- dition as was described to you in the les- son on facials. As soon as you apply your first steamed towel, kindly ask your customer to relax and become just as passive as possible so he will receive the full benefit of the treat- ment. Do not carry on a conversa- tion with either your customer or any one else in the shop, as you should concen- trate your whole mind on your work. Try to convey a magnetic cycle from yourself to your customer. This can be accomplished through your hands, which are the greatest instruments we have to produce a magnetic power if you will learn how to use them. Page one hundred seventy- four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember The slightest attention given to other things rather than the treatment, will be noticed by the customer, even tho the eyes arc closed Facial pack Now cover the eye-brows, eye-lashes and lips with a thin coat of cold cream or cover with a thin layer of cotton as the pack will bleach the eye-brows and lashes if it comes in direct contact with them. Spread the pack on in a heavy mask from 1/16 to 1/8 inch thick giving it a sufficient body to allow it some drawing strength and require a sufficient length of time to dry so that it will have its bleach- ing effect. It can be spread with the fingers while the face is hot, so the work should be done quickly. If your customer has time, you can let the treatment remain on until it dries of its own accord, but if it must be hurried, you can use light fanning with a towel. Do not use an electric fan. From 15 to 25 minutes should be given, but it is often lim- ited to 5 and 10 minutes. This, however, does not give the benefit that the treat- ment is intended to give. Slow drying gives the ma- terials time to do their zvork. On again, off again, out again, never comes back again. Page one hundred seventy-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember A dermal lamp consists of a colored light zvith strong re- flector. It has astringent qual- ities. A series of treatments should be sold to derive bene- fits. Drying facial pack If you wish to hasten the drying of the pack, you may use the Dermal Lamp, as the rays of the light have heating proper- ties that can be equalled by no other pro- cess. This treatment is considered one of the most beneficial that can be given and is endorsed by many leading physicians throughout the country. It stimulates the nerves and increases the circulation. You must also inform your customer that they can not expect to derive much benefit from a single treatment. But if they will take a series of treatments, of about two treatments each week for sev- eral months, they will notice astonishing results. If you were ill and would send for a physician and he would prescribe medi- cine to be taken every two hours, you could not expect a noticeable change after the first dose, but if you would follow the Page one hundred seventy-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL physicians instructions, undoubtedly you would become well. The same rule applies to our profession and it is up to the barber to convey this message to his customer. Otherwise, you will not attain the degree of success that the profession entitles you to. History tells us that clay packs were given centuries ago, but it is only in recent years that these treatments have been given scientifically, and in the past few years these treatments have increased the re- ceipts of Barber Shops and Beauty Par- lor establishments more than any other known treatment, as the public have learned to know the benefits derived from them, providing, however, they are given properly, and I ask that you follow the in- structions we set forth. Things to Remember Remember when you were a little boy and you pulled a chunk of dried mud off your leg, what a nice little pink and white spot it left. This is the principle of a clay treatment. When perfectly dry remove with a moist towel. You may lay the towel over the face to thoroughly moisten, then wipe off as you would the cream. This can be done with one towel at one operation if properly handled. Start at the forehead, remove the clay from forehead, then from nose and cheeks working down, taking all of the clay as you go. You finish under the chin with the face practically free from the treatment. Now apply one or two hot towels and then the special cold cream that goes with the treat- ment. The special cream usually is a part of the set. Don't make a muss remov- ing the clay from the face. It can be done with one towel, and that not badly soiled. Page one hundred seventy-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Avoid here severe astringent lotions. The skin is nozu ten- der. Give a light massage with the cream, then remove with the towel or paper tissue that is frequently used for this purpose, apply another hot towel and give a lotion, dry and use the powder that is a part of the set and that completes the operation. The best results are obtained where the com- plete set is used. Face Bleach A bleach is frequently desired to remove sunburn, freckles and tan, and the treat- ment is the same as for the pack just de- scribed, except that the bleach is made of an almond meal combination. About the same length of time is required to dry and the same treatment is given after it is re- moved. The formulae for these packs are given in our Manual of Beauty Culture and will be furnished to you if you desire, but the made up preparations are prefer- able to making up this formula. 77/£ Moler picture lecture given zvith with colored slides is a medical treatise worth to the thinking barber more than an entire barber course costs. In the following lesson I have tried to describe and illustrate the most common skin diseases with which the barber will come in contact. As a barber you are not expected to treat diseases but you are ex- pected to know enough about them to pre- vent the spread of contagion, thereby pro- tecting yourself and customer, and you are allowed to give such external applications as your customer may be induced to ac- cept so long as you do not interfere with laws governing the medical profession. Page one hundred seventy-eight Lesson Fourteen Subject SCALP TREATMENTS Shampooing r PHE shampoo is the most abused work in the barber shop. If a shampoo were simply to clean the hair the customer would do that at home in his bath tub, but as it is a service the customer desires as well as the cleansing of the hair and scalp, it must be looked upon as something more than a head wash. Before starting the actual work, have all materials, linen, lavatory and all ready for use that your customer will not be kept waiting with the lathered head while you prepare the linen or the basin. If the shampoo is to be given with your customer leaning forward, have a clean towel spread across the rim of the lava- tory, have the water in the shampoo faucet properly tempered, have the stool in its place for your customer to sit down, Now prepare your customer the same as you did for hair cutting and be careful that the hair-cloth does not come in con- tact with the customer's neck, and in addi- Things to Remember A shampoo is more than skin deep. When properly done, it is a service the customer is willing to pay for. An interesting experiment is to give three amplications of soap to the same head, laying a handful of lather on a piece of ivhite paper after each, and note the difference of the three pieces. Yon zvill be surprised at the results. Page one hundred seventy-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Things to Remember Care should be oivcn to the selection of materials used for the several conditions of the scalp. Note a shampoo is not a scalp treatment, but it is the prelude to one. Guard against getting soap and water into the eyes, ears, nose and mouth. Your customer may not want to hold his breath more than tzventy minutes. tion to the towel that you have used around the neck, place a small hand towel, one on each side with one edge of the towel tucked under the neck band. This not only af- fords extra protection for your customer's garments, but also protects your haircloth. In some instances the barber ties an ad- ditional towel around the neck as a pro- tection, but if one is careful this is not nec- essary. You will now ascertain what prepara- tions your customer prefers, whether it be a liquid, a soap, an tgg or other materials. When this has been ascertained, give the scalp a light massage by running the fing- ers into the hair, the hands opposite each other, and go all over the scalp with a light rubbing to loosen the dandruff, loosen the scalp and put the hair in a condition to receive the shampoo material. penetrate through the hair. COMPOUNDED HENNA '"THERE are many brands of the Compounded Henna or metallic dyes on the market. They are pro- duced under different trade names, but they are practically all compounded in the same manner and contain the same chemical mixtures. They have as their base, the nat- ural henna powder, to which chemicals such as pyrogalic acid, sulphate of cop- per, sulphate of nickel, etc., have been added, in order to procure the shades necessary to dye the hair in the dif- ferent shades in which nature has pro- duced them. The compounded hennas are consid- ered very successful on all shades of mixed grey or white hair, although the shades that are referred to as drab are very difficult to obtain with com- pounded henna. It is always advisable to use a light- er shade of compounded henna than the original shade of hair and in some instances, it is best to use several shades lighter, as the hair gradually grows darker by repeated application to the hair in retouching. Page two hundred nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL Never use the compounded hennas just as you find them upon opening the container. The manufacturers place the different ingredients in the can in layers, therefore, it is necessary to re- move same from can, place in a dry dish and crush any particles that are lumpy and thoroughly mix all ingredi- ents together before using it. It can then be replaced in can. When opening a can of compounded henna, you will find a tiny transpar- ent envelope directly under the lid. This envelope contains a fine white powder. This is the developer. The developer is not used until compound- ed henna is removed from hair, so the tiny package is put away in a secure place for later use. Never allow Henna of any kind, either Egyptian or Compounded to come directly in contact with the fire. It is always best to mix same in a double boiler or place receptacle with paste in it over a pan of hot water. This can then be placed on heater in order to keep the paste continually hot. If Egyptian or Compounded Henna pastes are applied to hair just warm or partly cold, the hair will lack the lus- ter and gloss when it is removed, that it would have if it had been applied hot. It is alsolutely necessary, there- fore, to keep the paste as hot as cus- tomer can stand it on her head, all during the process of applying it. Never recommend Black in the com- pounded henna, unless you are sure your customer really wants her hair to be as black as this shade produces. Very few people really have black hair and a dark brown shade in the compounded henna produces a shade quite as dark as most people desire. In some cases the black henna is used, but in very few instances. Before using compounded henna on grey or mixed grey hair, it is neces- sary to apply peroxide and ammonia in these proportions : 4 Tablespoonfuls peroxide 1 Teaspoon of ammonia. The object in doing this is to soften the grey hair, and make it more pli- able, as the grey hair owing to the lack of pigmentation is filled with air ves- icles. This makes it difficult for grey hair to absorb the dye, but by applying the peroxide and ammonia in portion of the powder is mixed. All of the ingredients are in the com- pounded henna, so it is only necessary to add hot water. Small portions only are mixed at a time in order to keep it hot. This amount usually suf- fices for one section, and another por- tion is mixed and applied in the same manner as described for application of Egyptian Henna until entire head has been gone over, and portons of hair to be dyed have been thoroughly sat- urated with the paste. After compounded henna has been applied in this manner, cover the head as previously described with pa- per, etc., in order to retain as much heat as possible, and allow paste to re- main on the head the required length of time, according to shade applied. If light shades are used in com- pounded henna such as light brown, light chestnut, or dark chestnut, one hour is all that is necessary to leave paste on the hair, however, if medium shade such as medium brown is used, it is necessary to leave paste on hair out hour also, but if the hair is very gray an added 15 minutes is advisable, making it one hour and fifteen min- utes in all. If dark brown is desired, it is ne- cessary to leave paste uii hair one and one-half hours ; black, two hours. However, black is rarely ever used. After compounded henna paste has been on hair, the required length of time place customer at shampoo board Page two hundred ten THE A R B E R S ' M A N U A E remove head covering- and rinse paste from hair with hot water. After paste has been removed, the developer is applied (the developer is the small transparent package that was found under the lid of can when first opened). This contains a white powder. Place this powder in a clean recep- tacle, a small pitcher is preferable, and add to it one cup full of hot water, mix well and pour this over the entire head. It is necessary to have basin in shampoo bowl, under shampoo board, to catch this rinse as it is applied to head. It is then trans- ferred from basin to pitcher and this process is repeated until it has been applied to the head at least four or five times. This developer must be kept hot while it is applied and it is often necessary to reheat it during the process. After the developer has been applied in this manner, wait five min- utes, then apply directly to hair with- out removing developer, one lather of shampoo liquid, rub, rinse well and dry hair at dryer. In using the compounded henna it is necessary to retouch the roots of the hair in about six or eight weeks just as described in the Egyptian Henna. The process for doing this with the compounded henna is also very much the same. In order to retouch the roots of the lair with compounded henna, select Page two hundred eleven the proportions previously prescribed, to (he grey hair, the vesicles are filled and in this way the five is absorbed more readily. Dye stains on face and neck can be removed either with cold cream or with peroxide and ammonia, in pro- portions previously prescribed. This is applied to the stained surface with a soft cloth. Henna stains are very easily removed but it is much more difficult to remove liquid dye stains, therefore, great care must be taken to avoid staining face or neck when ap- plying same. Very often a light ap- plication of cold cleam is applied to face and neck before dye is applied to hair. This is removed after the hair has been rived. This prevents staining the skin. However, great care must be taken when applying the cold cream to face not to get it into the edge of the hair, as it would prevent the hair from absorbing the dye. Six or eight weeks is the usual length of time that elapses, before the roots of the hairs are obliged to be retouched in Henna dyes, however, there are textures of hair that retain the dye for a much longer period of Compounded Henna. THE BARBERS' MANUAL time, therefore, the person having the dye is the best judge of how often it is obliged to be renewed. •Should the Egyptian Henna or Com- pounded Henna result in too dark a shade, this can be remedied by apply- ing the following mixture to the dark spots or all over the head if necessary. Mix a paste of Egyptian Henna Pow- der and peroxide, use a good grade of commercial peroxide, make a creamy paste. Do not use water. Apply this paste cold to the parts that are too dark. Allow this to remain on the hair from 20 to 30 minutes, then remove with hot water. If not sufficiently light, repeat 24 hours after. If not familiar with a dye that is to be applied, always read directions. All Henna dyes require three days to fully develope the shade. It is not always necessary to use the contents of an en- tire box of compounded henna. Very often when the roots of the hair are to be retouched, a very small amount will suffice, however, always remove com- pounded henna from can and mix as previously described, replace in can and use only the amount necessary to do the work, replacing the balance in can and put aside for future use. the shade previously used on hair, prepare customer in same manner as. described for dye, take position at right of customer and apply neutral- izer to roots of hair. After 15 min- utes, shampoo head and apply com- pounded henna to roots only as de- scribed in touching up roots of hair with Egyptian Henna. Great care must be taken in the ap- plication of the paste to the roots not to allow it to overlap onto the hair that has been previously dyed, as it will cause a dark streak to form where roots and ends join. Be sure to place wax papers between each strand im- mediately after applying paste, to further prevent paste from coming in contact with previously dyed hair. After the Compounded Henna has been applied to roots in this manner paper or cloth is applied to head to retain heat, as previously described. Compounded Henna Paste is allowed to remain on roots according to shade just as previously explained in apply- ing to long hair, then proceed further in the following manner : place cus- tomer at shampoo board, remove head covering, also wax paper from be- tween strands of hair. Rinse paste from roots with hot water, apply de- veloper as previously described and after five minutes apply liquid sham- poo. Give thorough rubbing, rinse well and dry. After this remove stains from customer's neck and face, etc., and hair can be curled and dressed. Page hvo hundred twelve THE BARBERS' MANUAL LIQUID DYE TN preparing customer for liquid dye A arrange as directed in Henna dye. Start application by dividing hair in medium thin strands from crown to forehead, parallel with center part, dip tooth brush in dye, saturating same well with liquid, shake gently over saucer and press brush along edge to remove superfluous dye from brush, then convey same to part in hair, applying dye by firm pressure downward towards ends of hair with brush. Never give rotary movement as it tangles hair and does not dis- tribute dye evenly. After dye has been applied to strand in this manner, on outer side, turn strand over so under side is exposed, apply the dye to this portion in the same manner. One strand after an- other can be treated in this way. When dye has been applied to one section, comb through hair thoroughly, from scalp toward ends many times, until dye is well distributed and all hair is thoroughly moistened, otherwise the hair is liable to be streaked. If hair is very long and needs to be dyed the full length, apply the dye sparingly to ends as directed, with brush. After this, loop or pin up section, and proceed to the next one. It is very important to remember, that liquid dyes are not to be applied to head too generously, always draw brush along edge of receptable, to re- move some of the dye before apply- ing to hair, as a very small amount LIQUID DYES ""THERE are many liquid dyes on the market, in fact, too many to enu- merate all of them. Some are aniline dyes, others are mineral dyes, also hair restorers. Restorers do not im- mediately change the color of the hair, but by repeated applications the grey hair is dyed to the natural shade. The liquid hair dyes are always applied with a clean tooth brush. In most instances, it is necessary to shampoo and dry the hair before the dye can be applied, as the hair must be free from oil and dirt. However, there are hair dyes on the market that are applied to the soiled hair, but only a few are applied in this way. In using liquid dye only, pour a small amount of dye in a clean recep- tacle at a time, as it very soon evapor- ates, and when exposed to the light for any length of time, deteriorates. It is very important that you read the in- structions given with each package of dye, as there are many methods that are similar but each have some varia- tions in preparation for application. Some liquid dyes come in two bot- tles, one marked "A" and the other Liquid Dye in sets. Page two hundred thirteen THE BARBERS' MANU A I . "B", or 1 and 2. In some cases the bottle marked A or No. 1 is applied to vine hair first, the hair is dried, after »vhich the bottle marked B or No. 2 is applied in the same manner and the hair is dried after the last application also. However, there are also liquid dyes that come in a container holding a number of small bottles. Half of these are marked "A" and half are marked "B." The advantage in divid- ing it into small bottles is this, very o ten it is only necessary to use a very •in ill amount of dye, as for instance, ze'ien retouching the roots of the hair, or when only slightly grey about the luce, therefore, only the amount neces- sary to do the work is opened. The balance of the dye is left intact to be used at some future time. In this way, no dye is wasted, as would be if in a large bottle, for dyes deteriorate if opened or exposed to the light or air. In using the dye just mentioned, while the bottles are also marked "A" and "B", there is only one application necessary to the hair in order to dye it, as the contents of one "A" bottle and one "B" bottle arc placed in a of dye applied to hair with a firm pressure of the brush, is much more effective than if a greater amount were used and it would be allowed to drip to ends. If this is permitted, the ends become dry and brittle and soon break off and shows the detri- mental effects of applying too much dye. In applying the dye to the hair, it is advisable to apply same to the front sections of the hair first, then proceed to the back sections, until en- tire head has been treated in this man- ner, then dry at dryer. Advise cus- tomer to return in 24 hours and have hair set. If the liquid dye is used, which comes in small bottles before men- tioned, the procedure is just a little different. Select the shade desire, prepare customer as before men- tioned. Do not shampoo at this time but prepare neutralizer composed of 4 tablespoonfuls peroxide, 1 tea- spoonful ammonia. Place this in small receptacle and apply same to all grey hair with tooth brush, permit this to remain on the hair for 15 min- utes. If not dry, dry with dryer, then proceed in the following manner : loop up sections of hair, mix one "A" bottle and one "B" bottle in saucer, as previously described. Apply to hair as just explained, then allow dye to remain on hair from 20 minutes to half an hour, after which customer is placed at shampoo board and hair is shampooed. It is best to apply liquid Page tzvo hundred fourteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL shampoo directly to hair before water is applied, the chemical action of the soap directly on the dye has a ten- dency to distribute the dye more even- ly and will improve the appearance of the hair. After shampoo liquid has been thoroughly rubbed into hair, rinse well with hot water and dry. Remove stains from face and neck. The hair can be curled immediately after this dye has been applied. Some liquid dyes of ancient vin- tage are still on the market, and are obliged to be "set" 24 hours after they have been applied. The object in set- ting such dyes is to remove the su- perfluous dye from the hair which if left in the hair soon breaks and splits it. It is also to prevent the dye from rubbing off on anything it comes in contact with. It is never necessary to set a dye that is shampooed the same day that it is applied. In the more recent liquid dyes that are referred to as peroxide dyes, this is not necessary. When setting a dye, prepare cus- tomer as for a shampoo. Place her at shampoo board, rinse hair well with hot water until the water runs away clear, then apply a salt rinse composed of 1 tablespoonful of salt to 1 quart of hot water. Pour this over the head four or five times, then rinse same out with hot water. If hair seems at all stiff or sticky, give citric rinse as described in shampoo lesson. receptacle and mixed together and ap- plied to the hair. This is a much quicker way to do the work, as it saves time where only one application is nec- essary. There is also a dye that is used as the one just described, but there is a substitute for the contents of the "B" bottle which comes in a solidified form being made into tablets instead of the liquid. In using this type of dye, each tablet contains the same ingredients as bottle marked "B" in the liquid form. The tablet is allowed to dissolve in the receptacle in which the bottle of liquid marked "A" has been placed. There are also dyes on the market that come in only one bottle and neces- sitate only one application, while others come in two bottles and the different shades desired are obtained by adding different proportions of water. The di- rections for all of these are found in the box containing the dye. If, after dyeing a head of hair with liquid dye, the shade is found to be slightly darker than desired, it can be removed by applying peroxide, but do not put ammonia in the peroxide. Al- Pagc tivo hundred fifteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL low this to dry naturally, do not use hair dryer. If it is still too dark after first application, repeat in 24 hours. Frequent hot oil treatments at shampooing time are recommended for dyed hair, as it prevents the hair from becoming harsh and preserves the lus- ter. Hair can be waved or curled af- ter it has been dyed, if a dye has been applied that requires the hair to be shampooed the same day, it is applied, otherwise it is necessary to wait 24 hours, then set the dye as described elsewhere in this article, before it is safe to use hot irons on the hair. HAIR DYE 20 Grs. nitrate of silver 2 Grs. sulphite of copper Q. S. ammonia Q. S. distilled water. Dissolve the salts in V2 oz. water and add ammonia until the precipi- tate which is formed is redissolved. Then make up to 1 oz. with water. Apply to the hair with old tooth or nail brush. This solution slowly gives a brown shade. For darker shades ap- ply a second solution composed of — 2 Drs. yellow sulphide ammonia 1 Dr. solution of ammonia 1 Oz. distilled water. DYEING SWITCHES OR HAIR PIECES A LL hair that has not the natural "^ oils of the scalp to preserve the color, gradually fade, therefore, it is often necessary to dip or dye false pieces and switches after they have been worn for a while. For dark shades of brown or black, use one cup of black tea, a small piece of copperas, about size of large navy bean, cover this with three or four cups of hot water, place on stove and let it come to a boil, strain, then place switch, etc., that has been previously washed but is still damp, in this hot liquid. Allow it to remain until de- sired color is obtained, then remove same from dye, hang up by loop to dry. Allow every part of hair to hang free so air can reach it from every side. After it has been dried in this way, rinse out well with hot water and dry. If drab shades are desired in dip- ping switches, add a small amount of Pyrogallic acid to the tea and cop- peras liquid. If light drab is desired, use Pyrogallic acid alone. Often in dark shades it is neces- sary to dry the hair and re-dip sev- eral times. All hair must be cleansed before it is dipped. Extra hair pieces, especially if ventilated, should not be washed in water, but gasoline, or a cleaning fluid used for that purpose. Great care must be exercised in doing this as the net in which the hair is woven is liable to be torn, if not care- fully handled. Page two hundred sixteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL HAIR BLEACHING pREPARE customer for bleach by giving shampoo, etc., as for hair dye. Divide hair in small strands from crown to forehead across the sections of hair. Apply bleach to hair with tooth brush, using a firm pres- sure during the application. When removing toothbrush from recep- tacle, shake bleach from brush and press brush against edge of recep- tacle to avoid having too much per- oxide on brush. If the hair is bleached for the first time, apply the bleach from roots to ends of hair. Great care must be taken not to have ends too wet, as it would make them lighter. Apply the bleach in this manner to entire head, strand by strand. As one section is finished, loop or pin it up out of the way. After this has been done, loosen hair and let it hang free, place cus- tomer at dryer and dry the hair thor- oughly. Hair must be dried thor- oughly after each application of bleach before the next one is applied. Now you have finished the first ap- plication of bleach. If the hair is the desired shade, it can be waved and dressed, if it is not as light as cus- tomer desired it to be, after drying hair, remove tangles, divide in four sections as previously stated, and re- peat the application as described. This BLEACHING TF a lighter shade of hair is desired the hair must be bleached instead of dyed. It depends on the original or basic shade of hair, how many appli- cations of bleach is necessary to pro- duce a blond shade of hair. Peroxide and ammonia are always used for the purpose of bleaching the hair. It is by repeated applications of bleach that a dark head of hair is gradually turned to blond. When bleach is applied to dark shades of hair, it becomes auburn first, but by conitnued applications of bleach it gradually becomes a blond or golden shade. If the natural shade of hair is light brown or chestnut, it requires only one or two applications of bleach to make a decided difference in the shade. One of the most important points to re- member in bleaching the hair is that once the desired shade has been ob- tained never apply the bleach to that part of the hair again, as bleach never wears off. It is not like dye. Once the shade has been obtained, it is only IfPIDE OF HYDROIB tatox Chemical a.': ,«»! VOSK CHICS" Peroxide of Hydrogen. Page two hundred seventeen THE BARPERS" MANUAL necessary to retouch the roots of the hair, as they grow out. Bleaching is not injurious to the hair, if it is not repeatedly applied to the entire head when it is only neces- sary to retouch the roots. Do not at any time use too much ammonia in connection with the peroxide, as it is very injurious to the hair when used to excess. However, a small amount is always necessary in bleaching as it in- tensifies the action of the peroxide on the hair. The hair is always a little lighter the following day after bleach- ing. In bleaching dark shades of hair to a blond shade, it is necessary to apply the peroxide and ammonia as often as four or five times in order to get the hair to a blond shade. When shampooing a head of hair that has been bleached, always use a citric rinse after shampoo, as explained in the lesson on rinses, otherwise the hair will be sticky. The formula for the bleach is as fol- lows : 4 Tablespoonfuls of peroxide 1 Teaspoonful of ammonia. WHITE HENNA This consists of either Talcum powder or some similar powder and is used as a base for liquid bleach in touching up the roots of hair that has been previously bleached. It prevents bleach from running down into the ends of the hair. It can be prepared by placing 1 teaspoonful of White Henna in a china recep- tacle and adding to it enough 14 or 17 volume Peroxide of Hydrogen and a few drops of ammonia to make a creamy paste. This is ap- plied to the roots of the hair with a tooth brush. It is permitted to re- main on the hair from 15 to 30 min- utes according to shade desired. It is then rinsed out with warm water. Citric rinse is applied and if hair is not desired shade, repeat. is done as many times as necessary until desired shade is obtained. When necessary to retouch as the hair grows out, give customer sham- poo, after shampoo apply a citric rinse to the hair, dry hair thoroughly and proceed in the following manner: Remove tangles from hair and divide in four sections and loop up if hair is long. Divide hair in strands. Pre- pare bleach as previously described, then proceed by applying same with toothbrush to the dark part of the hair or roots only, beginning at the scalp and moving brush downward. Do not overlap the bleach onto the part previously done. Be very care- ful not to have the tooth brush too wet when applying the bleach as it is liable to run down into the ends or the part of the hair that was previously bleached, and this must be avoided. Continue in this manner until the bleach has been applied to the entire head at the roots only. After this place customer at dryer. After the hair has been thoroughly dried, re- peat the application as described as many times as necessary in order to have roots the exact color of the ends or that part of the hair which has been previously bleached. Be sure to dry thoroughly after each application before next one is repeated. After the desired shade has been obtained, hair can be waved. Page two hundred eighteen ETHICS AND SALESMANSHIP / T V HE barber, no matter how good a mechanic he may have become, is not a finished trades- man of the high salaried calibre until he has learned and put into efTect the ethics of good barber- ing and salesmanship. There is a vast difference be- tween the grafter, so often re- ferred to in connection with bar- bering, and the learned salesman. Therefore, the scrutinizing em- ployer of today has learned to distinguish and select his men ac- cordingly. Grafters employ methods of obtaining big checks, that would not be tolerated in the well con- ducted shop, whereas the sales- man puts into effect a business- like principle. The grafter forces upon his customer his services in a manner intended to deceive him. He may give all the serv- ice at his command to a sleeping customer, and charge him for it, or he may try to make it appear that he is giving some special service, intimating that he is showing a favor to the patron, but always charges for it. He may use any number of tricks to increase the receipts, but, of course, he cannot con- tinue in the same shop or on the same patron indefinitely, for that reason the grafter is generally a rover, where the real salesman builds up a trade for his services, and has a following that becomes his stock in trade. To become a salesman, you should study your customer as he comes to your chair. There are many points about people that reveal their character, and you will soon learn how to discover them. It is not good barbering or salesmanship to immediately launch into the topics of the day with your customer, unless he shows a desire for conversation, and then always let him lead. Be a good listener rather than a good talker. If he shows an inclination to converse, he gives you an oppor- tunity to lead up to the subjects you wish to approach, but it should be done very tactfully. If, for example, your customer, upon taking the chair, leans back for a shave, do not hesitate or argue the point of a haircut, but go directly about the work he at the time desires. He may have in mind finding out whether you are a good shaver before he risks a haircut. It has become customary in all shops to use special lotions at a special price, but it is not sales- manship to apply and charge without instruction or permission from the patron. If you sense as the customer takes the chair, that he may be open for sugges- tions, you may call to his atten- Page tzvo hundred nineteen THE BARBERS' MANUAL tion, during the period that you are working upon him, other things you have for sale such as the massage, the haircut or the different treatments, but, if you sense by his firm or determined appearance, that he is a man who knows what he wants and will ask for it, you should try to lead up to the subject in some other manner. For example, if your customer seems to be hard to please, you must try to please him by giving him special attention, and gain his goodwill before approaching the subject of further service. If he complains, and you show a desire to please, you may gain his continued patronage and be able to sell him a bigger bill later. In any event, the discriminat- ing man is one whose acquaint- ance should be cultivited, for he is generally the money man, able and willing to pay for more and better service. If you sense, as your customer approaches your chair, that he is going to be easy and will take most anything you offer, one that would be meat for the graft- er, be cautious also with this in- dividual lest you sell him more than he can afford, thereby caus- ing him to seek a cheaper place or one without the strong arm method. In all events, you must be first sold on the article yourself before you can successfully offer it to others. If you offer a tonic, know what it contains and the good it will do, and convey that knowledge to your customer. If you offer a treatment, know the benefits of that treatment and in giving it, give the benefits. If you are selling your services in- stead of a piece of goods, make your services of quality; make them worth all you are asking that you may honestly approach the customer again for re-sale or have the benefits of his recom- mendation to someone else. In addition to your services, which includes all of the work be- ing done, there are many articles you can handle profitably and to better advantage than anywhere else. Suppose you have used a tonic that is pleasing, you have an opportunity to sell a bottle and should have it close at hand to show, and your check tab handy, that you may add to the other work you have done, enabling the customer to pay the cashier the entire check at once. If you fail to interest your cus- tomer in a purchase at the first attempt, do not be discouraged. The man who can present an ar- ticle again and again, each time with a smile, will win the ad- miration of many. Yet, the sales- man must not insist. Keeping the customer's mind on what the goods will do, is important, rather than dwelling on the ar- ticle itself and the price. Page tzvo hundred twenty THE BARBERS' MANUAL The barber is generally deal- ing with a customer who is lo- cated in the immediate neighbor- hood, and to know and be able to converse with the customer on his own goods, is of great value. Your customer may be a haber- dasher and may be patronizing the shop or a particular barber for the sake of return patron- age or reciprocity. For this reason, it is important that the barber know as much about his customer as possible, and most important of all, learn the cus- tomer's name, if possible, the first visit without asking him direct. This may be obtained frequently from the porter or the manager. To be able to speak a customer's name, will please the hard-boiled customer more than any other one thing the barber can do, and it often clinches the sale to be able to speak the customer's name during the conversation. It is barber shop ethics, in all well regulated shops, for all bar- bers to rise and stand by their chairs as the customer enters, showing thereby that you are willing to serve him and that he may take his choice of the sev- eral workmen. Do not stare the customer out of countenance in trying to induce him to take your chair. Simply speak his name pleasantly, if you know him, and let him decide. Remember at all times, that you are not doing the customer a favor by waiting upon him. or rendering him a service. He is paying a good price for what he receives and is entitled to all the service he de- mands. If the "hard-to-please" cus- tomer takes your chair, do your best to be affable. If he asks for a shave, do not suggest im- mediately a haircut, even though he may need it. That sugges- tion may come after the first services have been rendered. Al- ways assure your customer, as he makes a complaint, that you will remedy it and do not stop there, do it. Do not argue and do not converse with the other barbers or customers while wait- ing upon the "discriminating" one, and, very important, don't assume a lofty air. The barber who wants it to be known that he knows his business and is ready to tell his customer "where he gets off at" will soon find him- self looking for another job or looking for patrons, if he con- ducts his own shop. Don't for- get the customer is the man who is really paying your salary or rent. Another form of salesmanship is that of silent action. As the "hard-to-please" customer takes your chair, you need not attempt to converse, but immediately start your sale by your action. The promptness with which you start the task, the courtesy in every movement, the conspicu- Page tzvo hundred twenty -one THE BARBERS' MANUAL ousness by which you sterilize your instruments, the absolute cleanliness of the shop linen and one's personal appearance, will sell more service than any amount of argument. Make a display of washing your hands, and of sterilizing every instru- ment, and the customer will be impressed. The ethics of every well regu- lated barber shop, prohibits smoking by the workmen in the shop, but in the event that you have stolen a whiff from your cigarette during your working hours, be sure no trace or smell is left on your fingers to annoy your customer. The psychology of selling is nothing more than a clear un- derstanding of the customer's desires. The object of any sales- man, which in this instance, is a barber, is to arouse the custom- er's interest to the extent that he will purchase. The means of sell- ing a haircut may be the appear- ance of the one you have just completed, or it may be the means of your failure to sell your next haircut, if the one you have just turned out is displeasing to the one who is waiting. You may sometimes improve your sales by appealing to the senses. In addition to a pleas- ing fragrance, you may speak to the traveling salesman of the loved ones at home, who would be pleased with a bottle of perfume. A neat manicure set for the sten- ographer, even a safety razor for home-service, is right in line with the barber salesman. Those who are broad enough to compre- hend that the self shaver may be made the means of profit to the barber, will sell the instrument or the blades, and thereby get the more profitable part of the busi- ness, the haircut and its addition. There is an attractive little in- dividual electric sterilizer now on the market, that the advanced barber may display on his work- stand in appealing to the custom- er's sense of cleanliness. A little fountain of boiling, bubbling, steaming water, in con- stant play, into which every in- strument is dipped before being put into use, will attract more customers than most any other one appeal you can make. The old order of things in bar- berism is passing and the manner of loudly calling "next" to the waiting patron, is being discard- ed. Each shop may have its method of keeping track of the one who is next, but whatever may be the method, it is one that will signal or make a personal quiet announcement rather than the noisy "next," we have for- mely heard. The well regulated shop of to- day, takes on the appearance of a parlor with well-kept reception room rather than the loafing place with the noisy, boisterous Page tzvo hundred twenty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL individual, and the shop that is properly cared for, will receive the patronage of the mother and the little child, whose influence goes a long way toward sending dad to the shop she patronizes. The barber's place, while not engaged at the chair, is on the seat provided for him at his workstand, and he should not al- low himself to become so engaged in reading or in preparing his tools, that he fails to watch the door and observe the approach of each customer. He should not occupy the waiting chairs in- tended for patrons. Barbers sometimes violate the ethics of good barbering by rather turning their back on the discriminating customer as he enters the shop, even though he stands up at his chair to meet the demands of the proprietor. The barber who tries in this man- ner to pick out the good jobs or the easy work, will soon find him- self out of work or working for a salary only, without the com- mission and the tips that are the real velvet of the job, and he has earned the enmity of the honest barber who is taking them as thev come. Page two hundred twenty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL TO PER CENT $ | .05| .10| .16| .20| .26| .30| .36| .40| .46 1 .60| .66 1 .60| .66[ .70| .76| .80| .86| .90| .95| 1.00 $26|17.63|17.57|17.60| 17.64 117.67|17.71|17.74| 17.78|17.81|17.86il7.88| 17.92|17.95|17.99|18.02| 18.06|18.09|18.13|18.16|18.20 $26|18.23|18.27|18.30| 18.34|18.37il8.41|18.44| 18.48|18.61|18.65[18.68| 18.62|18.66|18.69|18.72| 18.76|18.79|18.83|18.86|18.90 $27|18.93|18.97!19.00|19.04|19.07|19.11|19.14|19.18|19.21!19.26|19.28|19.32|19.35!19.39|19.42|19.46|19.49|19.63|19.66|19.60 $28|19.63|19.67|19.70| 19.74|19.77|19.81|19.84| 19.88 119.91 ] 19.96 1 19.98 1 20.02 20.05 [20.09 [20.12 1 20.16|20.19|20.23|20.26|20.30 $29 i20.33 120.37 120.40 1 20.44 [20.47 120.61 |20.54| 20.68 120.61 120.66 120.68 1 20.72 20.75|20.79|20.82 1 20.86 120.89|20.93 J20.96j21.00 $30i21.03|21.07 [21.101 21.14|21.17121.21|21.24|21.28|21.31|21.36|21.38|21.42!21.46|21.49121.62|21.66|21.69|21.63|21.66|21.70 $31|21.73[21.77j21.80| 21.84|21. 87|21.91|21.94|21.98[22.01|22.05|22.08|22.12i22.15[22.19|22.22|22.26|22.29|22.33j22. 36|22.40 $32 122.43 [22.47 122.60 1 22.64 [22.67 22.61|22.64| 22.68 122.71 [22.76 [22.78 1 22.82 [22.85 [22. 89|22.92| 22.96 [22.99 123.03 23.06|23. 10 $33|23.13|23.17|23.20|23.24!23.27|23.31|23.34|23.38|23.41[23.46[23.48|23.52[23.55|23.59i23.62|23.66[23.69[23.73[23.76|23.80 $34 123.83 123.87 123.90| 23.94 123.97 [24.01 124.04| 24.08 [24.11 124.16 [24.18 1 24.22 [24.25 [24.29[24.32| 24.36 [24.39 [24.43 124.46|24.60 $36124.53124.67124.601 24.64|24.67 124.71 124.74| 24.78[24.81[24.85|24.88|24.92|24.96[24.99[25.02|25.06 l 25.09 l 25.13!26.16;26.20 $3626.23 [26.27 125.30| 26.34|25.37 |26.41|25.44|26.48126.61|25.66i25.58|25.62[25.65125.69!25.72|26.76[25.79!25.83[25.86|25.S0 $37i26.93i25.97126.00|26.04|26.07|26.11|26.14|26.18i26.21|26.25|26.28|26.32126.35|26.39i26.42|26.46[26.49[26.63|26.66!26.60 $38 [26.63 [26.67 126.70 1 26.74 [26.77 [26.81 126.84 1 26.88 126.91 126.95 [26.98 1 27.02 [27.05 127.09 [27.12 1 27.16 127.19|27.23|27.26 127.30 $39 [27.33 127.37 [27.40 1 27.44 [27.47 [27.61 127.54| 27.68 127.61|27.65 [27.68 1 27.72 [27.75 [27.79 [27.82 1 27.86 [27.89 127.93 127.96 128.00 $40i28.03i28.07|28.10|28.14!28.17|28.21|28.24|28.28|28.31|28.35[28.38| 28.42 [28.45 [28.49 28.62 [ 28.66 [28.69 128.63 [28.66 [28.70 $41 [28.73 28.77 j28.80 1 2B.84(28.87 [28.91 [28.941 28.98 129.01 I29.06j29.08 1 29.12|29.15[29.19;29.22| 29.26|29.29[29.33|29.36j29.40 $42 129.43 129.47 129.50 1 29.64 129.67 [29.61 129.64 1 29.68 129.71 [29.76 129.78 1 29.82 [29.86 [29.89 [29.92 1 29.96 [29.99 130.03 130.06 [30.10 $43[30.13[30.17|30.20| 30.24130.27 (30.31 130.34| 30.38 130.41|30.45 [30.48 1 30.52!30.55[30.59[30.62[ 30.66[30.69[30.73j30.7630.80 $44 130.83 [30.87 130.90| 30.94 [30.97 [31.01 31.04 | 31.08|31.11|31.16|31.18| 31.22|31.26|31.29|31.32| 31.36|31. 39|31.43|31.46[31.50 $46[31.63 31. 67 131.60| 31.64(31.67 131.71|31.74| 31.78|31.81|31. 85 31.88 1 31.92131.95(31.99(32.021 32.06(32.09|32.13|32.16(32.20 $46(32.23132.27 32.30| 32.34(32.37[32.41|32.44| 32.48 i32.51i32.6539.681 32.62|32.65 32.69 32. 72| 32.76(32.79(32.83 32. 86|32. 90 $47 132.93 [32.97 [33.00| 33.04[33.07 [33.11 [33.14| 33.18,33.21 [33<26[33.28( 33.3233.35 33.39(33.42| 33.46;33.49(33.63;33.56i33.60 $48 133.63 [33.67 [33.70| 33.74 (33.77 133.81|33.84| 33.88 [33.91 (33.95 [33.98 1 34.02[34.06[34.09 34.12| 34.1634.19 34.23 34.26134.30 $49[34.33|34.37 134.40| 34.44 134.47[34.61|34.64|34.58[34.61|34.65[34.68|34.72[34.75|34.79[34.82| 34.85(34.8934.93(34. 96|35.00 $60|36.03|36.07 [36.10! 36.14[35.17|36.21|35.24[ 35.28[35.31(35.35j36.38[ 36.42 135.45 (35.49(35.62 1 35.56(35. 5935. 63136.66136. 70 BUGIPJIVIIVO. BUSINESS RECORD FOR WEEK lO BNDING_ RECEIPTS Month i8T. chair 2ND. CHAIR 3RD. CHAIR ATM. CHAIR 6TH. CHAIR 6TH. CHAIR MANICURE 4 BATHS SUMC-BIES A CIGARS SHINES DAILY TOTALS Date Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday. Thursday.^ Friday, Saturday, Sunday, Totals Salaries The above tables are reduced reproductions from a book adaptable to barber shop bookkeeping, and not only provides for the weekly receipts but has a complete table of percentages that saves much figuring in paying off barbers who are paid on a salary and commission basis. This book may be ordered through the Moler Supply House, 512 N. State Street, Chicago, Illinois. The following article is taken from the Moler Manual of Beauty Culture and is given here for thei enlightenment of a barber who may desire to estab- lish a beauty parlor in connection with his barber shop. The advice given regarding the selection of a location is also adaptable to the selection of a barber shop, and it is worth careful consideration. Page tzvo hundred twenty-four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Establishing Business SELECTION OF LOCATION TT is suggested that one just graduating from a school of Beauty Culture or an apprentice- ship in a parlor, devotes some time to the work as an operator before establishing her own busi- ness, at least until a "following" or a number of customers are se- cured who prefer her services to that of others. There is likely to be a financial loss in a new shop at the start and this can be overcome by working as an operator a suffi- cient length of time to have ac- quired a follow-up. When one has decided to estab- lish business for themselves, the first and most important question is the location. It is not good business to expect to buy anoth- er's trade even when purchasing her shop, for the good will of a business can not be transferred. Some very good advice is of- fered on this subject by Wm. H. Connelly in Modern Beauty Shop as follows : Population an Important Factor What size and type of town will support a beauty shop? is a question for a prospec- tive shop owner to ask when considering locating in a small town. An analysis of several thousand shops and towns by Mod- ern Beauty Shop has led to the conclusion that rarely can a town of less than 5,000 justify the time and money of a woman who has learned her trade well, and in the ma- jority of cases 5,000 is too small a population upon which to build a really profitable busi- ness. Under normal circumstances the town of 15,000 or over is the safest venture for a new beauty shop. On the other hand, a very small place that is little more than a village may be a good location, provided it is con- tiguous to several other small to.vns or is a thoroughfare for much travel between towns. If there is much automobile travel through the town, a beauty shop can get a percentage of women who are tired and dusty from travel and welcome the opportunity to fresh- en up in the beauty shop. If a town is small, but a good trade cen- ter, that is another argument that may in- fluence the beauty shop to locate there. Suc- cess depends on the number of prospects that can be reached. If, for instance, a town is a thriving trade center, but the women who come into the town are not the type who patronize beauty shops, there is little encour- agement in such a town for the beauty shop. On the other hand, if there are a number of smart shops that cater to women, and much trade is attracted from the country round about, the beauty shop has a good chance. Amusements and Transportation Amusements may also be a factor in draw- ing customers to the beauty shop. Theaters, community centers, boarding schools, high schools and country clubs are centers that contribute to the beauty shop, and a town thus favored promises a good business lo- cation. Transportation is not as big a factor as it formerly was, because the automobile is in such universal use. However, it is advisable to select a location, either in the city or out of it, that has good transportation facilities. If the town is a small one and there is a good interurban system, the town's popula- tion may be virtually multiplied by several thousand. A railroad center will bring a certain amount of transient trade. If there is a good theater, and stock companies and other theatrical troupes come to the town, the women of such companies will increase beauty shop patronage. In the city, intersecting street car lines, elevated and bus service all have a bearing on the volume of business. Residence Neighborhood There is much to be said in favor of the residence location in the city. An exclusive suburban district, where people own their own homes or where there are high-priced apartments, will almost certainly offer a good location. Patronage will mostly come from high school girls, society girls and house- Pagc two hundred twenty-five THE BARBERS' MANUAL Beauty Parlor booth equipment. wives. These classes like to have their beauty work done near home in the majority of cases, as they usually go out in the evening and like to dress at their leisure. They can- not go down town in an evening dress and they do not like to go down town to get their hair done and return home to dress. So the neighborhood shop will get much of the neighborhood trade if equipped to give really high-class, competent service. Then, of course, Saturday afternoon will bring in a good many business girls who prefer to come home and get their beauty work done close at home, especially if they are going out in the evening. If there is much competition, however, in the neighbor- hood, it is not advisable to open a shop there, for the neighborhood shop has to depend ex- clusively on the patronage of the neighbor- hood — there are no contril iting areas as a rule that the neighborhood shop can tap. A business-like method of as- certaining the value of the neigh- borhood is to take a daily check of the passersby for a time. The number of pedestrians, however, cannot always be figured at the same ratio, for in some neighbor- hoods there would be more men than women and vice versa. There is frequently a good deal of debate in the mind of the shop owner as to whether a street lo- cation is not more advantageous than an upstairs shop. There is no denying that a shop located on the ground floor of the building has some advantages over the up- stairs shop, inasmuch as it at- tracts a certain amount of transit trade. However, ground floor locations and window displays are not so important in the beauty business as in one where a tan- gible product is sold. Page two hundred tzventy-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL EQUIPMENT Next in importance is equip- ment and it may be well said that a Beauty Operator is no better than her equipment, at least noth- ing is more helpful to the success of an establishment than equip- ment. One may become a first class operator, but without the sur- roundings and environments to carry out the higher class cff service that this profession de- mands, the learning of the work alone is largely a lost effort. After having become satisfied that the location warrants a first class establishment, ventilation, light, excess', window display, color scheme, wall decorations, floor covering and general ar- rangement is to be taken into con- sideration. Of the latter, a careful study is necessary that the greatest amount of work can be accom- plished with the least effort, the saving of a step from one depart- ment or booth to another, means a wonderful saving at the end of the year, and if €t number of steps can be saved in a single treatment, it means the reducing of overhead expenditures, just as other savings do. The day is passed when the operator of limited means can establish herself in competition to the larger establishments and obtain patronage, for the great public, zvho is the paymaster, de- mands the best, not only in real service, but in comfort and beauty of equipment. Many states have enacted laws governing Beauty Specialists and many of them have eliminated en~ tirely the home operator, who in her kitchen sink m'ay give the shampoo and in her parlor other treatments that do not loan them- selves to family surroundings. Beauty business is one that pays well and warrants bigger invest- ments and better surroundings than may have been considered necessary in the past, so it is ad- visable, if one is not financially able to start a well appointed par- lor, be it ever so small, to find employment in some of the bet- ter places and defer the proprie- torship until able to do the thing right. After the floor plan has been laid out, the most important fit- tings rs the workroom or booth, and it is highly essential that each operator be given an individual booth, one equipped with every- thing necessary for doing all the work so the customer need net be disturbed during the entire proc- ess of her treatment, no matter how much work she may need. The making of an individual Beauty Parlor of each booth is the only modern equipment , for Page tivo hundred twenty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL no matter how extravagant a place may be equipped, if it does not offer the comfort of individ- ual service, it is not modern. This means that hot and cold running water must be supplied to the shampoo faucets and lavatories of each booth and it is essential that it is so arranged that all pipes are hidden. This may be done by having them imbedded in the wall, but plumbing of that kind belongs to the building as soon as it is so in- stalled and for that reason, it is best to have a booth that consists of a backboard and partitions that will hide the pipes, enabling the owner of the equipment to remove it at the expiration of the lease, without losing the expen- sive plumbing. Such equipment can be had in sections, consisting of one or as many booths as desired, and ad- ditional booths to match, added as business may warrant. BOOTH In each booth should be the mirror, sterilizing cabinet, the small cabinet for supplies and materials, the soiled linen cabi- net, the clean linen cabinet, an Page two hundred twenty-eight THE BARBERS' MANUAL A shampoo lavatory. Requires no board. adequate workstand, shampoo lavatory and partitions so con- structed that they will permit of ample ventilation and light. Such equipment can be had all built in a single unit. The partitions should be so built that space is allowed be- tween the backboard and parti- tions enabling an operator to reach from one booth to another without going around. An open- ing of this kind also aids in bet- ter ventilation. In the matter of lavatories, they may be had shaped like a shampoo board and so built in the booth that they answer all pur- pose of shampoo without any other board. There are numerous shampoo faucets, but the most desirable is the type that enables the operator to temper the zvater with a single lever movement. This apparatus is known as a mixer and provides for the hose and spray attach- ment. This overcomes the an- noyance of working with first hot and then cold faucet to get the proper temperature. A very convenient arrange- ment for supplying liquid sham- poo to the scalp can be had, con- sisting of a small tank or con- tainer for the liquid, to which is attached a hose of sufficient length to carry the liquid from the tank to the scalp, the tank can be placed back of the backboard out of sight if desired. This saves the inconvenience of a pitcher or bottle or other con- tainer that is more or less waste- ful. !! | 1 • Ji r ■\ j"» ,s» . L IH pHR- ■ ? '•. " -if ■. Shampoo container with hose and dispensor. Page two hundred twenty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL In addition to the water pipes and waste, there is also the elec- tric attachment and gas pipes to be hidden and they are concealed the same as the plumbing, in the space between the backoard and wall. A booth six by six interior is now adequate for all purposes, where only a short time ago it was considered necessary that a booth be at least seven by eight. In the arrangement of the booth, the lavatory should be in front of the operator not the cus- tomer and if placed one foot from the right hand corner of the booth, will give ample elbow room for the operator. Some fixtures are made with the lavatory installed midway be- tween partitions on the backboard or the wall, which brings it di- rectly in front of the customer and inconvenient for the opera- tor. Some use a sliding mirror and shelf that covers the lavatory when not in use, but this entails only more work and is not econ- omy in space, or sightly to the vision. CHAIR The chair is next in importance and it should be one that will raise and lower, revolve and re- cline and adapt itself to all pur- poses. A chair must raise to be convenient for shingling and A Four-In-One Beauty Pjrlor chair for every purpose. must lower to the proper height necessary for hairdressing and marceling. It must revolve in order to take advantage of the light and the position of the shampoo lavatory, and it must re- cline so that the customer may relax for a facial treatment, and should be without heavy or bulky upholstering that is hot and re- quires a depth in the back of the chair that renders it difficult for the operator in giving treatments or dressing the hair. Page two hundred thirty THE BARBERS' MANUAL Halliwell gas hairdryer. HAIR DRYER The hairdryer is important. The pedestal type is most de- sirable on account of the greater volume of heat and air and this is made in a number of types. Some with gas heat and electric fans, others with elec- tric heat and electric fans, and still others with colored light attachments that enables the giv- ing of a scientific scalp treatment with the drying of the hair, imi- tating to a great degree the ef- fects and benefits of sunlight drying, still with the saving of time which is a feature of the use of the other dryers. The hand dryer or smaller in- strument that is held in the hand while in use, is not desirable where time is a factor. The hand hairdryer has its place, however, as an emergency equipment, for use while drying water waves and for bobbed heads. The hand type can be at- tached to any electric light circuit and usually is made with the uni- versal motor for alternating or direct current. The standard type can only be used for the cur- rent for which it is built and must be ordered as desired, either alternating or direct. The Meyers sun-ray hair dryer. Page two hundred thirty-one THE BARBERS' MANUAL VIBRATOR All electric equipment plays as important a part in the Beauty Parlor as in the medical frater- nity and every parlor should be fully equipped with all instru- ments necessary for the treat- ment the trade may demand. The electric vibrator is made with pedestal base and the small- er type known as a hand machine. The pedestal base type is supplied with a motor on a pedestal to which is attached a flexible shaft, that revolves with the power of the motor and causes a vibrating stroke at the head or other end of the flexible shaft. In this head may be an attachment for a rub- ber cup or rubber scalp brush for facial and scalp treatments or it may be had with an attachment to fasten the hand to the flexible shaft head giving a vibration to the hand that is very beneficial and pleasing to the customer re- ceiving a vibratory treatment. Pedestal vibrator with hand at- tachments. 3y courtesy of Shelton Electric Co. Vacuum irrigator on stand. The hydro-vacu or water mas- sage equipment can be had with or without the standard that sup- ports the tank and basin. In the better parlors the complete outfit is generally used. The hydro- vacu is one of the most used fa- cial instruments. Page tzvo hundred thirty-two THE BARBERS' MANUAL Penetrating Lights. RADIO BELL A radio beH or dermal lamp, as it is known hy the medical fra- ternity, gives off the different colored rays of light that is used in bleaching and facial treat- ments and should not be over- looked even if a full set of other electrical devices are had. H'gh Frequency or Violet a germ destroyer. Ray, HIGH FREQUENCY A high frequency equipment is necessary in the up-to-date Beauty Parlor, and it is made also with a pedestal and without. Moore hair cutting, hair dryer, vibrator and electric manicure machine. CLIPPERS An electric clipper is essential as it is a time saver and can be used for trimming the entire head or the neck only, but no shop should be without a hand clipper and no operator should attempt shingling unless they are adept with the hand machine for in the event of an accident to the electric clipper, your custo- mer will not be inconvenienced. Electric hair clippers are also made with an attachment for drying and with a number of small attachments fo v manicur- ing. Page tzvo hundred thirty-three THE BARBERS' MANUAL Metal manicure table. MANICURE TABLE It is quite customary for the manicure table to be placed in the reception room, but this is not good form. It should have its space in the woikroom and spe- cial care given to the lighting. A table with show case and steriliz- ing compartments underneath the top is an attractive fixture. Metal manicure chai Metal manicure stoo'. Page two hundred thirty- four THE BARBERS' MANUAL Stand type Nestle Permanent Wave outfit. PERMANENT WAVE The permanent wave machine -;an be had with the portable stand so that it may be placed in any booth desired, or it can be made stationary swinging from the ceiling in chandelier form. This is the approved manner for as the machine must be attached co special wiring to carry the cur- rent, it is generally considered safer when made stationary. There are, however, other ad- vantages in the stand type as it enables one to place the machine in booth or out as desired. In purchasing the ceiling type, it is always necessary to specify the height of the ceiling. There is a special type made for a very low ceiling. In ordering always mention whether alternating or direct current is used. Nestle ceiling type Permanent Wave Machine. Page tzvo hundred thirty- fiv THE BARBERS' MANUAL Myers' face vaporizer. Wall plate electrical control. A wall plate has a greater scope of possibilities than the battery and is recommended for larger parlors. VAPORIZER An electric vaporizer for fa- cials and scalp treatments is also essential and the greater variety of devices of this kind the great- er number of patrons will be at- tracted and served in the modern Beauty Parlor. The vaporizer that supplies a warm vapor (not hot) to the face and scalp has a beneficial ef- fect that no other treatment gives. Soiled linen container with rust- proof metal liner. A self-closing soiled linen con- tainer is preferable to the open variety. They are made with rust proof liners and are finished in most any color desired to cor respond with equipment. Page two hundred thirty-six THE BARBERS' MANUAL A modern reception room. By courtesy of American Hairdresser RECEPTION ROOM A show-case, tastily dressed, should be a part of the reception room or sales room equipment, and can be had with the full dis- play from floor to top or may be had with a compartment under- neath the show-case for the stor- age of merchandise that are not on display. The full show-case for display is more attractive and generally the show-case should be finished to match the decorations of the room in which it stands, also properly lighted to display the goods to the best advantage. A number of comfortable chairs and settees should be pro- vided for the reception room, also a table with literature pertaining to beauty business provided for the patron. Generally a reception room fin- ished in a color scheme entirely different, but harmonizing with the colors of the workroom, is most attractive, and if a display window can be had, it should be properly dressed with the display of merchandise without entirely Page two hundred thirty-seven THE BARBERS' MANUAL A well stocked display room. By courtesy of American Hairdresser obscuring the view of the in- terior. There are service companies who periodically call and dress windows for the Beauty Parlor. In a prominent location this is a desirable service. Generally the Beauty Parlor supply houses have Moor plans and blue prints from which the layout of a Beauty Parlor can be made and it is general economy in the end to obtain a floor plan and blue print before installing the equipment. Deferred payments or buying on time is sometimes a risk and it is advisable to be cautious about over-buying, for the future is al- ways uncertain arid while in some instances it is advisable to take a chance, one must act cautiously. Page tzvo hundred thirty-eight THE BARBERS* MANUAL ADVERTISING There are service companies that will supply the established hair-dresser with printed matter, display cards, window dressing, general advertising in dailies, the addressing of form letters, week- ly or monthly to the mailing list or prospective customers in your neighborhood, and follow this with a specialty for each week or month providing the operator with all materials necessary to carry out the campaign as laid out in the service. It is well to become familiar with this service, as it makes for better business. If, however, one is handling their own advertising, it should be done consistently. An oc- casional ad in a daily or weekly is money poorly invested. Continued servitude is neces- sary regarding the up-keep and appearance of the shop. It is an art in itself to arrange draperies and keep the establishment al- ways looking well, and it is an ef- fort after a color scheme has been chosen to keep it harmonious as the different fittings and display materials that are bound to creep in from time to time frequently mar the harmony of the shop that might have been originally very pleasing. It is desirable to join some as- sociation of national repute and to subscribe for the better maga- zines to the trade. In order to be posted and keep pace with the ever changing conditions in the business, it is well to set aside pe- riods for attending the national association meetings or return to your school at intervals for a brush-up. The governing of help is something of a gift, but anyone can acquire it who will think and act fairly. Salaries are usually based on the earning capacities and it is well to encourage in the employees, a desire to command greater salaries by a larger stock in trade, the greater number cf individual customers. iWsslfccher _, Leon-Oil Permanent Waves E-xaari Showing what has been accomplished in beauty advertising. Page two hundred thirty-nine THE BARBERS' MANUAL DAILY STATEMENT N.w Stotk 'Ligfct •Uundrr "*~ 'Cu j 07 But "Freight »nd E»prei.« lOutcnlnil *T.fecbo«* JLc CO 'S.ltrki % *b& 4,0* ^> '•"' .V .. ^ •••• *" zv. >» cV w V* 6*** A "v> *^. • CF \2 *o • \ * A ^^ ~?Wim &"* 'SMS'! * ' <^ • \../ .-iSSfcfc *«^* .•^Sfe>\ %„./ .•isSfet. ** '*c>- L . 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