m !lii illlllilil lltt iiiiiiiiiiii mm' iiiii i H-( ) ti n „„ „ Mm Wil'iltiliil 1 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS Q0DQbE1.1.2fia% 6? •«?•, o -^0^ ^ %'^^*/ \*^^V V^^'^0^ \'Wf\/^ >^-- U o5' ♦ s^^ ^ 9 asr OME STUDIES IN AMERICAN HISTORY The Triumphant Progress of a Great Nation OR STANDARD HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM THE Discovery of the American Continent to the Present Time FORMING A Supplementary Course of Studies for People of All A^es CONTAINING ACCOUNTS OF THE DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS OF THE NORSEMEN. SPANIARDS, ENGLISH AND FRENCH ; THE MOUND BUILDERS ; THE AMERICAN INDIANS; THE SETTLEMENT OF THE NEW WORLD; THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS ; THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR The Establishment of the American (Republic; THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND ; THE MEXICAN WAR ; LONG PERIOD OF PEACE ; THE HISTORY OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR ; THE CENTENNIAL OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE; WAR WITH SPAIN AND WITH THE FILIPINO INSURGENTS ; AND ALL EVENTS TO THE PRESENT TIME. Including a Full Description of our New Possessions By henry davenport NORTHROP THE WELL-KNOWN HISTORIAN EMBELLISHED WITH OVER 500 SUPERB ENGRAVINGS NATIONAL PUBLISHLNG CO. 2.3<.l TO 24'A St). Amkkicax Stkeet Piiiiv; EM'!iiA. Fa . THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, ' ~ Copies Reocivcd OCT ?S 1902 n.COPVR"**'^ eMTWv 0LA88 «^XXr Na 3770/- OOPY P ENTERED ACCORDINO TO ACT OF C0NGRF8S, IN THE YEAR 1902, BY D. Z. HOWELL THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CON0RES6, AT WA8M1NOTON, D. C, U. 8. A. ^ \'^ ,ti % DEDICATION TO the memory of that bold mariner, who, four hundred years ago, discovered the Western Continent; and the brave colonists who sacrificed the pleasures and comforts of the old world to undergo the privations, and face the dangers of an unknown wilderness; To the memory of the Pilgrim Fathers who planted the seeds of freedom on American Soil; and the Revolutionary heroes who secured liberty for the most patriotic people, and laid the foundations of the greatest nation in all the annals of time; To those brave defenders and noble citizen.*^ who have preserved and fostered the growth of our model institutions, made possible our wonderful progress and fortified the bulwarks of our strength in this **Land of the Free and Home of the Brave," entitling our Great Country to sit upon the Throne among Nations as the Queen of Republics, This Volume is Patriotically DEDICATED HY THE AUTHOR - v.\^^' Q'\ ^ PREFACE. THERE is nothing more worthy of a man's study than the history of his country. In our own land, how- ever, the means of pursuing such a study are limited. Our great cities contain large and valuable public libraries, and the collections of our historical societies are rich and very complete ; but these are accessible only to the communities in which they are located, and are practically useless to the majority of the American people. The great works of Bancroft and Hildreth cover but a portion of our history, and are removed from the reach of the masses by reason of their costliness. Besides these, the larger number of the works treating of American history are compendiums, or outlines intended for the use of schools, and are therefore unsatisfac- tory to the adult reader. The demand for a popular History of the United States which shall fill a place between these greater and smaller works has led the author to the preparation of this volume. He has endeavored to popularize the story of the nation, and at the same time to neglect notli- ing that could in the least contribute to a clear and comprehensive understanding of the subject. He has sought to trace the his- tory of the Republic from the discovery of the American continent to the present day, and has endeavored especially to fix the attention of the reader upon the various influ- ences which have aided in moulding our national character, and have produced our distinctive political and moral national traits He has endeavored to write from ^t broad national standpoint, and to cultivate in the minds of his readers that feeling of national patriotism which must ever be the safeguard of our country. It is a fitting time to consider the story of the past, to learn the lessons which it teaches, and to ponder the warnings which it conveys for the future. Four hundred years ago America was an unknown wilderness. Less than three centuries ago it passed into the hands of England, and was thus secured for the language and the free influences of the all-conquering Anglo-Saxon race. It was a precious heritage which was thus secured for liberty ; a land stretching from the frozen regions of the north to the sunny skies of the tropics, from the stormy Atlantic to the calm Pacific ; a land embracing every variety of climate, and a soil capable of producing almost every product of the earth, fi-om the stunted herbage of the frozen regions to the luxuriant fruits of the tropics. The earth is rich in mineral deposits, from the homely, but invaluable, veins of coal, to bedr of the most brilliant and precious minerals It pours out in streams, oil for burning, ga that may be used fresh from the natura springs, salt that requires but the heat of th< sun for its perfection, and beds of pure soda that cover the earth like the dust in the high- ways. In short, all that is needed for the pres- ervation and comfort of animal and human life exists in this favored land in the greatest profusion. VI PREFACE. Such is the land designed by God for the home of liberty. The people to whom He has intrusted it have not abused His good- ness. In the short space of two centuries, the American people have grown from a small handful of hardy adventurers to a "mighty continental nation," increasing with a rapidity that is almost marvellous. They have built up their country on a scale of magnificence of which they are justly proud. They have covered it with powerful and free States, and splendid cities, connected by a network of railways, telegraphs, navigable rivers, and canals, which bind all the scat- tered parts into one solid whole. They have made a commerce and a system of manufac- tures before which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. They have created a literature which commands the respect of the world ; they have illustrated their history with deeds of arms not less splendid than their more peaceful achievements, and have given to the world names in every walk of life that will never die. They have shown that liberty and power can go hand in hand ; they have made themselves a nation in which God is feared, and of which Christianity is the basis, in which ignorance and vice are des- pised, and in which the great lesson that lib- erty is possible only to an educated and virtuous people is being practical'y demon- strated. This is a grand history — a record of the highest achievement of humanity — the noblest, most thrilling, and glorious story ever penned on earth. Yet the fact remains that the great mass of the American people are but imperfectly acquainted with it. There is a real need that we should know better than we do what we have done. It is only by a thoughtful study of our past that we can safely provide for the perils of the future. We have triumphed over adversity, and we are now called upon to bear the test of suc- cess. He can be no good citizen who is ignorant of his country's history. In the preparation of this volume, no authority of importance has been overlooked; the author has carefully searched every source of information open to him ; and has availed himself of every fact that could throw new light upon, or impart additional interest to, the subject under consideration. In the narration of military events, he has preferred to give each campaign as a whole rather than to mingle several by presenting the events in chronological order. At the same time he has sought to preserve the inter-relation of events in one field of opera- tions to those in the others. The book is offered to the public in the sincere hope that it may induce its readers to take to heart the lessons which our history teaches, and to set a higher value upon the precious heritage of constitutional liberty which our fathers won for us with their blood, and handed down to us in trust for our chil- dren's children. CONTENTS. BOOK I. Discovery of the ^Vestern Continent. CHAPTER I. Strange People in a Strange Land. PAGE Earliest Inhabitants of the United States — The Mound Builders — Remarkable Works Constructed by Them — Evidences of a Primitive Civilization — Indications of the Antiquity of this Period — A Re- markable Cherokee — Who Were the Mound Build- ers — Ancient Phoenicians — False Assumption — The American Indians — Divisions of the Country Among the Tribes — Names and Location of the Various Tribes — Organization and Government of the In- dians — Their Dress, Manners and Customs — Vil- lages — Indian Inventions — The War Dance — Le- gends of the Norsemen Respecting the Discovery of America . . ^ 17 CHAPTER II. The Voyages of Columbus. Maritime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century — The- ories Respecting the Earth's Surface — Christopher Columbus — His Early Life — His Theory of a West- ern Passage to India — His Struggles to Obtain the Means of Making a Voyage — Is Aided by Ferdi- nand and Isabella of Spain — His First Voyage — Discovery of America — Reception in Spain — His Second Voyage — Settlement of Hayti — Third Voy- age of Columbus — He Reaches the Mainland — Dis- covery of Gold in Hayti — Troubles in the Colony — Columbus Sent to Spain in Irons — Indignation of the Queen — Last Voyage of Columbus — His Ship- wreck — Returns to Spain — Refusal of Ferdinand to Comply with His Promises — Death of Columbus — Amerigo Vespucci — Origin of the Name America 32 CHAPTER III. English and French Discoveries. Discovery of the North American Continent by John Cabot — Voyages of Sebastian Cabot — The English Fail to Follow Up these Discoveries — Efforts of the French to Explore America — Voyage and Discov- eries of Verrazzani — Cartier Explores the St. Law- rence — Reaches Montreal — Efforts to Found a Col- ony on the St. Lawrence — Failure — Roberval's Cokny — Trading Voyages — Explorations of Cham- plain — Colonization of Nova Scotia — Founding of Quebec — Discovery of Lake Champlain — Arrival of the Jesuits in Canada — Death of Champlain . . . CHAPTER IV. 43 The Spaniards in America. Settlement of the West Indies — Discovery of the Pa- cific Ocean — Voyage of Magellan — Discovery of Florida — Ponce de Leon's Search for the Fountain of Youth — Vasquez de Ayllon Kidnaps a Cargo of Indians — Effort of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Con- quer Florida — A Terrible March — The Voyage on the Gulf of Mexico — Fate of the Fleet — Escape of Cabeza de Vaca and His Comrades — Discovery of New Mexico — Ferdinand de Soto — Obtains Leave to Conquer Florida — Sails from Spain — Arrival in Cuba — Departure for Florida — Landing at Tampa Bay — Events of the First Year — De Soto Enters Georgia — Descends the Alabama — Battle of Ma- villa — Destruction of Chickasaw — Sufferings of the Spaniards — Discovery of the Mississippi — The Spaniards Cross the Great River — De Soto in Ar- kansas — Reaches the Mississippi Again — Sickness and Death of De Soto — His Burial — Escape of His Followers to Mexico — The Huguenot Colony in Carolina — Its Failure — The French Settle in Florida — Wrath of Philip II. — Melendez Ordered to Exterminate the Huguenots — Foundation of St. Augustine — Massacre of the French at Fort Caro- lina — The Vengeance of De Gourges 5c CHAPTER V. The First English Colony. The English Claim to America — Voyages of Fro- Irisher — Exploits of Sir Francis Drake — Sir Humph- rey Gilbert — Intends to found a Colony in America — Is lost at Sea — Sir Walter Raleigh obtains a Pat- ent of Colonization — Discoveries of Amidas and vii VI 11 CONTENTS. Barlow — Raleigh sends out a Colony to Virginia — Settlement on Roanoke Island — Its Failure — Arri- val of Grenville — Second Effort of Raleigh- to Colo- nize Virginia — Roanoke Island again Settled — The " City of Raleigh " — Virginia Dare — Fate of the colony — Death of Raleigh — Other Voyages of the English 63 BOOK II. Settlement of America. CHAPTER VI. Captain John Smith and Pocahontas. Formation of the London Company — Conditions of its Charter — Departure of the first Colony — Quarrels during the Voyage — Arrival in the Chesapeake — Settlement of Jamestown — Formation of the Gov- ernment — Character of Captain John Smith — Ex- ploration of the James River — Newport and Smith visit Powhatan — Smith Admitted to the Govern- ment — Explores the Chickahominy — Is Captured and Sentenced to Death — Is Saved by Pocahontas — Gains the Friendship of Powhatan for the Colony — Returns to Jamestown — His Decisive Measures — Return of Newport — Smith Explores the Chesa- peake Bay — The new Emigrants — Smith compels them to Labor — Smith is Wounded and compelled to return to England — Disasters to the Colony — Ar- rival of Sir Thomas Gates — Jamtstown Abandoned — Arrival of Lord Delaware — The Return to James- town — A Change for the Better— New Settlements - — Sir Thomas Gates arrives with Reinforcements — Capture of Pocahontas by Captain Argall — She is Baptized — Marries John Rolfe — Sir Thomas Dale's Administration — Yeardley Governor — The first Leg- islative Assembly — Representative Government es- tablished in America — The Colonists obtain Wives — Changes in the Government 73 CHAPTER Vn. Progress of the Virginia Colonv. Introduction of Negro Slavery into Virginia — Efforts of the Assembly to Restrict Slavery — The Indians At- tempt the Destruction of the Colony — Terrible Suf- ferings of the Whites — -Aid from England — The Indian W^ar Begun — King James Revokes the Char- ter of the London Company — Charles I. Desires a Monopoly of the Tobacco Trade — Action of the Assembly — Sir William Berkeley's First Adminis- tration — Severe Measures against Dissenters — Close of the Indian War — Death of Opechancanough — Emigration of Royalists to Virginia — Virginia and and the Commonwealth — Treaty with England — The Assembly Asserts its Independence of the Gov- ernor — The Restoration — Berkeley Chosen Gover- nor by the Assembly — His Hypocrisy 89 CHAPTER VHL Virginia After the Restoration. Characteristics of the Virginians — Causes of the Suc- cess of the Royalists — Growth of the Aristocratic Class — Berkeley decides against the People — The Aristocratic Assembly Claims the Right to sit Per- petually — Deprives the Common People of their Liberties — Revival of the Navigation Act by Charles II. — The King bestows Virginia as a Gift upon his Favorites — Protests of the Assembly — Growing Hos- tility of the Virginians to the Colonial Government — The Indian War — The Governor Refuses to allow the Colonists to Defend themselves — Nathaniel Ba- con — He Marches against the Indians — Rebellion of the People against Berkeley and the Assembly — The Convention — Repeal of the Obnoxious Laws — Berkeley's Duplicity — The People take up Arms — I'light of Berkeley — Destruction of Jamestown — Death of Bacon — Causes of the Failure of the Rebel- lion — Berkeley's Triumph — Execution of the Patriot Leaders — Berkeley's Course Condemned by the King — Death of Berkeley — The Unjust Laws Re- enacted — Lord Culpepper Governor — His Extor- tions — Tames II. and Virginia — Effects upon Vir- ginia of the Revolution of 1688 — William and Mary College Founded ^ i CHAPTER IX. The Colonization of Maryland. Extent of the Territory of Virginia — Clayborn's Trad- ing-Posts established — Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore — Becomes interested in American coloni- zation — Obtains a Grant of Maryland — Terms erf tha Charter — A Colony sent out — Arrival in the Chesapeake — St. Mary's Founded — Charter of the Colony — Friendly Relations established with the Indians — First Legislature of Maryland — Trouble with CI ayborne— Rapid Growth of the Colony — Progress of Popular Liberty — Policy respecting the Treatment of the Indians — Clayborne's Rebellion — Law granting Religious toleration enacted — Condi- tion of Maryland under the Commonwealth — The People declared Supreme — Lord Baltimore re- covers his Proprietary Rights — Characteristics of the Colony — Rapid Increase in Population — Charles Calvert, Governor — Death of the ?«ccnid Lord CONTENTS. IX Baltimore — Roman Catholics disfranchised — Mary- land becomes a Royal Province — Triumph of the Protestants — Annapolis made the Seat of Govern- ment — Restoration of the Proprietary Government — Continued Prosperity of Maryland Ill CHAPTER X. The Pilgrim Fathers. Rise of the Puritans — Their Increase in England — They are Persecuted by the English Church and Government — Conduct of James I. — His Hatred of Puritanism — Puritans take Refuge in Holland — The Congregation of John Robinson — They Escape to Holland — The Pilgrims — their Sojourn at Leyden — They wish to Emigrate to Virginia — Failure of their Negotiations with the London Company — They form a Partnership in England — A Hard Bargain — Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland — Voyage of the " Mayflower " — Arrival in New England — The Agreement on board the " Mayflower" — Car- ver chosen Governor — Settlement of Plymouth — The first Winter in New England — Sufferings of the Pilgrims — Arrival of new Emigrants — Continued Suffering — Assignment of Lands — Friendly In- tercourse with Indians — Samoset and Squanto — Visit of Massasoit — A Threat of War — Bradford's Defiance — Weston's Men — A Narrow Escape — The Colonists Purchase the Interests of their English Partners — Lands Assigned in Fee Simple — The Colony Benefited by the Change — Government of Plymouth — Steady Growth of the Colony .... 121 CHAPTER XI. Settlement of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Settlement of New Hampshire — The Enghsh Puritans determine to form a new Colony in America — The Plymouth Council — A Colony sent out to Salem under Endicott — Colonization of Massachusetts Bay begun — A Charter obtained — Concessions of the King — Progress of the Salem Colony — The Charter and Government of the Colony removed to New England — Arrival of Governor Winthrop — Settlement of Boston — Sufferings of thS Colonists — Roger Williams — His Opinions give offence to the Authorities — The Success of the Bay Colony Estab- lished — Growth of Popular Liberty — The Ballot Box — Banishment of Roger Williams — He goes into the Wilderness — Founds Providence — Growth of Williams's Colony — C nued Growth of Massa- chusetts — Arrival of Sir Henry Vane — Is elected Governor — Mrs. Anne Hutchinson — The Antino- mian Controversy — Mrs. Hutchinson banished — Settlement of Rhode Island — Murder of Mrs. llulchinson 138 CHAPTER Xn. Colonization of Connecticut. PAGE The Dutch claim the Connecticut Valley — They build a Fort at Hartford — Governor Winslow makes "a Lodgment in Connecticut for the English — With- drawal of the Dutch — The First Efforts of the Eng- lish to Settle Connecticut — Emigration of Hooker and his Congregation — They Settle at Hartford — Winthrop builds a Fort at Saybrook — Hostility of the Indians — Visit of Roger Williams to Miantono- moh — A Brave Deed — The Pequod War — Capture of tbe Indian Fort — Destruction of the Pequod Tribe — Effect of this War upon the other Tribes — Connecticut Adopts a Constitution — Its Peculiar Features — Settlement of New Haven »5o CHAPTER Xni. The Union of the New England Colonies. Feeling of the Colonies towards England — Hostility of the English Government to New England — Efforts to Introduce Episcopacy — Massachusetts Threatens Resistance — The Revolution in England — Estab- lishment of Free Schools in New England — Har- vard College — The Printing Press— The Long Par- liament Friendly to New England — The United Colonies of New England — Rhode Island obtains a Charter — Maine Annexed to Massachusetts — The Quakers are Persecuted — Efforts to Christianize the Indians — John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians . . 157 CHAPTER XIV. New England After the Restoration. Arrival of the News of the Restoration of Charles II. — The Regicides in New England — They are Pro- tected — Revival of the Navigation Acts — Effect of this Measure upon the New England Colonies — • Massachusetts delays the Proclamation of the King — Connecticut obtains a Charter — Union of New Haven with the Connecticut Colony — Rhode Island given a new Charter — Massachusetts settles her diffi- culties with the Crown — Changes in the Govern- ment — High-handed acts of the Royal Commission- ers — Troubles with the Indians — Injustice of the Whites — King Philip's War — A Forest Hero — An Incident in the Attack upon Iladley — Sufferings of the Colonies — Destruction of the Narragansetts — Death of Philip — Close of the War — England asseru her right to Tax the Colonies — Massachusetts buys Gorges' claims to Maine — New Hampshire made a separate Rrovince — James 11. Revokes the Charter of Massachusetts — Dudley and Randolph in New England^ Andros appointed Governor-General — CONTENTS. His Tyranny — He demands the Charter of Connect- icut — It is carried away and Hidden — The Charter Oak— Fall of James II.— The people of Massachu- setts take up Arms — Andres arrested — Effects of the Revolution upon New England 1 66 CHAPTER XV. Witchcraft in Massachusetts, 'Results of the Failure of Massachusetts to Resume her Charter — The New Charter — Loss of the Liberties of the Colony — Union of Plymouth with Massachu- setts Bay— Belief m Witchcraft— The History of Witchcraft in Massachusetts — The Case of the Good- win Children — Cotton Mather espouses the Cause of the Witches — Samuel Parris — He Originates the Sa- lem Delusion — A Strange History — A Special Court Appointed for the Trial of the Witches— The Vic- tims — Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs — Cotton Mather's Part in the Tragedies — The Gen- eral Court takes Action in behalf of the People — End of the Persecution — Failure of Cotton Mather's Attempt to Save his Credit 182 CHAPTER XVI. The Settlement of New York. Voyages of Henry Hudson — He is Employed by the Dutch — Discovery of the Hudson River — Early Dutch Voyages — Adrian Block — Fate of Hudson — The Dutch build a Fort on Manhattan Island — Set- tlement of New Amsterdam — The Province named New Netherlands — Fort Nassau — Peter Minuits Governor — The Dutch Settlement of Delaware — Wouter Van Twiller — Kieft Governor — His Unjust Treatment of the Indians — Massacre of the Indians at Hoboken — The Indian War — Stuyvesant Ap- pointed Governor — Disputes with the English in Connecticut — The Swedes Settle Delaware — Stuy- vesant Captures the Swedish Forts — Growth of New Amsterdam — Disputes between the People and Gov- ernor — Growing Spirit of Popular Liberty — Thf People Appeal to the States General — Capture of New Netherlands by the English — The Name of the Province changed to New York — Results of the English Conquest — Progress of New Jersey — An- dros Governor of New York — He Fails to Establish his Authority over Connecticut — New York allowed an Assembly — Discontents of the People — Leisler's Rebellion — Execution of Leisler and Milbourne — Fletcher Governor — His Attempt to obtain Com- mand of the Connecticut Militia — Episcopacy Es- tablished in New York — The Freedom of the Press Sustained — New Jersey a Royal Province .... 193 CHAPTER XVH. Colonization of Pennsylvania. PAGI The Quakers — Their Origin and Doctrines — Williana Penn — Becomes a Quaker — Is Persecuted for his Religious Opinions — Becomes interested in Ameri- can Colonization — Purchases West Jersey from the Proprietor — Conceives the Idea of Founding a Free State in America — Purchases Pennsylvania from Charles II. — Condirions of his Charter — Sends out a Colony — Arrival of Penn in America — Philadel- phia Founded — Penn's Treaty with the Indians — Religious Toleration Guaranteed — Penn's Relations with his Colonists — Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania in Population and Prosperity — William Penn and James II. — Renewal of Penn's Troubles — William HI. Declares Pennsylvania a Royal Province — Penn is Vindicated and Restored to his Proprietary Rights — His Return to Pennsylvania — Character of the Settlers of the Province — Penn Goes Back to England — Efforts to deprive him of his Possessions —His Death 21^ CHAPTER XVni. Settlement of the Carolinas. Gradual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia — Charles II. giants Carolina to Clarendon and others — The " Grand Model " — An Ideal Aristocracy Proposed for Carolina — The Authority of the Pro- prietaries Established in North Carolina — Con- tinued Settlement of that Region — Characteristics of the Early Settlers of North Carolina — The People Reject the Grand Model — Hostility of England to the Colonial Commerce — Insurrection in North Carolina — Slothel Governor — Settlement of South Carolina — Charleston Founded — The Proprietary Constitutions Rejected by South Carolina — Rapid Growth of the Colony — Introduction of Slavery — Chracteristics of the Early Settlers of South Carolina — Efforts to Enforce the Navigation Acts — Resis- tance of the People — The Proprietaries Abandon their Constitutions — Archdale's Reforms — Religious Intolerance — Eatablishraent of the Church of Eng- land in South Carolina — Action of the Crown — Continued Prosperity of South Carolina — Governor Moore Attacks St. Augustine — Failure of the Effort — The Spaniards are Repulsed in an Attempt to Capture Charleston — Indian War in North Caro- lina — The Tuscaroras Driven Northward — War with the Yemmassees — Destruction of their Power — Separation ©f the Carolinas 227 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XIX. Settlement of Georgia. PAGE General James Edward Oglethorpe — His Efforts to Reform Prison Discipline of England — Proposes to Found a Colony in America for the Pcor and for Prisoners for Debt — A Charter Obtained from the King — Colonization of Georgia — Savannah Settled —First Years of the Colony — I-abors of Oglethorpe "—Arrival of New Emigrants — Augusta Founded — fhe Moravian Settlements — The Wesleys in Amer- ica — George Whitefield — War between England and Spain — Oglethorpe Invades Florida — Failure of the Attack upon St. Augustine — The Spaniards In- vade Georgia — Oglethorpe's Stratagem — Its Success ^Battle of" Bloody Marsh " — Close of the War — Charges against Oglethorpe — His Vindication — His Return to Europe — Changes in the Colonial Government — Introduction of Slavery into Georgia — Prosperity of the Colony 241 CHAPTER XX. The French in the Valley of the Mississippi. Origin of the Hostility of the Iriquois to the French — Settlement of Canada — Plans of the French res- pecting the Indians — The Jesuits — Their W^ork in America — Success of their Missions — The Early Missionaries — Foundation of a College at Quebec — Efforts of the Jesuits to Convert the Iroquois — Father Jogues — Death of Ahasistari — Father Allouez — The Missions on the Upper Lakes — Father Marquette — His Exploration of the Upper Mississippi — Death of Marquette — La Salle — Efforts of France to Secure the Valley of the Missis- sippi — La Salle Descends the Mississippi to its Mouth — His Effort to Colonize the Lower Missis- sippi — The First Colony in Texas — Its Failure Death of La Salle — Lemoine d'Ibberville — Settle- ment of Louisiana — Colony of Biloxi — Settlement Mobile — Crozat's Monopoly — Founding of New Orleans — Detroit Founded — Slow Growth of the French Colonies — Occupation of the Ohio Valley by the French — Wars with the Indians — Exter- mination of the Natchez Tribe — War with the Chickasaws 251 CHAPTER XXI. Conflicts Between the English and French. Relations Between the English and the Five Nations — The Hostility of the Latter to the French — King William's War — Destruction of Dover — The Jesuit Missionaries Incite the Indians to Attack the Eng- lish — Expedition against Quebec — Attack on Dus- tin's Farm — Peace of Ryswick — Hostility of the English to Roman Catholics — Queen Anne's War — Burning of Deerfield — Eunice Williams — Cruel- ties of the French — Effort of New England to Con- quer Acadia — Capture of Port Ro/al— Failure ol the Expedition against Quebec — King George's War — Expedition against Louisburg — Its Composi- tion — Arrival of the Fleet at Cape Breton — Good Conduct of the Provincials — Capture of Louisburg • — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — Unjust Treatment of the Colonies by England — Sentiment of the Anaeri- cans towards England 26' BOOK III. The French and Indian War. CHAPTER XXII. Outbreak of Hostilities. England Claims the Valley of the Ohio — Organize' tion of the Ohio Company — The French Extend their Posts into the Ohio Country — Washington's Mission to the French at Fort Duquesne — His Jour- ney — Reception by the French — His Journey Home — A Perilous Undertaking — Organization of the Virginia Forces — Washington Made Second in Command — The French Drive the English from the Head of the Ohio — Fort Duquesne Built by Them — Washington Crosses the Mountains — The Fight at Great Meadows — Beginning of the French and In- dian War — Surrender of Fort Necessity to the French — Unjust Treatment of the Colonial Officers — Congress of the Colonies at New York — Frank- lin's Plan of a Union of the Colonies — Its Failure — Reasons of the British Governraer.t for Rejecting It — England Assumes the Direction of the War — Ar- rival of General Braddock — Plan of Campaign — ■ Obstinacy of Braddock — He Passes the Mountains — Defeat of Braddock — Heroism of Washington- Retreat of Dunbar beyond the Mountains — Vigor- ous Action of Pennsylvania — Armstrong Defeats the Indians and Burns the Town of Kittanning . . . 2)i CHAPTER XXIII. Sanguniary Struggles on the Frontier. Expedition against Acadia — Brutal Treatment of the Acadians — They Are Expelled from their Country — A Sad Story — Fate of the Acadians — Johnson at Lake George — March of Dieskau — Battle of Lake George — Failure of Shirley's Expedition — Arrival of the Earl of Loudon — Montcalm in Canada — xH CONTENTS. Capture of Oswego by the French— Outrages of the Earl of Loudon upon New York and Philadelphia — Expedition against Louisburg — How the Earl of Loudon Beat the French— Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm — Massacre of the Prisoners by the Indians— Efforts of Montcalm to Save Them — • The Royal Officers Attempt to Cover Their Failures by Outraging the Colonies 298 CHAPTER XXIV. End of the French and Indian War. A- Change for the Better — William Pitt Prime Minister • — Vigorous Measures Adopted — Recall of the Earl <5f Loudon — Capture of Louisburg — Abercrombie on Lake George — Advances against Ticonderoga — Death of Lord Howe — Failure of the English At- tack upon Ticonderoga — Disgraceful Conduct of Abercrombie — His Retreat — Capture of Fort Fron- tenac — Advance of General Forbes — Grant's Defeat . — TheVirginians Again Save the Regulars— Capture of Fort Duquesne — Washington Retires from the Army — Ticonderoga and Crown Point Occupied by the English — Capture of Fort Niagara — The Expe- dition against Quebec — Failure of the First Opera- tions — Despondency of Wolfe — He Discovers a Landing-place — Th-; Army Scales the Heights of Abraham— Montcalm's Surprise— Battle of the Plains of Abraham — Death of Wolfe — Defeat of the French — Death of Montcalm — Surrender of Quebec — Capture of Montreal — Treaty of Paris — Canada Ceded to England — France Loses all Her American Possessions — The Cherokee War — Hostility of the Indians to the English — Pontiac's War — Death of Pontiac — Bouquet Relieves Fort Duquesne — Results of the War 309 BOOK IV. The American Revolution. CHAPTER XXV. Causes of the Struggle for Independence. njustice of Great Britain towards Her Colonies — The Navigation Acts — Effects of these Laws upon the Colonies — Great Britain Seeks to Destroy the Man- ufactures of America — Writs of Assistance — They Are Opposed — Home Manufactures Encouraged by the Americans — Ignorance of Englishmen Concern- ing America — Great Britain Claims the Right to Tax America — Resistance of the Colonists — Samuel Adams — The Parsons' Cause — Patrick Henry — England Persists in Her Determination to Tax Amer- ica — Passage of the Stamp Act — Resistance of the Colonists — Meeting of the First Colonial Congress — Its Action — William Pitt — Repeal of the Stamp Act — Franklin before the House of Commons — - New Taxes Imposed upon America — Increased Re- sistance of the Colonies — Troops Quartered in Bos- ton — The " Massacre " — The Non-Importation As- sociation — Growth of Hostility to England — Burn- ing of the " Gasp6" — The Tax on Tea Retained by the King — Destruction of Tea at Boston — Wrath of the British Government — Boston Harbor Closed —Troops Quartered in Boston— The Colonists Come to the Assistance of Boston — Action of the Virginia Assembly — General Gage in Boston — The Regulat- ing Act — Its Failure — Gage Seizes the Massachu- setts Powder — Uprising of the Colony — Meeting of the Continental Congress — Its Action — Addresses to the King and People of England — The Earl of Chatham'slndorsement of Congress — The King Re- mains Stubborn 327 CHAPTER XXVI. Progress of the War. Gage fortifies Boston Neck — He Summons the Gen- eral Court — Recalls his Proclamation — The Provin- cial Congress of Massachusetts — It takes Measures for Defence — The Militia Organized — The Minute Men — Friends of America in England — Gage re- solves to seize the Stores at Concord — Midnight March of the British Troops — The Alarm given — Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord — Retreat of the British — A Terrible March — Uprising of New England — Boston Invested — Dunmore seizes the Virginia Powder — Is made to pay for it — Uprising of the Middle and Southern Colonies — The Meck- lenburg Declaration of Independence — Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Meeting of the Sec- ond Cantinental Congress — Congress resolves to sus- tain Massachusetts — Renewed Efforts for Peace — • Congress Assumes the General Government of the Colonies — A Federal Union Organized — Its Charac- ter — A Continental Army formed — George Wash- ington Appointed Commander-in-chief — General Officers Appointed — Condition of the Army before Boston — Inaction of Gage — Battle of Breed's Hill — A Glorious Defence — The Battle Equivalent to a Victory in its Effects upon the Country — Arrival of Washington at Cambridge — He takes Command of the Army — He Reorganizes the Army — Difficulties of the Undertaking — The Invasion of Canada Re- solved upon — March of Montgomery and Arnold — Rapid Successes of Montgomery — He Capture? COisrtENTs. XIU Montieal — March of Arnold through the Wilder- ness — Arrival before Quebec- -Forms a Junction with Montgomery — The Siege of Quebec — The Ice Forts — Failure of the Attack — Death of Montgom- ery — Retreat of the Americans from Canada — Lord Dunmore's War in Virginia, — Destruction of Nor- folk — The Thirteen United Colonies — Burning of Falmouth — Naval Matters — Action of Great Britain —•The War to be carried on — The Hessians ... 354 CHAPTER XXYII. The Declaration of Independence. The Siege of Boston — Difificulties of the American Army — Activity of the Privateers — Qinton's Expe- tion — Colonel Knox arrives from Ticonderoga with Cannon — Seizure of Dorchester Heights by Wash- ington — The British Evacuate Boston — Royalist Plots in New York — Paper Money Issued by Con- gress — Gates sent to the North — The British Attack Charleston — Battle of Fort Moultrie — The Howes in New York Bay — Change in the Character of the War — Growing Sentiment in Favor of Independence — — Virginia Proposes the Colonies Assert their Inde- pendence — Action of Congress — The Declaration of Independence — Articles of Confederation Adopted by Congress — Lord Howe's Efforts at Conciliation — \ddresses a Letter to Washington — Battle of Long island — Defeat of the Americans — Retreat from Long Island — Evacuation of New York by the Americans — Loss of Fort Washington — Washington Retreats through New Jersey — He Crosses the Del- aware — Darkest Period of the War — Washington's Determination to Continue the War — Lord Howe's Proclamation — Its Effect — Congress at Baltimore — Carleton invades New York — Defeats Arnold on Lake Champlain — Carleton Retires into Canada — Battle of Trenton — Happy Effects of the Victory —Congress confers Dictatiorial Powers upon Wash ington — Commissionei^s sent to France 377 CHAPTER XXVni. The Year 1777. iowe Attempts to Crush Washington — Battle 01 Princeton — The British Confined to the Seaboard — Recovery of New Jersey — The American Army in Winter Quarters at Morristown — Effects of the American Successes — Difficulty of Procuring Troops —Washington Pefuses to Exchange Prisoners — His Course Approved by Congress — Measures of Con- gress — Naval Affairs — Tryon Bums Danbury — Gal- lantry of Arnold — Troubles in the Northern Depart- ment — Congress Adopts a National Flag — "The Stars and Stripes" — Course of France towards the United States — France Decides to Assist the Amer icans — Lafayetto — His Arrival in America — Capture of the British General Prescott — Howe Threatens Philadelphia — Washington Moves Southward — • Battle of the Brandywine — Washington Retreats to the Schuylkill — Wayne's Defeat at Paoli — Philadel- phia Exacuated by the Americans — It Is Occupied by the British — Battle of Germantown- -The British Attack the Forts on the Delaware — They Are Aban- doned by the Americans — Burgoyne's Army in Canada — Advance of Burgoyne into New York — Investment of Ticonderoga — It Is Abandoned by the Americans — The Retreat to Fort Edward — Burgoyne Reaches the Hudson — Murder of Miss McCrea — Siege of Fort Schuyler — Battle of Ben- nington — Critical Situation of Burgoyne — Gates in Command of the American Army — Battles of Beh- mus' Heights and Stillwater — Surrender ot Bur- goyne's Army — Clinton in the Highlands .... 405 CHAPTER XXIX. Aid From Abroad. Sufferings of the Army at Valley Forge — Appeals of Washington to Congress — The British in Philadel- phia — The Conway Cabal — Its Disgraceful Failure — Efforts to Improve the Army — Worthlessness of Continental Bills — General Lee Exchanged — Effect of Burgoyne's Surrender upon England — The King Is Forced to Agree to Measures of ConciUation — Acdon of France — Louis XVI. Recognizes the In- dependence of the United States — Alliance Between the United States and France — Failure of the Brit- ish Measures of Conciliation — Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia — Battle of Monmouth — General Lee Dismissed from the Army — Attack upon Newport - — Its Failure — Withdrawal of the French Fleet to (he West Indies — Outrages of the British on Long Island Sound — Massacre of Wyoming — the Winter of 1779-80 — The Army in Winter Quarters — Robert Morris — Condition of Congress — Georgia Subdued by the British — Prevost Attempts to Take Charleston — Siege of Savannah — Its Failure — Cap- ture of Stony Point — Capture of Paulus Hook— The Indians Punished — Naval Affairs — Exploits of John Paul Jones — Evacuation of Newport — Settle- ment of Kentucky — Conquest of the Illinois Country by George Rogers Clarke — Settlement of Tennessee. 4^ CHAPTER XXX. The Close of the War. '' Severity of the Winter of 1779-80 — Sufferings of the American Army — Clinton Sails for the Caroli- nas — Colonel Tarleton — Capture of Charleston—- Conquest of South Carolina — Gates in Command of the Southern Army — BatUe of Camden — Exploits XIV CONTENTS. of Marion and Sumter — Advance of Cornwallis — Battle of King's Mountain — Gates Succeeded by General Greene — Knyphausen's Expeditions into New Jersey — Arrival of the French Fleet and Ai-my — Arnold's Treason — The Plot for the Be- trayal of West Point — Arrest of Major Andre — Flight of Arnold — Execution of Andie — Mutiny of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops — Meas- ures of Congress — Arnold Captures Richmond, Vir- ginia — Battle of the Cowpens — Masterly Retreat of General Greene — Cornwallis Baffled^Battle of Guilford Court House — Cornwallis at Wihnmgton — Battle of Hobkirk's Hill — Siege of Ninety-Six — Execution of Colonel Hayne — Battle of Eutaw Springs — Washington Decides to Attack New York ^The French Army on the Hudson — Financial Affairs — Resumption of Specie Payments — Message from the Count De Grass e— Cornwallis at York- town — The American Army Moves Southward — Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of Cornwallis — Ef. feet of the News in England — Indian Troubles- Efforts in England for Peace — Negotiations Opened . — Treaty of Paris — End of the War-^The Army Disbanded — Washington Resigns His Commission 450 BOOK V. From the Close of the Revolution to the Civil War. CHAPTER XXXI. The Adoption of the Constitution — ^Washington's Administration. Unsettled Condition of the Country — Failure of the Articles of Confederation — Desire for Reform — Meeting of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia — The Constitution of the United States — Adoption of a Decimal Currency — The Northwest Territory — Washington Elected President — His Journey to New York — Establishment of the New Government — The First Cabinet — Financial Measures — Re- moval of the Capital Agreed Upon — The Govern- ment at Philadelphia — The First Census — The In- dians of the Northwest Conquered — Re-election of Washington — Division of Parties — The French Revolution — The United States Neutral — Citizen Genet — Efforts to Commit the United States to the French Alliance — Genet's Recall Demanded — The " Whiskey Insurrection" — Jay's Treaty with Eng- land — Opposition to It — Negotiations with Algiers . — Political Disputes — Hostility to Washington — His Farewell Address — Its Effect upon the Country — Election of John Adams to the Presidency — Admis- sion of Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee — Retire- ment of Washington — His Administration . . . 481 CHAPTER XXXn. The Administrations of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. PAQ.r Inauguration of John Adams — Aggressions of France upon the United States — The American Commis- sioners Insulted by the French GovemmeBt — The Alien and Sedition Laws — The United States Pre. pare for War with France — France Signifies her Willingness to Treat — New Commissioners Ap- pointed — Settlement of the Dispute — Hostilities at Sea — Capture of the " Insurgente " and " Ven- geance" — Death of Washington — Removal of the Capital to Washington City — The Second Census — Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson — The President's Message — His First Measures — Admission of Ohio — Louisiana Purchased by the United States — War with the Barbary Powers — Burning of the " Phila- delphia " — Re-election of Mr. Jefferson — Aaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel — Burr's Subse- quent Career — Fulton's Steamboat — Outrages of England and France upon American Commerce — « American Vessels Searched and American Seamen Impressed by England — Efforts to Settle these Questions — Affair of the " Chesapeake" and " Leop- ard" — The Embargo — Results of this Measure- Losses of the Eastern States — Election of James Madison to the Presidency— Repeal of the Embargo. 496 CHAPTER XXXni. The Administration of James Madison — The Secone War with England. Inauguration of Mr. Madison — Negotiations with Mr. Erskine — Their Failure — Seizure of American Ves- sels in France — Sufferings of American Ship-owners —Great Britain Stations her Ships of War off Amer- can Ports — Affair of the "President" and "Little Belt" — Trouble with the Northwestern Indians— Tecumseh — Battle of Tippecanoe — Meeting of the Twelfth Congress — Measures for Defence — Admis- sion of Louisiana into the Union — Death of George Clinton — The British Ultimatum — War Declared Against Great Britain — Opposition to the War — The British Offer of Settlement Rejected — ^The War for "Free Trade and the Sailors' Rights"— Mr. Madi- son Re-elected — Campaign of 18 1 2 — Preparations for the Invasion of Canada General Hull Sui« renders Detroit to the British — Loss of the Ncitb' western Frontier — Failure of the Attack on Queens- town — Exploits of the Navy — Capture of the " Guer riere" by the "Constitution" — The Priv.iteers— Russia Offers to Mediate between the United States and England — Financial Affairs— Harrison's Cam- paign — Massacre at the River Basin — Defence of Forts Meigs and Stephenson-Perry's Victory on Lakf CONTENTS. XV Erie — Battle of the Thames — Death of Tecumseh — Recovery of the Northwest — Capture of York — British Attack on Sackett's Harbor Repulsed — ■ Removal of General Dearborn — Failure of the Cam- paign on the Lower Lakes — The Creek War — Jackson's Victories — Naval Affairs — The British Outrages in Chesapeake Bay — Negotiations for Peace — Capture of Fort Erie — Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane — Siege of Fort Erie — Successes of the Americans — Advance of Prevost — Battle of Plattsburgh — Macdonough's Victory on Lake Cham- plain — Battle of Bladensburg — Capture of Wash- ington — Destruction of the Public Buildings by the British — Attack on Baltimore — Death of General Ross — " The Star- Spangled Bunner " — The British Attack on the New England Coast — Opposition of New England to the War — The Hartford Conven- tion — The British in Florida — General Jackson Expels Them — Jackson at New Orleans — Arrival of the British Expedition off the Coast — Vigorous Measures of Jackson — Battle of New Orleans — Defeat of the British — Naval Affairs — The Treaty of Peace — The Barbary Powers Humbled — The Tariff — The Bank of the United States — Admis- sion of Indiana — James Monroe Elected President . 512 CHAPTER XXXIV. Administrations of James Monroe and John Quincy Adams. Inauguration of Mr. Monroe — His Tour through the Eastern States — Admission of Mississippi into the Union- — Troubles with the Indians — General Jack- son's Vigorous Measures against the Spaniards in Florida — Purchase of Florida by the United States ■ — Illinois Becomes a State — The First Steamship — Maine Admitted into the Union — The Slavery Question — The Missouri Compromise — Admission of Missouri as a State — The Fourth Census — Re- election of Mr. Monroe — The Tariff — Protective Policy of the Government — Recognition of the Spanish Republics — The Monroe Doctrine — Visit of Lafayette to the Unite€ States — Retirement of Mr. Monroe — John Quincy Adams Elected President— His Inauguration — Rapid Improvement of the Coun- try — Increase of Wealth and Prosperity — Internal Improvements — The Creek Lands in Georgia Ceded to the United States — Death of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams — The Anti-Masons — The Tariff of 1828 — Andrew Jackson Elected President . . . 548 CHAPTER XXXV. Administrations of Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. Character of Andrew Jackson — Indian Policy of this Administration — The President Vetoes the Bill to Renew the Charter of the United States Bank: — De- bate Between Hayne and Webster — Jackson's Quar- rel with Calhourn — Death of ex- President Monroe — The Cholera — Black Hawk's War — Re-election of President Jackson — The Tariff— Action of South Carolina — The Nullification Ordinance — Firmness of the President — The Matter Settled by Compro- mise — Patriotism of Henry Clay — The Removal of the Deposits — The Seminole War Begun — Great Fire in New York — Settlement of the French Claims — Arkansas Admitted into the Union — The National Debt Paid — Death of ex-President Madi- son — Martin Van Buren Elected President — Michi- gan Admitted into the Union — The Panic of 1837 — Causes of It — Suspension of Specie Payments — - Great Distress throughout the Union — The Sub- Treasury — Repudiation of State Debts — The Can- adian Rebellion — The President's Course — The Seminole War Ended — The Anti-Slavery Party — Resolutions of Congress Respecting Slavery- William Henry Harrison Elected President — The Sixth Census 561 CHAPTER XXXVI. Administrations of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler. An Extra Session of Congress Summoned — Death of President Harrison — John Tyler Becomes President of the United States — Meeting of Congress — The Bankrupt Law — President Tyl^r Vetoes the Bills to Revive the United States Bank — His Quarrel with his Party— The " Tyler Whigs "—The Tariff of 1842 — The Treaty of Washington — The United States Will Not Tolerate the Exercise of the Right of Search — Dorr's Rebellion — The Mormons — In- vention of the Electric Telegraph — Explosion on the " Princeton " — Efforts to Secire the Annexation of Texas — Early History of Texas — The Texan War of Independence — Battle of San Jacinto — • Texan Independence Established — Texas Applies for Admission into the Union — Opposition to tha Measure — Significance of the Vote at the Presiden- tial Election — James K. Polk Elected President — Texas Admitted into the Union — Icwa and Florida Become States 5^ CHAPTER XXXVII. Administration of James K. Polk — The Wa* with Mexico. The Oregon Question — Position of President Polk Respecting It — The Question Settled — Treaty for Settlement of Claims against Mexico — Mexico Re- sents the Annexation of Texas — General Taylor Ordered to Texas — He Advances to the Rio Graude XV) CONTENTS. .—Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma— The War with Mexico Begun— Invasion of Mexico —Occupation of Matamoras — Action of the United States Government— Taylor Advances into the Interior— The Storming and Capture of Monterey — The Armistice — Return of Santa Anna to Mexico —President Polk Duped— Santa Anna Seizes the Mexican Government — General Wool Joins General ;Taylor — Troops Taken from Taylor's Army — Ad- '..— vance of the Mexicans — Battle of Buena Vista — Conquest of Califo-nia by Fremont and Stockton — Occupation of Santa F6— New Mexico Conquered . — Doniphan's March — Occupation of Chihuahua — Sailing of Scott's Expedition — Reduction of Vera Cruz — Santa Anna Collects a New Army — Battle of of Cerro Gordo — Occupation of Puebla by Scott — Trouble with Mr. Trist — Vigorous Measures of Santa Anna — Scott Advances upon the City of Mexico — El Penon Turned — Battles of Contreras and Churubusco — Capture of Molino del Rey — Storming of Chapultepec — Capture of the City of Mexico — Siege of Puebla Raised — Flight of Santa Anna — Treaty of Peace Negotiated — Close of the War — Acquisition of California and New Mexico — Discovery of Gold in CaUfornia — Rapid Emigration to the Pacific — Death of John Quincy Adams — The Wilmot Proviso — Revival of the Slavery Question •-General Taylor Elected President 59;; CHAPTER XXXVIII. Administrations of Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore. Character of General Taylor — Department of the Inte- rior — Death of ex-President Polk — The Slavery \gitation — Views of Clay and Webster — California asks admission into the Union — Message of President Taylor — The Omnibus Bill — Efforts of Henry Clay — A Memorable Debafe — Webaier's " Great Union Speech " — Death of John C. Calhoun — Death of President Taylor — Millard Fillmore becomes Pres- ident — Passage of the Compromise Measures of 1850 — Death of Henry Clay — Dissatisfaction with the Compromise — The Fugitive Slave Law Nul- lified, by the Northern States — The Nashville Con- vention — Organization of Utah Territory — The Seventh Census — The Expedition of Lopez against Cuba — The Search for Sir John Franklin — The Grinnell Expedition — Dr. Kane's Voyages — Inaug- uration of Cheap Postage — Laying the Corner. Btone of the new Capitol — Death of Daniel Webster —Arrival of Kossuth — The President Rejects the Tripartite Treaty — Franklin Pierce, elected Pres- ident — Death of William R. King 626 CHAPTER XXXIX. The Administration of Franklin Pierce. PAOB Dispute with Mexico — The Gadsden Purchase — Sur- veys for a Pacific Railway — The Japan Expedition — Treaty with Japan — The Koszta Affair — ^The " Black Warrior " seized by the Cuban Officials — The "Ostend Conference" — Dismissal of the British Minister — The Kansas-Nebraska Bill — History of the Bill — Its Passage by Congress — History of the Struggle in Kansas — Conflict between the Pro- Slavery and Free Soil Settlers — Lawrence Sacked — Civil War —The Presidential Campaign of 1856 — James Buchanan elected President of the United States — Rapid Increase of the Republican Party . t CHAPTER XL. The Administration of James Buchanan. Inauguration of Mr. Buchanan — The Mormon Re- bellion — The Financial Crisis of 1S57 — Laying of the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable — Minnesota admit- ted into the Union — The San Juan Affair — Admis- sion of Oregon into the Union — The Kansas Ques- tion — The Lecompton Constitution — Its Defeat— The Wyandotte Constitution — Admission of Kansas into the Union — The John Brown Raid — Prompt Action of the Government — Brown and his Consi- panions Surrendeaed to the State of Virginia — • Their Trial and Execution — Presidential Campaign of i860 — Rupture of the Democratic Party — Abra- ham Lincoln elected President of the United States — Secession of South Carolina — Reasons for this Act — Secession of the other Cotton States — Major An- derson Occupies Fort Sumter — ^Trying Position of the General Government — Course of Mr. Buchanan —The " Star of the West " fired upon by the South Carolina Batteries — Organization of the Confeder- ate States of America — ^Jefferson Davis elected President of the Southern Republic — The Peace Congress — Its Failure 64^ BOOK VI. The Civil War. CHAPTER XLI. The Administration of Abraham Lincolw, Inauguration of President Lincoln — His History — The Confederate Commissioners at Washington — Attack upon Fort Sumter by the Confederates — The Pres- ident calls for Troops — Response of the North and West — Secession of the Border States — Opening Events of the War in Virginia — Withdrawal of West Virginia — Admitted into the Union as a Separate State — Meeting of Congress — The West Virginia CONTENTS. XVII Campaign^ -Battle of Bull Run — The War in Mis- souri — Kentucky Occupietl — Tlae Blockade — Cap- ture of Port Royal— The "Trent" Affair— Insur- rection in East Tennessee — State of Affairs at the Opening of the Year 1S62 — Edwin M. Stanton made Secretary of War — Capture of Forts Henry and Don- ilson — The Confederates f.ill back from Kentucky — Battle of Shiloh — Capture of Island No. 10 — Evac- jation of Corinth — Capture of Memphis — Bragg's Kentucky Campaign — His Retreat into Tennessee --Battles of luka and Corinth — Battle of Murfrees- boro', or Stone River — Grant's Campaign against Vicksburg — Its Failure — The War beyond the Mis- sissippi — Battle of Pea Ridge — Capture of Roanoke Island — Capture of New Orleans— Surrender of Fort Pulaski — The War in Virginia — Johnston's Retreat from Centreville — Battle between the " Monitor" and " Virginia " — The Move to the Peninsula — lohnston Retreats to the Chickahominy — Battle of Seven Pines — ^Jackson's Successes in the Valley of Virginia — The Seven Hays' Battles before Richmond ^Battle of Cedar Mountain — Defeat of General Pope's Army — Lee Invades Maryland — Capture of Harper's Ferry — Battles of South Mountain and Antietam — Retreat of Lee into Virginia — McClellan Removed — Battle of Fredericksburg 666 CHAPTER XLII. The Administration of Abraham Lincoln — the Civil- War — Concluded. l*he Emancipation Proclamation — Battle of Chancel- lorsville — Death of Stonewall Jackson — Invasion of the North by Lee's Army — Battle of Gettysburg- Retreat of Lee into Virginia — Grant's Army crosses the Mississippi — Battle of Champion Hills — Invest nient of Vicksburg — Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson — Battle of Chickamauga — Rosecrans shut up in Chattanooga — Grant in command of the Western Armies — Battles of Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge — Defeat of Bragg's Army — The Cam- paign in East Tennessee — Retreat of Longstreet — Capture of Galveston — Attack on Charleston — Cap- ture of Fort Wagner — Charleston Bombarded — State of Affairs in the Spring of 1864 — The Red River Expedition — Grant made Lieulenant-General — Advance of the Army of the Potomac — Battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania and Cold Harbor — Sheri- dan's Raid — Death of General J. E. B. Stuart — Bat- tle of New Market — Early sent into the Valley of Virginia —Butler's Army at Bermuda Hundreds — ( irani crosses the James River — The Siege of Peters- burg begun — Early's Raid upon Washington — Sheri- dan defeats Early at W^inchester and Fisher's Hill — Cattle of Cedar Creek — The final Defeat of Early's Army — Sherman's Advance to Atlanta — ^Johnston Removed — Defeat of Hood before Atlanta — Evacu- ation of Atlanta — Head's Invasion of Tennessee — lialt'e of Franklin — Siege of Nashville — Hood Defeated at Nashville — His Retreat — Sherman's "March to the Sea" — Capture of Savannah — Battle of Mobile Bay — Attack on Fort Fisher — • The Confederate Cruisers — Sinking of the "Ala- bama" by the " Kearsarge" — Re-election of Pres ident Lincoln — Admission of Nevada into the Union — The Hampton Roads Peace Conference — Capture of Fort Fisher — Occupa'ion of Wilmington — Sher- man advances through South Carolina — ^Evacuation of Charleston — Battles of Averasboro' and Benton- ville — Sherman at Goldsboro' — Critical Situation of Lee's Army — Attack on Fort Stead man — Sheridan joins Grant — Advance of Grant's Army — Battle of Five Forks — Attack on Petersburg — Evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg — Retreat of Lee's Army — Richmond Occupied — Surrender of General Lee's Army — Rejoicings in the North — Assas- sination of President Lincoln— Death of Booth — • Execution of the Conspirators — Johnston Sur- renders — Surrender of th« other Confederatf Forces — Capture of Jefferson Davis — Close of the War 71^ CHAPTER XLHI. The Administration of Andrew Johnson. Tlie New President — Return of the Army to Civil Life — The Public Debt — The Reconstruction Ques- tion — Action of the President — He declares the Southern States Readmitted into the Union — The Fifteenth Amendment — Meeting of Congress — The Presider*'s Acts Annulled — Recon.>truction Policy of Congress — The Fourteenth' Amendment — The Freedman's Bureau and Civil Rights Bill — The Tenure of Office Act — Admission of Nebraska into the Union — The Southern States Organized as Mil- itaiy Districts — Admission of Southern States into the Union — The Fourteenth Amendment Ratified- President Johnson's Quarrel with Secretary Stantoa — Impeachment of the President — His Acquittal — Release of Jefferson Davis — Indian War — The PVench in Mexico — Fall of the Mexican Empire- Laying of the Atlantic Telegraph — Purchase of Alaska — Naturlization Treaty with Germany- Treaty with China — Death of General Scott — Death of ex- President Buchanan — General Grant Elected President — The Fifteenth Amendment "j^^ CHAPTER XLIV. The Administration of Ulysses S. Grant. Early Life of President Grant— Completion of the Pacific Railway — Death of ex- President Pierce-' XVlll CONTENTS. The Fifteentti Amendment Ratified— The En- forcement Act— The Test Oath Abolished — The Constitutionality of the Legal-Tender Act Affirmed— The Income Tax Repealed — The Alabama Claims — Treaty of Washington ■ — The Geneva Conference — Award in Favor of the United States — Burning of Chicago — The Civil Disabilities Removed from the South- ern People — Re-election of General Grant — Great Fire " at Boston — The Modoc War — Murder of General Canby and the Peace Commissioners — Execution of the Modoc Chiefs— The Panic of 1873— Bill for tLe Re- sumption of Specie Payments — The Centen- nial Exhibition — The Sioux War^ — Death of General Custer — Presidential Election — The Electoral Commission — Count of the Vote- Hayes Declared Elected .... 801 CHAPTER XLV. The; Administration ot? Rutherford B. Hayes. Inauguration of President Hayes — Sketch of the New President — Civil Service Reform — Troops in South Carolina — Two Legislatures in Ses- sion — Investigation by President Hayes — Prompt Action — Settlement of the Troubles in South Carolina and Louisiana — General Grant's Tour Around the World — Enthusiastic Reception by the Crowned Heads of Other Nations — Election of General Garfield as Presi- dent 841 CHAPTER XL VI. The Administration oe James A. Garfield. Cieneral Garfield Declared President — Inaugural Ceremonies — Sketch of the New President— The Star Route Cases — Assassination of Presi- dent Garfield — His Illness — Removal to Long Branch — Death of President Garfield — Inaugu- ration of President Arthur — Indictment of Guiteau for Murder — Trial and Execution of Garfield's Assassin — The Greely Arctic Ex- pedition — Reaching a Point Beyond the Eighty-first Parallel — Lieutenant Lockwood's Heroic Exploit — Celebration of the Landing of William Penn — Great Suspension Bridge between New York and Brookl3'n 849 CHAPTER XLVII. The Administration of Grover Ceevei,and. Mr. Cleveland's Early Life — Governor of New York — Elected President — Inauguration Cere- monies — The New Cabinet — Death of General Grant — Honors to the Illustrious Dead — IPAGE Death of General George B. McClellan — Pen- sion Granted to the Widow of President Grant — President Cleveland's Message — Bill Regulating the Presidential Succession — Labor Agitations — Riot at Chicago Instigated by "Anarchists" — Statue of Liberty Enlighten- ing the World — President Cleveland's Mar- riage — Nomination of President Cleveland- Nomination of Benjamin Harrison — Harri- son's Election 864 CHAPTER XLVin. The Administration of Benjamin Harrison. Inauguration of President Harrison —President Harrision's Inaugural Address — Celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of Washington's Inauguration — The New Cabinet — Terrible Calamity at Johnstown — Admission of New States — President's Message to the Fifty-first Congress — Legislation of the First Session of the Fifty -first Congress — The New Tariff Law — Indian War in the Northwest — Death of Sitting Bull— Restriction of Imigration — Mob Law in New Orleans — Trouble in Chile — Political Conventions of 1892 — Labor Contest at Homestead — Defeat of the Silver Bill , . . 87S CHAPTER XLIX. Second Administration of Grover Ci.evei.and. Second Inauguration of Presdent Cleveland — The New Cabinet — Extraordinary Session of Congress — Repeal of the Sherman Silver Law —New Tariff Bill— The Bill Passes the House of Representatives — Discussion in the Senate — Over Six Hundred Amendments — Senate Bill Rejected by the House — Afterward? Passed — The President Refuses to Sign the Bill— Bland Seigniorage Bill— Utah Admitted as a State — Congress Investigates the Relations of the United States to Hawaii — Subsequent Events — Bond Issue of 1S96 898 CHAPTER L. Cuba and Venezuei,a. Story of Cuban Insurrections — Great Revolution of 1848 — Gallant Uprising of the People for Life and Liberty — Long and Bitter Struggle — Political Situation in Cuba — Insurrection of 1895-96 — Boundary Line Dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain — The Monroe Doctrine Asserted . 901 LATEST EVENTS 949 OUR NEW POSSESSIONS 999 / LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Frontispikce. Mounds at Marrietta, Ohio 19 A Dead Town of the Moquis Indians 21 Indian Village in Winter 24 Navajo Boy 25 Pueblo Indian at Piayer , . . 26 Civilized Indian Woman 37 Thorvald Wounded by the Red Men 30 Christopher Columbus 33 Columbus Watching for Land 37 Landing of Columbus ' 38 Reception of Columbus by Ferdinand and Isabella . 39 Norse Sea-king 41 Sebastian Cabot 44 Samuel Champlain 47 Cabot on the Shores of Labrador 48 The Coast of Florida 51 Hernando Cortez 5 - Fernando De Soto 55 The Spaniards Descending the Mississippi after the Death of De Soto 59 The Renowned Explorer, Sir Martin Frobisher . . 64 Sir Walter Raleigh 65 Frobisher and His Ships Passing Greenwich .... 66 Queen Elizabeth 67 Murder of White's Assistant 70 Captain John Smith 76 Pocahontas Interceding for the Life of Captain John Smith 78 Pocahontas 80 Building the First House in Jamestown 82 Types of North American Indians 85 Massacre of Settlers by Indians 90 Flight of the Indians after the Massacre 92 Indian Weapons 94 King Charles II 99 Indians Making a Midnight Attack upon Settlers . . 103 Bacon Demands the Commission of Berkley .... 105 Cecil, Second Lord Baltimore 113 A Civilized Indian 115 Oliver Cromwell Il6 William III 118 Chained Bible, Time of James I . 122 The Puritans in Conference with James I 124 The Pilgrims at Plymouth i a6 The " Mayflower " at Plymouth Harbor 128 Governor Brewster's Chair 129 Landing of the Pilgrims 131 The First Church in New England 133 The Treaty between Plymouth Colony and Massasoit 135 John Endicott 139 John Winthrop 141 Roger Williams Seeking Refuge Among the Indians . 145 Landing of Roger Williams at Providence 147 John Hampden 151 A Group of Indians 153 Yale College 155 An American Free School 159 John Eliot Preaching to the Indians 162 Indian Medicine Man 164 Indian Life in Their Native Forests 170 King Philip 172 The Burning of Brookfield by the Indians 173 Mrs. Rowlandson Captured by the Indians 1 75 Sir Edmund Andros 178 The Charter Oak 180 The Rev. Cotton Mather • • . . 183 Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs 189 Nova Zembla — From an Old Print 194 Mock Suns Seen by Early Explorers 195 Henry Hudson 196 Hudson Strait. 197 Mutiny on Hudson's Ship 198 First Settlement of New York 199 Peter Stuyvesant 203 Gustavus Adolphus 205 Queen Anne 212 William Penn 217 William Penn's Treaty with the Indians 220 Penn Treaty Monument - . 221 The Old Swedes' Church, Built in 1 64 1 222 Indian Amusements — Canoe Race between Squaws . 223 The Coast of North Carolina 229 A Settler's Cabin 231 Birds'-Eye View of Charleston, South Carolina . . . 233 Scene on a Tributary of the St. John's River .... 235 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE King George 1 239 General Oglethorpe 243 A Southern Plantation 244 John Wesley 245 George Whitefield 246 University and Normal School Buildings at Toronto in 1892 254 Falls of St. Anthony 261 Murder of La Salle 263 View of Montreal from Mount Royal 26S Return of the Daughter of Eunice Williams . . . . 272 Cruel Murder of Rasle . 274 French Explorers Buying Leaden Plates 279 Scenes in the Allegheny Mountains 2S1 The HalfKing 2S5 Benjamin Franklin 289 Wills' Creek Meadows 291 Disastrous'Deftat of General Braddock 294 Burning of Kittaning by General Armstrong .... 296 Thi Palisades of the Hudson 302 Site of Fort William Henry on Lake George .... 305 Montcalm 306 Arrival of ludian Allies at the French Camp .... 307 William Pitt , . . 310 Washington Planting the Flag on Fort Duquesne . . 315 Niagara Falls 317 General James Wolfe 318 Death of General Wolfe before Quebec 320 King George III 321 Visit of Pontiac and the Indians to Major GLdwin . . 324 Scene near the Source of the Raritan P.iver 329 Samuel Adams 332 Patrick Henry 333 Colonel Barre . . . • ^^^ Hanging a Stamp Act Official in Effigy 337 Stamp Act Official Beaten by the People 339 British Troops in Boston ^42 Throwing the Tea Overboard in Boston Harbor . . 347 John Hancock 3^^g Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia • . . . . 351 The Minute Man . ^cc The Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775 356 Death of Isaac Davis ^58 Capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen 360 Signers of the Mecklenburg Declaration 361 Generallsrael Putnam 364 General Burgoyne ^65 Battle of Bunker Hill 368 Death of Major Pitcairn 370 Bunker Hill Monument 372 General Richard Montgomery 374 General Henry Knox 078 Medal Struck by Congress in Honor of the Recapture of Boston . 380 PAGB Continental Bills 381 Sergeant Jasper at Fort Moultrie 383 Independence Hall, Philadelphia 385 House in which the Declaration of Independence was Written, Philadelphia 386 Signing the Declaration of Independence 387 Old Bell of Independence Hall 38S Signatures of the Signers of the Declaration of Inde- pendence 390 General John Sullivan 393 The Declaration of Independence Read to the Army 396 General Charles Lee 39S Washington Crossing \he Delaware 401 Washington Calls on Colonel Rahl 403 American Marksman in a Tree 406 Washington's Quarters at Morristown 408 General Philip Schuyler 411 Flag and Shield 412 Sealof the United State? — Obverse 412 Seal of the United States — Reverse 412 The Marqui„ le Lafayette 413 Arrest of General Prescott 415 Lafayette and Washington 417 General Burgoyne Addressing the Indians 420 Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga 421 Herkimer Mortally Wounded • 423 General John Stark 424 General Horatio Gates 426 An American Rifleman 431 Louis XVI 434 Sir Henry Clinton 435 Indian Scalp Dance 439 General Benjamin Lincoln 441 Gallant Charge of Count Pulaski • • • . 442 General Anthony Wayne 443 Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Lee 444 Paul Jones Seizing the Silver Plate of Lady Selkirk . 445 John Paul Jones ..... 446 Medal Struck in Honor of Paul Jones — Obverse . . 44.7 Medal Struck in Honor of Paul Jones — Reverse . . 447 Daniel Boone 448 Lord Cornwallis 453 T^tal Rout of the Loyal Recruits 454 General Francis Marion 455 General Nathaniel Greene . . • 457 " Now Put Watts into them, Boys," 458 Benedict Arnold . . . . , 46c Major Andre 461 Escape of Benedict Arnold 463 General Daniel Morgan 466 Lord Rawden, afterwards Marquis of Hastings . . 468 Scene in the Highlands of the Hudson 471 View of Yorktown 473 Surrender of Lord Cornwallis 474 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXI PAGE Captai/i Iluddy led from Prison to be Hanged . . . 477 Washii gton's Headquarters at Newburg, New York . 479 The Room with Seven Doors and One Window . . +79 Oliver Ellsworth , 4S2 Washington's Reception at Trenton 483 Rufiis King 484 C. C. Pinckney 485 The Inauguration of Washington 4S6 George Washington 4S7 Indian Child in Cradle 4S8 Alexander Hamilton 489 Rufus Putman 490 John Jay 491 Fisher Ames 492 Scene in the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky 493 Washington's Home at Mount Vernon 494 John Adams 497 John Marshall 498 Washington's Grave, Mount Vernon 500 Thomas Jefferson 5°^ Aaron Burr 5°^ Robert R. Livingston 503 Napoleon 1 5^4 Captain (afterward Commodore) Bainbridge and the Dey of Algiers 505 Duel between Burr and Hamilton 5°*^ Fulton's First Steamboat 507 William Piiikney 509 Officers of the "Chesapeake" Surrendering their Swords 510 James Madison 513 A Pioneer Hero's Fight with the Savages , . . . . 516 John Randolph ..,517 Stephen Van Rensselaer 519 Massacre by Indians at Fort Dearborn 520 Capture of the " Guerriere" by the " Constitution " . 522 Commodore Hull 5^3 The " Wasp" Boarding the " Frolic" 524 [ndians Torturing Prisoners 526 Commodore Perry 5^7 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie 528 Battle of the Thames — Death of Tecumsch .... 529 Captain (afterward Sir Philip) Broke 531 Fight between the " Chesapeake" and the "Shannon" 533 Sceneof the Battle of Lake Champlain ...... 536 Commodore MacDonough 537 A New England Farm-house 539 Joseph Story 540 The Plain of Chalmette — Scene of the Battle of New Orleans 541 Pakenham Leading the Attack on New Orleans . . . 543 Commodore Decatur 544 Decatur and the Dey of Algiers 545 William C, C. Claiborne 546 PAGB James Monroe 549 Old Way of Picking Cwtton 551 Henry Clay • • • • 553 Lhiique Cotton Harvester 555 John Quincy Adams 557 Steamboat Loading with Cutton 558 Statue of Jefferson at Washington 559 Daniel Webster 560 Andrew Jackson 562 Robert Y. Hayne 563 A Lumberman's Camp in the Woods of Maine . . . 564 John C. Calhourn 565 Edward Livingston 566 The United States Treasury at Washington, D. C. . • 567 Osceola, Chief of the Seminoles 566 Martin Van Buien 571 Canadian Trappers ' 574 The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. . . 575 View of the National Capitol at Washington . . . . 577 William lienry Harrison 580 John Tyler 581 Fac-Simile, According to Joe Smith, of the Writing on the Original Plates of the " Book Mormon " . . 583 Murder of the Smiths 584 The Mormon Hand-cart Company Crossing the Plains 5^:5 Mormon Tr.bernacle at Salt Lake, Utah 5S6 Professor Morse 5S7 A Village in Texas 588 Santa Anna 589 General Houston 590 General Post Office, Washington 591 James K. Polk 594 Columbia River, Oregon 595 Battle of Palo Alto . . . 59S Major Ringgold Mortally Wounded 599 Charge of the Dragoons 600 General Win field Scoi^. 60 1 Capture of a Battery at Monterey 603 Lieutenant Grant Going for Ammunitiun at Mon- terey 604 Mexican Cart and Oxen 607 Battle of Buena Vista 609 General View of the Yosemite Valley 6n The Great Canon and Lower Falls, Yellowstone . . 613 East Side of Plaza — Sante Fe 614 Bombardment of Vera Cruz 616 Battle of Cerro Gordo 617 Storming of Chapultepec 621 General Scott Entering the City of Mexico ..... 622 A Mexican Cathedral 623 Hydraulic Mining 624 Zachary Tayloi 627 The White House, Washington, D. C 62$ XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The New City Hall, Philadelphia «74 Steamship Docks on the Delaware River, Phila- delphia 875 Allen G. Thunnan 876 Levi P. Morton ^77 Benjamin Harrison • 879 Bird's eye View of New York City 880 The Post Office, New York 881 The Battery and Castle Garden, New York . . . 882 The Harbor of New York 883 The Break in vSouth Forks Dam, Johnstown, Pa. 888 William McKinley 885 Charles F. Crisp 886 Mdfi Sitting Bull in his War Dress . 887 Chief American Horse 888 General Nelson A. Miles 889 Captain Wallace Found After the Wounded Knee Fight 890 Scene on the Yellowstone River 892 Manila Harbor— Scene of the Great Battle . . .961 Uniforms of U. S. Marines and Naval Officers . 963 Street Scene in Manila^ — Philippine Islamls . . 964" Bombardment of San Juan, Porto Rico 965 Lieut. R. P. Hobson 966 Harbor and Fortifications of Santiago 968 Superb Phototype (Full-page) Engravings Illustrating the Story of the New World.* Christopher Columbus Landing of Columbus. Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella. De Soto Discovering the Mississippi. General Pepperell at the Siege of Loui-sburg. George Washington. Putnam's Escape at Horseneck. Battle of Bennington. General Harrison and Tecumseh. Commo lore Perry at the Battle of Lake Erie. General Scott at the Battle of Cerro Gbrdo. Bombardment of Island No. 10. Capture of New Orleans. Battle of Gettysburg. Columbus Sighting Land. , The Landing of Roger Williams. Boston Massacre, 1770. Patrick Henry. Washington Reviewing the Army. Massacre at Fort Mimms. Decatur's Conflict with the " Algerine " at Tripoli. Capture of Roanoke Island. General William T. Sherman. Battle of Antietam. Battle of Chickamauga. General-P. H. Sheridan. Battle of Lookout Mountain. General George G. Meade. Capture of Fort Donaldson, Teun. Battle of Balls Bluff, Va. General Grant. U. S. Cruiser ' ' Baltimore." U. S. Cruiser "Petrel." U. S. Cruiser " Phila-lelphia." U. S. Cruiser " Newark." U. S. Cruiser " Yorktowii." U. S. Cruiser " San Francisco." U. S. Cruiser '-Columbia." U. S. Cruiser " Chicago." U. S. Battleship "Texas." U. S. Battleship "Oregon." U. S. Battleship " Maine." U. S. Battleship " Indiana." U.S. Battleship " Iowa." U. S. Monitor " Miantonomoh. " U. S. Ram "Katahdin." U. S. Dynamite Cruiser " Vesuvius." U. S. Cruiser " Olympia." William McKinley. Captain Chas D. Sigsbee. Destruction of the Battleship " Maine." Admiral George Dewey. Great American Victory at Manila. Admiral W. T. vSanipson. Bombardment of San Juan, Porto Rico. General Nelson A. Miles. Lieut. R. P. Hobson. Landing of General Shafter in Cuba. Gallant Charge of General Wheeler's Cavalry. United States Forces Capturing the lutrenchments at Santiago. Commodore W. S. Schley. Captain Robley D. Evans. Working Rapid-fire Guns, Standard History of the United States BOOK I Discovery of bt)e ^esberr) Coi)bii)ei)b CHAPTER I Strange People in a Strange Land Earliest Inhabitants of the United States — The Mound Builders — Remarkable Works Constructed byThent— Evidences of a Primitive Civilization — Indications of the Antiquity of this Period — The American Indians — Division of the Country Among the Tri'.:3s — Names and Location of the Various Tribes — Organization and Government of the Indians — Their Dress, Manners and Customs — Villages — Indian Inventions — The War Dance — Legends of the Norsemen Respecting the Discovery of America. 'E do not know who were the inhabitants, or what was the history of North America previous to its discovery and settlement by the Europeans. That it was at some remote period occupied by a more civilized and powerful race than the Indians, found by the first explorers, is very certain ; but who they were, what was their history, or what the cause of their extinction, are among the profoundest mysteries of the past. Traces as distinct as those which mark the various physical changes which the continent has undergone, exist to show that these primi- tive inhabitants were both numerous and far advanced in civilization ; but this is all that we know concerning them. In various parts of the country, and espe- cially in the valley of the Mississippi, large hiounds and other structures of earth and fttone, but chiefly of earth, remain to ^^^w 2 the magnitude of the works constructed by these people, to whom the name " Mound Builders" is generally applied. Some of these earthworks embrace as much as fifteen or sixteen miles of embankment. As no domestic animals existed in this country at that period, these works must have been constructed by bringing the earth used in them by hand ; a fact which shows that the primitive population was a large one. The construction of the works proves that they had considerable engineering skill. The square, the circle, the ellipse, and the octagon are all used in these structures, being all combined in a single system of works in some places. The proportions are always perfect. The square is always a true square, and the circle a true circle. Many implements and ornaments of copper, silver, and precious stones — such as axes, chisels, knives, bracelets, beads, and pieces of thread and cloth, and well-shaped vases of pottery have been found in these mounds, and show 1/ DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. the extent of the civilization of the " Mound Builders" and their knowledge of the arts. In the region of Lake Superior are found old copper mines worked by these ancient people. In one of these mines there was discovered an immense block of copper weighing nearly six tons. It had been left in the process of removal to the top of the mine, nearly thirty feet above, and was sup- ported on logs of wood which were partly petrified. The stone and copper tools used by the miners were discovered lying about as they had been left by their owners ages before. At the mouth of this mine are piles of earth thrown out in digging it, and out of these embankments trees are growing which are nearly four hundred years old. Who Were the "Mound Builders?" The following interesting account of the mounds and their builders is from the pen of Mr. J. H. Beadle, who has kindly given us permission to quote from his valuable work, entitled The Undeveloped West ; In his description, Mr. Beadle says : A people for whom we have no name, vaguely included under the general term of Mound Builders, have left evidences of exten- sive works in the vicinity of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and their tributaries. These are of three kinds : mounds, square and circular inclosures, and raised embank- ments of various forms. Of mounds, the following are most important and best known : One at Grave Creek, West Virginia, 70 feet high and 1,000 feet in circumference at the base ; one near Miamisburg, Ohio, 68 feet high and 852 feet in circumference; the great truncated pyramid at Cahokia, Illinois, 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 in height ; the immense square mound, with face of 188 feet, near Marietta, Ohio ; and some hun- dreds of inferior mounds from 60 to 30 feet in height, in different States, from Wisconsin to the mouth of the Mississippi. Unlike all the mounds in Mexico and Central and South America, those in our country have no trace of buildings on them. Why? Until I visited Arizona I had no answer. There the solution was easy. In those regions stone was abundant and timber was scarce; here the reverse was the case. Our predecessors built of wood, the others of stone ; the works of the latter remain to this day, while wooden buildings would leave no trace after one or two centuries, if indeed they were not burnt by the savages as soon as abandoned. Immense Structures. Of the second class the best known are : the square fortification at Cedar Bank, Scioto River, Ohio, with face of 800 feet, inclosing a mound 245 feet long by 150 broad ; the works four miles north of Chilli- cothe, Ohio, a square and a circular fortifica- tion inclosing twenty acres each ; the graded way near Piketon, Ohio ; about a hundred mounds and inclosures in Ross County, Ohio; the pyramid at Seltzertown, Missis- sippi, 600 feet long and 40 feet high, and a vast number of mounds, inclosures, squares and pyramids on the upper lakes, and scat- tered through the Southern and Western States. Every State in this great region contains these ancient structures. By far the greatest division is in Central and South America ; and here we find our- selves at the point where our ancient civiliza- tion reached its height, among works which are the astonishment of explorers and per- plexity of scholars. Yucatan is a vast field for antiquarian research, dotted from one end to the other with the ruins of cities, temples and palaces. But in the great forest which covers the northern half of Guatemala, the southern half of Yucatan, and parts of other States, covering an area larger than Ohio, is STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 19 to be found the key to our ancient history. Within a few years past cities have been dis- covered which must have contained a popu- lation of a quarter of a million, in an advanced condition of civilization ; and yet, owing to the jealousy of the natives and the indiffer- ence of modern scholars, next to nothing is known, and few scientific researches have been made upon this intensely interesting subject. In my limited space I confine this inquiry mostly to the remains in our own country. 2, They were an agricultural people. The barbarous state requires many times a.= large an area for the same number of peoplt as the civilized state; and the savage condi- tion a much larger. The State of Ohio will support an agricultural population of many millions ; yet it never contained fifty thousand savages. It is easily proven that that portion of the United States east of the Mississippi never contained half a million Indians. It follows, also, that a very large portion of the country around their works MOUNDS AT MARIETTA, OHIO. From what we see in the Western and Southern States, the following conclusions are evident : I. The Mound Builders constituted a considerable population, under one govern- ment. No wandering and feeble tribes could have erected such works ; and the extent of fhe works, evidently many years in erection, as well as their completeness and scientific exactness, show the controlling energy of one directing- central power, which alone can account for their uniform character. must have been cleared of timber and in cultivated fields. 3. They left our country a long time ago. Nature does not give a forest growth at once to abandoned fields ; a preparatory growth of shrubs and softer timber come; first. But forest trees have been found upon the summit of their mounds, which show, by annual rings and other signs, at least six hundred years of growth. There could be no better proof of their great antiquity. Their works are never found upon the 20 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. lowest terrace of the formation on the rivers ; though many signs indicate that they built some as nearly on a level with the streams as possible. Their "covered ways," leading down to water, now terminate on the second terrace above. It is demonstrable that of the various terraces — " second bottoms " — on our streams, the lowest was longest in form- ing. From these and many other signs, it is proved that the last of the Mound Builders left the Ohio valley at least a thousand years ago. How Long were They Here? 4. They occupied the country, at least the southern part of it, where their popula- tion was densest a very long time. This is shown by the extent of their works, the evidences of their working the copper-mines of the Superior region, and many other proofs. The best judges estimate that nearly a thousand years elapsed from the time of their entrance till their departure from the Mississippi valley. 5. At the south they were at peace; but as they advanced northward, they came more and more into contact with the wild tribes, before whom they finally retired — again towards the south. These facts are clearly proved by the increase of fortifica- tions northward, and broad flat mounds, suitable only for buildings, southward. So much for prosrf"; and, connecting these with other proofs, the latest antiquarians are of the opinion that the Toltecs — the civilized race preceding the Aztecs — were our Mound Builders. This opinion is the only reason- able one that can be fornaed under all the circumstances. When we pass t«> tPe more southern ruins the proofs of great antiquity, large population and long occupation are vastly increased. Some of them have been alluded to. The great forest of Guatemala and Yucatan is nearly as large as Ohio and Indiana combined, and could easily have sustained a civilized population of ten mil- lions. The Aztecs, whom the Spaniards found, were the last of at least three civilized races, and much inferior to the Toltecs immediately preceding them. Their history indicates that they were merely one of the original races, who overthrew and mingled with the Toltecs, adopting part of their re- ligion and civilization. The Peruvian Incas, found by Pizarro, seemed to have been the second in the series of races. But civiliza- tion is not spontaneous; it must have re- quired nearly a thousand years for the first of the three dynasties to have developed art and learning far enough to erect the build- ings we find. To that race before the Incas, the authors of the original civilization, De Bourbourg and others have given the name of Colhuas. What may Reasonably be Conjectured. Thus we have the series: a thousand years since the Mound Builders left our country ; a previous thousand years of set- tlement and occupation, and a thousand years for the precedent civilization to develop. Or, beginning in Mexico, etc. : a thousand years of Spaniard and Aztec ; a previous thousand years for Toltec migration and settlement, and a thousand years before that for the Colhuas to develop, flourish and decline. This carries us back to the time when the same course of events was inaugu- rated on the Eastern Continent. We know that it has required so long to produce all we see in Europe and Asia ; all reasoning, by analogy, goes to show that at least as long a time has been required to produce equally great evidences in America. Besides a host of surmises there have been at least nine theories promulgated, and strenulously defended, in regard to the origin of this civilization. STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 2t ^ I. The Jewish theory. Some sixty years since Major Noah maintained that the " Lost Tribes " were the ancestors of the American (ndians and the builders of the ruins de- such a people as the Jews could, in a few centuries, lose all trace of their language, religion, laws, form of government, art, science and general knowledge, and sink into DEAD TOWN OF THE MOQUIS INDIANS scribed; and a few others held that, if not I a tribe of barbarians. But when we add the Ten Tribes, there was a Jewish Colony, that their bodily shape must have completely It would certamlybe an amazing thing if I changed, their skulls lengthened, the beard 22 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. dropped from their faces, and their lan- guage undergone a reversion from a deriv- ative to a primitive type — a thing unknown in any human tongue — the supposition be- comes too monstrous even to be discussed. 2. The Malay theory is that a -groat Malay Empire, once existing in the island of Malaysia, planted colonies here ; but this is easily disproved. Works of the Phoenicians. 3. The Phoenician theory: that those ancient navigators planted colonies in Amer- ica. If correct, this would be certain of demonstration ; for they were pre-eminently a people of letters and monuments. The Phoenician alphabet is the parent of all the alphabets of Europe except the Turkish. They must have left some trace ot their lan- guage But none has been found. Nor can any similarity be traced in the ruins with the works of the Phoenicians. 4. 5,6. The Assyrian, Egyptian and Roman theories fell for the same reasons as the Phoenician. The works of none of these people have any marked resemblance to those found in America. A pyramid or temple here is no more like an Egyptian or Assyrian one than a Chinese pagoda is like an American church. 7. The Northmen in America have been credited with these works. It is barely possible the remains in the United States might be thus accounted for ; but how about the far more extensive and elaborate works in Mexico, Central and South America ? The cause ascribed is utterly inadequate for the effect. 8. The Chinese or Tartary theory is, that about the year 1250 Kublai Khan sent Tartar colonies to America; that among them were some Nestorian Christians, which accounts for the crosses found. The time is utterly inadequate. Palenque and Copan were built and abandoned before the yeaf 1250. 9. The Atlantean theory is, by far, the most brilliant and fascinating of all proposed, and appeals with subtle power to the imagi- nation. It is propounded by Brasseur de . Bourbourg, who maintains that the Island of Atlantis, often mentioned by ancient poets, had a real existence ; that it extended nearly across the Atlantic, and was the cradle of civilization ; that it actually sank in the sea as the Greek poets tell us, and that the West India Islands are the only portions that remain above water. He conjectures that from this common centre civilization spread east and west, and supports this view by numerous traditions from both sides of the Atlantic. Of this theory we must regretfully say, " Not proven." A False Assumption. To dispose of so many theories to make way for my own opinion, is scarcely in keeping with the modesty I had proposed to myself; but, in my humble judgment, these theorists all start from one fatal assumption : tliat this civilization was necessarily an exotic. Why not a civilization native to America as well as to any other country ? I would sug- gest that a good basis might be laid by analogy with the course of civilization in Europe. There it began in the South, spread slowly by successive developments towards the North, where it was overwhelmed and driven back, as it were, by an irruption of barbarians ; it again revived in the South, and slowly extended to the North, where it is now advanced beyond the original. Similarly here the Colhuas originated civilization in the South ; their successors the Toltecs, carried it towards the North, about the line of Ohio, they encountered the irruption of northern barbarians, and slowly retired towards the South ; there civilization ISTRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 23 again revived, and was steadily advancing towards the North when the Spaniards came and destroyed it. On each continent the full cycle required a period of about three thousand years. On this basis I should place the Moquis and other Pueblo races the last in a series of four, the second the greatest, and a decline thence to the last : Colhaus, Toltecs, Aztecs, Pueblos. In summing up, why are we reduced to the necessity of adopting any hypothesis of an Eastern origin ? Is it unreasonable to believe that self-improve- ment began among savages in America, as it did three thousand years ago among savages in Egypt and Greece ? Does sound philos- ophy forbid the theory of a spontaneous civilization in America ? We are, perhaps, too much in the habit of thinking that everything really good originated with our branch of the human race. To my mind, the evidences are many — though a profound American archaeologist might smile at the supposition — that this civilization was sui generis, native and not derived. A Remarkable Indian. We now know that in China a civiliza- tion developed spontaneously, totally unlike and receiving no aid from that of Europe. Two starting points proved, what is there to forbid the idea of a third ? This is as dis- tinct from the European as is the Chinese ; it shows no signs of derivation, and facts indicate clearly that the native mind of Amer- ica is naturally equal to either of the others. Within the memory of man a Cherokee has invented a complete alphabet, one serving the purpose in his language better than ours does in the English. (Better because each letter represents invariably one and the same sound). This fact is worth a volume of con- jecture. It shows that the human mind was slowly working toward something better in America, the same as in Europe, the only difference being that, from reasons of race or climate, it there got an earlier start. Outgrowing Barbarism. And as to the northern barbarians who destroyed this civilization, why are we driven to inventing a plausible theory as to how they crossed from Asia ? On the whole, I incline to flank all the difficulties of the main question thus : America, as shown by geo- logy, is the oldest of the continents, and it is quite reasonable, therefore, to suppose was early inhabited. This race had a native genius peculiarly its own, totally unlike that which developed in Asia the Chinese civili- zation, or that in Europe which created that of the Greek and Roman and the later nations. Like them, many hundreds of years passed in barbarism before even a start was apparent. But civilization did begin in Amer- ica, and was reviving from its first overthrow when the whites came. Mexico had advanced through the savage and barbarous to the half-civilized state ; the New England tribes had taken the first steps toward improvement, and the New York Indians had already a political organization, code of laws, national confederacy and sys- tem of representative council and govern- ment. Had the whites discovered America a thousand years later, they might have found on the Atlantic coast a completed native civilization as perfect as that of China to-day. The innate power of the Indian mind among the superior tribes is evident. The inferior ones would have perished as did inferior aboriginal races before Asiatic and European civilization. The foregoing theories, by Mr. Beadle, are doubtless the best solution to this problem. At the time of its discovery by the whites the Indians were the sole human occupants of the continent, which was covered with vast 24 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. woods and plains abounding with game of every description. Though nominally divided into tribes and *' nations," the Indians were really one great family in physical appearance, manners, cus- toms, religion, and in the observance of their social and political systems. The division and Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware. Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina as far south as Cape Fear, a large part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and nearly all of Ohio, Indi- ana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and Min- nesota. This nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Ottawas, Chippewas, INDIAN VILLAGE IN WINTER. into tribes was the result of their difference in language. Each tribe had a dialect pecu- liar to itself and distinct from those of the others. The tribes were for the most part hostile to and were constantly engaged in war with each other. They were generally divided into eight nations, speaking eight radically distinct languages. These were : I. T/ie Algonqtdns, who inhabited the ter- ritory now comprised in the six New Eng- land States, the eastern part of New York Sacs and Foxes, Miamis, Potawatomies, Shawnees, Powhatans, Delawares, Mohegans, Narragansetts and Pequods. The Famous "Five Nations." II. Iroqnois, who occupied almost all of that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron, the greater part of New York, and the country lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, now included in the States of Ohio and Penn- sylvania. This territory, it will be seen» UNTTBD STATES. • ► » •<• ■•►-■ UNION JACK. :: U. S. OOJIMODOBB PENNANT. U. S. TACHT. U. S. REVENUE. U. S. ADMIRAL. OERMAKY. PENNSYLVANIA STATE. GERMAN MERCHANT. FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. ■•►-■I #--^ > — • •< -►^l GSBBOB. VENEZUELA. O INDIA. PERU. PABAGUAT. DENMARK. HANOVER. FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. -^ ■•► <^ BWEDBM. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. PHILADELPHIA CITY. LIBERIA. SANDWICH ISLANDS. HOLLAND. MEXICO, f^. M^ FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. NEW GBANADA. FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS •^-Hi STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 25 bordered on the domains of their powerful and bitter enemies, the Algonquins. The nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas and Mohawks. These five were afterwards called by the English the " Five Nations." In 1722 they admitted the Tus- caroras into their confederation, and were afterwards called the " Six Nations." Tribes of the South. III. The Catawbas, who dwelt among the banks of the Yadkin and Catawba rivers, near the line which at present separates the States of North and South Carolina. IV. The Cherokees, whose lands were bounded on the east by the Broad river of the Carolinas, including all of north- ern Georgia. V. The Uchees, who dwelt south of the Cherokees, along the Savannah, the Oconee, and the head-waters of the Chat- tahoochee. They spoke a harsh and smgular language, and are believed to have been the remnant of a once power- ful nation. VI. The Mobilian Nation, who inhabi- ted all of Georgia and South Carolina not mentioned in the above statements, a part of Kentucky, Tennessee and Mis- sissippi and all of Florida and Alabama. Their territory was next in extent to that of the Algonquins, and extended along the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. The nation was divided into three great confederations — the Creeks or Muscogees, the Choctaws and the Chickasaws — and was subdivided into a number of smaller tribes, the principal of which were the Seminoles and Yemassees, who were members of the Creek Confed- eration. VII. The Natchez, who dwelt in a small territory east of the Mississippi, and along the banks of the Pearl River. They were almost surrounded by the tribes of the Mobilian language, yet remained until their extinction a separate nation, speaking a distinct lan- guage peculiar to themselves, and worship- ping the sun as their God. They are believed to have been the most civilized of all the savage tribes of North America. VIII. The Dacotahs or Sioux, whose terri- tory was bounded on the north by Lake Winnipeg, on the south by the Arkansas River, on the east by the Mississippi, and on NAVAJO BOY. the west by the Rocky Mountains. The nation was divided into the following branches : the Winnebagoes, living between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi ; the Southern Sioux, living between the Arkan- sas and the Platte; and the Mandans and Crows, who lived north of them. The great plains, the Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast were held by the powerful tribes of the Pawnees, Comanches, Apaches, Utahs, Black Feet, Snakes, Nezperces, Flat- heads, Navajos and California Indians. 26 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. Each tribe was divided into classes or clans, which were distinguished by a mark tattooed on the breast. This mark was called the totem, and was generally the representation of an animal or bird. The Indians believed that all animals had protect- ing spirits, and each class was supposed to be protected by the spirit of the animal it chose for its totem. Over each class was a chief, and the head of the tribe was a chief or sachem, who was usually a man, but some- PUEBLO INDIAN AT PRAYER. times a woman. The Indians had no writ- ten laws, but the customs and traditions of the tribe took the place of these. The reli- gious belief of the Indians was simple. They adored a Great Spirit — some tribes had many gods — and believed in a future state. The brave were admitted to the happy hunt- ing-grounds of the spirit-world, but cowards were excluded from them. The weapons of a warrior were buried with him that he might use them in his spirit home, and pursue the occupations of his earthly life. Their heaven lay far beyond the mountains of the setting sun. It was a land rich in game, and abounding in fertile meadows and sparkling streams. There the warrior, re- leased from the cares and hardships of life, passed the ages of eternity in the chase ; and there parting from friends, suffering, fatigue, hunger and thirst were unknown. The Indian heard voices o" spirits in the wind, and saw them in the stars. The shades of his ancestors were constantly hovering over him, stimulating him to brave deeds, keep- ing fresh in his mind the duty of avenging them upon the enemies they had left behind, and of proving himself a true warrior. Grotesque Dress of the Savages. The dress of the savages consisted of the skins of animals, which were prepared by smoking them. After the settlement of the colonies they added a blanket to this dress. Their garments were decorated with skins and feathers, and on special occasions they painted their faces with various bright colors. In the warm weather they wore scarcely any clothing. Their houses or wigwams were formed of poles set firmly in the ground and bent toward each other at the top. These were covered with chestnut or birch bark. Some of the tribes had large houses, often thirty feet high and over two hundred feet long, which accommodated a number of families. Some of the Indian villages were laid off regularly and were permanent; others were broken up with each migration of the tribe. All the Indians, however, pursued a roving life, passing from point to point in search of game and the means of subsist- ence. Some of the tribes lived by hunting only ; others added to this pursuit the culti' vation of maize or Indian corn, beans, hemp, tobacco and pumpkins. The food of the Indians was coarser and less nourishing than that of the Europeans, and they were conse- STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 27 qucntly inferior to tiie latter in bodily strength. They surpassed them in endur- ance, however, and could bear tests which the whites could not. They were swift run- ners, and could accomplish long distances in this way. It was a common thing for a good runner to run seventy or eighty miles in a single day. They werp thoroughly proficient in the craft of tlie woodsman. Sounds and sights which had nft meaning to the white man were eloquent to them ; and they sur- passed the latter in keenness of hearing and of vision. They communicated with each other by signs or marks on rocks and trees. For money they used wampum beads ; and belts made of this wampum were used to record treaties and other important events. They had no intoxicating drinks before the arrival of the whites ; but used tobacco, which they smoked in pipes made of clay. They were expert marksmen with the bow until they learned the use of firearms from the whites, when they lost much of their ancient skill with this weapon. Canoes and Snow-shoes. " The most ingenious inventions of the In- dians," says Colonel Higginson, " were the snow-shoe and the birch canoe. The snow- shoe was made of a maple-wood frame three or four feet long, curved and tapering, and filled in with a network of deer's hide. This network was fastened to the foot by thongs, only a light, elastic moccasin being worn. Thus the foot was supported on the surface of the snow ; and an Indian could travel forty miles a day upon snow-shoes, and could easily overtake the deer and moose whose pointed hoofs cut through the crust. The peculiar pattern varied with almost every tribe, as did also that of the birch canoe. This was made of the bark of the white birch, stretched over a very light frame of white cedar. The whole bark of a birch tree was stripped off and put around the frame without being torn. The edges were sewed with thongs cut from the roots of tb ced&r, arid were then covered with pitcK made irom the gum of trees. If torn, the canoe could be mended with pieces of bark, fastened in the same way. The largest of these canoes was thirty feet long, and would carry ten or twelve Indians. They were very light and could be paddled with ease. They were often very gracefully shaped, and drew very little water. " The Indians had great courage, self-con- trol, and patience. They were grave and CIVILIZED INDIAN WOMAN. dignified in their manners on important occa- sions; in their councils they were courteous to one another, and discussed all important questions at great length. They were often kind and generous, and sometimes even for- giving ; but they generally held sternness to be a virtue, and forgiveness a weakness. They were especially cruel to captives, putting them to death with all manner of tortures, in which women took an active part. It was the custom among them for women to do most of the hard work, in order that the 28 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. bodies of the men might be kept supple and active for the pursuits of the chase and war. Great Power of Endurance. ** When employed on these pursuits, the Indian men seemed incapable of fatigue; but in the camp or in travelling the women carried the burdens ; and when a hunter had carried a slain deer on his shoulders for a long distance, he would throw it down within sight of the village, that his squaw might go and bring it in. " Most of the Indian tribes lived in a state of constant warfare with one another. When there was a quarrel between tribes, and war seemed ready to break out, strange cere- monies were used. Some leading chief would paint his body black from head to foot, and would hide himself in the woods or in a cavern. There he would fast and pray, and call upon the Great Spirit ; and would observe his dreams to see if they promised good or evil. If he could dream of a great war-eagle hovering before him it would be a sign of triumph. After a time he would come forth from the woods and return among his people. Then he would address them, summon them to war, and assure them that the Great Spirit was on their side. Then he would bid the warriors to a feast at his wig- wam. There they would find him no longer painted in black, but in bright and gaudy colors, called * war paint.' The guests would also be dressed in paint and feathers, and would seat themselves in a circle around the wigwam. Then wooden trenchers, contain- ing the flesh of dogs, would be placed before them, while the chief would sit quietly smok- ing his pipe, and would not yet break his long and wearisome fast. "After tht feast, the war-dance would fol- low, perhaps at night, amid the blaze of fires and lighted pine knots. A painted post would be driven into the ground, and the crowd would form a wide circle round k. The war chief would leap into the open space, brandishing his hatchet, and would chant his own deeds and those of his fathers, acting out all that he described and striking at the post as if it were an enemy. Warrior after warrior would follow, till at last the whole band would be dancing, shouting, and' brandishing their weapons, striking and stab- bing at the air, making hideous grimacee and filling the forest with their yells. Making the Attack. " Much of the night would pass in this way. In the morning the warriors would leave the camp in single file, still decorated with paint and feathers and ornaments ; and, as they entered the woods, the chief would fire his gun, and each in turn would do the same. Then they would halt near the vil- lage, would take off their ornaments and their finery, and would give all these to the women, who had followed them for this pur- pose. Then the warriors would go silently and stealthily through the forest to the appointed place of attack. Much of their skill consisted in these silent approaches, and in surprises and stratagems, and long and patient watchings. They attached no shame to killing an unarmed enemy, or to private deceit and treachery, though to their public treaties they were always faithful. They were desperately brave, and yet they saw no dis- grace in running away when there was no chance of success." At the time of the discovery of America the Indians were rapidly disappearing. Their relentless wars and frequent pestilences were sweeping them away. Contact with the white race has hastened the work of destruc- tion. Many of the tribes exist now but in name, and those which remain are growing smaller in numbers with each generation; and it would seem that the time is not far o O I— f m o [a < STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 29 distartt when the last trace left of the red man in America will be his memory. Old Traditions. Whether any white men ever trod the shores of America previous to the coming of Columbus is a disputed question. It would / seem, however, that, several centuries previ- ous to his discovery, a Norwegian vessel from Iceland to Greenland was driven out of her course by storms to the coast of Labrador or Newfoundland. The national pride of the Icelanders and the Danes has led them to accept as literal history the traditions of their race concerning this voyage, and they have given it a definite date. According to them this voyage took place in A. D. 986, and was followed in looi by a voyage of Lief Erick- son, an Icelandic navigator, who is said to have discovered America, reaching Labrador first, and then sailing southward to Newport and New York harbors. This voyage is said to have led the way to the further exploration of the coast as far south as the capes of Virginia, and to the planting of colonies, which soon perished, in Newfound- land and Nova Scotia. That some Icelandic voyagers visited the American continent pre- vious to the expedition of Columbus is most likely ; but we cannot accept the definite and explicit statements of the writers in ques- tion; at least in the present state of our knowledge upon this subject. We must con- tent ourselves with the bare fact, without admitting all the details narrated. Among the strange, stirring and wonder- ful stories of early voyages there was none 'which excited such interest as that of Bjarni, a native of Iceland, who had cruised along the coast of an unknown world, and looked upon hills, woods and mountains, of whose existence no one had ever dreamed. It naturally occurred to the hardy sailors who discussed the question, that they could do what Bjarni had done, and indeed far more, for he had not set foot on the shores he had seen at the west. The oldest son of Eric the Red was Lief — Lief the Lucky, he was afterward called. In the year 1000 he set sail from Herjulfness with a crew of thirty-five men, Bjarni being among them. Heading boldly out to sea, the sailors ploughed through the icy waters until land, supposed to be Newfoundland, was reached. They went ashore and examined it, but there was little to please the eye and they soon left. The next place visited was probably Nova Scotia, as it is now called. It was found to correspond with the account given by Bjarni. Two days further sail, before a favoring wind, carried the explorers so far south that when land was once more descried, it must have been New England. The main facts of the remarkable voyage of Lief the Northman have been proven beyond all dispute, but the accounts themselves are so confused in minor details that it can never be positively known where it was these navigators first landed. There is good rea- son, however, to believe it was on the coast of Rhode Island, and probably at some poin<" on the Narragansett Bay. A Bold Navigator. The Northmen were astonished and de- lighted when they came to explore the woods to find luscious grapes in abundance. To the Northmen, the climate seemed wonder- fully mild. Lief gave the country the name of Vinland, and when he sailed northward, his vessel was loaded with grapes and valu- able timber, as proof of the fertility of the region he had visited. The Northmen were not men to rest con- tent with the voyage and discoveries made by Lief. Eric the Red had another son, a brave and skillful navigator named Thorvald, who was eager to visit the new country. STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 31 Lief gave him much help and in 1003 he set sail with a crew of thirty men. Good fortune attended them, and they found the rough houses left by Lief still strong and secure. The men spent the winter in hunting and fishing, but, so far as is known, never saw the face of any native of the New World. When spring came, part of the company went on an exploring tour along the coast of Rhode Island, Connecticut and Long Island. There is good reason to believe they entered the harbor of New York, but not a living person beside themselves was to be seen, and where stands to-day the most populous city in the New World, there was not so much as an Indian wigwam. The records show that in the spring of 1004, Thorvald entered on a more extended voyage of exploration. He sailed slowly northward along the coast of Cape Cod, and was driven ashore by a tempest. It took the crew a long time to repair damages, but when everything jwas ready, they resumed their voyage, keeping close, no doubt, along the south shore of the Massachusetts Bay. Being favorably impressed with the appear- ance of a certain spot, they dropped anchor and went ashore. When they had done so, they saw for the first time some of the natives of the new country. Under a couple of rude tents they dis- coved nine quietly lolling on the ground with no suspicion of the presence of the strangers who had landed near them. Who would think that the Northmen could offer harm to the poor savages ? There was not the slightest excuse for the dreadful cruelty of the white men, and yet, no sooner did they see the natives, than they resolved to kill them all Creeping silently forward, they made a sudden rush, and with their heavy swords killed all but one. Having completed the massacre, the triumphant Northmen lay down under the trees to sleep ; but they had hardly closed their eyes when the woods resounded with shouts and yells, and the natives rushed upon them from every side. The single survivor of the slaughter had made haste to tell what had been done by the visitors, who were now compelled to flee to their ship, fighting as they went. Under the shelter of the vessel, however, they were able to beat back the natives, only one of the Northmen receiving a wound : he was Thorvald, who had been pierced so deeply by an arrow that he was past help. He died and was buried near the shore, the grave covered with stones and a cross placed both at the head and foot. Then the survivors sailed back to Vinland and told their countrymen the sad tidings. The next spring the whole colony returned to Green- land. Thus ends all authentic history of the dis- covery and settlement of America by the Northmen. Having found one of the great continents of the world, it may be said they lost it, and, during nearly five centuries afterward there is no positive proof that it was known to Europeans. CHAPTER n The Voyages of Columbus Maritime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century — Theories Respecting the Earth's Surface — Christopher Columbus— His Early Life— His Theory of a Western Passage to India— His Struggles to Obtain the Means of Making a Voyage — Is Aided by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain — His First Voyage — Dis- covery of America — Reception in Spain — His Second Voyage — Settlement of Hayti — Third Voyage of Columbus — He Reaches the Mainland — Discovery of Gold in Hayti — Troubles in the Colony — Columbus Sent to Spain in Irons — Indignation of the Queen — Last Voyage of Columbus — His Shipwreck — Returns to Spain — Refusal of Ferdinand to Comply with his Promises — Death of Columbus — Amerigo Vespucci — Origin of the Name America. !^ HE fifteenth century witnessed a remarkable awakening of human thought and enter- prise, one of the most im- portant features of which was the activity in maritime under- takings which led to the discovery of lands until then unknown to the civilized world. The invention, and the application to navigation, of the mariner's compass, had enabled the seamen of Europe to undertake long and distant voyages. The Portuguese took the lead in the maritime enterprises of this period, the chief object of which was to find a route by water from Europe to the Indies. The equator had been passed; Bartholomew Diaz had even doubled the Cape of Storms, and had established the course of the eastern coast of Africa; and it was hoped by some of the most daring thinkers that the ports of India could, be reached by sailing around this cape. Others, still bolder, believed that although the earth was pi sphere, it was much smaller than it is, and that the central portion of its surface was occupied by a vast ocean which washed the shores of what they regarded as its solitary continent, on either .side, and that by sailing due west from Eu- 32 rope, the shores of India, China or Japan could be be reached. Among those who Keld this opinion was Christopher Columbus. He was a native of Genoa, in Italy, was bom about the year 1435, and was the son of i\ weaver of cloth. His ancestors had been sailors, for which calling he, at an early age, evinced a preference. He received a com- mon school education, and afterwards went to the University of Pavia, where he studied geometry, astronomy, geography and navi- gation. He stayed at Pavia but a short time, only long enough to gain a decided relish" for mathematical studies. At the early age of fourteen he went on a voyage with a relative, and followed the calling of a sailor until he had completed his thirtieth year. During this period he had married, and by this marriage he had become possessed of the papers of the former hus- band of his wife, who had been a distinguished Portuguese navigator. He had learned but little at school, but he had been a close stu- dent all his life, and had stored his mind with a valuable fund of information. This habit of study he never abandoned, and his extensive knowledge, added to his years of practical experience, made him one of the most learned navigators of his day. In 1470, be'ug then about thirty years old, Columbus THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 3S cook up his residence in Portugal, which was then the centre of maritime enterprise in Europe. Here his spirit of discovery was quickened, and he became convinced that ihere were continents still unknown. He continued to make voyages to the then known parts of the world, and while on fortified by his experience, induced him to believe that there was land beyond the western seas, which could be reached by sailing in that direction. This land he believed to be the eastern shores of Asia. He was confirmed in his belief by his corres- pondence with the learned Italian ToscanelU^ CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. shore engaged in the work of making and selling maps and charts. The papers given him by his wife were now of the greatest service to him. He entered eagerly into the speculations of the day concerning the short- est passage to the Indies, and his studies, 3 who sent him a map of his own projection, in which the eastern coast of Asia was laid down opposite the western coast of Europe, with only the broad Atlantic between them. Other things also confirmed him in what had now become the profoundest conviction oi 54 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. his lite. Sailors who had been to the Canary- Islands told him they had seen land far to the westward of those islands. A piece of wood strangely carved had been thrown by the waves upon the Portuguese coast after a long westerly gale, and had been seen by the brother-in-law of Columbus, Seven Years of Disappointment. An old pilot related to him the finding >f a carved paddle at sea, a thousand miles to the westward of Europe. Pine trees had been cast ashore at Madeira, and at the Azores he learned that the bodies of two men, whose features and dress showed that they belonged to no nation of Europe, had been thrown on the land by the waves. Having settled it in his own mind that there was land to the westward, Columbus was eager to go in search of it. He was not possessed of suffi- cient means to accomplish this at his own expense, and began his efforts to interest some European state in the enterprise. His first application was addressed to his native country, the Republic of Genoa. He met with a refusal, and then turned to Venice, with a like result. His next effort was to enlist the Portuguese king, John II., in his scheme. Here he was subjected to delays and vexations innumerable, and once the Portuguese sovereign attempted to make a dishonorable use of the information given by Columbus in support of his theory. Disgusted with the conduct of this sover- eign, Columbus, after years of waiting, aban- doned the hope of obtaining his assistance, and applied to Henry VII. of England, from whom he received a decided refusal. Quitting Lisbon in 1484, Columbus went to Spain, intending to lay his plans before Fer- dinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that country. He could scarcely have chosen a more unpropitious time. The Spanish nation was engaged in the Moorish war, which had exhausted the treasury, and which absorbed the attention of the sovereigns to the exclu sion of every other matter. He spent seven years in endeavoring to interest the govern- ment in his plans. " During this time Columbus appears to have remained in attend* ance on the court, bearing arms occasionally in the campaigns, and experiencing from the sovereigns an unusual degree of deference and personal attention." At last, wearied with the long delay to which he had been subjected, he pressed the court for an answer, and was told by the sovereigns that, " although they were too much occupied at present to embark in his undertaking, yet, at the conclusion of the war, they should find time to treat with him." He accepted this answer as a refusal, and prepared to go to France to ask the assistance of the king of that country, from whom he had received a friendly letter. Travelling on foot, he stopped at the monas- tery of Santa Maria de Rabida, near Palos, to visit the Prior Juan Perez de Marchena, who had befriended him when he first came to Spain. The prior, learning his iiitention to quit Spain, persuaded him to remain until one more effort could be made to enlist the gfovernment in his plans. Leaving Columbus at the convent, Juan Perez, who had formerly been the queen's confessor, mounted his mule and set off for the Spanish camp before Granada. He was readily granted an inter- view by Queen Isabella, and he urged the suit of Columbus with all the force of elo- quence and reasoning of which he was master. Columbus at the Royal Court. His appeal was supported by several eminent persons whom Columbus, during his residence at the court, had interested in his project, and these represented to the queen the impolicy of allowing Columbus to secure the aid of a foreign power which THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 3$ «rould reap the benefits of his discoveries, if ^ he were successful. The result was that the sovereigns consented to reopen the negotia- tion, and Columbus was invited to return to the court, and was furnished with a sum of money to enable him to do so. Columbus promptly complied with the royal mandate, and reached the camp in time to witness the surrender of Granada. Amidst the rejoic- ings which attended this event he was admit- ted to an audience with the king and queen, .lid submitted to them the arguments upon which he based his theory. Isabella was favorably disposed toward the undertaking, but Ferdinand looked coldly upon it. Co- lumbus demanded, as the reward of his suc- cess, the title and authority of admiral and viceroy over all lands discovered by him, with one-tenth of the profits, and that this dignity should be hereditary in his family. The archbishop of Granada advised the king to reject the demands of Columbus, which, he said, " savored of the highest degree of arrogance, and would be unbecoming in their highnesses to grant to a needy foreign adventurer." Columbus firmly refused to abate his pretensions, and abruptly left the court, " resolved rather to forego his splendid anti- cipations of discovery, at the very moment when the career so long sought was thrown open to him, than surrender one of the hon- orable distinctions due to his services." His friends, however, remonstrated with the queen, and reminded her that if his claims were high, they were at least contingent on success. By representing to her the certainty of his being employed by some other poten- tate, and his peculiar qualifications for success, and by reminding her of her past generous support of great and daring enterprises, they roused her to listen to the impulses of her own noble heart. " I will assume the under- taking," she exclaimed, " for my own crown of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray the expenses of it, if the funds ol the treasury shall be found inadequate." Louis de St. Angel, the receiver who had been chiefly instrumental in bringing about this decision of the queen, offered to ad- vance the necessary funds from the reve-' nues of Aragon. That kingdom, however, was indemnified against loss, and all the charges and profits of the expedition were reserved exclusively for Castile. A messen- ger was despatched in haste after Columbus. He overtook him a few leagues from Granada, and delivered the royal order to return. Three Ships of Renown. On the seventeenth of April, 1492, a formal agreement was signed between Columbus and the Spanish sovereigns. Fer- dinand and Isabella, " as lords of the ocean- seas, constituted Christopher Columbus their admiral, viceroy and governor-general of all such islands and continents as he should discover in the Western Ocean, with the privilege of nominating three candidates, for the selection of one by the crown, for the government of each of these territories. He was to be vested with the exclusive right ofjurisdiction over all commercial trans- actions within his admiralty. He was to be entitled to one-tenth of all the products and profits within the limits of his discoveries, and an additional eighth, provided he should contribute one-eighth part of the expense. By a subsequent ordinance, the official digni- ties above enumerated were settled on him and his heirs forever, with the privilege ol prefixing the title of Don to their names, which had not then degenerated Into an appellation of mere courtesy." A fleet of three vessels was assembled in the little harbor of Palos in Andalusia. S6 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. Two of these were furnished by the govern- ment, and one by Columbus, aided by his friend, the Prior of La Rabida, and the Pin- zons, " a family in Palos, long distinguished for iis enterprise among the mariners of that active community." The admiral had some difficulty in equipping his vessels, for his voyage was regarded by the sailors of the country as rash and perilous in the extreme. At length, however, a sufficient crew was obtained. One hundred and twenty per- sons were enlisted in the expedition. The three vessels were all small. The Santa Maria, the largest, was ninety feet long, was decked all over, had four masts, and carried a crew of sixty-six seamen. The Pinta and Mna were smaller, and were without decks. All the vessels were provisioned for a year. The admiral was instructed to keep clear of thQ African coast, and other maritime posses- sions of Portugal. The Fleet Sails. At length all things were in readiness, and, Columbus and his whole crew having confessed themselves and received the sacra- ment, the fleet sailed from Palos on the morning of Friday, the third of August, 1492. A month later the Canary Islands were reached. A brief delay was made there to refit, and then the vessels turned their prows to the westward, and sailed out into the unknown seas. As the night came on the sailors, imagining they had seen the land for the last time, gave way to tears. Columbus soothed their fears, and held his course. At length he fell in with the trade- winds, which wafted him steadily towards the west The sailors were greatly alarmed at this, and declared, that if the wind did not change it would be impossible for them to reach home again. The variation of the compass also alarmed them, and their mur- murs increased to almost open mutiny. It required all the firmness of the admiral t O o 03 I— I Q O Eh O 03 Q THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 37 torch carried in a man's hand. He called Martin Alonzo Pinzon, one of his captains, and pointed it out to him. Pinzon confirmed the admiral's opinion, and all waited in the most in- tense eager- ness for the approach of the morning With the first light, on the morning of Friday, the twelfth of Oc- tober, 1492, a gun from one of the vessels announced that land was indeed in sight, and the rising sun re- vealed to the delighted sea- men a large island, luxu- riant in foliage and of very beautiful ap- pearance, ly- ing about six miles away, with crowds ofnatives run- ning along the beach. As the great admiral stood with folded arms, and heaving breast, gazing upon the world which his genius had discovered, the penitent sailors crowded about him, and, kissing his garments, im- plored his pardon for their rebellious conduct. Orders to land were promptly issued, and the fleet stood in and anchored near the shore. The boats were manned, and the admiral, clad in rich scarlet, and bearing the royal ban- ner of Spain and accom- panied by his captains, each of whom bore a green ban- ner inscribed with a cross, went ashore. As he set foot on the land. Col u miDU s knelt rever- ently, and kissed the ground, and then rising and drawing his sword, took posses- sion of the island in the name of Fer- dinand and Isabella, ki»g and queen of Spain. The island was one oftheBahama group, and was called by the natives Guanahani. Columbus named it San Sal- vador. He explored the island, and then sailing on discovered Cuba, Hayti, and other West India islands. He believed these islands to lie off the coast of Asia and to COLUMBUS DISCOVERING LAND. 38 DISCOVERS Ox THE WESTERN CONTINENT. form a part of the Indies. For this reason he called the natives Indians, a name which they have since borne. Having built a gar- rison, a small fort in Hayti, Columbus took on board seven of the natives, and laid in a stock of fruits, plants and a number of ani- mals as specimens of the products of the country, and set sail on his return to Spain. The voyage was a very tempestuous one. He arrived at Palos on the fifteenth of March, i/t<^'>. His arrival was greeted with enthusi- From Palos he set out for the court covered Jamaica, and many of the, Caribbee Islands. In 1498 Columbus made a third voyage, and in this expedition he discovered the mainland of the American Continent near the mouth of the Orinoco, and explored the coast of the provinces, since called Para and Cumana. He was not aware of the true nat'ir© of his discovery, but supposed that the South American coast was a part of a large island belonging to Cathay or Farther India. In the meantime, gold had been discov- LANDING OF COLUMBUS. of Barcelona. Every step of the journey was a triumphal progress. He was received with the most distinguished honors by the sovereigns, and the whole court joined in a Te Deuvi of thankfulness for the success of his voyage. A second expedition, consisting of seven- teen ships and fifteen hundred men, was now fitted out, and sailed from Cadiz under the command of Columbus on the twenty-fifth of September, 1493. On this voyage h'* dis- ered in Hayti, and crowds of adventurers were drawn hither from Spain. They in- flicted great hardships upon the natives, and when Columbus arrived he found the affairs of the colony in a most deploi- able state. The sovereigns at length sent over a commissioner named Boba- dilla to investigate the affairs of the co-J lony. He was a narrow-minded, incom- petent man, and instead of investigating the charges against the admiral, arrested hirn. o o CO 03 15 o CO o PQ RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 40 and sent him back to Spain in irons. When the officers of the ship which bore him back home wished to remove his fetters, he refused to allow them to do so, saying, " I will wear them as a memento of the gratitude of princes." The news of this outrage filled the people of Spain with honest indignation. " All seemed to feel it as a national dis- honor," says Prescott, " that such indignities should be heaped upon the man, who, what- ever might be his indiscretions, had done so much for Spain, and for the civilized world." The Fetters Stricken Off. Queen Isabella at once ordered his fetters to be struck off, and he was s'jmmoned to court, reinstated in all his honors, and treated with che highest consideration. Isabella gained from the king a promise to aid her in doing justice to the admiral, and in punish- ing his enemies ; but Ferdinand, who could never bear to do a generous or noble act, evaded his promise, and the admiral failed to receive his just recompense. In. 1504 Columbus sailed on his fourth voyage; his object this time being to find a passage from the Atlantic io the Pacific Ocean, by which he might reach India. He explored the Gulf of Honduras, and saw the continent of North America, but was com- pelled by the mutiny of his crew and by severe storms to abandon his attempt and return to the northward. He was ship- wrecked on the coast of Jamaica, where he remained more than a year. Returning to Spain in November, 1505, he found his best friend. Queen Isabella, on her death-bed. The enemies whom his great success had raised up for him were numerous and power- ful, while he was now old and broken in health. He vainly sought from Ferdinand a faithful execution of the original compact between them ; but though he received fair words and promises in abundance from the king, Ferdinand steaduy reiused to compiy with the just demands of the admiral, The Great Navigator's Death, At last, worn out with care and disap. pointments, Columbus died at Valladolid, or the twentieth of May, 1 506, being about seventy years old. He was buried with great pomp in the Convent of St Francis, at Valla- dolid. In 1 5 1 3 his remains were removed to the monastery of Las Cuevas, at Seville, and Ferdinand caused this inscription, which cost him nothing and expressed his excuse for his conduct towards the dead man, to be placed upon his tomb: *' To Castile and Leon Columbus gave a New World ! " In 1536 the body of the great admiral was conveyed with appropriate honors to St. Domingo Upon the cession of that island to France iw 1795, the body was removed to Cuba, and buried in the Cathedral of Havana. Not yet have the ashes of the Discoverer of America found their true resting place. That place is under the great dome of the Capitol of the Republic, for whose existence he prepared the way. Though Columbus reached the continent of South America on his third voyage, he was not the first European who beheld the mainland of the western world. In the winter of 1497-98, Amerigo Vespucci, or A.mericus Vespucius, a Florentine navigator, made a voyage to the West Indies and the South American coast, thus reaching the mainland of the continent nearly a year before Columbus. Returning to Europe he published an account of his discoveries. This was the first account of the new world published in Europe, and some years later a German geographer gave to the continent the name of " Americi Terra'' or the land discovered by Americus. From this time the name America was applied to the west ern continent. THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 41 Columbus was a man of great and invent- ive genius. The operations of his mind were energetic but irregular; bursting forth at times with that irresistible force which characterizes intellects of such an order. His mind had grasped all kinds of knowl- edge connected with his pursuits; and though his information may appear limited at the present day, and some of his errors palpable, it is because that knowledge, in his peculiar department of science, was but scantily developed in his time. His own discoveries enlightened the ignorance of that age ; guided conjecture to certainty ; and dispelled numerous errors with which he himself had been obliged to struggle. Character of Columbus. His ambition was lofty and noble. He was full of high thoughts^ and anxious to distinguish himself by great achievements. It has been said that a mercenary feeling mingled with his views, and that his stipula- tions with the Spanish court were selfish and avaricious. The charge is inconsiderate and unjust. He aimed at dignity and wealth in the same lofty spirit in which he sought renown; but they were to arise from the territories he should discover, and be com- mensurate in importance. No condition could be more just. He asked nothing of the sovereigns but a command of the countries he hoped to give them, and a share of the profits to support the dignity of his command. If there should be no country discovered, his stipulated viceroyalty would be of no avail ; and if no revenues should be produced, his labor and peril would produce no gam. If his com- mand and revenues ultimately proved mag- tlificent, it was from the magnificence of the regions he had attached to the Castilian crown. What monarch would not rejoice to gain empire on such conditions ? But he did not merely risk a loss of labor and a disappointment of ambition in the enterprise ; on his motives being questioned, he voluntarily undertook, and, with the assist- ance of his coadjutors, actually defrayed one-eighth of the whole charge of the first expedition. This shows that his faith in the new enterprise was unbounded, and he was willing to stake everything on its success. A peculiar trait in his rich and varied character was that ardent and enthusiastic imagination which threw a magnificence over A NORSE ?EA-KING, his whole course of thought. Herrera inti mates that he had a talent for poetry, and some slight traces of it are on record, in the book of prophecies which he presented to the Catholic sovereigns. But his poetica! temperament is discernible throughout all his writings, and in all his actions. It spread a golden and glorious world around him, and tinged every thing with its own gorgeous colors. It betrayed him into visionary spec- ulations, which subjected him to the sneers 42 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. and cavillings of men of cooler and safer, but more grovelling minds. Such were the conjectures formed on the toast of Paria about the form of the earth and the situation of the terrestrial paradise ; about the mines of Ophir in Hispaniola, and of the Aurea Chersonesus in Veragua ; and such was the heroic scheme of a crusade for the recovery of the holy sepulchre. It min- gled with his religion, and filled his mind with solemn and visionary meditations on mystic passages of the scriptures, and the shadowy portents of the prophecies. It ex- alted his office in his eyes, and made him conceive himself an agent sent forth upon a sublime and awful mission, subject to im- pulses and supernatural intimations from the deity ; such as the voice which he imagined spoke to him in comfort, amidst the troubles of Hispaniola, and in the silence of the night on the disastrous coast of Veragua. A Man in Advance of His Time. He was decidedly a visionary, but a vision- ary of an uncommon and successful kind. The manner in which his ardent, imaginative and mercurial nature were controlled by a powerful judgment, and directed by an acute sagacity, is the most extraordinary feature in his character. Thus governed, his imagina- tion, instead of exhausting itself in idle flights, lent aid to his judgment, and enabled him. to form conclusions, at which common minds could never have arrived, nay, which they could not perceive when pointed out. To his intellectual vision it was given to read in the signs of the times, and to trace in the conjectures and reveries of past ages, the indications of an unknown world ; as sooth- sayers were said to read predictions in the stars, and to foretell events from the visions )lthe night. " His soul," observes a Spanish \ writer, " was superior to the age in which he lived. For him was reserved the great en- terprise of traversing a sea which had given rise to so many fables, and of deciphering the mystery of his time." With all the visionary fervor of his imagf nation, its fondest dreams fell short of the reality. He died in ignorance of the real grandeur of his discovery. Until his last breath, he entertained the idea that he had merely opened a new way to the old resort" of opulent commerce, and had discovered some of the wild regions of the east. He supposed Hispaniola to be the ancient Ophir, which had been visited by the ships of Solo- mon, and that Cuba and Terra Firma were but remote parts of Asia. What visions of glory would have broken upon his mind, could he have known that he had indeed dis- covered a new continent, equal to the whole of the old world in magnitude, and separated by two vast oceans from all the earth hither- to known by civilized man ! And how would his magnanimous spirit have been consoled amidst the afflictions of age and the cares of penury, the neglect of a fickle public, and the injustice of an ungrateful king, could he have anticipated the splendid empires which were to spread over the beautiful world he had discovered, and the nations, and tongues, and languages which were to fill its lands with his renown, and to revere and bless his name to the latest posterity ! It may be questioned whether any oldt Norse Sea-King, who braved the storms and billows of the North Atlantic, ever exhibited a purpose more resolute, a courage more daring, or a self-sacrifice more complete than characterized Columbus. Our illustration oi the royal Norseman shows him to have been a man born to command and achieve ; the hero of 1492 was no less illustrious. CHAPTER III Enelish and French Discoveries Discovery of the North American Continent by John Cabot — Voyage of Sebastian Cabot — The English fail to follow up these Discoveries— Efforts of the French to Explore America — Voyage and Discoveries of Verrazzani — Cartier Explores the St. La wrence - Reaches Montreal — Efforts to Found a Colony on the St. Lawrence — Failure — Roberval's Colony — Trading Voyages — Explorations of Champlain — Colonization of Nova Scotia — Founding of Quebec — Dis- covery of Lake Champlain — Arrival of the Jesuits in Canada — Death of Champlain. N the meantime the success of the first voyage of Columbus had stimulated other nations to similar exertions. The Eng- lish court had experienced a feeling of keen regret that the petition of Columbus had been refused, and when John Cabot, a native of Venice, then residing at Bristol, applied for leave to undertake a voy- age of exploration his request was readily granted. On the fifth of March, 1496, a patent or commission was granted to him and his three sons by Henry VII., authoiizing either of them, their heirs or their agents, to under- take with a fleet of five ships, at their own expense, a voyage of discovery in the east- ern, western or northern seas. Though they were to make the attempt at their own cost, they were to take possession of the countries they should discover for the king of Eng- land. They were to have the exclusive pri- vilege of trading to these conntries, but were bound to return to the Port of Bristol, and to pay to the king one-fifth of the profits of their trade. Early in 1497 Cabot sailed from Bristol, accompanied by his son, Sebastian. The object of his voyage was not only the dis- covery of new lands, but the finding of a northwest passage to Asia. He sailed due west, and on the twenty-fourth of June, 1497, reached the coast of Labrador. He thus discovered the mainland of the North Amer- ic .n continent, fully fourteen months before Columbus reached the coast of South America, and nearly a year before Amerigo Vespucci made his discovery. He explored the coast to the southward for over a thou- sand miles, made frequent landings, and took possession of the country in the name of the English king. Returning home, he was received with many marks of honor by Henry VII., and was called the " Great Admiral " by the people. Towards the close of the year 1497, the Cabots undertook a new voyage, and the king, pleased with the success of the first venture, became a partner in the enterprise, and assumed a portion of the expense. The object of this voyage was to trade with the natives, and to ascertain if the country was suited to colonization. The expedition sailed from Bristol in May, 1498, and was com- manded by Sebastian Cabot, who reached the Labrador coast about four hundred miles north of the point discovered by his father. He found the country cold and barren, though it was but the beginning of the sum- mer, and sailed southward. **The coast to 43 44 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. which he was now borne was unobstructed by frost. He saw there stags larger than those of England, and bears that plunged into the water to take fish with their claws. The fish swarmed innumerably in such shoals they seemed to affect even the speed of his ^vH^'*!^^^ " Continuing his voyage, according to the line of the shore, he found the natives of those regions clad in skins of beasts, but they were not without the faculty of reason, and in many places were acquainted with the use of copper. In the early part of I'u? Stoxi-STIAN CABOT. vessels, so that he gave to the country the name of Bacallaos, which still linger, on the east 3ide of Newfoundland, and has passed into the language of the Germans and the Italians, as well as the Portuguese and •^anish, to designate the cod. voyage he had been so far to the north that in the month of July the light of day waj« almost continuous ; before he turned home* wards, in the late autumn, he believed he had attained the latitude of the Straits '^* Gibraltar and the longitude of Cuba."* Ot * Bancroft. I GENERAL GEORGE WASHINGTON ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 45 his homeward voyage he noticed the Gulf Stream. This was the last voyage from England made by Sebastian Cabot. On the death of Henry VII., he took service with Ferdinand of Spain, and under him and his grandson, Charles V., he made many voyages, and was for nearly sixty years the foremost man in Europe in maritime enterprises. A Renowned Explorer. He explored the eastern coast of South America, and in his efforts to find the north- west passage sailed within twenty degrees of the North Pole, and explored the eastern coast of North America from Hudson's Straits to Albemarle Sound, He was in many things one of the most remarkable men of his day, and besides his own discoveries contributed generously by his advice and encouragement to those of others. " He gave England a continent, and no one knows his burial place." The English made no effort to take advan- tage of the discoveries of the Cabots. They sent a few vessels every year to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, but pursued even this industry without vigor. The other nations were more energetic, and showed a keener appreciation of the value of the new lands. The French were especially active in this respect. Their vessels engaged in the fisheries far outnumbered those of the Eng- lish, and many plans were proposed in France for the colonization of those regions. In 1523 Francis I. employed a Florentine named John Verrazzani, an experienced navigator, to undertake the discovery of a northwest passage to India. Verrazzani sailed on the seventeenth of January, 1524, and, after a stormy voyage of fifty days, reached the American coast in the latitude of Wilming- ton, North Carolina.' Failing to find a good harbor, he sailed southward for 150 miles, and then turned northward, examining the coast as he proceeded on his journey. An Earthly Paradise. Verrazzani was surprised and delighted by the appearance of the new country and its inhabitants. The latter welcomed with hos^ pitality the strangers whom they had not yet learned to fear, and the Europeans, on their part, regarded with wonder the " russet "- colored natives in their dress of skins orn: mented with feathers. Judging from tli accounts which they carried to Europe, the voyagers regarded the country as a sort of terrestrial paradise. " Their imagination could not conceive of more delightful fields and forests ; the groves spreading perfumes far from the shore, gave promise of the spices of the East; and the color of the earth argued an abundance of gold." The harbors of New York and Newport were carefully explored, and in the latter the voyagers remained fifteen days. They then proceeded along the New England coast to Nova Scotia, and still farther to the north. They found the natives here less friendly than those farther south. A Portu- guese commander, Caspar Cortereal, had visited their roast a few years before, and had carried away some of their number and sold them into slavery. Returning to France, Verrazzani published an account of his voyage. This narrative forms the earliest original description now in existence of the American coast, and added very much to the knowledge of the Euro- peans concerning this country. France at a subsequent period based, upon Verrazzani's discoveries, her claim to the whole coast of America from Newfoundland to South Car- olina. The French, however, were not des- tined to obtain a foothold in the new world. The struggle in which Francis I. was engaged with the Emperor Charles V. pre- 46 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. vented him from taking advantage of these discoveries, and nothing was done with regard to them by the French until ten years later, when Chabot, Admiral of France, induced King Francis to make another effort to explore and colonize America. An expedi- tion was fitted out, placed under the com- mand of James Cartier, a mariner of St. Malo, and despatched in April, 1534, for the pur- pose of exploring the American coast with a view to colonizing it. A quick voyage of twenty days carried Cartier to Newfound- land. Having passed through the straits of Belleisle, he crossed the gulf and entered a bay which he named Des Chaleurs, from the extreme heats he experienced there. France Sends Out a Colony, He proceeded along the coast as far as the small iiiict called Gaspe, where he landed and took formal possession of the country in the name of the king of France. Leaving Gaspe Bay Cartier discovered the great river of Canada and sailed up the stream until he could see the land on either side. His explorations consumed the months of May, June and July. Being unprepared to pass the winter in America, the fleet sailed for Europe- The reports of Cartier concerning America aroused the deepest interest in France, and it was determined by the government to pro- ceed at once to the founding of a colony in the new world. A fleet of three well-equipped ships was fitted out, and volunteers from some of the noblest families in France were not lacking. The whole company repaired to the cathedral, where they received the bishop's blessing, and on the nineteenth of May, 1535, the expedition sailed from St. Malo. The voyage was long and stormy, but Newfoundland was reached at length. Passing through the straits of Belleisle, they entered the gulf lying west of Newfoundland on the tenth of August, the festival of St. Lawrence the Martyr, and gave to the gulf the name of that saint, which was subsequently applied to the great river emptying into it A Beautiful Country. The voyagers ascended the stream to the island since called Orleans. There the fleet anchored, while Cartier proceeded farther up the river to the chief Indian settlement on the island of Hochelega. It was the delightful season of September, and the country was beautiful and inviting. Cartier ascended a hill at the foot of which the Indian settle- ment lay, and gazed with admiration at the magnificent region which spread out before him. He named the hill Mont Real, or Royal Mount, a name which is now borne by the island and by the great city which marks the site of Indian village. The balminess of the autumn induced Cartier to hope that the climate would prove as mild as that of France ; but a rigorous winter, which was rendered horrible by the prevalence of scurvy among the ships' crews, disheartened the whole expedition. The winter was spent at the Isle of Orleans, and in the early spring Cartier erected a cross on the shore, to which was affixed a shield inscribed with the arms of France and a legend declaring Francis I. the true and rightful king of the country. The fleet then sailed for France, and arrived at St. Malo on the sixth of July, 1536. Cartier published a truthful account of his voyage, setting forth the severity of the Canadian climate and the absence of mines of precious metals. His report checked for the time the enthu- siasm with which the French had regarded America, and for four years the plan of col- onizing the new country was laid aside, and all attempts were abandoned until a more favorable opportunity should present itself. Some ardent spirits, however, still believed in the possibility of planting successful col- onies in the new world and bringing that ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 47 vast region under the dominion of France. Among these was Francis de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy. He was appointed, by King Francis, Viceroy of the territories on or near the gulf and river of St. Lawrence, to which the high-sounding ,nanie of Norimbega was given, and was ^empowered to colonize it. The assistance of Cartier was necessary to such an undertak- ing, and he had the additional advantage of possessing the entire confidence of liis royal master the king. Roberval was forced to employ him, and Cartier was given author- ity by the king to search the prisons and take from them such persons as he needed for the expedition. Roberval and Cartier, however, failed to agree, and their dissensions defeated the object of the under- taking. Cartier sailed from St. Malo in May, 1541, and ascended the St. Lawrence to a point near the pres- ent city of Quebec, where he built a fort. The winter was passed in idleness and discord, and in the spring of 1542 Cartier abandoned the attempt, and sailed away for France with his ships just as Rob- erval arrived with a large reinforce- ment, prepared to render aid, Roberval was unable to accom- plish more than Cartier. His new subjects had been largely drawn from the prisons, and they gave him con- siderable trouble, if we may judge from the efforts resorted to to keep them quiet. One of them was hanged for theft during the winter, several were put in irons, and a num- ber of men and women were whipped. After remaining in Canada for a year, Roberval became disheartened, and re-embarked his subjects and returned to France. Thus ended the attempt to colonize Canada. ' Nearly thirty years passed away, during which the French made no effort to secure to themselves the region of the St. Law- rence. Their fishermen, however, continuea to frequent the American waters. By the close of the sixteenth century one hundred and fifty vessels were engaged in the fisheries of Newfoundland, and voyages for the pur- pose of trading with the Indians had become common. In 1 598 the Marquis de la Roche £j{J Cabeza de Vaca and his Comrades — Discovery of New Mexico — Fernando de Soto — Obtains leave to Conquer Florida — Sails from Spain — Arrival in Cuba — Departure for Florida — Landing at Tampa Bay — Events of tne First Year — Dt Soto enters Georgia — Decendsthe Alabama — Battle of Mavilla — Destruction of Chickasaw — Sufferings of the Spaniards — Discovery of the Mississippi — The Spaniards Cross the Great River — De Soto in Arkansas— Reaches the Mississippi again — Sickness and Death of De Soto — His Burial — Escape of his Followers to Mexico— The Huguenot Colony in Carolina — Its Failure — -The French Settle in Florida — Wrath of Philip II. — Melendez ordered to Exterminate the Huguenots — Foundation of St. Augustine — Massacre of the French at Fort Carolina — The Vengeance of De Gourges. WHILE the French were seek- ing to obtain a footing in the north, the Spaniards were busy in the south. In the iirst years of the sixteenth century the more important of the West India Islands were subdued and colonized, and from these, expeditions were from time to time sent out to explore the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. The southern part of the peninsula of Yucatan was explored, and a •-olony was established on the Isthmus of Darien. One of the governors of this colony was Vasco Nunez de Balboa. In 1 5 1 3, while searching the Isthmus for gold, he discovered the Pacific Ocean, and took possession of it in the name of the king of Spain. In 1520, a Portuguese navigator named Magellan, employed by the king of Spain, passed through the straits north of Cape Horn, which bear his name, and entered the Western ocean, which he named the Pacific, because it was so calm and free from storms. He died on the voyage, but his ship reached the coast of Asia, and returned thence to Spain by the Cape of Good Hope, thus 50 making the first voyage around the world, and establishing its spherical form beyond dispute. In 1 5 13, Juan Ponce de Leon, who had been a companion of Coiumbus on his sec- ond voyage, and had been governor of Porto Rico, fitted out three ships at his own expense to make a voyage of discovery. He had heard the reports which were then com monly believed by his countrymen, thai somewhere in the new world was a fountain flowing in the midst of a counl^ry sparkling with gold and gems, whose waters would give perpetual youtli to the man who should drink of and bathe in them. Ponce de Leon was an old man, and he longed to taste again the pleasures and the dreams of youth. He gave a willing ear to the stories of this wonderful fountain, and in March, 15 13, set sail from Porto Rico in. search of it. He sailed among the Bahamas, but failed to find it, and on Easter Sundav, which the Spaniards call Pasciia Florida, land was discovered. It wa.> supposed to be an island, but was in reality the long south- ern peninsula of the United States. Ponc« THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. SI de Leon gave it the name of Florida — which it has since borne — partly in honor of the >ay, and partly because of the beauty of its flowers and foliage. The weather was very bad, and it was some days before he could go ashore. He landed near the site of St. Augustine, and took possession of the coun- try for Spain on the eighth of April, 15 13. He remained many weeks on the coast, exploring it, and sailing southward, doubled Cape Florida, and cruised among the Tor- tugas. He failed to find the fountain of youth and returned in despair to Porto Rico. The king of Spain rewarded his discov- ery by appointing him governor of Florida, on condition that he should colonize the country. A few years later he attempted to plant a colony in Florida, but was attacked by the Indians, who were very hostile, and driv- en to his ships with the loss of a number of his men. Ponce de Leon himself received a painful wound, and returned to Cuba to die. He had staked his life upon the search for perpetual youth; he found only a grave. Between the years 15 18 and 1521, the expeditions of Hernando Cortez against Mexico, and of Francesco Pizarro against Peru, were despatched from Cuba. They resulted in the conquest of those countries and their colonization by Spain. These expe- ditions, however, form no part of this narra- tive, and we cannot dwell upon them. The native population of the West Indies died out rapidly under the cruel rule of the Spaniards, and it soon became necessary to look elsewhere for a supply of laborers for the plantations and the mines. In 1520, Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, at the head of a company of seven Spaniards, fitted out a fleet of two slave-ships from St. Domingo or His- paniola, for the deliberate purpose of seizing the natives of the mainland and selling them as slaves. The vessels went first to the THE COAST OF FLORIDA. Bahamas, from which they sailed to the North American coast, reaching it at or near St. Helena sound, in the present State of South Carolina. The Indians had not yet learned to fear the whites, and were utterly unsus- picious of the fate which awaited them. They were timid at first, but this feeling was soon overcome by the distribution of presents among them. Their confidence being won, they received the Spaniards with kindness, and at their request visited the ships. 52 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. When the decks of the vessels were cov- ered with the unsuspecting natives Vasquez made sail, and standing out to sea steered for the West Indies, regardless of the entreaties of the natives who were thus torn from their friends and relatives on the shore. A retrib- utive justice speedily avenged this crime. A violent storm arose and one of the ships foundered with all on board. A pestilence broke out in the remaining. vessel, and swept "way many of the captives. Returning to HERNANDO CORTEZo Spain, Vasquez boasted of his infamous deed, and even claimed a reward for it at the hands of the Emperor Charles V., who acknow- ledged his claim, and appointed him governor of Chicora, as South Carolina was called, with authority to conquer that country. Vasquez spent his entire fortune in fitting out an expe- dition, and reached the coast of Chicora in 1525. There he met with nothing but misfortune. His largest ship was stranded in the Com- bahee River, then called by the whites the River Jordan, and so many of his men were killed by the Indians that he was obliged to abandon the undertaking. He returned to Europe to die of grief and mortification for his failure. " It may be," says Bancroft, " that ships sailing under his authority made the discovery of the Chesapeake and named it the Bay of St. Mary ; and perhaps even en- tered the Bay of Delaware, which in Spanish geography was called Saint Christopher's Adventurers Seeking Fortune. In 1526, Pamphilo de Narvaez obtained from the Emperor Charles V. authority to explore and conquer all the country be- tween the Atlantic and the River of Palms, He was very wealthy, and spent his entire estate in preparation for the expedition. There was no lack of volunteers, and many younger sons of nobles joined him, hoping to find tame and fortune in the new world. Among the adventurers was Cabeza de Vaca the historian of the expedition, who held the second place in it as treasurer. Narvaez sailed from the Guadalquivir in June, 1527, ; touched at St. Domingo, and passed the ? winter in Cuba. In the spring of 1528, he was driven by a strong south wind to the American coast, and on the fourteenth of April his fleet cast anchor in Tampa Bay. A week later he landed and took possession of the peninsula of Florida in the name "f Spain. The natives showed unmistakable signs of hostility, but they exhibited to the governor samples of gold, which he believed, from their signs, came from the north. In spite of the earnest advice of Cabeza de Vaca, he determined to go in search of the precious metal. He directed his ships to meet him at a harbor with which his pilot pretended to be acquainted, and then, at the head of three hundred men, forty of whom were mounted. J THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 53 «et off into the interior of the country. Ko one knew whither he was going, but all be- iieved that each step led them nearer to the land ot gold. The beauty of the forest, the richness of its vegetation, and the size of its gigantic live- oaks, filled them with wonder and admira- tion, and the variety and abundance of the birds and wild beasts of the country excited 'leir surprise; but they found neither the gold nor the splendid cities they had fondly Relieved they were about to discover. The )rest grew denser and more intricate at every tep, and the rivers were broad and deep, A'ith swift currents, and could be crossed only by means of rafts, which were con- structed with great difficulty. The march lay through swamps, in which the Indian warriors harassed the strangers painfully, and, their provisions becoming exhausted, they began to suffer with hunger. Late in June they reached Appalachee, which they had supposed was a large and wealthy city. They found it only a hamlet of some forty poot wigwams ; but remained there twenty- five days, searching the neighboring country for gold and silver, and finding none. A Perilous Voyage. It was plain now even to the governor that there was no gold to be found in this region, and every nerve was strained to hasten the march to the harbor where they had ap- pointed to meet the ships. There was but one impulse now in the whole expedition — !':o escape from the terrible country which was jroving so fatal to them. After a painful march they reached a bay which they called the Baia de Caballos, now the harbor of St. Marks. The ships could not be seen, and it was resolved at once to build boats and attempt to reach some of the Spanish pos- sessions by sea. The horses were slain to furnish food, and several hundred bushels of corn were seized Irom the Indians. Subsist- ing upon these supplies, the Spaniards beat their spurs, stirrups, cross-bows, and other implements into saws and axes and nails, and in sixteen days built five boats, each more than thirty feet long. Pitch for the calking of the boats was made from the pine trees, and the fibre of the palmetto served as oakum. Ropes were made of twisted horse- hair and palmetto fibres, and the shirts of the men were pieced together for sails. Fifty men had been lost on the march, and on the twenty-second of September the survivors, two hundred and fifty in number, began their perilous voyage. The Fleet Scattered by a Storm. They followed the shore, encountering many dangers, and suffering greatly from hunger and thirst. On the thirtieth of October they discovered one of the mouths of the Mississippi, and on the fifth of Novem- ber a storm scattered the little fleet. Cabeza de Vaca's boat was wrecked upon an island which is believed to be that of Galveston. Castillo's boat was driven ashore farther to the east, but he and his crew were saved alive. Of the fate of the other boats noth- ing is known with certainty. Of those who were cast ashore, all but Cabeza de Vaca, Dorantes, Castillo, and Estevanico, a negro, died of exposure and hardship. These four were detained captives among the Indians for nearly six years. At the end of this period, Cabeza induced his companions to join him in an attempt to escape. In September, 1534, they set out, naked, ignorant of the way, and without any means of sustaining life. In this condition these men accomplished the wonderful feat of traversing the continent. The journey occupied upwards oi twenty months, and extended from the coast of Texas to the Canadian River, and thence into New S4 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. Mexico, from which they continued their way to the village of San Miguel, in Sonora, near the Pacific Ocean. They reached this village in May, 1536, and found themselves again among their countrymen. They were escorted to Compostella by Spanish soldiers, lYid from that place were forwarded to the City of Mexico by the authorities. Fabulo-i^s Tales of Gold. ' The reports of Cabeza and his compan- ' ions made the Viceroy Mendoza anxious to ' send out an expedition to explore New Mexico, which was believed to be richer in wealth and splendid cities than Mexico itself. A Franciscan friar boasted that he had vis- ited a region in the interior named Cibola, the Land of Buffaloes, in which were seven splendid cities. He declared that the land ivas rich in silver and gold, and that his In- dian guides had described to him a region still wealthier. The friar's story was religi- ously believed, and an expedition set out in 1539, under command of Francisco Vasquez Zoronado, the governor of New Galicia. The expedition explored the region of the Colorado, examined the country now known as New Mexico, and penetrated as far east as ihe present State of Kansas. Coronado ■ound neither gold nor precious stones, and the only cities he discovered were the towns of the Zuni Indians of New Mexico. He reported to the viceroy on his return to Mexico that the region was not fit to be col- onized, and his description of the country through which he marched is so accurate as >:o challenge the admiration of every suc- ceeding traveler. Still the Spaniards refused to abandon the belief that fabulous wealth was to be found in the interior of the continent ; and even those who had borne a part in the conquest of Mexico and Peru gave credit to the wild stories that were told concerning the undis- covered regions. Among those who ^ave s'xh implicit faith to these stories '"'as Fer- nando de Soto, of Xeres, a veteran soldier, who had served with distinction with Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and had amassed a considerable fortune from the spoils of that province. The fame and wealth acquired by him in this expedition opened the way to other successes in Europe. He was honored with the favor of the Emperor Charles V., and received the hand of a noble lady in marriage. Eager to distinguish himself still further, he determined to attempt the con- quest of Florida. He demanded and re- ceived from the emperor permission to undertake this at his own cost, and was also made governor of Cuba and all the terri- tories he should conquer. As soon as he made known his intentions applications for leave to serve in the expedition poured in upon him. Many of the volunteers were of noble birth, and sold their lands and other property to equip themselves for the undertaking. Adventures of De Soto. De Soto selected six hundred well- equipped men from the number who had volunteered, and in 1538 sailed from Spain to Cuba, where he was welcomed with great rejoicings. A vessel was despatched from Cuba to find a harbor in Florida suitable for the landing of the expedition. On its return it brought two Indian captives, who per- ceiving what was wanted of them, told by signs such stories of the wealth of the country as greatly delighted the governor and his companions. Volunteers in Cuba swelled die ranks of the expedition to nearly one thousand men, of whom three hundred were horsemen. In May, 1 539, leaving his wife to govern the island, De Soto sailed with his fleet for Florida, and a fortnight later landed at Espi- THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 55 ritu Santo_, now Tampa Bay. Everything had been pi ovided which the foresight of an experienced commander deemed necessary, and De Soto, in order to remove any tempta- tion to retreat, sent his ships back to Cuba. He never dreamed of failure, for he believed that at the most the task before him would not be more difficult than those which had been accomplished by Cortez and Pizarro. After a brief halt at Tampa Bay the march into the interior was begun. It was long and tedious, and was full of danger. The Indians were hostile, and the guides con- stantly led the Spaniards astray, and plunged them into difficult swamps. The guides were instantly given to the bloodhounds, and torn in pieces by the ferocious animals ; but not even this dreadful punishment -Mas sufficient to prevent a renewal of such acts. Before the close of the first season the whole com- pany, save the governor, had become con- vinced that their hope of finding gold was vain, and they besought De Soto to return to Cuba. He sternly refused to abandon the effort, and pushed on to the country of the Appalachians, east of the Flint River, and not far from the Bay of Appalachee. The winter was passed in this region, and a scouting party during this season discovered Pensacola. In the spring of 1540 the march was resumed. An Indian guide promised to con- duct the Spaniards to a country abounding in gold and governed by a woman, and he described the process of refining gold so ac- curately that De Soto believed his story. It is possible that the Indian may have referred to the gold region of North Carolina. One of the guides told the governor plainly that he knew of no such country as his companion had described, and De Soto had him burned for what he supposed was his falsehood. The Indians, terrified by his fate, from this time invented all manner of fabulous stories to excite the cupidity of the Spaniards. De Soto, with a singular perversity, held to his belief that he would yet realize his hopes.^ and continued to push on long afler his men had become disheartened; and so great was his influence over them that in their deepest despondency he managed to inspire them with something of his own courage and hopefulness. FERNANDO DE SOTO. Instead of conciliating the Indians, the Spaniards seized their provisions, and pro- voked their hostility in numberless ways They treated their captives with the greatest cruelty. They cut ofT the hands of the poor Indians, burned them at the stake, or turned them over to the bloodhounds, who tore them in pieces. They were chained together by the neck, and forced to carry the baggage and provisions of the troops. The march was now into the interior of Georgia, as far as t the headwaters o^ the Chattahoochee, from which the Spaniards passed to the head- waters of the Coosa. Here they turned to 56 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. the southwest, and marched through Ala- bama to the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. At this point there was a large and strongly fortified town called Mavilla, or Mobile, a name which has since been given to the river and bay. The town consisted of" eighty handsome houses, each sufficiently capacious to contain a thousand men. They ' vere encompassed by a high wall, made of immense trunks of trees, set deep in the ground and close together, strengthened with cross-timbers and interwoven with large vines.'* It was the middle of October when Mavilla was reached, and the Spaniards tired of Hving in the open country so long, wished o occupy the town. The Indians resisted hem, and a desperate battle ensued, which was vvon by the Spanish cavalry. The vic- tory cost the whites dear, however, for the town was burned -'"ring the battle, and with it all the baggage of the Spaniards was con- sumed. The Indians fought with a desperate bravery, and numbers of them were slain and burned to death in the town. The Spaniards had eighteen killed and one hundred and fifty wounded ,• twelve horses were killed and seventy-two wounded. De Soto Presses On. Ships had arrived in the meantime, a. cor^ • ingto appointment, at Pensacola, and by them De Soto received letters from his wife. He would send no news home, however. He lad not yet realized the objects of the expe- ition, and he determined to send no news of himself to his countrymen until he had found or conquered some rich country. Turning his back resolutely upon the ships, the gov- ernor resumed his march to the northwest. By the middle of December he reached the northwestern part of the State of Mississippi, and finding a deserted village in the country of the Chickasaws, occupied it as the winter quarters of the expedition. December, 1540, the winter was severe, and the ground was covered with snow, but the corn was stili standing in the fields, and this furnished the Spaniards with food. Their force was now reduced to five hundred men, and it was evi- dent to all, except the governor, that they would never find the cities or the wealth they had set out to seek. Discovery of the Mississippi, With the opening of the spring of 1541 a new disaster befell the Spaniards. De Soto, as had been his custom with the other tribes, demanded of the Chickasaw chief two hun- dred men to carry the baggage of the troops. The demand was refused, and that night the Indians, deceiving the sentinels, set fire to the village. The bewildered Spaniards were aroused from their slumbers to meet a fierce attack of the savages. The latter were re- pulsed after a hard fight, but the whites were left in an almost helpless condition. The little they had saved from the flames at Mavilla was destroyed in the burning village. Armor and weapons were rendered worth- less, and scarcely any clothing was saved. The troops were forced to resort to dresses of skins and the long moss of the country woven into mats. In this condition, they suffered greatly from the cold. To supply the weapons destroyed forges were erected, and the swords were retempered and new lances made. Renewing their march the Spaniards pushed on still farther west, and about the second of May reached the banks of the Mississippi, at a point a short distance below the present city of Memphis. They were the first white men to gaze upon the mighty flood of this noble river, but De Soto had no admiration to express for it. It was only an obstacle in his westward march, and would require greater efforts for its passage than THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 57 any stream he had yet encountered. A month was passed on the banks of the river in constructing barges large enough to hold three horsemen each. At length they were completed, and the Spaniards were trans- ported in safety to the opposite shore. The natives received them kindly, and presented them with food, and regarding them as the children of their god, the sun, brought to them their sick to be healed, and their blind to be restored to sight. The blunt soldier, "ruel as he had been to the savages, shrank irom claiming the power of heaven. ' ' Pray only to God, who is in heaven, for whatso- ever ye need," he answered. Exploring the Country. De Soto remained forty days on the west- ern bank of the Mississippi, and during this time an exploring party was sent to examine the country to the north. They reported that this region was thinly inhabited by hunters, who lived by chasing the bison, which abounded in this region. The gover- nor then turned to the west and northwest, and advanced two hundred miles farther into the interior of the continent, probably to the highlands of the White River. Then turning southward, he passed through a succession of Indian tribes who lived by cultivating the soil, and who enjoy- ed a civilization superior to that of their nomadic brethren. The winter was passed near the Hot Springs of Arkansas. The Indians west of the Mississippi were treated with the same cruelties that had marked the onduct of the Spaniards towards the sav- ages east of that stream. ' ' Any trifling consideration of safety would induce the governor to set fire to a hamlet. He did not delight in cruelty, but the happiness, the life and the rights of the Indians were held of no account." In the spring of 1542, De Soto determined to descend the Washita to its mouth, an( endeavor to reach the sea. At last, after; most arduous march, in which he frequently lost his way amid the swamps and bayous of the region, he reached the Mississippi. The chieftain of this region could not tell him the distance to the sea, but informed him that the country along the lower river was a vast and uninhabited swamp. An exploring party was sent to descend the banks of the river, and returned, after penetrating about thirty miles in eight days, to confirm the Indian's report. Reaching the vicinity of Natchez, the governor found the Indians prepared to con- test his occupation of the town. He at- tempted to overawe them by claiming to be the child of the sun, their chief deity. The chieftain answered him scornfully : "You say you are the child of the sun. Dry up the river and I will believe you. Do you desire to see me ? Visit the town where I dwell. If you come in peace, I will receive 3.'ou with special good will ; if in war, I will not shrink one foot back." The savages were becoming more dangerous every day, and the Spaniards less able to resist their assaults. Burial of De Soto. De Soto was nowconquered. Itwasatlast as plain to him as it had been all along to hisfollowersthatthe expedition wasa failure. He had spent three years in roaming over the continent, and he had found neither the cities nor the wealth he had hoped for. Hi'= magnificent anticipations had disappeared; his little army was reduced to a mere hand- ful of the splendid force that had left Cuba; and he was in the midst of a region from which he could see no escape. A deep mel- ancholy took the place of the stern pride that had hitherto marked his demeanor, and his heart was torn by a conflict of 58 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. emotions. His health gave way rapidly, and he was seized with a violent fever. When informed by his medical attendant that his end was at hand, he expressed his resignation to the will of God, and at the request of his men appointed Louis de Mocoso his successor, and advised him to continue the expedition. He died on the fifth of June, 1542. In order to conceal his death from the savages, who had come to regard him as immortal, his body was wrapped in a mantle, and in the silence of midnight was rowed out into the middle of the Mississippi. There, amid the darkness and the wailing requiems of the priests, the mortal remains of Fernando de Soto were committed to the great river he had dis- covered. Harrassed by the Indians. The Spaniards at once prepared to disre- gard the advice of their dead leader, and resolved to set out across the country for Mexico, believing it less dangerous to go by land than by sea. They roused the whole country against them by their barbarous treatment of the people, and, having pro- ceeded upwards of three hundred miles west of the Mississippi, were driven back to that '^tream by the savages. It now became necessary to build vessels and descend the river. Seven of these were constructed with great difficulty, and amidst the constant hostility of the Indians. They were frail barks, without decks, and in order to con- struct them the Spaniards were obliged to beat their weapons, and even their stirrups, spurs and bridles into saws, axes and nails. During this period they suffered greatly irom the lack of clothing, for it was the winter season. They obtained provisions by plundering the granaries of the neighboring tribes, and thus dooming many of the sav- ages to death by starvation. On the first of July, 1543, they embarked in their vessels, their number being now reduced to about two hundred and fifty, and began the descent of the river. Their progress was harassed at every mile by the Indians, who covered the stream with their canoes and kept up an almost constant assault upon the fleet. On the eighteenth of July, the vessels entered the Gulf of Mexico, and by the tenth of Septem ber the Mexican coast was reached. The vessels succeeded in gaining the Spanish set-' tlement of Panuco, where the survivors were hospitably received by their countrymen. Ribault's Expedition. The failure of Narvaez and De Soto pre- vented the Spaniards from making any further attempt for many years to colonize the Florida coast. The next effort to found a settlement in that region was by the French. The religious wars which had distracted France for so many years made the great Huguenot leader, Coligny, Admiral of France, anxious to provide in the new world a refuge to which his persecuted brethren of the faith might fly in times of danger, and be free to worship God after the dictates of their own conscience. He succeeded in obtaining authority for this undertaking from Charles IX., and in 1 562 an expedition was despatched to America under the command of Jean Ribault, a Protestant. Ribault was instructed to avoid the more rigorous climate of Cana- da, and to select a southern location for the colony. Land was made in May, 1562, in the vicinity of St. Augustine, Florida, and the fleet anchored in Port Royal Harbor, Ribault was delighted with the noble har- bor, which he believed to be the outlet of a large river, and with the beauty and richness of the country. A fort was built on an island in the harbor, and called Carolina,] which name was also applied to the country' in honor of Charles IX. of France. A force THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 59 •f twenty-five men was left to garrison the fort, and Ribault returned to France to report his success and bring out reinforcements for the colony. He reached France in the midst of the civil war, which prevented any attention being paid to the colony. The garrison of Fort Carolina waited in vain for the promised reinforcements and supplies, and at last, becoming disheartened, built a In 1564 there was a lull in the struggle between the contending parties in France, and Coligny took advantage of it to renew his efforts to colonize America. Three ships were furnished by the king, and were placed in command of Laudonniere,who had accom- panied Ribault in the first expedition. Emi- grants volunteered readily, and the required number was soon completed. In order to THE SPANIARDS DESCENDING THE MISSISSIPPI AFTER THE DEATH OF DE SOTO. brigantine and set sail for their own country. Their provisions soon gave out, and they began to suffer the horrors of famine. When they were nearly exhausted, they were res- cued by an English vessel, which set the most feeble upon the coast of France, but carried the remainder to England. In both countries the colonists spread their accounts of the beauty and fertility of Carolina. obtain reliable information concerning the country, Coligny sent out with the expedi- tion a skillful painter, James le Moyne, called Des Morgues, with orders to make accurate colored sketches of the region. The fleet sailed on the twenty-second of April, 1564, and on the twenty-second of June reached the coast of Florida. Avoiding Port Royal, the site of the first colony, the colonists chos© a location in Florida, on the banks of the 6o DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. St. John's then called the River May. A fort was built, and called, like the first, Caro- lina. The colony was begun with prayers and songs of thanksgiving, but the bulk of the colonists were by no means religious men. Their true character soon began to appear. They wasted the supplies they had brought with them, as well as those they succeeded 'in extorting from the Indians, whom they alienated by their cruelties. Mutinies were frequent. The majority of the men had joined the enterprise in the hope of acquiring sudden wealth, and, finding their hopes vain, resolved to abandon the colony. They com- pelled Laudonniere to sign an order allowing them to embark for New Spain, ':nder the pretext of wishing to avoid a famine, and at once equipped two vessels and began a career of piracy against the Spaniards. Their ves- sels were soon captured, and the pirates were sold as slaves. A few escaped in a boat and took refuge at Fort Carolina. Laudonniere caused them to be hanged ; but their out- rages had already drawn upon the colony the bitter hostility of the Spaniards. Beginning of the Slave-Traffic. Famine now began to be felt by the lit- tle settlement, and as month after month passed by the sufferings of the colonists in- creased. The natives, who were at first friendly, had been rendered hostile by the cruel treatment they had received from the French, and no provisions could be obtained Voni them. On the third of August, 1565, oir John Hawkins, an English commander, arrived with several ships from the West Indies, where he had just sold a cargo of negro slaves whom he had kidnapped in their native Africa. He is said to have been the first Englishman who engaged in this infamous traffic. He proved himself a generous friend to the suffering colonists, however, and supplied them with provisions and gave them one of his own ships. They had suffered too much to be content with this, and were resolved to adandon the settle- ment. They were on the point of embark- ing in the ship furnished them by Sir John, when a fleet of several vessels was discovered standing into the river. It wa 5 the squadron of Ribault, with reinforcements and all the supplies necessary for founding a permanent settlement. The despair of the colonists was changed to rejoicing, and all were now will- ing to remain in the colony. Thrilling Events in Florida. When the news of the planting of the French colony in Florida reached Philip II, of Spain, he was greatly incensed. Florida was a part of his dominions, and he not only resented the intrusion of the French, but could not tolerate the idea of allowing a Protestant colony to enjoy its settlement in peace. He determined at once to exterminate the heretics, and for this purpose employed Pedro Melendez de Aviles, an officer who had rendered himself notorious for his cruelty when engaged against the pirates and in the wars of Spanish America. His son and heir having been shipwrecked among the Ber- mudas, Melendez desired to return to America to search for him. Philip, who knew his desperate character, suggested to him the conquest of Florida, and an agreement was entered into between the king and Melendez, by which the latter was to invade and conquer Florida within three years, and establish in that region a colony of not less than five hundred persons, oi whom one hundred should be married men, twelve priests of the Catholic Church and four members of the order of the Jesuits. Melendez also agreed to transport to Florida all kinds of domestic animals, and five Ivjin- dred negro slaves. All this was to be done THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 01 by Melendez at his own cost, and he was secured by the kinf^ in the government of the province for life with the privilege of naming his successor, and was granted large estates in the province and a comfortable salary. Though the destruction of the French colony was not named in the agreement, Philip and Melendez understood each other on that point. The cry was at once raised in Spain that the heretics must be extermin- ated, and Melandez had no trouble in obtain- ing recruits. Twenty-five hundred persons gathered under his orders, " soldiers, sailors, ])riests, Jesuits, married men with their fami- lies, laborers and mechanics, and. with the exception of three hundred soldiers, all at the cost of Melendez." Escape of the French Fleet. The expedition sailed in June, 1565, but the vessels were parted by a storm, and Mel- endez reached Porto Rico in August with but a third of his force. Unwilling to lose time, however, he sailed at once to the main- land, and arrived off the coast of Florida on the twenty-eighth of August. On the second of September, he discovered a fine harbor and river, and selected this place as the site of his colony. He named the river and bay in honor of St. Augustine, on whose festival he had arrived off the Florida coast. Ascer- taining from the Indians the position of the French, he sailed to the northward, and on the fourth of September arrived off Fort Carolina, where a portion of Ribault's fleet lay anchored in the roadstead. The French commander demanded his name and the object of his visit. He was answered : " I am Melendez of Spain, sent with strict orders from my king to gibbet and behead all the Protestants in these regions. The French- man who is a Catholic I will spare ; every heretic shall d'e." The French fleet being unprepared for battle, cut its cables and stood out to sea. Melendez gave chase, but failed to overtake it. Returning to the har- bor of St. Augustine, he went on shore on the eighth of September, and took possession of the country in the name of Phillip II. of Spain, who was proclaimed monarch of all North America. A solemn mass was said, and the foundations of the town of St. Augus- tine were laid. Thus was established the first permanent town within the limits of the United States. This task accomplished, Melendez prepared to attack Fort Carolina by land. Ribault had returned with his ships to Fort Carolina after escaping from the Spa* iards. A council of war was held, and it wasv debated among the French whether they should strengthen their works and await the approach of the enemy, or proceed to St. Augustine and attack them with the fleet. Ribault supposed that Melendez would attack the fort by sea, and favored the latter plan, but his officers opposed his design. Disre- garding their advice, Ribault put to sea, but had scarcely cleared the harbor when a violent storm wrecked his entire fleet on the Florida coast. Nearly all the men reached the shore unharmed, about one hundred and fifty miles south of Fort Carolina. Terrible Massacre. The wreck of the French fleet was known to Melendez, and he resolved to strike a blow a once at the fort, which he knew to be in a defenceless state. Leading his men through the forests and swamps, which lay between the two settlements, he surprised and captured the fort on the twenty-first of September. Every soul within the walls including the aged, the women and children, was put to death, A few escaped to the woods before the capture of the fort, among whom were Laudonniere, Challus and Le Moyne. Their condition was pitiable. They 62 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. could expect no mercy from the Spaniards, and death awaited them in the forest. A few gave themselves up to the Spaniards, and were at once murdered ; the remainder suc- ceeded in gaining the sea-shore, where they were rescued by two French vessels which had remained in the harbor and escaped the storm. These immediately sailed for France. ■ The number of persons massacred by the 'paniards at Fort Carolina amounted to , learly two hundred. When the victims were all dead, mass was said, a cross raised, and a site selected for a church. Then Melendez set out to find the survivors of the shipwrecked fleet. They were discovered in a helpless condition, worn out with fatigue, hunger and thirst. Melendez promised to treat them with kindness if they would sur- render to him, and trusting to his plighted word, they placed themselves in his hands. They were at once seized a.id bound, and marched towards St. Augustine, As they approached the settlement a signal was given, and the Spaniards fell upon them and mas- sacred all but a few Catholics and some mechanics, who were reserved as slaves. French writers place the number of those who perished in the two massacres at nine hundred. The Spaniards gave a smaller nuinbe/. On the scene of his barbarity, Melendez set up this inscription : " I do not this as unto Frenchmen, but as unto Lu- therans." In 1 566 Melendez attempted to plant a col- ony on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay, but the vessel despatched for this purpose met such contrary winds that the crew abandoned the effort to reach the bay, and sailed for Spain. Melendez, the next year, returned to Spain, having spent his fortune in establish- ing the colony of St. Augustine, from which he had derived no benefit. The massacre of the French and the destruction of the colony at Fort Carolina excited not even a remonstrance from the French court, which was blinded to its true interests by its religious bigotry. The Hu- guenots and the better part of the nation felt keenly the wrong the country had suffered, and Dominic de Gourges, a gallant gentle- man of Gascony, determined to avenge it. Selling his ancestral estate, he equipped three vessels, and with one hundred and fifty men sailed for Florida, in August, 1567. He surprised and captured a Spanish fort near the site of Fort Carolina, and took the garri- son prisoners. He spent the winter here, and finding himself too weak to maintain his position, sailed for France in May, 1 568. Before doing so, however, he hanged his prisoners, and set up over them the inscription : " I do not this as unto Spaniards or mariners, but as unto traitors, robbers and murderers." His expedition was disavowed by the French government, and he was obliged to conceal himself to escape arrest after his return to France. France now abandoned her efforts to coI« onize the southern part of North America, and relinquished her pretensions to Florida. Spain, on the other hand, gave more attention to this region, and emigrants from her domin- ions were encouraged to settle, and new colonies were formed within its limits. In the West Indies, and in Mexico, Central and South America, Spain, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, was supreme. CHAPTER V The First English Colony Ihe EngllsQ Claim to America — Voyages of Frobisher— Exploits of Sir Francis Drake — Sir Humphrey Gilbert — In te«ds to Found a Colony in America — Is Lost at Sea — Sir Walter Raleigh Obtains a Patent of Colonization — Dis- coveries of Amidas and Barlow — Raleigh Sends Out a Colony to Vii^nia — Settlement on Roanoke Island — Its Failure -^Arrival of Grenville — Second Effort of Raleigh to Colonize Virginia — Roanoke Island Again Settled — The "Citr of Raleigh"^^Virginia Dare — Fate of the Colony — Death of Raleigh — Other Voyages of the English. THOUGH England had made no effort to colonize America during the long period we have been con- sidering, she never abandoned her claims to that region, claims which were based upon the discoveries and explorations of John and Sebastian Cabot. The voy- ages of her fishermen to Newfoundland kept the country fresh in the minds of the sea- faring Englishmen, and from time to time voyages were made to the American coast for the purpose of trading with the savages. Under Elizabeth, who pursued the wise pol- icy of fostering her navy, a race of hardy and daring sai'ors grew up in England, and car- ried theftag of their country into every sea. In this reign Martin Frobisher with two small ships made a voyage to the frozen regions of Labrador in search of the north- west passage. He failed to find it, but pene- trated farther north than any European had yetgone,A. D. 1576. His second voyage was made the next year, and was undertaken in the hope of finding gold, as one of the stones he had brought home on his first cruise had been pronounced by the refiners of London to contain the precious metal. The fleet did not advance as far north as Frobisher had done on his first attempt, as a 63 large mass of yellow earth was found which was believed to contain gold. The ship were loaded with this, and all sail was made for home, only to find on reaching England that their cargo was but a heap of worthless dirt. A third voyage with fifteen ships was attempted in 1578, but no gold was found, and the extreme northern latitudes were ascertained to be too bleak for colonization. Between the years 1577 and 1580 Sir Francis Drake sailed to the Pacific, and by levying exactions upon the Spanish settle- ments on the western coast of America acquired an immense treasure. As Bancroft well observes, this part of Drake's career "was but a splendid piracy against a nation with which his sovereign and his country professed to be at peace." Having acquired this enormous wealth Drake applied himseli to the more useful task of discovery. Cross- ing the equator he sailed northward, as far as the southern part of Oregon, in the hope of finding a northern passage between the oceans. The cold seemed very great to voy-^ agers just from the tropics, and he abandoned his attempt and returned southward to a harbor on the coast of Mexico. Here he refitted his ship, and then returned to Eng- land through the seas of Asia, having DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 64 circumnavigated the globe, a feat which had been accomplished only by the ship of Magellan. It was not the splendid but demoraiizing achievements of Drake which led the way to lieved that a lucrative trade might De opened Vvrith the new world by the planting of a col- ony within its limits. He obtained authority from Queen Elizabeth to establish such a colony in the vicinity of the fisheries. THE RENOWNED EXPLORER, SIR MARTIN FROBISHER. jhe establishment ot the English power in A.merica. That was the work of the hum- )\q fishermen who sailed on their yearly KJyages to the banks of Newfoundland. The progress of this valuable industry was closely ivatched by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who be- In 1578 he sailed to America on avoy age of discovery, and in August of that yeaf landed at St. Johns, Newfoundland, and took formal possession of the country for England. He then sailed to the southward, exploring the coast, but lost his largest ship with all THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 65 Mk board. This made it necessary for him to return home, as the two vessels which re- mained to him were too small to attempt a protracted voyage. One of them, called the "Squirrel," was a mere boat of ten tons. Unwilling to expose his men to a danger which he would not face. Sir Humphrey took passage in the " Squirrel " instead of in the larger and safer vessel. Terrific Storm, On the homeward voyage the ships en- countered a terrific storm. In the midst of the gale the people on the '* Hind," the larger ship, saw Sir Humphrey sitting at the stern of his Httle vessel, which was laboring pain- fully in the heavy seas. He was calmly reading a book, perhaps that sublimes t of books, from which he had drawn the yme principles that guided his whole life. As the "Hind" passed him he called out to those on board of her, " We are as near to heaven by sea aJ by land." That night the lights of tLe " Squirrel " suddenly disap- peared, and the good Sir Humphrey was seen no more. The " Hind " continued her voyage, and reached Falmouth in safety. Sir Walter Raleigh, Gilbert's half brother, had been interested in this expedition, but its ill success did not dishearten him. He was one of the noblest spirits of his age, and has laid the world under heavy obligations to him by his many noble services in the cause of humanity. He had served in the army of the Huguenots of France under Coligni, and had heard from the voyagers sent out by that leader of the richness and beauty of Carolina. Undaunted by the sad fate of Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert, Raleigh determined to plant a colony in the region from which the Huguenots had been driven. He had no difficulty in obtaining from the queen a pat- ^t as liberal as that which had been granted 5 Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He was given ample powers over the region he proposed to col- onize, as its feudal lord, and was bound to maintain the authority of the queen and church of England in his possessions. An Inviting Country. He fitted out two vessels, commanded re* spectively by Philip Amidas and Arthur Bar- low, and sent them to explore the region granted to him, and to obtain accurate infor- mation concerning it. They reached the coast of North Carolina at Ocracock Inlet, and took formal possession of the country. They partially explored Albemarle and Pam« lico Sounds, together with the neighboring SIR WALTER RALEIGH. coast and islands. It was the month of July, and the climate was delightful, the sea was calm, the atmosphere clear, and the heat was tempered by the delicious sea-breeze. The woods abounded with birds and echoed with their carols, and wild grapes were found w the greatest profusion. (^ DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. The explorers were enchanted with this dehghtful region, and returning to England published glowing accounts of it. They took with them two Indians, named Wan- chese and Manteo, the latter of whom after- wards did good service to the colonists as an interpreter. Queen Elizabeth deemed her reign honored by the discoveries of Amidas mand of the fleet, and Ralph Lane, who was also a man of considerable distinction, was made governor of the colony. The fleet sailed from Plymouth on the ninth of April, 1585, and after a long and trying voyage reached Ocracock Inlet in June. Passing through the inlet, a settle- ment was established on Roanoke Island FROBISHER AND HIS SHIPS PASSING GREENWICH. and Barlow, and gave to the new region the name of Virginia in honor of England's vir- gin queen. Raleigh at once set to work to organize a colony. Emigrants volunteered readily, and in a short time a fleet of seven vessels, con- taining one hundred and eight persons, apart from the crews, was in readiness. Sir Rich- ard Grenville, a friend of Raleigh, and a man of tried skill and bravery, was given the c^in- lyingbetween Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. Expeditions were sent out to explore the surrounding country, and in one of these a silver cup was stolen by an Indian, and its restoration was delayed. With thoughtless cruelty Grenville punished this fau? by the destruction of the village to which the culprit belonged, and also of all the standing corn. This inconsiderate revenge made the Indians the enemies of the whites, and brought great .HE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. future suffering upon the colony. A lifMe ]?.ter, having seen the colonists successfuLy established on Roanoke Island, Grenville returned to England with the fleet, captur- 67 the inhabitants. Many of the plants were strange to them. Among these were the Indian corn, tobacco and the sweet potato. Hariot, "the inventor of the system of not>- ■^7 I' QUEEN ELIZABETH. ing a rich Spanish prize on the voyage home. Left to themselves the colonists began to tion in modern algebra, the historian of tfi: expedition," observed these plants and their I culture with great minuteness, and became d explore the country, and to observe the j firm believer in the healing virtues of productions of the soil, and the character of | tobacco. He has left an interesting account 68 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. of the natives of the country and their man- ners and customs. The Indians, alarmed by the superiority of the whites, began to plot their destruction, as they believed their entire country would be overrun by the new comers. Lane on his part became suspicious of the savages, and this feeling of mutual distrust had the most unhappy consequences. Being informed by the savages that there was a splendid city, whose walls glittered with gold and pearls, on the upper waters of the Roanoke, Gov- ernor Lane made a boat voyage up that stream, but failed to find anything. He returned to the colony just in time to discon- cert the plan of the savages for attacking the whites during the absence of the expl'"ring party. Inhuman Butchery. Lane now determined to outrival the savages in perfidy. He visited Wingina, '~>ne of the most active of the neighboring chiefs, and professing to come as a friend, was received with confidence by the Indians. At a given signal from the governor the whites fell upon the chief and his warriors, and put them to death. Lane proved himself utterly unfit to govern such a colony, and his people soon lost confidence in him. Their discon- tent was increased by the failure of their provisions, and they began to entertain the idea of abandoning the colony and returning home. On the eighth of June, 1586, Sir Francis Drake, with a fleet of twenty-three ships, anchored in the roadstead off Roanoke Island. He had been cruising in the West Indies, and had called on his homeward voyage to visit the plantation of his friend Raleigh. He at once set to work to remedy ihe wants of the colony, and supplied the settlers with such things as they needed. They were thoroughly disheartened, how- ever, with their year's experience, and begged Drake so earnestly to take them back to England that he received them on board his ships and put to sea. Thus the first effort of the English to settle America resulted in failure. Drake's fleet had scarcely disappeared when a ship loaded with supplies, which had been des- patched by Raleigh, reached the island. Finding the place deserted, the commander returned to England. A fortnight later, Grenville arrived with three ships. Finding the colonists had gone, he too returned to England, leaving fifteen men to hold the island. Another Colony and Its Fate. Raleigh was greatly disappointed by the failure of his colony, but he did not despair of success; for notwithstanding the gloomy stories of Lane and his followers, the con- clusive testimony of Hariot convinced him that the country could be made to yield a rich return for the trouble and expense of its settlement ; and he set to work to form another colony. With the hope of giving the settlers a permanent interest in the plan- tation, he selected emigrants with wives and families, who should regard the new world as their future home, and endeavor to found a permanent State in that region. Every- thing was provided which could contribute to the success of the colony, and agricult- ural implements were furnished for the proper cultivation of the soil. All the expense of the undertaking was borne by Raleigh, for though Queen Elizabeth greatly favored the venture, she declined to con- tribute anything toward it. John White was appointed governor of the colony. A fleet of transport vessels was equipped, also at Raleigh's expense, and on the twenty- sixth of April, 1587, the expedition sailed from England. The coast of North Caro- I Una was reached in July. THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 69 The approach to Roanoke Island was both difficult and dangerous, and Raleigh ordered the new settlers to select a site for their col- ony on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay. The expedition proceeded first, however, to Roanoke Island to search for the men left there by Grenville. They could not be found. The Island was deserted, the fort was in ruins, and the human bones which lay scattered over the field told plainly that the unfortunate garrison left by Grenville had been murdered by the Indians. Governor White was now anxioLis to sail to the Chesa- peake, but Fernando, the commander of the fleet, refused to proceed any farther, as he wished to go to the West Indies for purposes of trade. Dangers of the First Settlers. The old settlement of Governor Lane was rebuilt, and another effort was made to estab- lish the "City of Ralefgh." The Indians were bitterly hostile to the settlers, and a friendly tribe was offended by an unfortnate attack upon them, made upon the supposi- tion that they were hositle Indians. The settlers, becoming alarmed, implored the gov- ernor to return to England and exert him- self to hasten the sending out of reinforce- ments and supplies to them. He was un- willing to do this, as he deemed it his duty to remain among them, but at length yielded to their unanimous appeal. Just before his departure his daughter, Mrs. Dare, the wife of one of his lieutenants, gave birth to a daughter, the first child born of English parents within the limits of the United States, and the little one was named Virginia from the place of its birth. White sailed for England in August, i 587. He found the mother country greatly excited over the threatened invasion of the Spaniards. Raleigh, who was energetically engaged in the efforts for the defence of the country, did not neglect his colony. He fitted out two ships with the needed supplies, and dis- patched them under White's orders in April, 1588. No Traces of the Colony. At last one of them fell in with a man-of- war from Rochelle, and after a sharp fight was plundered of her stores. Both ships were obliged to return to England, to the anger and disgust of Raleigh. The approach of the Invincible Armada and the exertions demanded of the nation for its defeat, made it impossible for anything more to be done for the colonists at Roanoke until after the Spanish Fleet had been destroyed. Even then Raleigh, who had spent over forty thou- sand pounds without return, was unable to send aid at once to the colony, and a year elapsed before a vessel could be sent out un- der White. In 1590, the governor reached Roanoke, but no trace of the colonv could be found. The settlers had either died, been massacred, or taken prisoners. "The conjecture has been hazarded," says Bancroft, " that the deserted colony,neglected by their own countrymen, were hospitably adopted into the tribe of Hatteras Indians, and became amalgamated with the sons of the forest. This was the tradition of the natives at a later day, and was thought to be confirmed by the physical character of the tribe, in which the English and the Indian race seem to have been blended." The generous heart of Raleigh could not bear to leave his countrymen unaided while a single hope of finding them remained, and he is said to have sent to America as many as five expeditions at his own cost to search for them. 70 MURDER OF WHITE'S ASSISTANT THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 71 With the failure of the settlement at Roaiioke Raleigh relinquished his hope of colonizing Virginia. He had expended nearly his entire fortune in the undertaking, and the remainder of his life was passed un- der the cloud of undeserved misfortune. His career as a statesman was honorable to him- self and to his country, and he proved him- self in all his acts a loyal subject and a de- voted patriot. His zeal in behalf of knowl- edge made him a generous friend of the learned, and he merits the gratitude of the American people, not only for his efforts to colonize our shores with his countrymen, but for the liberality with which he spread a knowledge of America throughout Eng- land by his publication of the reports of Hariot and Hakluyt. He opened the way for the dominion of the English in the new world, and his memory is preserved in the name of the capital city of the great State which he sought to make the seat of an Eng- lish empire. Accused of High Treason. Vpon the accession of James I., Raleigh, broken in health and fortune, but still the most illustrious Englishman of his day, was arraigned on a charge of high treason, of which not even his enemies believed him guilty, and was sentenced to the Tower, as the king did not yet dare to order his execu- tion. During this period Sir Walter beguiled the weariness of his imprisonment by com- posing his " History of the World." He re- mained a prisoner for thirteen years, and was then released on condition of making a voy- age to Guiana in search of gold. His failure to accomplish the object of the voyage sealed his doom, and on his return to England he was beheaded, not upon any fresh charge, but on his old sentence. His real fault was that he was too true an Englishman to sus- tain the sacrifice of the national honor by King James to the demands of Spain, and he was generally regarded by the nation as the victim of the king's cowardice. He met his fate with the calm bravery which had marked his whole life. Kidnapping Indians. Until now the voyage from England to America had been made by way of the Canary Islands and the West Indies. Irs 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold conceived the idea of proceeding direct from England to Virginia, as the whole region north of Flor- ida was called by the English. Sailing directly across the Atlantic he reached Cape Elizabeth, on the coast of Maine, after a voy- age of seven weeks. Proceeding southward along the coast he reached Cape Cod, to which he gave the name on the fifteenth of May, and went ashore th'ere. He was thus the first Englishman to set foot in New Eng- land. He continued his voyage along the coast and entered Buzzard's Bay. To the westernmost of the islands of this stately sound he gave the name of EHza- beth — a name which has since been applied to the entire group. Loading his ship with sassafras root, which was then highly esteemed for its medicinal virtues, Gosnold sailed for England, and arrived home safely after a voyage of less than four weeks. He gave the most favorable accounts of the region he had visited, and other adventurers were induced by his reports to undertake voyages for the purpose of trading with the natives. Among these was George Way- mouth, who reached and explored the coast of Maine in 1605. On his return voyage Waymouth kidnapped five Indians and car- ried them to England, "to be instructed in English, and to serve as guides in some future expedition." The voyages of Gosnold and Waymouth to the coast of New England were followed /2 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. by those of numerous other English adven- turers. In 1614, Captain John Smith, who had already distinguished himself by his services in Virginia, made a voyage to Amer- ica with two ships, furnished at the expense of himself and four merchants of London. The voyage was for the purpose of trading with the natives, and was very successful. Smith took advantage of the opportunity to •xplore the coast from Penobscot to Cape .Jod. He prepared a map of the coast, and named the country New England — a title which was confirmed by thq Prince of Wales, «^erwards Charles I, After Smith's return to England, Hunt the commander of the other vessel, suc- ceeded in inducing twenty of the nativeSj with their chief, Squanto, to visit his ship, and as soon as they were on board put to sea. He sold the savages as slaves in Spain, A fe^\ of then\ Squanto among the number, were purchased by some kind-hearted monks, who instructed them in the Christian faith in order to send them back to their own people as missionaries of the cross. Squanto escaped to England in 1619, and there learned thr language, and was afterward an interpreter between the English settlers and his people T.MilES I BOOK II Settlement of America CHAPTER VI Captain John Smith and Pocahontas Forrnatioa of the London Company — Conditions of its Charter — Departure of the First Colony — Quarrels Dunng t)to> Voyage — Arrival in the Chesapeake — Settlement of Jamestown — Formation of the Government — Character of Cap tain John Smith — Exploration of the James River — Newport and Smith Visit Powhatan — Smith Admitted to th« Government — Explores the Chickahominy — Is Captured and Sentenced to Death — Is Saved by Pocahontas — Gains th*J Friendship of Powhatan for the Colony — Returns to Jamestown — His Decisive Measures — Return of Newport — Smith Explores the Chesapeake Bay — The New Emigrants — Smi*h Compels Them to Labor — Smith is Wounded and Com- pelled to Return vO England — Disasters to the Colony — Arrival of Sir Thomas Gates— Jamestown Abandoned — Ar- rival of Lord Delaware — The Return to Jamestown — A Change for the Better — New Settlements — Su" Thomas Gates Arrives With Reinforcements — Capture of Pocahontas by Captain Argall — She is Baptized — Marries John Rolfe-^-Sii Thomas Dale's Administration — Yeaidley Governor — ^The First Legislative Assembly — Representative Government Established in America — The Colonists Obtain Wives — Changes in the Government. THE favorable reports which had been brought back to England by the voyagers to the new world had pre- vented the interest of Englishmen in America from entirely dying out, and some ardent spirits still believed it possible to make that continent the seat of a pros- perous dominion dependent upon England. The former assistants of Raleigh, in particu- lar, held to the convictions which their chief had entertained to the day of his death. The selfish and timid policy of King James hav- ing made it impossible for men to acquire distinction by naval exploits, as in the days of Elizabeth, the more adventurous classes lent a willing ear to the plans for colonizing America, which were discussed in various parts of the kingdom. Bartholomew Gos- nold, who had explored the New England coast, was especially active in seeking to induce capitalists to send out a colony to it. His glowing accounts of the New World awakened a good deal of enthu- siasm, and men who had money to invest, and v/ere somewhat inclined to indulge in speculation, were ready to aid any schema that promised to be lucrative and advan- tageous to themselves. Sir Ferdinand Gorges, a wealthy gentle* man and Governor of Plymouth, had been greatly interested in America by the accounts of Waymouth, who had given him two of the Indians he had brought to England. These succeeded in interesting others in their plans, and the result was that early in the reign of King James two companies were formed in England for the colonization of America. One of these was the *' London Company," composed chiefly of noblemen and merchants residing in London. The other was the " Plymouth Company," com- posed of " knights, gentlemen and mer- chants," residing in the west of England. King James divided Virginia into two parts. To the London Company he granted " South Virginia," extending from Cape Fear, is 73 74 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. North CaroiJna, to the Potomac. To the Plymouth Company he gave '* North Vir- ginia," stretching from the Hudson to New- foundland. The region between the Potomac and the Hudson he left as a broad belt of neutral land to keep the companies from en- croaching upon each other's domains. Either was at liberty to form settlements in this region within fifty miles of its own border. The London Company was the first to settle the country assigned it. A liberal charter was granted the company: the lands in the new world were to be held by it on the simple conditions of homage and the pay- ment to the crown of one-fifth of the gold and silver and one-fifteenth of the copper that should be discovered. A general coun- cil, residing in England, was to have author- ity over the whole province, and the mem- bers of this council were to be appointed and removed by the king at his good pleasure. Each separate colony was to be under the control of a colonial council residing within its own limits, and the king retained the right to direct the appointment or removal of the members of these councils at his pleasure, Laws of the London Company. The king also reserved the supreme legis- lative authority over the colonies, and framed for their government a code of laws — " an exercise of royal legislation which has been pronounced in itself illegal." The colonists were placed by this code under the rule of the superior and local councils we have named, in the choice of which they had no voice. The religion of the Church of Eng- land was established as that of the colony, and conformity to it was secured by severe penalties. Death was the punishment for murder, manslaughter, adultery, dangerous seditions and tumults. In all cases not affecting life and limb offenders might be tried by a magistrate, but for capital offences trial by jury was secured. In the former cases the punishment of the offender was at the discretion of the president and council. The Indians were to be treated w;th kind- ness, and efforts were to be made for theii conversion to Christianity. For five years at least the affairs of the colonists were to be conducted in a joint stock. The right to impose future legislation upon the province was reserved by the king. The Settlers Oppressed, Such was the form of government first pre scribed for Virginia by England, in which, as BancrcTt truly says, there was " not an ele- ment of popular liberty." " To the emi- grants themselves it conceded not one elect- ive franchise, not one of the rights of self- government. They were to be subjected to the ordinances of a commercial corporation, of which they could not be members; to the dominion of a domestic council, in ap- pointing which they had no voice ; to the control of a superior council in England^ which had no sympathy with their rights ; and finally, to the arbitrary legislation of the sovereign." Under this charter the London Company prepared to send out a colony to Virginia. It was to be a commercial settlement, and the eniigrants were composed altogether of men. One hundred and five persons, exclu- sive of the crews of the vessels, joined the expedition. Of these not twenty were farm- ers or mechanics. The remainder were " gentlemen," or men who had ruined them- , selves at home by idleness and dissipation. A fleet of three small ships, under command of Captain Newport, was assembled, and on the nineteenth of December, 1606, sailed for America. The emigrants sailed without having per- fected any organization. The king had fool- ishly placed the names of those who were to CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 75 constitute the government in a sealed box, which the adventurers were ordered not to open until they had selected a site for their settlement and were ready to form a govern- ment. This was most unfortunate, for during the long voyage dissensions arose, and there Was no one in the expedition who could control the unruly spirits. These quarrels grew more intense with the lapse of time, and when the shores of Virginia were reached the seeds of many of the evils from which the colony afterwards suffered severely had been thoroughly sown. There were among the number several who were well qualified to direct the affairs of the expedition, but they were without the proper authority to do so, and there was no such thing as voluntary submission to be seen among the adventurers. The merits of the deserving merely excited the jealousy of their companions, and the great master spirit of the enterprise found from the first his disinterested efforts for the good of the txpedition met by a jealous opposition. Point Comfort Named. Newport was not acquainted with the direct route, and made the old passage by way of the Canaries and the West Indies. He thus consumed the whole of the winter, and while searching for the island of Roanoke, the scene of Raleigh's colony, his fleet was driven northward by a severe storm, and forced to take refuge in the Chesapeake Bay on the twenty-sixth of April, 1607. He named the headlands of this bay Cape Henry and Cape Charles, in honor of the two sons of James L, and because of the comfortable anchorage which he obtained in the splendid roadstead which enters the bay opposite its mouth, he gave to the northern point the name of Point Comfort, which it has since borne. Passing this, a noble river was dis- covered coming from the westward, and was named the James, in honor of the English king. The country was explored with energy, and though one small tribe of Indians was found to be hostile, a treaty of peace and friendship was made with another at Hamp- ton. The fleet ascended the river and ex« plored it for fifty miles. A pleasant penin- sula, on the left bank of the stream was selected as the site of the colony, and on the thirteenth of May, 1607, the settlement was definitely begun, and was named Jamestown, in honor of the king. Smith's Daring Deeds. The leading spirit of the enterprise was John Smith, one of the truest heroes of his- tory, who has been deservedly called " the father of Virginia." He was still a young man, being but thirty years of age, but he was old in experience and knightly deeds. While yet a youth he had served in Holland in the ranks of the army of freedom, and had travelled through France, Egypt and Italy. Burning to distinguish himself, he had re- paired to Hungary, and had won a brilliant reputation by his exploits in the ranks of the Christian army engaged in the defence of that country against the Mohammedans. He repeatedly defeated the chosen champions of the Turks in single combat, but being at length captured was sent to Constantinople and sold as a slave. The wife of his master, pitying his misfortunes, sent him to a rela- tive in the Crimea, with a request to treat him with kindness, but contrary to her wishes he was subjected to the greatest harshness. Rendered desperate by this experience, he rose against his task-master, slew him^ and seizing his horse escaped to the border of the Russian territory, where he was kindly received. He wandered across the country to Transylvania, and rejoined his old com- panions in arms. Then, filled with a longing 1^ SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. to see his "own sweet country" once more, he returned to England. He arrived just as the plans for the colonization of Virginia were being matured. He readily engaged in the expedition organized by the London Company, and exerted himself in a marked degree to make it a success. He was in all respects the most capable man in the whole colony, for his natural abilities i^'ere fully equal to his experience. He had studied human nature under many forms in CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. many lands, and in adversity and danger had 'earned patience and fortitude. His calm, cool ;ourage, his resol ute will, and his intuitive per- ception of the necessities of a new settlement, were destined to make him the main stay of the colony of Virginia, but as yet these high quali- ties had only excited the malicious envy of his associates, and the efforts he had made to heal the dissensions which had broken out daring the voyage had made him many enemies. When the box containing the names ol those who were to constitute the colonial government was opened, it was found that the king had appointed John Smith one of the council. Smith was at this time in con- finement, having been arrested on the voy- age upon the frivolous charges of sedition and treason against the crown, and his enemies, notwithstanding the royal appointment, ex- cluded him from the council. Edward Wingfield, " a grovelling merchant of the west of England," was chosen president of the council and governor of the colony. The services of Smith could not be dispensed with, however, and he was released from his confinement, and sent with Newport and twenty others to explore the river. They ascended the James to the falls, where the city of Richmond now stands, and visited Powhatan, the principal chief of the Indian nation holding the country into which they had come. He was then dwelling at his favorite seat on the left bank of the river, a few miles below the falls. Powhatan received them kindly, and silenced the remonstrances of his people by saying: "They hurt you not ; they only want a little land." The chief was a man of powerful sta- ture, " tall, sour and athletic." He was sixty years of age, and had under him a population of six or eight thousand souls, two thousand being warriors. Having carefully observed the river. Smith and Newport returned to Jamestown. Their presence there was needed, for Wingfield had proved himself utterly unfit to govern the colony. He would not allow the colonists to build either houses for them- selves or a fortification for the common de- fence against the savages. While they were in this helpless condition, they were suddenly CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 77 attacked by a force of four hundred Indians, and were saved from destruction only by the fire of the shipping, which filled the savages with terror and put them to flight. It is believed that the cause of Wingfield's singular conduct was his jealousy of Smith jvhose talents he feared would attract the support of the settlers. Tried and Acquitted. The fort was now built without delay, cannon were mounted, and the men trained in the exercise of arms. When the ships were in readiness to sail to England, it was intimated to Smith that he would consult his own interests by returning in them, but he refused to do so, and boldly demanded a trial upon the charges which had been pre- ferred against him. The council did not dare to refuse him this trial, and the result was his triumphant acquittal. More than this, he succeeded so well in exposing the malice of his enemies that the president, as the originator of the charges against him, was compelled to pay him two hundred pounds damages, which sum Smith gener^ ously applied to the needs of the colony. His seat in the council could no longer be denied him, and he took his place at the board to the great gain of the colony, Ne^vport sailed for England about the middle of June, leaving the settlement in a most pitiable condition. The provisions sent out from England had been spoiled on the voyage, and the colonists were too indo- lent to cultivate the land, or to seek to obtain supplies from the Indians. Sickness broke out among them, owing to the malarious character of their location, and by the begin^ ning of the winter more than half their num- ber had died. Among these was Bartholo- mew Gosnold, the originator of the London Company, who had come out to Virginia to risk his life in the effort to settle t^'. country. He was a man of rare merits, and, togethef with Mr. Hunt, "the preacher," who was also one of the projectors of the company, had contributed successfully to the preserva- tion of harmony in the colony. In the midst of these sufferings it was found that Wingfield was preparing to load the pinnae* with the remainder of the stores and escape to the West Indies. He was deposed by the council, who appointed John Ratcliffe in his place. The newpresident was not much better than his predecessor. He was incapable of discharge ing the duties of his office, and was perfectly satisfied that Smith should direct the affairs of the settlement for him. From this time Smith was the actual head of the govern- ment. Food was the prime necessity of the colony, and as it was now too late to raise it. Smith exerted himself to obtain it from the Indians. He purchased a supply, and towards the close of the autumn the wild fowl which frequent the region furnished an additional means of subsistence. Danger of Famine. The danger of a famine thus removed. Smith proceeded to explore the country. In one of these expeditions he ascended the 'i **hickahominy as far as he could penetrate in his boat, and then leaving it in charge of two men, struck into the interior with an Indian guide. His men disobeyed his in- structions, and were surprised and put to! death by the Indians. Smith himself was taken prisoner, and deeply impressed his captors by his cool courage and self-posses- sion. Instead of begging for his life, he set to work to convince them of his superiority over them, and succeeded so well that they regarded him with a sort of awe. He aston- ished them by showing them his pocket com- pass and explaining to them its uses, and excited their admiration by writing a letter 78 POCAHONTAvS INTKRCEDING FOR THE IvIFE OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 79 a> his friends at Jamestown informing them of his situation, and of the danger to which they were exposed from a contemplated attack of the Indians. One of the savages bore the letter to its destination. A Grand Reception. Smith had been captured by Opechan- canough, a powerful chieftain of the Pamun- key Indians : but as the curiosity of the neighboring tribes was greatly aroused by his presence, he was led in triumph from the Chickahominy to the villages on the Rappa- hannock and the Potomac, and then taken through other towns to the residence of Opechancanough, on the Pamunkey. Here the medicine men of the tribe held a three days' incantation over him to ascertain his character and design. All this while his de- meanor was calm and fearless, as if he enter- tained no apprehension for his safety. He was regarded by the savages as a superior being, and was treated with kindness, though kept a close prisoner. His fate was referred to Powhatan for de- sision, as the other tribes feared to bring the blood of such an extraordinary being upon their heads. Powhatan was then residing at Werowocomoco, which lay on the north side of Fork River, in what is now Gloucester County, Virginia. He received the captive in great state, surrounded by his warriors. " Hfe wore." says Smith, " such a grave and majestical countenance as drove me into admiration to see," Brought into the presence of Powhatan, Smith was received *vith a shout from the assembled warriors. A handsome young squaw brought him water to wash his hands, and another gave him a bunch of feathers to dry them. Food was then set before him, and while he applied himself to the repast a consultation was held by the savages as to his fate. Smith watched the proceedings dosely, and was aware from the gestures of the council that Jhls death had been determined upon. Two great stones A^ere then brought into the assembly and laid before the king. The captive was seized and dragged to the stones, forced down, and his head laid upon them. Two brawny savages stood by to beat out his brains \a ith their clubs. During these proceedings Pocahontas, a child often or twelve years, *' dearly loved daughter " o^ Powhatan, touched with pity for the unfortu nate stranger, had been earnestly pleading with her father to spare his life. Failing in this, she sprang forward at the moment the executioners were about to despatch theii victim, and throwing herself by his side, clasped her arms about his neck and laid her head upon his to protect him from the im- pending stroke. This remarkable action in a child so young moved the savages v/ith profound astonishment. They regarded it as a manifestation of the will of Heaven in favor of the captive, and it was determined to spare his life and seek his friendship. *^he Captive Released. Smith was released from his bonds, and was given to Pocahontas to make beads and bells for her, and to weave for her ornaments of copper. The friendship which the inno- cent child of the forest conceived for him grew stronger every day^ and ceased only with her life. Powhatan took him into his favor, and endeavored to induce him to abandon the English and cast his lot with him. He even sought to obtain his aid in an attack upon the colony. Smith declined these offers, and by his decision of character succeeded in averting the hostility of the savages from his friends at Jamestown, anc* in winning their good-will for the English, In a short while the Indians allowed him to return to Jamestown, upon his promise to send to Kincj Powhatan two cannon and a 8o SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. grindstone. Upon arriving at Jamestown he showed the Indians who had accompanied him two of the largest cannon, and asked them to lift them. This was impossible ; nor could they succeed any better with the grindstone. Smith then discharged the cannon in their presence, which so frightened them that they refused to have anything to do with them. Having evaded his promise in this manner, Smith bestowed more suit- able presents upon his guides, and sent them POCAHONTAS. home with gifts for Powhatan and Poca- hontas. The savage king was doubtless Well satisfied to let the " great guns " alone lifter hearing the report of his messengers concerning them, and was greatly pleased with the gifts sent him. Pocahontas Brings Food. Smith found the colony at Jamestown re- duced to forty men and affairs in great con- fusion. His companions had believed that he had fallen a victim to the hostility of the Indians, and he was greeted with delight, as the need of his firm hand had been sadly felt. He found that a party of malcontents were preparing to run away from the colony with the pinnace, and he at once rallied his supporters and trained the guns of the fort upon the little vessel, and avowed his de- termination to fire upon the mutineers if, they sought to depart. His firmness put an end to this danger, and the friendly relations which he had managed to establish with the Indians now enabled him to buy from the savages the food necessary to sustain the colonists through the winter. In many ways his captivity proved a great blessing to the settlement. He had not only explored the country between the James and Potomac, and gained considerable knowledge of the language and customs of the natives, but had disposed the Indian tribes subject to Powhatan to regard the colony with friendship at the most criti- cal period of its existence. Had the savages been hostile during this winter the James- town colony must have perished of starva- tion ; but now, every few days throughout this season, Pocahontas came to the fort ac- companied by a number of her countrymen bearing baskets of corn for the whites. Exploring Chesapeake Bay. In the spring of 1608, Newport arrived from England, bringing with him a reinforce- ment of one hundred and twenty emigrants. The newcomers were joyfully welcomed by the colonists but they proved of no real ad- vantage to the settlement. They were eithei idlers or goldsmiths who had come out to America in the hope of finding gold. The refiners of the party believed they had found the precious metal in a heap of glittering earth, of which there was an abundance near Jamestown, and in spite of the remonstrances of Smith, would do nothing but dig gold. Newport, who shared the delusiottf loaded I CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 81 his ships with the worthless earth and sailed for England after a sojourn in the colony of fourteen weeks. While these fruitless labors were in pro- gress, Smith, thoroughly disgusted with the folly of the emigrants, undertook the explora- tion of the Chesapeake Bay. He spent the summer of 1608 in visiting the shores of the bay and ascending its tributaries in an open boat, accompanied by a few men. He ex- plored the Chesapeake to the Susquehanna, ascended the Potomac to the falls, and explored the Patapsco. This voyage em- braced a total distance of nearly three thou- sand miles, and resulted not only in the gain- ing of accurate information respecting the country bordering the Chesapeake, but also in establishing friendly relations with the tribes along its shores, and preparing the way for future friendly intercourse with them. The energetic explorer prepared a map of the Chesapeake and its tributaries, and sent it to his employers in England, by whom it was published. It is yet in existence, and its accuracy and minuteness have often elic- ited the praise of subsequent topographers. Idlers Must Not Eat. Smith returned to Jamestown on the seventh of September, and three days later was made president of the council. The good effects of his administration were soon felt. In the autumn, however, another rein- forcement of idle and useless men arrived. Smith, indignant at the continual arrival of such worthless persons, wrote to the com- pany : " When you send again, I entreat you rather send but thirty carpenters, husband- men, gardeners, fishermeii, blacksmiths, ma- sons, and diggers up of trees' roots, well pro- vided, than a thousand of such as we have." Upon the return of the fleet to England the governor exerted his authority to compel the idlers •o go to work. It was ordered that six hours in each day should be spent in useful labor by each person, and that " he who would not work might not eat." In a short while the settlement began to assume the appearance of a regular habitation ; but still so little land had been cultivated — only about thirty or forty acres in all — that during the winter of 1608-9, the settlers were com- pelled to depend upon the Indians for food. Yet the prudent management of Smith kept the colony in good health. Infamous Laws. In the spring of 1609, great changes were made in the London Company, and a more earnest interest was manifested in the colony by all classes of the English people. Sub- scriptions were made to the stock of tha company by many noblemen as well as mer- chants, and a new charter was obtained. By this charter the stockholders had the power to appoint the supreme council in England, and to this council were confided the powers of legislation and government, which were relinquished by the king. The council ap- pointed the governor of the colony, who was to rule the settlement with absolute au- thority according to the instructions of the council. He was made master of the lives and liberties of the settlers by being author- ized to declare martial law whenever in his judgment the necessity for that measure should a^ise, and was made the sole execu- tive officer in its administration. Thus the emigrants were deprived d every civil right, and Wvire placed at the mercy of a governor appointed by a corpo- ration whose only object was to make money. The company, however, defeated this object by the manner in which it se- lected emigrants. Instead of sending out honest and industrious laborers who were capable of building up a state, they sent only idlers and vagabonds, men who werQ 82 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. neither willing nor fit to work. The com- mon -*tock feature was maintained, and thus the greatest obstacle to industry that could be devised was placed in the way of the success of the colony. Still there were many who were willing to seek the new BUILDING THE FIRST HOUSE IN JAMESTOWN. world even under these conditions, and many others whose friends desired to get them out of the country. The company was soon able to equip a ^eet of nine vessels containing mor^ than five hundred emigrants, and a stock of do- mestic animals and fowls was included in the outfit of the expedition. Lord Delaware, a nobleman, whose character commanded the confidence of his countrymen, was made governor of the colony for life. As he was not able to sail with the expedition, he dele- gated his authority during his absence to Newport, who was admiral of the fleet, Sif Thomas Gates, and Sir George Somers, who were to govern the col- ony until his arrival. The fleet sailed in the spring of 1609, but when off the American coast was overtaken by a se- vere storm, and two ves- sels — on one of which the admiral and the commissionershadsailed — were wrecked on one of the Bermuda islands. Seven ships reached Virginia, and brought the worst lot of emi- grants that had yet beeiH sent out to the colony. Smith was still actinjj president, and as th«s commissioners had not arrivec^ was determined to hold his position until relieved by his lawft] successors. The new emigrants at first refuse d to recognize his author- ity, but he compelled them to submit, and in order to lessen the evil of their presence^ divided them into bodies suiificiently numer« ous for safety, and sent them to make settle^ ments in other parts of Virginia. These settlements proved so many failures, and, unfortunately for the colony. Smith was so severely wounded by an accidental explosion of gunpowder, in the autumn of 1609^ th^ CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 83 he was obliged to relinquish the government and return to England for surgical treatment. He delegated his authority to George Percy, and sailed for England, never to return to Virginia again. It was to him alone that the success of the colony was due, but he received in return nothing but ingratitude. Pocahontas Saves the Colony. The departure of Smith was followed by the most disastrous consequences. There jvas no longer an acknowledged government sn Virginia, and the settlers gave themselves up to the most reckless idleness. Their pro- visions were quickly consumed, and the In- dians refused to furnish them with any more. The friendship of the savages had been due to their personal regard for Smith, who had compelled the colonists to respect their rights and to refrain from maltreating them. Now that Smith was no longer at the head of affairs, the Indians regarded the settlers with the contempt they fully merited, and hostili- ties soon began. Stragglers from the town were cut off, and parties who went out to seek food among the savages were deliber- ately murdered. On one occasion a plan was laid to surprise the town and massacre the colonists. The danger was averted by Pocahontas, who stole from her father's camp, through night and storm, to give warning to the settlers. Fail- ing in this effort the Indians resolved to starve the colony, and soon the whites began to experience the sufferings of a famine. Thirty of them seized one of the ships, escaped to sea, and began a course of piracy. In six months the four hundred and ninety persons left by Smith in the colony at his departure had dwindled down to sixty ; and this wretched remnant would have perished speedily had not aid reached them. On the twenty-fourth of May, 16 10, Sir Thomas Gates and the members of the expe- dition who had been wrecked on the Ber- mudas reached Jamestown after a stay of nine months on those islands, during which time they had built two vessels from the wreck of their ship and the wood found on the island. In these they managed to reach Virginia, expecting to find the colony in a prosperous condition. They found instead the sixty men already mentioned, so feeble and full of despair as to be helpless. In the general despondency it was determined to abandon the colony, sail to Newfoundland, and join the fishing vessels which came an- nually from England to that island. A Welcome Arrival. Some of the emigrants wished to burn the town, but this was prevented by the resolute conduct of Sir Thomas Gates. On the seventh of June the settlers embarked, and that night dropped down the James with the tide. The next morning they were a^>ton- ished to meet a fleet of vessels entering the river. It was Lord Delaware, who had arrived with fresh emigrants and supplies. The fugitives hailed the arrival of the gover- nor with delight, and put about and ascended the stream with him. A fair wind enabled them to reach Jamestown the same night. On the tenth of June, 16 1 o, the founda- tions of the colony were solemnly relaid with prayer and supplication to Almighty God for success in the effort to establish a state. The authority of Lord Delaware silenced all dissensions, and his equitable but firm administration soon placed the settle- ment on a more successful basis than it had yet occupied. The labors of each day were opened with prayer in the little church, after which, from six in the morning till ten, and from two in the afternoon until four, all engaged in the tasks demanded of them. The good effects of the new system were soon manifest in the increased comfort and «4 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. prosperity of the colony. In about a year the health of Lord Delaware gave way, and he delegated his authority to George Percy, whom Smith had chosen as his successor, and returned to England. Fortunately for the colony, the company, before the arrival of Lord Delaware in Eng- land, had sent out Sir Thomas Dale with supplies. He reached Jamestown in May, l6llj and finding Lord Delaware gone, assumed the government. He brought with him a code of laws, prepared and sent out by Sir Thomas Smith, the treasurer of the com- pany, without the order or sanction of the council, and which established martial law as the rule of the colony. Though he ruled with such a stern hand, Dale rendered good service to Virginia by recommending to the company to maintain the settlement at all hazards as certain of yielding them a rich reward in the end. The New Settlers. This energetic appeal so greatly encour- aged the council, which had been consider- ably disheartened by Lord Delaware's return, that in the summer of i6ii Sir Thomas Gates was sent out to Virginia with six ships and three hundred emigrants. He carried also a stock of cattle and abundant supplies. The emigrants sent out with him were of a better character and more industrious than ^ny that had yet left England for Virginia. Gates assumed the government, and matters began to prosper again. The colony now numbered seven hundred persons, and was excess of the permanent revenue. This right was sometimes exercised, and the governof was prevented from carrying out unpopulaf , measures by the lack of the necessary, funds. Soon after the accession of William and Mary to the throne an effort was made to establish a college in Virginia, although the printing press was still forbidden. Donations were made by a number of persons in England, and the king bestowed several liberal grants upon the proposed institution. The measure was carried through to success by the energy of the Rev. James Blair, who was sent out by the Bishop of London as commissary, " to supply the office and juris- diction of the bishop in the outplaces of the diocese." The college was established in 169 1, and was named William and Mary, in honor of the king and queen. Mr. Blair was its first president, and held that office for fifty years. The ministry did not approve the action of the king in granting even the very moderate endowments which he bestowed upon the college. They regarded Virginia merely as a place in which to raise tobacco for the English market, and cared nothing for the interests of the people. They treated the colony with injustice and neglect in every- thing. The planters could sell their tobacco only to an English purchaser, who regulated the price to suit himself, and supplied the planters in return with the wares they needed at his own prices. CHAPTER IX The Colonization of Maryland Extent of the Territory of Virginia — Claybome's Trading Posts Established — Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltiinore-~D#- comes Interested in American Colonization — Obtains a Grant of Maryland — Terms of the Charter — A Colony Serf Out — Arrival in the Chesapeake — St. Mary's Founded — Character of the Colony — Friendly Relations Established with the Indians — First Legislature of Maryland — Trouble with Clayborne — Rapid Growth of the Colony — Progress oi Popular Liberty — Policy Respecting the Treatment of the Indians — Claybome's Rebellion — Law Granting Religious Toleration Enacted — Condition of Maryland Under the Commonwealth — The People Declared Supreme— Lord Baltimore riecovers His Proprietary Rights — Characi-eristics of the Colony — Rapid Increase in Population — Charles Calvert, Governor — Death of the Second Lord Baltimore — Roman Catholics Disfranchised — Maryland Becomes a Royal Province — Triumph of the Protestants — Annapolis Made the Seat of Government — Restoration of the Propnetaiy Government — Continued Prosperity of Maryland. THE second charter of Virginia granted to that province the country north of the Potomac as far as the headwaters of the Chesapeake Bay. This grant included the territory of the present State of Maryland. The discoveries of Captain John Smith had brought the region along the head of the bay into notice, and other explorers had confirmed his state- ments as to its value. A very profitable trade was established with the Indians of this section, and, in order to develop its advantages, William Clayborne, a man of great resolution and of no fnean abilities, a surveyor by profession, was employed by the Governor of Virginia to explore the region of the upper Chesapeake. His report was so favorable that a company was formed in England for the purpose of trading with the Indians. Under authority from this company, Clayborne obtained a license from the colonial government of Virginia, and established two trading stations on the bay ; one on Kent Island, opposite the present city of Annapolis, and one at the mouth of the Susquehanna. These posts were established in the spring of 163 1. In the meantime efforts were being made in England to secure the 'settlement of the same region. Sir George Calvert, a man ol noble character, liberal education and great political experience, had become at an early day deeply interested in the question oi colonizing America. Having embraced the Roman Catholic faith, he relinquished his office of Sacretary of State, and made a pub- lic acknowledgment of his conversion. His noble character commanded the confidence of King James, and he was retained as a mem- ber of the Privy Council, and was made Lord Baltimore in the Irish peerage. He was anxious to found a colony in America, which might serve as a place of refuge for persons of the Catholic faith, and obtained a patent for the southern part of Newfoundland. That region was too bleak and rugged to admit of the success of the enterprise, and the attempt to settle it was soon abandoned. Lord Baltimore next contemplated a set- tlement in some portion of Virginia, and in October, 1629, visited that colony with a view to making arrangements for his planta- tion. The laws of Virginia against Roman Catholics were very severe, and immediately upon the arrival of so distinguished a Cath- olic the assembly ordered the oaths of allegiance and supremacy to be tendered him. Lord Baltimore proposed a forofi III 112 SETTLEMENT OP AMERICA. which he was willing to subscribe, but the colonial government insisted upon that which had been ordered by the English Par- liament, and which was of such a character that no Catholic could accept fit. There was nothing left for Calvert but to withdraw from Virginia, and his reception there con- vinced him that that province was not the place for the plantadon he wished to estab- Jish. ^ Large Grant to Lord Baltimore. The region north of the Potomac was still uninhabited, and seemed to promise advan- tages equal to Virginia. Calvert applied to Charles I. for a patent for this region, and was given a territory corresponding very nearly to the present State of Maryland in extent. The king granted him a liberal charter, which, while it provided for his interests as proprietor, secured the liberties of the colonists. In this it was simply the expression of the wishes of Lord Baltimore, who desired to establish a settlement of freemen. The country embraced in the grant was given to Lord Baltimore, his heirs and assigns, in absolute possession. They were required to pay an annual tribute to the crown of two Indian arrows and one- fifth of all the gold and silver which might be found. The colonists were to have u voice in making their own laws, and they were to be entitled to all the rights and privileges of Englishmen. No taxes were to be imposed upon them without their consent, nor was the authority of the proprietor to extend to their lives or property. It was enjoined that the exercise of the faith and worship of the established Church of England should be protected in the colony, but no uniform standard of faith or worship was imposed by the charter. The new province was carefully separated from Virginia and made independ- ent of it. The colony was left free from the supervision of the crown, and the propri- etor was not obliged to obtain the royal assent to the appointments or legislation o{ his province. The king also renounced for himself, his heirs and his successors, the right to tax the colony, thus leaving it entirely free from English taxation. These were vast powers to intrust to one man ; but they were placed in safe hands. The first "Lord Baltimore was a man who hated tyranny of all kinds, and who had carefully observed the effects of intolerance and arbitrary rule upon the efforts that had already been made to establish successful colonies in America. He designed his col- ony as an asylum in which men of all creeds could meet upon a common basis of a faith in Jesus Christ, and his conviction that relig- ious freedom is necessary to the success of a state confirmed in him his attachment to the principles of civil liberty. Practical Charity. He invited both Protestants and Catholics to join him in his enterprise, and adopted a form of government, based upon popular representation, well calculated to secure them in the possession of all their privileges. In honor of the queen of Charles I., he named the region granted to him Maryland. Before the patent was issued. Lord Baltimore died on the fifteenth of April, 1632, leaving h' son, Cecil, heir to his designs as well as t his title. The charter granted to his fathei was issued to him, and he proceeded at once to collect a co' Dny for the settle., ;nt of Maryland. Lord Baltimore delegated the task ot con- ducting the emigrants to Maryland to his brother, Leonard Calvert. On Friday, No» vember 22, 1632, a company of two hun- dred, chiefly Roman Catholics of good birth, with their families and servants, sailed from THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 113 England in the " Ark " and the " Dove," the former a ship of large burthen, the latter a small pinnace. The voyage was made by- way of the West Indies, and the Chesapeake was not reached until the twenty-fourth of February, 1634. The ships anchored off Old Point Comfort, and were visited by Sir John Harvey, Governor of Vir- ginia, who had been commanded by the king to welcome the new colony with kindness. Resting in Hampton roads for a few days the emigrants ascended the bay and entered the stately Potomac. Deeming it unsafe to plant his first settle- ment high up the river, Calvert chose a site on a small tributary of the Potomac, not far from its mouth. This stream, now known as the Sto Mary's, he named the St. George's. An Indian village, called Yoacomoco, was selected as the site of the colony. The place was being deserted by the natives, who had suffered severely from the superior power of the Susequehannahs, and were removing farther into the interior for greater security. They readily sold their town and the surround- ing lands to the English,and made with them a treaty of peace and friendship ; and on the twenty- seventh of March, 1634, the col- onists landed and laid the founda- tions of the town of St. Mary's. A few days later, Sir John Harvey arrived from Virginia on a friendly visit. His orders from the king were to treat the settlers with friendship, and to aid them as far as lay in his power. About the same time the native chiefs came in to visit the colony, and were 80 well received that they established friendly 8 relations with the settlers. The Indian women taught their English sisters how to make bread from the meal of the Indian corn, and the warriors instructed the Eng- lishmen in the simple arts of the chase. The colonists obtained provisions and cattle fora while from Virginia ; but, as they went to CECIL, SECOND LORD BALTIMORE. work at once and with energy to cultivate their land, the first year's harvest gave them an abundance of supplies. The proprietor sent out from England such things as were necessary to the success and comfort of the colony, treating the new settlement with a wise liberality. Thus were 114 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. the foundations of Maryland laid amid peace and prosperity. The colony was successful from the first. Roman Catholic settlers fol- lowed the first emigrants in considerable numbers, and even Protestants sought the shores of Maryland, which the liberality of Lord Baltimore had made a refuge to them from the persecutions of their own brethren. New settlements were formed, and within six months the colony " had advanced more than Virginia had done in as many years." Piracy and Murder. In February, 1635, the first legislative assembly of Maryland met. Legislation had become necessary by this time. Clay- borne, who had established trading posts in the upper Chesapeake, had met the first set- tlers under Leonard Calvert at their anchor- age at Old Point Comfort, and had endeav- ored to dissuade them from settling along the bay by exaggerating the dangers to be apprehended from the hostility of the In- dians. Failing in this effort, he became the evil genius of Maryland, as the grant to Lord Baltimore made void his license to trade with the Indians along the bay. He re- fused to acknowledge the authority of the proprietor of Maryland, and attempted to retain his trading post by force of arms. Within a year or two after the settlement of the colony, a bloody skirmish occurred in one of the rivers of the eastern shore, in which Clayborne's men were defeated. In 1638, Leonard Calvert took forcible posses- sion of Kent Island, and hanged one or two of Clayborne's people on a charge of piracy and murder. Clayborne was in England at the time 'prosecuting his claims before the king. Governor Harvey of Virginia had given the weight of his influence in this contest to the cause of Lord Baltimore, but the people of Virginia, who resented the grant of Maryland as an invasion of their rights, sympathized with Clayborne, and caused Harvey to be impeached and sent to England for trial. The English courts de- cided that Clayborne's license was not valid against the charter granted to Lord Balti- more, and Harvey was sent back to Virginia as governor in April, 1639. In the meantime the colony continued to grow and prosper. The assembly, while acknowledging the allegiance of the people of Maryland to the king, and making ample provisions for the rights of Lord Baltimore as proprietor, took care to secure the liberties of the people, and claimed for itself the exercise in the province of all the powers belonging to the British H juse o( Commons. Representative government was definitely established, and the colonists were secured in all the liberties granted to the people of England by the common law of that country. Tobacco became, as in Vir» ginia, the staple of the colony. Maryland Contented. In 1642, in gratitude for the great ex- pense which Lord Baltimore had volun- tarily incurred for them, the people ol Maryland granted him " such a subsidy as the young and poor estate of the colony could bear." As. far as the people themselves were concerned, the condition of Maryland was one of marked happiness and content- ment. Harmony prevailed between all classes of the people and the government ; the settlers were blessed with complete toler- ation in religion; emigration was rapidly increasing, and the commerce of the colony was growing in extent and value Maryland had its troubles, however. The Indians, alarmed by its rapid growth, began in 1642 a series of aggressions which led to a frontier war. This struggle continued for some time, but was productive of no decisive results, and in 1644 peace was restored. The THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 116 Indians promised submission, and the whites, on their part, agreed to treat them with friendship and justice. Laws were enacted compelling the settlers to refrain from in- justice toward the savages, and humanity to the red man was made the v^olicy of the colony. The kidnapping of an Indian was punish- able with death, and the sale of arms to the savages was constituted a felony. Efforts were also made to convert the natives to Christianity. Four missions were established among them by the priests of the Catholic church, and the effects of their devoted la- bors were soon manifest. A chief, named Tayac, and his wife were baptized, he tak- ing the name of Charles and she that of Mary. About one hundred and thirty other converts were afterwards added to the Chris- tian fold among the Indians, and many of these sent their children to receive instruction at the hands of the priests. Though the ef- fort to Christianize the savages failed, as it has ever done, the good effects of these en- deavors were not lost, as the friendship for the whites aroused by them continued to influence these tribes in their policy toward the colony. Clayborne's Rebellion. Clayborne, who had certainly cause for thinking himself wronged in being deprived of his property without just compensation, returned to Maryland to revenge himself upon the colonists. The civil war in Eng- land furnished him. with an admirable oppor- tunity for his attempt. He was able to se- cure a number of followers in Maryland, and in 1644 began an insurrection. The next year the governor was driven out of the col- ony and obliged to take refuge in Virginia, and Clayborne was triumphant. For more than a year the rebels held possession of the government, and this whole time was a period of disorder and misrule, during which the greater part of the colonial records were lost or stolen. At the end of this time, the better classes of the people of Maryland drove out the rebels, and recalled the pro- prietary government. A general amnesty was proclaimed to all offenders, and peace was restored to the colony. The year 1649 ^^^ marked in England by the execution of Charles I., and the complete A CIVILI?^ED INDIAN. establishment of the authority of the Parlia- ment. It seemed to the people of Maryland that this triumph of the popular party was to usher in a new war upon the Roman Catholic faith, which was professed by a large major- ity of the colonists. Dreading a war of religion as the greatest of evils, they deter- mined to secure the colony from it, by pla- cing the freedom of conscience within their limits upon as secure a basis as possible. In doing this they gave expression to the popular will, and aimed to secure their future welfare. On the twenty- first of April, 1649, the assembly of Maryland adopted the following tl6 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. act I "And, whereas, the enforcing of con- science in matters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous cvi^nsequence in those commonwealths where it has been practiced, and for the mor? cvu.iv'^t and peace- Christ, shall be anyways troubled, molested or discountenanced for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof, or be compelled to the belief or practice of any other religion against their consent." OLIVER CROMWELL. able g'overnment of this province, and the better to preserve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within this province, professing to believe in Jesus This statute, noble as it was, applied only to Christians. It was provided that ** What- soever person shall blaspheme God, or shall deny or reproach the Holy Trinity, or any THE COLONIZATTON OF MARYLAND. "7 of the three persons thereof, shall be pun- ished with death." Maryland had taken a great stride in advance in making her soil a sanctuary for Christians of all beliefs, but she had not yet accorded to her people a tolera- tion equal to that of Rhode Island, which colony, in 1647, granted liberty to all 'opinions, infidel as well as Christian. CromweH's Blunt Order. During the existence of the common- wealth, the colony was troubled with an unsettled government. It submitted to the authority of Cromwell, and the Puritans, regardless of the example of their brethren of the Catholic faith, attempted by an act of assembly, in 1654, to disfranchise the whole Roman Catholic population on the ground of their religious belief Cromwell disap- proved this action, and bluntly ordered his commissioners " not to busy themselves about religion, but to settle the civil govern- ment." In 1660, without waiting to hear the issue of matters in England, the assembly repudiated the authority of both the com- monwealth and the proprietor, and asserted the sovereignty of the people as the supreme authority in Maryland, Upon the restoration of Charles II., Lord Baltimore made his peace with the king for having yielded to the power of Cromwell, and received back all the rights he had enjoyed in Maryland. He at once proceeded to re-establish his authority in the province, but being a man of humanity and of liberal j views, he made a generous use of his power. \ general pardon was grantee^ to all offenders against him, his rule w,:.. once more submitted to, and for thirty years the colony was at peace. " Like Virginia, Maryland was a colony of planters ; its staple was tobacco, and its prosperity was equally checked by the pressure of the navigation acts. Like Virginia, it possessed no considerable village ; its inhabitants were scattered among the woods and along the rivers ; each plantation was a little world within itself, and legislation vainly attempted the creation of towns by statute. Like Virginia, its laborers were in part indentured servants, whose term of service was limited by persevering legislation; in part negro slaves, who were employed in the colony from an early period, and whose importation was favored both by English cupidity and provincial statutes.'' " As in Virginia, the appointing power to nearly every office in the counties as well as in the province was not with the people ; and the judiciary was placed beyond their control As in Virginia, the party of the proprietary, which possessed the government, was animated by a jealous regard for preroga- tive, and by the royalist principles, which derive the sanction of authority from the will of Heaven. As in Virginia, the taxes levied by the county officers were not conceded by the direct vote of the people, and were, therefore, burdensome alike from their excessive amount and the manner of their levy. But though the administration of Maryland did not favor the increasing spirit of popular liberty, it was marked by con- ciliation and humanity. To foster industry, to promote union, to cherish religious peace, ****** these were the honest pur- poses of Lord Baltimore during his long supremacy." * Arrival of Immigrants. Yet the colony continued to prosper. Emigrants came to it from almost every country of western Europe, and even from Sweden and Finland. The only persons who had cause for complaint in Maryland were the Quakers, who were treated with * History of the United States. By George Bancroft, voL ii., p. 235. tl8 SETILEMENT OF AMERICA. considerable harshness for their refusal to perform military duty ; but no effort was made to interfere with the exercise of their religion. In 1662, Charles Calvert, the son and heir of Lord Baltimore, came to reside in the thousand dollars. By numerous acts of compromise between Lord Baltimore and the assembly the question of taxation was ad* justed upon a satisfactory basis. The people assumed the expense of the provincial gov- ernment, and agreed to the imposition of an' WILLIAM III. colony. Money was coined at a colonial mint, a tonnage duty was imposed upon all vessels trading with the colony, and a state house was built in 1674, at a cost of forty thousand pounds of tobacco, or about five export duty of two shillings per hogshead upon all the tobacco sent out of the colony. One-half of this duty was appropriated to the support of the government, and the re- mpinder was assigned unconditionally to the THE COLOr^lZATION OF MARYLAND. 119 uses of Lord Baltimore, as " an act of grati- tude " for his care of the colony. On the thirtieth of November, 1675, Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, died. He had been for fourteen years the earnest and devoted friend, as well as the generous lord of the province, and had lived long enough to enjoy the gratitude with which the colony sought to repay his judicious care. His memory is perpetuated by the chief city of Maryland, which bears his name, and which is already the largest city on the Atlantic ^oast, south of the Susequehanna, and the ocventh in population in the United States. Charles Calvert, who had been for fourteen years governor of Maryland, succeeded to his father's titles and possessions, and in 1676 returned to England. Previous to his de- parture from Maryland he gave his sanction to the colonial code of laws, which had been thoroughly revised. One of these laws pro- hibited the "importation of convicted per- sons" into the colony without regard te the will of the king or Parliament of England. Roman Catholics Disfranchised. Notwithstanding the mild and equitable government of the third Lord Baltimore, the spirit of popular liberty was becoming too strong in the colony for the rule of the proprietor to be cheerfully acquiesced in much longer. The rebellion of Bacon in Virginia affected the Maryland colony pro- foundly, and when Lord Baltimore returned to the province in 168 1, he found a large part of the people hostile to him. An at- tempt at insurrection was suppressed, but the seeds of trouble were too deeply sown not to spring up again. The increase of the population had left ihe Roman Catholics in a small minority, so that Maryland was now to all intents and purposes a Protestant colony. During the latter part of the reign of Charles H, the Protestants, regardless of the wise policy of toleration which had hitherto marked the history of the province, endeavored to secure the establishment by law of the Church of England in Maryland. Lord Baltimore steadfastly resisted this unwise course, and maintained the freedom of conscience as the right of the people. He thus added to the' existing opposition to his proprietary rule the hostility of the Protestant bigots. A little later, the English ministry struck the first blow at his proprietary rights and at the religious freedom of Maryland by ordering that all the offices of the colonial govern- ment should be bestowed upon Protestants alone. *' Roman Catholics were disfranchised in the province which they had planted.*' An Insurrection. Lord Baltimore hoped that the succession of James 11., a Catholic sovereign, would restore him the rights of which he had been deprived in his province ; but he was soon undeceived, for the king, who intended to bring all the American colonies directly under the control of the crown, would make no exception in favor of Maryland, and measures were put in force for the abolition of the proprietary government. The revolu- tion which placed William and Mary on the throne prevented the execution of these plans. The troubles of Lord Baltimore were in- creased by the failure of the deputy-governor, whom he had left in Maryland, to acknowl- edge William and Mary promptly. In- August, 1689, occurred an insurrection led by " The association in arms for the defence of the Protestant religion." The deputy- governor was driven from office, the pro- prietary government was overturned, and William and Mary were proclaimed sov- ereigns of Maryland. The party in power appealed to the king to annul the proprietary 120 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. charter, and governed the colony by means of a convention until the royal pleasure should be known. Lord Baltimore endeav- ored to defend his rights in spite of his struggles, William IIL, in June, 1691, annulled the charter of Maryland, and by the exercise of his own power constituted that colony a royal province. I In 1692, the king appointed Sir Lionel Copley Governor of Maryland. Upon his arrival in the colony he dissolved the con- vention and assumed the government. He at once summoned an assembly, which, recognizing William and Mary as the lawful sovereigns of Maryland, established the Church of England as the religion of the colony, and imposed taxes for its support. The capital was removed from St. Mary's to Annapolis, both because the old seat of gov- ernment had become inconvenient and because it was desired to remove the govern- ment to the centre of Protestant influence. The disfranchisement of the Catholics ad- vanced step by step. At first the dissenters from the established church were granted toleration and protection, but in 1704 the triumph of bigotry was complete. All the dissenting bodies were tolerated, but Roman Catholics were forbidden the exercise of their faith. Mass was not allowed to be said in public, nor was any bishop or clergyman of the Roman Catholic church to be permitted to seek to make converts for his faith. Other severe measures were enacted, and in the land which Catholics had settled, the members of that communion alone were de- »^ Conduct of James I. — His Hatred of Puritanism — Puritans Take Refuge in Holland — The Congregation of Johs Robinson — They Escape to Holland — The Pilgrims — Their Sojourn at Leyden — They Wish to Emigrate to Virginit —Failure of Their Negotiations with the London Company — They Form a Partnership in England — A Hard Bargain — Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland — Voyage of the "Mayflower" — Arrival in New England — The Agreement on Board the " Mayflower" — Carver Chosen Governor — Settlement of Plymouth — The First Winter in New England — Sufferings of the Pilgrims — Arrival of New Emigrants — Continued Suffering — Assignment of Lands — Friendly In. tercourse with Indians — Samoset and Squanto — Visit of Massasoit — A Threat of War — Bradford's Defiance — West- on's Men — A Narrow Escape — The Colonists Purchase the Interests of Their English Partners — Lands Assigned in Fee Simple — The Colony Benefited by the Change — Government of Plymouth — Steady Growth of the Colony. THE persecutions with which Queen Mary afflicted the reformers of England in her bloody effort to re- store the Roman Catholic faith in that country caused many of the most emi- nent men of the English church to seek safety on the continent of Europe. Upon the accession of Elizabeth the Church of England became once more the religion of the state, and the reformers were free to re- turn to their own country. They came back with broader and more liberal views than they had carried away with them^ and there sprang up in the English church a party which demanded a purer and more spiritual form of worship than that of the church. These persons were called in derision Puri- tans. They adopted the name. without hesi- tation, and soon made it an honorable dis- tinction. The queen, however, was determined to compel her subjects to conform to the estab- lished church, and was especially i esolved to make them acknowledge her supremacy over the church. To the Puritan the worship of the Church of England was only less sinful than that of Rome, and to acknowledge the queen as the head of the church was to com- mit blasphemy. He claimed that the queen had no control over him in matters of relig« ion, and that it was his right to worship God in his own way, without interference. The Puritans gradually came to embrace in their number some of the best men in the Eng- lish church. These sincerely deprecated a separation from the church, and earnestly desired to carry the reformation to the extent of remedying the abuses of which they complained, and to remain in communior with the church. One of the reforms which they wished to inaugurate was the abolition of Episcopacy. Failing in their efforts, they desired to be let alone to form their own or- ganizations and to worship God according to their own ideas, without the pale of the Church of England. The queen and the bishops were not con- tent to allow them this freedom. England had not yet learned the lesson of toleration, and severe measures were inaugurated to compel the dissenters to conform to the established church. All persons in the kingdom were required to conform to the ceremonies of the church. A refusal to do so was punished with banishment. Should any person so banished return to the king- dom without permission he was to be put to death. Accused persons were obliged to 121 122 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. answer upon oath all questions concerning themselves and their acquaintance, respect- ing their attendance upon public worship. Ministers refusingf to conform to the estab- Wished usage were deprived of their parishes; and if they persisted in preaching to their congregations, or if the congregations were detected in listening to their deposed pastors, the offenders were fined or subjected to some severe punishment. Absence from the ser- vices of ihe church for a certain length of lime wa5 also punished. The persecution thus ina'jgurated drove many of the noncon- formists, as they were termed, into exile from En^la^Ju They fled to Holland and Swit- CHAINED BIBLE, TIME OF JAMES I. Zetland, where alone they foi^nd " freedom to worship God." In spite of the severe meas- ures and determined efforts of Elizabeth, the Puritans increased steadily in numbers and importance in England. Persecution only served to multiply them. They were hopeful that James I. would prove a more lenient sovereign to them thaa Elizabeth had been, and they had good ground for this hope. The real character of James was unknown in England, and whilft King of Scotland he had shown great favor to the Presbyterians of that kingdom, whom it was his interest to conciliate. He had once publicly thanked God " that he was king of such a kirk — the purest kirk in all the world. As for the Kirk of England,' i he added, " its service is an evil-said mass." This most contemptible of monarchs had scarcely become King of England when he uttered the famous maxim, " No bishop, no king ! " Interest had made him the foe of Episcopacy in Scotland ; the same motive made him its champion in England. A Royal Demagogue. Upon his entrance into his new kingdom, the Puritans met him with an humble peti- tion for a redress of their grievances. James quickly saw that the majority of the English people favored a support of the church as it was, and had no sympathy with the Puri- tans, and he at once constituted himself the enemy of the petitioners. Still, in order to cover his desertion of the party to which he had belonged in Scotland, he appointed a conference at Hampton Court. The conference was held in January, 1604, and the king, silencing all real debate, made the meeting merely the occasion of display- ing what he regarded as his talents for theo- logical controversy, and for announcing the decision he had resolved upon from the first. He demanded entire obedience to the church in matters of faith and worship. " I will have none of that liberty as to ceremonies,'* he declared. " I will have one doctrine, one discipline, one religion in substance and in ceremony. Never speak more as to how far you are bound to obey.* THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 123 The Puritans then demanded permission to hold occasional ceremonies of their own, with the right of free discussions in them ; but James, who could never tolerate the ex- pression of any opinion adverse to his own, replied : " You are aiming at a Scot's presby- tery, which agrees with monarchy as well as God and the devil. Then Jack and Tom and Will and Dick shall meet, and at their pleasure censure me and my council and all our proceedings. Then Will shall stand up and say. It must be thus. Then Dick shall reply and say, Nay, marry, but we will have it thus. And, therefore, here I must once more reiterate my former speech, and say, The king forbids." Then turning to the bishops, he added : " I will make them con- form, or I will harry them out of the land, or else worse ; only hang them ; that's all." Champions of Popular Liberty, The king kept his word. The severe laws against the nonconformists were enforced that year with such energy that three hun- dred Puritan ministers are said to have been silenced, imprisoned or exiled. The church party proceeded in the next few years to still more rigorous measures, and were willing even to place the liberties of the nation at the mercy of the crown in order to compel the submission of the Puritans. The intro- duction of foreign publications into the king- dom was greatly restricted, and the press was placed under a severe censorship. The Puritans were thus forced to become the champions of popular liberty against the tyranny of the crown and the ecclesiastical party. There was a congregation of Puritans in the north of England, composed of people of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, with some from Yorkshire. The pastor was John Robinson, " a man not easily to be parallel- edt" who possessed in an unusual degree the love and confidence of his people. They were greatly harassed by the agents of the king and the bishops, and were subjected to such serious annoyances that it was with dif ficulty that they could hold their meetings Finding it impossible to live in peace at home without doing violence to their con- sciences, they determined to leave England and seek refuge from persecution in Holland. That country was friendly to the English, and the Dutch had learned from their own sufferings to respect the rights of conscience in others. It was not an easy matter to leave Eng- land, however, for it was held by the govern- ment to be almost a crime to attempt to escape from persecution. A vessel was hired to convey the refugees to Holland; but the royal officers were informed of the intended voyage, and seized the whole com- pany as they were about to embark. Their persons were searched, their small posses- sions seized, and the whole church — men, women, and children — thrown into prison. In a short while all but seven were released. These were brought to trial, but it was found impossible to prove any crime against them, and they also were discharged. A Boat Stranded. This action of the government, so far from intimidating the sufferers, but increased their resolve to leave England, and in the spring of 1608 the effort was renewed. A Dutch captain consented to convey them to Hol- land, and it was agreed that the refugees should assemble upon a lonely heath in Lincolnshire, near the mouth of the H umber, and be taken on board by the Dutch skipper. The men of the party went to the rendezvous by land, and got safely on board the ship; but the boat conveying the women and children was stranded and captured by • party of horsemen sent in pursfiit. «4 THE PURITANS IN CONFERENCE WITH JAMES I. THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 1^5 The Dutch skipper, fearful of becoming in- volved in trouble with the English author- ities, at once put to sea, and the exiles were separated from their families, who were left helpless in the hands of their oppressors. The women and children were treated with great harshness by their captors, and were taken before the magistrates, who found it impossible to punish them for an attempt to follow the fortunes of their husbands and fathers. They were at loss to know what to do with the prisoners, who no longer had homes in England, and at last released them unconditionally, and permitted them to rejoin their natural protectors in Holland. The Pilgrims Discontented. The exiles reached Amsterdam in the spring of 1608. They were well pleased to be safe in this peaceful refuge, but they did not deceive themselves with the hope that it could ever be a home to them. " They knew they were Pilgrims, and looked not much on those things, but lifted up their ayes to Heaven, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits." They found it hard to earn a support in Amsterdam, and in 1609 removed to Leyden, where, by their industry and frugality, they managed to live in com- parative comfort. Their piety and exemplary conduct won for them the respect of the Dutch, who would have openly shown them marked favor but for their fear of offending the king of England. The magistrates of Leyden bore ready witness to their purity of Me. " Never," said they, " did we have any suit or accusation against any of them.'' In the course of time the Pilgrims were joined by a number of their brethren from England They were nearly all accustomed to agricultural pursuits, and in Holland they were obliged to earn their bread by mechan- ical labors. It was with difificulty that they could do this, and they never formed any attachment to the place of their exile. They preserved, through all their trials, their affec- tion for their native land, and cherished the hope that they might continue Englishmen to the close of their lives. They viewed with alarm the prospect of raising their children in Holland, where they would necessarily be thrown in constant contact with, and be in* fluenced by, the manners and customs of the country. Above all they dreaded the effect upon their children of the dissolute example of the disbanded soldiers and sailors who filled the country. These and other th.ngs made them unwilling to look upon Holland as their permanent home. But whither should they go in case of their departure from Hol- land? Their own country was closed against them, and the nations of continental Europe could offer them no asylum. As their conviction, that it was their duty to seek some other home, deepened, their thoughts became more irresistibly directed towards the new world. In the vast soli- tudes of the American continent, and there alone, they could establish a home in which they could worship God without fear or molestation, and rear their children in the ways that seemed to them good. Thither would they go. Seeking a New Home. They were anxious to make their venture under the protection of England, and de- clined the offers made them by the Dutch, who wished them to establish their colony as a dependency of Holland. They had heard of the excellent climate and fertile soil of Virginia, and it seemed best to them to choose that promising region as the scene of their experiment. It was necessary to obtain the consent of the London Company to their settlement, as Virginia had been granted to that body by the king of England ; and in V26 THE PII^aRIMS AT PLYMOUTH THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 12; 1617 two of the leading members of the congregation— John Carver and P,obert Cushman — went to England to lay their ap- plication before the company. They were kindly received by Sir Edwin Sandys, the secretary of the company. They Jaid before the directors the request for per- ;mIssion to form a settlement in Virginia, with which they had been charged by their breth- ren. The application was signed by the greater part of the congregation, and con- tained a statement of their principles, and their reasons for desiring to emigrate to America. " We verily believe that God is with us," said the petitioners, " and will pros- per us in our endeavors; we are weaned from our mother country, and have learned patience in a hard and strange land. We are industrious and frugal ; we are bound together by a sacred bond of the Lord, whereof we make great conscience, holding ourselves to each other's good. We do not wish ourselves home again ; we have nothing to hope from England or Holland ; we are men who will not be easily discouraged." Efforts to Reach America. The appeal of the Pilgrims was received with such favor by the London Company that Carver and Cushman ventured to peti- tion the king to grant them liberty to exer- cise their religion unmolested in the wilds of America. The most that James would con- sent to grant them, however, was a half promise to pay no attention to them in their new home. The London Company agreed to grant them permission to settle in Vir- ginia, but the dissensions of that body pre- vented anything from being done in fJ""'- behalf. The Pilgrims were too poor to defray the jCost of their emigration, and they set to work to find persons of means willing to assist Uiem. At length they were successful, and a company was formed consisting of them- selves and several merchants of London. The latter were to advance the funds neces* sary for the enterprise, while the former were to contribute their entire services for a period of seven years as their share of the stock of the company. At the end of seven years the profits of the enterprise were to be divided according to the amount of each one's investment ; and it was agreed that a contribution of ten pounds in money by a merchant should be entitled to as great a share of the profits as seven years of laboi on the part of the emigrant. Departure for the New World. These were hard terms for the Pilgrims,but they were the best they could obtain, and they were accepted, as the exiles were will- ing to suffer any sacrifice in order to be able to found a community of their own in which they could bring up their children in the fear of God. The main thing with them was to reach the shores of America. Once there these men who had learned the lessons ol self-denial and endurance did not doubt their ability to succeed even in the face of the heavy disadvantages they were obliged to assume. With the funds thus obtained the Pilgrims began to prepare for their departure. A ship of sixty tons, called the " Speedwell," was purchased, and another, of one hundred and eighty tons, called the " Mayflower," was chartered. These, however, could trans- port but a part of the congregation, and it was resolved to send out at first only " such of the youngest and strongest as freely offered themselves." The pastor, Robinson, Y and the aged and infirm were to remain at Leyden until their brethren could send fof them, and the colony was placed under tbi guidance of William Brewster, the governIn?^ 'ilder,who was an able teacher and muci' 12^ SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. respected and beloved for his noble char- acter. When all was in readiness, a day of fasting and prayer was held, in order that at the very beginning of their enterprise the Pilgrims might invoke the guidance and protection of God. " Let us seek of God," they said, " a THE " MAYFLOWER IN PLYMOUTH HARBOR. right way for us, and for our little ones, and for all of our substance." The venerable pastor made this solemn season the occasion of delivering a tender farewell to the mem- bers of his charge who were about to depart, and of appealing to them to be true to the principles of their religion in their new home. " I charge you before God and his blessed angels," he said, in tones of deep emotion, " that you follow me no further than you have seen me follow the Lord Jesus Christ, If God reveal anything to you, be ready to re- ceive it ; for I am verily persuaded that the Lord has more truth yet to break out of his. holy word. I beseech you, remember that it is an article of your church covenant, that you be ready to re- ceive whatever truth shall be made known to you from the writ- ten word of God. Take heed what ye receive as truth ; examine it, consider it, and com- pare it '.vith other scriptures of truth be- fore you receive it; the Christian world has not yet come to the perfection of knowledge." From Leyden a number of the breth- ren accompanied the emigrants to Delft Haven, from which port they were to sail. The night before their departure, they all as- sembled in prayer and religious exercises which were continued dawn, when they prepared to the ship. Arrived at the until the go on board shore, they knelt again, and the pastor, Robinson, led them in prayer — the emigrants listening to his voice for the last time on earth. "Anc2 so," says Edward Winslow, " lifting up our hands to each other, and THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 129 our hearts to the Lord our God, we de- parted." Southampton was soon reached, and the voyagers were transferred to the " May- flower "and the " Speedwell." On the fifth of August, 1620, those vessels sailed from Southampton for America. Soon after get- ting to sea, it was discovered that the " Speedwell " was in need of repairs, and that they must return to England. They put about and reached the port of Dartmouth, where the smaller vessel was repaired. Eight days were consumed in this undertak- ing, and the voyage was resumed. One Ship Abandoned. They were scarcely out of sight of land when the commander of the " Speedwell/' alarmed by the dangers of the voyage, de- clared that his ship was not strong enough to cross the ocean. The vessels at once put back to Plymouth, where the smaller ship was discharged. At the same time those who had grown faint-hearted were pei'mitted to withdraw from the expedition. The re- mainder of the company, to the number of one hundred and one, sailed from Plymouth in the " Mayflower," on the sixth of Septem- ber, 1620. Some of these were women well advanced in pregnancy, and some were children. Their little vessel was but a frail barque compared with the ships that now navigate the sea ; but a band of braver and more resolute souls never trusted themselves to the mercies of the stormy Atlantic. The leading man in the little band of jPilgrims was the ruling elder, William Brew- ster, who was to be their preacher until the arrivaii of a regularly chosen pastor. He was a man of fine education, refined and scholarly tastes, and of pure and lofty Chris- tian character. " He laid his hand," says Elliott, " to the daily tasks of life, as well as spent his soul in trying to benefit hjs fellov^s 9 — so bringing himself as near as possible to the early Christian practices ; he was worthy of being the first minister of New England." He was well advanced in life, and was looked up to with affectionate regard by his associates. Another was John Carver, also a man of years and ripe experience, who had sacrificed his fortune to the cause, and whose dignified and benevolent character won him the honor of being chosen the first chief magistrate o' the colony. GOVERNOR Brewster's chair. Prominent among the leaders was Willian Bradford, He was only thirty-two, but waj a man of earnest and resolute character, firm and true, "a man of nerve and public spirit." He had begun life as a farmer's boy in Eng- land, and in Holland had supported himself by practising the art of dyeing; but, in spite of his constant labors, he had educated him- self and had managed to accumulate books oJ his own. He systematically devoted a large t^6 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. part of his time to study, and thus carefully trained his great natural abilities. Edward Winslow, a man of sweet and amiable disposition, was twenty-six years old. He was a gentleman by birth, and had been well educated, and had acquired consider- able information and experience by travel. Miles Standish had attained the manly age of thirty-six, and was a veteran soldier. He had seen service in the wars of the con- tinent of Europe, and had gained an honor- able distinction in them. He was not a member of the church, but was strongly at- tached to its institutions. " With the people of God he had chosen to suffer affliction ; In return for his zeal, they made him Captain of Plymouth ; He was a man of honor, of noble and generous na- ture; Though he was rough, he was kindly .... Somewhat hasty and hot .... and headstrong, Stern as a soldier might be, but hearty and placable always, Not to be laughed at and scorned, because he was Jitlle of stature ; For he was great of heart, magnanimous, courtly, courageous." Tempestuous Voyage. The voyage of the " Mayflower " was long and stormy. The Pilgrims had selected the country near the mouth of the Hudson as the best region for their settlement, but a severe storm drove them northward to the coast of New England. Sixty-three days were con- sumed in the passage, during which, one of their number had died, and at length land was made, and two days later, the " May- flower " cast anchor in the harbor of Cape Cod. The Pilgrims had come to America at tbeir own risk and without the sanction of, or a charter from, the king or any lawful organization in England. They were thrown UDon iheir own resources, and could look to no quarter for protection or support. Appre- ciating the necessity of an organized govern- ment, their first acts after anchoring in Cape Cod bay were to organize themselves into a body politic and to form a government. The First Compact. The following compact was drawn up in the cabin of the " Mayflower," and was signed by all the men of the colony, to the number of forty-one : " In the name of God, amen ; we whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign King James, having undertaken, for the glory of God and advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our king and country, a -j voyage to plant the first colony in the north- ern parts of Virginia, do, by these presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God and of one another, covenant and com- bine ourselves together, in a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preserva- tion, and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof, to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most convenient for the general good of the colony, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience." This was the first constitution of New England, democratic in form, and resting upon the consent of the governed. It at once established the new commonwealth upon the basis of constitutional liberty, and secured to the people "just and equal laws " for the " general good." In virtue of the compact, John Carver was chosen governor of the colony for the ensuing year. The prospect which presented itself to the Pilgrims upon their arrival at Cape Cod might well have daunted even their resolute souls. It was the opening of the winter, and th*" had come to a barren and rugged coast THE PILGRIM F/^ iHERS. 131 The climate was severe, and the land was a wilderness. The English colony in Virginia was five hundred miles distant, and to the north of them the nearest white settlement was the French colony at Port Royal. The " Mayflower " was only chartered to convey them to America, and must return to Eng- jand as soon as they had chosen a site and established a settlement. Yet no one fal- tered. The new land was reached, the diffi- culties and dangers were such as could be overcome by patience and fortitude, and the Pilgrims without hesitation addressed them- selves to the task before them. Planting the Colony. The first thing to be done was to explore the coast and choose a site for the colony, for it was important to begin their settlement before the severity of the winter should ren- der such an effort impossible. The shallop was gotten out, but unfortunately it was found to need repairs. The ship's carpenter worked so slowly that nearly three weeks were spent in this task. This delay was p great misfortune at this advanced season of the year, and, some of the party becoming impatient, it was resolved to go ashore in the ship's boat and explore the country by land. A party of sixteen men was detailed for this purpose, and placed under the command of Captain Miles Standish. William Bradford, Stephen Hopkins and Edward Tilly were included in the party as a council of war. The explorers were given numerous instruc- tions, and were rather permitted than ordered to go upon their journey^, which was regarded as perilous, and tne time of their absence was limited to two days. Upon reaching the shore they followed it for about a mile, when they discovered sev- eral Indians watching them from a distance. The savages fled as soon as they saw they were observed, and the whites followed in pursuit. They struck the trail of the retreat- ing Indians, and followed it until tughtfall, but being encumbered by the weight of their armor and impeded by the tangled thickets through which they had to pass, they were unable to overtake the Indians. Tho explorers bivouacked that night by a clear LANDING OF THE PIIJRIMS. spring, whose waters refreshed them after their fatiguing march. They made few dis- coveries, but the expedition was not entirely unprofitable. An Indian Graveyard. In one place they found a deer-trap, made by bending a young tree to the earth, with a noose underground covered with acorns. Mr. Bradford was caught by the foot in this jsDare, whic*» occasioned m'*''b merriment 132 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. An Indian graveyard was discovered in another place, and in one of the graves there was an earthen pot, a mortar, a bow and some arrows, and other rude implements. These were carefully replaced by the whites, who respected the resting-place of the dead. The most important discovery was the find- ing of a cellar or pit carefully lined with bark, and covered over with a heap of sand, and containing about four bushels of seed corn in ears. As much of this as the men could carry was secured, and it was deter- mined to pay the owners of the corn fo'-'tas soon as they could be found. Searching the Neighborhood. The shallop being finished at length, a party, consisting of Carver, Bradford, Wins- low, Standish and others, with eight or ten seamen, was sent out on a second expedition on the sixth of December. The weather was very cold, and their clothing, drenched with spray, froze as stiff as iron armor. They reached the bottom of Cape Cod bay that day, and landed, instructing the people in the shallop to follow them along the shore. The next day they divided, and searched the neighborhood. They found a number of Indian graves, and some deserted wigwams, but saw no signs of the inhabitants of the country. That night they encamped near Namtasket, or Great Meadow Creek. On the morning of the eighth of December, just as they had finished their prayers, the explorers were startled by a war-whoop and a flight of arrows. The Indians, who were of the tribe of the Nausites, were put to flight by the dis- charge of a few guns. Some of their people had been kidnapped by the English a few years before, and hence they regarded the new-comers as bent on the same errand. The day was spent in searching for a safe harbor for the ship, and at nightfall a violent storm of rain and snow drove them through the breakers into a small cove sheltert from the gale by a hill. They were so wet and chilled that they landed at once, and. regardless of the danger of drawing the sav- ages upon them, built a fire with great diffi- culty, in order to keep from perishing with the cold. When the morning dawned they found that they were on an island at the entrance to a harbor. The day wjs spent in rest and preparations. The next day, December loth, was the Sabbath, and, notwithstanding the need o; prompt action, they spent it in rest anc: religious exercises. The next day, Decem- ber II, 1620, old style, or December 22d. according to our present system, the explor- ing party of the Pilgrims landed at the head of the harbor they had discovered. The rock upon which their footsteps were first planted is still preserved by their descendants, Th - place was explored and chosen as the site ( i the settlement, and was named Plymouth, i;i memory of the last English town from which the Pilgrims had sailed. Anchored at Plymouth. The adventurers hastened back to the ship, which stood across the bay, and four da}? later cast anchor in Plymouth harbor. No time was to be lost; the " Mayflower " must soon return to England, and the emigrant- must have some shelter over their heads be- fore her departure. To save time each man was allowed to build his own house. Thi^ was a most arduous task. Many of tl.'- men were almost broken down by their rx posure to the cold, and some had alreaJ.;, contracted the fatal diseases which were to carry them to the grave before the close oi the winter. Still they persevered, working bravely when the absence of rain and snow would permit them to do so. As the winter deepened, thw sickness and mortality of the colony increased. At one THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 133 time there Wv,/e but seven well men in tlie company. More than forty of the settlers died during the winter. John Carver, the good governor of the colony, buried his son, and himself soon succumbed to the hardships from which he had never shrunk, though never able to endure them. He was followed by his heart-broken widow. The wives of Bradford and Winslow, and Rose Standish, the sweet young bride of "the Captain of Plymouth" were also among the victims. God from the lips of their pastor, the good Elder Brewster. In the spring the ground was prepared for cultivation, but until the harvest was grown the colonists lived by fishing and hunting. No Wish to Leave the Wilderness. In March, 1621, the " Mayflower " sailed for England. Not one of the Pilgrims wished to return in her. They had their trials, and these were sore and heavy, but They were all buried on the shore near the I they had also made a home and a govern rock on which they had landed, and lest their graves should tell the Indians of the sufferings and weak- ness of the settlement, their resting-place was levelled and sown with grass. William Brad- ford was chosen gov- ernor in the place of Carver, and the work went on with firm- ness and without re- pining. At last the long win- ter drew to a close, and the balmy spring came to cheer the settlers with its bright skies and warm breezes. The sick began to recover, and the building of the settlement was completed. In course of time a large shed was erected for the public stores, and a small hospital for the sick. A church was also built. It was made stronger than the other buildings, as it was to serve as a fortress as well as a place of worship, and four cannon were mounted on top of it for defence against the savages. Here they assembled on the Sabbath for religious worship, and to hear the word of J'HE FIRST CHURCH IN NEW ENGLAND. ment for themselves, where they could enjoy the benefits and protection of their own laws, and worship God in safety and in peace.. They did not doubt that they would some day triumph over their difficulties, and that God would in His own good time crown their labors and their patience with success. In the autumn of 162 1, a reinforcement of new emigrants arrived. They brought no provisions, and were dependent upon the scanty stock of the colony, and the increased '34 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. demand upon this soon brought the settlers face to face with the danger of famine. For six months no one received more than half allowance, and this was frequently reduced. " I have seen men," says Winslow, " stagger by reason of faintness for want of food." On one occasion the whole company would have perished but for the kindness of some fishermen, who relieved their wants. Every Man for Himself. This scarcity of provisions continued for several years, and it was not until the end of the fourth year of the settlement that the colonists had anything like a proper supply of food. In that year neat cattle were intro- duced into Plymouth. None of the colonies were called upon to endure such privations as were suffered by the Pilgrims. Yet they bore them with unshaken fortitude, still trusting that God would give them a pleas- anter lot in the end. The conditions of the contract with the English merchants had required the labor of the colonists to be thrown into the common stock. This was found to be an unprofitable arrangement, and in 1623 it was agreed that each settler should plant for himself, and each family was assigned a parcel of land in pro- portion to its numbers, to cultivate, but " not for an inheritance." This arrangement gave great satisfaction and the colonists went to work with such a will that after this season there was no scarcity of food. In the spring of 1624 each colonist was given a little land in fee. The very existence of the colony de- manded this departure from the hard bargain with the English merchants, and the result justified the measure. Abundant harvests rewarded the labors of the settlers, and corn soon became so plentiful that the colonists were able to supply the savages with it. These, preferring the chase to the labor of the field, brought in game and skins t© Plymouth and received corn in return. In the meantime a friendly intercourse had sprung up between the settlers and the Indians. In the first year of the settlement the red men were seen ho-^ering upon the outskirts of the village, but tney fled upon the approach of the whites. Distant columns of smoke, rising beyond the woods, told that the savages were close at hand, and it was deemed best to organize the settlers into a military company, the command of which was given to Miles Standish. One day, in March, 162 1, the whole village was startled by the appearance of an Indian, who boldly entered the settlement, and greeted the whites with the friendly words, " Welcome, English- men ! Welcome, Englishmen ! " A Romantic History. He was kindly received, and it was found that he was Samoset, and had learned a little English of the fishermen at Penobscot. He belonged to the Wampanoags, a tribe oc- cupying the country north of Narragansett Bay and between the rivers of Providence and Taunton. He told them that they might possess the lands they had taken in peace, as the tribe to which they had belonged had been swept away by a pestilence the year be- fore the arrival of the Pilgrims. He re- mained one night with the settlers, who gave him a knife, a ring, and a bracelet, and then went back to his people, promising to return soon and bring other Indians to trade with them, in a few days he came back, bring- ing with him Squanto, the Indian who had been kidnapped by Hunt and sold in Spain. From that country Squanto had escaped to England, where he had learned the lan- guage. He had managed to return to his own country, and now appeared to act as interpreter to the English in their inter- course with his people. They announced THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 135 that Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampa- noags, desired to visit the colony. The chieftain was received with all the ceremony the little settlement could afford. Squanto acted as interpreter, and a treaty of friendship was arranged between Massasoit on behalf of his people and the English. Friendly Agreement. The parties to the agreement promised to treat each other with kindness and justice, to deliver up offenders, and to assist each other when attacked by their enemies. This treaty was faithfully observ- ed by both parties for fifty years. The Pil- grims expressed their willingness to pay for the baskets of corn that had been taken by their first explor- ing party, and this they did six months later, when the right- ful owners presented themselves. A trade with the Indians was established and furs were brought into Plymouth by them and sold for articles of European manu- facture. Squanto was the faithful friend of the col- ony to the end of his life, and was regarded by the Pilgrims as " a special instrument sent of God for their good beyond their expecta- tion.'* He taught them the Indian method of planting corn and putting fish with it to fer- tilize the ground, and where to find and how to catch fish and game. He showed them his friendship in many ways, and was during his lifetime the interpreter of the colony. The Pilgrims on their part were not ungrate- ful to him. On one occasion it was rumored in Ply- mouth that Squanto had been seized by the Narragansetts, and had been put to deai'h. A party of ten men at once marched inio the forest, and surprised the hut where the chief of the Narragansetts was. Although the tribe could bring five thousand war- riors into the field, the chief was overawed by the determined action of the English, whose firearms gave them a great superi- ority, and Squanto was released unharmed. On his death-bed Squanto, who had been THE TREATY BETWEEN PLYMOUTH COLONY AND MASSASOIT. carefully nursed by his white friends, asked the governor to pray that he might go to "the Englishman's God in Heaven." His death was regarded as a serious misfortune to the colony. The Great Chief Massasoit. Massasoit, whose tribe had been greatly reduced by pestilence, desired the alliance oi the English as a protection against the Nar- ragansetts, who had escaped the scourge, and whose chief, Canonicus, was hostile to him. 136 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. The Narragansetts lived upon the shores of the beautiful bay to which they have given their name, and were a powerful and warlike race. Canonicus regarded the English with hostility, and in 1622 sent them as a defiance a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skin of a rattlesnake. Governor Bradford received the challenge from the hands of the chieftain's messenger, and stuffing the skin with powder and ball re- turned it to him, and sternly bade him bear it back to his master. The Indians regarded the mysterious contents of the skin with ter- ror and dread, and passed it from tribe to tribe. None dared either keep or destroy it, as it was regarded as possessed of some mys- terious but powerful influence for harm. It was finally returned to the colony, and in a short while Canonicus, who had been cowed by the spirited answer of Bradford, offered to make a treaty of peace and alliance with the colony. The Pilgrims endeavored to treat the Indians with justice. Severe penalties were denounced against those who should deprive the savages of their property without paying for it, or should treat them with violence. Yet the colonists were to have trouble with the red men, and that through no fault of their own. It happened on this wise. A Timely Warning. Among the merchants of London who had invested money in the planting of the Ply- mouth colony was Thomas Weston. Envi- ous of the advance made by the colony in \he fur trade, he desired to secure all the profits of that traffic by establishing a trading- post of his own. He obtained a patent for a small tract on Boston harbor, near Wey- mouth, and settled there a colony of sixty men, the greater nnmber of whom were in- dentured servants. These men, disregarding fie warnings of the people of Plymouth, gave themselves up to a dissolute life, and drew upon themselves the wrath of the Indians by maltreating them, and stealing their corn. The Indians, unable to distinguish between the guilty and the innocent, resolved to avenge the misconduct of Weston's men by a massacre of every v/hite settler in the coun- try. Before the plot could be put in execution Massasoit fell sick. Winslow visited nim, and found his lodge full of medicine-men f^nd jugglers, who were killing him with the noise they made to drive away the disease. The kind-hearted Englishman turned the Indian doctors out of the lodge, and by giv- ing Massasoit rest, and administering such remedies as his case required, restored him to health. The grateful chief revealed the plot of his people for the extermination of the English. The Plymouth settlers were greatly alarmed, and measures were promptly taken to avert the danger. Nine "White Braves. Standish, with eight armed men, was sent to the assistance of the settlement at Wey- mouth. They arrived in time to prevent the attack. The Indians, who had begun to collect for the massacre, were surprised and defeated in a brief engagement, and the chief, who was the leader of the conspiracy, was slain, with a number of his men. This gallant exploit established the supremacy of the English in New England, and many of the native tribes sought their friendship and alliance. The Weymouth men were unwill- ing to continue their colony after their nar- row escape. Some went to Plymouth where they became a source of trouble, and others returned to England. The spring of 1623 saw the last of this settlement. In the autumn of 1623 the best harvest was gathered in that had yet blessed the labors of the Pilgrims. It was an abundant THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 137 yield, and put an end to all fears of a re- newal of the danger of famine. When the labors of the harvest were over Governor Bradford sent out men to collect game, in order that the people might enjoy a thanks- giving feast. On the appointed day the people " met together and thanked God with all their hearts for the good world and the good things in it." Thus was established the custom of an annual thanksgiving to God for the blessings of the year, which though at first a celebration peculiar to New England has at length become a national festival. Each Settler a Land Owner. The colonists themselves were satisfied with the progress they had made, but their merchant partners in England were greatly displeased with the smallness of the profits they had received from their investments, and in many ways made the colony feel their dissatisfaction. Robinson and his congrega- tion at Leyden were anxious to join their friends in America, but the merchant partners refused to send them across the Atlantic, and not content with this endeavored to force upon the Plymouth people a pastor friendly to the Church of England. They soon got rid of this individual, however, whose con- duct quickly enabled them to expel him from Plymouth as an evil liver. The merchants also sent a vessel to New England to oppose the colonists in the fur trade ; and demanded •exorbitant prices for the goods they sold the settlers, charging them the enormous profit of seventy per cent. It was not possible, however, to destroy the results of the industry and self-denial of the Pilgrims. Seeing that their association with their English partners would continue to operate merely as a drag upon the advance of the colony, they managed in 1627, at con- siderable sacrifice, to purchase the entire interest of their partners. The stock and the land of the colony were then divided equitably among the settlers, and the share of each man became his own private prop- erty. Each settler was thus made the owner of a piece of land which it was to his in- terest to improve to the highest degree pos- sible. Freed from the burdens under which it had labored for so long, the colony began to increase in prosperity and in population. The government of the Pilgrims was sim- ple, but effective. They had no charter, and were from the first driven upon their own resources. They had a governor who was chosen by the votes of all the settlers. In 1624 a council of five was given him, and in 1633 this number was increased to seven. The council assisted the governor in the ex- ercise of his duties, and imposed a check upon his authority, as in its meetings he had merely a double vote. The whole number of male settlers for eighteen years constituted the legislative body. They met at stated times, and enacted such laws as were neces- sary for the welfare of the colony. The people were frequently convened by the gov- ernor, in the earlier years of the settlement, to aid him with their advice upon difficult questions brought before them. When the colony increased in population, and a number of towns were included within its limits, each town sent representatives to a general court at Plymouth. If the colony grew slowly, it grew steadily, and at length the Pilgrims had their reward in seeing their little settlement expand into a flourishing province, in which the principles of civil freedom were cherished, religion honored, and industry' and economy made the basis of the wealth of the little state CHAPTER XI Settlement of Massachusetts and Rhode Island iJettlement of Nevr Hampshire—The English Puritans Determine to Form a New Colony in America — ^The Plymoutll Council — A Colony Sent Out to Salem under Endicott— Colonization of Massachusetts Bay Begun — A Charter Obtained —Concessions of the King — Progress of the Salem Colony— The Charter and Government of the Colony Removed to New England — Arrival of Governor Winthrop — Settlement of Boston— Sufferings of the Colonists — Roger Williams —His Opinions Give Offence to tlie Authorities — The Success of the Bay Colony Established — Growth of Populai Liberty — The Ballot Box — Banishment of Roger Williams — He Goes into the Wilderness — Founds Providence-' Growth of Williams' Colony — Continued Growth of Massachusetts — Arrival of Sir Henry Vane — Is Elected Governor —Mrs. Anne Hutchinson — The Antinomian Controversy — Mrs. Hutchinson Banished — Settlement of Rhode Island- Murder of Mrs. Hutchinson. THE success of the Pilgrims in es- tablishing the Plymouth colony aroused a feeling of deep interest in England, and some of those who had watched the effort were encouraged to attempt ventures of their own. Sir Ferdi- nand Gorges, who had taken a deep interest in the schemes to settle the new world, and John Mason, the secretary of the council of Plymouth, obtained a patent for the region called Laconia, which comprised the whole country between the sea, the St. Lawrence, the Merrimar and the Kennebec, and now embraced partly in Maine and partly in New Hampshire. A company of English mer- chants was formed, and in 1623 permanent colonies were established at Portsmouth, Dover and one or two other places near the mouth of the Piscataqua. These were small, feeble settlements, and were more trading- posts than towns. For many years their growth was slow, and it was not until other parts of New England were well peopled and advanced far beyond their early trials that they began to show signs of prosperity. In 1653, thirty years after its settlement, Portsmouth con- tained only ** between fifty and sixty families." The settlers of these towns were not all 138 Puritans, and their colonies had not the re- ligious character of those of the rest cf New England. In 1641, they were annexed at their own request to the province of Massa- chusetts, the general court having agreed not to require the freemen and deputies to be church members. In the meantime the news of the successful planting of Plymouth was producing other and more important results in England. The persecutions of the Non-conformists, which marked the entire reign of James I., were continued through that of his son and successor, Charles I. The Puritans, sorely distressed by the tyranny to which they were subjected, listened with eagerness to the ac- counts of America which were sent over by the members of the Plymouth colony, and published from time to time in England. The descriptions of the Pilgrims were not exaggerated. They did not promise either fame or sudden wealth to settlers in their province, but clearly set forth the cares and labors which were to be the price of success in America. They dwelt witL .^special emphasiSyhowv ever, upon that which was in their eyes the chief reward of all their toil and suffering— the ability to exercise their religion without SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 135 restraint. Their brethren in England heard their accounts with a longing to be with them to enjoy the freedom with which they were blessed, and it was not long before a number of English Non-conformists began to concert measures for making New Eng- land a place of refuge for the persecuted members of their faith. The leading spirit in these enterprises was the Rev. Mr. White, a minister of Dorsetshire, a Puritan, but not a Separatist. Re- garding the vicinity of the present town of Salem as the most suitable place for colonization, he exerted himself with energy to se- cure it for his brethren. In the meantime the Plymouth Company had ceased to exist, and its place had been taken by the council of Plymouth. That body cared for New England only as a source of profit, and sold the ter- ritory of that region to a number of purchasers, assigning the same district to different people, and thus paving the way for vexa- tious litigation. In 1628, it sold to a company of gentlemen of Dorchester, which White's energy had succeeded in bringing into existence, a district extending from three miles south of Massachusetts Bay to three miles north of the Merrimac River. As was usual in all grants of the day, the Pacific was made the western boundary of t:his region. This company was at once prepared to send out a colony, and in the early summer of that year one hundred persons under John Endicott,as governor, were despatched to New England. Endicott took his family with him, and in September, 1628, reached New England, and established the settlement of Salem, the site of which was already occu- pied by a few men whom White had placed there to hold it. Endicott, who was a mat* JOHN ENDICOTT. of undaunted courage and acknowledged in- tegrity of character, soon established his authority over the few settlements that had sprung up along the shores of the bay. At this time the site of Charlestown was occupied by an Englishman named Thomas Walford, a blacksmith, who had fortified his cabin with a palisade. The only dweller on the I40 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. tri-mountain peninsula of Shawmut was the Rev. William Blackstone, a clergyman of the Church of England; the island now known as East Boston was occupied by Samuel Maverick. At Nantasket and a few places farther south some Englishmen had located themselves, and lived by fishing and trading in skins : and on the site of Quincy was the wreck of a colony which had nearly perished in consequence of its evils ways. These, with the settlement at Salem, constituted the colony of Massachusetts Bay. Arrivals at Salem. Soon after the departure of Endicott's colony from England, the company, acting upon the advice of their counsel, obtained from the king a confimation of their grant. In March, 1629, the king granted to the colony of Massachusetts Bay a charter under which it conducted its affairs for more than fifty years. By the terms of this charter the governor was to be elected by the free- men for the term of one year, provision was made for the assembling at stated times of a general court, which was to have the power to make all the needed laws for the colony, and it was not necessary that these laws should receive the royal signature in order to be valid. This was conceding practical inde- pendence to the colony. In the spring of 1629, a second company of emigrants sailed from England for Massa- chusetts. They were, like the first, all Puri- tans, and took with them, as their minister, the Rev. Francis Higginson, formerly of Jesus College, Cambridge, a man of learn- ing and deep piety. The colonists were instructed to do no violence to the Indians. "If any of the salvages," so read the com- pany's orders, " pretend right of inheritance to all or any part of the lands granted in our patent, endeavor to purchase their tytle, that we may avoid the least scruple of intrusion." Six shipwrights were sent over for the use of the colony, an experienced engineer to lay out a fortified town, and a master gun- ner, who was to teach the men of the colony the use of arms and military exercises. Cattle and horses and goats were sent out also. The voyage was prosperous, and the new settlers reached Salem about the last of June. They found the settlement in a feeble con- dition, and greatly in need of their assistance. The old and the new colonists numbered about three hundred. The majority of these remained at Salem, and the rest were sent by Endicott to establish a colony at Charles- town, in order to secure that place from occupation by the partisans of Sir Ferdi- nand Gorges, who claimed the region. The emigrants were scrupulous to acquire from the Indians the right to the lands they occu- pied. The twelfth of July was observed as a day of fasting and prayer " for the choice of a pastor and teacher at Salem." No one advanced any claim founded on his ordination in England ; personal fitness was the only qualification recognized by the Puritans. Samuel Skelton was chosen pastor, and Francis Higginson teacher. The Brownes Cast Out. Three or four of the gravest members of the church laid their hands upon the heads of these men, with prayer, and solemn- ly appointed them to their respective offices. " Thus the church, like that of Plymouth, was self-constituted, on the principle of the independence of each religious community. It did not ask the assent of the king, or recognize him as its head; its officers were set apart and ordained among themselves j it used no liturgy; it rejected unnecessary ceremonies, and reduced the simplicity o\ Calvin to a still plainer standard The motives which controlled its decisions were S£tTLEMENt OF MASSACHUSETTS AND R^ODE iSLANt). 141 so deeply seated that its practices were repeated spontaneously by Puritan New England." An opposition to the organiza- tion of the church was attempted by a party led by John and Samuel Browne, men of ability ; but this was treated as a mutiny and put down, and the Brownes were sent back to England. The charter of Massachusetts, though it made liberal concessions to the colony, contained no provision for the rights of the people, who were left at the mercy of the company. For the proper government of the colony, it was necessary to re- move the charter to Massachusetts, and such a removal was advisable on another ground. The charter contained no guar- antee for the reglious freedom of the co lony, and the king might at any moment seek to interfere with this, the most pre- cious right of the Puritans. The only way to escape the evils which the com- pany had reason to dread was for the governing council to change its place of meeting from England to Massachu- setts, which the provisions of the charter gave it authority to do. An Independent Colony. On the twenty -sixth of August, 1629, John Winthrop, Isaac Johnson, Thomas Dudley, Richard Saltonstall and eight others, men of fortune and education, met at Cambridge and bound them- selves by a solemn agreement to settle in New England if the whole government of the colony, together with the patent, should be legally transferred to that region before the end of September. On the twenty- ninth of the month, the court took the de- cisive step and ordered that " the govern- ment and patent should be settled in New England." This was a bold step, but its legality was not contested by any one, and it made the government of the colony independ- ent of control by any power in England. The officers of the colony were to be a governor and eighteen assistants. On the twentieth of October, a meeting of the court was held to choose them, and John Winthrop was elected governor for one year. It was a fortunate selection, for Winthrop proved himself for many years the very mainstay of the colony, sustaining his companions by his calm courage, and setting them a noble ex- ' JOHN WINTHROP. ample in his patience, his quiet heroism and his devotion to the welfare of others. He seemed to find his greatest pleasure in doinj^ good, and his liberality acted as a check upon the bigotry of his associates and kept them in paths of greater moderation. Efforts were made to send over new settlers to Massachusetts, and about a thousand emigrants, with cattle, horses and goats, were tr;aisor>rted thither in the season of 1630. 142 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Early in Aprijf, Governor Winthrop and about seven hundred emigrants sailed from England in a fleet of eleven ships. Many of them were " men of high endowments and large fortune; scholars, well versed in the ■ learning of the times; clergymen who ranked among the best educated and most pious in the realm." Death Among the Settlers. They reached Salem on the twelfth of June, after a voyage of sixty-one days, and were gladly welcomed by the settlers, whom they found in great distress from sickness and a scarcity of provisions. About eighty had died during the winter, and many were sick. There was scarcely a fortnight's sup- ply of food in the settlement, and it was nec- essary to send one of the ships back to Eng- land at once for a supply of provisions. Salem did not please the new-comers, and settlements were made at Lynn, Charles- town, Newtown, Dorchester, Roxbury, Mai- den and Watertown. The governor and a large part of the emigrants settled first at Charlestown,but at length, in order to obtain better water, crossed over and occupied the little tri-mountain peninsula of Shawmut. To this settlement was given the name of Boston, in honor of the town in Lincolnshire in England, which had been the home of the Rev. John Wilson, who became the pastor of the first church of Boston. The location was central to the whole province, and Bos- ton became the seat of government. When the year for which the first colonial officers had been cViosen expired a new election was held, and Governor Winthrop and all the old officials were re-elected. Terrible Sufferings. The colonists now began to feel the effects of their new life. The change of climate was very trying to them, and many of them fell victims to its rigors, and to the hardships of their position. A large number of them had been brought up in ease and refinement, and were unaccustomed to privation or exposure. They sank beneath the severe trials to which they were subjected. By December, 1630, at least two hundred had died. Among these were the Lady Arbella Johnson and her husband, among the most liberal and de- voted supporters of the colony, and a son ot Governor Winthrop, who left a widow and children in England. Others became dis- heartened, and more than a hundred returned to England, where they endeavored to ex cuse their desertion of their companions by grossly exaggerated accounts of the hard- ships of the colony. Patient Endurance. Yet among the colonists themselves there was no repining. They exhibited in their deep distress a fortitude and heroism worthy of thefr lofty character. *' Honor is due,'* says Bancroft, " not less to those who per- ished than to those who survived; to the martyrs the hour of death was the hour ot triumph ; such as is never witnessed in more tranquil seasons. ***** Even children caught the spirit of the place ; awaited the impending change in the tranquil confidence of faith, and went to the grave full of immor- tality. The survivors bore all things meekly, ' remembering the end of their coming hither.'" Winthrop wrote to his wife, who had been detained in England by sickness: " We enjoy here God and Jesus Christ, und is not this enough ? I thank God I like so well to be here, as I do not repent my com- ing. I would not have altered my course though I had foreseen all these afflictions. I never had more content of mind." Another danger which threatened the colony arose from the scarcity of provisionSj but this was removed on the fifth of February, i63i,by the timely arrival of the "Lyon" from England, laden with provisions. This relief was greeted with public thanksgivings SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 143 in all the settlements. The " Lyon," how- ever, brought only twenty passengers, and in 163 1 only ninety persons came out from England. The number of arrivals in 1632 was only two hundred and fifty. Thus the colony grew very slowly. By the close of the latter year the total population of Massa- chusetts was only a little over one thousand souls. Sketch of Roger Williams. Among the passengers of the " Lyon " was a young minister, described in the old records as " lovely in his carriage, godly and zealous, having precious gifts," Roger Williams by name. He had been a favorite pupil of the great Sir Edward Coke, and had learned from him precious lessons of liberty and toleration. He had been carefully edu- cated at Pembroke College, in the University of Cambridge, and had entered the ministry. His opposition to the laws requiring con- formity to the established church had drawn upon him the wrath of Archbishop Laud, and he had been driven out of England. The great doctrine which he had em- braced as the result of his studies and ex- perience was the freedom of conscience from secular control. " The civil magistrate should restrain crime, but never control opinion; should punish guilt, but never violate inward freedom." He would place all forms of religion upon an equality, and would refuse to the government the power to com- pel conformity to, or attendance upon, any of them, leaving such matters to the con- science of the individual. He also favored the abolition of tithes, and the enforced con- tribution to the support of the church. Such views were far in advance of the age, and when Williams landed in Boston he found himself unable to join the church in that place, because of its adoption of prin- ciples the opposite of his own. Upon his arrival the church had intended engaging him to fill Mr. Wilson's place, while that minister returned to England to bring over his wife, but upon learning his views the idea was abandoned. A little later the church in Salem, which had been deprived of its teacher by the death of the Rev. Francis Higginson, called Williams to be his successor. Williams accepted the call ; but Governor Winthrop and the assistants warned the people of Salem to beware how they placed in so important a position a man already at such variance with the established order of things. The warning had the de- sired effect upon the people of Salem, who withdrew their invitation. Williams then went to Plymouth, where he lived for two years in peace. An Oath of Fidelity. But though unwilling to accord to Williams the liberty he desired, the colonial govern- ment was careful to take every precaution against the anticipated efforts of the Church of England to extend its authority over Massachusetts. A general court held in May, 163 1, ordered an oath of fidelity to be tendered to the freemen of the colony, which bound them " to be obedient and conform- able to the laws and constitutions of this commonwealth, to advance its peace, and not to suffer any attempt at making any change or alteration of the government con- trary to its laws." The same general court took a still more decided stand by the adoption of a law which limited the citizen- ship of the colony to " such as are members of some of the churches within the limits of the same." This was practically makingthe state a theocracy. Yet the people were not prepared to sur- render their political rights, even when alarmed by the danger which seemed to 1^14 SfittLEMENt OF AMERICA. threaten their religious establishment. Until now the assistants could hold office for life and they also possessed the power of elect- ing the governor. They were thus inde- pendent of* the people. The right of the freemen to choose their magistrates was now distinctly asserted, and in May, 1 63 2, was conceded. The governor and assistants were to be elected annually, and by the votes of the freemen; none but church members being entitled to the privileges of freemen. Another important change was brought about at the same time by the hostility of the people to levying of taxes by the board of assistants. Each town was ordered to send two of its best men to represent it at a general court " to concert a plan for a public treasury." Friendly Mohegan Chief. The colonists had faithfully obeyed their instructions to treat the Indians with fair- ness, and to seek to cultivate their friend- ship. Many of the native tribes sought their alliance, and the sachem of the Mohegans came from the banks of the Connecticut to make a treaty with the colony, and to urge the English to settle in his country, which he described as exceedingly fertile and inviting. In the autumn of 1632 a pleasant intercourse was opened with the Plymouth colony ; and in the same year a trade in corn was begun with Virginia, and commercial relations were established with the Dutch, who had settled along the Hudson River. The colony of Massachusetts Bay was slowly entering upon a more prosperous period. Emigrants now began to come over in greater numbers, and among them were John Haynes, " the acute and subtile Cotton," and Thomas Hooker, who have been called the "Light of the Western Churches." The freemen by the middle of the year 1634 cumbered between three and four hundred. and these were bent upon establishing theMr political power in the state. Great advances were made in the direction of representative government, and the ballot-box was intro- duced in elections, which had been formerly conducted by an erection of hands. As a guard against arbitrary taxation by magis- trates it was enacted that none but thc properly chosen representatives of the people might dispose of lands, or raise money. A Long Controversy. In the spring of 1635 the people went a step further, and demanded a written con- stitution for the purpose of still more per- fectly securing their liberties. This demand opened a controversy which continued for ten years. The general court was com- posed of assistants and deputies. The first were elected by the people of the whole colony ; the latter by the towns. The two bodies acted together in meetings of the assembly, but the assistants claimed th^ exclusive privilege of meeting and exercising a separate negative upon the proceedings of the court. This claim was energetically denied by the deputies, who were sustained by the body of the people; while the magistrates and the ministers upheld the pretensions of the assistants. In 1644 the matter was compromised by the division of the general court into two branches, each of which was given a negative upon the proceedings of the other. All parties were agreed, however, in the work of connecting the religion and the government of the colony so closely that they should mutually sustain each other against the attacks of the Church of England. While these measures were in course of adjustment other matters were engaging the attention of the colony. After Roger Will- iams had been a little more than two years in PJvmouth, he was called again to Salem, KOGER WILLIAMS SEEKING REFUGE AMONG THE INDIANS 145 146 SETTLEMENT OF AMEklCA. and accepted the invitation. This gave offence to many persons, and in January, 1634, complaints were made against Williams because of a paper he had written while at Plymouth, denying that the king had any power to grant lands in America to his sub- jects, since the lands were the property of the Indians. In this Williams was wrong, as the settlers in New England had been care- ful to obtain the consent of the natives to their occupation of the lands they had pos- sessed. He made a proper explanation of his paper, when he understood the true state of the case, and consented that it should be burned. Williams will not Retract. Still the jealousy and dislike of the Puri- tans was aroused by the radical opposition of Williams to their system, although he conducted himself with a forbearance and amiableness that should have won him the love of those with whom he was thrown. Williams strongly condemned the law enforc- ing the attendance of the people upon reli- gious services, declaring that a man had a right to stay away if he wished to do so. He also censured the practice of selecting the colonial officials exclusively from the mem- bers of the church, and said that a physician or a pilot might with equal propriety be chosen because of his piety, his skill in theology, or his standing in the church. These and other similar views were drawn from him in a series of controversies, held with him by a committee of ministers, for the purpose of inducing him to retract his radical sentiments. He remained firm in them, however, and his opponents declared that his principles were calculated not only to destroy religion, but also to subvert all forms of civil government. It was resolved to banish him from the colony, and as the people of Salem warmly supported Williams, they were admonished by the court, and a tract of land, which was rightfully theirs, was withheld from them as a punishment. Williams and the church at Salem appealed to the people against the in- justice of the magistrates, and asked the other churches of the colony to " admonish the magistrates of their injustice." This was regarded as treason by the colonial govern- ment, and at the next general court Salem was disfranchised until the town should make ample apology for its offence. Will- iams was summoned before the general court in October, 1635, and maintained his opinions with firmness, though with mod- eration. He was sentenced to banishment from the colony, not, as it was declared, because of his religious views, but because the magistrates averred his principles, if carried out, would destroy all civil govern- ment. A Fugitive in the Wilderness. The season was so far advanced that it would have been barbarous to drive any one out of the colony at that time, and Williams obtained leave to remain in the province until the spring, when he intended forming a settlement on Narragansett Bay. The affection of his people at Salem, which had seemed to grow cold when the town began to feel the weight of the punishment inflicted by the general court, now revived, and they thronged to his house in great numbers to hear him, and his opinions spread rapidly. The magistrates were alarmed, and it was resolved to send him at once to England in a ship that was just about to sail from Boston. He was ordered to come to Boston and embark there, but refused to obey the summons. A boat's crew was then sent to arrest him and bring him to Boston by force; but when the officers reached Salem he had disappeared. J SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 147 Three days before their arrival Roger Williams had left Salem, a wanderer for con- science sake. It was the depth of winter, the snow lay thickly over the country, and the weather was cold and inclement. For fourteen weeks, he says, he " was sorely tost in a bitter season, not knowing what bread or bed did mean." Banished from the set- tlements of his own race the exile went out into the wilderness, and sought the country of the Indians, whose friendship he had won during his stay in the colony. He had ac- quired their language during his residence at Plymouth, and could speak it fluently. He went from lodge to lodge, kindly wel- comed by the sav- ages, and lodging sometimes in a hol- low tree, until he reached Mount Hope, the residence of Mas- sasoit, who was his friend. Canonicus,the great chieftain of the Narragansetts, loved him with a strong af- fection, which ceased only with his life ; and in the country of these friendly chiefs Williams passed the winter in peace and safety. He never ceased to be grateful lor their aid in his distress, and during his whole life he was the especial friend and champion of the Indians in New England. It was the intention of Williams to settle at Seekonk, on the Pawtucket River ; but that place was found to be within the limits of the Plymouth colony. Governor Winslow wrote to Williams advising him to remove to the region of Narragansett Bay, which Mras beyoiiH the jurisdiction of the English, and would render any misunderstanding be* tween the Plymouth and Bay colonies on his account impossible " I took his prudent motion," says Williams, " as a voice from God." Providence Founded. Being joined by five companions, Williams embarked in a canoe in June, 1635, and pass- ing over to the west arm of Narragansett Bay, landed at an attractive spot, where he found a spring of pure water. He chose the place as the site of a new settlement, and in gratitude for his deliverance from the many LANDING OF ROGER WILLIAMS AT PROVIDENCE. dangers through which he had passed, named it Providence. He sought to purchase enough land for a settlement, but Canonicug refused to sell the land, and gave it to his friend " to enjoy forever." This grant was made to Williams alone, and constituted him absolute owner of the lands included in it. He might have sold them to settlers on terms advantageous to himself; but he declined to do so. In the next two years he was joined by L number of his old followers from Massachu 148 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. setts, and by others who fled to h's asylum. He gave a share of land to all who came to settle, and admitted them to an equality with himself in the political administration of the colony. The government was administered by the whole people. The voice of the majority decided all public measures ; but in matters of conscience every man was left an- swerable to God alone. All forms of relig- ious belief were tolerated and protected. Even infidelity was safe here from punish- ment by the civil or ecclesiastical power. Praiseworthy Charity. Williams was anxious to establish Jriendly relations with the Massachusetts cole iy • for though he felt keenly the injusticeof his per- secutors, he cherished no bitterness or resent- ment towards them. He condemned only what he considered the delusions of the magistrates of Massachusetts, but never at- tacked his persecutors. "1 did ever from my soul," he wrote with simple magnanimity, "honor and love them, even when their judg- ment led them to afflict me." Winslow, touched with his true Christian forbearance, came from Plymouth to visit him, and left with his wife some money for their support; and some of the leaders of the Bay colony began to bear tardy witness to his virtues. The settlement at Providence continued to grow slowly, and was blessed with peace and an increasing prosperity. Massachusetts in the meantime continued to receive numerous additions to her popula- tion by emigration from England. In the autumn of 1635, twelve families left Boston, and journeying into the interior, founded the town of Concord. They had a hard struggle to establish their little settlement, but per- severed, and at length their labors were crowned with success. Three thousand people came over to Massachusetts this year. Among them were Hugh Peters, a man of great eloquence and ability and a devoted republican, who had been pastor to a church of exiles at Rottei-dam, and Henry Vane the younger, "a man of the purest mind; a statesman ot spotless integrity ; whose name the progress of intelligence and liberty will erase from the rubic of fanatics and traitors, and insert high among the aspirants after truth and the martyrs for liberty." * In the following spring (1636) Vane was elected governor of the colony. The people were dazzled by his high birth and pleasing qualities, and committed an error in choos- ing him, for neither his age nor his experi- ence fitted him for the distinguished position conferred upon him. The arrival of Vane seemed to promise an emigration of a num- ber of the English nobility, and an effort was made by several of them in England to pro- cure the division of the general court into two branches, and the establishment of an hereditary nobility in the colony which should possess a right to seats in the upper branch of the court. The magistrates of the colony were anxious to conciliate these val- uable friends, but they firmly refused to establish hereditary nobility in their new state. Trouble in the Church. Religious discussions formed a large part of the life of the colony. Meetings were held by the men, and passages of Scripture were discussed, and the sermons of the min- isters made the subject of searching criticism. The women might attend these meetings, but were not allowed to take part in the discus- sions. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a woman of talent and eloquence, claimed for her sex the right to participate equally with the men in these meetings ; but as this was not possible^ she began to hold meetings for the benefit of the women at her own house. At these, , I * Bancroft, SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 149 religious doctrines were discussed and advo- cated, which were at variance with the prin- ciples of the magistrates. Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers held that the authority of private judgment was superior to that of the church, and con- demned the efforts of the colony to enforce conformity to the established system as viola- tive of the inherent rights of Christians. She was encouraged by John Wheelwright, a silenced minister, who had married her sister, and by Governor Vane, and her opinions were adopted by a large number of the people, and by members of the general court and some of the magistrates. The ministers saw their authority menaced by the new belief, and made common cause against Mrs. Hutchinson and her protector, Governor Vane. The colony was divided into two parties, and the religious question became a matter of great political import- ance. Under the established system the ministers formed almost a distinct estate of the government, and political privileges were entirely dependent upon theological conformity. Feeling sure that they would not receive justice at the hands of their opponents, the friends of Mrs. Hutchinson declared their intention to appeal to the king. This aroused a storm of indignation in the colony, and " it was accounted perjury and treason to speak of appeals to the king." This threat changed the whole character of the question, and was fatal to the party which made it. jThe Puritans had come to Massachusetts to escape the interference of the crown with their religious belief, and to appeal to the king in this case would be simply to place the liber- ties of the colony at his mercy. When the elections were held, in the spring of 1637, Governor Winthrop and the old magistrates we/e chosen by a large majority. Vane soon after returned to England. The church party being now in power resolved to silence Mrs. Hutchinson. She was admonished to cease her teachings, and upon her refusal to obey this order, she and her followers were exiled from the colony. Wheelwright and a number of his friends went to New Hampshire, and founded '•hft town of Exeter, at the head of tide-water on the Piscataqua. Mrs. Hutchinson and the majority of her followers removed, in the spring of 1638, to the southward, intending to settle on Long Island or on the Delaware. Roger Williams induced them to remain near his plantation, and obtained for them from Miantonomoh, the chief of the Narra- gansett tribe, the gift of the beautiful island in the lower part of Narragansett Bay, which they called the island of Rhodes, or Rhode Island. Sad Fate of Mrs. Hutchinson. The number of settlers was scarcely more than twenty, but they proceeded to form a government upon a plan agreeable to the principles they professed. It was a pure democracy, founded upon the universal consent of the people, who signed a sociai compact pledging themselves to obey the laws made by the majority, and to respect the rights of conscience. William Codding- ton, who had been a magistrate in the Bay colony, was elected judge or ruler, and three elders were chosen as his assistants. The settlement grew rapidly, and by 1641 the population had become so numerous as to require a written constitution. Mrs. Hutchinson remained in Rhode Island for several years; but fearing that the hostility of the magistrates of Massa- chusetts would reach her even there, removed beyond New Haven into the territory of the Dutch, where, in 1643, she and all her family who were with her, except one child, who was taken prisoner, were murdered by the Indians. CHAPTER Xh Colonization of Connecticut the Dutch Qaim the Connecticut Valley— They Build a Fort at Hartford— Governor Winslow Makes a Lodgmeit if? . Coniiecticat for the English— Withdrawal of the Dutch— The First Efforts of the English to Settle Connecticut— Emi- gration of Hooker and His Congregation — They Settle at Hartford — Winthrop Builds a Fort at Say brook e — Hostility oi Uie Indians — Visit ol Roger Williams to Miantonomoh — A Brave Deed — The Pequod War — Capture of the Indiao Fort — Destmction of the Pequod Tribe — Effect of This War Upon the Other Tribes — Connecdcut Adopts a Constittt' tion — Its Peculiar Features — Settlement of New Haven. THE fertile region of the Connecticut had attracted the attention of the English at an early day ; but before they could make any effort to occupy it the Dutch sent an exploring party froivi Manhattan Island, in 1614, and exam- ined the river and the country through which it flowed. They built and fortified a trading-post on the site of the present city of Hartford, but soon excited the ill-will of the Indians by their cruel treatment of them. The Dutch found themselves unable to occupy the country, and, being unwilling to lose it, endeavored, but without success, to induce the Pilgrims to remove from Plymouth to the Connecticut, and settle in that region under their protection. In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted the Connecticut region to the Earl of War- wick, who, in 163 1, assigned his claim to Lords Say and Brooke, John Hampden, and others. As soon as this grant was known to the Dutch they sent a party to the site of Hartford and re-established their trading- post, and began a profitable trade with the Indians. They mounted two cannon on their fort for the purpose of preventing the English from ascending the river. Towards the latter part of the year 1633, Governor Winslow, of Plymouth, in order to secure a foothold for the English in this valuable region, sent Captain William Holmes to the 150 Connecticut with a sloop and a number ol men to make a settlement. Upon ascending the river to the site of Hartford, Holmes found his progress barred by the Dutch fort, the commander of which threatened to fire upon him if he attempted to continue his voyage. Undaunted by this threat, Holmes passed by the fort without harm, and ascended the stream to Windsor, where he erected a fortified post. In 1634, the Dutch made an unsuccessful attempt to drive him away. Failing in this, and seeing that it was the deliberate purpose of the English to occupy the Connecticut valley, the Dutch relinquished all claim to that region, and a boundary line was arranged between their possessions and those of the English, cor- responding very nearly to that between the states of Connecticut and New "Vork. In 1635, the Pilgrims determined to make settlements in this inviting region, and late in the fall of that year a company of sixtj persons, men, women and children, set out from Plymouth by land, sending a sloop laden with provisions and their household goods around by sea, with orders to joi« them upon the Connecticut River. They began their journey too late in the seasonj and their sufferings were very great in con» sequence. Upon reaching the river they found the ground covered with snow, and their sloop was delayed by storms and ice, COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 151 Their cattle died from cold and exposure, and but for a little corn which they obtained from the Indians, and such acorns as they could gather, the whole company must have starved to death. Many of them abandoned their new home and returned by land to the settlements on the coast. ( The Puritans were resolved to continue the effort to settle Connecticut, and in the spring of 1636 several com- panies emigrated to that re- gion. The principal part} set out in June, led by the Rev. Thomas Hooker. It comprised about one hundred persons, and consisted prin- cipally of Hooker's congrega- tion, who followed their pastor with enthusiasm. They drove before them a considerable number of cattle, which fur- nished them with milk on the march. The emigrants were largely made up of persons of refine- ment and culture, and com- prised many of the oldest and most valued citizens of the Bay colony. They were at- tracted to the valley of the Connecticut by the superior advantages which it offered for the prosecution of the fur trade, and by the great fertil- ity of its soil. They had no guide but a compass, and their route lay through an unbroken wilderness. The journey was long and fatiguing. The emigrants accom- plished scarcely more than ten miles a day, carrying their sick on litters, and making the forests ring with their holy hymns. At length the site of Hartford, where it was pro- posed to establish the settlement, was reached by the first of July. The greater number remained there; some went higher up the river and founded Springfield, and the rest went to Wethersfield, where there was already a small settlement. In the same year the younger John Win- throp arrived from England, with orders from Lords Say and Brooke to establish a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut River. Thir JOHN HAMPDEN. he accomplished, naming the new settlement Saybrooke, in honor of the proprietors. The settlements in Connecticut grew rapidly, the excellent soil and pleasant climate attract- ing many emigrants to them. The existence of these settlements was precarious, however. The region in which 152 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. they had been planted was the country of the Pequc>d'5, who inhabited it in large numbers. They were the most powerful and warlike tribe in New England, and could bring nearly two thousand warriors into the field. They occupied the southwestern part of Connect- icut, and their territory extended almost to the Hudson on the west, where it joined that of the Mohegans. On the east their territory bordered that of the Narragansetts. Both of these tribes were the enemies of thePequods and the friends of the English. This friend- ship was resented by the Pequods, who were already Jealous of the English because of their occupation of the lands along the Connecticut. The tribe bore a bad name, and had already manifested their hostility by murdering, a few years before, a Virginia trader named Stone, together with the crew of his vessel, who R^ere engaged in a trading expedition on the Connecticut River. Blood Shed on Both Sides. Somewhat later Captain Oldham and his crew, while exploring the river, were also murdered by Indians living on Block Island. The Pequods justified the murder of Stone by alleging that he had attacked them. Wishing to make a treaty with the English, they sent their chiefs to Boston for that pur- pose, and promised — as the magistrates understood them— to deliver up the two men who had killed Stone. Captain John Endicott was sent with a vessel, in 1636, to punish the ^lock Island Indians for the murder of Old- ham, and was ordered to call on his return at the Pequod town, and demand the surrender of the murderers of Stone. The Pequods declined to surrender these men, but offered to ransom them. This was in accordance with their customs. But Endicott refused to accept any compensation for the crime that had been committed, and to punish the Indians destroyed their corn and burned two of their villages. This made open hostilities inevitable. The Pequods began to hang around the Connecticut settlements and cut off stragglers from them. By the close of the wmter more than thirty .persons had fallen victims to their vengeance. A Dangerous Mission. The settlements in the Connecticut valley were now greatly alarmed. They could not muster over two hundred fighting men, and the Indians in their immediate vicinity could bring into the field at least seven hundred warriors. War was certain, and it was not known at what moment the savages would attack the settlements in overwhelming force. Connecticut called upon Massachu- setts for aid, but only twenty men under Captain Underbill, were sent to their aid. The energies and attention of the Bay colony were engrossed by the Hutchinson quarrel. The Pequods, notwithstanding their im- mense numerical superiority, were unwilling to make war upon the English without the support of another tribe. They accordingly sent envoys to Miantonomoh, the chief of the Narragansetts, to endeavor to engage that tribe in the effort against the whites. Such a union would have menaced all New England, and as soon as the news of the negotiation reached Boston the government of the Bay colony prepared to prevent the alliance. Governor Vane at once wrote to Roger Williams, the friend of Miantonomoh, urging him to seek that chieftain and prevent him from joining the Pequods. It was a dangerous mission, and certamly a great service for the magistrates of Massa« chusetts to ask of the man whom they had driven into exile. They did not ask In vain, however. All of Williams* generous nature was aroused by the danger which threatened his brethren, and he embarked in a fr?y COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 153 canoe, and braving the danger of a severe gale, sought the quarters of Miantonomoh. He found the Pequod chiefs already there, and the Narragansetts wavering. Knowing the errand on which he had come, the hostile chieftains /were ready at any moment to des- patch him, and had Miantonomoh shown the least fa- vor to the project, Williams would have paid for his boldness with his life. He spent three days and nights in the company of the savages, and suc- ceeded in inducing Miantonomoh not mly to refuse to join the war against the English, but to promise the colo- nists his assistance against the Pe- quods. In the meantime he sent a messenger to Bos- ton to inform the governor of the de- signs of the In- dians. The Pequods, left to continue the ^struggle alone, flat- tered themselves that their superi- ority in numbers would give them the vic- tory, and continued their aggressions upon the Connecticut settlements to such an extent that in May, 1637, the general court of that province resolved to begin the war at once A force of eighty men, including those sei from Massachusetts, was assembled at Hart ford, and the command was conferred bj A GROUP OF INDIANS. Hooker upon Captain John Mason. The night previous to their departure was spent in prayer, and on the twentieth of May thk, little force embarked in boats and descended 154 SETTLEMENT CTt AMERICA. the river to the sound, and passed around to Narragansett Bay, intending to approach the Pequod town from that quarter. As the boats sailed by the mouth of the Thames, the savages supposed the English were abandoning the Connecticut valley. The day after the arrival of the English in Narragansett Bay was the Sabbath, and was scrupulously observed. On the following day they repaired to the quarters of Canonicus, the old chief and principal ruler of the Narragansett tribe, and asked his assistance against the Pequods. Mian- tonomoh, the nephew and prospective suc- cessor of Canonicus, hesitated to join in the doubtful enterprise, but two hundred war- riors agreed to accompany the English, who could not, however, count upon the fidelity of these reinforcements. Seventy Mohe- gans, under Uncas, their chief, also joined Mason. With this force the English com- mander marched across the country toward the Pequod towns on the Thames, and halted on the night of the twenty-fifth of May within hearing of them. A Sudden Attack. In the meantime the Pequods, convinced that the English had fled from the Connecti- cut region, and never dreading an attack in their fort, which they considered impreg- nable, had given themselves up to rejoicing. The night, passed by the English in waiting the signal for the attack, was spent by the Pequods in revelry and songSp which could be plainly heard in the English camp. Two hours before dawn, on the morning of the twenty-sixth of May, the order was given to the little band under Mason to advance. They knew they would have to decide the battle by their own efforts, and were by no means certain that their Indian allies would not turn against them. The Pequods were posted in two strong forts made of palisades driven into *^^ ground and strengthened with rush-work, an excel- lent defence against a foe of their own race, but worthless when assailed by Europeans. The principal fort stood on the summit of a considerable hill, and was regarded by Sassa- cus, the Pequod chief, as impregnable. The tramp of the advancing force aroused a dog, whose fierce bark awoke the Indian sentinel. The keen eye of the savage detected the enemy in the gloom of the morning, and he- rushed into the fort, shouting, " The English 1 The English ! " The next moment the English were through the palisades. On all sides they beheld the Indians pouring out of their lodges to take part in the hand-to-hand fight. The odds were too great. " We must burn them," cried Mason, and, suiting the action to the word, he applied a torch to a wigwam constructed of dry reeds. The flames sprang up instantly, and spread with the rapidity of lightning. The Indians vainly endeavored to extinguish the fire, and the English, with- drawing to a greater distance, began to pick off the savages, who were doubly exposed by the light of the blazing fort. Wherever a Pequod appeared, he was shot down. The Narragansetts and Mohegans now joined in the conflict, and the victory was complete. More than six hundred Pequods, men, women and children, perished, the majority of them in the flames. The English lost only two men ; and the battle was over in an hour. Indians in a Rage. As the sun rose, a body of three hundred Pequod warriors were seen advancing from their second fort. They came expecting to rejoice with their comrades in the destruc- tion of the English. When they beheld the ruined fort and the ren^«ains of its defenders, they screamed, stamped on the ground and tore their hair with rage and despair. Mason held them in check with twenty men, while COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT 155 Ihe rest of the English embarked in their boats, which had come round from Narra- gansett Bay, and hastened home to protect the settlements against a sudden attack. Mason, with the party mentioned, marched across the country to the fort at Saybrooke, where he was received with the honors due to his successful exploit. In a few days a body of one hundred men arrived from Massachusetts, under Captain Stoughton, and the cam- paign against the Pe- quods was resumed. Their pride was crushed, and they made but a feeble resistance. They fled to the west, closely pursued by the English, who destroyed their cornfields, burned their villages and put their women and children to death without mercy. They made a last des- perate effort at resist- ance in the fastnesses of a swamp, but were de- feated with great slaugh- ter. Sassacus, their chief, with a few of his men took refuge with the Mohawks, where he was soon after put to death by one of his own people. The remainder of the tribe, about two hundred in number, surrendered to the English, and were reduced to slavery. Some were given to their enemies, the Narragansetts and Mo- hegans ; others were sent to the West Indies and sold as slaves. The Pequod nation was utterly destroyed. The thoroughness and remorselessness of the work struck terror to the neighboring tribes. If the Pequods, the most powerful of all their race, had been exterminated by a mere handful of Englishmen, what could they expect in a contest with them but a similar fate ? For forty years the horror of this dreadful deed remained fresh in the savage mind, and protected the young settlements more effectually than the most vigilant watchfulness on the part of the whites could have done. Relieved from the fear of the Indians, the YALE COLLEGE. people of Connecticut prepared to establish a civil government for the colony, and in Jan- uary, 1639, a constitution was adopted. It was more liberal, and therefor^ more lasting, than that framed by any of the other colo- nies. It provided for the government of the colony by a governor, a legislature and the usual magistrates of an English province, who were to be chosen annually by ballot Every settler who should take the oath of 156 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. allegiance to the commonwealth was to have the right of suffrage. The members of the legislature were apportioned among the towns according to the population. The colony was held to be supreme within its own limits, and no recognition was made of the sovereignty of the king or Parliament. When Connecticut took her place among the states of the American Union, at the opening of the war of the E.evolution, her constitution needed no change to adapt her to her new position. It remained in forr'- for one hun- dred and fifty years. The Celebrated John Davenport. In the year of the Pequod war (1637), John Davenport, a celebrated clergyman of London, and Theophilus Eaton, a merchant of wealth, and a number of their associates, who had been exiled from England for their religious opinions, reached Boston. They were warmly welcomed, and were urged to stay in the Bay colony, but the theological disputes were so high there that they pre- ferred to go into the wilderness and found a settlement where they could be at peace. Eaton with a few men was sent to explore the region west ot the Connecticut, which had been discovered by the pursuers of the Pequods, He examined the coast of Long Island Sound, and spent the winter at a place which he selected as a settlement. In April, 1638, Davenport and the rest of the company sailed from Boston and established a settle- ment on the spot chosen by Eaton. The settlers obtained a title to their lands from the natives, and agreed in return to protect them against the Mohawks. They named their settlement New Haven. In 1639 a form of government was adopted, and Eaton was elected governor. He was annually chosen to this position until his death, twenty years later. The colonists pledged themselves " to be governed in all things by the rules which the Scriptures held forth to them." The right of suffrage was restricted to church members. " Thus New Haven made the Bible its statute book, and the elect its freemen." In the next ten years settlements spread along the sound and ex- tended to the opposite shores of Long Island. The colony was distinct from and independ- ent of the Connecticut colony, with which friendly relations were soon established. CHAPTER XIII The Union of the New England Colonies iftelJng of the Colonies Towards England — Hostility of the English Government to New England — Efforts to Intra duce Episcopacy — Massachusetts Threatens Resistance — The Revolution in England — Establishment of Free Schools in New England — Harvard College — The Printing Press — The Long Parliament Friendly to New England — The United Colonies of New England — Rhode Island Obtains a Charter — Maine Annexed to Massachusetts — ^The Quakers are Persecuted — Efforts to Christianize the Indians — ^John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians. THE sentiments with which the people of the New England colonies regarded the mother country may be briefly stated. They were proud of the name of Englishmen, and took a deep interest in the welfare of their old home. They regarded the British constitution as the supreme law of their new states, and claimed to be true and loyal subjects of the King of England. Nevertheless, they looked upon the success of their colonies as their own work, accomplished by their own patience and heroism, and they were fully aware that they owed nothing to the mother country. They had been driven forth from her shores by persecution, and left in neglect to struggle up to the successful position they now occu- pied. They owed nothing to England; in their deepest distress they had never asked aid of her, and they were willing to undergo any hardship rather than do so. They had made laws and established institutions under which they had surmounted their early trials, and they regarded their paramount allegiance as due to their respective provinces. They acknowledged the right of no power beyond the Atlantic to interfere with or change their work. They would acknowledge their alle- giance to the king as long as he respected the system they had built up at such great cost, and without assistance from him, but would resist any effort from him, or any one else, to ioterfere with it. They had made New Eng- land what she was, and they meant to retain the possession and control of their new home at any cost. They had made themselves a free people, and they meant to preserv.e their liberties as a precious heritage for their children. This was the general sentiment of New England. There were some discontented persons, however, in the midst of these deter- mined people. They had found the stern discipline of the Massachusetts colony too oppressive, and some had been severely pun- ished by the fiery Endicott. Upon returning to England they endeavored to induce the king to exert his power and remedy what they termed the distraction and disorder of the province of Massachusetts. Their com- plaints were echoed by a strong party in England. Burdett wrote to Archbishop Laud that " The colonists aimed not at a new dis- cipline, but at sovereignty ; that it was accounted treason in their general co'\rt to speak of appeals to the king ; " in vi 'lich assertion he was right. The English archbishop began to rega.^ the departure of so many " faithful and free born Englishmen and good Christians " to join a new communion as a serious matter, and impediments were thrown in the way of emigration. In February, 1634, a requisi- tion was addressed to the colony of Massa- chusetts ordering the colonial officials to produce the patent of the company in 157 158 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. England. The colony took no notice of this demand. A little later the king appointed the Archbishop of Canterbury and some others a special commission, with full power over the American colonies. They were authorized to make such changes in church and state as they deemed necessary; to enforce them with heavy penalties ; and even to revoke all charters that contained privi- leges inconsistent with the royal prerogative. 1 Massachusetts Indignant. The news of the appointment of this com- mission reached Boston in September, 1634, and it was also rumored that a governor- general for the colonies had been appointed, and had sailed from England. All Massa- chusetts burned with indignation, and the colony resolved to resist the attempt upon its liberties. It was very poor, but in a short space of time the large sum of six hundred pounds was raised for the public defence, and fortifications were begun and pushed forward with energy. In January, 1 63 5 , the ministers were assembled at Boston and their opinion was asked upon the question whether the colony should receive a governor-general. They answered boldly : " We ought to defend our lawful possessions if we are able ; if not, to avoid and protract." In April, 1638, the privy council demanded the surrender of the charter of Massachu- setts, threatening in case of refusal that the king would take the management of the colony into his own hands. The colonial authorities were firmly resolved to give the king no pretext for interference with their affairs, and instead of complying with the order of the privy council, they addressed a remonstrance to that body against the surrender required of them, thus seeking to gain time. They were fully determined not to give up their charter ; but before their remonstrance could reach Eng- land the troubles which encompassed Charles at home made it impossible for him to carry out his designs against Massachusetts. The breaking out of the civil war in Eng- land put a stop to the emigration to New England. At the opening of the year 1640 the population of New England numbered twenty thousand. Some fifty towns and between thirty and forty churches had been built, and the most desponding could no longer doubt the ultimate success and prosperity of the country. The wretched cabins of the first settlers were rapidly giving way to fair and comfortable houses, and the colonists were beginning to gather about them many of the comforts and much of the refinement they had been accustomed to in England. The Puritans. Nor were the Puritans mindful of material success only. Many of them were persons of education, and they were anxious that their children should have the opportunity of enjoying the blessings of knowledge in their new homes. In 1636 the general court made provision for the establishment at New- town of a high school. The name of the town was changed to Cambridge as a token that the people meant that it should yet be the seat of a university. In 1637 the school was Ibrmally opened. The next year the Rev. John Harvard, of Charlestown, bequeathed to the infant insti» tution his library and the half of his fortune, and in gratitude for this assistance the school took the name of "Harvard College." In 1647 the general court ordered that in every town or district of fifty families there should be a common school ; and that in every town or district of one hundred families there should be a grammar school, conducted by teachers competent to prepare young men for college This system rapidly found its way into the other New England colonies, with the excep* tion of Rhode Island. THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. I5S Thus was founded the American system of common schools. Until now education had been the task of the church, or had been confided to private individuals; but now, for the first time in the history of the world, the state took the task of educating its young citizens into its own hands, and established 'the schools in which it was to be conducted. Henceforth knowledge was to be restricted to no favored class ; education was made free more for posterity than this, they would still deserve to be held in grateful remembrance as the founders of our public schools. Gen- erations yet unborn shall rise up to call them blessed, and to acknowledge the truth oi their conviction that ignorant men cannot make good citizens. In 1639 a printing press, presented to the colony by some friends in Holland, was set up in Massachusetts. Stephen Daye was the AN AMERICAN FREE SCHOOL. to every child, and every parent being taxed for the support of the public schools was made to feel interested in their proper con- duct. From the little beginning thus made a vast and noble system has been developed, the beneficial results of which must be felt to the latest period of our national existence. Had tlie fathers of New England done nothing printer, and in that year printed an almanac calculated for New England, and in 1640 a metrical version of the Psalms, made ** by Thomas Welde and John Eliot, ministers o( Roxbury, assisted by Richard Mather, min- ister of Dorchester." It was the first book printed in the English language in America, and continued to be used for a long time in the worship of the New Eneland churches. l6o SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Many of t/ie settlers went back to England at the outset of the civil war to take part in the struggle, among whom were Governor Henry Vane and Hugh Peters, and very few emigrants arrived in New England during the existence of the commonwealth. Yet the colonies continued to prosper. Ship- building, which had been introduced by the first settlers of Salem, was carried on with activity, and vessels of four hundred tons were constructed. A little later the manu- ?tacture of woollen and linen cloth was begun by order of the general court. The colonial churches were invited to send their representatives to the assembly of divines at Westminster, but they wisely neglected to do so, judging it better to remain in their obscurity than to give the English people a pretext for future interference by joining in their affairs. Religious Liberty, The Long Parliament was friendly to New England, and granted to the colonies an exemption from all duties upon their com- merce " until the House of Commons should take order to the contrary." Massachusetts took advantage of the security afforded by the friendship of the Long Parliament to establish a written constitution, or " body of liberties," which placed the rights and privi- leges of her people upon a more stable basis. It contained some of the severest laws of the Mosaic code, such as those against witch- craft, blasphemy, and sins against nature, but secured the freedom of the citizen, the right ofrepresentative government, and the indepen- dence of the state and the municipality. The rights ofproperty, the freedom of inheritance, and the independence of each church from control by the others were also placed beyond dispute. " This constitution," says Bancroft, ** for its liberality and comprehensiveness, may vie with any similar record from the days of Magna Charta." in April, 1642, the towns on the Piscata* qua, now embraced within the limits of the state of New Hampshire, were annexed at their own request to Massachusetts. As the people of this region were not Puritans, and many of them were attached to the forms and faith of the Church of England, the gen- eral court in September adopted a measure providing that neither the freemen nor the deputies of New Hampshire should be required to be church members. This act of justice removed all danger of political dis- cord. In the same year Massachusetts made a less creditable and an unsuccessful effort to annex Rhode Island to her dominions The United Colonies. Though relieved of the interference of the mother country, the dangers of New Eng- land were not yet at an end. The Indians were .still powerful upon their narrow border, the French were beginning to threaten them from the direction of Canada, and the Dutch from the Hudson. The colonies had so many interests in common that it was of vital im- portance that they should act in concert for their defence. After several ineffectual attempts, a league was formed in 1643 between the colonies of Massachusetts, Ply- mouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, under the title of " The United Colojties of New England." Each colony was to retain its freedom in the management of its own affairs ; the authority of the union, which was intrusted to a commission of two members from each province, being limited to objects which concerned the general welfare of the colonies. Provision was made for the pres- ervation of the purity of the gospel, the com- missioners were required to be church mem- bers, and the expenses of the confederacy were to be assessed upon the colonies according to population. This union lasted for fu'-tv years. THE ONION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. i6) ffie colony of Rhode Island desired to be admitted into the union, but its petition was refused, as it would not acknowledge the jurisdiction of Plymouth. The people of the two settlements on Narragansett Bay, dread- ing an attempt to absorb them into some of ihe other colonies, now determined to apply lo Parliament for an independent charter. Roger Williams was despatched to England for that purpose in 1643, and reached that countr}^ soon after the death of Hampden. The fame of his labors among the Indians secured for him a cordial welcome. The Charter ConfiniLed Assisted by Sir Henry Vane, a charter was obtained in March, 1 644, organizing the settlements on Narragansett Bay as an inde- pendent colony under the name of "The Providence Plantations," ** with full power and authority to rule themselves." The ex- ecutive council of state in England, in 165 1, made some grants to Coddington which would have dismembered the little state, and Williams was obliged to make a second voy- age to England to have these grants vacated. He succeeded in his efforts, and the charter was confirmed. He received in this, as in his former mission, the cordial co-operation of Sir Henry Vane, whose name should be ever dear to the people of Rhode Island, since but for him her territory would have been divided among the neighboring col- onies. In the interval between his first and second voyages Roger Williams became a Baptist, and founded the first church of that denomination in America. The country between the Piscataqua and ihe Kennebec was assigned to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, who, in 1639, was confirmed in his possession by a formal charter from Charles I., who called the territory the Province of Maine. In 1640, Gorges sent his son Thomas to Maine as his representative. Thomas Gorges took up his residence at the settlement of Agamenticus, now the town ol York, and in 1642 changed the name of the lace to Gorgeana. Maine Comes Into the Union. Since the settlement of the colony the French had claimed the region between the St. Croix and the Penobscot, which they had settled under the name of Acadia, as has been stated elsewhere. After the death of Sir Ferdinand Gorges Maine was divided among his heirs. These cut it up into four weak communities, whose helplessness laid them open to the encroachments of the French in Canada. Apprehensive of the results of this, Massachusetts, to whom many of the inhabitants of the province had appealed to take such a course, in 165 1 claimed the province of Maine as a part of the territory which had been granted to the colony by the original charter of Massa- chusetts. Commissioners were sent to establish the authority of the Bay colony over the prov- ince, but the magistrates of Maine resisted them, and appealed to the English govern- ment for protection. The people of Maine were the adherents of the king and the estab- lished church, and England was now ruled by the Puritans ; consequently Massachusetts won her cause, and Maine was declared a part of that province. Massachusetts made a generous use of her power, and allowed the towns of Maine very much the same govern- ment and privileges they now enjoy, and in religious matters treated them with the same leniency she had shown to New Hampshire. In 1 646, a dispute in the Bay colony in- duced one of the parties to it to appeal to Parliament to sustain his claims, and an order was sent out to Boston in his behalf" couched in terms which involved the right of Parlia- ment to reverse the decisions and control the l62 lOHN ELIOT PREACHING TO THE INDIANS. THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 163 government of Massachusetts.'* In plainer terms. Parliament claimed the right to revoke the charter of the colony, as the king had done at the outset of the civil war. The danger was great, and Massachusetts met it fAfith firmness. The general court met on the fourth of November, and sat with closed doors to discuss the claim of the English government. It was resolved " that Massa- chusetts owed to England the same allegi- ince as the free Hanse towns had rendered o the empire ; as Normandy, when its dukes //ere kings of England, paid to the monarchs of France.'* Parliament Must Keep Hands Off. The court also refused to accept a new charter from Parliament, as that action might imply a surrender of the original instrument, or to allow Parliament to control in any way the independence of the colony. Great as this claim was, it was admitted by the Eng- lish Parliament, in which the rights of the colony were stoutly maintained by Sir Henry Vane and others ; and in reply to a respectful address of the general court setting forth the views of that body, a committee of Parlia- ment declared : " We encourage no appeals from your justice. We leave you with all the freedom and latitude that may, in any respect, be duly claimed by you." Later on, upon the establishment cf the common- wealth, Parliament invited the people of Massachusetts to receive a new patent from that body ; but the colonial authorities wisely declined to do this, or to allow the home government any hold upon the administra- tion of the affairs o' the pro/mce. Ik. 165 1, Cromwell, who had subdued Ireland, offered that island to the Puritans of New England as a new home; but they declined to leave America. Cromwell proved hiraself in many ways a judicious friend of New England, and the people of that country treasured his memory with the gratitude and respect it so richly deserved. Though SG successful in asserting her own liberbVs, Massachusetts had not yet learned the lesson of religious tolerance. When the Baptists began to appear in the colony, severe measures were inaugurated to crush them, and one of their number — Holmes — a resident of Lynn, was whipped unmercifully. Still greater were the severities practised towards the Quakers. This sect had grown out of the Protestant Reformation, and con- stituted at this day the most advanced thi'.ikers upon religious matters to be found in England. They claimed a perfect freedom in matters of faith and worship, and regarded all laws for enforcing religious systems as works of the devil. They were persons o) pure lives, and even their most inveterate enemies could not charge them with wrong- doing. Previous to their appearance in Massachusetts exaggerated reports reached the colony concerning them. They were represented as making war upon all forms erf religion and government. Intolerance Toward Quakers. The first of this creed who came to New England were Mary Fisher and Ann Austin, v'/ho reached Boston in July, 1656. In the absence of a special law against Quakers, they were arrested under the provisions of the general statute against heresy; their trunks were searched and their books burned by the hangman. Their persons were exam- ined for marks of witchcraft, but nothing could be found against them, and after being kept close prisoners for five weeks, they were sent back to England. During the year eight others were also sent back to England. Laws which were a dis- grace to an enlightened community were now passed prohibiting the Quakers from entering the colony. Such as came were 164 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. imprisoned, cruelly whipped, and sent away. In 1657 a woman was whipped with twenty stripes for this offence. In 1658 a law was enacted that if any Quaker should return after being banished, his or her offence should be punished with death. It was hoped that this barbarous measure would rid the colony of their presence ; but they came in still greater numbers, to reprove the magis- ;rates for their persecuting spirit, and to call INDIAN MEDICINE-MAN. them to repentance. In 1659 Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson, Mary Dyar and William Leddro were hanged on Boston Common for returning to the colony after Jbeing banished. I These cruelties were regarded with great discontent by the people of the colony, whose humanity was shocked by the barbarity of the magistrates. Their opposition grew stronger every day, and at last it became evi- dent to the magistrates themselves that their severities were of no avail. When Wiltiarii Leddro was being sentenced to death, the magistrates were startled by the entrance into the court-room of Wenlock Christison, a Quaker who had been bamshed and forbid- den to return on pain of death. Christison was arrested, but the complaints of the people became so loud that the magistrates were obliged to pause in their bloody work. Christison and twenty-seven of his com- panions were released from custody, the persecution of the Quakers was discon- tinued, and the general court, in obedi- ence to the will of the people, repealed the barbarous laws against that sect. The Apostle to the Indians. In pleasing contrast with these sever- ities were the efforts of the Puritans to spread a knowledge of the gospel among the savages. Chief among those engaged in the good work was John Eliot, the min- ister of Roxbury, whose labors won him the name of "the apostle Eliot." He went among the red men in the forests, and ac- quired a knowledge of their language that he might preach to them in their own tongue. When he had become suffi- ciently proficient in it, he translated the Bible into the Indian language. This translation was printed at Cambridge, and a part of the type was set by an Indian compositor. He spent many years in the preparation of his Bible, and made a good use of it during his life; but it is now valu- able only as a literary curiosity and as the evidence of the devotion of the translator to, his noble work. The destruction of the race for which it was intended has made it a sealed book. Eliot gathered his savage converts into a settlement at Natick, and taught the men the art of agriculture and the women to spin and to weave cloth. He had to encounter the THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 165 opposition of the chiefs 5*rd medicine men or priests, who resent'?d his efforts to win their people from the worship and habits of their ancestors, bnt he persevered. He was greatly beloved by his disciples, and continued his Kbors amonsf them far into old age, and to a limited extent to the day of "ais death, which took place when he had attained the ripe age of eighty six years. " My memory, my utter- ance fails mc," he said near the close of his life, " but I thank God my charity holds out still." When Walton, a brother minister, •/isited him on his death-bed, he greeted him with the words ; " Brother, you are welcome; but retire to your study and pray that I may be gone." His last words on earth were the triumphal shout with which he entered upon his reward : " Welcome joy ! " Many of the Quakers, after the persecu* tion against them was over, joined Eliot vh his labors. He had other fellow-workers. The two Mayhews, father and son, Cotton, and Brainerd thought it a privilege to labor for the souls of the poor savages. Native preachers were ordained, and at last there were thirty churches of "praying Indians" under such preachers. CHAPTER XIV New England after the Restoration gntva! oittie News of the Restoration of Charles II. — The Regicides in New England— They are Protected— ReviTSi of the Navigation Acts — Effect of this Measure upon the New England Colonies — Massachusetts Delays the Proclama tion of the King— Connecticut Obtains a Charter — Union of New Haven with the Connecticut Colony — Rhode Island Siven a New Charter — Massachusetts Settles her Difficulties with the Crown — Changes in the Government — High- tended Actsol the Royal Commissioners — ^Troubles with the Indians — Injustice of the Whites — King Philip's War — A Forest Hero — An Incident in the Attack upon Hadley — Sufferings of the Colonies— Destruction of the Narragansetta— Death of Philip — Close of the War — England Asserts her Right to Tax the Colonies— Massachusetts buys Gorges' claims to Maine — New Hampshire Made a Separate Province — James II. Revokes the Charter of Massachusetts — Dudley and Randolph in New England — Andros Appointed Gnvernor-General — His Tyranny — He Demands the Charter of Con- necticut — It is Carried Away and Hidden— -The Charter Oak — Fall of James II.— The People of Massachusetts take up Arms— Andros Arrested — Effects ot th? Revolution upon New England. THE news of the restoration of Charles II, to the English throne was brought to Boston by Edward Whalley and William Goffe, two af the judges of Charles I. They came to seek refuge from the vengeance of the king, having offended him beyond forgiveness by their share in the death of his father. They remained about a year in Massachusetts, protected by the people, and preaching to them. A few months after their arrival, warrants for their arrest and transportation to England for trial arrived from the king, and to escape this danger they took refuge in New Haven. The royal officers instituted a diligent search for them, and they were obliged to change their place of concealment frequently. Great rewards were offered for their betrayal, and even the Indians were urged to search the woods for their hiding-places. The peo- ple whom they trusted protected them, and aided them to escape the royal officers until the vigor of the search was exhausted. They then conducted them to a secure refuge in the vicinity of Hadley, where they remained in seclusion <« id peace until the close of their lives. i66 News was constantly arriving in the colo- nies of the execution of the men who had been the friends of America in the Parlia- ment, and a general sadness was cast ovei the settlements by the tidings of the death ol Hugh Peters and the noble Sir Henry Vane. From the first the people of New England saw plainly that they had little reason to expect justice at the hands of the royal gov- ernment, and there was little rejoicing in that region at the return of the king to " his own again." One of Charles's first acts was to revive in a more odious form the navigation act of the Long Parliament. We have spoken of the effect of this measure upon the colonies of Virginia and Maryland. This act closed the harbors of America against the vessels of every European nation save England, and forbade the exportation of certain American productions to any country but England or her possessions. This was a very serious blow to New England, and was intended as such. The colonies of that region had already built up a growing commerce, and this, together with their activity in ship- building, excited the envy and the hostility of the British merchants, who hoped, by NEW ENGLAND AFTER THB RESTORAHaN. 167 Inducing the kingr to place these restrictions upon the colonies, to compel the Americans to depend upon them for tne supply of all their wants. Later on, America was forbidden not only to manufacture any articles which might compete with Eng}ish manufactures in foreign markets, but to supply her own wants with her own manufactures. At the same time Parliament endeavored to destroy the trade that had grown up between New England and the southern colonies by imposing upon ll:e articles exported from one colony to another a duty equal to that imposed upon the consumption of these articles in England. Foul Injustice. Thus did Great Britain lay the foundation of that system of commercial injustice toward her colonies which eventually deprived her of them, and which her greatest writer on political economy declared to be " a manifest violation of the rights of mankind." The policy thus established in the reign of Charles IL was never departed from. Each succeed- ing administration remained true to the prin- ciples of the navigation act, and consistently declined to admit the claim of the colonies to just and honorable treatment at the hands of the mother country. Charles H. was promptly proclaimed in the colonies of Plymouth, Connecticut, New Haven and Rhode Island, and those provinces were administered in his name. Massachu- setts, distrusting his purposes towards her, held back, and waited until he should show his intentions more plainly, Connecticut had purchased the claims of the assigns of the Earl of Warwick to the region occupied by her, and had bought the territory of the Mohegans from Uncas, their sachem. The colony sent the younger Win- throp to England in 1661 to obtain a charter from the king. The noble character of Gov- ernor Winthrop was well known in England, and impressed even the profligate Charles. His reception was cordial and his mission entirely Fuccessful. In 1662, the king granted to the colony a charter incorporating Hart- ford and New Haven in one province under the name of Connecticut, and extending itt limits from Long Island Sound westward to the Pacific Ocean, thus bestowing upon the colony those rich western lands which were subsequently made the basis of the magnifi- cent school fund of Connecticut The charter was substantially the same in its provisions as the constitution adopted by the Hartford colony. By it the king conferred upon the colonists the right to elect their own oflficers and to make and administer their own laws without interference from England in any event whatever. Connecticut was made independent in all but name, and the charter continued in force as the constitution of the state after the period of independence until 1818. Good Fortune of Connecticut. The colony of New Haven was much opposed to the union with Connecticut, and it required all Governor Winthrop's efforts to induce the people of that colony to accept it. The matter was adjusted in 1665, when the union was finally accomplished. The labors of Governor Winthrop were rewarded by his annual election as governor of Con- necticut for fourteen years. Connecticut was a fortunate colony. Its government was ably and honestly administered ; no persecutions marred its peace, and its course was uniformly prosperous and happy. It was always one of the most peaceful and orderly colonies ol New England, and for a century its popula- tion doubled once in twenty years, notwith- standing frequent emigrations of its people to other parts of the country. The colony at an early day made a liberal provision for i6S SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. education, and in 1700 Yale College was founded. It was originally located at Say- brooke, but in 17 18 was removed to New Haven. Rhode Island was equally fortunate. Through its resident agent at London, John Clarke, it made application to the king for a new charter, and after some delay, caused by ihe difficulty of arranging satisfactorily the limits of the province, a charter was granted in 1663, formerly establishing the colony of " Rhode Island and Providence Plantations " This charter continued to be the sole constitution of Rhode Island until the year 1 842. By its provisions the govern- ment of the colony was to consist of a gov- ernor, deputy-governor, ten assistants, and representatives from the towns. Equal Rights to All. The laws were to be agreeable to those of England, but no oath of allegiance was required of the colony, and in matters of religion the charter declared that ** no person within the said colony, at any time hereafter, shall be anywise molested, punished, dis- quieted, or called in any question for any difference in opinion in matters of religion ; every person may at all times freely and fully enjoy his own judgment and conscience in matters of religious concernments." Free- dom of conscience was not restricted to Christians ; it was extended by the charter to infidels and pagans as well. This charter made the little colony secure against the attempts of Massachusetts to absorb her, and its reception by the people was joyful and enthusiastic. At this period the population of Rhode Island was about twenty-five hundred. It increased rapidly and steadily ; the excellent harbors of the province encouraged com- merce, and the little state soon began to rival her larger associates in prosperity. Massachusetts was from the first regarded with disfavor by the royal government. It delayed its acknowledgment of Charles II. for over a year, and the king was not pro- claimed at Boston until the seventh of August, 1661. Even then the general court forbade all manifestations of joy. These signs of the independent spirit of the people had been observed in England, and the coi ony had been watched by the government with anything but favor. The cn'^mies of the young state hurried their complaints be- fore the king, and Massachusets at lengtt found it to her interest to send commission- ers to London, as, indeed, the express orders of the king required her to do. Among the agents sent over were John Norton and Simon Bradstreet, men of ability and mod- eration, who commanded the confidence of all classes of the colonists. Their instruc- tions were to assure the king of the loyalty of Massachusetts, to engage his favor foi the colony ; but to agree to " nothing preju dicial to their present standing according to their patent, and to endeavor the establish- ment of the rights and privileges then enjoyed." Two Pa ies m ?*'^assachusetts. The commissioners reached London in January, 1662, and were graciously received hy the king, who confirmed the charter, and granted a complete amnesty for all past offences against his majesty. He required, however, that all laws derogatory to his authority should be repealed ; that the col- onists should take the oath of allegiance to him ; that justice should be administered in his name : that the right of suffrage should be thrown open to all freeholders of com» petent estates ; and that all who wished to do so should be free to use " the book of com- mon prayer, and perform their devotion ir the manner established in England." NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 169 Tliese were better terms than the commts- sjr^ners had reason to expect, and were not in themselves objectionable, as Massachu- setts was growing beyond its early preju- dices; but the acceptance of them would have implied an acknowledgment by the colony of the Icing's right to change its fun- damental law, and to interfere with its affairs at pleasure, Massachusetts was at once divided into two parties, the larger of which maintained the independence of the colony of royal control ; the smaller party supported the claims of the king. Under other circum- stances no opposition would have been made to the toleration of the practices of the Church of England in the colony; but now that it seemed that episcopacy was to be in- troduced as the ally of the royal power, the people of Massachusetts resolved to prevent it from obtaining a foothold in their midst. The general court resolved to maintain their political independence, and their religious establishment as well. .\s a measure of pre- caution, the charter was secretly intrusted for safe-keeping to a committee of four, ap- pointed by the general court ; and it was ordered that only small bodies of ofificers and men should be allowed to land from ships, and should be required to yield a strict obedience to the laws of the province while OK shore. Contempt for Puritan Customs. These last measures were adopted because of the appointment by the king of commis- sioners to regulate the affairs of New Eng- land. The commissioners reached Boston in July, 1664, escorted by the fleet sent out from England for the reduction of New Amsterdam. They were ordered to investi- gate the manner in which the charters of the New England colonies had been exercised, and had '* full authority to provide for the A^ace of the country, according to the royal instructions, and their own discretion " — ^a power which Massachusetts was justified in regarding as dangerous to her liberties. The People Redress their "Wrongs, The commissioners cared very little foi the prejudices of the people of Massachu- setts, and from the first proceeded to outrage their feelings. They introduced the services of the Church of England into Boston to the great disgust of the people. The Puritans had always observed the old Jewish custom of beginning their Sabbath at sunset. The commissioners contemptuously disregarded this custom, and spent Saturday evening in merry-making. They soon gave cause for more serious alarm by exercising the powers with which they had been intrusted, and pro- ceeding to redress the grievances of the people. All persons who hnd complaints against Massachusetts were called upon to lay them before the commissioners, and Rhode Island and the Narragansett chiefs promptly availed themselves of the invita- tion. The general court now cut the matter short by a decisive step, and sternly ordered the commissioners to discontinue their pro- ceedings, as contrary to the charter. The commissioners obeyed the order, and though the firmness of the colony aroused the indig- nation of the king, he was not able to shake the determination of a free people. Nor was this the only opposition shown by Ne\< England to the injustice of the mother country. The navigation acts were generally disregarded; they could not be enforced; and Boston and the other New England ports continued to enjoy their grow- ing commerce as freely as before the passage of these infamous acts. Vessels from all the other colonies, and from France, Spain, Hol- land and Italy, as well as from England, were to be seen at a,ll seasons in the port of Boston. I/O SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Massachusetts owned the greater number of vessels built and operated in America, and was the principal carrier for the other colonies. Its ships sailed to the most dis- tant lands beyond the sea, and the commerce of the colony was rapidly becoming a source of great wealth. So marked indeed was the prosperity of New England, that upon the receipt of the news of the great fire in Lon- don the colonists were able to send large sums to the assistance of the sufferers. The 14,000; Massachusetts, about 22,000; Maine, about 4,000; New Hampshire, about 4,000; Rhode Island, about 4,000. The settlements lay principally along the coast, irom New Haven to the northeastern border of Maine. Little progress had been made towards pene- trating the interior. Haverhill, Deerfield, Northfield and Westfield were towns on the remote frontier. This rapid growth alarmed the Indian? who had already begun to regard the white' INDIAN LIFE IN THEIR NATIVE FORESTS. p»-opIe of New England were industrious and frugal. Villages multiplied rapidly, and wherever a village sprang up a common school accompanied it. The villages began to assume a more tasteful and pleasing ap- pearance, and men gave more care to the adornment and beautifying of their homes. The population of New England in 1675 has been estimated at about 55,000 souls, divided among the colonies as follows : Plymouth, about 7,000; Connecticut, about as enemies bent on their destruction. Though there had been peace for forty years in New England, the savages saw that the policy pursued by the settlers was meant to force them back from the lands of their fathers. The whites had gradually absorbed the best lands in New England, and the red men had been as gradually crowded down upon the narrow necks and bays of the southern shores of the Plymouth and Rhode Island colonies. This had been done in pursuance NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. m of a settled policy, as the savages could be more carefully watched, and more easily managed in these localities than if left to roam at will over the country. The Indians on their part sullenly resented the course of the whites, and they had cause for complaint. They were ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil, and unwilling to practice it, and in their restricted limits it was difficult for them to obtain the means of supporting life. The game had been almost entirely driven from the forests, and the savages were forced to depend upon fish for their food ; and these were obtained in scanty and uncertain quan- tities. Thus the very success of New Eng- land was about to bring upon it the mc^t lerious misfortunes it had yet sustainef*- The Chief Entrapped. Massasoit, who had been the early friend of the English, left two sons at his death, Wamsuttaand Metacom, who had long been reckoned among the friends of the Plymouth colony. They were frequent visitors at Plymouth, and had received from the English the names of Alexander and Philip. At the death of Massasoit, Wamsutta, or Alexander, became chief of the Wampanoags. He and his brother Philip were men of more than ordinary abilities, and felt deeply the wrongs which were beginning to fall thickly upon their race. Uncas, the chief of the Mohe- gans, the determined enemy of Wamsutta, exerted himself, with success, to fill the minds of the English with suspicions of the intentions of the Wampanoag chieftain, and it was resolvecJ to arrest him and bring him to Plymouth. Winslow was sent at the head of an armed force, and succeeded in surprising the chief in his hunting-lodge, together with eighty of his followers. The proud spirit of Wamsutta chafed with such fury at the indignity thus y^t upon him that he was seized with a dan- gerous fever, and the English were obliged to permit him to return home. " He died on his way," says Elliott. " He was carried home on the shoulders of men, and borne to his silent grave near Mount Hope, in the evening of the day, and in the prime of his life, between lines of sad, quick-minded Indians, who well believed him the victim ot injustice and ingratitude ; for his father had been the ally, not the subject, of England^ and so was he, and the like indignity had not before been put upon any sachem." By the death of his brother, Metacom, or Philip, became chief of the Wampanoags. He kept his own council, but the whites soon had cause to believe that he meditated a des- perate vengeance upon them for the death of Wamsutta and the wrongs of his race. To make the sense of injury deeper in his mind, the Plymouth authorities treated him with great harshness and compelled him to give up his arms. A " praying Indian " who lived among his people informed the colonists that the chief meditated harm against them, and his dead body was soon after found. Three of Philip's men were suspected of the murder. They were arrested, tried at Ply- mouth, and found guilty by a jury composed of whites and Indians, and were put to death. This was early in 1675. Cry for Revenge. The execution of these men awoke a wild thirst for revenge among the tribe to which they belonged, and the young warriors clam- ored loudly for war against the English. Philip, whose vigorous mind enabled him to judge more clearly of the issue of such a struggle, entered into the contest with reluct- ance, for he saw that it must end in the destruction of his race. He was powerless to resist the universal sentiment of his people, and like a true hero resolved to ir»ake the best of the situation in which he was placed. 1/2 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. and to share the fate of his nation. The Indians were tolerably well provided with fire-arms, for, in spite of the severe punish- ments denounced against the sale of weapons to the savages, the colonists had not been proof against the temptations of gain held 9ut to them by this traffic. Their chief dependence, however, was upon their primitive weapons. The English, on the other hand, were well armed, and were provided with forts and towns which fur- nished them with secure places of refuge. KING PHILIPc They might have averted the war by concil- iating the savages^ but they persisted in 'heir unjust treatment of them, regarding .'.hem as " bloody heathen,"' who it was their duty to drive back into the wilderness. Philip was able to bring seven hundred desperate warriors into the field. They had no hope of success, and they fought only for vengeance. They knew every nook and hiding-place of the forest, and in these nat- ural defences could hope to continue the struggle as long as the leaves remamed on the trees to conceal their lurking-places from the white man's search. War Breaks Out. Immediately after the execution of the three Indians at Plymouth, Philip's men had begun to rob exposed houses and carry off cattle, but the war did not actually begin until the twenty-fourth of June, 1675, the day of fasting and prayer appointed by the gov- ernment as a preparation for the struggle. On that day the people of Swanzey, in Ply- mouth colony, while returning home from church, were attacked by the Wampanoags, and eight or nine were killed. Philip burst into tears when the news of this attack was brought to him, but he threw himself with energy into the hopeless struggle, now that it had come. Reinforcements were sent from Massachu- setts to the aid of the Plymouth colony, and on the twenty-ninth of June the united forces made an attack upon the Wampanoags, killed six or seven of their men and drove them to a swamp in which they took refuge. The English surrounded this swamp, determined! to starve the Indians into submission, but* Philip and his warriors escaped and took refuge among the Nipmucks, a small tribe occupying what is now Worcester county, Massachusetts. The English then marched into the territory of the Narragansetts and compelled them to agree to remain neutral, and to deliver up the fugitive Indians who should take refuge among them. This accomplished, the colonists hoped they had put an end to the war. Philip succeeded in inducing the Nipmucks to join him in the struggle, and his warriors 1 began to hang around the English settle- ments. The whites were murdered wherever they ventured to expose themselves, and a feeling of general terror spread through thp NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 1^3 colonies. No one knew the extent of the hostiHty of the savage tribes, or how many allies Philip had gained ; nor was it certain when or where the next great blow of the savages would be struck. Strange Stories, Some of the colonists began to give way io superstitious fears. It wai^ asserted that an Indian bow, a sign of impending evil, had been seen clearly defined against the heavens, and that at the eclipse which occurred at this time the moon bore the figure of an Indian scalp on its face. The northern heavens glowed with auroral lights of unusual brilliancy; troops of phantom horsemen were heard to dash through the air; the sighing of the night wind was like the sound of whistling bullets; and the howling of the wolves was fiercer and more con- stant than usual. These things, the superstitious declared, were warnings that the colonies were about to be severely pun- ished for their sins, among «yhich they named profane swearing, the neglect of bringing up their children in more rigid observances, the licensing of ale houses, and the wearing of long hair by the men, and of gay apparel by the women. The more extreme even declared that they were about to be "judged " for not exterminating the Quakers. In the meantime, Philip, with a party of Nipmucks and his own people, carried the «var into the valley of the Connecticut, and spread death along the line of settlements, from Springfield to Northficld, then the most remote inland town. With the hope of with- drawing the Nipmucks, who could muster fifteen hundred warriors, from the confed- eracy. Captain Hutchinson, with twenty men, was sent to treat with them. His party was ambushed and murdered at Brookfield early m August. The Indians then attacked THE BURNING OF BROOKFIELD BY THE INDIANS. Brookfield, and burned the village with the exception of one stiong house to which the colonists retreated. After a siege of two days, duijng which they kept up a constant fire upon the build- ing, they attempted to burn the house, but were prevented by a shower of rain which 1.74 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. extinguished the flames At the same moment a reinforcement of fifty men arrived to the aid of the whites, and the savages were driven off with the loss of several of iheir number. Philip succeeded in drawing to his support nearly all the tribes of New England; and it was resolved by the savages to make a general effort for the destruction of the whites. A concerted attack was to be made upon a large number of settlements at the same day and hour, and the Sabbath was chosen as the day most favorable for the movement. King Philip a Refugee. Deerfield in Massachusetts and Hadley in Connecticut were among the places attacked. The former was burned. Hadley was as- sailed while the congregation were worship- ing in the church, and the whites were hard pressed by their antagonists. Suddenly in the midst of the battle there appeared a tall and venerable man with a flowing beard, and clad in a strange dress. With sword in hand he rallied the settlers, and led them to a new effort, in which the savages were beaten back and put to flight. When the battle was over, the stranger could not be found, and the wondering people declared that he was an angel sent by God for their deliverance. It was Goffe, the regicide, who had suddenly lett his place of concealment to aid his coun- trymen in their struggle with the savages. He had been lying in concealment at the house of Russell, the minister of Hadley, and returned to his place of refuge when the danger was over. On the whole, the Indians, though they succeeded in causing great suffering to the colonies, were unsuccessful in their efforts during the summer and autumn of 1675. In October, Philip returned to his old home, but, finding Mount Hope in ruins, took shel- ter among the Narragansetts, who protected him notwithstanding their promise to delivei up all fugitives to the English. The colonial authorities seeing that the tribe had no inten- tion of fulfilling their promise, and being fearful that Philip would succeed in winning them over to his side, resolved to anticipate the danger and treat them as enemies. A force was collected and sent into the Narragansett country in December, 1675. This tribe, numbering about three thousand souls, had erected a strong fort of palisades, in the midst of a swamp near the present town of Kingston, Rhode Island. It was almost inaccessible, and had but a single entrance, defended by a morass, which could be passed only by means of a fallen tree. The English were led to the fort by an Indian traitor, and attacked it on the nine- teenth of December. After a severe fight of two hours they succeeded in forcing an en- trance into the fort. The wigwams were then fired, and the whole place was soon in flames. The defeat of the savages was complete, but it was purchased by the loss of six captains and two hundred and fifty men, killed and wounded, on the part of the English. Fury of the Savages. \bout one thousand of the Narragansx,-crs were slain, their provisions were destroyed and numbers were made prisoners. Those who escaped wandered through the frozen woods without shelter, and for food were compelled to dig for nuts and acorns under the snow. Many died during the winter, j Canonchet, the Narragansett chief, was ' among the survivors. " We will fight to the last man rather than become servants to the English," said the undaunted chieftaia He was taken prisoner in April, 1676. near Blackstone, and was offered his life if he would induce the Indians to make peace. He refused the offer with scorn, and, when !Hs RowT ANuaUW wariuiWiii gy the Indians. 175 !L^6 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. sentenced to death, answered proudly : " I like it well ; I shall die before I speak any- thing unworthy of myself." In the spring of 1676, Philip, who had been to the west to endeavor to induce the Mohawks to join the war against the Eng- lish, returned to place himself at the head of his countrymen in New England. The work of murdering and burning was resumed with renewed fury. The Indians seemed to be everywhere and innumerable, and the whites could find safety only in their forts. The surviving Narragansetts scourged the Rhode Island and Plymouth colonies with fire and axe, and even the aged Roger Williams was obliged to take up arms for the defence of his home, Lancaster, Medford, Weymouth, Groton, Springfield, Sudbury and Marl- borough, in Massachusetts, and Providence and Warwick, in Rhode Island, were de- stroyed either wholly or in part, and numer- ous other settlements were attacked and made to suffer more or less severely. Mother and Child Wounded, Among the prisoners carried away by the savages was Mrs. Rowlandson, wife of the resident minister, and her little girl six years old. A single bullet fired during the attack wounded both mother and child. With that devotion which is part of the nature of a mother, she carried and nursed the little one for nine days, when it died in her arms. The parent endured many hardships, and was a captive among the Indians for three months, when she was ransomed for twenty pounds. As the season advanced the cause of the Indians became more hopeless, and they began to quarrel among themselves. In June the Nipmucks submitted, and the tribes on the Connecticut refused to shelter Philip any longer. He then appealed to the Mohawks to take up the hatchet, but seeing that his cause was hopeless, they refused to ioin him. In proud despair Philip went back to Mount Hope to die. One of his people urged him to make peace with the whites, and was struck dead by the chief for daring to mention such a humiliation. •* I Am Ready to Die !" It became known that Philip had returned to his old home, and Captain Church marched against him, dispersed his followers, and took the chiefs wife and little son pris- oners. Philip, who had borne the reverses and the reproaches of his nation with the firmness of a hero, was conquered by this misfortune. " My heart breaks," he cried, despairingly, " I am ready to die ! '* He was soon attacked by Church in his place ol concealment, and in attempting to escape was shot by an Indian who was serving in the ranks of his enemies. Philip's little son was sold as a slave in Bermuda, and the grandson of Massasoit, who had welcomed and befriended the English, was condemned to pass his days in bondage in a foreign clime. The death of Philip was soon followed by the close of hostilities. The power of the Indians was completely broken. Of the Narragansetts scarcely one hundred men were left alive, and the other tribes had suf- fered severely. The Mohegans had remained faithful to the English, and Connecticut had been happily spared the sufferings experi- enced by the other colonies, which were very severe. Twelve or thirteen towns were destroyed, and many others were seriously crippled. Six hundred houses were burned, and the pecuniary losses amounted to the then enormous sum of half a million of dollars. Over six hundred men, chiefly young men, fell in the war, and there was scarcely a family which did not mourn some loved one who had given his life for thi country. NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. ^77 At all their distress the colonies received no aid from England. The mother country left them to fight out their struggle of life and death alone. The English people and government were indifferent to their fate. One generous Non-conformist church in Dublin sent a contribution of five hundred pounds to the sufferers. This relief was gratefully acknowledged; but to the credit of New England it should be remembered that her colonies never asked assistance from England. The king was very careful, however, to exact every penny he could wring from the colonies, and towards the close of the Indian war established a royal custom-house at Boston for the collection of duties. Duties were imposed upon the com- merce of the colonies, and the royal govern- ment endeavored to enforce their payment by threatening to refuse the New England ships the protection which enabled them to escape the outrages of the African pirates of the Mediterranean. The province of Maine had been restored by Charles II, to the heirs of Sir Ferdinand Gorges, and in 1 677 Massachusetts pur- chased their claims for the sum of twelve hundred and fifty pounds, and thus confirmed her possession of the region between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec. The region between the Kennebec and the Penobscot was held by the Duke of York, and that from the Penobscot to the St. Croix was occupied by the French. In July, 1679, King Charles detached New Hampshire from Massachusetts, and organ- ized it as a royal province; the first ever erected in New England. The province at once asserted its rights, and a controversy was begun with the crown, which was con- tinued for several years. The people resisted Sie effort to force upon them the observances of the English church, and the collection of taxes assessed by the royal officials, and Cranfield, the royal governor, finding it impossible to continue his arbitrary rule, wrote to the British government, " I shall esteem it the greatest happiness in the world to remove from these unreasonable people. They cavil at the royal commission, and not at my person. No one will be accepted by them who puts the king's commands vA execution." Conflict With the Kincr. In the last years of his reign Charles 11. made a determined effort to destroy the charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent by the colony to England to endeavor to defend its rights, but the royal government was resolved upon its course, and the people of Massachusetts were equally determined not to consent to the surrender of their liberties. At length, in 1684, the general court having in the name of the people distinctly refused to make a surrender of the charter to the king, the English courts declared the charter forfeited. A copy of the judgment was sent to Boston, and was received there on the second of July, 1685, The colony was full of appre- hension. The charter under which it had grown and prospered, and which secured its liberties to it without the interference of the crown, had been stricken down by the sub- servient courts of the mother country, and there was now no defence between the liber- ties of Massachusetts and the arbitrary will of the king, who had given the colony good cause to fear his hostility. James II. came to the English throne in 1685. He was even more hostile to New England than his brother Charles. He was a bigoted Roman CathoHc, and was resolved to introduce that faith, not only into Eng- land, but also into the colonies. He attempted to accomplish this by proclaiming an indu!- o-ence or toleration of all creeds. As h« 17^ SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. dared not proceed openly to violate his cor- onation oath, he hoped by this underhanded scheme to place his own religion upon such a footing in England that he would soon be m a position to compel its adoption by his •ubjects. He had greatly mistaken the temper of both England and America. Joseph Dudley, who had been sent to England as one of the agents of Massachu- SIR EDMUND ANDROS. setts m the last controversy between the colony and King Charles, now found it to his interest to become as ardent a defender as he had formerly been an opponent of the royal prerogative, and James finding him a willing abettor of his designs, appointed him president of Massachusetts until a royal governor should arrive, for the king was resolved to take away the charters of all th« colonies and make them royal provinces. At the same time, being determined to curtail the liberty of the press, the king appointed Edward Randolph its censor. Dudley was regarded by the people as the betrayer o( the liberties of his country, and both he and Randolph were cordially despised by them. The king in appointing Dudley made no provision for an assembly or general court, as he meant to govern the colonies without reference to the people. He regarded the American pro- vinces as so many possessions of the crown, possessed of no rights, and entitled to no privi- leges save what he chose to allow them. In pursuance of this plan, Sir Edmund Andros, whom the king had appointed governor of New York, was made governor-gen- eral of all New England. He reached Boston in December, 1686. Dudley was made chief justice, and Randolph colonictl secretary. The governor-general was empowered by the king to appoint his own council, impose such taxes as he should think fit, command the militia of the colonies, enforce the naviga- tion acts, prohibit printing, and establish episcopacy in New England ; and in order to enable him to enforce his will, two companies of soldiers were sent over with him and quartered in Boston. Thus were the liberties of New England placed at the mercy of a tyrant, and thus was inaugu- rated a despotism the most galling that was ever imposed upon men of English descent. NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 179 Andros promptly put in force a series of the most arbitrary measures. The public schools, which had been fostered with such care by the colonial governments, were allowed to fall into decay. The support which had been granted to the churches was withdrawn. The people were forbidden to assemble for the discussion of any public matter, though they were allowed the poor pri vilege of electing their town officers. The form of oath in use in New England was an appeal to Heaven with uplifted hand. The governor now ordered the substitution of a form which required the person to place his hand on the Bible. This was particularly repugnant to the Puritans, who regarded it as a " Popish practice." Probate fees were increased twenty-fold. The holders of lands were told that their titles were invalid because obtained under a charter which had been declared forfeited. Tyrannical Proceedings, No person was allowed to leave the colony without a pass signed by the governor. The Puritan magistrates and ministers were refused authority to unite persons in mar- riage. The clergyman of the Church of England, stationed at Boston, was the only person in New England who could perform a legal marriage. Episcopacy was formally established, and the people were required to build a church for its uses. At the com- mand of the king, a tax of a penny in the pound, and a poll-tax of twenty pence, was imposed upon every person in the colony. Some of the towns had the boldness to refuse to pay this tax, and John Wise, the minister of Ipswich, advised his fellow- townsmen to resist it. He and a number of others were arrested and fined. When they pleaded their privileges under the laws of England, they were told by one of the coun- cil: "You have no privilege left you but not to be sold as slaves." *' Do you think,** asked one of the judges, " that the laws oi England follow you to the ends oi the earth ? " The iniquitous exactions of Andros and his associates threatened the country with ruin. When the magistrates mentioned this^ they were told, " It is not for his majesty's interest you should thrive." " The governor invaded liberty and property after such a manner," wrote Increase Mather, " as no man could say anything was his own." The Old " Charter Oak." The other colonies came in for their share of bad treatment. Soon after he reached Boston, Andros demanded of the authorities of Rhode Island the surrender of their char- ter. Governor Clarke declined to comply with this demand, and Andros went to Providence, broke the seal of the colony, and declared its government dissolved. He appointed a com- mission irresponsible to the people for the government of Rhode Island, and then had the effrontery to declare that the people of that colony were satisfied with what he had done. In October, Andros went to Connecticut with an armed guard to take possession of the government of that colony. He reached Hartford on the thirty-first of the month, and found the legislature in session, and de- manded ot that body the surrender of the charter. The discussion was prolonged until evening, and then candles were brought, and the charter was placed on the table. Sud- denly the lights were extinguished, and when they were relighted the charter could not be found. It had been secured by Joseph Wadsworth of Hartford, and carried to the southern part of the city, where it was con- cealed in a hollow oak tree, which was after- wards known as the " Charter Oak." Andros, furious at the disappearance of the charter, was not to be balked of his purpose SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. of seizing the colonial government, and taking the record book of the assembly, he wrote the word "Finis" at the end of the last day's proceedings. He then declared the colonial government at an end, and proceeded to administer the affairs of the province in the spirit in which he had governed Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The people of New England had borne these outrages with a patience which no one had expected of them. They were a law- abiding people, and wished to exhaust all legal means of redress before proceeding to extreme measures for their protectior * but THE CHARTER OAK. the party in favor of driving Andros and his fellovz-plunderers out of the country was rapidly growing stronger, and it was not certain how much longer the policy of for- bearance would be continued. Increase Mather was appointed to go to England and endeavor to procure a redress of the grievances of the colonies. It was a danger- ous mission, for the king was in full sympa- thy with the men whom he had placed over the liberties of New England. It was also difficult to leave America without the knowl- edge of Andros and his colleagues, but Mather succeeded in escaping their vigilance, a ad was on his way to the old world when relief arrived from a most unexpected quarter. The efforts of James to bring about the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic religion in England roused the whole Eng'= lish nation against him, and in 1689 the nation invited William, Prince of Orange, the husband of James' eldest daughter, Mary, to come over to England and assume the throne. James, left without any adher- ents, fled to France, and William and Mary were securely seated upon the throne. The news of the landing of William in England and the flight of King James reached Boston on the fourth of April, 1689. The messenger was at once imprisoned by Andros, but his tidings soon became known to the citizens. On the morning of the eight- eenth the people of Boston took up arms, and having secured the person of the com- mander of the royal frigate in the harbor, seized the royalist sheriff! Sent to England for Trial. The militia were assembled, and Andros and his companions were obliged to take refuge in the fort. Simon Bradstreet, the governor who had held office at the time of the abrogation of the charter, was called upon by the people to resume his post, and the old magistrates were reinstated and organized as a council of safety. Andros and his creatures attempted to escape to the frigate, but were prevented and were com- pelled to surrender. The next day rem- forcements came pouring into Boston from the other settlements, and the fort was taken and the frigate mastered. Town meetings were now held throughout the colony, and it was voted to resume the former charter. The people were almost unanimous in favor of this course, but the counsels of a more timid minority prevailed, and the council, wh'oh had appointed itself to the control oi NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. i8v affairs, decided to solicit a new charter from William °nd Mary. A general court was convened on the twenty-second of May. The people of the colony were anxious that Andres, Dudley and Randolph should receive prompt punishment for their ofTences, but the authorities wisely determined to send them to England for trial. Plymouth, upon receipt of the news from Boston, seized the agent of Andros, impris- oned him, and re-established the government which Andros had overthrown, under the constitution signed on board the " May- flower." There were none of the old Pil- grim fathers living to witness this event, but their children were none the less determined to maintain unimpaired the liberties they had inherited from them. The Charter Safe. Rhode Island promptly resumed her charter and reinstated the officers whom Andros had displaced. Connecticut, upon hearing of the downfall of the governor- general, brought out her charter from its biding place, and restored the old officers to their positions. Thus the work of James II. was over- thrown, and the destinies of New England were once more in the hands of her own people. The generation that had settled New England had nearly all been gathered to their rest, and their children were in some respects different from the fathers. They had learned lessons of toleration, and had acquired many of the refining graces that the elder Puritans regarded as mere vanity. They retained, however, the earnest and lofty virtues which had made the first gen- eration superior to hardships and trials of all kinds, and which had enabled them in the face of every discot»ragement to lay the foundations of the great commonwealths which to-day cherish their memories as their most precious legacies. The fathers of New England richly merited the honor which succeeding generations have delighted to bestow upon their memories. However they may have erred, they were men who earnestly sought to do right in all things, and who did their duty fearlessly according to the light before them. In the first generation we have noticed an extraordinary degree of influence exerted by the ministers. This was due to no desire of the Puritans to connect church and state, but Wd^ owing to the fact that the ministers represented the best educated and most in- tellectual class of that day, and the people regarded them as the best qualified guide* in the community. As New England ad- vanced in prosperity her schools and col- leges were able to turn out numbers jf edu- cated men, who embraced the other learned professions, and divided the influence with the ministers. New England always chose its leaders from among its most intelligent men, and its people always yielded a willing homage to the claims of intellect At the downfall of Andros there were about two hundred thousand white inhabi- tants in the English colonies of North America. Of these, Massachusetts, includ- ing Plymouth and Maine, had about forty four thousand; New Hampshire and Rhode Island about six thousand each ; Connecticut about twenty thousand; making the total population of New England about seveuty>>- six thouscind. CHAPTER XV Witchcraft in Massachusetts 4lMltS0f dM fallwt of Massachusetts to Resume her Charter— The New Charter— Loss of the liberties of the Colonj —Union of Plymouth with Massachusetts Bay — Belief in Witchcraft — The History of Witchcraft in Massachusetta- The Case of the Goodwin Children — Cotton Mather Espouses the Cause of the Witches — Samuel Parris — He Orif". oates the Salem Delusion — ^A Strange History — A Special Court Appointed for the Trial of the Witches — ^The Victimj. —Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs — Cotton Mather's Part in the Tragedies — ^The General Court takes Action In Behalf of the People — End of the Persecution — Failure of C^ton Mather's Attempt to Save his Credit. THE decision of the magistrates of Massachusetts to disregard the wishes of a majority of the people of the colony, who desired an imme- diate restoration of the government under the old charter, and to wait for a new charter from William and Mary, gave great offence to the popular party. Had the wish of this party been complied with, Massachusetts might have recovered every liberty and priv- ilege of which she had been deprived by King James. Increase Mather distinctly declares that " had they at that time entered upon the full exercise of their charter government, as their undoubted right, wise men in England were of opinion that they might have gone on without disturbance." The self-constituted government hesitated, however, and t^e op- portunity was lost. When the convention of the people ikict, in May, 1689, they refused to acknowledge the council that had taken charge of affairs upon the downfall of Andros, and demanded that the governor^ deputy governor and assist- ants elected in 1686 should be restored to office. The council refused to comply with this demand, and the matter was referred to the people, who sustained their representa- tives. A compromise was effected, and the council agreed to permit the officers of 1686 to resume their places until instructions could be received from England. Agents were 182 sent to England to solicit a restoration of the charter, and their appeal was supported by the English Presbyterians with great unani- mity. Even the Archbishop of Canterbury urged the king ** not to take away from the people of New England any of the privileges which Charles I. had granted them.'* In spite of the pressure exerted upon him in behalf of the colony, King William granted to Massachusetts a charter which placed the liberties of the province so entirely at the mercy of the crown that the colonial agent refused to accept it. There was no help for it, however, and the charter became the fundamental law of Massachusetts. Under the old charter the governor of Mas- sachusetts had been elected annually by the votes of the freemen; he was now to be appointed by the king and to serve during the royal pleasure. He v/as given power to summon the general court, and to adjourn or dissolve that body. The election of magistrates of all kinds, which had been confided to the people by the old charter, was taken from them, and henceforth these officials were to be appointed by the governor with the consent of tht council. The old charter had made the decision of the colonial courts final ; the new permitted appeals from these tribunals to the privy council in England. The old charter had given to the general court fuil WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 183 powers of legislation ; the new conferred upon the governor the right to veto any of its measures, and reserved to the crown the power of cancelling Piiy act of colonial legislation within three years after its pass- age. The council was at first appointed Dy the king, but was subsequently elected by the joint ballot of the two branches of tne gen- eral court. To compensate the people for the loss of their political power the king greatly enlarged the limits of the colony. Massachusetts and Ply- mouth were united in one province, the name of the former being given to the whole. The Eli- zabeth Islands were also added to the province, and its northern bound- ary was extended to the St. Lawrence. Toleration was granted to every religious sect except the Roman Catholics. New Hampshire was separ- ated from the jurisdic- tion of Massachusetts and made a separate province ; but Maine and the vast wilderness beyond it were confirmed to the Bay colony. The charter bore the date of October 7, 1 69 1. Upon the nomination of Increase Mather, one of the colonial agents. Sir William Phipps, a native of New England, a well-meaning but incompetent' man, who was in religious matters strongly inclined to superstition, was appointed governor of Massachusetts, Will* iam Stoughton, " a man of cold affections, proud, self-willed, and covetous of distinction" — a man universally hated by the people-— was appointed deputy governor to please Cotton Mather. The members of the council THE REV. COTTON MATHER. it were chosen entirely for their devotion the interests of the churches. ** While these matters were in progress of settlement, there occurred in Massachusetts one of the most singular delusions recorded i84 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. in history, and which was in some respects the last expiring effort of ecclesiastical am- bition to control the political affairs of the colony. The clergy had always sought in New England, as in other lands, to fight their political enemies with spiritual weapons. They now carried this to an extreme which taught the people of New England a lesson that was not soon forgotten. Witches and Witchcraft. The belief in witchcraft has not been con- fined to any single nation, and at this time was common to America and Europe. " The people did not rally to the error; they accepted the superstition only because it had not yet been disengaged from religion." It was believed that as Christians were united with God by a solemn covenant, so were witches leagued with the devil by a tie which, once formed, they could not dissolve. Those who thus placed themselves in the arch- fiend's power were used by him as instru- ments to torment their fellow-men. They were given power to annoy them by pinch- ing them, thrusting invisible pins into them, pulling their hair, afflicting them with disease, killing their cattle and chickens with myste- rious ailments, upsetting their wagons and carts; 3'.id by practising upon them many other puerile and ludicrous tricks. The witches generally exerted their arts upon those whom they hated, but it was a matter of doubt how many persons were included in their dislikes. One of the most popular superstitions was that of the ".Witches' sacrament," a gathering at which ,he devil, in the form of " a small black man," presided, and required his followers to renounce their Christian baptism and to sign their names in his book. They were then re-baptised by the devil, and the meet- ing was closed with horrid rites which varied in different narratives according to the inv- agination of the relators. The belief in the existence of witchcraft was held by some of the leading minds ol this period. Sir Matthew Hale, Lord Chief Justice of England, was firmly convinced of the truth of the doctrine, ana it was advo- cated by many of the clergy of England. In New England the clergy held it to be heresy to deny the existence of witches, wliich, they claimed was clearly taught in the Scriotures. It was evidently to their interesl o maintain this belief, as it made them the chief authorities in such cases, and furnished them with a powerful weapon against their adversaries. Devils and Wizards. By the early settlers of New England the Indians were supposed to be worshipers of the devil, and their medicine-men to be wizards. Governor Hutchinson, in his " History of Massachusetts," thus sums up the cases of supposed witchcraft that had occurred in the colony previous to the time or which we are now writing : " The first suspicion of witchcraft among the English was about the year 1645, at Springfield, upon Connecticut River ; several persons were supposed to be under an evil hand, and among the rest two of the min- ister's children. Great pains were taken to prove the facts upon several of the persons charged with the crime, but either the nature of the evidence was not satisfactory, or the fraud was suspected, and so no person was convicted until the year 1650, when a poor wretch, Mary Oliver, probably weary of her life from the general reputation of being a witch, after long examination, was brought to confession of her guilt, but I do not find that she was executed. " Whilst this inquiry was making, Mar- garet Jones was executed at Charlestown ; and Mr. Hale mentions a woman at Dor- chester, and another at Cambridge about thk WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 185 same time, who all at their death asserted their innocence. Soon after, Hugh Parsons was tried at Springfield, and escaped death. In 1655 Mrs. Hibbins, the assistant's widow, was hanged at Boston. " In 1662, at Hartford, in Connecticut, one Ann Cole, a young woman who lived next door to a Dutch family, and no doubt had learned something of the language, was supposed to be possessed with demons, who sometimes spoke Dutch and sometimes English, and sometimes a language which nobody understood, and who held a con- ference with one another. Several ministers who were present took down the conference in writing and the names of several per- sons, mentioned in the course of the con- ference, as actors or bearing parts in it , par- ticularly a woman, then in prison upon suspicion of witchcraft, one Greensmith, who upon examination, confessed and appeared to be surprised at the discovery. She owned that she and the others named had been familiar with a demon, who had carnal knowledge of her, and although she had not made a formal covenant, yet she had promised to be ready at his call, and was to have had a high frolic at Christmas, when the agreement was to have been signed. Upon this confession she was executed, and two more of the company were condemned. In 1669 Susanna Martin, of Salisbury, was bound over to the court upon suspicion of witchcraft, but escaped at that time. A Fortunate Escape. "In 167 1 Elizabeth Knap, another ven- triloqua, alarmed the people of Groton in much the same manner as Ann Cole had done those of Hartford ; but her demon was not so cunning, for, instead of confining him- self to old women, he railed at the good minister of the town and other people of good character, and the people could not then be prevailed on to believe him, but believed the girl when she confessed that she had been deluded, and that the devil had tormented her in the shape of good persons ; so she escaped the punishment due to her fraud and imposture. " In 1673 Eunice Cole, of Hampton, was tried, and the jury found her not legally guilty, but that there were strong grounds to suspect her of familiarity with the deviU An Invisible Hand. " In 1679 William Morse's house, at New- bury, was troubled with the throwing of bricks, stones, etc., and a boy of the family was supposed to be bewitched, who accused one of the neighbors ; and in 1682 the house of George Walton, a Quaker, at Portsmouth, and another at Salmon Falls (in New Hamp- shire), were attacked after the same manner, " In 1683 the demons removed to Con- necticut River again, where one Desborough's house was molested by an invisible hand, and a fire kindled, nobody knew how, which burnt up a great part of his estate; and in 1684 Philip Smith, a judge of the court, a military officer and a representative of the town of Hadley, upon the same river (a hypochondriac person), fancied himself under an evil hand, and suspected a woman, one of his neighbors, and languished and pined away, and was generally supposed to be be- witched to death. While he lay ill, a num- ber of brisk lads tried an experiment upon the old woman. Having dragged her out o^ her house, they hung her up until she was near dead, let her down, rolled her some time in the snow, and at last buried her in it and left her there, but it happened that she survived and the melancholy man died." These cases, which were not generally regarded in the enlightened spirit of the writer we have quoted, served to confirm the common belief in witchcraft. Increase Mather published a work in 1684 containing '$6 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. an account of the cases which had already occurred in the colony, and giving detailed descriptions of the manner in which the afflicted persons had exhibited their " devil- try." The publication of this work seemed to revive the trouble, and in a more aggra- vated form, for it is a singular fact that the general discussion of delusions of this ki.ic~ rarely fails to produce an increase of the er'l. A Child Bewitched. In 1688 a case occurred which excited general interest, and was the beginning of one of the saddest periods in the history of New England. The daughter of John Goodwin, a child of thirteen years, accused the daughter of an Irish laundress of stealing some linen. The mother of the laundress, a friendless emigrant, succeeded in disproving the charge, and abused the girl soundly for making a false accusation. Soon after this, the accuser was seized with a fit, and pre- tended to be bewitched in order to be revenged upon the poor Irish woman. Her younger sister and two of her brothers fol- lowed her example. They pretended to be dumb, then deaf, then blind, and then all three at once. " They were struck dead at the sight of the * Assembly's Catechism,' " says Governor Hutchinson, dryly, "'Cot- ton's Milk for Babes,' and some other good books, but could read in Oxford jests, Popish and Quaker books, and the Common Prayer without any difficulty." Nevertheless their appetite was good, and they slept soundly at night. The youngest of these little im- postors was less than five years old. It was at once given out that the Goodwin children were bewitched, and no one suspected or hinted at the fraud. They would bark like dogs and mew like cats, and a physician who was called in to treat them solemnly declared that they were possessed by devils, as he discovered many of the symptoms laid down in Increase Mather's book. A conference of the four ministers of Boston, and one from Charlestown, was held at Goodwin's house, where they observed a day of fasting and prayer. As a result of their efforts, the youngest child, a boy of less than five years, was delivered of his evil, spirit. The ministers now had no doubt that the children had been bewitched, and as the little ones accused the Irish woman of their misfortune, she was arrested, tried fr^* witchcraft, convicted and hanged, notwith , standing that many persons thought the poor creature a lunatic. Among the ministers who had investigated this case and had procured the execution 01 the woman was Cotton Mather, the son of Increase Mather, then president of Harvard College. He was a young man who had but recently entered the ministry, and was regarded as one of the most learned and gifted preachers in the colony. He was withal a man of overweening vanity and full of ambition. He could not bear contradic- tion, and was devoted to the maintenance of the political power of the clergy. He was superstitious by nature, and was firmly con- vinced of the reality of witchcraft. He had become deeply interested in the case of the Goodwin children, and in order to study it more deeply took the eldest girl to his house, where he could observe and experi- ment upon her devil at his leisure. She was a cunning creature, and soon found that it was to her interest to humor the young pas- tor in his views, and she played upon his weakness with a shrewdness and skill which were remarkable in one so young, and exhibif ; the credulity of the investigator in a most pitiable light. M ** All Devils are Not Alike." Mather carried on his experiments with a diligence which would have seemed ludi- crous had its object been less baneful to the WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 187 community. He read the Bible, and prayed aloud in the presence of the girl, who would pretend to be thrown into a fit by the pious exercise. At the same time she read the Book of Common Prayer, or Quaker or Popish treatises, without any interruption from her familiar spirits. The minister then tpsted the proficiency of the devil in lan- guages, by reading aloud passages of the Bible in Hebrew, Greek and Latin, which the girl professed to understand. When he tried her with an Indian dialect, however, she could not comprehend him. By other exper- iments, designed to ascertain if the spirits could read the thoughts of others, Mather came to the sage conclusion that " ali devils are not alike sagacious." The girl flattered his vanity, and lulled his suspicion of fraud by telling him that his own person was especially protected against the e A spirits by the power of God, and that the devils did not dare to enter his study. Pious Belief in Witchcraft. The vanity of Cotton Mather was elated to the highest pitch by what he deemed his successful experiments, and he wrote a book upon witchcraft, in which he endeavored to prove the truth of his theories, and declared that he should esteem it a personal insult if any one should hereafter venture to deny the existence of witchcraft. His book was reprinted in London, with a preface by Richard Baxter, the well-known author of " The Saints* Rest," warmly indorsing it. It was very generally read in New England, and had a most pernicious effect upon the people by inducing them to give credit to the stories of the writer rather than to listen to the promptings of their own good sense. Still there were some in Boston who had the boldness to differ with Mather, and these the indignant divine denounced as "sad- ducees."-^ Mather supported his views by his sermons. " There are multitudes of sad- ducees in our day," he declared. "A devil in the apprehension of these mighty acute philosophers is no more than a quality or at distemper. Men counted it wisdom to credit nothing but what they say and feel. They never saw any witches ; therefore there ate none." The ministers of Boston and Charlestown gave their young colleague their hearty support, and declared that those who doubted the existence of witchcraft were guilty of atheism, and indorsed Mather's book as proving clearly that " there is both a God and a devil, and witchcraft." Thus did the clergy of Massachusetts set themselves to the task of forcing their own narrow views upon the people. It was a needed lesson. New England had passed the time when clerical rule in political affairs could be pro- ductive of good, and was now to be taught the danger of permitting it to extend beyond this period. At" this juncture Mather's power was greatly strengthened by the appointment of his friend and parishioner. Sir William Phipps, as governor of the province, and the nomination of his father-in-law and many of his intimate friends to the council. The ambitious Stoughton, the deputy governor, was also subject to his influence. Here was a fine opportunity to endeavor to establish the power of the clergy upon the old founda- tions, which were being destroyed by the growing intelligence and independence of the people. Many of the ministers, under the lead of Cotton Mather, had committed themselves to the doctrine of witchcraft, and the people must accept it upon their simple assertion. No inquiry must be allowed into the matter, the opinions of the ministers must be adopted by the laity. And so Mather and his followers resorted to the usual weapons of superstition to accomplish the success of their plans. r88 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. In 1692, a new case of witchcraft occurred In Salem village, now the town of Danvers. The minister of this place was Samuel Parris, between whom and a number of his people there had for some time existed dissensions of such a bitter nature that the attention of the general court had been directed to them. Tn February, 1692, the daughter and niece of Parris, the former a child of nine years, and the latter of less than twelve, gave signs of being bewitched. Parris at once recognized the opportunity which was thus offered him for vengeance upon his enemies, and delib- erately availed himself of it. He demanded of the children the names of the persons who had bewitched them, and then proceeded to accuse those whom he succeeded in inducing the girls to denounce. The first victim was Rebecca Nurse. She was known in the community as a woman of exemplary Chris- tian character ; but she was one of the most resolute opponents of Parris. Upon his accusation she was arrested and imprisoned. The next Sunday Parris preached a sermon from the text, " Have I not chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil." As his remarks were directed against Mistress Nurse, Sarah Cloyce, her sister, at once left the church. A Hundred in Prison. This in itself was a serious offence in those days, and Parris took advantage of it to accuse the offender of witchcraft, and she was sent to join her sister in prison. Mather, who deemed his credit at stake, lent his active i\d to the persecution of these unfortunate n^^jple, and had the vanity to declare that he regarded the efforts of " the evil angels upon the country as a particular defiance unto himself" Parris scattered his accusations right and left, becoming both informer and witness against those whom he meant to destroy for their opposition to him. In a few weeks nearly one hundred per- sons were in prison upon the charge of witchcraft. Abigail Williams, Parris's niece, aided her uncle with her tales, which the least examination would have shown to be absurd. George Burroughs, one of the min- isters of Salem, had long been regarded by Parris as a rival, and he now openly expressed his disbelief in witchcraft, and his disapproval of the measures against those charged with that offence. This boldness, sealed his doom. He was accused by Parris and committed to prison " with the rest of the witches." "The gallows was to be set up, not for those who professed them- selves witches, but for those who rebuked the delusion." Hanging a Witch. Governor Bradstreet, who had been chosen by the people, was unwilling to proceed to extreme measures against the accused, as he had no faith in the evidence against them. The arrival of the royal governor and the new charter in Boston in May, 1692, placed Cotton Mather and his fellow-persecutors in a position to carry out their bloody designs. The general court alone had authority to appoint special courts, but Governor Phipps did not hesitate to appoint one himself for the trial of the accused persons at Salem, and this illegal tribunal, with Stoughton as its chief judge, met at Salem on the second of June. In this court Parris acted as pros- ecutor, keeping back some witnesses, and pushing others forward as suited his plans. The first victim of the court was Bridget Bishop, "a poor, friendless old woman.'\ Parris, who had examined her at the time of her commitment, was the principal witness against her. Deliverance Hobbs being also accused, a natural infirmity of her body was taken as a proof of her guilt, and she was hanged, protesting her innocence. Rebecca Nurse was at first acquitted of the WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 1S9 charges against her, but the court refused to receive the verdict of the jury, and Parris was determined that the woman against whom he had preached and prayed should not escape him, and the jury were induced to convict her, and she was hanged. John tion. He was immediately denounced, tried and hanged. When George Burroughs, the minister, was placed on trial, the witnesses produced against him pretended to be dumb. " Who hinders these witnesses from giving their testi- EXECUTION OF THE REV. GEORGE BURROUGHS. WTrlard", who had been compelled by his duty as a constable to arrest the accused, now refused to serve in this capacity any longer, as he had become convinced of the hypocrisy of the instigators of the persecu- monies?" asked Stoughton, the chief judge. "I suppose the devil," replied Burroughs, con- temptuously. " How comes the devil," cried Stoughton, exultingly, *' so loath to have any testimony borne against you ? " The words tgo SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. of the prisoner were regarded as a confes- sion, and his remarkable bodily strength was made an evidence of his guilt. He was con- victed and sentenced to be hanged. He was executed on the nineteenth of August with four others. As he ascended the scaffold, Burroughs made an appeal to the people assembled to witness the execution, and effectually vindicated himself from the absurd charges against him, and repeated the Lord's prayer, which was regarded as a test of inno- cence. The spectators seemed about to interfere in favor of the victim. An Innocent Man Hanged. Cotton Mather, who was present on horse- back, now exerted himself to complete the judicial murder. He harangued the people, insisted on the guilt of Burroughs, remind- ing them that the devil could sometimes assume the form of an angel of light, and even descended to the falsehood of dc^'iaring that Burroughs was no true ministc, as his ordination was not valid. His appeal was successful and the execution wa'j completed. Giles Cory, an old man over eighty years of age, seeing that no denial cf guilt availed anything, refused to plead, and was pressed to death, in accordance >yith an old English law, long obsolete, v:hich was revived to Mieet his case. Samuel Wardwell confessed his guilt, and escaped the gallows. Over- come with shame for his cowardice, he retracted his confession, and was hanged for denying witchcraft. A reign of terror pre- vailed in Salem ; the prisons were full ; and no one could feel sure how long he would tscape accusation and arrest, iviany persons confessed their guilt to save their lives. Children accused their parents, parents their children, and husbands and wives each other of the most impossible offences, in the hope of escaping the persecution themselves. Hale, the minister of Beverley, was a zealous advocate of the persecution until the bitter cup was presented to his own lips by the accusation o^ his wife. Many persons were obliged to fly the colony, and the magistrates, conscious that they were exceeding theif powers, (^ not demand their surrender. Crime Added to Crime, We ?iave mentioned only some of the principal cases to show the character of the persecution, as our limits forbid the relation of rill. The total number hanged was twenty; fifty-five were tortured or terrified into confessions of guilt. The accusations v;ere at first lodged against persons of humble station, but at length reached the ) higher classes. Governor Phipps' wife and two sons of Governor Bradford are said to have been among the accused. " Insanity," says Judge Story, " could hardly devise more refinements in barbarity, or profligacy execute them with more malignant coolness.'* Every principle of English justice was vio- lated to secure the condemnation of the accused, and people were encouraged by the magistrates to accuse others as a means of securing the favor of the authorities. These terrible deeds were not the work of the people of Massachusetts, and under a popular government would have been im- possible ; for though the belief in witchcraft was general, the sentiment of the people was against the barbarity of the court. The Salem tragedies were the work of a few men, not one of whom was responsible in any way to the people. " Of the magistrates at that time, not one held office by the suf- frage of the people ; the tribunal, essentially despotic in its origin, as in its character, had no sanction but an extraordinary and an illegal commission ; and Stoughton, the chief judge, a partisan of Andros, had been re- jected by the people of Massachusetts. The responsibility of the tragedy, far from attach- WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 191 Ing to the people of the colony, rests with the very few, hardly five or six, in whose hands the transition state of the government left for a season unlimited influence. Into the in- terior of the colony the delusion did not spread at all." * Public Indignation. Stoughton's court, having hanged twenty of its victims, adjourned about the last of September, 1692, until November, and on the eighteenth of October the general court met. The indignation of the people had been gathering force, and men were determined to put a stop to the judicial murders and tor- tures which had disgraced them so long. Remonstrances were at once presented to the assembly against "the doings of the witch tribunals," the people of Andover leading the way in this effort. The assembly abolished the special court, and established a tribunal by public law. It was ordered that this court should not meet until the fol- lowing January, The governor attempted to undo the work of the assembly by ap- pointing Stoughton chief judge of the new court "When that tribunal met at Salem in Jan- uary, 1693, it was evident that the public mind had undergone a marked change. The influence of the leaders of the delusion was at an end. The grand jury rejected the m-'^ ^ jority of the presentments offered to it, anti | when those who were indicted were put on frial, the jury brought in verdicts of acquittal in all but three cases. The governor, now alive to the force of public sentiment, re- prieved all who were under sentence to the great disgust of Stoughton, who left the bench in a rage when informed of this action. The persecutors, anxious to cover their defeat by the execution of one more i^ictim, employed all their arts to procure * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. Ui* P» S8 the conviction of a woman of Chaixostown, who was commonly believed to be a witch. They supported their charge by more im- portant evidence than had been presented in any case at Salem, but the jury at once returned a verdict of *' not guilty." Cotton Mather was intensely mortified by the failure of his efforts to force the people into a general acceptance of his views. He got up a case of witchcraft in Boston, but was careful to caution his possessed people to refrain from accusing any one of bewitching them. Robert Calef, an unlettered man, but one whose common sense could not be led astray by Mather, promptly exposed the im- posture in a pamphlet, which effectually destroyed Mather's influence for harm. Mather, unable to reply to him, denounced him as an enemy of religion, and complained that Calef's book was " a libel upon tha whole government and ministry of the land," forgetting that only seven or eight ministers, and no magistrate commanding the confi- dence of the people, had any share in the tragedies. Calef continued his writings, however, undismayed by the mdignation of his adversary, and his book was finally pub- lished in England, where it attracted con. siderable attention. The Danger Past. I*he danger was now over. It was no longer possible to procure a conviction for \vjtchcraft. The indignant people of Salem village at once drove the wretched Parris and his family from the place. Noyes, the minister of Salem, who had been active in the persecutions, was compelled to ask the forgiveness of the people, after a public con- fession of his error. The devotion of the rest of his life to works of charity won him the pardon he sought. Sewall, one of the judges, struck with horror at the part he had nlayed in the persecution, made an open and 102 SEttLEMENT 01^ AMERICA. frank confession of his error, and implored the forgiveness of his fellow-citizens. His sincerity was so evident that he soon regained the favor he had lost. Stoughton passed the remainder of his life in proud and haughty- disregard of the opinion of his fellow-men, scorning to make any acknowledgment of error, and evincing no remorse for his cruel- Ues. Cotton Mather Duped. As for the prime mover of the delusion, the Rev. Cotton Mather, nothing could induce him to admit that he could by any possibility have been in error ; not even the recollection of the sorrow he had brought upon some of the best people in the colony could shake his impenetrable self-conceit or humble him. When it was plain to him that he was the object of the indignation of all good men in New England, he had the hardihood to endeavor to persuade them that after all he had not been specially active in the sad affair. " Was Cotton Mather honestly credu- lous ? " asks Bancroft. " Ever ready to dupe himself, he limited his credulity only by the piobable credulity of others. He changes. or omits to repeat, his statements, without acknowledging error, and with a clear inten- tion of conveying false impressions. He is an example how far selfishness, under the form of vanity and ambition, can blind the higher faculties, stupefy the judgment, and dupe consciousness itself. His self-right- eousness was complete till he was resisted.** And yet this man was not to die without rendering to the country a genuine service. In 1 72 1, having become satisfied that inocu- lation was a sure preventive of small-pox, he advocated the introduction of it into the colony. He was opposed by the whole body of the clergy, who declared that it was an attempt to defeat the plans of the Almighty, who " sent the small-pox as a punishment fo»' sins, and v/hose vengeance would thus be onl\r provoked the more." The people of the colony were also bitterly opposed to inoculation, and threatened to hang Mather if he did not cease his advocacy of it. His life was at one time in serious danger, but he persevered, and at length had the satisfaction of seeing the practice of inoculation gener- ally adopted by the people who had so hotlj opposed it CHAPTER XVI The Settlement of New York 'oyages of Henry Hudson — He is Employed by the Dutch — Discovery of the Hudson River — Early Dutch VoyaghS** Adrian Block — Fate of Hudson — The Dutch Build a Fort on Manhattan Island — Settlement of New Amsterdam— "'j'he Province Named New Netherlands— Fort Nassau — Peter Minuits Governor — The Dutch Settlement of Dela- arare — Wouter Van Twiller — Kieft Governor — His Unjust Treatment of the Indians — Massacre ol the Ir.diaaa f& Hoboken — The Indian War — Stuyvesant Appointed Governor — Disputes with the English in Connecticut — ^Th« Swedes Settle Delaware— Stuyvesant Captures the Swedish Forts — Growth of New Amsterdam — Disputes Betweei. the People and Governor — Growing Spirit of Popular Liberty — The Pecple Appeal to the States General — Capture ol New Netherlands by the English — The Name of the Province Changed to New York— Results of the Eng'ish Con- quest — Progress of New Jersey — Andros Governor of New York — He Fails to Establish His Authority Ova- Connecticut — New York Allowed an Assembly — Discontents of the People — I-eisler's Rebellion — Execution ol Leisler and Milboume — Fletcher Governor — His Attempt to Obtain Command of the Connecticut Militia — Episcopacy Established in New York — The Freedom of the Press Sustained — New Jersey a Royal Province. WHEN the hope of finding a northwest passage to India began to die out, a company of " certain worshipful mer- chants " of London employed Henry Hud- son, an Englishman and an exp-^rienced navigator, to go in search of a northeast passage to India, around the Arctic shores 5f Europe, between Lapland and Nova ^.embla and frozen Spitzbergen. These vorthy gentlemen were convinced that since :he eftbrt to find a norihzvest passage had "ailed, nothing remained but to search for a northeast passage, and they were sure that if tiuman skill or energy could find it, Hudson ivould succeed in his mission They were not mistaken in their man, for in two suc- cessive voyages he did all that mortal could io to penetrate the ice-fields beyond the North Cape, but without success. An impassable barrier of ice held him back, and he was forced to return to London to confess his failure. With unconquerable hope, he suggested new means of overcoming the difficulties; but while his employers praised his zeal and skill, they declined to go CO further expense in an undertaking which «3 promised so little, and the " bold Englishman, the expert pilot and the famous navigator ** found himself out of employment. Every effort to secure aid in England failed him, and, thoroughly disheartened, he passed over to Holland, whither his fame had preceded hini. The Dutch, who were more enterprising and more hopeful than his own countrymen^ lent a ready ear to his statement of his plans, and the Dutch East India Company at once employed him and placed him in command of a yacht of ninety tons, called the " Half Moon,'* manned by a picked crew. On the twenty-fifth of March, 1609, Hudson set sail in this vessel from Amster- dam and steered directly for the coast of Nova Zembla. He succeeded in reaching the meridian of Spitzbergen, but here the ice. the fogs and the fierce tempests of the north drove him back, and turning to the west- ward, he sailed past the capes of Greenland, and on the second of July was on the banks of Newfoundland. He passed down the coast as far as Charleston Harbor, vainly hoping to find the northwesi passage, anc* then in despair turned to the northward, dis- covering Delaware Bav on b.i? voyage. '93 194 SETTLEMENT Of* AMERICA. On the third of September he arrived ofT a large bay to the north of the Delaware, and passing into it, dropped anchor " at two cables' length from the shore," within Sandy Hook. Devoting some days to rest, and to the exploration of the bay, he passed through The Narrows on the eleventh of September, and then the broad and beautiful * inner bay" burst upon him in all its the natives who came out to the "Half Moon'' in their canoes, that the river came from fas beyond the mountains, convinced him that the stream flowed from ocean to ocean, anc, that by sailing on he would at length reach India — the golden land of his dreams. Thus encouraged, he pursued his way up the river, gazing with wonderi\ig delight upon its glorious scenery, and listening witt NOVA ZEMBLA — FROM AN OLD PRINT. splendor, and from the deck of his ship he watched the swift current of the mighty river rolling from the north to the sea. He was full of hope now, and the next day con- tinued his progress up the river, and at nightfall cast anchor at Yonkers. During the night the current of the river turned his ship around, placing her head down stream ; and this fact, coupled with the assurances of gradually fading hope to the stories of the natives who flocked to the water to greet him. The stream narrowed, and the water grew fresh, and long before he anchored below Albany, Hudson had abandoned the; belief that he was in the northwest passage. From the anchorage a boat's crew continued the voyage to the mouth of the Mohawk. Hudson was satisfied that he liad made a THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 195 gi'cat discovery — one that was worth fully as much as finding the new route to India. He was in a region upon which the white man's eye had never rested before, and which offered the richest returns to the commercial ventures. He hastened back to New York £ay, took possession of the country in the ■name of Holland, and then set sail for Europe. He put into Dartmouth, in Eng- land, on his way back, where he told the The discovery of Hudson was particularly acceptable to the Dutch, for the new country was rich in fur-bearing animals, and Russia offered a ready market for all the furs that could be sent there. The East India Coii»- pany, therefore, refitted the " Half Moon " after her return to Holland, and despatched her to the region discovered by Hudson on a fur trading expedition, which was highly successful. Private persons also emKaT^ed MOCK SUNS, SEEN BY EARLY EXPLORERS. jtory of his discovery. King James I. pre- vented his continuing his voyage, hoping to deprive the Dutch of its fruits ; but Hudson took care to send his log-book and all the chip's papers over to Holland, and thus placed his employers in full possession of the know- ledge he had gained. The English at length released the " Half Moon," and she continued her voyage to the Texel, but without her commander. in similar enterprises, and within two y&m. a prosperous and important fur trade wa£ established between Holland and the country along the Mauritius, as the great river dis- covered by Hudson had been named, in honor of the Stadtholder of Holland. Na government took any notice of the trade for a while, and all persons were free to engage ^n it Among the adventurers employed in this trade was one Adrian Block, noted ns one ol 196 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. the boldest navigators of his time. He made a voyage to Manhattan Island in 16 14, •^hen the site of a Dutch trading-post, and secured a cargo of skins, with which he was about to return to Holland, when a fire con- sumed both his vessel and her cargo, and obliged him to pass the winter with his crew cn the island. They built them log huts on the site of the present Beaver Street — the first houses erected on the island — and dur- feiP" the winter constructed a yacht of sixteen HENRY HUDSON. tons, which Block called the " Onrust " — the " Restless." In this yacht Block made several voyages of discovery, and explored the coasts of Long Island Sound, and gave his name to the sma" island near the eastern end of the sound, lie soon after went back to Europe. In the meantime Hudson had not been ^rmitted by the English king to take service Again with the Dutch, and after apprising his employers in Holland of his discoveries, he was engaged by an English company to make further explorations in their behalf He sailed to the north of his former route, reached the coast of Labrador, and passing through the straits, entered the bay which bears his name. He spent the remainder of the season in exploring its coasts, and re- solved to winter there, hoping to push his discoveries still further northward in the spring. In the spring of 161 1 he found it impossible to continue his voyage, as his provisions had begun to run low, and with tears turned his vessel's prov; homeward. His men now broke out into mutiny, and seizing Hudson and his son and four others, who v/ere sick, they placed them in the shallop and set them adrift. And so the great navi- gator, whose memory is perpetuated by one of the noblest of the rivers of America, and whose genius gave the region through which it flows to civili- zation, perished amid the northern seas. " The gloomy waste of waters which bears his name is his tomb and his monument." Forts Along the Hudson. In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on the lower end of Manhattan Islanu, and in the next few years established forts or trading houses along the river as far as Fort Orange, on the site of Albany. These were merely trading-posts, no effort being yet made to occupy the country with a permanent col- ony. In 1 62 1 the Dutch West India Com- pany was organized for the purpose of trad- ing with America, and took possession of the country along the Hudson, intending to hold it merely as temporary occupants. The States General of Holland granted them the monopoly of trade from Cape May to Nova Scotia, and named the whole region Nev/ Netherland. The Dutch thus extended theit THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 197 claims into regions already claimed by the English and French, and prepared the way for future quarrels and complica- tions. The English, now awake to the import- ance of Hudson's discoveries, warned the Dutch government to refrain from making further settlements on " Hudson's River," as they called the Mauritius; but the latter, relying upon the justice of their claim, paid no attention to these warnings, and in the spring of 1623 the Dutch West India Com- pany sent over thirty families of Walloons, or one hundred and ten persons in all, to found a permanent colony. These Walloons were Protestants from the frontier between France and Flanders, and had fled to Amster- dam to escape re- ligious persecution in their own coun- try. They were sound, healthy, vigorous and pious people, and could be relied upon to make homes in the new world. The majority of them sett^ d aro-md the fort on the lower end of Manhattan Island, and the colony was named New Amsterdam. The remainder established themselves on Long Island, about where the Brooklyn navy yard now stands, and there Sarah de Rapelje, the first white child born in the province of New Netherlands, saw the light. Eighteen fami- lies ascended the river and settled around Fort Orange. In the same year (1623) a party under command of Cornells Jacobsen May, who gave his name to the southern cape of New Jersey, ascended the Delaware^ then called the South River, and built Fort Nas- sau, on the east side of the river, a few miles below the present city of Cam' den. This was done in order to estab- lish the claim of the Dutch to this rC' gion. In 1626 the West India Company sent out to New Amsterdam the first regular governor of the province, Peter Minuits by name. He brought with him a koopman, or general commissary, who was also the secretary of the province, and a schout, or sheriff, to assist him in his government. The only laws prescribed for the colony were the HUDSON STRAIT. instructions of the West India Company. The colonists, on their part, were to regard the orders of the governor as their law. He was authorized to punish minor offences at his discretion, but cases requiring severe or capital punishment were to be sent to Hol- land for trial. Minuits set to work with great vigor to lay the foundations of the colony. He called a council of the Indian- chiefs, and purchased the island of Manhat- tan from them for presents valued at about twenty-four dollars in American money, H^ thus secured an equitable title to the island 198 MUTINY ON HUDSON'S SHIf. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 199 md won the friendship of the Indians. To encourage emigration, the company granted to each emigrant as much land as he could properly cultivate, and it was ordered that any member of the company who in four years should induce fifty persons to settle anywhere larithin the limits of New Netherland, the island of Manhattan alone excepted, should be termed ** Patroon," or " Lord of the Manor," and should be en- titled to purchase a tract of land sixteen miles in length by eight in width for the support of this dignity. A number of persons availed themselves of this privilege and secured from the In- dians by purchase the best lands and the most valuable trading places in the prov- ince. Those who were in- ferior to them in wealth were of necessity compelled to become the tenants of the patroons, and thus a check was placed upon the improvement of the colony. In order to compel the col- onists to purchase their supplies tVom Holland, the company forbade them to manufacture even the sim- plest fabrics for clothing, on pain of banishment. The patroons were enjoined to provide a minister and a schoolmaster for their tenaiits, but no pro- vision was made for them by the company, which was careful, however, to offer to fur- nish the patroons with African slaves if theif use should be found desirable. In 1629 Samuel Godyp and Samuel Blom- maert purchased from the Indians the region between Cape Henlopen and the mouth of the Delaware River, and in 1 63 1 a col- ony of thirty souls was planted on Lewes Creek, in the present state of Delaware. " That Delaware exists as a separate com monwealth is due to this colony. Accord ing to English rule, occupancy was neces FIRST SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. sary to complete a title to the wilderness, and the Dutch now occupied Delaware.** Less than a year later De Vries came over from Holland with a reinforcement, and found only the ruins of the settlement, the people of which had been massacred by the Indians. 200 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. U ider the vigorous administration of Minuits, New Netherland prospered; houses yere built, farms laid off; the population was largely increased by new arrivals from Europe. During this period New Amster- dam fairly entered upon its career as one of ihe most important places in America. It H^as a happy settlement as well ; the rights of the people were respected, and they were practically as free as they had been in Hol- land. Troubles with the Indians marked the close of Minuit's administration. The latter were provoked by the murder of some of their number by the whites, and by the aid rendered by the commander at Fort Orange to the Mohegaus in one of their forays upon the Mohawks. Alarmed by the hostility of the savages, many of the families at Fort Orange, and from the region between the Hudson and the Delaware, abandoned their settlements and came to New Amsterdam for safety, thus adding to the population of that town. Minuits was recalled in 1632 and left the province in a prosperous condition. During the last year of his government New Amsterdam sent over ^60,000 worth of furs 10 Holland. The Renowned Van Twiller, Minuits was succeeded by Wouter Van Twiller, a clerk in the company's warehouse at Amsterdam, who owed his appointment to his being the husband of the niece of Killian Van Rensselaer, thepatroon of Alba- ny. Irving has thus sketched this redoubt- able governor : " He was exactly five feet six inches in height, and six feet five inches in circumference. His head was a perfect Isphere, and of such stupendous dimensions that dame Nature, with all her sex's ingenu- ity, would have been puzzled to construct a neck capable of supporting it ; wherefore she wisely declined the attempt, and settled it firmly on top of his back-bone just between the shoulders. His body was oblong and particularly capacious at bottom, which was wisf'Iy ordered by Providence, seeing that he was a man of sedentary habits and very averse to the idle labor of walking. "A Beer Barrel on Skids." " His legs were very short, but sturdy in proportion to the weight they had to sustain ; so that, when erect, he had not a little the appearance of a beer barrel on skids. His face — that infallible index of the n-ind — pre- sented a vast expanse, unfurrowed by any of those lines and angles which disfigure the human countenance with what is termed expression. Two small gray eyes twinkled feebly in the midst, like two stars of lesser magnitude in a hazy firmament ; and his full- fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked with dusky red, like a Spitzenberg apple. His habits were as regular as his person. He daily took his four stated meals, appropriating exactly an hour to each ; he smoked and doubted eight iiouis, and he slept the remaining tweKe of the four-and-twenty." Van Twiller ruled the province seven years, and, in spite of his stupidity, it prospered. In 1633, Adam Roelantsen, the first school- master, arrived — for the fruitful Walloons had opened the way by this time for his labors — and in the same year a wooden church was built in the present Bridge Street, and placed in charge of the famous Dominie Everardus Bogardus. In l635,the fort, which marked the site of the present Bowling Green,andwhich had been begun in 1614, was finished, and in the same year the first English settlers at New Amsterdam came into the town. The English in New England also began to give the Dutch trouble during this admin- THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 201 istration, and even sent a ship into " Hud- son's River " to trade with the Indians. In- fluenced by De Vries, the commander of the fort, the governor sent an expedition up the river after the audacious Enghsh vessel, seized her, brought her back to New York, and sent her to sea with a warning not to repeat her attempt. The disputes between the Enghsh and the Dutch about the Con- necticut settlements also began to make trouble for New Amsterdam. Van Twiller possessed no influence in the colony, was laughed at and snubbed on every side, and was at length recalled by the company in 1638. The only memorial of Van Twiller left to us is the Isle of Nuts, which lies in the bay between New York and Brooklyn, and which he purchased as his private domain. It is still called the " Governor's Island." Van Twiller was succeeded by William Kieft, a man of greater abilities., but unscru- pulous and avaricious. He had become a bankrupt in Holland, and hoped to find in America the means of restoring his fortunes. His administration of the province was full of troubles, the greater part of which were due to his recklessness and rapacity. Moha^vk Braves. The colonists were forbidden to sell fire- arms to the Indians, but some of the traders along the Hudson had violated this order, and it was estimated that the Mohawks had at least four hundred warriors armed with muskets. They were willing to pay large ptices for the guns, as these weapons enabled ;hem to meet on equal terms their enemies, the Canada Indians, who had been armed by the F'rench. During Van Twiller's admin- istration the colony had been on good terms with the Mohegans and other tribes of the Algonquin race,, who were generally known as the river Indians. Kieft, soon after his ^irrival, demanded of them the payment of a tribute, which he pretended he had been ordered by the company to levy upon them. They refused his demand with contempt, and from this time the friendship which they had entertained forthe Dutch began to disappear. A year or two later the Raritans, a tribe living on the river of that name, were accusec' of stealing some hogs from the colony. The animals had been taken by some Dutch traders ; but Kieft, instead of investigating the matter, sent a party of soldiers amcvig the Raritans and destroyed their corn anc? killed several of their number. The savages determined upon revenge, and with theit usual unreasoning fury attacked the settle ment which De Vries — who was always a friend of the Indians — had founded on Staten Island, and killed four men. The people of the colony now urged the governor to con- ciliate the savages by kind treatment, but h«f refused to do so. An Avenger of Blood, Another cause of trouble soon arose. Twenty years before a Dutch trader had killed an Indian chief in the presence of a little nephew of the warrior. That child, now grown to manhood, came into the colony in 1 64 1, and avenged his uncle by killing an innocent settler. Kieft ordered the Indians to surrender the young man that he might be punished for his crime ; but the savages refused to give him up, but offered to ransom him. Kieft refiised their proposition, and the matter remained an open source oi trouble. With the hope of finding a remedy for the Indian dif^culty, the people obtained from the governor, in 1642, permission to hold t meeting of the heads of families at Ne'* Amsterdam. These appointed twelve of theh number to investigate the affairs of the colony. This was the first representative assembly of New Netherland, and its career was short 202 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Venturing to pass beyond the Indian ques- tion, and to criticise the administration of the governor in other matters, it was dissolved. Near the end of the year 1642 the Mohawks sent a band of warriors armed with muskets to demand tribute of the river tribes. These, too weak to contend with their enemies, fled lo the Dutch for protection. Kieft was at this time angry with the Indians for refusing to surrender to him one of their number who had killed a Dutchman who had made him drunk and then ill-treated him, and he resolved to take a signal vengeance upon them, and exterminate them. De Vries, to «vhom he communicated his plan, remon- strated with him in the hope of inducing him to abandon it. "If you murder these poo; creatures who have put themselves under your protection, you will involve the whole colony in ruin, and their blood, and the blood of your own people, will be required at your hands," said De Vries. Nothing, however, could move the governor from his purpose. Attack Upon the Savages. The Indians who had sought the protec- tion of the Dutch were encamped with the Hackensack tribe just above Hoboken. On the night of the twenty-fifth of February, the garrison of the fort at New Amsterdam, rein- forced by the crews of some Dutch privateers in the river, crossed the Hudson and attacked the unsuspecting savages. Nearly a hundred were killed, and when the morning came many of the poor wretches were seen crowd- ing along the shore of the river in the vain attempt to cross over to their supposed friends at New Amsterdam. They were forced into the stream and drowned. A company of Indians, trusting to the friendship of the Dutch, had encamped on Manhattan Island, near the fort. They were put to death almost to a man. The massacre Avas regarded by the colo- nists with horror and detestation, and they took no part in the joy with which the gov- ernor greeted the troops on their return from their bloody work. He was not allowed to rejoice long, however. When it became known among the Algonquins that their)" brethren had been murdered, not by the Mo- hawks, but by the Dutch, every tribe took up the hatchet to avenge them, and a general warfare began along the entire line of the Dutch settlements. Several villages were destroyed, and a number of settlers were mur- dered or carried into captivity. The colony was threatened with ruin, and Kieft was obliged to open negotiations for peace. It was in this war that Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her family, who had taken refuge in the territory of the Dutch, were murdered by the savages. Treaty of Peace Negotiated. On the fifth of March, 1643, a conferendt was held at Rockaway, between sixteen Indian chiefs and De Vries and two other envoys from the colony. One of the principal sachems arose, holding in his hands a bundle of small sticks. " When you first arrived on our shores," said the Indian, addressing the whites, " you were destitute of food. We gave you our beans and our corn ; we fed you with oysters and fish ; and now, for our recom- pense, you murder our people." He then laid down one of the little sticks and pro- ceeded : " The traders whom your first ships left on our shores to traffic till their return, were cherished by us as the apple of our eye, || We gave them our daughters for their wives. Among those whom you have murdered were children of your own blood." " I know all," said De Vries, interrupting his recital of wrongs. He then invited the chiefs to go with him to the fort. They accompanied him to New Amsterdam, where I'HE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 203 presents were exchanged and a treaty of peace negotiated. The younger warriors were not satisfied. Kieft's presents were niggardly. They were not regarded by the savages as a sufficient compensation for the wrongs they had suffered, and the war was renewed. The leader of the Dutch in this cam- paign was Captain John Underhill, who had served in the Pequod war in New England, and had removed to New Amsterdam in conse- quence of having been made to do penance in public at Boston in 1640. The war con- tinued for two years, and though the col- ony suffered severely, the Dutch were able to inflict such heavy losses upon the sav- ages that the latter were at length as anxious for peace as the whites. Sixteen hundred of the In- dians had fallen, but the colony had been brought to the verge of ruin, and the popu- lation of New Ams- terdam was reduced to one hundred souls. On the thirtieth of August, 1645, the chiefs of the Algonquins and a deputation from their old enemies, the Mohawks, who came as mediators, met the whites on the spot now known as the Battery, and concluded a peace. The close of the war was hailed with re- ioicii gs throughout the colony. Kieft was regarded with universal hatred as the author of the terrible sufferings of the struggle, and his barbarous conduct was censured and disavowed by the company, and he was recalled. Hated throughout the colony, h^ at length determined to return to Eurojr>fe PETER STUYVESANT. Freighting a vessel with his ill-gotten gafni, he sailed from Manhattan in 1647. As he neared the shores of the old world his ship was wrecked on the coast of Wales, and alt on board perished. Kieft, in the vain hope of conciliating the people, appointed, immediately after the 204 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. close of the war, a new municipal council of eight members. The first act of this council was to demand of the States General of Hol- land the removal of Kieft. Their demand was complied with, as we have seen, and in 1647 Peter Stuyvesant was made governor of New Netherlands, and reached New Am- sterdam in the same year. "Vain as a Peacock.' Stuyvesant was essentially a strong man. A soldier by education and of long experi- ence, he was accustomed to regard rigid discipline as the one thing needful in every relation of life, and he was not slow to intro- duce that system into his government of New Amsterdam. He had served gallantly in the wars against the Portuguese, and had lost a leg in one of his numerous encounters with them. He was as vain as a peacock, as fond of display as a child, and thoroughly imbued with the most aristocratic ideas- qualities not exactly the best for a governor of New Amsterdam. Yet he was, with all his faults, an honest man, he had deeply at heart the interests of the colony, and his ad- ministration was mainly a prosperous one. He energetically opposed from the first all manifestations in favor of popular govern- ment. His will was to be the law of the province. " If any one," said he, ** during my administration shall appeal, I will make him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to Holland, and let him appeal in that way." He went to work with vigor to reform mat- ^'^rs in the colony, extending his efforts to i ven the morals and domestic affairs of the people. He soon brought about a reign of material prosperity greater than had ever been known before, and exerted himself to check the encroachments of the English on the east, and the Swedes on the south. He inaugurated a policy of kindness and justice toward the Indians, and soon changed their enmity to sincere friendship. One thing, however, he dared not do — he could not levy taxes upon the people without their consent, for fear of offending the States Gen- eral of Holland. This forced him to appoint a council of nine prominent citizens, and, although he endeavored to hedge round their powers by numerous conditions, the nine ever afterwards served as a salutary check upon the action of the governor. Opposition to Stuyvesant. The English in Connecticut made great efforts to extend their territories westward at the expense of New Netherland, and gave Stuyvesant no litde annoyance by their aesrressions. During- his administration the colony received large accessions of English emigrants from New England, who came to New Netherland " to enjoy that liberty de- nied to them by their own countrymen." They settled in New Amsterdam, on Long Island, and in Westchester County. Being admitted to an equality with the Dutch set- tlers, they exercised considerable influence in the affairs of the colony, and towards the close of his adrriinistration gave the governor considerable trouble by their opposition to his despotic acts. Stuyvesant entered into an arrangement with Connecticut for the proper adjustment of the boundaries of the two colonies, and left the English in posses- sion of half of Long Island. Upon his removal from his place as gover- nor of New Amsterdam Peter Minuits offered his services to Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who was anxious to found in America a colony which might prove a place of refuge for the persecuted Prolestants of Europe. The offer was accepted by the king, and the shores of the Delaware were chosen as the site of the new settlement. Near the close of 1637 a little company of Swedes and Fins embarked in two vessels THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 20S under the direction of Minuits,and sailed for America. The Delaware was reached early in 1638, and the new-comers purchased from the natives the country on the west side of the river from Cape Henlopen to Trenton. A fort was built within the limits of the present state of Delaware, on the site of the present city of Wilmington, and named Fort Christiana, in honor of the youthful queen of Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus, Swedish Immigrants. Kieft, the Dutch governor of New Nether- land, protested against this occupation of the country by the Swedes, as Holland claimed the region along the Delaware. Sweden was too formidable a power for her colony to be attacked, however, and Kieft contented him- self with his protest. Fresh emigrants came out from Scandinavia, and New Sweden grew rapidly. The Dutch Fort Nassau was re- newed, but the Swedes succeeded in main- taining their ascendency along the Delaware in spite of it. Their plantations were extended along the river, and the smallest of the American commonwealths was per- manently settled by Europeans. When Stuyvesant was made governor of New Netherland the Dutch West India Com- pany resolved to enforce their claim to Delaware, and in 1651 built Fort Casimir on the site of Newcastle. The Swedes regarded this as an encroachment upon their domain, and in 1654 captured the Fort. Upon the receipt of this news the Dutch Company indignantly ordered Stuyvesant " to drive the Swedes from the river, or compel their submission." In September, 1655, Stuyve- sant, with a force of six hundred men, sailed from Manhattan into the Delaware. The Swedish forts were compelled to surrender one after another, and the colonists were forced to submit to the establishment of the rule of the Dutch. They were allowed t(^ retain their possessions, and on the whole were treated well. Many of them, however, were dissatisfied with their new rulers, and in the next few years emigrated to Maryland and Virginia. The territory now included in the state of New Jersey was also claimed by the Dutch. They built Fort Nassau on the Delaware to establish this claim, but the Swedes were the first to settle the country. Soon after, estab- lishing themselves in Delaware, they crossed over to the eastern side of the river, and built a line of trading-posts extending from Cape May to Burlington. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. New Amsterdam continued to prosper, and was even at this early day rapidly becom- ing an important commercial town. Stuy vesant's arbitrary temper was held in checl to a considerable extent by the more libera, policy of the company, who sincerely desired the prosperity of the colony. " Let every peaceful citizen," wrote the directors, " enjoy freedom of conscience ; this maxim has made our city the asylum for fugitives from every land; tread in its steps, and you shall be , blessed." The infant metropolis from the 206 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. first acquired a cosmopolitan character. It contained settlers from every nation of Europe, and even from Africa; for the Dutch at an early day introduced negro slavery into the colony. The people of New Netherland had no political rights, and the West India Com- pany, with every disposition to treat the colony with fairness, did not mean to allow the settlers to have any voice in govern- ing themselves. Town meetings were posi- tively forbidden, and every care was taken to discourage any manifestation of public spirit. Nevertheless the colonists were beginning to feel the promptings of the spirit of democ- racy, and the English settlers who had come into the province were by no means content to remain without the privileges of freemen. A series of disputes at once arose with the fiery old governor, who entertained the most profound contempt for the people, and laughed in scorn at the assertion of their ability to govern themselves. Rights of the People Disregarded. The discontents went on increasing, how- ever, and at length the people appointed a convention of two delegates from each settle- ment for the purpose of deliberating on the affairs of the colony. Stuyvesant was bit- terly opposed to this assembly, but deemed it best not to seek to prevent its meeting, as such a step would have brought about a collision with the people. The convention addressed the governor as follows ; " The States General of the United Provinces are our liege lords; we submit to the laws of the United Provinces ; and our rights and priv- ileges ought to be in harmony with those of the fatherland, for we are a member of the state, and not a subjugated people. We, who have come together from various parts of the world, and are a blended community of various lineage ; we, who have, at our own expense, exchanged our native lands for the protection of the United Provinces ; we, who have transformed the wilderness into fruitful farms, demand that no new laws shall be enacted but with the consent of the people ; that none shall be appointed to office but with the approbation of the people; that obscure and obsolete laws shall never be revived." This was too much for the governor. He attempted to reason with the deputies, who had the temerity to demand the right of self-government, and finding them firm, dis- solved the convention with the haughty declaration : " We derive our authority from God and the West India Company, not from the pleasure of a few ignorant subjects." The West India Company entirely approved the course of the governor. " We approve the taxes you propose," they wrote to Stuy- vesant ; " have no regard to the consent of the people. Let them indulge no longer the visionary dream that taxes can be imposed only with their consent." Neither the company nor the governor could understand that this persistent disre- gard of the rights of the people was aliena- ting all classes of the colonists and making them long for the conquest of New Nether- land by the English as the only means of obtaining the privileges of the freemen of the English colonies. Large Land Grant. Nor was this an idle hope. For a long time past the English government had seri ously entertained the idea of driving out the Dutch, and adding New Netherland to its American possessions. The English claim extended to the entire Atlantic coast as far south as Florida, and the Dutch were regarded as intruders. Cromwell and his son had each contemplated making such an effort, and at the return of Charles II. to the THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 207 throne the plan was more seriously discussed, and at length put in operation. Charles, ttithough at peace with Holland, and in spite of the charter which he had granted to Connecti- cut, bestowed upon his brother, the Duke of York, afterwards James II., the entire region between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. This was in February, 1664. A squadron was at once fitted out for the pur- pose of seizing the Dutch colony, and was placed in command of Richard Nicolls, au officer of the Duke of York's household. The fleet touched at Boston to land the com- missioners sent out by Charles to the New England colonies and to receive reinforce- ments. Governor Winthrop, of Connecticut also embarked on board of it. The first intimation Stuyvesant had of the intended robbery was the appearance of the fleet within the Narrows on the twenty- eighth of August, 1664. The next day Nicolls demanded the surrender of the town and fort of New Amsterdam. Stuyvesant, who had made preparations for defending the place, endeavored to resist the demand, but the citizens refused to sustain him and he was obliged to submit. On the eighth of September he embarked his troops for Hol- land and put to sea. The English at once took possession of the fort and town, and their vessels ascending the Hudson, received the submission of the other Dutch forts and settlements along the river. A few weeks later the Dutch and the Swedes along the Delaware submitted to the English, and the entire province was in their hands. The name of New Amsterdam was changed to New York, which name was also bestowed upon the province, and Fort Orange was called Albany, all in honor of the new pro- prietor. Nicolls was appointed governor. The English set themselves to work to conciliate the Dutch residents, a task not very difficult, as the English settlers in the province had already prepared the way foi" the change, and the treatment the colony had received from the West India Company had prevented the formation of any decided attachment to the rule of Holland The English system of government was intro- duced, the towns were allowed to elect theii own magistrates, and the desires of the people for representative government seemed about to be gratified. A Strong Alliance. The Mohawks had been the friends of the Dutch; and they now readily entered into an alliance with the English as their successors. This alliance remained unbroken all through the colonial period, and during the war ol the Revolution ; and in the first-named period proved of the greatest advantage to the colonies, as the Mohawks, whose hatred 01 the French was deep and unrelenting, provei* a formidable obstacle in the way of invading parties from Canada. Immediately upon becoming master of th( province, the Duke of York proceeded t<. divide it. He sold to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Cartaret, both of whom were already proprietaries of Carolina, the country between the Hudson and the Delaware. This purchase was named New Jersey, in honor of the island of Jersey, of which Cartaret was governor, and corresponded in size very nearly to the present state of that name. The new proprietors made liberal offers to induce emigrants to settle in their territory, and among other things offered them lands free of rent for five years. They granted to the province a political establishment con* sisting of a governor, a council, and assembly of representatives of the people, who were given the power to make the law? necessary for their government. The proprietors reserved the right to appoint the governor and judicial officers, 2o8 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. and to veto the proceedings of the assembly. Negro slavery was also introduced. These offers drew a large number of settlers to New Jersey, and many families came over from Long Island to the new province. The principal settlement was named Elizabeth- town, in honor of Cartaret's wife. The colony prospered; no trouble was experi- enced from the neighboring Indians, whose power had been thoroughly broken by the Dutch, and everything went on happily until the year 1670, when the proprietaries demanded the rents due for the lands held by the settlers. The demand was refused. Many of the colonists had lived in the province under the rule of the Dutch, and had bought their lands from the Indians, and they claimed that the grant of the province to Cartaret could not invalidate these pur- chases, as the king had no claim to the lands which he so lavishly bestowed upon his favorites. Others refused to pay rent because they had made their plantations without any assistance from the proprietaries and did not acknowledge any debt to them. The representative of the proprietaries was obliged to fly for safety, and went to England ibr assistance in enforcing his demands. Insult Added to Injury. The Duke of York heard the complaints of the proprietaries, but the only attention he paid to them was to appoint Sir Edmund AndroSjwho subsequently became infamous for his tyranny in New England, governor of New Jersey. This was a flagrant violation of the rights of Cartaret and Berkeley, and an act thoroughly characteristic of the last of the Stuarts. Berkeley in disgust sold his half of the province, known as West Jersey, to an English Quaker named Edward Byllinge, who subsequently made over his claim to William Penn, who made an ar- rangement with Cartaret to divide the Jer- seys. Cartaret retained East Jersey, and the line of division was drawn from the north- west corner of the province to the sea at Little Egg Harbor. This purchase became the cause of considerable litigation in after years, and West Jersey was claimed by Penn« sylvania until the next century, when, as we shall see, the dispute was settled. Scotch Covenanters. New Jersey received a considerable acces- sion to her population in consequence of the re-establishment of episcopacy in Scotland. The Cameronians or Covenanters refused to submit to the authority of the church, and thus became the objects of a cruel persecu- tion. As so many of their faith had done before them, they sought refuge from their persecutors in America, and in 1683 and the following years large numbers of them came over and settled in East Jersey. This portion of the state was the cradle of Presbyter- ianism in America. In the meantime matters in New York had not been conducted to the satisfaction of the people. The promises made to the colonists by the English authorities were not kept. The province was treated as the absolute property of the Duke of York, and the governor and his council were consti- tuted the highest authority for both the making and execution of the laws. Repre- sentative government was denied them, arbi- trary taxes were imposed by Governor Nicolls, and the titles to the lands held by the settlers, not even excepting the Dutch ^ patents, were declared invalid, in order that by issuing new title-deeds Nicolls might gain enormous fees. Lovelace, the successor ot Nicolls, carried his tyranny to a still greatet extent. His system of government is thus summed up : " The method for keeping the people in order is severity, and laying such taxes as may give them liberty for no THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 209 thought but how to discharge them." When the people of a number of the towns ventured to remonstrate with the governor, he ordered their petition for the redress of their grievances to be publicly burned before the town house in New York. The settle- ments in Delaware were treated with equal injustice Peace Between England and Holland. In 1673, war having broken out between Holland and England, a Dutch squadron entered the harbor of New York. The peo- ple, thoroughly cured of their partiality for English rule by the injustice they had suf- fered, made no resistance and surrendered the town. Its name was changed to New Orange, and the authority of the Dutch was again extended over the province, and also over Long Island, New Jersey and Delaware. The Mohawks sent a deputation o' their chiefs to congratulate the Dutch upon the recovery of their colony. The next year, however, peace was made between England and Holland, and the Dutch surrendered their conquests in America. New York passed once more into the hands of the Duke of York, and East Jersey into those of Car- taret. In the same year the Duke of York ap- pointed Sir Edmund Andros governor of New York. The eastern settlements of Long Island were anxious to adhere to Con- necticut, but the governor compelled them on pain of being declared rebels to acknowl- edge themselves a part of New York. The claim of the duke extended within the limits of Connecticut as far as the river of that name, and in the summer of 1675 Andros sailed with several armed sloops for that col- ony to establish his authority as far as the river. The government of Connecticut, warned of his purpose, determined to resist him, and Captain Bull, the commander of the 14 fort at Saybrooke, was ordered to pay no at- tention to his claim. Andros, arriving off Saybrooke, hoisted the royal standard and demanded the surrender of the fort. A Connecticut Captain. Bull instantly ran up the English colors, and refused to comply with the demand. Andros, who was a coward at heart, quailed before the firmness of the Connecticut cap- tain, and abandoned his undertaking and sailed for Long Island. Thus ended the at- tempt of the Duke of York to dismember Connecticut. Andros returned to New York to disgust the people of that province with his tyranny. When James II. became king he com- pelled the proprietaries of New Jersey to surrender their claim to the jurisdiction of that province to him, and annexed it to New York. In 1683 the grievances of the people of New York had become so unendurable that James, then Duke of York, deemed it best to conciliate them, and allowed the free- holders to send representatives to an assem- bly. This assembly met in October, 1683, and its first act was to demand the rights of Englishmen. " Supreme legislative power,** they declared, " shall forever be and reside in the governor, council and people, met in gen- eral assembly. Every freeholder and freeman shall vote for representation without restraint No freeman shall suffer but by the judgment of his peers ; and all trials shall be by a jury of twelve men. No tax shall be assessed, on any pretence whatever, but by the consent oi the assembly. No seaman or soldier shall be quartered on the inhabitants against their will. No martial law shall exist. No person professing faith in God by Jesus Christ shall at any time be any ways disquieted or ques- tioned for any difference of opinion," These privileges were conceded by the Duke of York^ who solemnly promised not to change 210 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. them except for the dvantage of the colony ; but he had scarcely become king when he overturned the liberties he had conceded and made New York a royal province, dependent entirely upon his unrestrained will for its privileges. Leisler Holds the Fort. The people of New York were Protestants, many of whom had had cause to dread the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion in England. When James gave evidence of his intention to compel the acceptance of that faith by all his subjects, the colonies included, they were greatly discontented. Their fears were increased by the appointment by the king of a Roman Catholic as collector of cus- toms at New York. Nicholson, the royal governor, was also exceedingly unpopular. As soon as the news of the overthrow of James II. in England reached New York, Jacob Leisler, the senior captain of the mili- tary companies, was requested by his men to take possession of the fort and assume the management of affairs until the government should be settled by the orders of King William, Leisler was a prominent merchant and was very popular with the common people, but he was opposed by the great land- holders, who were principally Dutch, and by the party devoted to the Church of England. He found himself at the head of about five hundred armed men, and taking possession of the fort avowed his intention to hold it until the will of King William should be known. He was sustained by a large ma- jority of the people of New York, but the aristocratic party, and the churchmen, who hated him, as he was a Presbyterian, de- nounced him as a rebel, and sustained the council of Nicholson, the last governor appointed by King James, which withdrew to Albany in August, 1689. Leisler appointed his son-in-law. Mil- bourne, his secretary. Later in the year the people of Albany, being in danger of an attack from the French from Canada, asked aid from New York. Leisler sent Milbourne with a body of troops to their assistance, but the old council refused to acknowledge his authority, or to allow him to assume the command of the fort, and he went back with his men to New York, leaving the people of Albany to depend upon their own exertions for the defeat of the French. In their neces- sity they asked for and received aid from Connecticut. Blood Runs High. In December letters from the English government were received, addressed to Nicholson, or, in his absence, to " such as, for the time being, take care for preserving the peace and administering the law" in New York. A commission for Nicholson accompanied these documents ; but he was on his way to England, and Leisler, who was temporarily in authority in New York, regarded his position as confirmed by the letters from England, and caused himself to be proclaimed governor. He ordered the members of the old council at Albany to be arrested, and summoned an assembly to pro- vide for the wants of the colony. Upon first taking charge of affairs Leisler had addressed a letter to King William set- ting forth his reasons for his action, and ask- ing the king to make known his royal pleasure concerning the colony. No answer was sent by the king to this communication, but on the thirtieth of January, 1 691, a ship suddenly arrived in the harbor having on board a com- pany of English soldiers, commanded by a Captain Ingoldsby, who had been sent by Colonel Henry Sloughter, whom King Wil- liam had appointed governor of New York. The aristocratic party at once rallied around Ingoldsby as their leader, and that officer demanded of Leisler the surrender o{ the THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 211 fort Leisler insisted that he should produce his authority for such a demand, and, as none could be shown, refused to give up the fort, but offered Ingoldsby every assistance for himself and his men, and avowed his intention to submit to Sloughter upon his arrival. In the time which elapsed between the arrivals of Ingoldsby and the new gov- pernor party spirit ran so high that a collision occurred between the soldiers and the people, in which one man was wounded. Charged with Treason. Sloughter reached New York on the nine- teenth of March, 1691. Leisler at once sent messengers to receive his orders, but the mes- sengers were detained. The next morning Leisler addressed a letter to Sloughter^ ask- ing to whom he should deliver up the fort. Sloughter returned no answer to this letter, but ordered Ingoldsby to " arrest Leisler and the persons (tailed his council." Leisler, Milbourne, and six others were arrested and immediately arraigned before a tribunal composed of their inveterate enemies, on a charge of treason. This was a frivolous pretence, for it was well known that Leisler, who was an enthusiastic admirer of King William, had never dreamed of denying his authority ; but it was as good a charge as any other, as the fate of the prisoners was decided from the first. The prisoners denied the authority of the court, and refusing to plead before it, appealed to the king. The presiding officer of the court was the chief justice of New York, the infamous Joseph Dudley, who had been driven out of New England by the people whose liberties he had outraged. The prisoners, in spite of their appeal, were condemned to death. Sloughter was unwilling to disregard their appeal as entirely as the court had done, and wished to leave the matter to the king ; but the enemies of Leisler were resolved upon his death. Taking advantage of the known weakness of the governor, they made him drunk at a dinner party, and in this state induced him to sign the death warrant of the prisoners. The next morning at daybreak (May i6th) Leisler and Milbourne were hur- ried from their weeping families to the ga? lows, to be executed for treason. Judicial Murder. In spite of a pouring rain, the people who had gotten news of the tragedy crowded around the place of execution to cheer their martyrs in their last moments. " Weep not for us, who are departing to our God," said Leisler to the multitude. Milbourne sa.\\ standing among the crowd one of the mer. who had been prominent in their con- demnation, and cried out to him : " Robert Livingston, I will implead thee for this at the bar of God." Then turning to the peo- ple, he said : " I die for the king and queen, and for the Protestant religion, in which I was born and bred. Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit." The judicial murder was then completed, and New York's first martyrs laid down their lives in behalf of the rights of the people. The popular party was now more than ever embittered against the aristocratic class, and the principles which Leisler and Milbourne upheld were more than ever insisted upon. Their friends, " who were distinguished always by their zeal for popular power, for toleration, for opposition to the doctrine of legitimacy," continued the struggle, and at length succeeded in making their principles the law of the colony. The royalist assembly, while denying to the people an equality with themselves in political matters, were yet indisposed to sur- render to the crown the independence of the colony, and, with their successors, insisted upon the right of self-government, and the 212 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. regulation of taxation by the assembly, with such firmness that in 1705 Queen Anne yielded so far as to permit the assembly to appoint " its own treasurer to take charge of extraordinary supplies." arts to prevent this act of justice. As for Governor Sloughter, who was at the best but a poor weak adventurer, he died of the effects of his dissipation ^ix months after the execu- tion of his victims. 1 QUEEN The memory of Leisler and Milbourne was vindicated after their death. The son of the former made the appeal to the king which had been denied his father, and Parliament at length reversed the attainder under the charge of treason, and restored their estates to their families Dudley exerted all his ANNE. In 1692 Benjamin Fletcher was appointed to succeed Sloughter. He was an officer of the royal army, and was as passionate and avaricious as he was incompetent in other respects. He was a firm ally of the aristo- cratic party, and a bitter foe to popular lib- erty. In 1693, i" order to assist New York THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 213 against the attacks of the French in Canada, all the colonies were required to contribute their quota of troops to her defence. An effort was also made to place the militia of New Jersey and Connecticut under the orders of the governor of New York. The authorities of Connecticut, however, were resolved not to relinquish the control of their militia, which would have been to sacrifice their rights secured by the charter. In order to enforce his authority, Gov- ernor Fletcher repaired to Hartford, where the assembly of Connecticut was in session. At the time of his arrival a company of militia was engaged in training in the town. Governor Fletcher rode up to this force ; but its commander. Captain Wadsworth, paid no attention to h'm, and did not even acknowl- edge his presence. Fletcher, who had boasted that he would not stir from the colony until he was obeyed, ordered his secretary to read his commission in the hearing of the troops. *' Silence ! " " Music ! Music ! *' As the secretary commenced to read, Wadsworth ordered the drums to be beaten, and the secretary's voice was drowned. ''Silence!" cried Fletcher; "begin again mth the commission." "Music! music!" ordered Wadsworth, the same man who had hid the charter from Governor Andros. The drummers began again, and the governor, in a rage, ordered them to cease their music. Wadsworth sharply commanded the bewil- idered musicians to go on with their drum- triing, and then turning upon Fletcher, said to him fiercely : " If I am interrupted again, I will make daylight shine through you.'* The voice and manner of the man con- vinced the governor that he was in earnest, and he went back to New York, satisfied of the impossibility of bringing the Connecticut militia under his orders. New York was the most northern colony in which the authority of the Church oi England was established. ^\ number of its people were members of that communion, and in the colonial government the influence of that church was predominant. The vast majority of the people, however, were hostile to it, and it was not until 1695 that Governor Fletcher was able to obtain for it anything like favor from the assembly. The repre- sentatives of the people were fearful that if it obtained a firm footing among them, the British government might bestow upon it a power which would be dangerous to the other denominations. Naturally it enjoyed the favor of the home government, and engrossed all the provision made by EnglcUid for religious matters in the colony. Struggle for Liberty. Lord Cornbury, the royal governor, at- tempted in 1705 to silence a Presbyterian minister for preaching without a license from the governor ; but a jury, composed of Episcopalians, acquitted the prisoner. The same governor connived at the seizure by the Episcopalians of a church in Jamaica, which had been built by the whole town ; but the colonial court restored it to its rightful owners. The spirit of popular lib- erty and toleration was growing rapidly in New York, and its colonial history is the story of a constant struggle between the people and the royal governors for the asser- tion and maintenance of their rights. Nearly all the governors regarded their position as but a means of enriching themselves, and systematically defrauded both the king and the colony. By 1732 the population of New York City numbered a little less than nine thousand souls. In that year a case of the deepest interest occurred in that city. John Peter Zenger had established a newspaper called 214 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. the Weekly Journal^ which ventured to cen- sure the arbitrary action of the governor and assembly in levying illegal taxes upon the colony. This was a bold step, for until now no newspaper had dared to criticise the action of the government. Cosby, the gov- ernor of New York, resolving to make an example of the offender, arrested Zenger on the charge of libel and caused his paper to be publicly burned. Zenger employed two lawyers to defend him, and these increased the anger of the government by denying the competency of the court, inasmuch as the appointment of the chief justice, Delancy, had been made by Cosby without the con- sent of the council, and was therefore illegal. The court at once struck their names from its list of attorneys, and this arbitrary action so intimidated the remaining members of Ihe bar that Zenger found it impossible to procure counsel Famous ** Quaker Lawyer. In this helpless condition he was put on tWal, and the court had actually begun its proceedings when a stranger, a venerable find noble-looking man, entered the room •And took his seat at the bar. He announced his name to the court, and stated that he had come to act as counsel for the prisoner. A murmur of admiration greeted the announce- ment of his name. He was Andrew Hamilton, speaker of the assembly of Pennsylvania, the famous " Quaker lawyer" of Philadelphia. In the trial which ensued, Hamilton offered Xq prove the truth of the alleged libel, but was not allowed to do so ; the chief justice quoting English precedents in support of his decision. Hamilton then made an eloquent appeal to the jury, declaring that they of their own knowledge knew the statements of( Zenger's paper to be true, and urged them . to maintain the great principles of the free=' dom of the press and liberty of speech throughout the colonies, which principles, and not John Peter Zenger, he solemnly declared were on trial before them. In spite of the unfavorable charge of the judge, the jury brought in a unanimous verdict of ac- quittal, which was announced amid the cheers of the people. Thus while the freedom of the press was still in doubt in England, and thirty-seven years before the famous trial for libel of the publisher of the Letters Junius established it in the mother country, the people of New York declared themselves its guardians, and struck down the effort of the royal power to impose shackles upon their most vigilant defender. In 1702 the proprietaries of New Jersey surrendered their rights of jurisdiction to the crown, and Queen Anne united the two Jer- seys in one province, and placed it under the governor of New York. It was given a sep arate assembly, but this concession of partial independence of its neighbor did not suit the province, and after many protests it was given its own governor in the person of Lewis Morris, in 1708. During the rest of the colonial period it remained a loyal province. CHAPTER XVII Colonization of Pennsylvania The QuaRc« — Their Origin and Doctrines — William Penn — Becomes a Quaker — Is Persecuted for His Rdigious Opinions — Becomes Interested in American Colonization — Purchases West Jersey from the Proprietor — Conceives the Idea of Founding a Free State in America — Purchases Pennsylvania from Charles II. — Conditions of His Charter — Sends Out a Colony — Arrival of Penn in America — Philadelphia Founded — Penn's Treaty with the Indians — Religious Toleration Guaranteed — Penn's Relations with His Colonists — Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania in Population and Prosperity — William Penn and James II. — Renewal of Penn's Troubles — William III. Declares Pennsylvania a Royal Province — Penn is Vindicated and Restored to His Proprietary Rights — His Return to Pennsylvania — Character of the Settlers of the Province — Penn Goes Back to England — Efforts to Deprive Him of His Possessions — His Death. ONE of the most remarkable results of the English Reformation was the rise and growth of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, as they came to be called. Discarding what seemed to them superfluous and unnecessary forms in religion, they confined themselves to a simpler and more primitive expression of their faith. Believing that the only evil a Christian should resist is the evil of his own heart, they opposed no resistance to perse- cution or to ill-treatment from their fellow- men ; and as servants of the Prince of Peace, were unchangeably opposed to war and bloodshed. They held the doctrine of the Trinity : that we obtain salvation by the atoning blood of Christ ; that man was cre- ated a free and responsible agent ; that he forfeited his right to the blessings of the Creator by his fall, and will owe his restor- ation to his lost estate to the mercy of God and the blood of Christ ; that the Holy Scriptures are the work of .nspiration, and a good rule of life and faith. With them the test of Cliristianity was not a man's standing in the church, but the answer of a good conscience ; the sense of true inward communion between the soul of the individual and God. They conducted their worship in silence, and regarded all their members as sent by God to preach His Gospel ; therefore, any one, even women, was free to speak in their meetings the message which came to him from the Holy Spirit. They denied that the right to preach was restricted to any particular class, and refused to acknowledge the authority of the regular clergy. Oaths were regarded as unlawful for Christian men, and temperance and the utmost simplicity in all things were enjoined upon their people. They refused to recog- nize the social distinctions which prevailed in the world, though they admitted the power of the magistrates to enforce the laws, and regarded all men as equals. Their dress was simple and in proportion to the means of the wearer, and their lives were blame- less. They admitted the right of all men to worship God in their own way, and thus extended to all others the perfect toleration they claimed for themselves. The founder of this sect was the good George Fox, the son of a weaver of Leices- tershire, and "by his mother descended'i from the stock of the martyrs." He began' to teach his doctrines about the middle oi the seventeenth century, and at first his converts were people of the humbler classes of England. He was met with a determined opposition from both the established church 215 2l6 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. and the Presbyterians, and was imprisoned, set in the stocks, cruelly beaten and other- wise persecuted, and driven from place to place. Yet he persevered, and his doctrines began to spread. Distressed by the perse- cutions to which his followers were sub- jected, he visited America after the restora- tion of Charles II., in the hope of finding there a place of refuge for his people, but could find none. Puritan New England was hostile to his doctrines, and the power of the Church of England was strong enough in the southern colonies to defeat his object. The Founder of Pennsylvania. Among Fox's converts were a few from the higher classes of English society. One of these was destined to be, next to its founder, the greatest benefactor of his faith, and one of the choice instruments of the Almighty in the settlement and Christianiza- tion of America. This was William Penn. He was the son and heir of Admiral Sir William Penn, one of the most distinguished naval commanders of England. The admiral desired for his son the advantages which his high position would readily secure to him, but the young man at an early day, happening to converse with a simple-minded Quaker, became so deeply impressed with his prin- ciples that he adopted them as his own. This greatly annoyed the father, but suppos- ing that it was a mere boyish notion which his son would outgrow, William was sent to study at the University of Oxford, and after leaving that institution was made to travel through Europe to improve his mind and to remove his tendency to Quakerism. William returned to England, after an absence of two years, greatly improved in mind, but still true to his religious convic- tions. In 1666, while traveling in Ireland, Penn met his old friend, Thomas Loe, and heard him speak of the glorious triumph of the faith of a Christian over the adversities of the world. His enthusiasm was once more awakened to such an extent that he from that moment began to seek to draw others into the communion which had given him so much happiness. His course gave offence to the authorities and he was impris- oned. He addressed a remonstrance to the viceroy of Ireland, in which he declared : "Religion is my crime and my innocence; it makes me a prisoner to malice, but my own freeman." Being liberated, he went back home, but only to meet with mockery and persecution. He was ridiculed by his companions of his own rank in life, and it was a common jest in society, says Pepys, that " William Penn was a Quaker again, or some very melan- choly thing." His father, disappointed and indignant at the failure of his hopes, turned him out of his house without a penny; but his mother, truer to her nature, supplied him with sufficient funds to relieve his most pressing wants. Thrust Into Prison. Penn now began to defend his doctrines through the press, and thus brought them into greater prominence. This soon made him the victim of the ecclesiastical authori- ties, and the Bishop of London threatened him with imprisonment for life if he did not recant his doctrines. He answered firmly : " Then my prison shall be my grave." He was committed to the Tower on a charge of heresy and kept in close confinement. Charles II., naturally kind-hearted, was touched by his firmness, and sent the learned Stillingfleet, himself a man of humanity, to' reason with him. " The Tower," said Penn, ' " is to me the worst argument in the world." At the end of a year his father's friend, the Duke of York, procured his release, foi' the consistency of the young man had won back COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 217 for hini the affection and sympathy of the stern old admiral. Every effort was now made to draw William Penn away from his faith. A high rank in the royal navy, the favor of the king, and many other inducements were held out ito him, but he refused them all and remained true to his principles. In less than a year after his release from the Tower he was arrested for hav- ing spoken at a Quaker meeting. He protested his right to do this and declared that no power on earth should prevent him from worshiping the God who made him. He was placed on trial foi his offence, and bold- ly demanded to know on what law the indictment against him was founded. " On the common law," replied the recordei. "Where is that law?" asked Penn. " The law which is not in being, fa» from being common, is no law at all." He con- ducted his own defence, and as he was pleading earnestly for his rights as an Englishman, was hurried out of court. He appealed to the jury to remember that they were his judges. The jury, in spite of an unfavor- able charge from the judge, brought in a verdict of acquittal. The court ordered them back to their room, with the angry declaration : " We will have a verdict, by the help of God, or you shall starve for it." " You are Englishmen," cried Penn to the jurors, as they were retiring: "mind your privilege; git-e not away your right." At last, after being kept two days and nights without food, the jury repeated their verdict of " not guilty," and were finedf by the court for daring to assert their inde WILLIAM PENN. pendence. Penn was fined for contempt of court, and sent back to prison. His fine was soon discharged by his father, who died shortly afterwards. " Son William," said the dying admiral, to whom earthly honors 2l8 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. now appeared in their true light, " if you and your friends keep to your plain way of preaching- and living, you will fnake an end of the priests." Penn was now nearly twenty-six years old, and had inherited from his father a handsome estate. He continued to explain ^nd defend his doctrines through the press, and in 1671 was arrested and sentenced to six months' imprisonment in Newgate. From his prison he addressed a noble plea to Parliament and to the nation for tolera- tion in all matters of faith. The Wife of Penn. Upon his release from prison, Penn trav- elled in Holland and Germany, and upon his return to England, in 1673, married a woman of great beauty, whose noble character ren- dered her a fitting companion to him. He took no part in public affairs until the imprisonment of George Fox, upon his return to England to America, called him once more to the defence of his brethren. Fox being released, he and Penn and several others travelled through Holland and a part of Germany, seeking to make converts to their faith — an effort in which they were very successful among the Dutch and Ger- man peasantry. Returning to England, he once more appealed to Parliament, but with- out success, to do justice to the Quakers, and grant them the toleration to which they were entitled. Despairing of success in England, Penn iiow directed the whole of his energies to securing a home for his persecuted brethren in the new world. A number of Quakers were already settled along the banks of the Delaware and in New Jersey, and in 1 67 5 the embarrassments of Edward By Hinge, who had purchased Lord Berkeley's mterest in New Jersey, obliged him to sell his share of rhat province. It was purchased by William Penn, Gawen Lourie and Nicholas Lucas, for the benefit of the Quakers This placed the Friends in possession of an asylum, but it left them more at the mercy of the English government and church than they desired to be, and New Jersey was divided into two equal parts ; Cartaret, Berkeley's former partner, retaining East Jersej, and West Jersey becoming the property of the Quakers. The People Rule. This was accomplished in 1676, and in March of the following year a government resting upon the will of the people, and securing to the inhabitants protection and equality in all their political and religious rights and privileges, was set up in West Jersey. The English Quakers came over to the new province in great num.bers, with the good wishes of Charles H., and peaceful relations were established with the Lidians. Byllinge, who had retained some interest in the province, now began to be troublesome, and claimed the right to nominate the deputy governor. The people denied his claim, and at the instigation of William Penn, amended their constitution so as to place the choice of all their officers in their own hands, and then elected a governor. Penn had now become deeply interested in the colonization of America, and wished to secure for his faith a wider domain than West Jersey. He had inherited from his father a claim against the English govern- ment amounting to sixteen thousand pounds. He now proposed to exchange this claim for a grant of territory in America. Charles H., who was always in want of money, and who never set much value upon the lands of the new world, readily accepted his offer, as it was urged by Lords North, Halifax andi Sunderland, and the Duke of York, who were firm friends of William Penn. The COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 219 king, in 168 1, granted to Penn a district lying west of the Delaware River, and corre- sponding very nearly to territory embraced in the present state of Pennsylvania, which name the king bestowed upon it in honor of the proprietor. The Duke of York claimed Delaware as his own property, and Penn, who wished to have free access to the sea, purchased it of him the next year. The territory was granted to Penn as absolute proprietor; the people were secured in the right of self-government; religious equality was guaranteed to all ; the acts of the colonial legislature were to be submitted to the king and council, who had the power to annul them if contrary to the law of England ; the power of levying customs was reserved to Parliament ; and no taxes were to be imposed upon the people save by the colonial legislature or by Parlia- ment. Settlers Throng the Wilderness. Penn then invited all persons who desired to do so to settle in Pennsylvania, and in a proclamation declared his intention to leave the settlers free to make their own laws. " I propose," he said, " to leave myself and suc- cessors no power of doing mischief, that the will of no one man may hinder the good of a whole country." "God," he declared, "has furnished me with a better resolution, and has given me His grace to keep it." His resolution was soon tested. Soon after he obtained his patent a company of traders offered him six thousand pounds and an annual payment of a stipulated sum for the monopoly of the Indian traffic between the Delaware and the Susquehanna. He had already straitened himself very much by his expenditures for his colony, and his family had been obliged to endure some deprivations in consequence. The offer was tempting, but he declined it firmly. What was free to him should be free to every inhabitant of Pennsylvania, and he would derive no advantage at the expense of his people. Liberal Education. A company was collected and sent out to Pennsylvania, under William Markham, Penn's nephew, and the personal character of the proprietor of the colony was deemed by all a sufficient guarantee for the protec-' tion of their liberties. Penn intended fol- lowing this company as soon as he could, and in the meantime enjoined Markham to continue the establishment already existing along the Delaware, and to govern in accord- ance with the laws of England, In 1682 he prepared to go out to America to superin- tend the formal establishment of his colony. As he was about to sail, he wrote to his wife, to whom he was devoted with all the ardor of his youth : " Live low and spar- ingly till my debts be paid ; I desire not riches, but to owe nothing ; be liberal to the poor and kind to all." With regard to their children, he wrote: " Let their learning be liberal ; spare no cost, for by such parsimony all is lost that is saved." Penn took out with him one hundred emigrants, and reached Newcastle on the twenty-seventh of October, 1682, after a long and trying voyage. In the presence of the Swedish, Dutch and English settlers, who welcomed him with joy, he took formal pos- session of the provmce, which was surren- dered to him by the agents of the Duke of York. He pledged himself to the people to grant them liberty of conscience and all their civil privileges. From Newcastle Penn went up the river to Chester, where a settlement had been formed by emigrants from the north of England, who had preceded him. Early in November, accompanied by a few friends, Penn ascended the Delaware in an 220 COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 2^1 open boat to the mouth of the Schuylkill, and passing a little distance beyond this, landed on the beautiful site now occupied by the city of Philadelphia. Tlie place at which he landed was long known as the " Blue Anchor Landing," from a tavern of that name which stood there. A little later, under a spreading elm, Penn met the chiefs of the neighboring Indian tribes and entered into a treaty of peace and friendship with them. This treaty was confirmed by no oath, but it remained unbroken for fifty years, and as neither side sought to evade its obligations, which were simply of peace and good will, the colony of Pennsylvania escaped in its earlier years the horrors of a savage warfare from which the other settlers suffered. " We will live," said the Indian sachems, " in love with William Penn and liis children as long as the moon and the sun shall endure." They kept their word. " Penn came without arms ; he declared his purpose to abstain from violence ; he had no message but peace ; and not a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian." The scene of the treaty was at Shacka- maxon, now Kensington, in the city of Phil- adelphia. Philadelphia Laid Out. On the pleasant tract lying between the Delaware and the Schuylkill, which was purchased from the Swedes, who had on their part purchased it from the Indians, Penn in 1683 laid out the capital of his province, which he named Philadelphia, the City of Brotherly Love, in token of the principles which he meant should constitute the common law of his possessions. It was abundantly supplied with streams of pure water and was admirably situated for pur- poses of trade. He did not wish it to be built after the manner of European cities, but designed it to be a *' greene country town, gardens round each house, that it might never be burned, and always be wholesome." The streets were laid off by marking their course through the primitive forest by blazing the trees, and the building of dwellings was begun. In the first year* of Penn's arrival in the colony twenty-three ships with emigrants arrived in Pennsylvania. In three years after its foundation Philadel- phia contained upwards of six hundred houses, and the colony had a population of ten thousand. The Indians proved the firm friends of the colonists and supplied them with wild fowl and venison in return for articles of European manufacture. ^^ TRDOtfillOUllol OF V iM WIU\AMPENNl AND THE t INDIAN NAT\OHt 1 IS8 2 1 ■i 1 luNBMKlH FAITH - '^ ^^ ■ w^n^^ ^^^ PENN TREATY MONUMENT. Penn from the first refused to retain in his hands the exercise of the vast powers with which the charter granted him by the king invested him. As early as December, 1682, he convened a general convention of the people and gave them a charter of liberties which Bancroft thus sums up : " God was declared the only Lord of conscience ; the first day of the week was reserved as a day of leisure, for the ease of the creation. The rule of equality was introduced into families by abrogating the privileges of primogeni- ture. The word of an honest man was 222 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. evidence without an oath. The mad spirit of speculation was checked by a system of strict accountability, applied to factors and agents. " Every man liable to civil burdens pos- sessed the right of suffrage ; and, without regard to sect, every Christian was eligible to office. No tax or custom could be levied but by law. The Quaker is a spiritualist; the pleasures of the senses, masks, revels and THE OLD swedes' CHURCH, BUILT IN 164I stage plays, not less than bull-baits and cock-fights, were prohibited. Murder was the only crime punishable by death. Mar- riage was esteemed a civil contract ; adultery a felony. The Quakers had suffered wrong from imprisonment; the false accuser was liable to double damages. Every prison for convicts was made a workhouse. There were neither poor-rates nor tithes. The Swedes, and Finns, and Dutch were invested with the liberties of Englishmen." * In March, 1683, the first general assembly of Pennsylvania met at Philadelphia. " I am ready," said Penn to this body, " to settle such foundations as may be for your happi- ness." Under the guidance of the founder of the colony, the assembly established a constitu- tion which made Pennsylvania emphatically a free state. A government was es> tablished, consisting of a governor, a legislative council and an assembly composed of representatives of the people. As the charter made the pro- prietor responsible to the king for the legislation of the colony, no act of legislation was to be valid until it had passed the great seal of the province. With this exception, the entire power of the province was left in the hands of the people. " But for the hereditary office of proprietary, Penn- sylvania had been a representative democracy. In Maryland the council was named by Lord Baltimore ; in Pennsylvania, by the people. In Maryland, the power of appointing magistrates, and all, even the subor- dinate executive officers, rested solely with the proprietary; in Pennsylvania, William Penn could not appoint a justice or a constable; every executive officer, except the highest, was elected by the people or their representatives ; and the governor could perform no public act but with the consent of the council. Lord Baltimore had a revenue derived from the export of tobacco, the staple of Maryland ; and his colony was burdened with taxes; a similar revenue was offered to William Penn and declined, and tax-gatherers were un known in his province." * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. 38 <■ COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 223 Thus did the "Quaker King" complete one of the sublimest surrenders of political power in all the annals of history. " I de- sired," he said, in his grand simplicity, " to show men as free and happy as they can be." The colony improved rapidly. Men were attracted from all parts of Great Britain, from Ireland, the Low countries, from Ger- many and Sweden, to Pennsylvania. The personal character of William Penn, not less than the advantages afforded them, induced Lord Baltimore claimed Delaware as a part of the country granted to him. Penn sus- tained his claim to that region by pleading the actual settlement of the Dutch previous to the grant to Lord Baltimore, and his pur- chase of the rights which the Duke of York had derived from the Dutch. The English courts decided, in 1685, that Delaware did not constitute a part of Maryland and sus- tained Penn's claim. The boundaries of the two colonies were settled by a compromise. ~"^i**5»S S.**.- INDIAN AMUSEMENTS CANOE-RACE BETWE.iN SQUAWS. them to settle m the happy colony. Phila- delphia especially grew with rapidity, and already gave promise of becoming the prin- cipal city of colonial America. Schools were opened and liberally encouraged, for ignorance had no advocates in this thrifty community. The printing press was also set up and put to work. In August, 1684, Penn, having successfully established his colony, took leave of his people and returned to England. During Penn's absence in England rhe people of Delaware began to be restless. They presented to the proprietary a list of grievances, and were granted by Penn a sep- arate government. The fall of James II., who continued the friend of William Penn, though so widely opposed to him in religion, was the beginning of trouble for the proprietor of Pennsylvania. Penn did not relinquish his friendship for the dethroned king, and his enemies made th'^ 224 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. constancy, which in no way interfered with his loyalty to William and Mary, the means of injuring him in the estimation of the new king. William was induced to believe the charges of disloyalty which were brought against Penn, and deprived him of his patent and proprietorship of Pennsylvania. Penn was also imprisoned several times for dis- loyalty. Absurd Teachings. During this period the colony was much annoyed by a disturbance led by one George Keith, who pushed the Quaker doctrine of non-resistance to the verge of absurdity. He argued that no Quaker could with consist- ency take part in public affairs as a magis- trate or legislator. As the liberties of the colony were the work of Quakers the infer- ence was plain. If Keith was right, then Pennsylvania had no lawful government, and must apply to the king for one. Keith pro- duced such trouble in the colony that even the tolerant Quakers vvere at length obliged to lay hands on him. He was tried and fined for using seditious language ; but lest their action should seem to be a punish- ment of opinion the Quaker magistrates remitted the fine. He subsequently became a clergyman of the English church. This disturbance gave the king a pretext for declaring Pennsylvania a royal province, and in April, 1693, Benjamin Fletcher was appointed by William and Mary governor of Pennsylvania, to which province Delaware was reunited. The people, indignant at this invasion of their rights, attempted no resist- ance, but refused to recognize the royalist governor. Some of the magistrates resigned their offices upon his arrival. Upon the meeting of the assembly the hostility to Pletcher increased. The members of the assembly declared the laws they had made under the charter granted to Penn to be valid, and refused to have new ones, or recognize any other authority. A charter granted by King Charles was, they maintained, as valid as one granted by King William, and they refused to re-enact their old laws, as such a course would be to brand them as illegal. Fletcher de- manded that the assembly should appropriate a sum for the defence of New York against the Indians. His demand was flatly refused. The assembly was willing, however, to make an appropriation for the relief of the people of New York who had suffered by this war, but only upon condition that this sum should be disbursed by officers of its own appoint- ment. Fletcher refused to consent to this condition, as he regarded it as an infringe- ment of the king's prerogative, and the assembly was dissolved, A. D. 1694. Penn's Misfortunes. In the meantime Penn had been restored to his proprietary rights. The king ex- pressed himself satisfied of his innocence, which was established before the council, and in August, 1694, the patent for his restoration was formally issued. Penn was anxious tc return to Pennsylvania, but was detained in England by his inability to raise the funds necessary for the voyage. He had spent a large part of his fortune in planting the colony, and the persecutions and annoy- ances to which he had been subjected in England had caused him great loss. Nor was this his only trouble. His wife and eldest son had died during his trials, and some whom he had imagined his friends in his prosperity had in his adversity shown themselves his enemies. He retained his serenity of mind, however, and persevered in the good work to which he had devoted his life. Being unable to go to Pennsylvania he sent his nephew, Markham, as his deputy. Markham summoned an assembly, and this body, alarmed at the recent changes in COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 22^ their charter, which had threatened to deprive them of their political rights, en- deavored to provide against a recurrence of the danger by assuming the power of fram- ing a constitution for themselves. The assem- bly of 1696 made still further changes, and placed the control of the colonial govern- ment entirely in the hands of the people by giving them the election of all the officials of the province. Old Charter Discarded. Penn returned to Pennsylvania in Novem- ber, 1699, and sanctioned the action of the people. One of the members of the council proposed that they should make a constitu- tion that should be " firm and lasting " to them and to their descendants. " Keep what is good in the charter and frame of govern- ment," said Penn ; " and lay aside what is burdensome, and add what may best suit the common good." It was agreed by all par- ties that it would be best to surrender the old charter and frame a new constitution. This was attended with considerable diffi- culty, as Delaware dreaded the loss of its independence. It was conciliated by being given its own legislature, but was under the administration of the governor of Pennsyl- vania. The two colonies were never again united. The constitution secured to the people all the political privileges they claimed. Penn, whose sole desire was for the welfare of ths colony, held back nothing for himself. Among the earliest emigrants to Pennsyl- vania were many Germans who had been converted to the Quaker doctrines by Will- iam Penn during his missionary labors on the continent of Europe. They settled at Germantown, to which they gave its name. Towards the close of the seventeenth century the severe wars in Europe drove out large numbers of Germans from the Rhine valley. IS They sought refuge in England at first, and from that country passed over to Pennsyl- vania. They were chiefly Lutherans, and members of the German Reformed church. They settled chiefly in the southern part of Pennsylvania, and clung together instead of separating, thus giving to this part of the state the peculiar characteristics which dis- tinguish it to the present day. They held aloof from the English, and allowed the German language alone to be taught to their children. They attracted other settlers from their native country, and the region occupied by them was soon thickly settled, and was noted as one of the best cultivated sections of the province. Industrious Settlers. About the beginning of the eighteenth century a large emigration from the north of Ireland and from Scotland began to set in, and continued for some years. These people were nearly all Presbyterians and located themselves chiefly in the eastern and central sections of the province. They were an energetic, industrious and intelligent com- munity, and set to work with a will to improve their new home. They advanced the frontier of Pennsylvania steadily west" ward by their new plantations, and proved themselves among the most desirable settlers that had yet come into the province. William Penn had come to Pennsylvania with the intention of passing the remainder of his life there; but rumors now began to reach the colony that it was the intention of the crown to deprive Pennsylvania of its charter and make it a royal province. These reports made it necessary for Penn to return to England, a step to which nothing but the importance of being near the home govern^ ment to defend the liberties of his people could have forced him. He had done his work in America well, and could go back to 226 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. his native land with the satisfaction that he had successfully laid the foundations of a great and rapidly-growing state, and had placed the liberties of its people upon such a secure basis that they would endure for all time. He had founded a democracy, and had proved by the most generous surrender of his truly regal powers that his chief aim in life was the good of his fellow-men. After making such arrangements as he deemed best for the welfare of his " young countrie," he went back to England in 1701. Penn's Honorable Poverty. There were not wanting efforts after his arrival in England to deprive him of his proprietary rights and to convert Pennsyl- vania into a royal province; but the deep reverence with which the English people had now come to regard the virtues of Will- iam Penn prevented the consummation of these designs, and saved the people of Penn- sylvania from the rule of royal governors, such as plundered the sister province of New York. The crovn could never be persuaded to rob the man whose pure life was an honor to the nation. In his last years Penn was so poor that he was for a while an inmate of a debtors' prison. He had bought the prov- ince of Pennsylvania from Charles H., and had confirmed his claim by purchasing the lands from the Indians, so that he was abso- lute owner of the unoccupied lands of the colony. He thus had it in his power to relieve his distress by selling his claims, but in his deepest poverty he refused to part with Pennsylvania, except upon terms which would secure to his people the full and per- fect enjoyment of the liberties he had guar- anteed them. He died in 171 8, peacefully and amid the sympathy of his countrymen in England, and the sorrow of those whom he had befriended in his beloved Pennsyl- vania. By his pure life he won for the peo- ple of his faith the respect of all candid men, and by his fidelity to the principles he pro- fessed he became the benefactor of millions who will ever count it a privilege to honor his name. Penn left three sons, who were all minors at the time of his death. They succeeded to his rights as proprietary of Pennsylvania, and the government of the colony was ad- ministered for them by deputies until the Revolution, when their claims were pur- chased by the state. CHAPTER XVIII Settlement of the Carolinas wradual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia — Charles II. Grants Carolina to Clarendon and Others— The " Gram Model " — An Ideal Aristocracy Proposed for Carolina — The Authority of the Proprietaries Established \n North Caro lina — Continued Settlement of that Region — Characteristics of the Early Settlers of North Carolina — The People Rejec! the Grand Model — Hostility of England to the Colonial Commerce — Insurrection in North Carolina — Slothel Govemoi — Settlement of South Carolina — Charleston Founded — The Proprietary Constitutions Rejected by South Carolina^— Rapid Growth of the Colony — Introduction of Slavery — Characteristics of the Early Settlers of South Carolina — Efforts '. to Enforce the Navigation Acts— Resistance of the People — The Proprietaries Abandon their Constitutions — Archdale'i ■ Reforms — Religious Intolerance — Establishment of the Church of England in South Carolina — Action of the Crown- - Continued Prosperity of South Carolina— Governor Moore Attacks St. Augustine — Failure of the EtFort — The Spaniard* are Repulsed in an Attempt to Capture Charleston — Indian War in North Carolina — The Tuscaroras Driven Northwwrtf —War with the Yemmassees — Destruction of their Power — Separation of the Carolinas. WE have related the efforts of the French to colonize the shores of the beautiful region which they named Carolina, and the failure of Raleigh's attempt to found a city upon Roanoke Island. We have now to consider the successful planting of this same region with English settlements. After the settlement of Virginia the atten- tion of the English was frequently drawn to the fertile region south of the James, and as their plantations spread in that direction ad- venturous explorers went into this region, and returned with reports of its great beauty and fertility. When the severe measures of the Virginia colony for enforcing conformity to the established church were put in opera- tion, many dissenters withdrew from the iimits of the colony and settled in what are now the northeastern counties of North Carolina. Among these were a company of Presbyterians, who settled upon the Chowan. Others followed them, and by the year 1663 these counties contained a prosperous and growing community of English-speaking people. In 1663, Charles II., who always displayed the most remarkable liberality in his gifts of American lands, granted to eight of his favorites the vast region extending from the present southern boundary of Virginia to the St. John's River in Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Those upon whom this rich gift was bestowed were the Earl of Clarendon, the prime minister, Lord Ashlq^ Cooper, who was afterwards Earl of Shaftes- bury, the Duke of Albemarle, Lord Craven. Sir John Colleton, Lord John Berkeley, his brother. Sir William Berkeley, the governor of Virginia, and Sir George Cartaret. They were given absolute power over their terri- tory, the king reserving only a claim upon their allegiance. The country had been called Carolina by the first French settlers in honor of Charles IX. of France; the old name was retained in honor of Charles II. of England. The proprietors had but one object in view. to enrich themselves ; but they claimed to be influenced by a " pious zeal ior the propaga tion of the gospel." They at once set to work to prepare a code of laws for the govern- ment of their province. This task was com- mitted to Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and the great philosopher, John Locke, then an almost unknown man. These produced 227 228 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA- k code known as "The Grand Model," or "Fundamental Constitutions." This was i system which might have been successful if the people for whom it was intended had been some European community of the Middle Ages, but it was utterly unsuited to % colony in the woods of America, composed of men whose personal independence and sturdy love of freedom were the indispensable conditions of the success of thei*" enterprise. By the terms of the ^ Grand Model" an order of nobility was created, into whose hands the sole right to rule was committed. Earls, barons, and squires were made the natural heads of the various classes of society, and the common people were attached to the soil as tenants. A Mockery of Freedom. A simple tenant could never rise above his humble position, and was denied the right of suffrage ; only those who possessed fifty acres of land were allowed this right, or were entitled to the name of freemen. The freemen were allowed an assembly, but that body was placed entirely under the control of the nobility. Religious freedom was promised to all persons, but the constitution expressly declared that the only orthodox establishment was the Church of England. Trial by jury was guaranteed, but with the destructive provision that a majority should decide the verdict of the jury. It was very clear that this magnificent constitution would not suit the settlers in the log cabins of North Carolina, but the propric' tors, ignorant of the people they had to deal with, proceeded to organize their govern- ment in England by electing the Duke of Albemarle to the rank of Palatine, as the head of their system was termed. Sir Wil- liam Berkeley, then governor of Virginia, was ordered to establish the authority of the pro- prietors over tht settlers on Albemarle Sound. This he did, and appointed Williaiu Drufii- mond, a Scotchman and one of the settlers, governor. This was the same Drummond who afterwards took part in Bacon's rebellion in Virginia, and was hanged by Berkeley, a* has been related. A simple form of govern- ment was established, and the people of North Carolina were left in peace until it should be time to collect the quit-rents which the proprietors claimed as due for their occu- pation of their lands. In i66i,a few years previous to this action of Berkeley, a company from New England had made a settlement or the Cape Fear River. The colony did not prosper, how- ever, though liberal inducements were held ou! to it, and many of the emigrants returned home. In 1664 a colony from the Barbadoes joined the settlers on the Cape Fear. The new-comers had been sent out by a company at the Barbadoes, who pur- chased from the Indians a tract of land thirty- two miles square on the Cape Fear, and asked of the proprietors of Carolina a confir- mation of their purchase and a separate char- ter of government. A liberal charter was granted them, the country was named Clar- endon, and Sir John Yeamans, a resident of Barbadoes, was appointed governor. Hf was instructed to " make things easy to the people of Ne^y England ; from thence th« greatest supplies are expected." Lumber Trade. In 1665 he led a company of emij^rant from Barbadoes, and formed a settlement 01 the Cape Fear. The effort to found a town was unsuccessful, and the emigrants found great diflticulty in contending against the: natural barrenness and poverty of the region in which they had located. They devoted themselves to the cutting and export of lum* ber, and established a trade in boards, staves and shingles to the West Indies, which !• SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 229 still carried on by their descendants. This trade was found to be profitable, and emi- gration increased. In 1666 the colony is said to have had a population of eight hundred souls. In the meantime the settlements on Albe- marle Sound and the Chowan had prospered, and had increased steadily in population, under the simple government established over them. This government consisted of a council of six persons named by the proprie- taries and six chosen by the assembly, and an assembly consist- ing of the governor, the council and twelve representatives chos- en by the freeholders of the colony. The proprietaries had con- firmed the colonists m the possession of their lands, and had solemnly promised them religious tolera- tion and exemption from taxation except by the colonial legis- lature. In 1669 the assembly, feeling se- cure in these guaran- tees, enacted a series of laws for the govern- ment of the colony, which remained in force in North Carolina until near the close of the next century. It was enacted that no emigrant should be sued for a debt contracted before his settle- ment in the colony until he had been a resident of the province for five years. Marriage was made a civil contract, and for its validity required simply the consent of the contracting parties before a magistrate \n the presence of witnesses. No emigrant could be taxed during his first year's resi- dence in the colony. New settlers were invited by the offer of large bounties in lands, but no title to these lands could be obtained until after a two years* residence in the colony. The governor's salary and the other expenses of the province were secured by the imposition of a fee of thirty pounds of tobacco in every lawsuit. The members of the assembly served without compensa- tion, seeking no emoluments from office. THE COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA. In 1670 the constitution of Shaftesbury and Locke was sent over by the proprie- taries, and the governor was ordered to establish it in the colony. It met with a determined resistance from both legislature and people, who could never be induced to submit to it. The people upon whom the proprietaries endeavored to enforce their " Grand Model " were in many respects the most singulai 230 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. community in America. Many of them had fled from injustice and persecution in other colonies, and in the soHtude of the forests of North Carolina had become possessed of an independence which scorned any control but that of the government established by their own consent. The plantations were chiefly along the rivers and the shores of Albe- marle Sound; there were no roads but the paths marked through the forests by the blazing of the trees ; the inhabitants visited each other and travelled through the country in their boats, scarcely any, even among the women and children, being unacquainted with the use of the oar. A Happy Commumty- The people were attached to their beauti- ful " summer land," and to the freedom which they enjoyed in it. They had little use for laws, for they were mainly a simple- hearted and virtuous race, who, by pursuing the paths of right, gave no cause for restraint. They had no court-house until 1722. Their first church was not built until 1705, and the freedom of conscience which they enjoyed was perfect. Yet they were a God-fearing people, and George Fox, who visited them in 1672, testifies to their readiness to hear the word of God and to their homely virtues. They were cut off from the world, careless of the struggles which rocked Europe to its foundations, and anxious only to live in the peaceful enjoyment of the good things God had given them, and to rear their children in the ways which they deemed conformable to His will. There were no towns in the colony, and in power and importance North Carolina could not compare with any of her more northern sisters; but there were no com- munities in which the people were happier or more contented than in this one. When the cruelties of Berkeley drove many of the Virginians from their province. they fled to North Carolina, and were kindly received by the people, who treated Berke- ley's demands to surrender the refugees for punishment with contempt. "Are there any who doubt man's capacity for self-govern- ment, let them study the early history of North Carolina; its inhabitants were restless and turbulent in their imperfect submission to a government imposed on them from abroad; the administration of the colony was firm, humane and tranquil when they were left to take care of themselves. Any government but one of their own institution was oppressive." * These were the people for whom the " Grand Model " was designed, and who successfully resisted its imposition. The proprietaries had withdrawn the government they had first established, at the time when the constitutions of Shaftesbury and Locke were offered to the colony, and the refusal of these constitutions by the colonists left North Carolina without any regularly estab- lished system of government. In this state of affairs Stevens, the governor, continued to administer the old system until a settlement of the matter in dispute could be had. He died in 1674, and the assembly elected Cart- wright, their speaker, as his successor, by whom the government was administered for two years. Another Appeal to England. Eastchurch, the new speaker, was sent to England to explain the grievances of the colony to the proprietaries and to endeavor to secure the withdrawal of the obnoxious constitution. Without withdrawing their favorite system, the proprietaries, who were disposed to conciliate the colony, thought best to leave matters in their present condi- tion and appointed Eastchurch governor * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. 158. SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 231 They did away with much of the good effect of this measure by coupling this appointment with that of Miller as collector of customs. He had been driven out of the colony by the people some time before, and he was now sent to compel the payment of the revenues claimed by the proprietaries, and to enforce the navigation acts in North Carolina. England's Iniquitous Policy. The enforcement of the navigation acts meant simply the certain crippling and the probable ruin of the industry of North Caro- lina. The commerce of the colony was small and was already struggling against natural difficulties. The whole province contained a little less than four thousand inhabitants, and its exports consisted of about eight hundred hogsheads of tobacco, a small quantity of Indian corn and a few cattle. These were shipped in a few small vessels which came for them from New Enfjland, and brought in return the few articles of foreign manufacture which the planters could afford to purchase. Yet this humble trade was made the object of the envy of tt i English merchants, and it was resolved by a vigorous enforcement of the navigation acts to cut the North Carolinians off from the use of the New England markets and to compel them to send their products to England for sale. Never was the iniquitous policy of England toward her colonies more strikingly and per- fectly illustrated than in her treatment of North Carolina at this period. The effort to enforce the navigation act was met by a deliberately planned and exe- cuted insurrection of the people, who pub- lished to the world a declaration of the causes which had impelled them to this action, and which were chiefly the loss of their liberties by the changes in the govern- ment, the imposition of excessive taxes, and the interruption of their commerce by the burdens laid upon it by the navigation acts. The leader of the movement was John Culpepper. One of the members of the council joined the insurrection ; but the rest, with Miller, who, in addition to his office of collector, had been acting as gov- ernor in the absence of Eastchurch, were arrested and imprisoned. When Eastchurch arrived the colonists refused either to A SETTLER S CABIN. acknowledge his authority or to allow him to enter the colony. In the meantime they arranged matters upon the old popular sys- tem, and sent Culpepper and another of their number to England to negotiate a settlement with the proprietaries. Miller escaped from confinement and re- paired to England to oppose the efforts of Culpepper. By cunningly making himself 232 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. the champion of the navigation acts, Miller succeeded in arousing a strong sentiment against Culpepper, who was arrested on a charge of resisting the collection of the rev- enue and embezzling the public funds. In support of this arbitrary act the government pleaded an old statute of Henry VIII., by which a colonist could be arraigned in Eng- land for an offence committed in a colony. Culpepper demanded to be tried in North Car- olina, upon the scene of his alleged crime ; but this was refused him, and he was put on trial in England. The Earl of Shaftesbury, shrewdly perceiving that such a course was repugnant to the real sentiment of the English people, and that it offered him an opportunity to increase his popularity, undertook the de- fence of Culpepper, and procured his acquittal. Captured by Pirates. The proprietaries now appointed as gov- ernor one of their number, Seth Slothel, who had purchased the rights of Lord Clarendon. Slothel on his voyage out was captured by the Algerine pirates, and during his absence the government of North Carolina was admin- istered by governors appointed by the in- surgents, who seem to have acted with the consent, or at least without the opposition of the proprietaries, who were much at a loss to know how to enforce their authority in the province. They instructed the colonists to "settle order among themselves," and appear to have left them very much to their own devices. The government was well and fairly administered, and order was main- tained ; an act of amnesty was published ; and when Slothel reached the colony, in 1683, after his release from his captivity, he found it peaceful and orderly. The administration of Slothel was un- fortunate for the province. He could enforce neither the constitutions of the proprietaries nor the navigation acts, as he was expected to do ; so he devoted his energies to the task of enriching himself, which he accomp- lished by robbing the colonists and defraud- ing his proprietary associates in England. In 1688 the colonists, greatly exasperated by his exactions, to which they had submitted for about five years, drove him out of the prov- ince by condemning him to an exile of a year, and forever disqualifying him from holding the office of governor. This was their boldest act yet and was an open defi- ance of the proprietaries. Charleston Founded. In the meantime the southern portion of Carolina had been brought under English rule. In 1670 a company of emigrants was sent out by the proprietaries, under the direction of William Sayle and Joseph West, the latter of whom was the commercial agent of the proprietaries. They went by way of Barbadoes and landed at Port Royal, where the ruins of Fort Carolina, which had been erected by the French, were still to be seen. After a short delay here, they removed to a more favorable location farther northward, between two rivers, which they named the Ashley and Cooper, in honor of the Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the proprietaries. In 1680 this settlement was abandoned for a better situation nearer the harbor. This last settlement was the foundation of the city of Charleston. The first plantation on the Ashley River was afterwards known as Old Charleston. At present not even a log cabin remains to mark the site. The emigrants to South Carolina had been furnished with a copy of the constitu- tions of Shaftesbury and Locke, but they were as averse to the acceptance of them as were the people of North Carolina, for they perceived that such a system as that devised by the proprietaries could not be put in SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 233 operation in America. Immediately upon their arrival they proceeded to establish a form of government suited to their needs. It consisted of a governor, a council com- posed of five members appointed by the proprietaries and five by the assembly, and an assembly of twenty delegates chosen by the people. Thus was representative gov- ernment established as the basis of the political life of the province, and throughout all her subsequent history it was cherished by South Caro- lina as her most precious posses- sion. The colony grew rapidly in population ; the delightful cli- mate, the rich soil and the li- beral offers of lands by the proprietaries at- tracting settlers in considerable numbers. In 167 1 Sir John Yea- mans brought over African slaves from Bar- badoes, thus in- troducing negro slavery into the colony at the very outset of its existence. This species of labor being found well suited to the necessi- ties of the province, was generally adopted in the remaining years of the century, and became the basis of the industry of South Carolina, which was from the first a purely agricultural state. The negroes multiplied rapidly by natural increase and by fresh importations; "so rapidly," says Bancroft, " that in a few years, we are told, the blacks were to the whites in the proportion of twenty-two to twelve, a proportion that had no parallel north of the West Indies." The white population also increased rapidly. The dissenters, as all the Protestant sects who differed from the Church of England were called, came over to the colony in large numbers, hoping to find there the toleration they were denied at home. They consisted of Dutch and German Protestants, and Presbyterians from the north of Ireland and from Scotland. The last were generally BIRDS-EYE VIEW OF CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, people of culture and gave to the colony many clergymen, physicians, lawyers and schoolmasters. Churchmen from England also emigrated in considerable numbers, as the" Grand Model " estabhshed their church as the orthodox faith of the province. Dutch emigrants came also from New York to escape the outrages of the English governors of that province. Last of all were the Huguenots, who were induced to settle in South Carolina by Charles II., who was sincerely anxious to give them 234 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. a refuge from their persecutions in Europe, and who wished them to estabhsh in Carohna the culture of the vine, the ohve and the silk-worm. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove thousands of the Huguenots from France. Large numbers of them joined their brethren in South Carolina. They were almost invariably persons of education and refinement. In France they had consti- tuted the most useful and intelligent part of the population. They had almost monopo- lized the mechanical skill and mercantile enterprise of their native land, and their loss was severely felt by it for many genera- tions. In South Carolina they soon became suffi- ciently numerous to constitute an important part of the population, and their influence was felt in a marked degree and for the good of the colony. They brought with them the virtues which had won them the respect and confidence of the people of Europe, and the industry which could not fail to place them among the most prosperous citizens of the new state. They mingled freely and inter- married with the other classes of the people of the province, and thus became the ances- tors of a splendid race who did honor to their country and upheld her cause with their valor in her hour of trial in the next century. A Settlement Ruined, The early years of South Carolina were marked by a constant struggle between the colonists and the proprietaries. The latter vainly attempted to introduce the " Grand Model " as the law of the province, and the former steadily resisted it. A little later the proprietaries offered to make some modifica- tions in their constitutions, but these conces- sions were rejected also. The governor, Sir John Yeamans, regarded his office solely as a means of repairing his fortunes at the expense of both proprietaries and colonists, and was dismissed by his employers. West, who was a man of ability and liberality, was appointed his successor, and under him the colony prospered, but as he was too friendly to the people, he was removed also. In 1684 a small colony under Lord Card- ross, a Presbyterian, settled at Port Royal, These settlers had fled to America to escape persecution in England, but their effort to find an abiding place in the new world was not des- tined to be successful. Lord Cardross return- ed to Europe in ayear or two, and in 1686 the Spaniards from St, Augustine, who claimed the region as a dependency of their own, invaded the little settlement and laid it waste. Of the ten families which had con- stituted the colony, some returned to Scot- land, while the remainder disappeared among the colonists in the vicinity of the Cooper and Ashley rivers. Stubborn Resistance. In 1685, the proprietaries ordered the colo" nial authorities to enforce the navigation acts in the ports of the province. A rigid execu- tion of this order would have been as fatal to the I'eeble commerce of South Carolina as to that of the settlements in the northern part of the province, and it was resisted by the colonists as a violation of their natural rights and of the promises made to them at the time of their emigration. In order to establish their authority more firmly the proprietaries appointed James Colleton governor, with the rank of landgrave. He was brother of one of the proprietaries, and it was supposed that this fact and his aristocratic rank would give him a moral ppower which his predecessors had not pos- sessed. The new governor attempted to enforce the constitutions, but was met with a determined resistance, and when he under- took to collect the rents claimed by the 2z6 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. proprietaries, and the taxes he had been ordered to levy, the assembly seized the records of the province, imprisoned the colonial secretary, and defied the governor to execute his order?. In 1690, they went 5till further, and having proclaimed Wil- iiain and Mary, disfranchised Colleton and Banished him from South Carolina. Disputes now ran high in the colony, chiefly in regard to rents and land tenures. The " cavaliers and ill-livers/' as the party devoted to the interests of the pro- prietaries was termed, endeavored to compel the remainder of the settlers — ^the Presbyterians. Quakers and Huguenots, the last of whom had recently been ad- mitted to all the privileges of citizenship— to submit to their hi^jh-handed measures. They hoped among other things to secure the supremacy of the Churcn of England in thv"* colony, notwithstanding the fact that a niajoifty of the people were dissenters. The troubles went on increasing, and at length the proprietors, in the hope of putting an end to them, consented to abandon their effort to force upon the Carolinas the legisla- tion of Shaftesbury and Locke. In April, 1693, they abolished the fundamental consti- tutions by a formal vote, and decided to | allow the government of the province to be conducted according to the terms of the charter. A Wise Governor. Thomas Smith was appointed governor, but in spite of his many virtues he was unac- ; :eptable to the people, and the proprietaries determined to send out to Carolina one of their ov/n number with full powers to inves- tigate and remedy the grievances of the colony. John Archdale, ** an honest member of the Society of Friends," was chosen, and ftt once repaired to Carolina. He was a man of great moderation, and was well suited to the task before him. He succeeded in har monizing the hostile factions -which divide' the province, and in the formation of tht council selected two men of the moderate party to one high churchman, an arrange ment which fairly represented the actual stat'; of parties, and gave satisfaction to the mar of the people. He remitted the quit-rents fo> three and four years, and arranged the pria* of lands and the system of conveyances upon an equitable basis, and gave the colonists th" privilege of paying their dues to the propu- etaries either in money or in produce. Hr established peaceful relations with th.. Indians, and put an end to the infamous practice of kidnapping them, which had prevailed since the establishment of thi colony The savages in the Cape Fea' region had suffered especially from this, and now showed their gratitude by treating with kindness the sailors who were cast away or. their coast. Friendly relations were also begun with the Spaniards at St. Augustine. Several. Yemmassee Indians, who had been con verted by the missionaries, having beei^ raptured and exposed for sale in Carolina, st^ere ransomed by Archdale, who sent them t<^ thef^overnor ofSt. Augustine. Tiie Spaniards gratefully acknowledged this kindness, ana returned it by forwarding to South Caroliui the crew of an English vessel which had gone r the training by which God was pre- paring him for the great work he meant to intrust to him at a later day. The preaching of Wesley had a marked effect upon the col- ony. Crowds flocked to hear him, neglect- ing their usual amuse- ments in their eager- ness to listen to him. His austerity of lite, however, involved him in troubles with the people, and his popularity at length disappeared. His brother Charles was too tenderly moulded for so rough a life as that of the infant col- ony, and his health sank under it. The , brothers remained in Georgia only two years, and then went back to their labors in Europe, never to return to America. Soon after the departure of the Wesleys came to the colony George Whitefield, their friend and associate, the " golden-mouthed " preacher of the century. In his own land he had begun to preach the message of his Mas ter when but a mere youth, and had pro- claimed it to the inmates of the prisons and to the poor in the fields, and now he hau come to bring the gospel to the people of the new world. He visited the Lutherans al JOHN WESLEY. Ebenezer, and was deeply impressed with tht care with which they protected the orphan and helpless children of their community.' He determined to establish an institution similar to the orphan house at Halle, in 246 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Germany, and by his personal exertions suc- ceeded in raising in England and America the funds necessary for the success of his enterprise. He thereupon established near Savannah the first orphan asylum in America. He GEORGE WHITEFIELD. watched it with unceasing care during his life, but after his death it languished and was at length discontinued. Whitefield did not confine his labors to Georgia. He visited •very colony in America, and finally died and was buried in New England, The memory of his wonderful eloquence is still retained in this country by the children of those who listened to him. Immediately upon his return to Georgia, Oglethorpe proceeded to visit the Lutheran settlement at Ebenezer^ to encourage the people and lay out their town. The Germans repaid nis care by their industry, and in a few years their total annual product of raw silk amounted to ten thousand pounds. The culture of indigo was also carried on by them with marked success. Oglethorpe, having visited the Scotch set- tlement at Darien, now resolved to come to a definite understanding with the Spaniards at St. Augustine respect- ing the southern bordei of Georgia, and to sus- tain the pretensions of Great Britain to the country as far south as the St. John's. Proceed- ing with a detachment of Highlanders to Cumber- land Island, he marked out the location for a fort, to be called St. Andrew's, and on th southern end of Amelia' Island, at the mouth of the St. John's, built Fort St. George. The Spaniards on their part claimed the whole coast as far north as St. Helena's Sound, and Oglethorpe, a little later, decided to abandon Fort St. George, but strengthened Fort St. a i SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 247 Andrew, as it defended the entrance to the St. Mary's, which stream was finally settled upon as the boundary between Georgia and Florida. Oglethorpe was commissioned a brigadier-general by the king, and was charged with the defence of Georgia and South Carolina. He repaired to England and raised a regiment of troops, with which he returned to Georgia in 1738. Spain and England were rapidly drifting into war. The system of restrictions by which the European governments sought to retain the exclusive possession of the com- merce of their respective colonies was always a fruitful source of trouble. It now operated to bring England and Spain to open hostili- ties. The Spanish colonies were forbidden by law to trade with any port but that of Cadiz. The merchants of this place, being given a monopoly of the colonial commerce, were enabled to fix their prices without fear of competition, and thus earned large fortunes. Grasping Smugglers. The trade of the Spanish-American col- onies, however, was too tempting not to pro- duce rivals to the merchants of Cadiz. The English, who had watched its growth with eager eyes, determined to gain a share of it. By the terms of a treaty between the two nations, an English vessel was allowed to visit Portobello, in the West Indies, once a year^ and dispose of its cargo. This vessel was followed by smaller ones, which in the night replaced with their cargoes the bales of goods that had been discharged during the day. An active smuggling trade sprang up between the English and Spanish-American ports, and English vessels repeatedly sought these ports, under the pretence of distress, and sold their goods. These enterprises were carried to such an extent that the Spanish merchants were unable to compete with the English smugglers in the colonial markets, and the tonnage of the port of Cadiz fell from fifteen thousand to two thou- sand tons. The Spaniards visited with severe punish- ments all who were detected in engaging in this illicit traffic. Some of the offenders were imprisoned, and others were deprived of their ears. The English people resented the pun- ishment of these traders as an infringement of the freedom of trade, and regarded the smugglers who had suffered at the hands' of Spanish justice as martyrs. The popular sentiment was therefore in favor of a war with Spain, and the English government, which had all along connived at this illicit trade, which was rapidly crippling a rival power, shared the national feeling. Grievances of the Settlers. The English colonists, who had watched the growth of the trouble between the two European countries, had grievances of their own. South Carolina was a sufferer by the loss of numerous runaway negro slaves, who escaped to the Spaniards at St. Augustine. The return of these fugitives was demanded, and was refused, not because the Spaniards were opposed to slavery, but because they were always ready to injure the English col- onies by any means in their power. More- over, the Spanish authorities of Florida had ordered the English to withdraw from Georgia, and it was not certain that they would refrain from seeking to enforce this order. Oglethorpe had become convinced that war was inevitable, and in order to be prepared for it had visited Europe and raised a regiment of six hundred men, as has been related. War was declared against Spain by Eng- land in October, 1739. Admiral Vernon was sent against Portobello with his fleet, and captured that town and its fortifications, and gained some other successes over the 248 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Spaniards in Central America. In 1740, the American colonies were ordered by the British government to contribute each its quota to a grand expedition against the Spanish possessions in the West Indies. Each colony made its contribution promptly, and Pennsylvania, in the place of troops, voted a sum of money. Fleet of a Hundred Vessels. The expedition reached Jamaica in Janu- ary, 1741, but instead of proceeding at once to attack Havana, which was only three days distant, and the conquest of which would have made England supreme in the West Indies, the fleet was detained for over a month at Jamaica by the dissensions be- tween Wentworth, the incompetent com- mander of the land forces, and Vernon, the admiral of the fleet. The expedition num- bered ovej one hundred vessels, of which twenty-nine were ships of the line, and was manned with fifteen thousand sailors and twelve thousand troops, and supplied with every requisite for a successful siege. Havana might have been taken, and England have gained a hold upon the southern waters of America which could never have been wrested from her. Instead of undertaking this important measure, the expedition attacked Cartha- gena, the strongest fortress in Spanish America. The Spaniards defended it with obstinancy and held the English in check until the besieging force, decimated by the ravages of the climate, was compelled to withdraw. The war continued through the next year, but England gained no advan- tage in the West Indies which could at all compensate her for her losses in the struggle. In the autumn of 1739, upon the breaking out of the war, Oglethorpe was ordered to invade Florida, and attack St. Augustine. He hastened to Charleston and urged upon the authorities of South Carolina, which formed a part of his military command, the necessity of acting with promptness and de- cision. He was granted supplies and a force of four hundred men, which, added to his own regiment, gave him a force of one thousand white troops. He was also fur- nished with a body of Indian warriors by the friendly tribes, and with his little army in- vaded Florida in the spring of I74i,and laid siege to St. Augustine. He found the gar- rison more numerous and the fortifications stronger than he had been led to believe. The Indians soon became disheartened and began to desert, and the troops from South Carolina, " enfeebled by the heat, dispirited by sickness and fatigued by fruitless efforts, marched away in large bodies." Spanish Settlers Protected. The small naval force also became dissat- isfied, and Oglethorpe, left with only his own regiment, was obliged to withdraw into Georgia after a siege of five weeks. During this campaign Oglethorpe made a few pris- oners, whom he treated with kindness. He prevented the Indians from maltreating the Spanish settlers, and, throughout the inva- sion, " endured more fatigues than any of his soldiers; and in spite of ill-health, he was at the head in every important action." The invasion of Florida was a misfortune for Georgia in every way. Not only were some of the inhabitants lost to the colony by death, and the industry of the province greatly interfered with by the calling off of the troops from their ordinary avocations, but a serious misfortune was sustained in the withdrawal of the Moravians from the prov- ince. Uncompromisingly opposed to war, they withdrew from Georgia in a body and settled in Pennsylvania, where they founded the towns of Bethlehem and Nazareth. SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 249 In the last year of the war, 1742, the Spaniards resolved to avenge the attack upon Florida by driving the English out of Georgia. A strong fleet with a considerable land force was sent from Cuba to St. Augus- tine, from which it proceeded to the mouth of the St. Mary's. Oglethorpe had con- structed a strong work called Fort William, on the southern end of Cumberland Island, for the defence of this river. With no aid from Carolina, and with less than a thousand men, Oglethorpe was left to defend this position as well as he could. He posted his main force at Frederica, a small village on St. Simon's Island. The Spanish fleet attacked Fort William in June and succeeded in passing it and entering the harbor of St. Simon's. The troops were landed and ar- rangements were made for a combined attack upon Frederica. Entrapped and Defeated. Oglethorpe now resolved to anticipate the attack of the enemy by a night assault upon *heir position, but as his forces were approach- ing the Spanish camp, under cover of dark- ness, one of his soldiers, a Frenchman, betrayed the movement by firing his gun, and escaping into the enemy's lines, where he gave the alarm. Oglethorpe, by a happy stratagem, now induced the enemy to with- draw, and drew upon the deserter the pun- ishment he merited. He bribed a Spanish prisoner to carry a letter to the deserter, in which he addressed the Frenchman as a spy of the English, and urged him to use every efibrt to detain the Spaniards before Fred- erica for several days longer, until a fleet of six English ships of war, which had sailed from Charleston, could reach and destroy St. Augustine. The letter was delivered by the released prisoner to the Spanish com- mander, as Oglethorpe had known would be the case, and the deserter was placed in con- finement. Fortunately, at this moment, some vessels from South Carolina, laden with supplies for Oglethorpe, appeared in the offing. These the Spanish commander was confident were the ships on their way to attack St. Augus- tine. He determined to strike a vigorous blow at Frederica before sailing to the relief of his countrymen in Florida. On his march towards the English position he was ambus- caded and defeated, with great loss, at a place since called " Bloody Marsh." The next night he embarked his forces and sailec? for St. Augustine to defend it from the attack which had no existence save in the fertile brain of Oglethorpe, whose stratagem was thus entirely successful. On their withdrawal the Spaniards renewed their attempt to cap- ture Fort William, but without success. The firmness and vigor of Oglethorpe had saved Georgia and Carolina from the ruin which the Spaniards, who had no intention of occupying the country, had designed for them. Oglethorpe Acquitted. Yet the founder and brave defender o\ Georgia was not to escape the experience of those who seek with disinterested zeal to serve their fellow-men. The disaffected settlers sent an agent to England to lodge complaints against him with the government. In July, 1743, having made sure of the tran- quility and safety of the colony, Oglethorpe sailed for England to meet his accuser, and upon arriving in his native country demanded an investigation of his conduct in the land for which he had sacrificed so much. The result of the inquiry was the trium- phant acquittal of Oglethorpe and the pun- ishment of his accuser for making false charges. Oglethorpe was promoted to the grade of major-general in the English army. He did not return to Georgia again, but he had the satisfaction of knowing that during 2SO SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. his ten years of sacrifice and toil in America he had successfully laid the foundations of a vigorous state and had placed it far beyond the possibility of failure, and that his name was honored and loved by the people for whom he had given his best efforts without any personal reward. He died at the age of ninety years. After the departure of Ogle- thorpe many improvements were made in the government of Georgia, which was changed from a military rule to a civil establishment The forms and customs of the English law were introduced and the usual magistrates appointed. Human Cargoes from Africa. Slavery had been forbidden by the trus- tees, but the majority of the people were dissatisfied with this prohibition. The Ger- mans and the Scotch were opposed to the introduction of slave labor, but the greater number of the English, many of whom had been reduced to poverty by their idleness and wastefulness, were of the opinion that the agricultural wealth of the colony could not be properly developed by white labor alone. " They were unwilling to labor, but were clamorous for privileges to which they had no right.'* They declared that the use of strong liquors was rendered absolutely necessary by the climate and demanded the repeal of the laws against their introduction. Negro slaves were hired from the Carolina planters at first for a few years, and finally for a term of one hundred years, which was a practical establishment of slavery in the colony. Within seven years after Oglethorpe's departure slave-ships from Africa brought their cargoes direct to Savannah and sold them there. The scruples of the Germans were at length overcome, and they were induced to believe that negroes might be led into the Christian fold by their proper treat- ment by Christian masters, and that in this way their change of country might result in benefit to them. " If you take slaves in faith," wrote their friends from Germany, " and with the intent of conducting them to Christ, the action will not be a sin, but may prove a benediction." Even the pious White- field took this view of the subject and urged the trustees to grant permission to the colo- ' nists to hold slaves, as indispensable to the prosperity of Georgia. The trustees were so strongly urged to this step by all classes of the colony, and so overrun with complaints, that the twenty-one years of their guardianship having expired, they were glad to surrender their trust, which they did in 1752, and Georgia became a royal province. Privileges similar to those granted the other colonies were allowed it. The king appointed the governor and some of the other higher officials, and the assembly dis- charged the duties, and enjoyed the rights appertaining to similar bodies in the other provinces. Georgia was always a favored colony. Among the most important privileges be^ stowed upon it was the right to import and hold negro slaves, which was conferred upon it by Parliament after a careful examination into the matter. After this the colony grew rapidly, and cotton and rice were largely cultivated. In 1752, at the time of the re- linquishment of the colony to the crown, Georgia contained a population less than twenty-five hundred whites and about four hundred negroes. In 1775, at the outbreak of the Revolution, the popu. lation numbered about seventy-five thousand souls, and its exports were valued at over half a million of dollars. CHAPTER XX The French in the Valley of the Mississippi Origin of the Hostilicy of the Iroquois to the French — Settlement of Canada — Plans of the French Respecting thfrind — The Jesuits — Their Work in America — Sucecss of their Missions — The Early Missionaries — Foundation of a CoUcgiS at Quebec — Efforts of the Jesuits to Convert the Iroquois — Father Jogues — Death of Ahasistari — Father AUoaez — The Missions on the Upper Lakes — Father Marquette — His Exploration of the Upper Mississippi — Death of Marquette— La Salle — Efforts of France to Secure the Valley of the Mississippi — La Salle Descends the Mississippi to it£ Mouth —His Effort to Colonize the Lower Mississippi — The First Colony in Texas — lis Failure — Death of La Salle- - Lemoine d'Ibberville — Settlement of Louisiana — Colony of Biloxi — Settlement of Mobile — Crozat's Monopoly-^ FoundiHg of New Orleans — Detroit Founded — Slow Growth of the French Colonies — Occupation of the Ohio Valley by the French — Wars with the Indians — Extermination of the Natchez Tribe — War with the Chickasaws. w E have already spoken of the explorations of Samuel Cham- plain in Canada and in the northern part of New York. It is necessary now, in order to obtain a proper comprehension of the period at which we have arrived, to go back to the time of his discoveries and trace the efforts of France to extend her dominion over the great valley of the Mississippi. We have seen Cham- plain in one of his last expeditions accom- jj»anying a war party of the Hurons and Al- gonqums against their inveterate enemies, the Iroquois or Five Nations. By his aid the former were enabled to defeat the Iro- quois, and that great confederacy thus be- came the bitter and uncompromising enemies of the French nation. They cherished this hostility to the latest period of the dominion of France in Canada, and no effort of the French governors was ever able to over- come it. The efforts of Champlain established the settlement of Canada upon a sure basis of success, and after his death settlers came over to Canada from France in considerable numbers. Quebec became an important place, and other settlements were founded. It was apparent from the first that the French colo- nies must occupy a very different footing from those of England. The soil and the climate were both unfavorable to agriculture, and the French settlements were of necessity organized chiefly as trading-posts. The trade in furs was immensely valuable, and the French sought to secure the exclusive possession of it. To this end it was indis- pensable to secure the friendship of the In- dians, especially of those tribes inhabiting the country to the north and west of the great lakes. In 1634, three years before the death o{ Champlain, Louis XIII. granted a chartei to a company of French nobles and mer- chants, bestowing upon them the entire region embracec? in the valley of the St Lawrence, then known as New France. Richelieu and Champlain, who were mem« bers of this company, were wise enough to understand that their countrymen were not suited to the task of colonization, and that if France was to found an empire in the new world, it must be by civilizing and Chris tianizing the Indians and bringing them under the rule of her king, and not by seek* ing to people Canada with Frenchmen. From this time it became the policy cA France to bring the savages under her sway. The efforts of the settlers in Canada werf mainly devoted to trading with the Indiaav 251 > 252 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. and no attempt was made to found an agri- cultural state. Champlain had conceived a sincere desire for the conversion of the savages to Chris- tianity, and had employed several priests of the order of St. Francis as his companions, and these had gained sufficient success among the savages to give ground for the hope that the red men might yet be brought into the *bld of Christ. Father Le Caron, one of this ^rder, had penetrated far up the St. Law- rence, had explored the southern coast of Lake Ontario, and had even entered Lake Huron. He brought back tidings of thou- sands of the sons of the forest living in darkness and superstition, ignorant of the gospel, and dying " in the bondage of their sins." In France a sudden enthusiasm was awakened in behalf of the savages, and at court zeal for the conversion of the Indians became the sure road to distinction. Much of this was the result of genuine disinterested regard for the welfare of the red men, but much also was due to the conviction that by such a course the power of France would be most surely established in Canada. Work of the Jesuits. The missions were placed entirely in the hands of the Jesuits, an order well suited to the task demanded of it. It had been estab- hshed by its founder for the express design of defeating the influences and the work of the Reformation, and its members were chosen with especial regard to their fitness /or the duties required of them. They were ' o meet and refute the arguments by which ihe Reformers justified their withdrawal from the Roman church, to beat back the advanc- ing wave of Protestantism, and bring all Christendom once more in humble submis- sion to the feet of the Roman pontiff. The Reformers had made a most successful asse of education in winning men from Romt , the Jesuits would take their own weapons against the Protestants. They would no longer command absolute and unquestioning submission to their church ; but would edu- cate the people to accept the faith of Rome as the result of study and investigation ; and in order that study and investigation should lead to this desired result, the control of these processes should be placed exclusively in the hands of the members of the Jesuit order, who should direct them as they deemed best. Such a task required a band of de- voted men, carefully trained for their special work ; and such an order the Jesuits became. Surrendering his conscience and will to the direction of his superiors, and sinking his personality in that of his order, the Jesuit became a mere intellectual machine in the hands of his superior. A Solemn Oath. Bound by a most solemn oath to obey without inquiry or hesitation the commands of the Pope, or the superiors of the order, the Jesuit holds himself in readiness to execute instantly, and to the best of his ability, any task imposed upon him. Neither fatigue, danger, hunger nor suffering was to stand in his way of perfect and unhesitating obedi- ence. No distance was to be considered an obstacle, and no lack of ordinary facilities of travel was to prevent him from attempting to reach the fields in which he was ordered to labor. The merit of obedience in his eyes atoned for every other short-coming ; devo- tion to the church, the glory of making proselytes, made even suffering pleasure and death a triumph, if met in the discharge of duty. Such an order was in every way qualified for the work of Christianizing the savages, and America offered the noblest field to which its energies had yet been invited. There, cut off from the ambitious schemes THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 253 and corrupt influences which had enlisted their powers in Europe, the Jesuits could achieve and did achieve their noblest and most useful triumphs. There, their influ- ence was for good alone, and their labors stand in striking contrast with those which won for the order the universal execration of Europe. Not only did they win the honor of gaining many converts to the Christian faith, but they were the means of extending the dominion of their country far beyond the boundaries of Canada, and of bringing the great valley of the Mississippi under the authority of France. Marriage of Whites and Indians. By the year 1536 there were thirteen Jesuit missionaries in Canada laboring among the Indians. Not content with re- maining around the posts, they pushed out tjeyond the frontier settlements into the boundless forest, making new converts and important discoveries. Each convert was regarded as a subject of France, and the equal of the whites, and the kindliest rela- tions were established between the French and the natives. Many of the traders took them Indian wives, and from these marriages sprang the class of half-breeds afterwards so numerous in Canada. The limits of Canada were too narrow for the ambition of the Jesuits ; they burned to carry Christianity to the tribes in the more distant regions beyond the lakes. In the autumn of 1634 Fathers Brabeuf and Daniel accompanied a party of Hurons, who had come to Quebec on a trading expedition, to their home on the shores of the lake which bears their name. It was a long and difficult journey of nine hundred miles, and it taxed the endurance of the missionaries to the ut- most, but they persevered, and finally gained a resting-place at the Huron villages on Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe There they erected a rude chapel in a little grove, and celebrated the mysteries of their religion in the midst of the wondering red men, who looked on with awe and not without interest. New Missions. Six missions were soon established among the Indian villages in this part of the lake, and converts began to reward the labors of the devoted priests. Father Brabeuf had not an idle moment. The first four hours of the day were passed in prayer and in the flagel- lation of his body ; he wore a shirt of hair, and his fasts were frequent and severe. The remainder of the day was given to catechis- ing and teaching the Indians. As he passed along the streets of the village he would ring his little bell, and in this way summon the warriors to converse with him upon the mysteries of the Christian faith. He spent fifteen years in his labors among the Indians, and hundreds of converts were by means of him gained to Christ among the dusky chil- dren of the forest. The great Huron chief, Ahasistari, was among the converts of Father Brabeuf. " Before you came to this country," he said to the missionary, " when I have incurred the greatest perils and have alone escaped, I have said to myself, ' Some powerful Spirit has tht guardianship of my days.' " That Spirit he now declared was Jesus Christ, and as he had before adored him in ignorance, he now became his acknowledged servant. Being, satisfied of his sincerity, Father Brabeuf baptized him, and the chief, in the enthusi- asm of his new belief, exclaimed, " Let us strive to make the whole world embrace the faith in Jesus." The report of the successful efforts of the missionaries gave great satisfaction in France, and the king and queen and the nobles made liberal donations in support of the missions and for the assistance of the converts. A 254 UNIVERSITY AND NORMAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS AT TORONTO, IN 1S92. THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSLSSIPPL 255 college for the education of missionaries was founded at Quebec in 1635. This was the first institution of learning established in America, and preceded the founding of Har- vard College by two years. Madame de la Peltrie, a wealthy young widow of Alencon, with the aid of three nuns, established in 1639 the Ursuline Convent for the education of Indian girls. The three nuns came out from France to take charge of it, and were received with enthusiasm, especially by the Indians. Montreal being regarded as a more suit- able place, the institution was removed to that island and permanently established there. The Powerful Mohawks. The labors of the missionaries had thus far been confined to the Huron and Algon- quin tribes, whom they found very willing to listen to them, and among whom they counted their converts by thousands. They had encountered but little hostility from them, and the dangers of the enterprise were merely those inseparable from the unsettled condition of the country. They were anxious to extend their efforts to the fiercer and more powerful Iroquois, as the conver- sion of the tribes of this confederacy would not only swell the number of their converts, but would extend the influence of France to the very borders of the English settlements on the Atlantic coast. The Iroquois, or Five Nations, consisted, as has been said, of the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk tribes. They occupied almost all that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron, the greater part of New York and the country lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, now included in the states of Ohio and Pennsylvania. They were generally called by the English the Mohawks. They v/^ret the most intelligent. as well as the most powerful, of the tribes with whom the French missionaries came in contact. Their traditions related that their confed- eracy had been formed in accordance with the instructions of Hiawatha, the greatest and wisest of their chiefs, who had been blessed by the Great Spirit with more than human beauty and wisdom and courage. He had made his people great, united and prosperous ; had then taken a solemn leave of them, and had sailed out into the distant sunset in a snow-white canoe, amid the sweetest music from the spirit land. They were regarded with dread by the sur- rounding tribes, many of which were tribu- tary to them. Their influence extended eastward as far as New England, and west- ward as far as the countries of the Illinois and the Miamis. They regarded the Hurons as their hereditary enemies, and the French, as allies of the Hurons, now shared this hos- tility. The savages long remembered, and never forgave, the alliance of Champlain with the Hurons and Algonquins, to which reference has been made. Enmity of the Red Men. The Jesuit missionaries vainly endeavored to add the tribes of the Five Nations to their converts. The latter, regarding the French as enemies, could never be made to look upon the missionaries of that race as friends, and considered the efforts of the good fathers in their behalf as a species of incantation designed for their destruction. They closed the region south of Lake Ontario to the French traders and priests and kept a vigilant watch over the passes of the St. Lawrence for the purpose of breaking up the trade of the French at Montreal with the tribes on the lakes. The only route by which the lakes could be reached in safety was by the Ottawa and 2^6 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. through the wilderness beyond. Yet occa- sionally a trading party would slip through the blockade established by the Iroquois, and, descending the lakes and the St. Law- rence, reach Montreal and Quebec in safety. These expeditions constituted the only means by which the Jesuit missionaries in the remote regions could communicate with their principal establishment at Montreal. In the summer of 1642, Father Jogues, who had labored with great success in the country now embraced in the state of Michi- gan, left the Sault Sainte Marie under the escort of the great Huron war chief Ahasis- tari and a number of his braves, and, descend- ing the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, reached Montreal and Quebec in safety. On the first of August he set out on his return, ac- companied by a larger fleet of Huron canoes. Before the mouth of the Ottawa was reached the part^ was attacked by a band of Mo- hawks, and the canoes were so much dam- aged that the occupants were forced to make for the opposite shore. The greater number escaped, but a few, among whom were Father Jogues and Father Goupil, a fellow-priest, were taken prisoners. Died at the Stake. Ahasistari had succeeded in reaching aplace of safety, and from his concealment saw the missionaries prisoners in the hands of their enemies. He knew the fate that awaited them, and resolved to share it with them. Father Jogues might have escaped, but as there were among the prisoners several con- verts who had not yet received baptism, he decided to remain with them in the hope of being able to administer the sacred rite to them before their execution. Ahasistari strode through the midst of the astonished Mohawks to the side of the priest. " My brother," said the chief, " I made oath to thee that I would share thy fortune, whether death or life ; here am I to keep my vow." He received absolution from the hands of his teacher, and died at the stake with the firm- ness of a Christian and a hero. Jogues and Goupil were carried to the Mohawk, and in each village through which they were led were compelled to run the gauntlet. On an ear of corn which was thrown to them for food a few drops of the dew had remained, and with these Father Jogues baptized two of his converts. Peace with the Five Nations. Goupil was not so fortunate. He was seen in the act of making the sign of the cross over an Indian child, and was struck dead by a blow from the toma- hawk of the child's father, who sup- posed he was working a spell for the little one's harm. Father Jogues had expected the same fate, but he was spared, and even allowed to erect a large cross near the villagt at which he was detained, and to worship before it at pleasure. He escaped at length and reached Albany, where he was kindly received by the Dutch, who enabled him to return to France, from which country he sailed again for Canada. He went boldly into the Mohawk country and began again the efforts which he had made during his captivity to convert his enemies to the true faith, but his labors were soon cut short by his murder by a Mohawk warrior. Other missionaries sought the country of these tribes, but only to meet torture and death at their hands. In 1645, the Frencii, who desired to secure their possessions, made a treaty of peace with the Five Nations. The latter professed to forget and bury the wrongs of the past, and agreed to be the true friends of the French. The Algonquins joined in the peace, but neither tribe was sincere in its professions of friendship. THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. The Abenakis of Maine, who had heard of the good deeds of the Jesuit fathers, sent messengers to Montreal asking that mission- aries might be sent to dwell among them. Their appeal was favorably considered, and Father Dreuilettes made his way across the wilderness to the head of the Kennebec, and descended that stream to a point within a few miles of its mouth, where he established his mission. Large numbers of the savages came to him for religious instruction, and he found them ready to embrace the truths he taught them. He entered heartily into all the modes of Indian life, hunting and fishing with them, and winning their confidence and affection. After remaining with them about a year he returned to Quebec, escorted by a band of his converts. He gave such favora- ble accounts of the disposition of the Maine Indians that a permanent mission was estab- lished among them. Uncivilized Wild Men. By the close of the year 1646 the French had established a line of missions extending across the continent from Lake Superior to Nova Scotia, and between sixty and seventy missionaries were actively engaged in in- structing and preaching to the savages. How far the labors of these devoted men were actually successful will never be known, as their work was of a character which can- not be submitted to any human test. They did not succeed, however, in changing either the character or the habits of their converts, ihey were still wild men, who scorned to engage in the labor of cultivating their lands, and lived by hunting and fishing. They learned to engage in the religious services of the missionaries, to chant matins and ves- pers, but they made no approach to civiliza- tion. When, in after years, the zeal of the whites for their conversion became less act- ive, and the missionaries less numerous, they fell back into their old ways. 17 In 1648 the peace between the Mohawks and the Hurons was broken, and the war blazed up again fiercer than ever. Bands of Mohawk warriors invaded the territory of the Hurons, and both the savage and the missionary fell victims to their fury. On the morning of the fourth of July the village of St. Joseph, on Lake Simcoe, was attacked by a war party of the Mohawks. Pierced With Arrows. The Huron braves were absent on a hunt- ing expedition, and only the old men and the women and children of the tribe were left in the village. This was the village founded by the missionaries Brabeuf and Daniel, the latter of whom, now an old man, was still dwelling with his converts. At the opening of the attack the good priest has- tened to baptize such as he could, and to give absolution to all whom he could reach. Then, as the Mohawks forced the stockade which protected the village and swarmed in among the wigwams, he advanced calmly from the chapel to meet them, and fell pierced with numerous arrows. During the next year the Jesuit missions in Upper Canada were broken up. At the capture of the village Father Brabeuf and his companion, Gabriel Lallemand, were made prisoners, and were subsequently put to death with the crudest tortures. They bore their sufferings with a firmness which astonished their persecutors. The Hurons were scattered and their country was added to the dominion of the Five Nations. Many of the captive Hurons were adopted into the conquering tribes. A large number of these had embraced Christianity — so many, indeed, that the Jesuits, who had been in nowise discouraged by the terrible scenes which had marked the war, began to cherish the hope that the presence of these converts would »*iduce the Iroquois to receive a missionary sss SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. among them. It was decided to make the attempt among the Onondagas,and Oswego, which was their principal village, was chosen as the site of the mission. Useless Efforts. The Iroquois made no effort to disturb the missionaries, and priests were sent among die other tribes of the confederacy. Encour- aged by this reception, the French undertook to secure a firm footing in this inviting region by establishing a colony at the mouth of the Oswego, and fifty persons were des- patched to that point to begin a settlement there. This aroused the alarm of the Indians, who compelled the colonists to withdraw and forced the missionaries to de- part with them. This was the last effort of the French to obtain possession of New York. The Five Nations were not to be reconciled with them on any terms, and their hostility made it useless to attempt the col- onization of that fertile region. Defeated in their hope of obtaining a footing in the country of the Five Nations, the Jesuit fathers turned their attention more energetically to the vast region beyond the lakes. In 1654 two young fur-traders had penetrated into the country beyond Lake Superior, and after an absence of two years had returned to Quebec, bringing with them accounts of the powerful and numerous tribes occupying that region. They brought with them a number of Indians, who urged the French to open commercial relations with and send missionaries among these tribes. Their request was promptly granted, and missionaries were soon on the ground. One of these, the aged Father Mesnard, while journeying through the forests, wan- dered off from his attendants and was never seen again. His cassock and breviary were found by the Sioux, and were long retained by them as a protection against evil. In 1665 Father Claude Alloiiez ascendeu the Ottawa and crossed the wilderness to the Sault Ste-Marie, on a mission to the tribes of the far west. In October he reached the principal town of the Chippewas at the head of Lake Superior. He found the tribe in great excitement ; the young warriors were eager to engage in a war against the formid> able Sioux, and the old men were seeking to restrain them. A grand council was in progress, which was attended by the chiefs of ten or twelve of the neighboring tribes for the purpose of preserving peace *i possible. Father Allouez was admitted to this assembly and exhorted the warriors to abandon their hostile intentions, and urged them to join the French in an alliance against the Five Nations. His appeal was successful ; the war against the Sioux was abandoned, and the savages came in from all parts of the surrounding country to listen to the words of the mis- sionary. A chapel was built on the shore of the lake and the mission of the Holy Spirit was founded. The fame of the missionary spread far to the west and north, and the tribes dwelling north of Lake Superior, the Pottawatomies from Lake Michigan, who worshiped the sun, and the Sioux and the Illinois from the distant prairies of the west, came to the mission to hear the teachings of the missionary. They told him of their country, an unbroken expanse of level land, without trees, but covered with long rich grass, upon which grazed innumerable herds of buffalo and deer ; of the rice which grew wild in their distant homes ; of the rich yield of maize which their fields produced ; of the copper mines of which they but dimly comprehended the value ; and of the great river which flowed through their country from the far north to the unknown regions of the south, and which Allouez understood them to call the " Messipi." THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPL 259 After remaining at his mission for two years, Alloiiez returned to Quebec to ask for other laborers in the great field around him, and to urge the French to establish per- manent settlements of emigrants or traders in the Lake Superior country. He remained at Quebec two days, was given an assistant, and at once returned to his post, where he continued his labors for many years. " Dur- ing his long sojourn he lighted the torch of faith for more than twenty different nations."' : In 1668 the French West India Company, under whose auspices the settlement of Canada had been conducted, relinquished their monopoly of the fur trade, and a great improvement in the condition and prospects of Canada ensued. In the same year Fathers Claude Dablon and James Marquette estab- lished the mission of Ste-Marie at the rapids through which the waters of Lake Superior rush into those of Huron. " For the suc- ceeding years," says Bancroft, " the illus- trious triumvirate, Alloiiez, Dablon and Marquette, were employed in confirming the influence of France in the vast regions that extend from Green Bay to the head of Lake Superior, mingling happiness with suffering, and winning enduring glory by their fearless perseverance." Wonderful Scene. In 1669, Father Allouez went to establish " mission at Green Bay, and Father Mar- quette took his place at the mission of the Holy Spirit. Marquette had heard so much of the Mississippi that he resolved to under- take the discovery of the upper waters of that stream. He employed a young Illinois warrior as his companion, and from him iearned the dialect of that tribe. In 1673, accompanied by a fellow-priest named Joliet, five French boatmen, and some Indian guides and interpreters, bearing their canoes on their backs, Marquette set out from his mission. and crossing the narrow portage which divides the Fox River from the Wis^consin, reached the headwaters of the latter stream. There the guides left them, wondering at their rashness in seeking to venture into a region which the simple imagination of the savages filled with vague terrors. The adventurers floated down the Wisconsin, and in seven days entered the Mississippi, " with a joy that could not be expressed." Raising the sails of their canoes they glided down the mighty father of waters, gazing with wonder upon the magnificent forests which lined its shores, and which swarmed with game, and admiring the boundless prairie* which stretched away from either bank to th " horizon. The Pipe of Peace. One hundred and eighty miles bek w th* mouth of the Wisconsin the voyagers for the first time discovered signs ol human beings. They landed, and found an Indian village s few miles distant from the river. They wera kindly received by the inhabitants, who spoke the language of the Indians who had come with Marquette, and a week was passed at this hospitable village. The villagers told the travellers that the lower river extended far to the south, where the heat was deadly, and that in those latitudes the stream abounded with monsters which destroyed both men and canoes. At the departure of the whites the chief of the tribe hung around Marquette's neck the peace-pipe, and ex- plained to him that it would prove a safe- guard to him among the tribes into whose territory his journey would lead him. Continuing their voyage the explorer? reached the mouth of the Missouri, and noticed the strong, muddy stream which it poured into the Mississippi. "When I return," said Marquette, " I will ascend that river and pass beyond its headwaters, and 26o SETTLEMENi OF AMERICA. proclaim the gospel." One hundred and twenty miles farther south they passed the mouth of the Ohio, of which river they had heard from the Illinois at the village they had visited. As they proceeded farther south the heat became more intense, for it was the month of July. They met with Indians, whose hostility was disarmed by the peace- pipe which Marquette bore. Some of these Indians were armed with axes of European manufacture, which they had obtained either from the Spaniards in the far south, or from the English in Virginia. The voyage was continued to the mouth of the Arkansas. Marquette was now satisfied that the great river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, and as he was fearful of falling into the hands of the Spaniards in that region, he decided to bring his voyage to an end, and return to the lakes. The Dying Missionary. The task of ascending the river was accom- plished with great difficulty, and at length the mouth of the Illinois was reached. As they supposed this stream would lead them to the lakes the voyagers ascended it to its headwaters, and then crossed the country to the site of Chicago, from which they con- tinued the voyage by way of Lake Michigan to Green Bay. Marquette despatched Joliet to Quebec to report the results of the voyage, but himself remained at Green Bay. It was his purpose to preach the gospel among the Illinois, who had begged him during his voyage to come back to them. He was detained at Green Bay for some time by feeble health, but in 1675 went back to the Illinois, and began his labors among them. Feeling that his end was near he undertook to return to the mis- sion of St. Mary's, but fell ill on the way. He gave absolution to all his companions, and retired to pray. An hour afterwarHs. uneasy at his absence, his people went to seek him, and found him kneeling, but pray- ing no longer, for his spirit had gone to receive its reward. He was buried on the banks of the river that bears his name, and his memory was long cherished with affec- tion by the Indians. The work of exploration which Marquette had begun was taken up by a bolder and firmer hand. Robert Cavalier de la Salle, a man of good family, had been educated for the service of the Jesuits, but had abandoned his design of entering that order after com- pleting his education. In 1667 he had emi- grated to Canada to seek his fortune, and had established himself as a fur-trader on Lake Ontario. Encouraged by the governor of Canada he had explored Lake Ontario, and had ascended to Lake Erie. When the French governor a few years later built Fort Frontenac to guard the outlet of Lake Ontario, La Salle was granted an extensive domain, including Fort Frontenac, now the town of Kingston, on condition that he would maintain the fort. He thus obtained the monopoly of the fur-trade with the Five Nations, Here he was residing at the timf of the death of Marquette. On the Road to Fortune. The news of Marquette's discoveries filled him with the deepest interest, and he was eager to continue the exploration of the river at the point at which Marquette had discontinued it, and to trace it to its mouth. He was already on the road to fortune, but the prospect of winning greater fame was too tempting to be resisted, and, leaving his pos- sessions on Lake Ontario, he sailed for France and laid before Colbert, the minister, the schemes he had for the exploration and colonization of the valley of the Mississippi, He obtained a grant of valuable privileges and received permission to attempt the task THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPL 261 of adding that vast region to the dominions of France. He returned to Fort Frontenac in the autumn of 1678, bringing with him as his lieutenant an Italian veteran named Tonti and a number of mechanics and seamen, to- gether with the materials for rigging a ship. Before the winter had set in he ascended Lake Ontario to the Niagara River, where he built a trading-post. Then passing around the falls he constructed a vessel of sixty tons at the foot of Lake Erie. Tonti and Father Hennepin, a Franciscan, went among the Senecas during the construction of the ship and estab- lished friendly relations with them, and La Salle exerted himself to pro cure furs with which to freight his vessel. The vessel completed, he as- cended Lake Erie, passed through the straits into Lakes Huron and Michi- gan, and entered Green Bay. Then loading his vessel with a cargo of valuable furs, he sent her to the Niagara, with orders to return with supplies as soon as pos- sible. During her absence La Salle and his com- panions ascended Lake Michigan in canoes as far as the mouth of the St. Joseph's, where they built a fort. Then crossing over to the valley of the Illinois, he built a fort on a bluff near the site of Peoria, and awaited the re- turn of the " Griffin." The vessel had been wrecked on the voyage to Niagara, and when it became evident that she would not return, La Salle named his fort Crevecoeur (" Heart- break.") Supplies were necessary to the exploration of the Mississippi, and La Salle being deter- mined to obtain them, took with him three companions and crossed the wilderness to Fort Frontenac, which he reached in the spring of 1680. During his absence, Father Hennepin, by his orders, explored the Upper Mississippi as far as the falls, which he named in honor of St. Anthony, the patron saint of the expedition. In the summer of 1680 La Salle returned to the Illinois, but various FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY. causes intervening to delay him, he was not able to undertake his exploration of the Mississippi until 1682. In that year he built a barge on the upper Illinois, and embarking with his companions, floated down that stream to the Mississippi, which he descended to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the country along the banks of the river Louis- iana, in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. Then ascending the Mississippi, he returned 262 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. by the Lakes to Quebec, and in 1683 sailed for France to enlist the government and peo- ple in his project for colonizing the country along the lower Mississippi. An Unfortunate Wreck. His design was encouraged by the king, and emigrants were readily found. In 1684, he sailed from France with four ships and two hundred and eighty per- sons to plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Unhappily the command- er of the fleet was not in sympathy with La Salle, and being jealous of his authority, man- ifested a degree of stubbornness which was fatal to the expedition. One hundred of the colonists were soldiers ; of the rest, some were volunteers, some mechanics, some women, and some priests. After a long voy- age they entered the Gulf of Mexico in Jan- uary, 1685. They sailed past the mouth of the Mississippi, and when La Salle perceived his error, Beaujeu, the commander of the fleet, refused to return, but continued his western course until the bay of Matagorda was reached. There La Salle, weary of his disputes with Beaujeu, resolved to land, hoping that he might yet find the mouth of the Mississippi. A careless pilot, in attempt- ing to get the store-ship into the harbor, wrecked her, and all the supplies which Louis XIV. had provided with a lavish hand were lost. The colony, which was named Fort St. Louis, was from the first doomed to misfor- tune, and in a little more than two years was reduced by disease and suffering to thirty- six persons. In January, 1687, La Salle, leaving twenty men at Fort St. Louis, set out with sixteen men to march across the conti- nent to Canada to obtain aid for the settle- ment. His remarkable courage and deter- mination would doubtless have accomplished this feat, but on the way he was murdered by two of his men, who regarded him as the author of their sufferings. Of the rest of I i' companions, five who kept together reached a small French post near the mouth ot the Arkansas, after a journey of six months. The twenty men left at Fort St. Louis were never heard of again. The effort to colonize Texas completely failed, and all that was accomplished by La Salle's enterprise was the establishment of the claim of France to this region. Searching for La Salle. To La Salle is due the credit of having been the first to comprehend the importance of securing to France the great region watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries, and it was through his efforts that the atten- tion of France was seriously directed to its colonization. His remarkable qualities must always command the admiration and his sad fate elicit the sympathy of all generous hearts. While La Salle was vainly striving to ac- complish some good result with the Texas colony, his friend and lieutenant, Tonti, in obedience to his instructions, started from the Illinois and descended the Mississippi almost to its mouth, hoping to meet him. At length, despairftig of seeing him, Tonti engraved a cross and the arms of France upon a tree on the banks of the river, and returned to the Illinois. In 1699, twelve years after the death of La Salle, another and this time a successful effort was made to secure Louisiana to France. Lemoine d'Ibberville, a native of Canada and a man of ability and courage, resolved to plant a colony near the mouth of the Missis- sippi. With four vessels and two hundred emigrants, some of whom were women and children, he sailed from Canada for the mouth of the Mississippi. He landed at the mouth of the river Pascagoula, and with two barges MURDER OF LA SALLE. 263 264 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. manned by forty-eight men searched the coast for the mouth of the Mississippi. He found it and ascended as high as the mouth of the Red River. Here he was met by the tndians, who, to his astonishment, gave him a letter which had been placed in their charge fourteen years before. It was from Tonti, and was addressed to La Salle. He had given it to the Indians, and had charged them to deliver it to the first Frenchman they met. Shiftless Colonists. D'Ibberville returned to the gulf by way of Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain, which he named after two of the ministers of Louis XIV. Deeming the shores of the Mississippi too marshy for colonization, D'Ibberville formed a settlement at Biloxi, at the mouth of the Pascagoula, within the limits of the present state of Mississippi, and soon afterwards sailed for France to obtain rein- forcements and supplies, leaving one of his brothers, Sauville by name, as governor, and he other, Bienville, to explore the Missis- sippi and the country along its banks. Early in 1700 D'Ibberville returned from France, and about the same time Tonti, La Salle's former lieutenant, now an aged man, arrived from the country of the Illinois. Acting upon Tonti's advice, D'Ibberville ascended the Mississippi for four hundred miles, and on the site of the present city of Natchez built a fort which he named Rosalie, in honor of the Duchess of Pontchartrain. Neither the settlement at Biloxi nor Rosalie prospered, however. The colonists were a shiftless set, and instead of seeking to culti- vate the soil and establish homes for them- selves, went farther west to seek for gold. In 1702 D'Ibberville removed the colony from Biloxi to Mobile, which was founded in that year, and became the capital of Louis- iana and the centre of the French influence in the south. This settlement languished^ however, and in ten years only two hundred emigrants were added to its population. It was forced to depend upon the French colonies in the West Indies for subsistence. New Orleans Founded. In 1 7 14 the French government, becoming convinced that it was necessary to make a more vigorous effort to colonize Louisiana if it meant to hold that country, granted a monopoly of trade to Arthur Crozat, who agreed to send over every year two ships laden with emigrants 'and supplies, and also a cargo of African slaves. The king, on his part, agreed to furnish the sum of ten thou- sand dollars annually for the protection oi the colony. In the same year a trading- house was established at Natchitoches on the Red River, and another on the Alabama, near the present site of Montgomery. Fort Rosalie was made the centre of an important trade, and matters bep^an to wear a new aspect in Louisiana. In 17 1 8 Bienville, who had become satis- fied of the propriety of removing the seat of government from Mobile to the more produc- tive region of the lower Mississippi, put the convicts to work to clear up the thicket of cane which covered the site on which he meant to locate his new city, and upon the ground thus prepared erected a few huts, the germ of the great city of New Orleans. It grew more rapidly than any of the settlements in Louisiana. In 1722 it contained about one hundred log huts, and a population of seven hundred. In 1723 the seat of govern- ment was removed from Mobile to New Orleans; and 1727 the construction of the levee was begun. While these efforts were in progress in the lower Mississippi, the French were even more active in the west. Detroit was founded in 1701, and the villages of Kaskaskin and THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI 26s Cabokla were formed around the stations of the missionaries on the east bank of the Mis- sissippi, above the mouth of the Ohio. The French population in America grew very slowly, however. In 1690 the population of Canada was only twelve hundred ; that, of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, less than one thou- sand ; and that of Louit>iana less than five hundred. France had formed a deliberate and mag- nificent plan with respect to her American possessions. She meant to build up a mighty empire in the valley of the Mississippi, extending from the -great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and touching Canada. Her efforts to accomplish this were lavish and persistent, but the unhealthiness of the climate, and the almost constant wars with the Natchez and Chickasaw Indians disheartened the settlers, Jind the French population grew so slowly that it could not accomplish the destiny demanded of it by the government at home. 'As late as 1740 Louisiana contained only about five thousand whites and less than two thousand five hundred negroes. The slow increase of the population made it necessary to hold the country by a series of military posts. By the year 1750 more than sixty of these posts had been built between Lake Ontario and the Gulf of Mexico, by way of Green Bay, the Illinois, the Wabash, and the Maumee rivers, and along the Mississippi to New Orleans. French Claims in America. 1 The most important of these forts were held by garrisons of regular troops, who were relieved once in six years. They accomplished this in the face of the constant hostility of their old enemies, the tribes of the Five Nations, and the Natchez and Chickasaws. In 1748 the French extended their claim to the country south of Lake Erie, as far east as the mountains, which they explored, and took formal possession of by burying at the most important points leaden plates engraved with the arms of France. According to the ideas of the times, their claim was a valid one. In the meantime the settlements of Louis iana had been obliged to struggle against the constant hostility of the Natchez Indians, who occupied the country around the present city which bears their name. They were not very numerous, but were more intelligent and civilized than the tribes among whom they dwelt. They worshiped the sun, from which deity their principal chief claimed to be descended. They watched the growing power of the French with alarm, and at length resolved to put a stop to the progress of the whites by a general massacre. Seven Hundred Murders. On the twenty-eighth of November, 1729 they fell upon the settlement at Fort Rosalie and massacred the garrison and settlers seven hundred in number. They were nol long permitted to exult over their success. When the news of the massacre reached New Orleans, Bienville resolved to retaliate severely upon the aggressors. He applied to the Choctaws, the hereditary enemies o| the Natchez, for assistance, and was furnished by them with sixteen hundred warriors. With these and his own troops Bienvillo besieged the Natchez in their fort ; but they escaped under the cover of the night and fled west of the Mississippi. They were followed by the French and forced to surrender, after which they were taken to New Or- leans and sent to St. Domingo, where they were sold as slaves. The Great Sun was among the captives, and the tribe of the Natchez was completely destroyed. It was well known to the French that the Chickasaws,a powerful tribe dwelling between the territory of the Natchez and the Ohio op 266 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. the north, and as far as the country of the Cherokees on the east, had incited the Natchez against them. Bienville therefore resolved to turn his arms against them. They had also given great trouble to the French by attacking and plundering their trading-boats descending the Mississippi from the posts on the Illinois. Bienville con- certed measures for a combined attack upon the Chickasaws with D'A.rtaguette, governor of the Illinois country, and two expeditions were despatched against the Indians. Bienville, with a strong force of French troops and twelve hundred Choctaw warriors, sailed in boats from New Orleans to Mobile and ascended the Tombigbee five hundred miles, to the place now known as Cotton Gin point. He landed here and marched twenty-five miles overland to the principal fort of the Chickasaws, which he at once attacked. He was repulsed with the loss cC one hundred men, and was so discouraged that he returned to New Orleans. DArta- guette entered the Chickasaw country with fifty Frenchmen and one thousand Indians. He was defeated and taken prisoner, and was burned at the stake in May, 1735. In 1740 another effort was made by the French to crush the Chickasaws, but was equally un- successful. CHAPTER XXI. Conflicts Between the English and French. ^elaibns Between the English and the Five Nations — The Hostility of the Latter to the French— King William's W* — Destruction of Dover— The Jesuit Missionaries Incite the Indians to Attack the English — Expedition Against Que- bee — Auack on Dustin's Farm — Peace of Ryswick — Hostility of the English to Roman Catholics — Queen Anne's War — Burning of Deerfield — Eunice Williams — Cruelties to the French — Effort of New England to Conquer Acadia — Capture of Port Roval — Failure of the Expedition Against Quebec — King George's War — Expedition Against Louis burg — Its Composition — Arrival of the Fleet at Cape Breton — Good Conduct of the Provincials — Capture of Louis- burg — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — Unjust Treatment of the Coloi.ies by England — Sentiment of the Americans Towards England. THE territory of the Five Nations lay- between the English and French colonies. The friendship which these tribes had borne to the Dutch was transfeired to the English upon the con- quest of New Netherlands by the latter, and they remained the faithful and devoted allies of Great Britain until after the Revolution. Though they remained at peace with the French for some years after the treaty, which has been mentioned in the preceding chap- ter, they regarded a renewal of hostilities with them as certain, and were on the whole anxious to resume the struggle at the earliest moment. James II., eager to establish the F^oman Catholic religion in America, instructed the governor of New York to cultivate friendly relations with the French, and to exert all his influence to induce the Five Nations to receive Jesuit missionaries. The governor, however, saw that the French were rapidly monopolizing the fur trade, and he encour- aged the Five Nations to regard them with suspicion and dislike. The French by their own bad treatment of the Mohawks put an end to the hope of a lasting peace with them. Upon the escape of James II. to France, Louis XIV. warmly espoused the cause of 2he dethroned king, which he declared was the cause of legitimate monarchy as opposed to the right of the people to self-government ; and the war wh'ch was thus begun in Europe spread to the possessions of the rival powers in America. The objects of the two parties in America were very different. That of the people of New England, who were princi- pally interested in the struggle, was to secure their northern frontier against invasion from Canada, and to get possession of the fisheries. The French, on the other hand, wished to obtain entire control of the valley of the Mississippi, which would make them sole masters of the fur trade, and to extend their power over the valley of the St. Lawrence, and thus obtain control of the fisheries also. To accomplish their first object the friend- ship of the Indian tribes in the valley of the Mississippi was indispensable, and they exerted every means of which they were possessed to gain it. They renewed their efforts to win over the Five Nations, but without success. The war between these tribes and the French was soon renewed, as has been related, and on the twenty-fifth of August, 1689, a band of fifteen hundred Mo- hawk warriors surprised and captured Mon- treal, and put two hundred of the inhabitants to death with horrible cruelty. An equal number of whites were made prisoners. 267 26S SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. In the same year Count Frontenac was appointed governor of Canada for the second time. He came resolved to break the power of the English, and reached Canada just in time to hear of the capture of Montreal. He at once set to work to incite the Indians to a series of incursions against the English set- tlements which should thoroughly establish his influence over the savage warriors, who would obey none but a successful chief, and at the same time strike terror to the enemies of France. VIEW OF MONTREAL FROM MOUNT ROYAL. The first blow was struck at Dover, in New Hampshire. The commander of the garrison at this place was Major Richard Waldron. Thirteen years before, during jKing Philip's war, two hundred eastern rndians came to Dover to treat of peace. Waldron treacherously seized them and sent them to Boston, where some of them were hanged^ and the remainder sold into slavery. The savages had neither forgotten nor for- given the wrongs of their brothers, and now they resolved to meet the whites with their own weapons of deceit and treachery. On the evening of the twenty-seventh of June, 1689, two Indian squaws came to Dover and asked for a night's lodging. Waldron, now an old man of eighty, was unsuspicious of harm. Their request was granted and the squaws were lodged in his house. In the dead of the night the women arose, unbarred the gates and admitted the warriors, who had lain in ambush near the town. Waldron's house was first entered, the first duty of the savages being to discharge their debt of vengeance by a cold-blooded murder. The brave old man _jized his sword and defended himself un- til he was felled to the floor by a blow which stunned him. He was then seated in a chair and placed on a table, and the savages sa- luted him with jeers. " Who will judge In- dians now?" they asked. "Who will hang our brothers? Will the pale-face Waldron give us life for life?" As they spoke they gashed him across the breast with their knives, inflicting wounds equal in number to their friends whom he had be- trayed. The old man bore his tortures firmly until he died ; the Indians then set fire to the house and burned the rest of the settlement. Nearly half the inhabitants were murdered and the remainder were carried into captivity. The other frontier towns suffered severely from Maine to New York. A band of French and Indians, in February, 1690^ toiled across the wilderness from Montreal to central New York on snow-shoes and CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCli. 269 surprised Schenectady. The place was burned, the majority of the settlers were killed, and many women and children were carried into captivity. A few escaped through the snow to Albany. Deerfield and Haverhill in Massachusetts, Salmon Falls in New Hampshire, and Casco in Maine met a similar fate. The French had resolved to make the war one of extermination, and neither they nor their savage allies showed any mercy to the English in their hour of triumph. Failure to Capture Montreal. The savage? were incited to their bloody task by the Jesuit missionaries. The first race of missionaries, whose good deeds we have chronicled in the last chapter, had died out, and their successors could conceive of no higher standard of duty than the exter- mination of the English heretics. They roused the fury of their dusky converts against the English as the enemies of the Roman religion, and then confessing and absolving the savage warriors, sent them forth to murder and destroy, with the solemn assurance that such acts on their part would win them the favor of their Father in Heaven. When peace was made two Jesuit priests, Thury and Bigot, induced the Eastern Indians to break the treaty and renew the war, and even took pride in acknowledging themselves the instigators of the atrocities of the savages. These things were well under- stood among the English, and they came to regard the Jesuit missionaries as the enemies /of mankind. In May, 1690, a congress of delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York was held at New York for the purpose of concerting a plan for an invasion of Can- ada. It was resolved to send an army against Montreal by way of Lake Champlain, while ^=»ssachusetts should despatch a fleet to attack Quebec. The first expedition, com- posed of the troops of New York and Con- necticut, advanced to Lake Champlain, attended by a strong force of Mohawk allies. Frontenac promptly assembled his French and Indians for the defence of Montreal, and succeeded in inflicting a sharp defeat upon the Mohawks, under Colonel Philip Schuyler, who led the advance of the English army. The Mohawks were unable to regain their lost ground and the provincial troops weref delayed by the dissensions of their leaders until the provisions ran short and the small- pox broke out among the men. It then became necessary to abandon the attempt. Death and Desolation. In the meantime Massachusetts equipped a fleet ol thirty-two vessels and two thou- sand men and despatched it to the St. Law- rence under the command of the governor. Sir William Phipps, whose incompetency produced the failure of the expedition Frontenac was promptly informed of the departure of the fleet by an Indian runner from the Piscataqua, who reached Montreal in twelve days. Frontenac at once set out for Quebec and arrived there three days in advance of the English fleet, which was obliged to feel its way cautiously up the St. Lawrence. When the hostile vessels arrived off" the city, Quebec was prepared to offer a determined resistance. After a few harmless demonstrations, Sir William Phipps withdrew and returned to Boston, to the great disap- pointment of the colony, A large debt had been incurred in this enterprise and a num- ber of valuable lives had been lost, but noth- ing had been gained. The Eastern Indians continued their ag- gressions, but were severely punished by Captain Samuel Church, who had served with distinction in King Philip's war. On one occasion he was so exasperated by the 2>0 SETTLEMENT OF AMERIC/i. cruelties of the savages that he put a number of his prisoners, including some women and children, to death. The savages mercilessly avenged the murder of their friends and car- ried death and desolation along the borders of New England. Nearly every settlement in Maine was destroyed by them or aban- doned by the inhabitants, who fled to the other colonies for protection. The Indians prowled around the frontier posts. They had been well armed by the French, and shot down the men without mercy. The women and children were generally spared and carried to Canada, where they were sold to the French as slaves. In 1693 peace was made with the Abenakis, or Eastern Indians, but within a year the Jesuits had succeeded in inducing the savages to resume hostilities. A Daring Escape. A party of Indians attacked the house of a farmer named Dustin, residing near Haver- hill. He was at work in the field when the shouts of the savages warned him of the danger of his wife and children. Throwing himself on his horse, he hastened to their rescue, and on the way met his children fly- ing for safety pursued by the savages. He threw himself in front of the little ones, and by a few well-aimed shots kept the pursuers back until the children reached a place of safety. Hannah Dustin, her youngest child — only a few days old — her nurse, and a boy from Worcester, unable to fly, were made prisoners by the Indians. The little one was killed, and the two women and the boy were carried away by the savages to their village, situated on an island in the Merrimac, just above Concord. Hannah Dustin resolved to escape, and communicated her plan to her companions. Each secured a tomahawk, and at night be- gan the destruction of their captors, twelve in number. Ten Indians were killed atid one squaw was wounded. The twelfth, a child, was purposely spared. Then collecting the gun and tomahawk of the murderer of her infant, and a bag full of scalps, the heroic women secured a canoe, and embarking in it with her companions, floated down the Mer- rimac and soon reached Haverhill, whert they were received with astonishment anc* delight by their friends. This struggle, which is known in Ameri- can history as "King William's War," was brought to a close in September, 1697, by the Peace of Ryswick. It had lasted seven years, and had caused severe suffering to the northern colonies, without yielding them any compensating advantages. The Five Nations were also severe suffer- ers. Failing to win them from their alliance with the English, Frontenac several times invaded their country with an army of French troops and Indians, and ravaged it with great cruelty. Frontenac led these expeditions in person, though he was seventy-four years old. The people of New York, regarding the Jesuits as the true authors of the miseries endured by the English and their allies, en- acted a law in 1700, that every Romish priest who voluntarily came into the province should be ^^nged. Butchery at Deerfield. Five years after the Peace of Ryswick, the War Gif the Spanish Succession, or, as it is known in American history, " Queen Anne's War," began in Europe. It soon extended to America, and embroiled the English and French in this country. The English settle- ments on the western frontier of New Eng- land were almost annihilated by the Indians, and the French were unusually active. The people of Deerfield were warned by the friendly Mohawks that the French and Indians were meditating an attack upon their CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 271 settlements and through the winter 01* 1703-4 a vigilant watch was kept by night and day. The winter was very severe ; the snow lay four feet deep, and the clear, cold atmosphere made it almost as hard as ice. Profiting by this, a war party of about two hundred French and one hundred and forty-two In- dians, under the command of Hertel de Rou- ville, set out from Canada, and by the aid of vnow-shoes crossed the country on the snow nnd reached the vicinity of Deerfield on the last night of February, 1704. Towards day- break on the first of March the sentinels, supposing that all was safe, left their posts at Deerfield, and the enemy at once silently mounted on the snow-drifts to the top of the palisades and entered the enclosure, which ' had an area of twenty acres. A general massacre followed. The town was destroyed, forty persons were killed, and one hundred and twelve were carried away into Canada. Fate of Eunice Williams. Among the captives were the minister Williams, his wife Eunice, and their five chil- dren. The sufferings of the prisoners on the marcu to Canada were fearful. Two men starved to death. The infant, whose cries disturbed the captors, was tossed out into the snow to die ; and the mother who faltered from fatigue or anguish was despatched by a blow from the tomahawk. Eunice Williams had brought her Bible along with her, and in the brief intervals afforded by the halts of the savages for rest, drew from its sacred pages the consolations she so sorely needed. Her strength soon failed, as she had but recently necovered from her confinement. Her hus- band sought to cheer her by pointing her to " the house not made with hands," and she assured him that she was satisfied to endure any suffering, counting it gain for Christ's sake. Peiceiving that her end was near, she commended her children to God and t'-^ their father's care, and was immediately killed by the savages, as she could go no farther. The Williams family were taken to Can- ada, and a few years later were ransomed, with the exception of the youngest daughter, with whom the savages refused to part. She was adopted into a village of Christian In- dians near Montreal, and became a convert to the Roman Catholic faith, and subse- quently married a Mohawk chief Years afterwards she appeared at Deerfield clad in the dress of her tribe. She had come to visit her relatives; but no entreaties could induce her to remain with them, and she went back to her adopted people and to her children. iilaughter of the Helpless. The war was conducted with brutal ferocity by the French. Hertel de Rouville gained eternal infamy by his butcheries of helpless women and children. Vaudreuil, the gov- ernor of Canada, urged on his forces to deeds of fresh atrocity, but at length the savages became disgusted with their bloody work and refused to murder any more English. The French succeeded, however, in inducing some of them to continue their assistance, and in 1708 Haverhill was surprised by the French and Indians under Rouville, and its inhabitants massacred with the most fiendish cruelty. None of them escaped death or captivity. Filled with horror and indignation, Colonel Peter Schuyler, of New York, wrote to the Marquis de Vaudreuil : " I hold it my duty towards God and my neighbor, to prevent, if possible, these barbarous and heathen cruel- ties. My heart swells with indignation when I think that a war between Christian princes, bound to the exactest laws of honor and gen- erosity, which their noble ancestors have illustrated by brilliant examples, is degene- rating into a savage and boundless butchery. 272 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. These are not the methods for terminating the war." " Such fruitless cruelties," says Bancroft, " inspired our fathers with a deep hatred of the French missionaries ; they compelled the employment of a large part of the inhabitants as soldiers, so that there was one year during this war when even a fifth part of all who were capable of bearing arms were in active service. They gave birth also to a willing- ness to exterminate the natives. The Indians RETURN OF THE DAUGHTER OF EUNICE WILLIAMS. vanished when their homes were invaded ; ihey could not be reduced by usual methods of warfare ; hence a bounty was offered for every Indian scalp ; to regular forces under pay the grant was ten pounds — to volunteers in actual service, twice that sum ; but if men would, of themselves, without pay, make up parties and patrol the forests in search of Indians, as of old the woods were scoured for wild beasts, the chase was invigorated by the promised ' encourgement of fifty pound's per scalp. ' " In 1707 Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island made a combined attempt to conquer Acadia. A fleet was despatched against Port Royal, but without success. In 1 7 10 a second expedition was sent from Boston against Port Royal, aided this time by an English fleet. Port Royal was taken, the French were driven out of the greater part of Acadia, and that province was an- nexed to the English do- minions and called Nova Scotia. The name of Port Royal was changed to An- napolis, in honor of the Queen of England. Encouraged by this suc- cess, the English Govern- ment the next year at- tempted the conquest ol Canada by two expeditions, one by land and the other by sea. A powerful fleet and a strong army was des- patched from England to co-operate with the colo* nists. The effort was un- successful. The fleet, which was badly handled by the admiral in attempting to ascend the St. Lawrence, was wrecked with the loss of eight vessels and eight eighty-four men, and wn The failure e 1 hundred and obliged to return to Boston. the fleet to accomplish anything compelled the abandonment of the land expedition against Montreal. In 171 3 the war was brought to an end by the treaty of Utrecht, by which Acadia was ceded permanently to Great Britain and became a province of the English crown. The third Indian war broke out in 1723 CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 275 in the northern colonies, and spread from the disputed border on the east to Maine and New Hampshire, where the scenes which we have so often described were enacted over again. The crack of the rifle, the war-whoop of the Indian, the crash of the tomahawk, and the smoke of the cabin played their dreadful part, as they had done so many times before, and have done so often since. Father Sebastien Rasle had dwelt among Indians for nearly forty years, living so thor- oughly their life, while he preached and ministered to them, that his influence was un- bounded. He possessed great learning, and, being a French Jesuit, sympathized so strongly with the views of the governor of Canada that he was worth a whole regiment of troops. The Indian settlement at Norridgewock, where it may be said this French chief was sole ruler, was highly prosperous. Two attempts were made to break it by capturing Rasle, but he escaped each time. Peace at Last. In August, 1724, however, it was attacked by a vorce of two hundred men, when most of the warriors were gone from home. Those who escaped fled to the woods, and Father Rasle was killed while trying to divert attention from the flying fugitives. When the assailants departed and the Indians re- turned, they found the dead body of Rasle, scalped, hacked and mutilated. They gave it tender burial under the altar of the pil- laged chapel, and uttered many a wild vow of vengeance on those who had robbed them of their beloved leader. In the hope of checking the shocking brutalities, the provinces sent representatives to Governor Vaudreuil at Montreal. He treated them with much courtesy, but it took a long time to bring him to terms. He finally promised to advise the Indians to stop hostilities. The eastern tribe learned shortly after that preparations were on foot to press them more than ever, and they con sented to make peace, which, with now and then a slight interruption, continued down to the French and Indian war. In 1744 the disputes in Europe concerning the succession of the Austrian throne cul- minated in a war, which is known in Euro- pean history as the War of the Austrian Succession, and in America as King George's war. As usual, England and France were arrayed on opposite sides, and their colonies in America soon became involved in hostili- ties. The French were the first to receive information from Europe of the existence oi war, and began the struggle by attacking and capturing the English fort at Canso and carrying the garrison prisoners to Louisburg. Louisburg, the principal port of the island of Cape Breton, was at this time the strongest fortress in America, and from its secure har- bor the French were constantly despatching privateers against the merchant vessels and fishermen of New England. These depre- dations caused such serious loss to the eastern colonies that at length Governor Shirley proposed to the general court of Massachusetts to undertake the capture of Louisburg as the only means of putting a stop to them, and this measure was laid by the general court before the other colonies. Another Appeal to Arms. It was understood that no aid was to be expected from the mother country, which was too busily engaged in conducting the war in Europe, and that the colonies would be obliged to depend entirely upon their own resources for their success. Neverthe- less, the measure was popular, and the enthu- siasm of the colonists was aroused to the highest point. Nearly all the northern col- onies had suffered severely at the hands oi 27< CRUEL MURDER OF RASLE. CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 275 the French and Indians, and in every ship- ping port were to be found scores of men who had been robbed and otherwise mal- treated by the French privateers. Pennsyl- vania and New Jersey, under the influence lof the Quaker dislike of war, declined to send troops, but furnished a fair supply of money to defray their share of the expenses of the expedition ; New York made a con- tribution of money and of a number of pieces of artillery; Connecticut gave five hundred men, and New Hampshire and Rhode I land each contributed a regiment Moving Against the Enemy. Massachusetts, being the most interested in the success of the expedition by reason of being the largest owner of shipping, under- took the principal part of the expense and agreed to furnish a majority of the troops and the vessels. There was no difficulty in procuring volunteers, but those who offered themselves were civilians, ignorant of military discipline, and utterly unprepared to attempt the reduction of such a fortress as that against which the expedition was directed. These disadvantages, however, were lost sight of in the enthusiasm aroused by the hope of destroying the ability of the French to prey upon the commerce of the colonies. Sir William Pepperell,a wealthy merchant of Maine, was elected commander of the ex- pedition, which rendezvoused at Boston in the early spring of 1745. One hundred \essels and a force of over three thousand men were assembled, and about the first of April sailed for Canso, which was reached on the seventh. The ice was drifting in such quantities that the fleet could not enter the harbor of Louisburg, and was obliged to remain at Canso for more than two weeks. Admiral Warren, commanding the West India squadron, had been invited to join the expedition, but in the absence of instructions from England had declined to do so. Al most immediately afterwards he received orders from home to render Massachusetts every aid in his power, and at once joined the New England fleet at Canso with four ships of war and a detachment of regular troops. At length, the ice having moved south- ward, the New England fleet entered the harbor of Louisburg on the thirtieth of April. The fortress was built on a neck of land on the south side of the harbor, and its walls were from twenty to thirty feet high and forty feet thick at the base, and were surrounded with a ditch eighty feet in width. Outlying forts protected the main work, and there was not a foot of the walls that was not swept by the fire of the artillery. Nearly two hundred and fifty cannon of all sizes constituted the armament of the fortress, and the principal outwork, the " royal battery," was deemed capable of withstanding an attack of five thousand men. The garrison numbered six- teen hundred men. To attack this fortress the New England troops brought with them eighteen cannon and three mortars. The French Driven to the W^oods. As the fleet drew near the town the French marched down to the beach to op- pose the landing of the troops. Immediately the whale-boats of the ships were lowered and manned, and at a signal from the flag- ship darted for the shore with a speed which astonished and struck terror to the French, who were quickly driven to the woods. The landing was secured, and the next day a de- tachment of four hundred men marched by the town, giving it three cheers as they passed, and took position near the northeast harbor, completely cutting off the fortress from communication with the country in its rear. This completed the investment, as the fleet closed the harbor, and prevented tiif approach of relief by sea. ijt SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. That night the troops in the royal battery- spiked the guns of that work, abandoned it, and retreated into the town. It was imme- diately occupied by the New Englanders, who drilled the spikes out of the vent-holes of the guns, and turned them against the town. Batteries were erected by the colonial troops, and their fire opened upon Louis- burg. The volunteers proved admirable soldiers, exciting the surprise of the English naval officers by the readiness and facility with which they discharged the various duties required of them. Numbers of them were mechanics by profession, and their skill was of the greatest service in this emergency. A New Hampshire colonel, who was a carpenter, constructed sledges with which to drag the artillery across a morass to the positions assigned the batteries. The weather was mild and singularly dry, and the men were healthy. " All day long the men, if not on duty, were busy with amuse- ments — firing at marks, fishing, fowling, wrestling, racing or running after balls shot from the enemy't guns." An Important Capture. In the meantime the ships of Admiral Warren blockaded the harbor, and not only prevented French vessels from entering the port, but succeeded in decoying into the midst of the English fleet the French frigate " Vigilante," of sixty guns, which was cap- tured after a sharp engagement of several hours. She was loaded with stores for the fortress, and these fell into the hands of the victors. The French commander, who had shown but litde energy during the siege, was now so thoroughly disheartened that on the sev- enteenth of June, just seven weeks after the commencement of the investment, he surren- dered the town and fortifications. As the colonial troops entered the place to take oos- session of it they were astonished at the strength of the works. " God has gone out of the way of His common providence, in a remarkable and miraculous manner," they said, " to incline the hearts of the French to give up, and deliver this strong city into our hands." The capture of Louisburg by the undisciplined volunteers of America was the greatest success achieved by England during the war. The colonists were justly proud of it Bells were rung and bonfires lighted in all the colonies, and the people rejoiced greatly at the success of their brethren and friends. England, with characteristic selfish- ness, claimed the glory exclusively for the squadron of Admiral Warren. Humiliating Treaty. France was greatly alarmed at the capture of Louisburg, which seriously threatened her dominion in America, and measures were at once begun for its recovery, and for the de- struction of the English colonies. In 1746, a large fleet was despatched to America under the Duke d'Anville, but many of the vessels were lost at sea, and the fleet was greatly weakened by pestilence. In the midst of these misfortunes the Duke d'An- ville suddenly died, and his successor lost his mind, and committed suicide. The expedi- tion made no serious demonstration against the English, and resulted in total failure. In 1747, another fleet was sent out from Francq for the same purpose, but was captured after a severe fight by an English fleet under Admirals Anson and Warren. In spite of these successes, however, the frontiers of the northern colonies suffered considerably, and the English government resolved to attempt once more the conquest of Canada. All the colonies were required to furnish men or money to this enterprise, and eight thousand men were enlisted. The British government delayed, however, and CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 277 finally abandoned the enterprise. On the eighteenth of October, 1748, the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle closed the war. The treaty required that all places taken by either party during the war should be restored, and Louisburg was delivered up to the French, to the great disgust of the New England colonies, who saw all the results of their sacrifices thrown away, and their com- merce and fisheries once more placed at the mercy of the French. England had never regarded the interests of her colonies as worth considering, however, and it was not to be expected that she should manifest any concern for them now. Dangerous Neighbors, It was commonly believed in Amei.ca, and with good reason, that the king did not desire that New England should enjoy the security necessary to her prosperity. His majesty was beginning to be jealous of his American subjects, who had, as Admiral Warren ex- pressed it, " the highest notion of the rights and liberties of an Englishman," and he was resolved to keep them so weak that they should not forget their dependence upon him. Peter Kalm, a Swedish traveller, who visited New York in 1748, thus records the prevailing sentiment in America at this period : " The English colonies in this part of the world have increased so much in wealth and population that they will vie with European England. But to maintain the commerce and the power of the metropo- lis they are forbid to establish new manufac- tures, which might compete with the English ; :hey may dig for gold and silver only on con- dition of shipping them immediately to Eng- land ; they have, with the exception of a few fixed places, no liberty to trade to any ports not belonging to the English dominions, and foreigners are not allowed the least com- merce with these American colonies. And there are many similar restrictions. " These oppressions have made the inhab- itants of the English colonies less tender to their motherland. This coldness is increased by the many foreigners who are settled among them ; for Dutch, German-s and French are here blended with England, and have no special love for old England. Besides, somt people are always discontented and love change ; and exceeding freedom and pros- perity nurse an untamable spirit. I have been told, not only by native Americans, but by English emigrants, publicly, that within thirty or fifty years the English colo- nies in North America may constitute a separate state entirely independent of Eng- land. But as this whole country is towards the sea unguarded, and on the frontier is kept uneasy by the French, these dangerous neighbors are the reason why the love of these colonies for their metropolis does not utterly decline. The English government has, therefore, reason to regard the French in North America as the chief power that urges their colonies to submission." During the last year of the war an incident occurred at Boston which might have opened the eyes of the ministry to the growing de- termination of the Americans to resist any interference with their liberties. Desertions from the English ships-of-war in Boston har- bor had become so frequent that Sir Charles Knowles, the commanding officer, sent his boats up to Boston one morning and seized a number of seamen in the vessels at the wharves, and a number of mechanics and laborers engaged in work on shore. The people of Boston indignantly demanded of the governor the release of the impressed men. As his excellency declined to inter- fere in the matter, the people seized the com- manders and officers of the ships who hap- pened to be in the town, and kept them pris- oners until they agreed to release the men they had unlawfully seized. BOOK III The French and Indian War CHAPTER XXII Outbreak of Hostilities England Claims the Valley of the Ohio — Organization of the Ohio Company — The French Extend Their Posts Into the Ohio Country — Washington's Mission to the French at Fort Duquesne — His Journey — Reception by the French — Hi& Journey Home — A Perilous Undertaking — Organization of the Virginia Forces — Washington Made Second in Com- mand — The French Drive the English from the Head of the Ohio — Fort Duquesne Built by Them — Washington Crosses the Mountains — The Fight at Great Meadows — Beginning of the French and Indian War — Surrender of Fort Necessity to the French — Unjust Treatment of the Colonial Officers — Congress of the Colonies at New York — Frank- lin's Plan of a Union of the Colonies — Its Failure — Reasons ot the British Government for Rejecting It — England Assumes the Direction of the War — Amval of General Braddock — Plan of Campaign — Obstinacy of Braddock — He Passes the Mountains — Defeat of Braddock — Heroism of Washington — Retreat of Dunbar Beyond the Mountains — Vigorous Action of Pennsylvania — Armstrong Defeats the Indians and Burns the Town of Kittanning. T HE wars between the English and French in America which we have just considered were but a prelude to the great struggle which was to decide which of these powers should con- trol the destinies of the new world. The English, as we have seen, were growing stronger and more numerous along the At- lantic coast, and were directing their new settlements farther into the interior with each succeeding year. The French held Canada and the valley of the Mississippi, but their tenure was that of a military occu- pation rather than a colonizaticr.. Between the possessions of these hostile nations lay the valley of the Ohio, a beauti- ful and fertile region, claimed by both, but occupied as yet by neither. The French had explored the country, and had caused leaden plates engraved with the arms of France to be deposited at its principal points to attest their claim ; and had opened friendly rela- tions with the Indians. 278 The region had been frequently visited by the traders, who brought back reports of its remarkable beauty and fertility and of its excellent climate. The British government regarded this region as a portion of Virginia, and one of the chief desires of the Earl of Halifax, the prime minister of England, was to secure the Ohio valley by planting an English colony in it. A company was or- ganized in Virginia and Maryland for this purpose and for the purpose of trading with the Indians, and was warmly supported by the Earl of Halifax. It was named the Ohio Company, and at length succeeded in obtain- ing a favorable charter from the king, who, in March, 1749, ordered the governor of Virginia to assign to the Ohio Company five hundred thousand acres of land lying be- tween the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, and along the Ohio The company were required to despatch, within seven years at least, one hundred fam- ilies to the territory granted them, to locate OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 279 without delay at least two-fifths of the lands they desired to occupy, and to build and gar- rison a fort at their own cost. They were granted an exemption from quit-rents and othftr dues for ten years, and this freedom needed for their traffic with the Indians, the Ohio Company built a trading-post at Wills' Creek, within the limits of Maryland, on the site of the present city of Cumberland. Here one of the easiest of the passes over the FRENCH EXPLORERS BURYING LEADEN PLATES. from taxation was extended by the company to all who would settle in their domain. A number of Indian traders had located themselves west of the Alleghanies, and in order to supply these with the articles Alleghanies began, and by means of it the traders could easily transport their goods to the Indian country west of the mountains and return with the furs their traffic enabled them to collect. 28o THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Being anxious to explore the country west of the mountains, the company employed Christopher Gist, one of the most experi- enced Indian traders, and instructed him " to examine the western country as far as the falls of the Ohio, to look for a large tract of good level land to mark the passes in the mountains, to trace the courses of the rivers, to count the falls, to observe the strength and numbers of the Indian nations." A Land of Beauty. Gist set out on his perilous mission on the last day of October, 1750, and crossing the mountains reached the Delaware towns on the Alleghany River, from which he passed down to Logstown, a short distance below the head of the Ohio. " You are come to settle the Indians' lands ; you shall never go home safe," said the jealous people ; but in spite of their threats they suffered him to proceed without molestation. He traversed the country to the Muskingum and the Scioto, and then crossing the Ohio explored the Kentucky to its source, and returned to Wills' Creek in safety. He reported that the region he had traversed merited all the praise that had been bestowed upon it ; that it pos- sessed a pleasant and healthy climate, and was a land of great beauty. The soil was fertile and the streams abundant and excel- lent. The land was covered with a rich growth of the most valuable and beautiful trees, and abounded in small level districts and meadows covered with long grass and white clover, on which the elk, the deer, and ! lie buffalo grazed in herds. Wild turkeys and other game abounded, and the country offered every attraction to settlers who were willing to improve it. Gist also reported that the agents of the French were actively engaged in seeking to induce the western tribes to make war upon the English and prevent them from obtain- ing a footing west of the mountains. The purposes of the English were well known to the French, who viewed them with alarm, as the successful occupation of the Ohio valley by the English would cut off the communi- cation established by the French between Canada and the Mississippi. This the French were resolved to prevent at any cost. The Indians regarded both of the white nations as intruders in their country. They were willing to trade with both, but were averse to giving up their lands to either. " If the French," said they, " take possession of the north side of the Ohio, and the English of the south, where is the Indian's land ? " A Line of Forts. Tiie possession of the Ohio valley was thus of the highest importance to the French. Their fortified post of Fort Front- enac gave them the command of Lake On- tario, which they further secured by con- structing armed vessels for the navigation of the lake. They retained their hold upon Lake Erie by strengthening Fort Niagara, which La Salle had built at the foot of that lake. They entered into treaties with the Shawnees,the Delavvares and other powerful tribes between the lake and the Ohio, and steadily pushed their way eastward towards the mountains. They began their advance into the valley of the Ohio by building a fort at Presque Isle, now the city of Erie, in Pennsylvania, another on French Creek, on the site of the present town of Waterford, and a third on the site of the present town of Franklin, at the confluence of French Creek with the Alleghany. These rapid advances eastward alarmed the English government, which instructed the governor of Virginia to address a remon- strance to the French authorities and to warn them of the consequences which must result from their intrusion into the territory SCENE IN THE ALLEGHENY MOUNTAINS. 281 282 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. of the English. To do this it was necessary for the governor to despatch his communica- tion to the nearest French post by the hands of some messenger of sufficient resolution to overcome -the natural dangers of such an undertaking, and of sufficient intelligence to gain information respecting the designs and strength of the French ; and Governor Din- widdle was somewhat at loss to find such a person. Fortunately the man needed was at hand, and the attention of the governor being called to him, his excellency decided to intrust him with the delicate and danger- ous mission. The Coming Hero. The person selected for this task was a young man in the twenty-second year of his age, George Washington 6y name. He was a native of Westmoreland County, Virginia, where he was born on the twenty-second of February, 1732. He was a great-grandson of the Colonel John Washington, whom we have noticed as the leader of an expedition against the Indians in the time of Sir William Berkeley. His father, Augustine Washington, was a wealthy planter, but his death, when George was eleven years old, deprived his son of his care, and also of the means of acquiring an education. He soon acquired all the learning that it was possible to gain at a country school, from which he passed to an academy of somewhat higher grade, where he devoted himself principally to the study of mathematics. His half- brother, Lawrence, who was fourteen years older than himself, had received a careful education and directed the studies of his younger brother, to whom he was devotedly attached. Though deprived of the care of his father at such an early age, it was the good fortune of George Washington to possess in his mother a guide well qualified to fill the place of both parents to her fatherless child- ren. She was a woman of rare good sense, of great decision of character, and one whose life was guided by the most earnest Chris- tian principle. Her tenderness and sweet womanly qualities won the devoted love of her children, and her firmness enforced their obedience. From her George inherited a quick and ardent temper, and from her he learned the lesson of self-conti ol which en- abled him to govern it. Washington's Botyhood. As a boy, Washington was noted for his truthfulness, his courage and his generosity. He was both liked and respected by his schoolmates, and such was their confidence in his fairness and good judgment that he was usually chosen the arbiter of their boy- ish disputes. He joined heartily in their sports and was noted for his skill in athletic exercises. He was a fearless rider and a good hunter, and by his fondness for manly sports developed his naturally vigorous body to a high degree of strength. He was cheer- ful and genial in temper, though reserved and grave m manner. He early acquired habito of industry and order, and there are still existing many evidences of the careful and systematic manner in which he discharge^! every duty assigned him at this early age. At the age of fourteen it was decided that he should enter the navy, and his brother Lawrence, who had served with credit in that branch of the royal service, had no difficulty in obtaining for him a midshipman's war- rant. The ship he was to join lay in the Po- ■ tomac, and his trunk was sent on board; bui at the last moment his mother, dreading the effect of the temptations of a seaman's life upon a boy so young, appealed to him by his affection for her to remain with her Washington was sorely disappointed, but he yielded cheerfully to his mother's wish. OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 283 The marriage of his brother Lawrence gave to the young man a second home at Mount Vernon, where he passed a large part of his time. Here he was brought into con- stant contact with the most cultivated and refined society of Virginia, an association which had a happy influence upon the forma- tion of his character. There also he formed the acquaintance and won the friendship of Lord Fairfax, the grandson of Lord Culpep- per, and the inheritor of Culpepper's vast estates in Virginia, which comprised about one-seventh of the area of the state of Vir- ginia as it existed prior to the separation of West Virginia in 1861. Lord Fairfax con- ceived a great fondness for the young man, and took a deep interest in his future welfare. Industry and Diligence. Washington, upon leaving school, had chosen the profession of a surveyor as his future avocation, and soon after his first meeting with Lord Fairfax was employed by that nobleman to survey the lands belonging to him, many of which had been occupied by settlers without right or title. It was an arduous and responsible task, and Washing- ton, who was just entering his seventeenth year, seemed almost too young for it; but " Lord Thomas " had satisfied himself of his young friend's capability for it, and the result justified the opinion he had formed. His work was done with care and accuracy, and his measurements were so exact that they are still relied upon. His life as a surveyor was in many respects a hard one, but he enjoyed it. It gave new vigor to his naturally robust constitution and his splendid figure, and while yet a youth he acquired the appearance and habits of mature manhood. He also learned forest life in all its various phases, and by his constant intercourse with the hunters and Indians, gained a knowledge of the character and habits of these wild men which in after years was of infinite value to him. During his surveying expeditions Wash- ington was a frequent visitor at Greenway Court, the seat of Lord Fairfax, where, in addition to the other attractions, there was a well-selected library, of which the young man regularly availed himself His reading was of a serious and useful nature ; " Addi- son's Spectator " and the " History of Eng- land " were among his favorite works. Though the heir to a considerable estate. Washington supported himself during this period by his earnings as a surveyor. " His father had bequeathed to the eldest son, Lawrence, the estate afterwards called Mount Vernon. To Augustine, the second son, he had given the old homstead in Westmoreland County. And George, at the age of twenty- one years, was to inherit the house and lands in Suffolk County. As yet, however, he derived no benefit from this landed property. But his industry and diligence in his labor- ious occupation supplied him with abundant pecuniary means. His habits of life were simple and economical ; he indulged in no gay and expensive pleasures." Military Education. In 175 1, in order to prepare for any emergency to which the hostility of the French and Indians might give rise, the col- ony of Virginia was divided into military districts, each of which was placed in charge of an adjutant and inspector, with the rank of major, whose duty it was to keep the militia in readiness for instant service. Washington had at an early day evinced a great fondness for military exercises, and as a boy had often drilled his school-fellows in the simplest manoeuvres of the troops. As he advanced towards manhood, his brother Lawrence, Adjutant Muse, of West- moreland, and Jacob Vanbraam, a fencing- master, and others, had given him numerous 284 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. lessons in the art of war. Though but nine- teen years old, he was regarded by his acquaintance as one of the best-informed persons upon military matters in the colony, and at the general desire of those who knew him he was commissioned a major in the colonial forces, and placed in command of one of the military districts. He discharged his duties with ability and zeal, and gave such satisfaction that when Governor Din- widdle, in 1752, divided the province into four military districts, Major Washington was placed in command of the northern dis- trict. " The counties comprehended in this division he promptly and statedly traversed, and he soon effected the thorough discipline of their militia for warlike operations." He was discharging the duties of this position when selected by the governor of Virginia to bear his message to the commander of the French forces on the Ohio. Governor Dinwiddle intrusted to his young envoy a letter addressed to the commander of the French forces on the Ohio, in which he demanded of him his reasons for invading the territory of England while Great Britain and France were at peace with each other. Washington was instructed to observe care- fully the numbers and positions of the French, the strength of their forts, the na- ture of their communications with Canada and with their various posts, and to endeavor to ascertain the real designs of the French in occupying the Ohio valley, and the proba- bilities of their being vigorously supported •om Canada. Perilous Journey. " Ye're a braw lad," said the governor, as he delivered his instructions to the young major, " and gin you play your cards weel, my boy, ye shall hae nae cause to rue your bargain." Washington received his instructions on the thirtieth of October, 1753, and on the same day set out for Winchester, then a frontier post, from which he proceeded to Wills' Creek, where he was to cross the mountains. Having secured the services of Christopher Gist as guide, and of two inter- preters and four others, Washington set out on his journey about the middle of Novem-/ ber. They crossed the mountains and jour- neyed through an unbroken country, with no paths save the Indian trails to serve as guides, across rugged ravines, over steep hills, and across streams swollen with the recent rains, until in nine days they reached the point where the Alleghany and Monon- gahela unite and form the Ohio. Washing- ton carefully examined the place and was greatly impressed with the advantages offered for the location of a fort by the point of land at the junction of the two rivers. The judg- ment expressed by him at the time was sub- sequently confirmed by the choice of this spot by the French for one of their most important posts — Fort Duquesne. Interview With " Half-King." Washington had been ordered by the gov- ernor to proceed direct to Logstown, where he was to hold an interview with the Dela- ware chief known as the Half King, to acquaint the Indians with the nature of his mission and ascertain their disposition to- wards the English. While he was at this place he met several French deserters from the posts on the lower Ohio, who told him the location, number and strength of th« French posts between Quebec and New Orleans by way of the Wabash and the Maumee, and informed him of the intention of the French to occupy the Ohio from its head to its mouth with a similar chain of forts. The Half King confirmed the story of the deserters. He had heard that the French were coming with a strong force to drive the OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 285 English out of the land. A " grand talk " was held with the chiefs in council by Wash- ington, and they answered him, by the Half King, that what he had said was true ; they were brothers, and would guard him on his way to the nearest French post. They wished neither the English nor the French to settle in their country ; but as the French were the first intruders, they were willing to aid the English in their efforts to expel them. They agreed to break off friendly relations with the French ; but Washington, who knew the Indian character well, was not altogether satisfied with their promises. On the thirtieth of November he set out from Logstown with his companions, at- tended by the Half King and three other Indians, and on the fourth arrived at the French post at Venango. The officer in command of this fort had no authority to receive his letter and referred him to the Chevalier St. Pierre, the commander of the next post. They treated the English with courtesy and invited Washington to sup with them. When the wine was passed around they drank deeply and soon lost their discretion. Loud Boasting. The sober and vigilant Washington noted their words with great attention and recorded them in his diary. " They told me," he writes, " that it was their absolute design to take possession of the Ohio, and, by G — d, they would do it ; for, that although they were sensible the English could raise two men for their one, they knew their motions were too slow and dilatory to prevent any undertaking of theirs. They pretend to have an undoubted right to the river, from a discovery made by one La Salle sixty years ago ; and the rise of this expedition is to prevent our settling on the river or waters of it, as they heard of some families moving out in order thereto." The French officers then informed Washington of their strength south of the lakes, and of the number and location of their posts between Montreal and Venango. The French exerted every stratagem to detach the Indians from Washington's party, and they met with enough success to justify Washington's distrust of them. All had come to deliver up the French speech-belts, or, in other words, to break off friendly rel;? tions with the French. The Delaware chicl. wavered and failed to fulfill their promise- THE HALF KING. " but the Half King clung to Washington like a brother, and delivered up his belt as he had promised." The party left Venango on the seventh of December, and reached Fort Le Boeuf, the next post, on the eleventh. It was a strong work, defended by cannon, and near by Washington saw a number of canoes and boats, and the materials for building others, sure indications that an expedition down the river was about to be attempted. He ob- tained an interview with St. Pierre, the com- mander, an officer of experience and integri- ty, greatly beloved as well as feared by the Indians. He received the young envoy with 286 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. courtesy, but refused to discuss questions of right with him. ** I am here," he said, " by the orders of my general, to which I shall conform with exactness and resolu- tion." On the fourteenth, St. Pierre delivered to Washington his answer to the letter of Gov- ernor Dinwiddie, and next day the party set out on its return. They descended French Creek in canoes, at no little risk, as the 1 stream was full of .ice. At Venango, which was reached on the twenty-second, they found their horses, which were so feeble that it was doubtful whether they would be able to make the journey home. " I put myself in an Indian walking-dress," says Washington, " and continued with them three days, until I found there was no possi- bility of their getting home in any reason- able time. The horses became less able to travel every day ; the cold increased very fast, and the roads were becoming much worse by a deep snow continually freezing ; therefore, as I was uneasy to get back to make report of my proceedings to his honor the governor, I determined to prc'icute my journey the nearest way through, the woods on foot." A Shot that Missed. Taking Gist as his only companion, and directing their way by the compass.. Wash- ington set out on the twenty-sixth, oy the nearest way across the country, for the head of the Ohio, The next day an Indian who had lain in wait for them fired at Washington at a distance of only fifteen steps, but missed him, and was made a prisoner by him. Gist was anxious to kill the savage on the spot, but Washington would not allow this, and they kept the fellow until dark, and then released him. They travelled all night and all the next day in order to make sure of escaping from the enemies they felt certain their freed captive would set upon their trail. At dark on the twenty-eighth they reached the Alleghany, and spent the night on the banks of that stream. The next morning they set to work with one poor hatchet to construct a raft, on which to pass the river, which was full of floating ice. They com- pleted their raft about sunset and launched it upon the stream. It was caught in the floating ice, and Washington was hurled off into the water and nearly drowned. Unable to reach the opposite shore, they made for an island in mid-stream and passed the night there. The cold was intense, and Gist had all his fingers and several of his toes frozen. The next morning the river was a solid mass of ice, hard enough to bear their weight. They at once crossed to the opposite bank and continued their journey, and on the sixteenth of January, 1754, were at Williams- burg, where Washington delivered to the governor of Virginia the reply of the French commander, and reported the results of his journey. Eager for New Territory. The French commander returned a cour- teous but evasive answer to Governor Din- widdle's communication, and referred him for a definite settlement of the mitter to the Marquis Duquesne, the governor of Canada. It was clear from the tone of his letter tha^ he meant to hold on to the territory he had occupied, and the governor of VirL;inia was satisfied from Major Washington's report of his observations that St. Pierre was about to extend the line of French posts down the Ohio. The authorities of Virginia resolved to anticipate him, and in the spring of 1754 the Ohio Company Lent a force of about forty men to build a fort at the head of the Ohio, on the site to which Washington had called attention. In the meantime, measures were set on foot in Virginia for the protection of the OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 287 frontiers. A \ igiment of troops was ordered to be raised, and it was the general wish that Major Washington should be appointed to the command. He declined the commission when tendered him, on the ground of his youth and inexperience, and was made lieu- tenant-colonel, the command of the regiment being conferred upon Colonel Joshua Fry. Washington was ordered to repair to the west to take charge of the defence of the frontiers, and in April, 1754, reached Wills* Creek with three companies of his regiment. Washington Pushes Forward. Just at this moment news arrived that the party sent to build a fort at the head of the Ohio had been driven away by the French. A force of one thousand men, with artillery, under Captain Coutrecoeur, had descended Ihe Alleghany and had surrounded the Eng- lish. One hour was given them to surren- der, and being utterly unable to offer any resistance, they capitulated upon condition of being allowed to retire to Virginia. Imme- diately upon the withdrawal of the English, the French forces occupied the unfinished work, completed it, and named it Fort Du- quesne. This was a more important act than either party believed it at the time. It was the beginning of the final struggle by which the power of France in America was broken. In the history of Europe this struggle is known as the " Seven Years' War;" in our own history as the " French and Indian War." Hostilities were now inevitable, and Wash- ington, who was on his march to the Ohio when the news of the aggression of the French was received, resolved to push for- ward without delay. Colonel Fry had fallen sick, and the direction of affairs on the bor- der had passed entirely into the hands of the young lieutenant-colonel. He intended to proceed to the junction of Red Stone Creek and the Monongahcla, the site occupied by the present town of Brownsville, to erect a fort there and hold it until he could be rein- forced. His force was poorly provided with clothing and tents, and was deficient in mili- tary supplies of all kinds. The country to be traversed was a wild, unbroken region, without roads or bridges, and through it the artillery and wagons were to be transported. The little force moved slowly and with diffi- culty, and Washington pushed on in ad- vance with a small detachment, intending to secure the position on the Monongahela and await the arrival of the main body, when the whole force could descend the river in flat- boats to Fort Duquesne. On the twentieth of May he reached the Youghiogheny and there received a message from his ally, the Half King, telling him that the French were in heavy force at Fort Duquesne. This report was confirmed at the Little Meadows by the traders, and by another message from the Half King on the twenty-fifth of May, warning Washington that a force of French and Indians had left Fort Duquesne on a secret expedition. Washington was sure that this expedition was destined to attack him, and advanced to the Great Meadows and took position there. The First Blood Shed. On the morning of the twenty-seventh Gist arrived and reported that he had seen the trail of the French within five miles of the Great Meadows. In the evening of the same day a runner came in from the Half King, and with a message that the French were close at hand. Taking with him forty men, Washington set off for the Half King's camp, and by a difficult night march through a tangled forest, in the midst of a driving rain, reached it about daylight. The runners of the Half King found the French encamped in a deep glen not ^ar distant, and it was THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. decided to attack them at once. The Half King and his warriors placed themselves under Washington's orders, and the march was resumed towards the French camp. The French were surprised, and an action of about a quarter of an hour ensued. The French lost ten men killed, among whom was their commander, Jumonville, and twenty-one orisoners. This was the first blood shed on the American continent in the long struggle which won America for the free institutions of the Anglo-Saxon race. Washington was very anxious to follow up the advantage he had gained, and had already appealed to the governors of Mary- land and Pennsylvania for assistance, but no aid reached him. Unable to advance in the face of the rapidly increasing forces of the French, he threw up a stockade fort at Great Meadows, which he named Fort Necessity, from the fact that the provisions of the troops were so nearly exhausted that the danger of a famine was imminent. A Dutchman's Blunder. On the third of July six hundred French and one hundred Indians suddenly appeared before the fort and occupied the hills sur- rounding it. The attacking party were able to shelter themselves behind trees and could command the fort from their safe position, while the English were greatly exposed, and it was evident to the most inexperienced that the fort was untenable. Nevertheless, the work was held for nine hours under a heavy fire, and amid the discomforts of a severe riin-storm. At length De Villiers. the Fiench commander, fearing that his am- munition would be exhausted, proposed a parley and offered terms to Washington. The English had lost thirty killed, and the French but three. The terms of capitulation proposed by De Villiers were interpreted to Washington, who did not understand French, and m consequence of the interpretatioti, which was made by " a Dutchman little acquainted with the English tongue," Wash- ington and his officers " were betrayed into a pledge which they would never have con- sented to give, and an act of moral suicide which they could never have deliberately committed. '* They understood from Vanbraam's inter- pretation, that no fort was to be built beyond the mountains on lands belonging to the Kmg of Frajtce ; but the terms of the articles are, ' neither in this place or beyond the mountains.' " The Virginians were allowed to march out of the fort with the honors of war, retaining their arms and all their stores, but leaving their artillery. This they did on the next morning, July fourth, 1754. The march across the mountains was rendered painful by the lack of provisions, and after much suffering the troops arrived at Fort Cumberland in Maryland. Although the expedition had been unsuccessful, the coni duct of Washington had been marked by so much prudence and good judgment that he received the thanks of the general assembly of Virginia. Washington's Cutting Reply. Governor Dinwiddle had already thrown many obstacles in the way of the defence of the colony, and he now refused to reward the provincial officers with the promotions they had so well earned. In order to avoid this he dissolved the Virginia regiment, and re- organized it into independent companies, no officer of which was to have a higher rank than that of captain. It was also ordered that officers holding commissions from the king should take precedence of those holding commissions from the colonial gov- ernment. Washington, feeling that he could no longer remain in the service with self-respect, OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 289 resigned his commission and withdrew to Mount Vernon. Soon afterwards Governor Sharpe, of Maryland, having been appointed by the king commander in-chief of the forces of the southern colonies, proposed to Wash- insfton, throusrh a friend, to return to the army and accept the rank of colonel, but with the actual authority of captain. Washington declined the offer with characteristic dignity. '* If you think me," he wrote, " capable of holding a commission that has neither rank nor emolument annexed to it, you must maintain a very contemptible opinion of my weakness, and believe me more empty than the commission itself." In the meantime, although peace still remained nominally unbroken between Eng- land and France, each nation was perfectly convinced of the certainty of a conflict in America, and each began to prepare for it. France sent large reinforcements to Canada, and the English went on rapidly with their plans for the conquest of that country. The British government was very anxious that the colonies should bear the brunt of the struggle, though it was fully determined to send a royal army to their assistance, and urged upon them to unite in some plan for iheir common defence. Alliance with the Six Nations. For the purpose of carrying out the wishes of the home government, a convention of delegates from seven of the colonies assem- bled at Albany, New York, on the nineteenth of June, 1754. " The Virginia government was represented by the presiding officer, Delan- cey, the lieutenant-governor of New York ; " but New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and Mary- land were represented by their own delegates. The first object of this convention was to secure the friendship of the powerful con- federacy of the Six Nations, on the northern 19 border, and this was successfully accom- plished. The leading man of this convention was Benjamin Franklin. He was a native of Bos- ton, and the son of a tallow chandler. While still a youth he had removed to Philadelphia, and by the force of his own genius had risen from poverty and obscurity to great prom- inence among the public men of Pennsylva- nia, and the literary and scientific men of his day. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. He had chosen the avocation of a printer ; and by his industry, energy and integrity had accumulated property enough to make him independent. He was among the most active men in America in promoting the advance- ment of literary, scientific and benevolent institutions, and had already won a world- wide reputation by his discoveries in science, and especially by his investigations in elec- tricity and lightning. He was not inexperi- enced in public affairs. He had served as 290 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylva- nia, as postmaster of Philadelphia, as a mem- ber of the provincial assembly of Pennsylvania, and in 1753 had been appointed by the king postmaster-general of the American colonies. In each of these positions he had served with distinction, and now, at the ripe age of forty- eight, he had come to take part in the most important convention ever held in America. Franklin had long been of the opinion that the true interests of the colonies required their union in all measures relating to their common welfare. Believing that the force of circumstances would soon drive them into such a union, he sought to accomplish that end through the medium of this convention. Accordingly he presented to the convention a plan for the union of all the American colonies, which union he intended should be perpetual. Proposed Confederacy. He proposed that while each colony should retain the separate and independent control of its own affairs, all should unite in a per- petual union for the management of their general affairs. This confederacy was to be controlled by a general government, to consist of a governor-general and a council. The seat of the federal government was to be Philadelphia,which city he regarded as central to all the colonies. The governor-general was to be appointed and paid by the king, and was to have thepower of vetoing all laws which should seem to him objectionable. The members of the council were to be elected triennially by the colonial legisla- tures, and were to be apportioned among the colonies according to their respective popula- tion. " The governor-general was to nominate military officers, subject to the advice of the council, which, in turn, was to nominate all civil officers. No money was to be issued but by their joint order. Each colony was to retain its domestic constitution ; the federal government was to regulate all rela- tions of peace or war with the Indians, affairs of trade, and purchases of lands not within the bounds of particular colonies ; to estab- lish, organize and temporarily to govern new settlements ; to raise soldiers, and equip ves- sels of force on the seas, rivers or lakes; to make laws, and levy just and equal taxes. The grand council were to meet once a year to choose their own speaker, and neither to be dissolved nor prorogued, nor continue sitting longer than six weeks at any one time, but by their own consent." The Union Opposed. This plan met with considerable opposK tion, was thoroughly discussed, and was finally adopted by the convention. It was not altogether acceptable to the colonies, each of which dreaded that the establishment of a central government would result in the destruction of the liberties of the individual provinces. Connecticut promptly rejected it. New York received it with coldness, and Massachusetts showed a more active opposi- tion to it. Upon its reception in England it was at once thrown aside by the royal gov- ernment. The Union proposed by the plan was too perfect and would make America practically independent of Great Britain, and so the board of trade did not even bring it before the notice of the king. Franklin regarded the failure of his plan of union with great regret. In after years he wrote : " The colonies so united would have been sufficiently strong to defend themselves. There would then have been no need of troops from England ; of course the subse- quent pretext for taxing America, and the bloody contest it occasioned, would have been avoided. But such mistakes are not new ; history is full of the errors of states and princes." OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 291 The plan for the union of the colonies having failed, the British government re- solved to take into its own hands the task of carrying on the war, with such assistance as the colonies might be willing to afford. A million of pounds was voted for the defence of the British possessions in America, and four strong fleets were sent to sea, together with numerous privateers, which nearly de- stroyed the French West Indian trade. In 1755, Major General Edward Braddock was ap- pointed comman- der-in-chief of the English forces in America. He had served under the Duke of Cumber- land, in his expe- dition into Scot- land against the Pretender Charles Edward, in 1746, and was regarded as one of the most promising officers in his majesty's service. Braddock sailed from Cork, in Ireland, early in January, 1755, and on the twentieth of February arrived at Alexandria, in Virginia. He was soon followed by two regiments of infantry, consisting of five hundred men each, the largest force of regulars Great Britain had ever assembled in America. A conference of the colonial governors with the new commander-in-chief was held at Alexandria, and a plan of campaign was decided upon. Four expeditions were to be despatched against the French. The first, under Braddock in person, was to advance upon Fort Duquesne ; the second, under Governor Shirley of Massachusetts, was to attempt the capture of Fort Niagara; the third, under William John, the Indian agent among the Mohawks, and a man of great influence over them, was to be directed against Crown Point ; and the fourth was to capture the French posts near the head of the Bay of Fundy, and expel the French from Acadia. WILLS CREEK NARROWS, MD. It was now evident that the war was about to commence in good earnest, and the colo- nies exerted themselves to support the efforts of the mother country to the extent of their ability. General Braddock was thoroughly pro- ficient in the theory of his profession, but his experience of actual warfare had been limited to a single campaign, and that a brief one. He possessed the entire confidence of his superiors in England, and his faith in 29^ THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. himself was boundless. He believed that the regulars of the British army were capable of accomplishing any task assigned them, and entertained a thorough contempt for the pro- vincial troops that were to form a part of his command. Soon after his arrival in Virginia he offered Washington a position on his staff as aid-de-camp, with the rank of colonel, which was promptly accepted. Had General Braddock been a different man the presence of Washington in his mili tary family might have been of the greatest service to him, for the experience of the young colonel would have made him an in- valuable counselor. Braddock was in a strange country, and was charged with the conduct of a campaign in which the ordinary rules of warfare as practiced in Europe could not be adhered to. He knew nothing of the difficulties of marching his army through a tangled wilderness and over a mountain range of the first magnitude. Unfortunately for him, he was not aware of his ignorance, and would neither ask for nor listen to advice or information upon the subject. Franklin's Opinion of Braddock. " He was, I think, a brave man," says Franklin, " and might probably have made a figure as a good ofncer in some European war. But he had too much self-confidence, too high an opinion of the validity of regular troops, and too mean a one of both Ameri- cans and Indians." During one of his inter- views with him Franklin undertook to im- press upon him the necessity of guarding against the danger of Indian ambuscades. " He smiled at my ignorance," says Frank- lin, " and replied : ' These savages may in- deed be a formidable enemy to your raw American militia; but upon the king's regular and disciplined troops, sir, it is impossible they should make any impres- sion.' " The army assembled at Wills' Creek, to which place General Braddock repaired in his coach. The bad roads had put him in a passion, and had broken his coach, and he was in no mood upon his arrival to pursue a sensible course. He was advised to employ Indians as scouts on the march, or to use them to protect a force of Pennsylvanians who were making a road over the mountains for the passage of the army, but he refused to do either. Washington urged him to aban- don his wagon-train, to use pack-horses in place of these vehicles, and to move with as little baggage as possible. Braddock ridiculed this suggestion. Neither he nor any of his officers would consent to be separated from their cumbrous baggage, or to dispense with any of the luxuries they had been used to. Famous " Captain Jack." A month, was lost at Wills' Creek, and in June the army began its march. It was greatly impeded by the difficulty of drag- ging the wagons and artillery over roads filled with the stumps of trees and with rocks. Such little progress was made that Braddock, greatly disheartened, privately asked Washington to advise him what to do. As it was known that the garrison at Fort Duquesne was small, Washington advised him to hasten forward with a division of the army, in light marching order, and seize the fort before reinforcements could arrive from Canada. Braddock accordingly detached a division of twelve hundred men and ten pieces of cannon, with a train of pack-horses to carry the baggage, and pushed on in advance with them, leaving Colonel Dunbar to bring up the main division as promptly as possible. A famous hunter and Indian fighter named Captain Jack, who was regarded as the most experienced man in savage warfare in the OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 293 colonies, now offered his services and those of his men to Braddock to act as scouts. Braddock received him with frigid courtesy, and refused his offer, saying that he " had experienced troops upon whom he could rely for all purposes." Braddock's Blunder. Instead of pushing on with energy with 'lis advance division, Braddock moved very slowly, gaining but a little more than three miles a day. " They halt," wrote Washing- ton, "to level every mole hill and to erect a bridge over every brook." On the eighth of July the army reached the east bank of the Monongahela, about fifteen miles above Fort Duquesne, having taken about double the necessary time in the march from Wills' Creek. On the same day Washington, who had been ill for some days, and was still un- well, rejoined Braddock. Early on the morning of the ninth of July the march was resumed. The Monongahela was forded a short distance below the mouth of the Youghiogheny, and the advance con- tinued along the southern bank of that river. About noon the Monongahela was forded again, and the army was planted upon the strip of land between the rivers which form the Ohio. Washington was well convinced that the French and Indians were informed of the movements of the army and would seek to interfere with it before its arrival before the fort, which was only ten miles distant, and urged Braddock to throw in advance the Virginia Rangers, three hundred strong, as they were experienced Indian fighters. Braddock angrily rebuked his aide, and as if to make the rebuke more pointed, ordered the Virginia troops and other provincials to take position in the rear of the regulars. The general was fully convinced of the ability of his trained troops to take care of them- selves. They made a gallant show as they marched along with their gay uniforms, their burnished arms and flying colors, and their drums beating a lively march. Wash- ington could not repress his admiration at the brilliant sight, nor his anxiety for the result. In the meantime the French at Fort Du- quesne had been informed by their scouts oi Braddock's movements, and had resolved to ambuscade him on his march. Early on the morning of the ninth a force of about two hundred and thirty French and Canadians and six hundred and thirty-seven Indians, under De Beaujeu, the commandant at Fort Duquesne, was despatched with orders to occupy a designated spot and attack the enemy upon their approach. Before reach- ing it, about two o'clock in the afternoon, they encountered the advanced force of the English army, under Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Gage, and at once attacked theca with spirit. Galling Fire. The English army at this moment was moving along a narrow road, about twelve feet in width, with scarcely a scout thrown out in advance or upon the flanks. The engineer who was locating the road was the first to discover the enemy, and called out : " French and Indians ! " Instantly a heavy fire was opened upon Gage's force, and his indecision allowed the French and Indians- to seize a commanding ridge, from which they maintained their attack with spirit. There, concealed among the trees, they were almost invisible to the English, who were fully exposed to their fire, as they occupied a broad ravine, covered with low shrubs, im- mediately below the eminence held by the French. The regulars were quickly thrown into confusion by the heavy fire and the fierce yells of the Indians, who could nowhere b* 294 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. seen, and their losses were so severe and sudden that they became panic-stricken. They were ordered to charge up the hill and drive the French from their cover, but re- fused to move, and in their terror fired at random into the woods. In the meantime the Indians were rapidly spreading along the sides of the ravine and continuing their fire from their cover among the trees with fear- ful accuracy. that not one of his commands was obeyed^ and his defeat was complete. The only semblance of resistance main- tained by the English was by the Virg'nJa Rangers, whom Braddock had insulted at the beginning of the day's march. Immedi- ately upon the commencement of the battl^ they had adopted the tactics of the Indian^, and had thrown themselves behind trees, from which shelter they were rapidly picking DISASTROUS DEFEAT OF GENERAL BRADDOCK. The advance of the English was driven back, and it crowded upon the second divi- sion in utter disorder. A reinforcement of eight hundred men, under Colonel Burton, arrived at this moment, but only to add to the confusion. The French pushed their lines forward now and increased the disorder of the English, who had by this time lost nearly all their officers. Braddock now came up and gallantly exerted himself to restore order, but " the king's regulars and discip- lined troops " were so- utterly demoralized off the Indians. Washington entreated Braddock to allow the regulars to follow the example of the Virginians, but he refused, and stubbornly endeavored to form them in platoons under the fatal fire that was being poured upon them by their hidden assailants. Thus through his obstinacy many useful lives were needlessly thrown away before he would admit his defeat. The officers did not share the panic of the men, but behaved with the greatest gallantry. They were the especial marks of the Indian OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 295 sharpshooters, and many of them were killed or wounded. Two of Braddock's aides were seriously wounded, and their duties devolved upon Washington in addition to his own. He passed repeatedly over the field, carrying the orders of the commander and encourag- ing the men. When sent to bring up the artillery, he found it surrounded by Indians, its commander, Sir Peter Halket, killed, and the men standing helpless from fear. Spring- ing from his horse, he appealed to the men to save the guns, pointed a field-piece and discharged it at the savages, and entreated the gunners to rally. He could accomplish nothing by either his words or example. The men deserted the guns and fled. In a letter to his brother, Washington wrote : " I had four bullets through my coat, two horses shot under me, yet escaped unhurt, though death was levelling my companions on every side around me." * Braddock had five horses shot under him, and at length himself received a mortal wound. As he fell, Captain Stewart, of the Virginia troops, caught him in his arms. He was borne from the field, though he begged to be left to die on the scene of his defeat. His fall was fortunate for the army, which it saved from destruction. A Fatal Rout. The order was given to fall back, and the *' regulars fled like sheep before the hounds." The French and Indians pressed forward in pursuit, and all would have been lost had not the Virginia Rangers themselves been in the rear, and covered the flight of the regu- lars with a determination which checked the pursuers. The artillery, wagons, and all the camp train was abandoned, and the savages, stopping to plunder these, allowed the fugi- tives to recross the river in safety. Having seen the general as comfortable as circumstances would permit, Washington rode all that night and the next day to Dun- bar's camp to procure wagons for the wounded and soldiers to guard them. With these he hastened back to the fugi- tives. The English General's Death. Braddock, unable to ride or to endure the jolting of a wagon, was carried m a litter as far as the Great Meadows. He seemed to be heart-broken and rarely spoke. Occa- sionally he would say, as if speaking to him- self, with a deep sigh, " Who would have thought it ? " It is said that he warmly thanked Captain Stewart for his care and kindness, and apologized to Washington for the manner in which he had received his advice. He had no wish to live, and he died at Fort Necessity on the night of the thir- teenth of July. He was buried the next morning before daybreak as secretly as pos- sible for fear that the savages might find and violate his grave. Close by the national road, about a mile west of Fort Necessity. a pile of stones still marks his resting- place. The losses of the English in the battle were terrible. Out of eighty-six officers, twenty-six were killed and thirty-six wounded. Upward of seven hundred of the regulars were killed and wounded. The Virginia Rangers had suffered terrible losses, for they had not only borne the brunt of the battle, but had lost many of their number by the random fire of the frightened regulars. Dunbar, who succeeded Braddock in the com- mand, still had fifteen hundred effective men * Washington attributed his wonderful escape from even a wound to the overruling providence of God. The Indians regarded the matter in the same light. About fifteen years after the battle, while examining some lands near the mouth of the Great Kanawha River, Washington was visited by an old chief. The chief told him " he was present at '.he 296 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. left to him ; but he was too badly frightened to attempt to retrieve the disaster, which a com- petent officer might have done with such a force. He broke up his camp, destroyed his stores, and retreated beyond the mountains. Disregarding the entreaties of the colonists not to leave the frontiers exposed to the savages, he continued his retreat to Phila- delphia, and went into winter quarters there, to get ready for future operations. BURNING OF KITTANNING BY GENERAL ARMSTRONG. The effect of these reverses upon the colonists was most marked. When they understood that Braddock's splendid force of disciplined regulars had been routed by a mere handful of French and Indians, their respect for the invincibility of British troops was destroyed ; and their confidence in their own prowess was greatly increased by the proud reflection that the only thing that had been done Co save the army of Braddock from total destruction had been accomp- lished by the provincials. Washington's conduct was a subject of praise in all the colonies and brought his name conspicuously before the whole people of America. In a sermon preached a few months after Brad- dock's defeat, the Rev. Samuel Davies, a learned clergyman, spoke of him as " that heroic youth. Colonel Wash- ington, whom I cannot but hope Providence has hitherto preserved in so signal a man- ner for some irrportant service to his country." The retreat of Dunbar left the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania at the mercy of the savages, who maintained a desultory but destructive warfare along the entire bor- der. The defence of this ex- posed region was intrusted to Colonel Washington ; but he had so few men as to make his undertaking a hopeless one. The frontier settlements of Virginia were destroyed ; the beautiful valley of the Shenandoah was ravaged with merciless fury, and the more protected regions were kept in a state of constant uneasiness and alarm. Governor Dinwiddle was repeatedly appealed to to furnish more men, but refused, and endea- vored to excuse his delinquency by saying : " We dare not part with any of our white men to any distance, as we must have a watchful eye over our negro slaves." battle, and among the Indian allies of the French ; that he singled him out and repeatedly fired his rifle at him ; that he also ©rdered his young warriors to make him their only mark; but that on finding all their bullets turned aside by some invisible and inscrutable interposition, he was convinced that the hero at whom he had so often and so truly aimed mu-t be, for some wise purpose, specially protected by the Great Spirit. He now came, therefore, to testify his veneration," OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 297 Pennsylvania met the troubles with greater vigor and resolution. About thirty miles above Fort Duquesne, on the Alleghany River, was the Indian village of Kittanning, the home of a noted chief named Captain Jacobs. Together with the Delaware chief Shingis, he had, at the instigation of the French, kept up a continual warfare upon the frontier settlements. A military force for the defence of the frontier was raised by the colony and placed under the command of Benjamin Franklin as colonel. He soon resigned, and was succeeded by Colonel John Armstrong, a man better suited to the posi- tion, and who subsequently became a major general in the war of the Revolution. Armstrong resolved to destroy Kittanning and the tribe inhabitinsr it as the best means of putting a stop to their outrages, and called for volunteers for the enterprise. Three hundred men responded. Toward the last of September, 1756, they crossed the moun- tains on horseback, and in a few days reached the vicinity of Kittanning. Dismounting and leaving their horses in charge of a guard, they silently surrounded the village. The Indians spent the night in carousing within hearing of the whites, and retired to rest at a very late hour. Just before daybreak the whites attacked the village and set it on fire. It was completely destroyed, and Jacobs and all but a handful of his men were slain. The few survivors fled farther west, and the Pennsylvania frontier was re- lieved of the sufferings it had so long endured. CHAPTER XXIIl Sanguinary Struggles on the Frontier 'expedition Against Acadia — Brutal Treatment of the Acadians — They Are Expelled from Their Country — A Sad Story^^ Fate of the Acadians — Johnson at Lake George — March of Dieskau — Battle of Lake George — Failure of Shirley's Expedition — Arrival of the Earl of Loudon — Montcalm in Canada — Capture of Oswego by the French — Outrages of the Earl of Loudon Upon New York and Philadelphia — Expedition Against Louisburg — How the Earl of Loudon Beat the French — Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm — Massacre of the Prisoners by the Indians — Efforts of Montcalm to Save Them — The Royal Officers Attempt to Cover Their Failures by Outraging the Colonies. WHILE the events we have re- lated were transpiring in the Ohio valley other expeditions were despatched against the French. One of these was directed against that part of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, which still remained in the hands of the French. It lay at the head of the Bay of Fundy, and was defended by two French forts. This region was the oldest French colony in North America, having been settled sixteen years before the landing of the Pilgrims, but was regarded by the English as within their jurisdiction. In May, 1755, an expedition of three thou- sand New England troops was despatched from Boston, under Colonel John Winslow, to attack these forts and establish the Eng- lish authority over the French settlements. Upon reaching the Bay of Fundy Winslow was joined by three hundred English regulars under Colonel Monckton, who assumed the command. The forts were taken with com- paratively little effort, and the authority of England was extended over the whole of Nova Scotia. The Acadians agreed to acknowledge the authority of their new masters, and to observe a strict neutrality between France and England in the war ; and the English on their part promised not to require of them the usual oaths of allegi- ance, to excuse them from bearing arms 298 against France, and to protect them in the exercise of the Catholic religion. The Acadians numbered about seventeen thousand souls. They were a simple and harmless people, and were enjoying in a marked degree the blessings of industry and thrift. They had begun their settlements by depending upon the fur trade and the fish- eries for their support, but had abandoned these pursuits for that of agriculture, which was already yielding them rich rewards for their skill and labor. They were proud of their farms, and took but little interest in public affairs, scarcely knowing what was transpiring in the world around them. It is hard to imagine a more peaceful or a happier community than this one at the time they passed under the baleful rule of England. Crime was unknown among them, and they seldom carried their disputes before the Eng- lish magistrates, but settled them by the arbitration of their old men. They en- couraged early marriages as the best means of preserving the morality of their people ; and when a young man married, his neigh- bors turned out in force and built him a house, and for the first year of his marriage aided him to establish himself firmly, while the bride's relatives helped her to furnish the home thus prepared. Thus the people were taught to regard and practice neighborly kindness as one of the SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 299 cardinal Christian virtues. They were de- voted CathoHcs, and practiced their religion without bigotry. They were attached to the rule of France by language and religion, and would have been glad to see her authority re-established over them ; but they submitted peacefully to the rule of the English and faithfully observed the terms of their sur- render. Unfortunately for the Acadians their pos- sessions soon began to excite the envy of the English. Lawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, expressed this feeling in his letter to Lord Halifax, the English premier " They possess the best and largest tract of land in this province," he wrote ; " if they refuse the oaths, it would be much better that they were away." The English authorities had prepared a cunningly devised scheme for dis- possessing these simplepeople of their homes, and they now proceeded to put it in execu- tion. The usual oaths of allegiance had not been tendered to the Acadians upon their surrender, as it was known that as French- men and Catholics they could not take them, as they required them to bear arms against their own brethren in Canada, and to make war upon their religion. Cruel Treatment. It was resolved now to offer the oaths to them, and thus either drive them into rebel- lion or force them to abandon their homes. When this intention was known, the priests urged them to refuse the oaths. " Better surrender your meadows to the sea," they declared, " and your houses to the flames, than, at the peril of your souls, take the oath of allegiance to the British government." As for the Acadians themselves, " they, from their very simplicity and anxious sincerity, were uncertain in their resolves ; now gath- ering courage to flee beyond the isthmus, ^or ether homes in New France, and now yearn- ing for their own houses and fields, their herds and pastures." The officers sent by the English authori- ties to enforce their demands conducted themselves with a haughtiness and cruelty which added greatly to the sorrows of the Acadians. Their titles to their lands were declared null and void, and all their papers and title-deeds were taken from them. Their property was taken for the public service without compensation, and if they failed to furnish wood at the times required, the Eng- lish soldiers " might take their houses for fuel." Their guns were seized, and they were deprived of their boats on the pretext that they might be used to communicate with the French in Canada. At last, wearied out with these oppressions, the Acadians offered to swear allegiance to Great Britain. This, however, formed no part of the plan of their persecutors, and they were answered that by a British statute persons who had been once offered the oaths, and who had refused them, could not be permitted to take them, but must be treated as Popish recu- sants. This brought matters to a crisis, and the English now resolved to strike the decisive blow. A proclamation was issued, requiring " the old men, and young men, as well as all lads over ten years of age," to assemble on the fifth of September, 1755, at a certain hour, at designated places in their respective districts, to hear the " wishes of the king." In the greater number of places the order was obeyed. What happened at the village of Grand Pre, the principal settlement, will show the course pursued by the English in all the districts. Four hundred and eighteen of the men of the place assembled. They were unarmed, and were marched into the church, which was securely guarded. Winslow, the New England commander, then addressed them as follows : " You are 300 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. convened together to manifest to you his majesty's final resolution to the French in- habitants of this his province. Your lands and tenements, cattle of all kinds, and live stock of all sorts, are forfeited to the crown, and you yourselves are to be removed from this his province. I am, through his majes- ty's goodness, directed to allow you liberty to carry off your money and household goods, as many as you can, without discom- moding the vessels you go in." He then declared them, together with their wives and children, a total of nineteen hundred and twenty-three souls, the king's prisoners. English Barbarity. The announcement took the unfortunate men by surprise, and filled them with the deepest indignation ; but they were unarmed and unable to resist. They were held close prisoners in the church, and their homes, which they had left in the morning full of hope, were to see them no more. They were kept without food for themselves or their children that day, and were poorly fed during the remainder of their captivity. They were held in confinement until the tenth of September, when it was announced that the vessels were in readiness to carry them away. They were not to be allowed to join their brethren in Canada lest they should serve as a reinforcement to the French in that province, but were to be scattered as paupers through the English colonies, among people of another race and a different faith. On the morning of the tenth the captives were drawn up six deep. The English, in- tending to make their trial as bitter and as painful as possible, had resolved upon the barbarous measure of separating the families of their victims. The young men and boys were driven at the point of the bayonet from the church to the ship and compelled to embark. They passed amid the rows of their mothers and sisters, who, kneeling, prayed Heaven to bless and keep them. Then the fathers and husbands were forced by the bayonet on board of another ship, and as the vessels were now full, the women and child- ren were left behind until more ships could come for them. They were kept for weeks near the sea, suffering greatly from lack of proper shelter and food, and it was December before the last of them were removed*. Those who tried to escape were ruthlessly shot down by the sentinels. " Our soldiers hate them," wrote an English officer, " and if they can but find a pretext to kill them, they will." In some of the settlements the designs of the English were suspected and the procla- mation was not heeded. Some of the people fled to Canada; others sought shelter with the Indians, who received them with kind- ness ; others still fled to the woods, hoping to hide there till the storm was over. The English at once proceeded to lay waste their homes ; the country was made desolate in order that the fugitives might be compelled through starvation to surrender themselves. Families Scattered. Seven thousand Acadians were torn from their homes and scattered among the Eng- lish colonies on the Atlantic coast, from New Hampshire to Georgia. Families were ut- terly broken up, never to be reunited. The colonial newspapers for many years were filled with mournful advertisements, inquir- ing for a lo.st husband or wife; parents sought their missing children, and children their parents in this way. But of all these inquiries few were answered. The exiles were doomed to a parting worse than death, and their captors had done their work so well that human ingenuity could not undo it. Some of those who had been carried to Georgia attempted to return to their homes. SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 301 They escaped to sea in boats, and coasted from point to point northward until they reached New England, when they were sternly ordered back. Their homes were their own no longer. More than three thousand Acadians fled to Canada, and of these about fifteen hundred settled south of the Ristigouche. Upon the surrender of Canada they were again sub- jected to the persecutions of the English. " Once those who dwelt in Pennsylvania presented a humble petition to the Earl of Loudon, then the British commander-in- chief in America, and the cold-hearted peer, offended that the prayer was made in French, seized their five principal men, who in their own land had been persons of dignity and substance, and shipped them to England, with the request that they might be kept from ever again becoming troublesome by being consigned to service as common sailors on board ships of war. Unparalleled Oppression. "No doubt existed of the king's approba- tion. The lords of trade, more merciless than the savages and than the wilderness in winter, wished very much that every one of the Acadians should be driven out; and when it seemed that the work was done, congratulated the king that * the zealous endeavors of Lawrence had been crowned with an entire success.' I know not if the annals of the human race keep the record of sorrows so wantonly inflicted, so bitter and so perennial, as fell upon the French inhab- itants of Acadia. ' We have been true,' they said of themselves, * to our religion, and true to ourselves ; yet nature appears to con- sider us only as the objects of public ven- geance.' The hand of the English official seemed under a spell with regard to them ; and was never uplifted but to curse them." * * Bancroft's History 0/ the United States, vol. ir., p. 206. While these sorrows were being heaped upon the helpless Acadians by England, the provincial forces were serving the cause else- where with more credit to their manhood. As has been stated, the expedition against the French fort at Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, had been intrusted to General William Johnson. His army consisted prin- cipally of troops from Massachusetts and Connecticut. They were joined at Albany by a regiment from New Hampshire. Th- troops rendezvoused at the head of boa • navigation, on the Hudson, in July, 1755, under the command of General Lyman. They numbered about six thousand men. A fort was built and named by the troops, in honor of their commander. Fort Lyman. Johnson's Expedition. In August Johnson arrived with the stores and artillery, and assumed the command of the expedition. He ungenerously changed the name of the fort to Fort Edward. Leav- ing a strong force to garrison it, he moved with five thousand men to the head of Lake George, from which he intended to descend the lake in boats. The French had been informed of John- son's movements by their scouts. Baron Dieskau, the governor of Canada, placed the entire arms-bearing population of the Mon- treal district in the field and resolved to prevent Johnson from reaching Crown Point by attackmg him in his own country. With a force of two hundred French regulars and about one thousand two hundred Indians, he set out across the country to attack Fort , Edward. Upon arriving in the vicinity of the fort the Indians learned that it was de- fended by artillery, of which they were greatly afraid, and refused to attack it. Dies- kau was, therefore, compelled to change his plan, and resolved to strike a blow at John- son's camp, which he was informed was without cannon. 302 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. In the meantime the scouts of the English had detected the movement against Fort Edward. Ignorant of the change in Dies- kau's plans Johnson sent a force of one thousand men, under Colonel Ephraim Will- iams of Massachusetts, and two hundred Mohawlo, under their famous chief Hen- drick, to the relief of the fort. Their march was reported to the French, who placed THE PALISADES OF THE HUDSON. themselves in ambush along the road they were pursuing, and attacked them as soon as they had fairly entered the defile. The Eng- lish were at once thrown into confusion. Hendrick was shot down at the first fire, and Williams fell a few moments later. The English and Mohawks then began a rapid retreat to their camp, closely pursued by their assailants. The sound of the firing was soon heard in Johnson's camp, and as it drew nearer it became apparent that the detachment was retreating. The troops were gotten under arms, and the trees in front of the camp were hurriedly felled to form a rude breastwork. A few cannon had just arrived from the Hudson, and these were placed to command the road by which the French were ap- proaching. These arrangements were just completed when the fugitives of Williams' command appeared in full retreat, with the French and Indians but a few hundred yards behind them. Dieskau urged his men for- ward with the greatest energy, intending to force his way into the English camp along with the fugitives. The artillery was care- fully trained upon the road by which he was advancing, and the moment the fugitives were past the guns they opened with a ter- rific fire of grape, which caused the Canadians and Indians to break in confusion, and take to the woods for shelter. Stolen Honors. The regulars held their ground, and main- tained a determined contest of five Lours, in which they were nearly all slain. The In- dians and Canadians did little execution, as they stood in dread of the artillery. At length Dieskau, seeing that his effort had failed, drew off his men, and retreated. He was pursued for some distance by the Eng- lish. Towards evening he was suddenly at- tacked by the New Hampshire regiment, which was marching from Fort Edward to Johnson's assistance. The French were seized with a panic at this new attack, and abandoning their brave commander fled for their lives. Dieskau, who had been severely wounded several times, was taken prisoner. He was kindly treated, and was subsequently sent to England, where he died. General Johnson was slightly wounded at the commencement of the battle, and with- SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 303 drew from the field, leaving the command to General Lyman, to whom the victory was really due. Notwithstanding this Johnson did not even mention Lyman's name in his report of the battle, but claimed all the honor for himself. He was rewarded by the king with a baronetcy, and the gift of twenty-five thousand dollars. General Lyman was not even thanked for his services. Great Military Preparations. Johnson made no effort to improve his victory. The expedition against Crown Point, which might now have been under- taken with a better prospect of success, was abandoned, and Johnson contented himself with building a useless log fort at the head of Lake George, which he named Fort Will- iam Henry. Late in the fall he placed a garrison in this fort, and then returned to Albany, where he disbanded his army. The expedition under Governor Shirley, against Fort Niagara, was equally unsuccess- ful. By the month of August Shirley had advanced no farther than Oswego. Here he received the news of Braddock's defeat, which so disheartened him that, after building and garrisoning two forts at Oswego, he returned to Albany. By the death of Braddock Shir- ley succeeded to the chief command of all the royal forces in America. In December, 1755, Shirley held a con- ference with the colonial governors, at New York, to decide upon the campaign for the next year. It was agreed that three expedi- tions should be undertaken in 1756: one against Niagara ; a second against Fort Du- quesne, and a third against Crown Point. In the meantime Lord Loudon was appointed by the king commander-in-chief of the forces in America. He sent over General Aber- crombie as his lieutenant. Abercrombie ar- rived in June with several regiments of British regulars. He relieved General Shir- ley from command, but nothing was to be done until the arrival of the commander-in- chief, who did not reach America until July. Lord Loudon was a more pompous and a slower man than Braddock, and more incom- petent. A force of seven thousand men was assembled at Albany for the expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and Loudon at once repaired thither, and as- sumed the command. The colonists were confident that something of importance would now be accomplished ; but they were destined to disappointment. The com- mander-in-chief and his subordinates spent their time in settling the relative rank of the royal and provincial officers. Notwithstanding the fact that all that had been accomplished during the war had been gained by the colonial forces, there was an iniquitous regulation which gave the pre- cedence to the lowest officer holding a royal commission over one holding a higher rank from any of the colonies. This led to many disputes, and the colonists saw themselves robbed of the honors they had so fairly won. This was only one of the many wrongs by which Great Britain succeeded in alienating the people of America ^rom their attachment to her. Successes of Montcalm. In the meantime Dieskau had been suc- ceeded as governor of Canada by the Marquis de Montcalm, the ablest of the rulers of New France. He was a man of genuine ability and of indomitable energy. He reached Quebec in 1756, and at once set out for Ticonderoga, which he placed in a state of defence. Perceiving the exposed condition of the English forts at Oswego he resolved to capture them. Collecting a force of five thousand Frenchmen, Canadians and Indians, he crossed the lake from Frontenac, and reached Oswego on the fifth of Aueust, 304 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. He soon drove the English out of Fort Oswego ; but Fort Ontario, the second work, opposed a more vigorous resistance to him. The garrison held out until their com- mander, Colonel Mercer, was killed, and they had lost all hope of receiving aid from Albany, when they capitulated. An immense amount of military stores, one hundred and thirty-five pieces of cannon, and all the boats and vessels Shirley had prepared for the ex- pedition against Niagara fell into the hands of Montcalm, The Iroquois had viewed the erection of the forts at Oswego by the Eng- lish with great jealousy, and in order to con- ciliate them Montcalm wisely destroyed the works, and withdrew into Canada. Master of Twenty Legions. Loudon had detached a force under Colonel Webb to the assistance of the Oswego forts, but it was sent so late that it was met on the way by the news of the cap- ture of the forts. Colonel Webb, in dismay, fell back rapidly, and obstructed the road to Albany. Having failed to accomplish anything against the enemy Lord Loudon now under- took to subjugate the colonies of New York and Pennsylvania. He was nrmly convinced that the colonists needed to be taught sub- mission to the will of the royal commander, and as he had been made a sort of viceroy of all the colonies, he thought the present a fitting occasion to teach them this lesson. He demanded of the cities of Albany, New York and Philadelphia free quarters for his troops during the winter. The mayor of New York refused the demand " as contrary to the laws of England and the liberties of America." " G — d d — n my blood," said the viceroy to the mayor ; "if you do not billet my officers upon free quarters this day, I'll order here all the troops in North America under my command, and billet them myself upon the city." There was no reasoning with " the master of twenty legions," and the magistrates were obliged to get up a subscription for the free support, during the winter, of an army that had passed a whole campaign without com- ing in sight of the enemy. In Philadelphia the matter was settled very much in the same way. Albany was also obliged to sub- mit, but the magistrates took occasion to tell the royal officers that they did not want their services, as they could defend their frontiers themselves. " The frontier was left open to the French ; this quartering troops in the principal towns, at the expense of the inhabitants, by the illegal authority of a military chief, was the great result of the campaign." It was becoming clear to the colonists that their safety from the depreda- tions of the French and savages was not to be gained by the royal troops, but by their own efforts. Mock Battles and Sieges. A congress of governors was held at Boston in January, 1757, and it was resolved that there should be but one expedition this year, and that this should be sent under the Earl of Loudon against Louisburg. The frontier posts, especially Forts Edward and William Henry, were to be defended, and Washington, with the Virginia troops, was to guard the border of that colony against the expeditions of the French from Fort Du- quesne. The last was a difficult and almost impossible duty, for the French from Fort Duquesne could choose their point of attack- anywhere on the long and exposed frontier, while the force under Washington was utterly inadequate to the task of watching the entire line. Leaving Bouquet to guard the frontier of Carolina against the Cherokees, and Webb to SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 305 hold the country between Lake George and the Hudson, Lord Loudon, on the twentieth of June, 1757, sailed from New York with six thousand regulars to attack Louisburg. He proceeded to Halifax, where he was joined by a fleet of eleven ships of war and four thousand troops, bringing his whole force to ten thousand regulars and six- teen ships of the line and a number of frigates. The campaign of this redoubtable warrior is thus des- cribed by Bancroft: " He landed (at Ha- lifax), levelled the uneven ground for a parade, planted a vegetable garden as a precaution against the scurvy, exercised the men in mock battles and sieges and storm- ings of fortresses, and when August came, and the spirit of the army was broken, and Hay, a major-general, ex- pressed contempt so loudly as to be arrested, the troops were embarked, as if for Louisburg. But ere the ships sailed, the reconnoitring vessels came with the news that the French at Cape Breton had one more ship than the English, and the plan of campaign was changed. Part of the soldiers landed again at Halifax, and the Earl of Loudon., leaving his garden to the weeds, and his place of arms to briars, .sailed for New York. 20 The Marquis of Montcalm was a very different man from the Earl of Loudon. As a man he was superior to him in every way ; as a commander he was active, quick and resolute ; while Loudon was incompetent, .slow and pompous. Montcalm had stationed himself at Ticonderoga, in order to be able to watch the English, and he resolved to take advantage of Lord Loudon's absence to attack Fort William Henry, at the head of ^"M '^^^^ '^5^^.^^r^^ SITE OF FORT WILLIAM HENKY ON LAKE GEORGE. Lake George. In the first place, previous to starting on this enterprise, he made his court to the Oneidas, the Senecas and other sav- age tribes, and gained them over to his interests. These native warriors crossed the waters of Lake Champlain in two hundred canoes with pennons flying, and all the pomp of c-^^-ap-e warfare. Assembling beneath the 3o6 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. battlements of Ticonderoga, in the midst of woods and mountains, they sang the war- song, danced the war-dance, and listened to the eloquence of their orators. On the sec- ond of August Montcalm appeared before the fort with a force of about six thousand French and Canadians and seventeen hun- dred Indians, and laid siege to it. The MONTCALM. garrison consisted of about three thousand men, under Colonel Monroe, a gallant offi- cer. Montcalm summoned him to surrender the fort, but Monroe returned an indignant refusal to this demand, and sent to General Webbe, at Fort Edward, fifteen miles dis- tant, to ask for assistance. Webbe might easil\' have saved the fort, as he had four thousand men under his command, but he made no effort to do so. Colonel Putnam, afterwards famous in the Revolution, eagerly sought and at last re- ceived permission to march with his regi- ment to Monroe's assistance, but he had proceeded only a few miles when Webbe commanded him to return to Fort Edward. In the place of assistance, the timid Webbe then sent to Mon- roe a letter greatly exaggerating the force of the French and ad- vising him to surrender. This letter was intercepted by Mont- calm, who was on the point of raising the siege, and he for- warded it to Monroe, with a renewed demand for his sur- render. The brave veteran held out, however, until nearly all his guns were disabled and his am- munition nearly exhausted. He then hung out a flag of truce, and Montcalm, who was too true a hero not to appreciate valor in a foe, granted him liberal terms. The garrison were allowed to march out with the honors of war upon giving their parole not to serve against France for eight- een months. They were to re- tain their private property and were to liberate all their pris- oners. On the ninth of August the fort was surrendered to the French. Montcalm had kept the savages from liquor, in order to be able to restrain them in the hour of victory. They now sought and obtained rum from the English, and spent the night in dancing and singing. The next morning, as the English marched out of their camp, the Indians fell upon them and began to plunder them. From robbery the 307 3o8 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. excited savages soon passed to murder, and many of the English were killed and others made prisoners. The French officers threw themselves into the melee and exerted themselves gallantly to control the Indians. Many of them were wounded in these efforts. Montcalm in an agony implored the Indians to respect the treaty. " Kill me," he cried, as he struggled to restrain the savages, "but spare the English, who are under my protec- tion." He called to the English soldiers to defend themselves. The retreat to Fort Edward became a disorderly fight. Only about six hundred men reached there in a body. More than four hundred had sought shelter in the French camp, and were sent by Montcalm to their friends under the pro- tection of a strong escort. He also sent one of his officers to ransom those who had been taken prisoners by the Indians. The vast stores accumulated at Fort William Henry were carried away by the French, and the work itself demolished. Triumph of the B rench. The loss of Fort William Henry greatly frightened General Webbe at Fort Edward. In spite of his force of six thousand men, and the withdrawal of the French to Lake Cham- plain, he seriously contemplated a retreat to beyond Albany. Lord Loudon, who had arrived at New York, was equally impressed with the danger, and proposed to take posi- tion with his army on Long Island, for the defence of the continent. The campaign was over, and the French were everywhere triumphant. With the ex- ception of Acadia, they held all the country they had occupied at the beginning of the war. The English had lost the forts at Oswego and William Henry, and immense quantities of supplies. They had been en- tirely expelled from the valleys of the Ohio and the St. Lawrence, and the hostile parties of the Indians were enabled to extend their ravages far into the interior of the colonies. America was thoroughly disgusted with the incompetency and cowardice of the royal commanders. The old spell of British invin- cibility was broken, and the colonists were rapidly losing their respect for the troops sent over from England to protect them. Men were coming to the conclusion that their connection with Great Britain was sim- ply a curse to the colonies. They regarded the conduct of the war thus far by the royal officials as simply " a mixture of ignorance and cowardice," and were satisfied that they were amply able to defend themselves against the French and Indians without any assist- ance whatever from England. Attempts to Force Submission. The royal officials sought to cover their failures by complaints against the Ameri- cans. The hearty disgust and contempt with which the colonists regarded their pusillanimous conduct was reported by them to the home goverment as evidence of a mutinous spirit on the part of the Americans. Throughout the colonies they pursued one uniform system of seeking to force the prov- inces into submission to their own illegal acts, and to compel them to an acknowledg- ment of the arbitrary power of the crown. " Everywhere," says Bancroft, " the royal officers actively asserted the authoiity of the king and the British nation over America. Did the increase of population lead the leg- islature to enlarge the representative body? The right to do so was denied, and represen- tation was held to be a privilege conceded by the king as a boon, and limited by his will. Did the British commander believe that the French colonies through the neutral islands derived provisions from the continent ? By his own authority he proclaimed an embargo in every American port." CHAPTER XXIV End of the French and Indian War %. Change for the Better — William Pitt, Prime Minister — ^Vigorous Measures Adopted — Recall of the Earl of Loudon - Capture of i.ouisburg — Abercrombie on Lake George — Advances Against Ticonderoga — Death of Lord Howe — Failure of the English Attack Upon Ticonderoga — Disgraceful Conduct of Abercrombie — His Retreat — Capture oi Fort Frontenac — Advance of General Forbes — Grant's Defeat — The Virginians Again Save the Regulars — Capture oi Fort Duquesne — Washington Retires from the Army — Ticonderoga and Crown Point Occupied by the English — Capture of Fort Niagara — The Expedition Against Quebec — Failure of the First Operations — Despondency o! Wolfe — He Discovers a Landing Place — The Army Scales the Heights of Abraham — Montcalm's Surprise — Battle of the Plains of Abraham — Death of Wolfe — Defeat of the French — Death of Montcalm — Surrender of Quebec- Capture of Montreal — Treaty of Paris — Canada Ceded to England — France Loses All Her American Possessions— The Cherokee War — Hostility of the Indians to the English — Pontiac's War— Death of Pontiac — Bouquet Relievaf Fort Duquesne — Results of the War. THE gross mismanagement of affairs in America aroused a storm of in- dignation in England, and King George was obliged to yield to the popular sentiment and change his ministers. At the head of the new ministry he placed William Pitt, the leader of the popular party, who was destined to become one of the greatest of English statesmen. His great talents had raised him from the insignificant position of ensign in the guards tc the lead- ership of the government of Great Britain, and were now to be the means of retrieving the disasters of his country and regaining for her her lost power and prestige. A truly great man, Pitt knew how to ad- mire and sympathize with merit in others, and was not blinded by the glitter of rank, nor hampered by an aristocratic faith in the divinity of royalty. He appreciated and sympathized with the Americans more per- fectly than any of his predecessors in office, and began his career with the wise determi- nation to encourage and develop their patri- otism by a generous and systematic assist- ance of their efforts. He caused the government of Great Britain to assume the expenses of the war, and announced that the sums expended by the colonies for the public defence, since the commencement of hostili- ties, v/ould be refunded, and that henceforth the British government would provide the funds for the prosecution of the war. The colonies were each required to furnish troops, but Pitt " stipulated that the colonial troops raised for this purpose should be sup- plied with arms, ammunition, tents and provi- sions in the same manner as the regular troops and at the king's expense ; so that the only charge to the colonies would be that of levy- ing, clothing, and paying the men. The governors were also authorized to issue com.- missions to provincial officers, from colonels downwards, and these officers were to hold rank in the united army according to their commissions. Had this liberal and just sys- tem been adopted at the outset, it would have put a very different face upon the affairs of the colonies."* These energetic and just measures were promptly responded to by the colonies, which placed a force of twenty- eight thousand men in the field. To these Pitt added twenty-two thousand British reg- ulars, making a total of fifty thousand mens * Sparks' Writings of Washington, vol. ii., p 289 — Note* 310 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. the largest army that had ever been assem- bled in America, and exceeding in number the <:ntire male population of Canada. The Earl of Loudon was recalled, and in- stead of a single supreme command three separate expeditions were organized under different officers. An expedition against WILLIAM PITT. Louisburg was placed under the orders of Lard Jeffrey Amherst, an able and upright soldier, assisted by Brigadier General James Wolfe; who, though only thirty-one years old, had spent eighteen years in the army, and had served at Dettingen, Fontenoy and Laffeldt. He was considered one of the ablest commanders in the English service, and was universally beloved. To General Forbes the task of conquering the Ohio val- ley was assigned ; and the expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point was intrusted to General Abercrombie. Pitt had little faith in Abercrombie, who had been Lord Loudon's most trusted lieutenant; but retained him to please Lord Bute, and associated with him, as his second in command, the young and gifted Lord George Howe, in the hope that Howe's genius would redeem Abercrombie's faults, and lead him to victory. The expedition against Louisburg consisted of a fleet of twenty ships of the line and eighteen frigates, under Admiral Boscawen, and an army of fourteen thousand men, under General Am- herst. The fleet reached Cabarus Bay on the se- cond of June, 1758. The fortifications of Louis- burg were somewhat di- lapidated, but were held by a garrison of thirty' two hundred men, com^ manded by Chevalier Drucour, an officer of experience and determination. These frigates were sunk across the mouth of the harbor to close it against the English, and within the basin lay five ships of the line, one fifty-gun ship and two frigates, which took part in th^ defence of the place. END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 3" The surf was so heavy that Amherst was unable to land his troops until the eighth. The first division was led by Wolfe, under the cover of the fire of the fleet. He forbade a gun to be fired from his command, and, upon nearing the shore, leaped into the water, followed by his men, and in the face of a sharp resistance, drove the French from their outposts into the town. The place was now regularly invested, and, after a bombard- ment of fifty days, during which the shipping in the harbor was destroyed, the town and fortifications were surrendered to the English on the twenty-seventh of July. With Louis- burg the French gave up the islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward. Five thousand prisoners and an immense quantity of mili- tary supplies were secured by the English. Halifax being already the chief naval sta- tion of the English in these waters, Louis- burg was abandoned. Amherst, Wolfe and Boscawen were honored by the English gov- ernment for their victory. The season was too far advanced after the capture of Louis- burg to admit of the commencement of operations against Quebec, and Amherst was suddenly called away from the coast to take charge of the army on Lake George. Down Lake George. Abercrombie had assembled a force of seven thousand English regulars and nine thousand Americans at the head of Lake George. Among the American troops were Stark and Putnam, afterwards famous in the war for independence, the former serving as a captain in the New Hampshire regiment, the latter as a major of Connecticut troops. Abercrombie was commander-in-chief, but the troops had little confidence in him. They were devoted to Lord Howe, who was the real leader of the expedition. On the fifth of July the army broke up its camp, and embarking in ten hundred and thirty-five boats, with the artillery on rafts, descended the lake to its lower end, from which they were to advance overland upon Fort Carillon, which the French had erected on the pro- montory of Ticonderoga. The next morning Lord Howe pushed forward with the ad- vanced guard, and encountered a scouting party of the French. A sharp conflict en sued. The French were easily driven back, but Lord Howe was killed almost at the first fire. His death cast a gloom over the army, which promised ill for the success of the undertaking. Gallant Attack. Abercrombie continued to advance, and on the morning of the ninth sent Clerk, his chief engineer, to reconnoitre the French position at Ticonderoga. Clerk reported that the French works were feeble, and im- perfectly armed. Stark, of New Hampshire, and some of the English officers saw that they were both strong and well provided with artillery. They so reported to Aber- crombie, but he accepted the statement of his engineer, and, withon.t waiting for his artil- lery, ordered an assault upon the French lines that very day. The Marquis of Montcalm was command- ing in person at Ticonderoga, and had dis- posed his small force of thirty-six hundred and fifty men in a line of breastworks thrown up about half a mile beyond the fort, and extending across the promontory on which that work stood. The death of Lord Howe had deprived the English of their only leader capable of contending against this accom- plished commander, and the incompetency of Abercrombie was to render easy what might have been, under other circumstances, a most difficult undertaking. Abercrombie could have brought up his artillery by the next day, but he was un- willing to wait for it, as he anticipated an 312 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. easy victory. He stationed himself in a place of safety about two miles from the field, and ordered his troops to assail the French in- trenchments with the bayonet. The attack was made in gallant style, and was continued with energy during the afternoon. The English performed prodigies of valor, but were not able to overcome the strength of the French works, or the activity with which the defenders maintained their position. Un- like the English commander, Montcalm was everywhere along his line, cheering his men with his presence and example, and distribut- ing refreshments to them with his own hands. Without a commander who dared place himself under fire, with no one on the spot to direct their movements, the valor of the English was thrown away, A volley from an advanced party of their own men com- pleted their confusion, and they broke help- lessly and fell back in disorder towards Lake George. Abercrombie made no effort to rally them ; he was too badly frightened for that; and led the army towards the landing- place, on Lake George, with such haste that but for the energetic action of Colonel Brad- street the troops would have rushed pell-mell into the boats, without any semblance of order, and with a still greater loss of life. The English Retreat. The English lost nearly two thousand men in the attack upon the French works, but they still had left a force of more than four times the strength of the French, and their artillery had not been engaged. With this force they might have taken Ticonderoga, but Abercrombie was too much terrified to attempt anything of the kind. On the morn- ing of the ninth he embarked his troops and hastened to the head of Lake George. Montcalm was astounded at his retreat, but as he had too small a force, and his men were exhausted, he made no effort at pur- suit. Arrived at the head of Lake George, the frightened Abercrombie sent the artillery and ammunition back to Albany for safety, and occupied his army with the erection of Fort George, near the ruins of Fort William Henry. The news of this disaster caused General Amherst to hasten with four regi' ments and a battalion from Louisburg to' Lake George. He reached the camp of Abercrombie on the fifth of October. In November orders arrived from England ap- pointing Amherst commander-in-chief of the royal forces in America, and recalling Aber- crombie, who returned to England to attempt to excuse his cowardice by villifying Amer- ica and the Americans. He could not de- ceive Pitt, however, whose indignation at his pusillanimous conduct was only restrained by the influence of Lord Bute in the royal councils. Sudden Flight. After Abercrombie's retreat, Colonel Brad- street, of New York, at his earnest solicita- tion, obtained leave from the council of war to undertake an expedition against Fort Frontenac, which, being situated at the foot of Lake Ontario, commanded both the lake and the St. Lawrence. Its possession was of the highest importance to the French, as it was their main depot for the supply of the posts on the upper lakes and the Ohio with military stores. Collecting a force of twenty- seven hundred men, all Americans, consist- ing chiefly of troops from New York and Massachusetts, Bradstreet hastened to Os- wego before his movements were known to the enemy. From Oswego he crossed the lake in open boats, and landed on the Can- ada side within a mile of Fort Frontenac. His sudden arrival struck terror to the garrison, and the greater part secured their safety by an instantaneous flight. The next day the fort surrendered. The victors cap* i END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. tured with it a vast quantity of military stores destined for the forts in the interior, and a fleet of nine armed vessels, with which the French controlled the lake. Two of the vessels were laden with a part of the stores and sent to Oswego, and the remainder of the vessels and stores, together with the fort, were destroyed. The English then re- crossed the lake to Oswego. The capture of Fort Frontenac was an event of great im- portance, as it led, as we shall see further on, to the abandonment by the French of their posts in the valley of the Ohio. For the reduction of Fort Duqucone a force of seven thousand men was assembled under General Forbes. Of these, five thou- sand were from Pennsylvania and Virginia, the troops from the latter colony being under the command of Colonel Washington. The Pennsylvania troops assembled at Raystown, on the Juniata, and the Virginians at Fort Cumberland Washington urged upon Forbes the advantages of adopting the old road cut by Braddock's army in his advance to the Ohio, but Forbes, at the suggestion of some land-speculators, decided to construct a new and a better road farther to the north. As regarded the future settlement of the west this was an excellent plan, but as far as it concerned the immediate object of the campaign it was a mistake, as it involved a large expenditure of labor and a great waste of time. While this road was being constructed General Bouquet, with the advanced guard, crossed Laurel Hill and established a post at Loyal Hanna. The new road progressed yery slowly, only forty-five miles being con- structed in six weeks. Bouquet had with him a force of about two thousand men, chiefly Highlanders and Virginians. Learn- ing from his scouts that Fort Duquesne was held by a garrison of only eight hundred men, of whom three hundred were Indians, 313 Bouquet, without orders from General Forbes, resolved to attempt the capture of the fort by a sudden blow. He detached a force of eight hundred Highlanders and a company of Virginians, under Major Grant, to reconnoitre Fort Duquesne. The French were fully informed of all of Grant's movements, but they allowed him to approach unmolested, intending to disarm his vigilance and then attack him. Grant affected the usual contempt for the provincial troops, and upon arriving before the fort, placed Major Lewis with the Vir- ginians to guard the baggage, and sent his regulars forward to reconnoitre and make a sketch of the work. He was greatly en- couraged by the fact that the French allowed him to approach without firing a gun at him, and in his self-complacency marched right into an ambuscade which the enemy had prepared for him. The Regulars' Narrow Escape. The French commander had posted thv. Indians along the sides of the defile by which Grant was advancing, and at a given signal the garrison made a sudden sally from the fort against the Highlanders, while the In- dians opened a heavy fire upon them from their place of concealment. The regulars were quickly thrown into confusion, and their officers were found incapable of con. ducting such a mode of warfare. Attracted by the firing, Major Lewis, with a company of Virginians, hastened to the scene of the encounter, and by engaging the enemy hand- to-hand enabled the regulars to save them, selves from a general massacre. The de- tachment was routed with heavy loss, and both Grant and Lewis were taken prisoners. The fugitives retreated to the point where the baggage had been left. It was guarded by Captain BulHt, whom Lewis had left there with one company of Virginians. 314 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. By the gallant and skillful resistance of this little force the French and Indians were checked, and finally driven back in confusion. The English then continued their retreat with all speed to Loyal Hanna. Again the provincials had saved the regulars from total destruction. General Forbes had the mag- nanimity to acknowledge and compliment the Virginians for their services, and Cap- tain Bullit was promoted to the rank of major. General Forbes was greatly disheartened by the news of Grant's disaster. A council of war was called to deliberate upon the future operations of the army, and decided that as it was now November, and they were still fifty miles from Fort Duquesne, with an unbroken forest between them and the fort, nothing more could be accomplished until the spring. The enterprise was on the point of being abandoned when fortunately three prisoners were brought in, from whom Wash- ington drew the information that the garri- son of Fort Duquesne was reduced to a very small force, that the Indians had all deserted the French, and that the expected reinforce- ments and supplies from Canada had not arrived. It was evident that a well-executed effort would result in the ^apture of the fort. The Fort Abandoned. This information decided General Forbes to continue the expedition. A force of twenty-five hundred picked troops was placed under Washington's command, and he was ordered to push forward as rapidly as possible, and prepare the road for the ad- vance of the main army. Washington was ably seconded in his movements by the en- ergetic Armstrong, and the march was pressed with such vigor that in ten days the army arrived in the vicinity of Fort Duquesne. The French now saw that the fall of the fort was inevitable. They had but five hun- dred men, and Bradstreet's capture of Fort Frontenac had cut them off from the rein- forcements and supplies they had expected from Canada. Unwilling to stand a siege, the result of which was certain, they aban- doned the fort on the night of the twenty- fourth of November, and embarking in flat boats, floated down the Ohio to join their countrymen in the valley of the Mississippi. On the morning of the twenty-fifth, Wash- ington, with his gallant band, entered the fort and planted the British flag on the ram- parts just abandoned by the French. At the universal desire of the army, Forbes named the place Fort Pitt, v/hich has since been changed to Pittsburgh. The splendid city which occupies the site is the proudest monument that has been built to the memory of the " Great Commoner." Two regiments, composed of Pennsyl- vanians, Virginians and Marylanders, under Mercer, were left to garrison Fort Pitt, which was restored to its former strength. General Forbes then returned east of the mountains, and Washington resigned his commission and retired to private life. The object of the campaign was accomplished, and he could now enjoy the rest to which five years of constant service had entitled him. The capture of Fort Duquesne was the most important event of the war. It put an end to the French occupation of the valley of the Ohio and settled the claim of Great Britain to that valuable region. The Indians, having no longer the support and encour- agement which they had derived from the French at this post, ceased their hostile efforts, and during the remainder of the w^ar the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania were at peace. The capture of the fort was followed by a large emigration west of the mountains, which, beginning the next spring, WASHINGTON PLANTING THE FLAG ON FORT DUQUESNE ys 31^ THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. soon placed a large and energetic population of Englishmen and their families in the val- ley of the Ohio. The Indians, disheartened by the defeat of the French, began to form treaties of peace or neutrality with the Eng- lish. Washington's Valor. Washington's services in this campaign were acknowledged with pride throughout the colonies, but the British government took no notice of them. Not even Pitt, with all his appreciation of America, thought it worth while to offer him any promotion or reward, as had been done in the case of other meritorious provincial commanders Soon after his withdrawal from the army he took his seat in the house of burgesses, to which he had been elected. That body ordered its speaker to publicly thank Colonel Washington in the name of the house and of the people of Virginia for his services to his country. The speaker discharged this duty with ease and dignity, but when Washington attempted to reply he blushed and stam- mered and was unable to speak a word. The speaker relieved his confusion by coming to his assistance with the kind remark : " Sit down, Mr. Washington ; your modesty equals your valor, and that surpasses the power of any language I possess." The English cause was now more success- ful than it had ever been, and Canada was exhausted by the efforts she had put forth for her defence. This was clear to Mont- calm, who had no hope of holding New vF ranee against the attacks of Great Britain, land it was also clear to the far-seeing mind of Pitt. The British minister, therefore, re- solved that the next campaign should be decisive of the war. He promptly reim- bursed the colonies for the expenses incurred by them during the past year, and found no difficulty in enlisting them heartily in his schemes. Three expeditions were ordered for the year 1759. Amherst was to advance by way of Lake Champlain, and after capturing Ticonderoga and Crown Point, was to lay siege to Montreal ; Wolfe was to ascend the St. Lawrence and attack Quebec, and was to be joined by Amherst if the latter should be successful in his efforts against Montreal; and General Prideaux was to proceed by way of Oswego to capture Fort Niagara, and then descend Lake Ontario and join Amherst at Montreal. Amherst moved promptly against Ticon- deroga, which post was abandoned by the French upon his approach. Crown Point fell into his hands in the same manner, but here the advance of the English was stayed. No boats had been provided to transport the army down Lake Champlain, and Amherst was forced to halt until these could be pro- cured. He was thus able to invest Mon- treal, or to co-operate with Wolfe in the movement against Quebec. The American Gibraltar. General Prideaux began his march to Os- wego about the same time, and proceeding from Oswego, laid siege to Fort Niagara. He was killed by the bursting of a gun soon after the commencement of the siege, and the command devolved upon Sir William Johnson, who pressed the attack with vigor. On the twenty-third of July, 1758, the fort capitulated ; but Johnson was obliged to abandon the attempt to descend the St. Law- rence to Wolfe's assistance from a lack of boats and provisions. The expedition against Quebec assembled in June, 1758, at Louisburg, under the com- mand of General Wolfe. It consisted of eight thousand troops and a fleet of twenty- two ships of the line, besides frigates and some smaller vessels. On the twenty-sixth of June the Isle of Orleans was reached, and END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 317 the troops were imme- diately landed. A short distance up the river Quebec rose defiantly, its seemingly impregna- ble citadel of St. Louis crowning the lofty hills that rose from the river's brink. For the defence of the place Montcalm had six greatly reduced bat- talions of regulars and a force of Canadian militia. A few Indians remained faithful to him ; but the majority of the tribes, doubtful of the issue of the contest, preferred to remain neutral. The French commander, see- ing the inferiority of his force to that of the Eng- lish, put his trust chiefly in the natural strength of his position, which he believed would enable him to hold it even with his small force. The situation of Que- bec was peculiar. It lay on a peninsula, between the river St. Charles on the north and the St. Lawrence on the south and east. On these sides it was perfectly protected by the river, leaving the west side alone exposed. The lower town was situated on the beach, while the upper stood on the cliffs two hundred feet above the water, and above this still rose the castle of St. Louis. Above the city the high pro- montory on which the upper town was built NIAGARA FALLS. stretched away for several miles in an elevated plain, and from the river to this plain the rocks rose almost perpendicularly. Every landing-place was carefully guard- ed, and the whole range of cliffs seemed 3i8 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. bristling with cannon. The French com- mander did not beUeve it possible for an army to scale these cliffs. Montcalm located his camp below the city, between the St. Charles and the Montmorenci rivers, and covered the river front of his position with many floating batteries and ships of war, which presented a formidable appearance. GENERAL JAMES WOLFE. The naval superiority of the English at once gave them the command of the river. The French were driven from Point Levi, opposite the city, and upon it Wolfe erected batteries, from which he bombarded the lower town and soon laid it in ashes. The upper town and the citadel were beyond the range of his guns, an^ could not be injured by this fire. Wolfe now decided to storm the French camp on the opposite side of the St. Law- lence, and in the month of July attacked them from the direction of the Montmorenci, but owing to the haste of the first division, which advanced to the assault before it could be properly supported by the second, the attack was repulsed with a loss of five hun dred men. This repulse greatly dis heartened the English commande-, whose sensitive spirit suffered keenly under the dread that his enterprise was doomed to failure. He obtained news of the capture of Fort Niagara and the occupation of Ticonder- oga and Crown Point, and eagerly w. tched for the approach of the promised assistance from Amherst. It never came, and Wolfe saw that he must take Quebec by his own efforts or not at all. He attempted several diversions above the city in the hope of drawing Montcalm from his intrenchments into the open field, but the latter merely sent De Bougainville with fifteen hundred men to watch the shore above Quebec and prevent a landing. Wolfe fell into a fever, caused by his anxiety, and his despatches to his government created the gravest uneasiness in England for the suc- cess of his enterprise. Though ill, Wolfe examined the river with eagle eyes to detect some place at which a landing could be attempted. His energy was rewarded by his discovery of the cove which now bears his name. From the shore at the head of this cove a steep and difficult pathway, along which two men could scarcely march abreast, wound up to the summit of the heights and was guarded by a small force of Canadians. Wolfe at once resolved to effect a landing here and ascend END OI^ THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 3^9 the heights by this path. The greatest secrecy was necessary to the success of the undertaking, and in order to deceive the French as to his real design, Captain Cook, afterwards famous as a great navigator, was sent to take soundings and place buoys opposite Montcalm's camp, as if that were to be the real point of attack. The morning of the thirteenth of September was chosen for the movement, and the day and night of the twelfth were spent in preparations for it. •*To Conquer or Die." At one o'clock on the morning of the thir- teenth a force of about five thousand men under Wolfe, with Monckton and Murray, set off in boats from the fleet, which had ascended the river several days before, and dropped down to the point designated for the land- ing. Each officer was thoroughly informed of the duties required of him, and each shared the resolution of the gallant young commander, to conquer or die. As the boats floated down the stream, in the clear, cool starlight, Wolfe spoke to his officers of the poet Gray, and of his " Elegy in a Country Churchyard." " I would prefer," Maid he, " being the author of that poem to the glory of beating the French to-morrow." Then in a musing voice he repeated the ines : "The boast of heraldy, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. Await alike the inexorable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave." In a short while the landing-place was reached, and the fleet, following silently, took position to cover the landing if neces- sary. Wolfe and his immediate command leaped ashore and secured the pathway. The light infantry, who were carried by the tide a little below the path, clambered up the side of the heights, sustaining themselves by cUnging to the roots and shrubs which lined the precipitous face of the hill. They reached the summit and drove off the picket- guard after a slight skirmish. The rest of the troops ascended in safety by the path- way, and a battery of two guns was aban- doned on the left to Colonel Howe. Having gained the heights, Wolfe moved forward rapidly to clear the forest, and by daybreak his army was drawn up on the Heights of Abraham, in the rear of the city Montcalm was speedily informed of the presence of the English. " It can be but a small party come to burn s few houses and retire," he answered incredulously. A brief examination satisfied him of his danger, and he exclaimed in amazement: "Then they have at last got to the weak side of this miserable garrison. We must give battle and crush them before mid-day." He at once despatched a messenger for De Bou- gainville, who was fifteen miles up the river, and marched from his camp opposite the city to the Heights of Abraham to drive the English from them. The opposing forces were about equal in numbers, though the English troops were superior to their adver- saries in steadiness and determination. Death of a Hero. The battle began about ten o'clocfc and was stubbornly contested. It was at length decided in favor of the English. Wolfe, though wounded several times, continued to direct his army until, as he was leading them to the final charge, he received a musket ball in the breast. He tottered and called to an officer near him : " Support me ; let not my brave fellows see me drop." He was borne tenderly to the rear, and water was brought him to quench his thirst. At this moment the officer upon whom he was leaning cried out : " They run ! they run ! " " Who run ? " asked the dying hero, eagerly. " The French," said 320 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. the officer, " gi . e way everywhere." " What ?" said Wolfe, summoning up his remaining strength, " do they run already > Go, one of you, to Colonel Burton; bid him march Webb's regiment with all speed to Charles River to cut off the fugitives." Then, a smile of contentment overspreading his pale features, he murmured : " Now, God be praised, I die happy,*' and expired. He had De Bougainville arrived with his division, but Townshend declined to renew the en- gagement. Montcalm had borne himself heroically during the battlt, j.nd had done all that a brave and skillful commander could do to win the victory. As he was endeavoring to rally his troops at their final repulse, he was wounded for the second time, and was car- DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE BEFORE QUEBEC. done his whole duty, and with his life had purchased an empire for his country. Monckton, the second in rank, having been wounded, the command devolved upon General Townshend, a brave officer, but incapable of following up such a success with vigor. He recalled the troops from the pursuit and contented himself with the pos- session of the battle-field. At this moment ried into the city. The surgeon informed him that his wound was mortal. " So much the better," he answered cheerfully ; " I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." De Ramsay, the commandant of the post asked his advice about the defence of the city " To your keeping," answered Mont- calm, " I commend the honor of France. I will neither give orders nor interfere any END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 321 further. I have business of greater moment to attend to. My time is short. I shall pass the nif^ht with God, and prepare myself for death." He then wrote a letter to the English com- mander, commending the French prisoners to his generosit}', and at five o'clock on the morn- ing of the fourteenth his spirit passed away. Suc- ceeding generations have paid to his memory the honors it deserves, and on the spot where the fate of Quebec was de- cided the people of Ca- nada have erected, to commemorate the hero- ism of the conqueror and the conquered, a noble monument inscribed with the names of Wolfe and Montcalm. The French lost five hundred killed and one thousand prisoners,while the loss of the English was six hundred in killed and wounded. Five days afterward, on the eight- eenth of September, the city and garrison of Que- bec surrendered to Gen- eral Townshend. The capture of this great stronghold was hailed with rejoicings in both America and England. Congratulations were showered upon Pitt, who modestly put them aside witK *he reverent remark : " I will aim to serve my country ; but the more a man is versed in business, the more he finds the hand of Providence everywhere." 21 In April, 1760, De Levi, the French com- mander at Montreal, attacked Quebec with a force often thousand men, hoping to reduce it before the arrival of reinforcements from England. Murray, the English commander, t marched out with three thousand men to KING GEORGE III. attack him, and in a severe battle on the twenty-sixth of April was defeated and driven back to the city with a loss of one thousand men. The French then laid siege I, to Quebec, but on the ninth of May an ^22 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. English fleet arrived to its relief, and De Levi was obliged to withdraw to Montreal. In September, Montreal itself was invested by a powerful force under General Amherst. Seeing that there was no hope of resistance, the French commander surrendered the town on the eighth of September, 1760. With this capture Canada passed entirely into the hands of the English, Detroit and the other posts on the lakes were soon given up by the French, and the dominion of France in America was confined to the valley of the Mississippi. There were no further hostili- ties between the English and French. Important Treaty. The French and Indian war was closed by the treaty of Paris, on the tenth of February, 1763. By this treaty Great Britain obtained all the French territory east of the Missis- sippi, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, the northern boundary of which was the rivers Iberville and Amite, and Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain. Florida was ceded to England by Spain in exchange for Havana. France ceded to Spain the island of New Orleans and all Louisiana west of the Mississippi. Thus Great Britain was mistress of the whole of the vast region east of the Mississippi, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexi- co. The region west of the Mississippi was ■claimed by Spain. In all the vast continent of America F'-ance retained not one foot of ground. In the meantime the Indians of the south- west had become involved in war with the 'whites. The Cherokees, who had always been friendly to the English, had done good service during the early part of the war by protecting the frontiers of Virginia, and had served also in Forbes' expedition against Fort Duquesne. They received for their_ services no reward or pay from any source, and as they were setting out for their homes neither General Forbes nor the colonial au- thorities supplied them with either food or money. To avoid starvation on their march they were compelled to plunder the barns of some of the settlers, and this led to a conflict which rapidly spread into a border war. The Cherokees Driven to Arms. Lyttleton, the governor of South Carolina, exerted himself to prevent the restoration of peace, and with success, as he desired the credit of exterminating the Cherokees. He was opposed by the legislature and people of the colony, but in 1759 ^^ ^^"^ ^ force into their country, which committed such ravages that the Cherokees, driven to despair, re- solved upon a war of extermination. They made a league with the Muscogees, and sent to the French in Louisiana for military stores. The Carolinians asked aid of General Am- herst, who sent them a force of twelve hun- dred men, principally highlanders, under General Montgomery. Reinforced by a body of Carolinians, Montgomery invaded the Cherokee country in 1760, and laid it waste. This tribe had made great advances in civil- ization, and had settled in villages, and en- gaged in the cultivation of their lands. Their homes were made desolate, and they were driven to the mountains. Montgomery then rejoined Amherst, in the north, in obedience to orders ; but the Indians for many years maintained a desultory warfare along the southwestern border. ^ The surrender of Canada to the English was viewed with the greatest disfavor by the Indians of the north and west, who were attached to the French, and were unwilling' to submit to the rule of the English. Im-' mediately after the surrender the English occupied all the French posts along the ,. lakes, and in the Ohio valley, with small END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 323 garrisons. The contrast between these and the French, who had formerly held these forts, soon impressed itself forcibly upon the minds of the savages. The French had been friendly and kind to the Indians, and had sought to convert them to Christianity; /the English were haughty and domineering, and insulted their priests, and denounced !> their religion. " King Pontiac." The French had prohibited the sale of rum to the Indians ; the English introduced it, and finding it profitable continued it, with a recklessness of consequences which did not escape the keen observation of the savages. The demoralization of the red men was rapid, and drunkenness and its attendant vices wrought sad changes in them. The tribes were bitterly hostile to the men who were ruining their people, and all were alarmed by the rapidity with which emigration had been pouring over the mountains since the capture of Fort Duquesne. They saw that they were about to be driven from their homes, and forced westward, before the advancing tide of the whites. The most determined opponent 01 the English rule was Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas. He was a Catawba by birth, had been brought from his native country as a prisoner, and had been adopted into the Ot- tawa tribe, whose chief he had become by his bravery and skill. He was the idol of his own people, and his influence over the neigh- boring tribes was boundless. He was styled "the king and lord of all the country of the northwest," and bitterly resented the English ioccupation of his dominions. The first Eng- lish officer who came to take possession of the French forts was received by him with the stern demand, " How dare you come to visit my country without my leave ?" This " forest hero " now resolved to unite all the tribes of the northwest in a last de- termined effort to drive out the English, and regain the independence of the red man. The plan of operations which he adopted was most comprehensive, and was the most remarkable exhibition of genuine leadership ever given by an Indian. He began negotia- tions with the neighboring tribes, and in« duced the Delawares, Shawnees, the Senecas, Miamis, and many of the smaller tribes, oc-' cupying the great region of the upper lakes, the valley of the Ohio, and a portion of the Mississippi valley, to join his people in their effort against the English. He sent a prophet to all the tribes to declare to them that the Great Spirit had revealed to him "that if the English were permitted to dwell in their midst, then the white man's diseases and poisons would utterly destroy them." The conspiracy was pressed forward with energy, and though it was more than a year in forming, it was kept a profound secret. I The Plot Revealed. 1 The principal post on the upper lakes was Detroit. It ^vas surrounded by a numerous French population engaged in agriculture and trading. It was the centre of the trade of this region, and its possession was of the highest importance to the English. Pontiac was anxious to obtain possession of this fort and sent word to Major Gladwin, the commandant, that he was coming on a cer- tain day, with his warriors, to have a talk with him. The chief was resolved to make this visit the occasion of seizing the fort and massacring the garrison, and he and his warriors selected for the attempt cut down , their rifles to a length which enabled them I to conceal them under their blankets, in order to enter the fort with their arms. The plot was revealed to Gladwin by an ' Indian girl, whose affections had been won by one of the English officers, and when n Ponriac and his warriors repaired to the fort 324 END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 32s for their "talk" Gladwin made him aware that his conspiracy was discovered, and very unwisely permitted him to leave the fort in safety. Pontiac now threw off the mask of friendship and boldly attacked Detroit. / \Vholesale Slaughter. ' This was the signal for a general war. In :ibout three weeks' time the savages sur- prised and captured every fort west of Ni- agara, with the exception of Detroit and Pittsburgh. The garrisons were, with a few exceptions, put to death. Over one hundred traders were killed and scalped in the woods, and more than five hundred families were driven, with the loss of many of their numbers, from their settlements on the fron- tier. Pontiac endeavored, without success, to capture Detroit, and a large force of the warriors of several of the tribes laid siege to Pittsburgh, the most important post in the valley of the Ohio. The ravages of the Indians were extended over the wide terri- tory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, and the settlements in that region were for the time completely broken up. General Bouquet, with a force ot five hundred men, consisting chiefly of Scotch Highlanders, was sent from eastern Penn- sylvania to the relief of Fort Ligonier, which was located at the western base of the mountains, near Pittsburgh. Their march lay through a region which had been deso- lated by the Indians, and they were obliged to depend upon the stores they carried with them. Upon reaching Fort Ligonier, Bou- quet found the communication with Pitts- burgh cut off, and could learn nothing of the fate of the fort or garrison, j Leaving his cattle and wagons at Ligo- nier, he pushed forward with his men in light marching order, determined to ascer- tain if Pittsburgh still held out. He had to fight bi.^ v/ay through th^ Ini^mns, who turned aside from the siege of the fort and ambushed the Highlanders at nearly every step. They were overwhelmingly defeated by the gallant Highlanders, for Bouquet was now a veteran Indian fighter, and had learned to fight the savages with their own tactics. Their rout was complete, and Bouquet reach- ed Pittsburgh in safety, to the great joy of the garrison. Victory Over the Indians. Bouquet's victory was decisive. The h. dians were utterly disheartened and fled westward ; and from that day the Ohio val- ley was freed from their violence. The tide of emigration once more began to fiow over the mountains, and this time it was to know no cessation. The tribes concerned in Pon- tiac's conspiracy lost hope, and were over- awed by the preparations of the English for their destruction, and began to withdraw from the confederacy and make peace with the whites. Pontiac soon found himself de- serted by all his followers, even by his own people; but his proud spirit would not brook the thought of submission. He would make no treaty; he was the mortal foe of the English, and would never acknowledge their rule. Leaving his home and his people, he set out for the country of the Illinois, for purpose of stirring up the more distant tribes to war. A proclamation from Lord Amherst offered a reward for his murder, and he soon fell, the victim of the hired assassin. The long war was over. It had brought both loss and gain to the colonies. It had involved them in an expenditure of sixteen million dollars, of which sum but five million dollars had been refunded by the English government. Thus the debts of the colonies were greatly increased. Thirty thousand men had been killed, or had died from wounds or disease during the war, and the §Li|iferings of ^h^ settlers along the extende4 326 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. and exposed frontiers had been almost incal- culable. On the other hand, the war had greatly increased the business of the colonies, es- pecially in those of the north. Large sums had been spent in America by Great Britain lor the support of her armies and fleets, and many fortunes were built up by enterprising men during this period. Above all the Americans had been taught their own strength, and the value of united action. They had often proved their superiority to the regular troops of the English army, and had karned valuable lessons in the art of war. tn the long struggle Washington, Gates, Morgan, Montgomery, Stark, Putnam and others were trained for the great work which was to be required of them in future years. The colonies were bound together by a common grievance, arising out of the haughty contempt with which the royal commanders treated the provincial troops, and sacrificed their interests to those of the regulars. The lesson that the colonies could do without the assistance of England, and that their true interests demanded a separation from her, was deeply implanted in the minds of many of the leading men. Another gain for the colonies was a posi- tive increase in their liberties resulting from the war. The necessity of securing the cor dial co-operation of the Americans during" the struggle caused the royal governors to cease their efforts to enforce arbitrary laws, during the existence of hostilities, as the en- forcement of such measures would have alienated the colonists, and have prevented them from raising the needed supplies of men and money. The colonial assemblies were careful to take advantage of this state of affairs. They made their grants of sup- plies with great caution, and retained in their own hands all the disbursements of the pub- lic funds. They thus accustomed the people to the practices of free government, and taught them their rights in the matter, so that when the war closed the royal governors found that they were no longer able to prac- tice their accustomed tyranny. BOC^ IV The American Revolution Causes of the CHAPTER XXV Struggle for Independence taiosnce oi Great Britain Towards Her Colonies — The Navigation Acts— Effects of These Laws Upon the Colonies ^ Ureac Bntain Seeks to Destroy the Manufactures of America — Writs of Assistance — They Are Opposed — Home Manufactures Encouraged by the Americans— Ignorance of Englishmen Concerning America — Great Britain Claims the Right to Tax America — Resistance of ihe Colonists — Samuel Adams — -The Parsons' Cause — Patrick Henry — England Persists in Her Determination to Tax America — Passage of the Stamp Act — Resistance of the Colonies- Meeting of the First Colonial Congress — Its Action — William Pitt — Repeal of the Stamp Act — Franklin Before the House of Commons — New Taxes Imposed Upon America — Increased Resistance of the Colonies — Troops Quartered in Boston — ^The " Massacre "—The Non-Importation Associations — Growth of Hostility to England — Burning of i.ht •*Gasp6" — The Tax on Tea Retained by the King — Destruction of Tea at Boston — Wrath of the British Govem- xnent — Boston Harbor Closed — Troops Quartered in Boston — The Colonies Come to the Assistance of Boston-* Action of the Virginia Assembly — General Gage in Boston — The Regulating Act — Its Failure — Gage Seizes the Massachusetts Powder — Uprising of the Colony — Meeting of the Continental Congress — Its Action — Addresses to ^e King and People of England — The Earl of Chatham's Indorsement of Congress — The King Remains Stubborn. THE treaty of Paris placed England in ' control of the North American con- tinent east of tiie Mississippi, and the English government was of the opinion that this possession brought vvith it the right to treat America as it pleased, with- out regard to the rights or liberties of her people. We have already considered some of the many acts of injustice by which Great Britain drove the colonies into rebellion against her. We have now to relate those bearing more immediately on the separation. The navigation acts of 1660 and 1663 were passed, as we have seen, for the purpose of crippling the commerce of the colonies, and confirming their dependence upon England. They were severelyfelt throughout all the col- onies, and especially in New England, which was largely dependent upon its commerce. These acts were the beginning of a policy deliberately adopted by England, and per- »i§ted jn b^ her for rnor^ th^n a gentury^ for the purpose of enriching her mercantile clas? by depriving the colonists of the just rewards of their labors. The Americans were re- garded by the mother country as inferiors, and as dependents, who had been planted by her in " settlements established in distant parts of the world for the benefit of trade." The natural right of all men to acquire property and wealth by the exercise of their industry was denied to them ; they were to labor only that the British merchant might grow rich at their expense. Every species of industry in America, save the mere culti- vation of the soil, was to be heavily taxed that it might be crushed out of existence. The Americans were to be obliged to ship their products to England for sale, and to be compelled to purchase in her markets the supplies they needed. No foreign country might trade directly with the colonies. Such articles of foreign production as were needed must be shipped to England, and then 328 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. transferred to British vessels for transporta- tion to the colonies, in order that they might yield a profit to the English ship-owner. The only direct trade which was allowed, and was not taxed, was the infamous traffic in negro slaves, against which every colony protested, and which Great Britain compelled them to accept. Even the trees in the " free woods," suitable for masts, were claimed by the king, and marked by his " surveyor-general of woods." It was a criminal offence to cut one of them after being so marked. Restrictions upon Trade. In spite of these outrages the colonies persisted in their efforts to establish manu- factures and a commerce of their own. As early as 1643 iron works were established in Massachusetts, and in 1721 the New England colonies contained six furnaces and nineteen forges. Pennsylvania was still more largely engaged in the manufacture of this metal, and exported large quantities of it to other colonies. By the year 1756 there were eight furnaces and nine forges, for smelting copper, in oper- ation in Maryland. In 172 1 the British iron- masters endeavored to induce Parliament to put a stop to the production of iron in America, but without success. In 1750 they were more successful. In that year an act of Parliament forbade, under heavy penalties, the exportation of pig-iron from America to England, and the manufacture by the Ameri- cans of bar-iron or steel for their own use. All the iron works in the colonies were ordered to be closed, and any that might afterwards be erected were to be destroyed as " nuisances." Some of the colonies had engaged in the manufacture of woolen goods, and the mak- ing of hats had become a very large and profitable business. In 1732 Parliament for- bade the transportation of woolen goods of American manufacture from one colony to another, and the same restriction was placed up.on the trade in hats. As an excuse for this outrage it was argued that as the Ameri- cans had an unlimited supply of beaver and other furs open to them, they would soon be able to supply all Europe, as well as them- selves, with hats. England was unwilling that America should manufacture a single article which she could supply, and in order to cripple the industry of the colonies still further it was enacted by Parliament that no manufacturer should employ more than two apprentices. In 1733 the famous " Molasses Act " was passed, imposing a duty on sugar, molasses, or rum, imported into any of the British possessions from any foreign colony. The object of this act was to benefit the British West India possessions by compell- ing the North American colonies to trade with them. Thrilling Speech of James Otis. In order to enforce the various restrictions upon the trade of the colonies Great Britain established in America a large force of cus« toms officers, who were given unlawful powers for this purpose. Parliament enacted that any sheriff or officer of the customs, who suspected Xhdit merchandise imported into the colony in which he was stationed had not paid the duty required by law, might apply to the colonial courts for a search warrant, or " writ of assistance," and enter a store or private dwelling and search for the goods he suspected of being unlawfully imported. These writs were first used in Massachu- setts in 1 76 1, and aroused a storm of indig- nation from the people, who felt that their most sacred rights were being violated by them. They were resisted, and the case was carried before the courts in order to test their validity. James Otis, the attorney for the crown, resigned his office rather than argue SCENE NEAR THE SQUKCP OF THE ^ARJTAN ?^IVER, 329 330 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. in behalf of them, and with great eloquence pleaded the cause of the people. His speech created a profound impression throughout the colonies, and aroused a determination in the hearts of his fellow-citizens to oppose the other enactments of Parliament which they felt to be unjust. This trial was fatal to the writs, which i /ere scarcely ever used after- wards. " Then and there," says John Adams, " was the first opposition to arbi- trary acts of Great Britain. Then and there American Independence was born." Taxing the Colonies. The spirit of opposition soon manifested itself in the New England colonies. The manufactures, trade and fisheries of that sec- tion were almost ruined, and the people had no choice but to defend themselves. Asso- ciations were formed in all the colonies pledging themselves not to purchase of Eng- lish manufacturers anything but the absolute necessities of life. Families began to make their own linen and woolen cloths, and to preserve sheep for their wool. Homespun garments became the dress of the patriot party, and foreign cloths were almost driven out of use. It was resolved to encourage home manufactures in every possible way and associations were formed for this pur- pose. These measures became very pop- ular, and were adopted by the other colonies in rapid succession. England was blind to these signs of alien- ation and danger, and such of her public men as saw them regarded them as of no importance. It was resolved to go still further, and levy direct taxes upon the col- onies. In 1763 such a proposition was brought forward by the ministers. It was claimed by them that as the debt of England had been largely increased by the French war, which had been fought in their defence, it w^s but ri^ht that the^ should help to de- fray the expense by paying a tax to the English government- In the meantime the colonies had warmly discussed the intentions of Great Britain re- specting them, and all strenuously denied the right of the mother country to tax them without granting them some form of repre-^, sentation in her government. They claimed the right to have a voice in the disposal ot their property, and they regarded the design of Parliament as but a new proof of the indis- position of the mother country to treat them with justice. The feeling of the Americans towards England at this period has been aptly de- scribed as " distrust and suspicion, strangely mixed up with filial reverence — an instinctive sense of injury, instantly met by the in- stinctive suggestion that there must be some constitutional reason for doing it, or it would not be done." In spite of the injuries they had received at her hands, the Americans were warmly attached to England. They gloried in her triumphs, were proud to trace their descent from her, and claimed a share in her great history and grand achievements. Had England been wise she might have strength- ened this attachment to such an extent that the ties which bound the two countries could never have been sundered. But England was not only careless of the rights of Amer- icans, she was grossly ignorant of their country and of their character. Ignorant Rulers. " Few Englishmen had accurate ideas of the nature, the extent, or even the position^ of the colonies. And when, the Duke of' Newcastle hurried to the king with the in- formation that Cape Breton was an island, he did what perhaps half his colleagues in the ministry, and more than half his colleagues in Parliament, would have done in his place. The^ knew that th^ gojonies were of v^t CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 331 extent; that they lay far away beyond the sea ; that they produced many things which Engh'shmen wanted to buy, and consumed many things which Enghshmen wanted to sell ; that English soldiers had met Eng- land's hereditary enemies, the French, in their forests ; that English sailors had beaten French sailors on their coasts. But they did not know that the most flourishing of these colonies had been planted by men who, prizing freedom above all other blessings, had planted them in order to secure for themselves and their children a home in which they could worship God according to their own idea of worship, and put forth the strength of their minds and of their bodies, according to their own conception of what was best for them here and hereafter,"* The few Americans who visited Great Britain found themselves looked upon as aliens and inferiors ; their afifection for the land of their fathers was met with contempt, and they were ridiculed as barbarians. The English colonial officials made this feeling apparent to those Americans who remained at home. Everywhere the colonists saw themselves treated with injustice. The hard- earned glories of their troops in the colonial wars were denied them and claimed for the English regulars, and there was scarcely a provincial who had borne arms but had some petty insult or injury, at the hands of the royal authorities, to complain of Looking back over their history, the Americans could not remember a time when they had not been treated with injustice by Great Britain. They owed that country nothing for the planting of the colonies ; that was the work of their ancestors, who had been forced to fly from England to escape wrong and injury. They had been left to '*' Historical View of the American Revolution, "By G. Wt Greene, p. i^. conquer their early difficulties without aid, and with scanty sympathy from England, who had taken no notice of them until they were sufficiently prosperous to be profitable to her. Injustice of the Mother Country. ' Then she had rarely laid her hand upon them but to wrong them. She had pur- sued such a uniformly unjust policy towards them that their affection for her was rapidly giving way to a general desire to separate from her. They owed her nothing ; they were resolved to maintain their liberties against her. Some of the leading men of the colony had already begun to dream of the future greatness of America, and had become convinced that the true interests of their country required a separation from England. In spite of this feeling England persisted in her course of folly. In March, 1764, the House of Commons resolved, " that Parlia- ment had a right to tax America." The next month (April) witnessed the enforce- ment of this claim in the passage of an act of Parliament levying duties upon certain articles imported into America. By the same act iron and lumber were added to the " enumerated articles " which could be ex- ported only to England. The preamble to this measure declared that its purpose was to raise " a revenue for the expenses of defend- ing, protecting and securing his majesty's dominions in America." The colonists protested against this act as a violation of their liberties, and declared that they had borne their full share of the expense of the wars for their defence, that they were now able to protect themselves without assistance from the king, and added the significant warning that " taxation with- out representation was tyranny." No one yet thought of armed resistance ; the colo- nists were rpsolyed to exhaust ever^ peaceful 332 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. means of redress before proceeding to extreme measures. As yet the desire for separation was confined to a few far-seeing men. Prominent among these was Samuel Adams, of Boston, a man in whom the loftiest virtues of the old Puritans were min- SAMUEL ADAMS. gled with the grace* of more modern times. Modest and unassuming- in manner, a man of incorruptible integrity and sincere piety, he was insensible to fear in the discharge of his duty. He was a deep student of constitu- tional law, and was gifted with an eloquence which could move niuUitudes, His dear vision had already discerned the dangers which threatened his country, and had dis- covered the only path by which she could emerge from them in safety. His plan was simple : resistance, peaceable at first ; forci- ble if necessary. Under his guidance the people of Boston met and protested against the new plan of taxation, and instructed their repre- sentatives in the general court to oppose it. "We claim British rights, not by charter only," said the Boston resolves; "we are born to them. If we are taxed without our con- sent, our property is taken without our consent, and then we are no more free- men, but slaves." The gen- eral court of Massachusetts declared " that the imposi- tion of duties and taxes by the Parliament of Great Britain upon a people not repres'=^p*-ed in the House oi v^ommons is absolutely irreconcilable with their rights." A committee was appointed to correspond with the other colonies, with a view to bringing about a concerted action for the redress of griev- ances. In Virginia, New York, Connecticut and the Carolinas equally vigorous measures were taken. In Virginia the first indication of the in- tention of the people to resist the arbitrary measures of the crown was given in a matter insignificant in itself, but clearly involving the great principle at issue. In that colony tobacgo was the lawful currency, and tho CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 333 failure of a crop, or a rise in the price of to- bacco, made such payments often very bur- densome. In the winter of 1763 the legisla- ture passed a law authorizing the people of the colony to pay their taxes and other public dues in money, at the rate of twopence a pound for the tobacco due. The clergymen of the established church had each a salary fixed by law at a certain number of pounds of tobacco, and as this measure involved them in a loss they refused to acquiesce in it and induced Sherlock, the bishop of London, to persuade the king to refuse the law his signature. " The rights of the clergy and the authority of the king must stand or fall together," was the sound argument of the bishop. Failing of the royal signature the law was inoperative. The matter was soon brought to an issue in Virginia. The Rev. Mr, Maury, one of the clergymen affected by the law, brought a "Suit to recover damages, or the dilTererxe between twopence per pound and the current market price of tobacco, which was much higher. This was popularly known as the " Parsons' Cause." It was a clearly joined issue between the right of the people to nake their own laws on the one side, and the kirk's prerogative on the other. The Man for the Hour. The " parsons " secured the best talent in the colony for the prosecution of their claims ; the cause of the "people" was confided to a young man of twenty-seven, whose youth was supplemented by the additional disad- vantages of being poor and unknown. He was Patrick Henry, the son of a plain far- mer, and a native of the county of Hanover. He had received but little education, as his fethcr's straitened circumstances had com pelled him to put his son to the task of earning his bread at the early age of fifteen years. He entered a country store, and the next year went into business with his elder brother, William, who, being too indolent to attend to business, left the store to the man- agement, or rather the mismanagemeat of Patrick. The young man was brimming over with good nature, and could never find it in hi^ heart to refuse any one credit, and was too kind-hearted to press unwilling debtors to payment. He let the store " manage itself," and amused himself by studying the charac- ter of his customers, and with h.s -lute and violin. He was also a great reader, and read PATRICK HENRY, every work he could buy or borrow. The store survived about a year, and the next two or tnree years were passed by Patrick in settling its affairs. At the age of eighteen he married, and began life as a farmer. He soon grew tired of this pursuit, and selling his farm once more engaged in mercantile life. It was nuL suited to him, nor he lo it. lie passed his days in reading, this time giving his attention to works of history and philosophy. Livy was his favorite, and he lead it through at least once a year for many years. 334 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. His second mercantile enterprise ended in bankruptcy in a few years, and in extreme want he determined to try the law. He ob- tained a license to practice after a six weeks' course of study, and entered upon his new career utterly ignorant of its duties. It is said that he could not then draw up the simplest legal paper without assistance. He ^was then twenty-four years old, but it was I not until he had reached the age of twenty- seven that he obtained a case worthy of his powers , for he had genius, and it only re- quired the proper circumstances to draw it out. He had passed days in communion with nature in his frequent hunting and fish- ing excursions, and had drunk deeply of the wisdom she imparts to her votaries. He had studied men with the eye of a master, and he had at last fallen into the position from which he could rise to his true place among the leading spirits of the age. In the case with which he was now intrusted, a decision of the court on a demurrer, in favor of the claims of the clergy, had left nothing unde- termined but the amount of damages in the cause which was pending. Argument for Damages. " The array before Mr. Henry's eyes," says his biographer, William Wirt, " was now most fearful. On the bench sat more than twenty clergymen, the most learned men in the colony, and the most capable, as well as the severest critics before whom ]t was possible for him to nave made his debut. The court house was crowded with an over- whelming multitude, and surrounded with an immense and anxious throng, who, not finding room to enter, were endeavoring to listen without, in the deepest attention. But there was something still more awfully dis- concerting than all this for in the chair of the presiding magistrate sat no other person than his own father. Mr. Lyons opened the cause very briefly : in the way of argument he did nothing more than explain to the jury that the decision upon the demurrer had put the act of 1750 entirely out of the way, and left the law of 1748 as the only standard of their damages ; he then concluded with a highly wrought eulogium on the benevo- lence of the clergy." When it came Patrick Henry's turn to speak, he rose awkwardly, amid a profound silence. No one had ever heard him speak, and all were anxious to see how he would acquit himself. He clutched nervously at his papers, and faltered out his opening sen- tences with a degree of confusion which threatened every moment to put an end to his effort. The people watched their cham- pion in sorrow and indignation ; the clergy exchanged glances of triumph, and eyed the speaker with contempt; while his father, overcome with shame, seemed ready to drop from his chair. But suddenly there came a change over the young advocate. Warming with his subject, he threw off his embarrass- ment and awkwardness, and stood erect and confident. His look of timidity gave place to one of command; his countenance glowed with the fire of genius, and startled the gazers by the aspect of majesty which it assumt-d for the first time. •' He Has Spoken Treaso'>i.*' His tones grew clear and bold, his action graceful and commanding, and the astounded jury and audience were given a display of eloquence such as was without a parallel in the history of the colony. Henry knew that the case was against him, but he pleaded the natural right of Virginia to make her own laws independently of the king and Parlia- ment. He proved the justness of the law; he drew a striking picture of the character of a good king, who should be the father of his oeople, but wh^ becomes their tyrant and CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 335 oppressor, and forfeits his claim to obedience when he annuls just and good laws. The opposing counsel cried out at this bold declaration, " He has spoken treason," but •as silenced by the excited throng. " They say," says Mr. Wirt, " that the people, whose countenances had fallen as he arose, had heard but a very few sentences before they began to look up ; then to look at each other in sur- prise, as if doubting the evidence of their own senses ; then, at- tracted by some ges- ture, struck by some majestic attitude, fas- cinated by the spell of his eye, the charm of his emphasis, and the varied and com- manding expression of his countenance, they could look away no more. In less than twenty minutes they might be seen in every part of the house, on every bench, in every window, stooping for- ward from their stands, in death-like silence; their features fixed in amazement and awe, all their senses listening and riveted upon the speaker, as if to catch the last strain of some heavenly visitant. " The mockery of the clergy was soon turned into alarm, their triumph into con- fusion and despair, and at one burst of his rapid and overwhelming invective, they fled from the bench in precipitation and terror. As for the father, such was his surprise, such his amazement, such his rapture, that, forget- ting where he was, and the character which he was filling, tears of ecstacy streamed down his cheeks without the power or inclination to repress them." COLONEL BARRE. The jury brought in a verdict oC Oiis penny damages for the "parsons," anc the court overruled the motion of their counse! for a new trial. Henry from that moment took his place among the leaders of the patriot party in Virginia. He had struck a 33^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. chord which responded in every American heart ; he had denied the right of the king to make laws for the colonies. The remonstrance of Massachusetts was followed by similar appeals from Connecti- cut, New York, Rhode Island and Virginia. The petition of New York was couched in such strong terms that no member of Par- liament could be found bold enough to pre- sent it. These remonstrances were unheeded by Parliament, which pronounced them "ab- surd " and " insolent." That body persisted in its determination to tax the colonies, and Grenville, the prime minister, warned the Americans that in a contest with Great Britain they could expect nothing but defeat. He announced the intention of the English goverrnnent to levy the taxes, and graciously added that if the colonies preferred any spe- cial form of taxation, their wishes would be met as far as possible. In March, 1765, the measure known as the " Stamp Act " passed the House of Commons by a vote of five to one, and was adopted almost unanimously by the House of Lords. An Insane King. Tt met with a warm opposition in the Commons from the friends of America, pro- minent among whom was Colonel Barre, who had served with Wolfe in America, and had learned to appreciate the American character. The measure received the royal signature at once. The poor king would have signed anything he was bidden — lie was insane. The act imposed a duty on all paper, vellum and parchment used in the colonies, and required that all writings of a legal or business nature should be made on " stamped paper ; " otherwise they were de- clared null and void. In order to enforce the " Stamp Act," Parliament, two months later, passed " the Quartering Act-" It authorized the minis- ters to send as many troops as they should see fit to America.toeiforce submission to the acts of Parliament. Wherever these troops should be stationed, it should be the duty of a the people, at their own expense, to furnish them with quarters, fuel, bedding, cider or rum, candles, soap " and other necessaries." Exciting Scene. The news of the passage of these acts pr' duced the most intense excitement in Amer- ica. The general assembly of Virginia was in session when the news was received in May. The royalist leaders were amazed at the folly of the ministry, but deemed it best to take no action in the matter. Patrick Henry, now a member of the assembly, rose in his place and offered a series of resolu- tions, declaring that the people of Virginia were bound to pay only such taxes as should be levied by their own assembly, and that all who maintained the contrary should be regarded as enemies of the liberties of the colony. These resolutions provoked an exciting debate, in which Henry, in a magnificent oration, exposed the tyranny of the British government, and stirred the hearts of the burgesses with a determination to resist. " Caesar had his Brutus," exclaimed the ora- tor in one of his loftiest flights, " Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third — ." The assembly was in an uproar. " Treason ! treason ! " shouted the speaker. A few joined in the cry, but the majority waited in breathless suspense the comple- tion of the sentence of Henry, who, fixing his eye upon the speaker, added in a tone which was peculiar to himself, " may profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." The resolutions were adopted by a large majority. The next day, during Henry's absence, the timid assembly rescinded some of the CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 337 resolves and modified the others. The /issembly, for thus daring to exercise its right of expressing its opinion, was at once dis- solved by the governor, but too late to pre- vent its action from producing its effect. Copies of the resolutions of Henry were forwarded to Philadelphia, where they were printed and circulated through the colonies. the colonies to send delegates to a congress to be held at New York in October. In the meantime associations were organized in all the colonies as far south as Maryland, called " Sons of Liberty," for the purpose of stopping the use of stamps. The people were resolved to take the matter in their own hands. HANGING A STAMP ACT OFFICIAL IN EFFIGY, They aroused ihe drooping spirits of the people, and it was resolved everywhere that the stamps should not be used in America. The general court of Massachusetts or- dered that the courts should not require the use of stamps in conducting their business ; and in June, before the Virginia resolutions reached Boston, issued a circular inviting all 22 - In Boston the mob attacked the house of Oliver, the secretary of the colony, who had been appointed to distribute the stamps, and compelled him to resign. They also attacked the houses of some of the most prominent supporters of the ministry, but the patriots sincerely deplored and condemned these violent proceedings. At Wethersfield, 338 THE AMERICAN DEVOLUTION. Connecticut, five hundred farmers seized Jared Ingersol, the stamp officer for that colony, compelled him to resign, and then to remove his hat and give " three cheers for liberty, property, and no stamps." Similar scenes A^ere enacted in the other colonies. Rights and Grievances. On the seventh of October, 1765, the First Colonial Congress met at New York. It was composed of delegates from the col- onies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- necticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, South Carolina, New York and New Jersey. New Hampshire, though not represented by a delegate, gave her support to its measures, and Georgia formally signified her accept- ance of the work of this body. Timothy Ruggles, of Massachusetts, was chosen president. The session extended over three weeks, and resulted in the adoption of a " Declaration of the Rights and Grievances of the Colonies ; " a petition to the king ; and a memorial to both Houses of Par- liament. In the Declaration of Rights the Congress took the ground that it was a violation of their rights to tax them without granting them a representation in the Parliament of Great Britain, and that as such representa- tion was impossible because of the distance between the two countries, no taxes could be legally imposed upon the colonies but by their own assemblies. The measures of the Congress were, as soon as possible, indorsed by all the colonial assemblies, and thus the colonies were drawn into that union which, in their own language, became " a bundle of sticks, which could neither be bent nor broken." At length the first of November arrived, the day on which the Stamp Act was to go into operation. Not a man could be found to execute the law, all the stamp officers hav- ing resigned through fear of popular vio- lence. Governor Colden, of New York, de- clared he was resolved to have the stamps distributed, but the people of the city warned him that he would do so at his peril, and burned him in effigy. Colden became alarmed at these demonstrations, and on the fifth of November delivered the stamps to the mayor and council of New York. A Day of Mourning. In all the colonies the first of November was observed as a day of mourning. Bells were tolled, flags hung at half-mast, and business suspended. The merchants of New York, Boston and Philadelphia united in an agreement to import no more goods from England, to countermand the orders already sent out, and to receive no goods on commission until the Stamp Act should be repealed. Their action was promptly sustained by the people, who pledged themselves to buy no articles of English manufacture, and to encourage home productions. Circulars were sent throughout the colonies urging the people to unite in such action, and were heartily responded to. Business went on without the use of stamps, and the courts ignored them in their proceedings. The news of these proceedings should have warned the English ministers of their folly ; it only made them more determined to persist in it. They resolved not to repeal the Stamp Act. To comply with the request of the colonists, now that they had resisted the law, would, they declared, be simply a surrender to rebellion. " Sooner than make our colonies our allies," said one of their number, " I would wish to see them re- turned to their primitive deserts." The friends of America, led by the aged and infirm William Pitt, made a determined ef fort to procure the repeal of the Stamp Act, CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. and tney were now supported by all the in- fluence of the English merchants, who found their trade rapidly falling off in consequence nf the non- intercourse resolves adopted by the Americans. Swathed in flannels, Pitt proceeded to the House of Commons, and in a speech of great vigor urged the House to repeal the obnox- ious and unconstitutional measure. In reply 339 House to give the desired information. He appeared, in answer to the summons, on the thirteenth of February, 1766. He was questioned by Lord Grenville and Charles Townshend, and by several friends of the ministry, and delivered his answers with firmness and clearness. He told them that the colonists could not pay for the stamps, as there was not enough gold and silver in to Grenville, the prime minister, who accused I the colonies for that purpose; that they had him of exciting sedition in America, he said, "Sir, I have been charged with giving birth to sedition in America. Sorry I am to have the liberty of speech in this House imputed as a crime. But the imputa- tion Avill not deter me; it is a liberty I mean to exercise. The gentleman tells us that America is obstinate ; that America is almost in rebellion. I rejoice that America has resisted." The House started at these words, but Pitt con- tinued firmly, " If they had submitted, they would have voluntarily become slaves. They have been driven to madness by injustice. My opinion is that the Stamp Act should be repealed, abso- lutely, totally, immediately." Edmund Burke, then a rising young man, eloquently sustained the appeal of the great commoner. The Commons had already begun to waver, but before yielding entirely they wished to ascertain from competent witnesses the exact temper and disposition of the Americans. For this purpose, Benjamin Franklin, who was residing in London at the time as the agent of several of the colo- nies, was summoned before the bar of the STAMP ACT OFFICIAL BEATEN BY THE PEOPLE. incurred more than their share of the ex- pense of the last war, for which Great Britain had in no way reimbursed them ; that they were still burdened with heavy debts contracted in consequence of this war ; that they were well disposed towards Great Britain before 1763, and considered Parlia- ment as " the great bulwark and security of their liberties and privileges ; but that now their temper was much altered, and their 340 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. respect for it lessened ; and if the act is not repealed, the consequence would be a total loss of the respect and affection they bore to this country, and of all the commerce that depended on that respect and affection." Franklin Startles Parliament. He startled the House by declaring that in a few years America would be amply able to supply herself with all the necessities of life then furnished her by Great Britain. " I do not know," said he, "a single article im- ported into the northern colonies but what they can either do without or make them- selves. The people will spin and work for themselves, in their own houses. In three years there may be wool and manufactures enough." " If the legislature," he was asked, *' should think fit to ascertain its right to ky taxes, by any act laying a small tax, contiarv to their opinion, would they sub- mit to pay the tax ? " "An internal tax," he replied, " how small soever, laid by the legislature here, on the people there, will never be submitted to. They will oppose it to the last. The people will pay no internal tax by Parliament." " May they not," asked a friend of Grenville, " by the same interpretation of their common rights, as Englishmen, as declared by Magna Charta and the Petition of Right, object to the Par- liament's right of external taxation ? " * "They never have hitherto," answered Franklin, promptly. " Many arguments have been lately used here to show them that there is no difference, and that if you have no right to tax them internally, you have none to tax them externally, or make any other law to bind them. At pres- ent they do not reason so ; but in time they may be convinced by these arguments." * The levying «f duties by Parliament on merchandise upported into the colonies. Franklin's testimony was conclusive. The Stamp Act was repealed on the eighteenth of March, 1766, not because it was acknowl- edged by England as a measure of injustice, but because it could not be enforced without a collision with the colonies, which the min- istry were not as yet prepared for. The people of London greeted the repeal with great joy. Bonfires were lighted, bells were rung, the city was illuminated, and the ship- ping in the Thames was decorated with flags. The news was sent by special mes- sengers to the nearest ports, in order that it might reach America with as little delay as possible. Rejoicings in America. In America the news of the repeal of the Stamp Act was received with the greatest joy. The bells were rung in the principal cities, the imprisoned debtors were released from captivity, the associations for non- intercourse with England were dissolved, and everywhere Pitt was hailed as the cham- pion of the liberties of America. New York, Virginia and Maryland each voted a statue to him. The rejoicings of the Americans were premature. Parliament in repealing the Stamp Act solemnly asserted, by a bill for that purpose, its right and power to " bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." Eng- land was only baffled for the moment ; she had not relinquished her designs upon the liberties of America. The repeal of the Stamp Act brought with it the fall of Grenville's ministry. Another was appointed under the leadership of the Marquis of Rockingham ; but it was short- lived and soon gave way. The king then summoned William Pitt, who had in the meantime been created Earl of Chatham, to form an independent ministry, late in 1766. ^' ■> act was regarded with great hope in CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 34T America, as Pitt was universally considered the colonists' best friend. These hopes were doomed to disappointment. In January, 1767, Charles Townshend, the chancellor of the exchequer in Pitt's cabinet, taking ad- vantage of the absence of the prime minister, declared in the House of Commons that it was his intention, at all risks, to derive a revenue from America by laying taxes upon her, and that he knew how to raise this reve- nue from her. Pitt Withdraws from the Cabinet, Having thus thrown down the gauntlet to his official chief, ii became evident that either the Earl of Chatham must relinquish the premiership, or Townshend must leave the cabinet. Chatham was anxious to dis- miss him from the chancellorship, but as it was known that Townshend was acting in accordance with the sympathies and wishes of the king, no one was willing to risk his prospects by accepting the chancellorship in Townshend's place ; and Chatham, unable to fill his place, was obliged to retain him. In utter disgust Chatham withdrew from active participation in the affairs of the cabinet, an J Townshend remained supreme director of the colonial policy of England. In May, ' Townshend revealed his plan for raising a revenue in America. It was to levy a duty, to be collected in the colonies, on certain articles of commerce, such as wine, oil, paints, glass, paper, and lead colors, and especially upon Ua, which last commodity he declared the Americans obtained cheaper lom the Dutch smugglers than the English themselves. He was told that if he would withdraw the army from America there would be no neces- sity for taxing the colonies. He replied, " I will hear nothing on the subject ; it is abso- lutely necessary to keep an army there." In June, 1767, an act was passed by Parlia- ment levying upon the colonies the duties proposed by Townshend ; and a board of commissioners of the customs for America was established, with its headquarters at Boston. Soon after their appointment the " Romney " frigate entered Boston Harbor, and the new commissioners, confident in her protection, treated the people of Boston with unbearable haughtiness. Her officers fre- quently stopped the New England vessels as they entered the harbor, and impressed seamen from their decks. The colonies were moved with the pro- foundest indignation upon the receipt of the newsof the imposition of the new taxes. The colonial newspapers, which now numbered twenty-five, were filled with appeals to the people to stand up for their liberties. The old associations for non-importation of Eng- lish goods were revived, and on every hand the declaration was unanimous that the Americans would neither eat, drink, nor wear anything imported from England. The gen- eral court of Massa.-husetts issued a circular letter to the other colonial assemblies in- viting them to unite with her in measures for obtaining redress. The Colonies Strike Back. The English ministers were greatly in- censed at the new resistance of the colonists, and in June, 1768, ordered the general court of Massachusetts to rescind its circular let- ter. Their demand was refused, and the general court, led by James Otis and Samuel Adams, expressed its conviction that Parlia- ment would better serve the cause of peace by repealing its obnoxious laws. The circu- lar had been favorably received by the other colonies, and Massachusetts was constantly receiving from them encouragement to persist in her resistance to the tyranny of the minis- try. As a punishment for the refusal of the general court to rescind its circular , that body 342 BRITISH TROOPS IN BOSTON. CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 343 was dissolved by the royal governor of Mas- sachusetts. Some of the other colonial as- semblies that had shown sympathy with Massachusetts were also dissolved by their respective governors. Opposition in Boston. A very bitter feeling existed between the people and the royal officials, and, to make matters worse, at this crisis the revenue offi- cers at Boston seized a schooner belonging to John Hancock, one of the patriot leaders, on the pretext that her owner had made a false entry of her cargo, which consisted of wine. The schooner was towed under the guns of the " Romney " frigate, and a crowd collected in Boston and attacked the houses of the commissioners of customs, who were forced to fly to the fort on Castle Island for safety. The report of this outbreak was trans- mitted to England as proof that Massachu- setts was almost in a state of insurrection, and it was resolved by the ministry to send troops to overawe " the insolent town of Boston," and to hold Massachusetts as a conquered country. A regiment of regulars under General Gage reached Boston in Sep- tember, 1768, but the assembly refused to provide quarters or food, or the other neces- saries which were demanded by their com- mander in accordance with the " Quartering Act." General Gage was obliged to encamp a part of his men on Boston Common, while he lodged the rest temporarily in Faneuil Hall. With considerable difficulty he hired several houses in Boston and quartered his troops in them. The assembly of New York also refused to provide food or quarters for the royal troops, and was dissolved by the governor of the province. The wrath of the English officials was concentrated upon Boston, which was held as though it were a conquered city. Senti- nels were placed at the street corners, and the citizens were challenged by them as they went about their daily duties. The ill-feeling between the citizens and the troops gave rise to several encounters between them. On the evening of the second of March, 1770, a sentinel was attacked by the mob. A de- tachment of troops was sent to his aid, and was stoned by the mob. At length a soldiei fired his musket at the crowd and his com- rades poured in a volley, killing three and wounding five citizens. The city was thrown into an uproar, the alarm bells were rung, and crowds poured into the streetSo The danger of a general collision was very great, but the people were persuaded to disperse upon the promise of Hutchinson, the gov- ernor, that justice should be done. This outbreak was known at the time as " the Boston Massacre." The Soldiers Driven Out. The next morning a meeting of the citi- zens was held at Faneuil Hall. Resolutions were passed, demanding the removal of the troops from the city to the fort on Castle Island, and the arraignment before the civil courts of Captain Preston, the officer who ordered the troops to fire. The soldiers were removed from the town as the only means of preserving the peace, and Captain Preston and six of his men were arraigned for mur- der. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, two leaders of the patriot party, undertook the defence of the accused officer and his men in order to make sure that they should have a fair trial. They were acquitted of murder, but two of the soldiers were convicted of manslaughter. The calmness and delibera- tion with which this trial was conducted had a happy effect in England, and exhibited the fairness and moderation of the colonists in the most favorable light. The British merchants now began to feel the effect of the non-importation associations 344 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. of the Americans, and their trade suffered even more than it had done in the times of the Stamp Act, in consequence of the cessa- tion of orders for goods from the colonies. They now began to sustain the demand of the cobiiists for the repeal of the unjust taxes. Lord North, who was now prime minister, was willing to grant their demand, and to remove all the taxes except the duty on ' tea, which he retained at the express command of the king, who had now recov- ered his reason, and was the real director of the policy of his government. George III. held on with the most stubborn tenacity to the assertion of his right to tax the colonies, and insisted " that there should be always one tax, at least, to keep up the right of tax- ing." This concession was made in May, 1770, and for nearly a year there was a lull in the excitement. The matter was not settled, however, for the Americans had not resisted the amount of the tax, but the impo- sition of any tax at all. They were contend- ing for a principle, not for the saving of a few dollars. Depredations and Quarrels. The bad feeling which was rapidly grow- ing up between the colonists and the m.other country was greatly increased by the injus- tice and annoyance heaped upon the colonists by the royal officials. Almost every colony had to complain of these outrages, and the king's officers seemed to think they could not do their cause better service than by exasperating the Americans. In New York the people had erected a liberty pole in the fields, now the City Hall Park. One night in January, 1770, a party of soldiers from the fort cut down the pole. This act was bitterly resented by the citizens, and fre- quent quarrels occurred between them and the troops, though there was no actual bloodshed. Early in 1772 the armed schooner " Gaspe " was stationed in Narragansett Bay to enforce the revenue laws. Her com- mander, Lieutenant Dudingston, undertook to execute his orders in the most insulting and arbitrary manner. Market boats and other vessels passing the " Gaspe " were compelled to lower their colors to her, and armed parties from the schooner were sen*^ ashore on the neighboring islands, and car- ried off such provisions as they desired. Complaint was made by the citizens of Provi- dence to the governor r.f Rhode Island, who referred the matter to the chief justice, Hop- kins, for his opinion. The chief justice de- clared " that any person who should come into the colony and exercise any authority by force of arms, without showing his com- mission to the governor, and, if a custom- house officer, without being sworn into his office, was guilty of a trespass, if not piracy." It was clear from the opinion of the chief justice that Dudingston was exceeding his authority, and the governor sent a sheriff on board the " Gaspe " to ascertain by what orders the lieutenant acted. Dudingston referred the matter to the admiral at Boston, who replied : " The lieutenant, sir, has done his duty. I shall give the king's officers directions that they send every man taken in molesting them to me. As sure as the peo- ple of Newport attempt to rescue any vessel and any of them are taken, I will hang them as pirates." The Schooner Captured. The insolence of the admiral caused even more indignation than the outrages of Dud- ingston, and the citizens of Rhode Island resolved to take the matter into their own hands at the earliest opportunity. On the ninth of June, 1772, the Providence packet, a swift sailer, was passing up the bay when she was hailed by the " Gaspe." She paid CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 345 no attention to the hail, and beiiiij of light draught, stood in near the shore. The " Gaspe '' gave chase, and, attempting to follow her, ran aground on Namquit, a short distance below Pautuxet. The tide falling soon, ](eft her fast. The news of her disaster was conveyed to Providence by the packet, and a plan was at once matured for her destruction. On the following night a party of men in six or seven boats, led by John Brown, a leading merchant of Providence, Captain Abraham Whipple, of Providence, Simeon Potter, of Bristol, and others, left Providence and dropped down towards the position of the " Gaspe." They were discovered as they approached, and were hailed by Dud- ingston. One of the party in the boats fired and Dudingston fell wounded. The schooner was then boarded without opposition, her crew were set ashore, and the " Gaspe " was set on fire and burned to the water's edge. A large reward was offered for the perpetrat- ors of this bold act. All were known in Providence, but in spite of this, the royal officials were not able to secure the appre- hension of any of them, The secret was faithfully kept. Objections Are Useless. The non-importation associations had, upon the repeal of the duties we have men- tioned, limited their opposition to the use of tea, and the East India Company in England found itself burdened with an enormous stock of tea, which it could not dispose of as usual in consequence of the cessation of sales in America, The company therefore proposed to pay alt the duties on the tea in England and ship it to America at its own risk, hoping that the fact of there being no duty to pay in America would induce the colonists to purchase it. This plan met the determined opposition of the king, who would not consent to re- linquish the assertion of his right to tax the Americans. Lord North could not under- stand that it was not the amount of the tax, but the principle involved in it, that was opposed by the Americans, and he proposed that the East India Company should pay three-fourths o^ the duty in England, leaving the other fourth — about three pence on a pound — to be collected in America. His lordship was told plainly that the Americans would not purchase the tea on these condi- tions, but he answered : " It is to no pur- pose the making objections, for the king will haye it so. The king means to try the qu'^stion with the Americans." Trouble About Tea. There were men in America who fully understood that the king meant " to try the question with the Americans," and were will ing the trial should come. Samuel Adams was satisfied as to what would be the result, and was diligently working to prepare the people for it. He had the satisfaction of seeing public opinion in America daily assume a more enlightened and determined condition. A convention of all the colonies for taking action for a common resistance seemed to him a necessity, and he sent forth circulars to the various provinces urging them to assert their rights upon every pos- sible occasion, and to combine for mutual support and protection. The news of the agreement between the East India Company and the government for the exportation of tea increased the de- termination of the colonists to resist the tax, It was also resolved that the tea should neither be landed nor sold. A meeting was held in Philadelphia and resolutions were passed requesting those to whom the tea was consigned " to resign their appoint- ments." It was also resolved that whosoever should " aid or abet in unloading, receiving, 34^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. or vending the tea " should be regarded " as an enemy to his country." Meetings of a similar nature were held in New York and Charleston, and similar resolutions were adopted. A fast-sailing vessel reached Boston about ihe first of November, 1773, with the news that several ships laden with tea had sailed from England to America. On the third of November a meeting was held at Faneuil Hall, and, on motion of Samuel Adams, it was unanimously resolved to send the tea back upon its arrival. A man in the crowd cried out : " The only way to get rid of it is to throw it overboard." The meeting in- vited the consignees of the tea to resign their appointments. Two of these men were sons of Governor Hutchinson, who was intensely hated by the people of Massachusetts be- cause of his double-faced policy, which had been detected and exposed by Dr. Franklin. Until this discovery Hutchinson had induced the people of Massachusetts to believe that he was their best friend, when in reality he had suggested to the British government nearly all the unjust measures that had been directed against that colony. An Ominous Silence. The first of the tea ships reached Boston on the twenty-fifth of November, 1773. A meeting of the citizens was held at Faneuil Hall, and it was ordered that the vessel should be moored to the wharf, and a gua'-d of twenty-five citizens was placed over her to see that no tea was removed. The owner of the vessel agreed to send the cargo back if the governor would give his permit for the vessel to leave Boston. This tne governor withheld, and in the meantime two other ships arrived with cargoes &f te? and were ordered to anchor beside the first The com- mittee appointed by th:^ meeting of citizens waited on the consignees, but obtained no satisfaction from them. The law required that the tea must be landed within twenty days after its arrival, or be seized for non-payment of duties. The consignees and the governor had determined to wait until the expiration of this time, when the royal authorities would seize the tea and remove it beyond the reach of the citizens. The duties could then be paid and the tee. landed and sold. Their intentions were fully understood by the patriots. When the committee made its report to the meet- ing of citizens, it was received in a dead silence, and the meeting adjourned without taking any action upon it. This ominous silence alarmed the consignees. Hutchin- son's two sons fled to the fort and placed themselves under the protection of the troops, while the governor quietly left the city. Tea Thrown Overboard. On the sixteenth of December another meeting was held. The next day the time ■allowed by law would expire, and the tea would be placed under the protection of the fort and the armed ships in the harbor. The owner hrd gone to see the governor, at Milton, to obtain a pass for his vessels, with- out which they could not leave the harbor. This the governor refused, on the ground that he had not a proper clearance. He re- turned to Boston late in the evening and re- ported the result of his mission to the meet- ing. Then Samuel Adams arose and gave the signal for the action that had been de- termined upon by saying : " This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." Instantly a shout rang through the room, and a band of forty or fifty men " dressed like Mohawk Indians," with their faces blackened to prevent recognition, hastened from the meeting to the wharf where the ships were moored. A guard was posted to prevent the intrusion of spies, and the ships CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 347 were at once seized. Three hundred and forty-two chests of tea were broken open and their contents poured into the water. The affair was witnessed in silence by a large crowd on the shore. When the destruction of the tea was completed, the " Indians " and the crowd dispersed to their homes. Paul Kevere was despatched by the patriot lead- ers to carry the news to New York and Philadelphia. compel the Americans to submit to che au- thority of Great Britain. Boston, in particu- lar, was to be made a terrible example to the rest of the colonies. A bill was introduced into Parliament, and passed by a majority of four to one, closing the port of Boston to all commerce, and transferring the seat of gov^ ernment to Salem. The British ministry boasted that with ten thousand regulars they could " march through the continent," and THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD IN BOSTON HARBOR. At New York and Philadelphia the people ivouid not allow the tea to be landed, and at Charleston it was stored in damp cellars, where the whole cargo was soon ruined. At Annapolis a ship and its cargo were burned ; the owner of the vessel himself setting fire to the ship. , ^ The British government was greatly in- censed at the refusal of the colonists to allow the tea to be landed, and determined to they were resolved to bring America to her knees and make her confess her fault in dust and humiliation. In addition to the Boston Port Bill, Parlia- ment passed other measures of equal severity. By one of these the royal officers were ordered to quarter the troops sent out from England on all the colonies at the people's expense ; another provided that if any officer, in the execution of the Quartering Act, should 348 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. commit an act of violence, he should be sent to England for trial. The deliberate pur- pose of this last act was to encourage the military and other officials to acts of violence and oppression by shielding them from pun- ishment in America. The liberties of the American people were thus placed at the mercy of every petty official bearing a royal commission. Another law, known as the " Quebec Act," granted unusual concessions to the. Roman Catholics of Canada, in order to attach them to the royal cause in the event of a collision between England and her . Io- nics. Help for the Patriots. Boston was largely dependent upon her commerce, and the closing of her harbor entirely destroyed her trade and brought great loss and suffering to her people. The outrage to which she was thus subjected was resented by the whole country, and evidences of sympathy poured in upon her from every quarter. Salem refused to allow the estab- lishment of the seat of government within her limits, and offered the use of her port to the merchants of Boston free of charge. Marblehead made a similar offer. Large numbers of the people of Boston were thrown out of employment by the closing of Boston harbor, and their families, left help- less, suffered considerably. The various colonies came forward promptly to their relief. The neighboring towns sent in provisions and other neces- saries of life, and money was subscribed in other parts of the country. South Carolina sent to Boston two hundred barrels of rice, and promised eight hundred more when they were wanted. North Carolina sent a contri- bution of two thou. ^ liJ C I- O P Q E Q s Q 9 z UJ Z ^j CO UJ 03 -J UJ < Q- I Q. CO jt UJ < ^ ^ Q UJ Q UJ 5 < < > Q O < UJ (3 X a ? ^ < > ^ CO <- 5 I' CO UJ > UJ CO 52 CO f "^ x:] ^ Q ie |_ UJ $ I- 5 ca UJ u. Ui CO PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 357 Pitcairn's division reached Lexington at daybreak on the nineteenth of April. They found seventy or eighty minute men, and several other persons, assembled on the common. They were ignorant of the inten- tions of the British, and supposed they merely wished to arrest Adams and Hancock, who "lad left the village upon the first alarm. •' Disperse, ye Rebels !" As he saw the group Pitcairn ordered his men to halt and load their muskets, and called out to the Americans : " Disperse, ye villains, ye rebels, disperse ; lay down your arms ; why don't you lay down your arms and dis- perse ?" The Americans stood motionless and silent, " witnesses against agression ; too few to resist ; too brave to fly." Pitcairn, seeing that his order was not obeyed, dis- charged his pistol and ordered his men to fire. A few straggling shots followed this order, and then the regulars poured a close heavy volley into the Americans, killing seven and wounding nine of them. Parker, the commander of the minute men, seeing that the aiiair was to be a massacre instead of a battle, ordered his men to disperse. The British then gave three cheers for their vic- tory. In a little while Colonel Smith arrived with the remainder of his command, and the whole party then pushed on towards Con- cord. The alarm had already reached Concord, and in a little while news was received of the massacre at Lexington. The minute men promptly assembled on the common, near the church, and awaited the approach of the enemy. The minute men from Lin- coln came in at an early hour, and a few from Acton. About seven o'clock the British were seen advancing in two divisions, and as it was evident that they were about four times as numerous as the Americans, the latter retreated to the summit of a hill on the opposite side of the Concord River, and there awaited the arrival of reinforcements, which were coming in from the surrounding country. The British occupied the town, and post- ing a force of one hundred men to hold the North Bridge, began their search for arms and stores. The greater part of these had been secreted, but the soldiers found a few that could not be removed, and gave the rest of their time to plundering the houses of the town. " This slight waste of stores," says Bancroft, " was all the advantage for which Gage precipitated a civil war." Arrival of the Minute Men. Between nine and ten o'clock the Ameri- can force had increased by the arrival of the minute men from Acton, Bedford, Westford, Carlisle, Littleton and Chelmsford, to about four hundred and fifty. Below them, in full view, were the regulars plundering their homes, and from the town rose the smoke of the fires the soldiers had kindled for the destruction of the few stores they had man- aged to secure. Not knowing whether they meant to burn the town or not, the officers of the minute men resolved to advance and cntt^r Concord. Barret, the commanding officer, cautioned the men not to fire unless attacked. As their approach was discovered the British began to take up the planks of the North Bridge, and to prevent this the Americans quickened their pace. The regu- lars then fired a volley, which killed two of the minute men. The fire was returned, and two of the soldiers were killed and several wounded. These volleys were followed by some desultory skirmishing, and about noon Colonel Smith drew off his men and began to retreat by the way he had come. One of those killed at the bridge w^s Isaac Davis, the captain of the minute y.cn of Acton. He had bidden his young w/^e a 358 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. touching good-bye, as he ran to lead his men to the fight. A Httle later his dead body was brought to her door. With the retreat of the British from Con- cord the real work of the day began. The country was thoroughly aroused, and men :ame pouring in from every direction, eager to get a shot at the regulars. The road by which the royal forces were retreating v/as narrow and crooked, and led through forests the strife as the regulars entered its limits. Far and wide the alarm was spreading through the country, and the people were getting under arms. By noon a messenger rode furiously into the distant town of Wor- cester and shouted the alarm. Instantly the minute men of the town got under arms, and after joining their minister in prayer, on the common, took up the march for Cambridge. The whole province was rising, and the DEATH OF ISAAC DAVIS. and thickets, and was bordered by the stone walls which enclosed the farms. At every step the militia and minute men hung upon the enemy, and kept up an irregular but fatal fire upon them from behind trees, fences and houses. Flanking parties were thrown out to clear the way, but without success. The number of the Americans increased at every step- Each town took up enemies of the fugitive regulars were increasing every moment. Smith hurried his command through Lex- ington at a rapid rate, and a short distance beyond the town met Lord Percy advancing to his assistance with twelve hundred infantry and two pieces of artillery. Percy formed his men into a square, enclosing the fugitives, who dropped helplessly on the PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 359 ground, " their tongues hanging out of their mouths Hke those of dogs after a chase,'' and with his cannon kept the Americans at bay. He could not think of holding his position, however, and after a halt of half an hour resumed the retreat, first setting fire to some houses in Lexington. The fighting now became more energetic than ever. From either side, from in front and the rear, the Americans kept up a constant fire upon the British, who revenged them- selves by murdering some helpless people along the road and burning houses. Below West Cambridge the British broke into a run, and at length, about sunset, succeeded in escaping across Charlestown Neck, where they were safe under the fire of their ship- ping. Had the militia from Marblehead and Salem, who were on the march, been more alert, the entire British force would have been captured, as they were in no condition to resist a determined attack in front. The loss of the Americans during the day was forty-nine killed, thirty-four wounded and five missing. The British lost in killed, wounded and missing two hundred and seventy-three men, or more than fell in Wolfe's army in the battle of the Heights of Abraham. Many of the officers, including Colonel Smith, were wounded. The News Spreads Like Wildfire. The news of the conflicts at Lexington and Concord spread rapidly through New Eng- land, and was sent by express messengers to New York and the colonies farther south. In New England it produced a general upris- ing of the people, and in ten days Boston was blockaded by an irregular army of twenty thousand provincial troops, whose encamp- ments extended from Roxbury to the Mystic River, above Charlestown, a distance of ten miles. John Stark, who had served with gallantry in the old French war, was on his way to Boston in ten minutes after he was informed of the fighting, Israel Putnam, a veteran soldier, and as true a hero as ever lived, was ploughing in his field when the courier rode by with the tidings of the battle. He left his plough, sprang on his horse, and after rousing his neighbors rode from his home, in Connecti cut, to Cambridge, without even stopping to change his clothes. The Massachusetts Con- gress took energetic measures for the sup port of the army before Boston, and in a few days this force began to assume a more regu- ' lar character. Arms and Ammunition Seized. Matters had also reached a crisis in Vir- ginia. On the night of the twentieth of April Lord Dunmore seized the powder in the magazine at Williamsburg, and sent it, under guard of a party of marines, on board an armed schooner in the James river. The inhabitants, on the morning of the twenty- first, took arms to compel the restoration of the powder, but were persuaded to refrain from violence. In a few days the news from Lexington and Concord was received, and it was the general belief that Dunmore's course was only a part of a general plan to disarm the colonies. On the second of May Patrick Henry summoned the independent companies ot Hanover to meet him at a certain place, and led them towards Williamsburg, determined to compel the governor to restore the powder or pay its full value in money. On the march they were met by a messenger from Dunmore, who paid them the full value of the powder in money. This money was soon after for- warded to Congress. The companies then disbanded and returned home. Dunmore, thoroughly frightened, fled with his family on board a man-of-war, and declared " Pat- rick Henry and his associates to be in rebel- 360 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. lion." Afraid to meet the Virginians in an open fight, he threatened to arm their slaves against them, and inaugurated a general massacre. The middle and southern colonies were prompt to follow the example of New Eng- land. The people of New York seized the provisions intended for the king's troops at Boston, shut up the custom-house, and for- bade any vessels to leave the harbor for ports or colonies acknowledging the authority of Great Britain. The arms and ammunition belonging to the city were seized by the CAPTURE OF TICONDEROGA BY ETHAN ALLEN. volunteers, and measures were set on foot for a general resistance to the authority of the king. New Jersey was equally determined, and in Pennsylvania enthusiastic meetings of citizens resolved "to associate for the pur- pose of defending, with arms, their lives, their property, and liberty." Military companies were formed and trained in the exercise of arms. The people of Mary- land compelled their royalist governor to surrender to them all the arms and ammuni- tion of the province. The militia officers of South Carolina at once resigned their com- missions from the governor, and regiments of militia for the defence of the colony were raised and drilled. At Charleston the royal arsenal was seized, and its contents distributed among the people. Georgia also placed her- self in the ranks of her patriot sisters, and seizing the ammunition and arms within her limits prepared for resistance. North Carolina took a more decisive stand than any of the colonies. The spirit of resist- ance ran high within her borders. A con • vention of the people of Mecklenburg county was held at Charlotte on the twenty-ninth of May, and adopted a series of resolu- tions declaring themselves inde- pendent of the control of Great Britain, and re nouncing all allu giancetoher. This was the f a m o u s "Mecklenburg De- claration of Inder pendence." The whole country, J^\ from New Hamp- shire to Georgia, was united in its determination to resist the injustice of Great Britain Avith arms. Massachusetts had struck the first blow, but every colony was now prepared and determined to bear its part in the great strugrcrle for freedom. The Massachusetts Committee of Safety were anxious to secure the important posts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain. The possession of these posts would not only enable the Americans to command the entrance to Canada, but would give them the large quantities of military supplies stored in these forts. The project PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 301 w/as enteted into with great energy by Bene- dict Arnold then commanding a company before Boston, and by Ethan Allen, of Ver- mont. Allen was the leader of the Green Mountain Boys, a military organization in Vermont, which had been formed to resist the authority of New York, which claimed Vermont as a part of its territory. The people of Vermont, however, preferred the authority of New Hampshire to that of New York. The dispute had become quite animated when the outbreak of the Revolution drew the attention of all parties to more stirring events. Arnold, upon hearing that Allen was preparing to seize the forts, set out at once for Vermont, and over- took the Green Mountain Boys near the head of Lake Champlain. Pro- ducing a colonel's commission he ordered Allen to surrender the com- mand to him, but the latter refused, and was sustained by his men, and Arnold at length agreed to serve as a volunteer. Securing a few boats Allen cros- sed the lake with his little force, about two hundred and seventy in number-, and at daybreak, on the morning of May 10, surprised Fort Ticonderoga, and made prisoners of the garrison before they v/ere fairly awake. Not a blow was struck. The astounded commander of the fort asked Allen by whose authority he acted. " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," was the instant reply, delivered in stentorian tones. The commandant instantly submitted. On the twelfth of May Seth Warner, Allen's lieutenant, surprised Crown Point, and secured the fort. Arnold secured a number of boats and, descending the lake, captured St. John's, in the 'Sorel.'* Sixty priiouers were taken in this expedition, and besides two of the most important military posts in America the patriots secured two hundred cannon, and a large supply of ammuni- tion. On the tenth of May, the day of the ca^' ture of Ticonderoga, the second Contineiita' ^-^Vw^^X;- #a^- C^'. 7>^ ''^-x^. '<^yb SIGNERS OF THE MECKLENBURG DECLARATION. Congress met at Philadelphia. This tiiiir they assembled in the State House, a placf more suited to the dignity of such a body and calculated to give more publicity to thes proceedings. No change was at first made in the officers of the preceding session, but in a few days Peyton Randolph resigned his position to return home to attend the Vir- ginia legislatu r which had beeri summoned .362 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. by the governor. Thomas Jefferson was appointed to fill his position as a delegate. John Hancock of Massachusetts, who had been specially exempted by the king from all offers of amnesty, was chosen president of the Congress. Three new members of note now entered the Congress. They were Ben- jamin Franklin, a delegate from Pennsyl- vania, and George Clinton and Robert R. Livingston, delegates from New York. Franklin had just returned from England, where he had resided for several years as the agent for some of the colonies. He had been in constant official contact with the lead- ing men of Great Britain and was thoroughly informed as to the policy of the British gov- ernment respecting America. He was, there- fore, a most valuable acquisition to the Con- gress. Justice Demanded of Great Britain. The circumstances under which this Con- gress assembled were very different from those which had attended the meeting of its predecessor. Then there was hope that the remonstrances of the colonies would open the eyes of the British government to the folly of its course ; but those remonstances had been received with fresh outrages, their petitions had " been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne," and the British army had begun the war at Lexington and Concord. Massachusetts, driven beyond the point of forbearance, had taken up arms, and had besieged the royal troops in Boston. A state of war actually existed and Congress must either sustain Massachusetts, and so involve every colony in the struggle, or ^eave her to meet the power of Great Britain unaided. The whole country was in favor of stand- ing by Massachusetts, and the delegates in Congress reflected its feeling. It was, there- fore, resolved by Congress to place all the colonies in a state of defence, and to prepare for a vigorous prosecution of the war should it be found impossible to avert it. At the same time, as a last means of preserving peace, a new petition was addressed to the king stating the grievances of the colonies, and asking for justice at his majesty's hands. Addresses were also issued to the people oi Great Britain, Ireland and Jamaica. To the people of Great Britain they declared, after relating their wrongs, and their failure to obtain redress : " We are reduced to the alternative of choosing an unconditional sub- mission to the tryanny of irritated ministers, or resistance by force. The latter is our choice. We have counted the cost of this contest, and we find nothing so dreadful as voluntary slavery." In the petition to the king Congress denied that it was the inten- tion of the colonies to cast off their allegi- ance ; but asserted their intention to main- tain their rights. When this petition was presented to the king in September, he refused to take any notice of it. The Federal Union. In view of the altered position of affairs Massachusetts consulted the Congress as to the propriety of establishing a regular sys- tem of government, and was advised to make such regulations for that purpose as were necessary, and to continue them as a temporary expedient until it should be known whether the king would allow the colony to resume the government guaran- teed to it by its charter. In order to avoid the trouble which would ensue from an inter- ruption of the regular postal communication between the colonies, Congress assumed the power of organizing a general system of mails for the whole country, and appointed Dr. Franklin postmaster-general. From these acts Congress advanced to others still more important. A " Federal PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 3<53 Union " of the colonies was organized, in which each colony retained the exclusive control of its internal affairs, but delegated to Congress authority to direct all matters pertaining to the general welfare of the col- onies, such as the power to declare war^ make peace, and negotiate treaties of alliance and friendship with foreign countries. In the exercise of these powers Congress assumed the general government of America. A day of fasting and prayer to God, for his assist- ance in the struggle for freedom, was enjoined upon all the colonies. All persons were for- bidden to furnish provisions under any cir- cumstances. Who shall Command the Army ? Measures were adopted for the organiza- tion and enlistment of an army, and for the purpose of erecting fortifications at suitable points, and procuring arms and ammunition. In order to raise the funds needed for carry- ing out these objects " Bills of Credit," to the amount of two millions of dollars, were issued, and for their redemption Congress pledged the faith of the " United Colonies." The provincial congress of Massachusetts requested the Congress at Philadelphia to adopt the New England forces before Boston as the "Continental Army," and this request was at once complied with. As General Ward, the commander of these troops, held his commission from Massachusetts, it was necessary for Congress to appoint a com- mander-in-chief commissioned by itself. With respect to this appointment the mem- bers were divided. Some thought that as the troops were all New England men, the commander should be chosen from the same section. Others favored the appointment of a commander who would inspire the confi- dence of, and be acceptable to, the entire country. The name of General Ward was suggested by the first party; but a majority of the delegates favored the appointment of Colonel Washington, who was a member of Congress, and chairman of the committee on military affairs, in which capacity he had proposed the plan for the organization of the army, and had suggested the most important measures for defence. He had profoundly impressed the delegates with his great anc commanding character, his military ability, and his wisdom as a statesman. Washington Appointed. Patrick Henry, on his return home from the first Congress, had been asked who was the greatest man in that body. His reply expressed the views of his colleagues respect- ing Washington. " If you speak of elo- quence," he said, " Mr. Rutledge, of South Carolina, is, by far, the greatest orator ; but if you speak of solid information and sound judgment Colonel Washington is unques- tionably the greatest man on that floor." Dr. Warren wrote from Massachusetts to Samuel Adams, in Congress, about this time, that the appointment of Colonel Washing- ton as commander-in-chief would give great satisfaction to many leading men in Massa- chusetts. John Adams was anxious for the appointment, and having satisfied himself o^ the wishes of the greater part of the delegates, ventured openly to allude to Washington as the proper person for the position, and spoke of him as a gentleman whose " skill and experience as an officer, whose independent fortune, great talents, and excellent universal character, would command the approbation of all America, and unite the cordial exer- tions of the colonies better than any othei person in the Union." On the 14th of June M. Johnson, c/l Maryland, formally nominated Washington to the office of commander-in-chief, and hf was unanimously chosen by ballot. The next day his election was communicated t9 364 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. him by the President of Congress. Washing- ton rose in his place, thanked the House for the unexpected honor conferred upon him, assured them of his devotion to the cause, and announced his acceptance of the great trust confided to him. He declared his intention to refuse the pay affixed to the office, which had been placed at five hundred dollars a month, and added : " I will keep an exact account of my expenses. These, I doubt not, they will discharge, and that is all GENERAL ISRAEL PUTNAM. I desire." Congress, on its part, pledged its hearty support to the new commander, and resolved " to maintain and assist, and adhere to him with their lives and fortunes in the defence of Americaa liberty." Washington lost no time in proceeding to assume the command conferred upon him. After a few days spent in preparation in Philadelphia he left that city on the twenty- first of June for the headquarters of the army, accompanied by Generals Lee and Schuyler. A few days after the election of the com- mander-in-chief Congress appointed four major-generals, one adjutant-general, with the rank of brigadier, and eight brigadier- generals for the subordinate commands in the American army. Major-Generals. The major-generals were Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler and Israel Put- nam. The adjutant-general was Horatio Gates. The brigadiers were Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery,David Woos- ter, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan and Nathaniel Greene. In the meantime the blockade ot Boston had been continued by the provincial army under General Ward. These forces numbered about fifteen thousand men, and had come from their respective towns in independent companies, and were without any regular or- ganization. They had no uniform, but the majority wore their ordinary home-spun working clothes ; they were deficient in arms ; a few had muskets, but the majority had rifles and fowling-pieces. The artillery consisted of nine pieces of cannon, and was commanded by Colonel Gridley, who had directed the artil- lery at the siege of Louisburg. The Massa- chusetts troops were commanded by Gen- eral Ward; those from New Hampshire by Colonel Stark ; the Connecticut troops by Putnam ; and the regiment from Rhode Island by Nathaniel Greene, a young black- smith. Save for the solemnity of the cause, and the earnestness and determination which animated the whole force, there was little to save this quaint assemblage from the ridicule which the royal officers heaped upon it. It JlkM-^^i^^^iL II . . I I. I . I iNIl lii^UillLl.ll'il-, lU'lllll.W.,.lli.A, •^r>KaAW .A\,wV,.,A,...,.l.. aV,\^Vn.\, i\WNy\ V\ ^ , „»'.S''Ns''MS DECATUR'S CONFLICT WITH THE ALGER IN B AT TRIPOLI PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 365 did to ordinary view seem the height of folly to oppose such an ill-provided and unorganized mass to the splendidly equipped veterans who served King George. Yet this force *' with calico frocks and fowling-pieces" hemmed in within the nar- row limits of Boston the splendid army of ten thousand men, commanded by such generals as Howe, Burgoyne and Sir Henry Clinton, which Gage had concen- trated in Boston. Bur- goyne could not repress his astonish- ment upon reaching Boston. "What!" he exclaimed, "ten thou- sand peasants keep five thousand king's troops shut up ! Well, let us get in and we'll soonfind elbow room." Inspite of his immense superiority, however, Gage did not venture to attack the Ameri- can lines. He con- tented himself with issuing a proclama- tion declaring the province under mar- tial law, and offering a free pardon to all rebels who should "return to their allegi- ance, with the exception of Samuel Adams and John Hancock. These rebels were cut off from all hope of the king's mercy, and were given to understand that they could expect nothing but the most sum- mary punishment. General Gage now determined to extend his lines and to occupy Dorchester Heights, overlooking South Boston, and Bunker Hill, an eminence rising beyond Charlestown, on the north of Boston. The execution of this design was fixed for the eighteenth of June GENERAL BURGOYNE. and in the meantime Gage's intention became known in the American camp. To prevent it, it was resolved, at the instance of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety, to seize and fortify these eminences, beginning with Bunker Hill. The more prudent opposed 7,66 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. this undertaking as too rash ; it was certain to bring on a general engagement of the opposing forces, and the Americans were too poorly provided with arms and ammunition to hope for success. Others insisted that no time should be lost in securing the Heights. A Daring Enterprise. Putnam was confident they could be held with proper intrenchments, and that thus pro- tected the troops could be relied upon to hold their position. The great scarcity of ammunition rendered the undertaking one of peculiar daring and it was necessary to select for the command an officer whose firm- ness and discretion could be depended upon. The choice fell upon Colonel William Pres- cott, of Massachusetts, and a brigade was placed under his orders. Soon after the sunset on the sixteenth of June a force of about eleven hundred men, armed principally with fowling-pieces, and carrying their scanty stock of powder and ball in their old-fashioned powder horns and pouches, assembled on Cambridge Com- mon. Langdon, the President of Harvard College, one of the chaplains of the army, offered up an impressive prayer, and then the order was given to march, and the col- umn moved oflf in the darkness. No one knew the object of the expedition, but the presence of several wagons loaded with intrenching tools, made it evident that the movement was one of importance. Charles- town Neck was strongly guarded, but the detachment passed it in safety and reached the summit of Bunker Hill without being observed. The Committee of Safety had suggested that Bunker Hill should be secured, but Prescott's orders from General Ward were to fortify Breed's Hill, a lower eminence but nearer to Boston, and commanding the har- bor more perfectly. It was a more exposed position than the other, but Prescott decided to obey his orders. Colonel Gridley, who was an experienced engineer, marked out a redoubt about eight rods square, and in the clear June starlight the men set to work with a will to construct the fortification before the morning should reveal them to the British. It was midnight when the men began their labors. A strong guard was thrown out along the shore of the harbor to prevent a surprise, and the men could distinctly hear the call of the senti- nels on the men-of-war in the harbor. During the night Putnam came over to the hill to encourage the Connecticut troops. Heavy Guns Open Firco The early morning light revealed to the astonished royalists the half-finished redoubt on Breed's Hill and the Americans still bus- ily at work upon it. The sloop-of-war " Lively," lying off the present navy yard, without waiting for orders, opened a steady fire upon the redoubt, and her example was soon followed by the other war vessels and the floating batteries in the harbon A battery of heavy guns was posted on Copp's Hill in Boston, and opened on the redoubt. This fire was well calculated to demoralize a raw force such as that within the redoubt, but it produced no effect upon the Ameri- cans, who went on with their task quietly and with energy. Gridley soon withdrew from the hill, and Prescott, thus deserted, and without an engineer, prepared to extend his line to the best of his ability. He pro- longed it from the east side of the redoubt northward for about twenty rods towards the bottom of the hill ; but the men were pre- vented from completing it by the heavy fire of the British artillery. One man ventured beyond the redoubt early in the day, and was killed by a shell. Prescott ordered him to be instantly buried, lest the sight of his PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 367 body might dishearten the men. To inspire the troops with confidence, Prescott sprang upon the parapet and walked slowly up and down the work examining it and issuing his orders. Boston Aroused by the Cannonading. In the meantime the firing had aroused the people of Boston, who crowded the house-tops, and every available point from which a view of the action could be obtained. General Gage reconnoitred the American position from Boston, through his glass, and observed Prescott, who was standing on the redoubt inspecting the work. " Who is that officer in command?" he asked of Councillor Willard,who was by his side. "Will he fight?" Willard had recognized Prescott, who was his brother-in-law, and replied : ^' He is an old soldier, and will fight to the last drop of his blood." Gage thereupon determined to dis- lodge the Americans from their position without loss of time, and summoned a coun- cil of his officers at his headquarters, in which it was decided to cross Charles River, effect a landing at Moulton's Point, and attack the works in front. Generals Clinton and Grant advocated an attack from the direction of Charlestown Neck, which would have resulted in the capture of the whole American force ; but Gage refused to place his attacking column between the American army at Cambridge and the detachment on the hill. The bustle in Boston as the British pre- pared for the attack could be distinctly seen by the Americans, and urgent messages were sent to General Ward for reinforcements and provisions. Putnam hurried to Ward's head- quarters to urge this demand; but Ward, who was greatly oppressed by the scarcity of powder in the camp, hesitated to weaken the main body, and it was not until eleven o'clock on the morning of the seventeenth of June that he gave orders for the regi- ments of Stark and Reed to advance to Pre- scott's assistance. The arrival of these troops greatly cheered the little band under Prescott, who had been working all night, and were greatly in need of food. In the meantime Prescott had posted the Connecticut troops behind a rustic breast- work which he had constructed on the north of the redoubt. A stone fence ran down the side of the hill towards a swamp in this direction. Behind this the Ameri- cans placed a post and rail fence which they had torn up, and filled the interval between them with new-mown hay, thus forming a rude shelter. A part of the reinforcements joined Knowlton at this breastwork, and the remainder halted on Bunker Hill to enable Putnam to hold that point, the posses- sion of which he considered essential to the safety of the force on Breed's Hill. About two o'clock General Warren arrived. He held the commission of a major-general, and both Prescott and Putnam offered to relin- quish the command to him, but he refused it, saying he had come to serve as a volun- teer, and took his place in the ranks at the redoubt. Reinforcements for the British. At noon twenty- eight barges filled with regulars, under the command of Generals Howe and Pigott, left Boston, and crossing the harbor, landed at Moulton's Point, under the cover of a heavy fire from the shipping. General Howe now discovered that the American position was stronger than he had supposed, and sent over to General Gage for reinforcements. While aw.iting their arrival he refreshed his men with provisions and grog. His reinforcements having arrived, General Howe found himself at the head of over two thousand veteran troops splendidly equipped in every respect. Opposea to him s^a THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. were about fifteen, hundred imperfectly armed Americans. Gage had threatened that if Charlestown Heights were occupied by the provincials he would burn the town of Charlestown. He now proceeded to execute his barbarous threat, and fired the town by mear^' of shells from the battery on Copp's Hill hoping that the flames and smoke to storm the redoubt, while the othei waa led by General Howe in person against the rail fence, for the purpose of turning the American left flank and cutting off the retreat of the force in the redoubt. Prescott passed along his line as he saw the advance of the enemy, and encouraged his men with his cheering words. " The red coats," he BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. would screen the approach of his attacking party under General Howe. A change of wind prevented this, however, and carried the smoke in the opposite direction. About half-past two o'clock on the after- noon of the seventeenth of June General Howe gave the order to advance. One division, under General Pigott, was ordered said, " will never reach the redoubt if you will but withhold your fire till I give the order, and be careful not to shoot over theii heads." Putnam had come down to the rail fence to encourage the men posted there, and as he saw the advance of the enemy, called out to the troops : " Wait till you see the white of their eyes ; aioa PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 309 at their waistband ; pick off the handsome coats." The British advanced in splendid style up the side of the hill, firing rapidly as they moved on. The Americans awaited their advance in a deep silence. As Pigott's division came within forty yards of the redoubt, the defenders levelled their guns and took a steady aim. A minute or two later Prescott gave the command, " Fire !" A sheet of flame broke from the rampart and tore great gaps in the English line, which reeled and staggered back down the hill. The officers exerted themselves gallantly to rally the men, and once more the line advanced. This time the Americans suffered them to come nearer, and again drove them back with a fatal fire before which whole ranks went down. They broke in such confusion that Pigott himself ordered a retreat. The division under General Howe was equally unfortu- nate. It was suffered to advance within thirty yards of the rail fence, and was then driven back by a fire which broke it in con- fusion. The British retired to the shore from which they -had started. The Whole Line Driven Back. Greatly astonished, but not disheartened by his repulse. General Howe reformed his line, and after an interval of fifteen minutes moved off again against the works, his plan being the same as that of the first assault. This time the Americans reserved their fire as before, and once more sent the whole British line reeling and broken down the hill. Officers on the English side who had been in many engagements subsequently declared that they had never seen such firing in any battle in which they had been engaged. A deafen- ing cheer from the patriot line greeted the repulse of the enemy. "If we can drive them hack once more," cried Prescott, " they can- not rally again." A shout from the redoubt 24 answered him. " We are ready for the red coats again ! " General Clinton had witnessed the repulse of the regulars from his position on Copp's Hill, and was filled with astonishment and indignation at the sight. Without waiting for orders he crossed over to Charlestown with reinforcements, and offered his services to General Howe as a volunteer. Many of the English officers were opposed to another attack ; but as it was learned that the ammu- nition of the Americans was very low, Howe resolved to storm the works with the bayonet, and this time to break through the open space between the redoubt and the rail fence breastwork. His men were ordered to lay aside their knapsacks, and many of them threw off their coats also. A raking fire of artillery drove the Americans from the breastwork extending from the redoubt into that work for shelter, and the order was given to the regulars to advance with fixed bayonets. Hand-to-hand Struggle. The Americans were nearly out of ammu- nition, and in the whole command there were not fifty men with bayonets to their guns. They met the advance of the enemy with a sharp fire, but their powder having given out, were not able to check them. Pressing on the British assailed the redoubt on three sides with the bayonet. A desperate hand- to-hand struggle followed ; the Americans fighting with clubbed guns and with stones. It was impossible to hold the work, how- ever, and Prescott gave the order to retreat The men fell back in good order. The aged General Pomeroy, who was serving as a volunteer in the ranks, clubbed his gun and retreated with his face to the regulars, keep- ing them at bay by his determined action. The detachment at the rail fence, under Knowlton, Stark and Reed, held their posi- tion until their comrades had withdrawn DKATH OP MAJOR PITCAIRN PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 37t from the redoubt, and then retreated in good order down the hill, thus preventing the enemy from cutting off the retreat of Pres- cott's party. One of the last to leave the redoubt was General Warren, who had borne himself with great gallantry in the engagement. He had scarcely left the trenches when he fell shot through the head, thus consecratmg the spot with his blood, and leaving to his country a noble memory which she has ever held in grateful honor. Putman had gone to trte rear before the final attack of the enemy to collect men for a reinforcement. On his return he met the retreating provincials passing over Bunker Hill. Without orders from any one, he rallied such as would obey him, and for the first time during the day assumed the com- mand. With these forces, and a detachment which arrived too late to take part in the battle, he withdrew to Prospect Hill, where he began to fortify his position. The British made no effort to pursue him, but contented themselves with occupying Breed's and Bun- ker Hills. Heavy Losses on Both Sides. In this battle the Americans lost four hundred and fifty men, killed, wounded and prisoners. The British, out of a force of less than three thousand, lost one thousand and fifty-four, including eighty-three officers, thirteen of whom were killed. Among the 'killed was Major Pitcairn, who had ordered his men to fire on the patriots at Lexington. The victory was dearly bought by the British. In its moral effects the battle was worth as much to the Americans as a success. It taught them that undisciplined provincials could hold their ground against the king's regulars, and inspired them with a confidence in their own ability to maintain the struggle. They had held their ground against twice their number, and were driven from it only when their ammunition failed. General Gage was deeply impressed with this lesson, and made no attempt to assume the offensive When the news of the battle reached Eng- land the ministers were greatly dissatisfied with their victory. Gage was recalled, and General Howe was appointed his successor. Preparations for the Conflict. Washington, who had started on his jour- ney to New England before the arrival of the news of the battle, was met on the way by the courier who bore the tidings to Congress. He hastened his journey, and reached Cam- bridge on the second of July. The next day he formally assumed the command of the army. He was received with enthusiasm which was most gratifying to him, and at once set to work to place the army in a proper condition for the service required ol it. He was fully aware of the magnitude of the task he had undertaken, and his letters written at the time indicate a deep reliance upon God for assistance in discharging it. The army numbered about fourteen thous- and men, and was without organization, with- out uniforms, poorly armed, and imperfectly clothed. It must be disciplined, supplied with arms and clothing, and with ammuni- tion. At the same time the enemy in Bos- ton must be watched and kept in check. To make the army effective its force must be raised to twenty or twenty-five thousand men, and the petty jealousies which divided it must be removed. It was resolved to maintain the present position of the army before Boston, and to capture or drive out the British force in that city. Washington established his head- quarters at Cambridge, which was his centre, and was under the immediate command of General Putnam. The right wing, under General Ward held Roxbury, and the left. 372 under General Charles Lee, was at Prospect Hill. About this time the army was joined by a force of riflemen from Virginia, Mary- land, and Pennsylvania, under Daniel Mor- gan, who was destined to achieve distinction during the war. He was rough and unedu- cated, but was one of the truest sons of America. He was never found wanting in any position in which he was placed, and was a man upon whose devotion and integ- BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. rity absolute reliance could be placed by his commanders. The winter was passed in the organization of the army. The want of ammunition pre- vented Washington from assuming the offen- sive, though he greatly desired to do so. It was necessary to observe the greatest care to prevent this state of affairs from becoming known to the British, and at the same time every effort was made to supply the defi- ciency. These efforts were partially success- ful. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. It was proposed to attack Canada soOh after the capture of the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point. This proposal met with little favor in Congress until it was known that the British were assembling a force of regulars and enlisting the Indians in Canada for the invasion of New York. Then, as a measure of self-defence, the proposed invasion of that country was sanctioned, and prepara- tions for it were actively begun. Two expe- ditions were deter- mined upon ; one by way of Lake Champlain, the other across the wilderness, by way of the Kennebec and Chaudiere Riv- ers. The first was intrusted to Gener- al Philip Schuyler, who had been ap- pointed by Wash- ington to the com- mand in New York, and the latter to Col- onel Arnold, who was in the camp at Cambridge, eager for some opportu- nity to distinguish himself. A force of New York and New England troops was assembled on Lake Champlain under Schuyler, who was ably seconded by Brigadier General Richard Montgomery, who had served under Wolfe in the old French war. Schuyler moved down the lake to the Isle aux Noix, in the Sorel River, and occu- pied that island. In September he made an attempt to capture St. John's, but finding it much stronger than he had supposed, re- sumed his former position. Falling seriously ill soon after, he was obliged to withdraw to PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 375 Albany, and relinquished the command to Montgomery. Reaching Albany, he suc- ceeded in securing supplies, ammunition and reinforcements, and sent them to Mont- gomery. An Important Success. That energetic officer at once assumed the offensive, and captured St. John's, on the Sorel River, on the third of November, after a spirited resistance, and in spite of the efforts of Sir Guy Carleton to relieve it. On the thirteenth of November Montgomery arrived before Montreal, which surrendered upon his first summons. This capture enabled the American commander to supply his men with woolen clothes, of which they were very much in need. Although it was the begin- ning of the winter, and his force was reduced to three hundred men, poorly clad and lack- ing almost every kind of supplies, Montgom- ery set out without delay to join Arnold before Quebec. Arnold had left the camp at Cambridge in September with a force of eleven hundred men, including three companies of riflemen under Morgan. He was to ascend the Kennebec and march across the wilderness to Quebec, where he was to unite his force with the army from New York. The march across the unbroken wilderness of Maine and Canada is one of the most memorable in history. It consumed two months of time, and was marked by intense suffering and unceasing and severe labor. The troops had to cut their way through an unbroken wilderness brd icy streams, climb mountains and brave ihe rigors of the Canadian winter. Their provisions gave out, and thr.y were reduced to the necessity of eating their dogs and chewing their moccasins. At length, on the ninth of November, Arnold, with about six hundred and fifty eftective men, reached the St. Lawrence, at Point Levi. Could he have crossed over to Quebec at once, that city must have fallen into his hands ; but he was unable to do so, as he had no boats ; and in a few days Sir Guy Carleton arrived from Montreal, which he had abandoned to Montgomery, and put the city in a state of defence. Eluding the two armed vessels which held the river, Arnold crossed his command to the opposite side of the St. Lawrence, and climbing the cliffs by the path which Wolfe had ascended, occupied the Heights of Abra- ham, and endeavored to draw the garrison out of their works to meet him. They declined his challenge, and finding it impos- sible to besiege the city without artillery, he moved to a point twenty miles up the river, where he met Montgomery, from whom he obtained clothing for his men, who had lost nearly all their clothes in their march through the wilderness. A Difficult March. Montgomery now assumed the command of the united forces, which numbered less than a thousand men, and on the fifth of December laid siege to Quebec. Having no materials for the proper construction of a battery, a novel expedient was adopted Gabions were filled with ice and snow, over which water was poured. The cold soon froze this to a solid mass ; but, as the ice was brittle, it afforded no protection against the fire of the enemy's guns. The Americans soon found their artillery too light to make any impression upon the walls of the city, and, as a last resort, it was determined to attempt the capture of the place by an assault, which was ordered for the thirty-first of December. The attack was made with spirit, but was unsuccessful. Montgomery was shot down while leading the attack on the lower town, and his column was driven back. Arnold was severely V/4 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. ivouiided in the assault upon the upper town, and the command passed to Morgan, the next in rank. Morgan succeeded in carry- ing the two batteries which defended the entrance to Quebec, and in forcing his way Into the town ; but, being overpowered by .lumbei-s, was compelled to surrender. He and his men were treated with especial kind- ness by Sir Guy Carleton in recognition of their bravery. The attack having proved a M'ire„ Arnold, whose force had been reduced GENERAL RICHARD MONTGOMERY. to five hundred men, fell back to a position about three miles above Quebec, and held it all winter, hoping to receive such reinforce- ments as would enable him to take Quebec. In April, 1776, General Wooster joined Arnold with reinforcements, and, assuming the command, made another unsuccessful effort to capture Quebeco Wooster was soon recalled, and was succeeded by General Thomas. Sir Guy Carleton, governor of Canada, was heavily reinforced, and Thomas was obliged to abandon the attempt on Quebec and retreat. His movement was so hasty that he left his baggage^ artillery and sick in Carleton's hands. The British com- mander, with a humanity rare among his countrymen during this struggle^ treated the sick prisoners with great kindness. Thomas fell back as far as the Sorel, where he died of the small-pox, which was making great railages among the troops. Sir Guy Carle- ton continued to advance, and defeated a portion of the army under General Thomp- son at Three Rivers. Thompson and a number of his officers and men were made prisoners. The remainder secured their retreat and joined General Sullivan on the Sorel. The wreck of the army now fell back from Canada to Crown Point in a most miserable and dis- heartened condition. Thus ended the inva- sion of Canada, the most disastrous expedi tion attempted by the Americans during th(, war; yet still one the failures of which were greatly offset by the heroic daring of the troops engaged. Carleton was able to occupy the entrances to Canada with a strong force and to make any future attempt at invasion impossible. Norfolk Bombarded. While these events were transpiring in Canada, Virginia was also the scene of war. Towards the close of the year 1775 Lord Dunmore, the royalist governor of Virginia, who had taken refuge on board a man-of- war, issued a proclamation offering freedom to the negro slaves and indentured white ser- vants of the patriots who would join him in the servile war he meant to inaugurate. With a force collected in this manner, he landed at Norfolk and took possession of the town. Fugitive slaves joined him in con- siderable numbers, and it seemed likely that he would be able to carry out his threat and PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 375 scourge Virginia and North Carolina with a warfare of massacre and servile violence. Several regiments vi^ere raised in Virginia to drive him out of the province. The second of these, under Colonel Woodford, seized the narrow peninsula which connects Norfolk mth the mainland, and on the ninth of December was attacked by Dunmore's forces, which were summarily defeated. In revenge. Dunmore returned in January, 1776, and bombarded and burned Norfolk, then the largest and richest town and the principal shipping port of Virginia. On the fifth of September, 1775, the Con- tinental Congress resumed its sessions. Delegates from Georgia appeared and were admitted to seats in the Congress, and the colonies assumed the style of the Thirteen U)iitcd Colonies. Matters were not very encouraging when Congress met. The army was in need of everything that could con- tribute to its efficiency, and the New England coast was harassed with the armed vessels of Great Britain, which laid its towns under exaction, or subjected them to bombard- ment, and committed other gross outrages upon the inhabitants. On the eighteenth of October the town of Falmouth, now Port- land, in Maine, was burned by Lieutenant Mowatt of the British navy The other towns, warned by the fate of Falmouth, pro- ceeded to fortify themselves, and escaped with nothing worse than an occasional engagement with some royal cruiser. Naval matters very largely occupied the attention of the whole country at this period. The only way in which the needed supplies could be obtained was by purchase abroad or the capture of the enemy's ships. Maryland, Virginia and South Carolina promptly estab- lished naval boards for the purpose of fitting out cruisers for this service ; and among the first acts of Washington, after assuming the command of the army, was to send out armed vessels to the St. Lawrence and the New England waters to seize the supply ships of the English on their way to Canada and Boston. A number of vessels were captured by these cruisers, and a considera- ble quantity of arms, ammunition and other stores thus accumulated. Securing War Supplies. Congress appointed a secret committee to import powder from the West Indies, and to erect mills in the interior for its manufac- ture ; and foundries for casting cannon. Licenses were issued to privateers, and a naval committee was appointed to superin- tend the formation of a marine force for the defence of the harbors, and was charged with the building of thirteen frigates. In Decem- ber a secret committee was appointed to open and conduct a correspondence with foreign nations, or with friends of the cause in Europe. Parliament, in the meantime, had not been idle, but had enacted stringent measures for the prosecution of the war and the punish- ment of the colonists. The measures adopted by the British government were cruel and barbarous. The Americans were to be treated as criminals and as deserving of death. They were made subject to the pains and penalties of treason if captured, and could in no case expect the treatment of prisoners of war. The crews of all vessels captured in trading to the colonies were con- demned beforehand to serve in the marine corps of the royal navy. It was decided to increase the British army in America to forty thousand men. Twenty-five thousand of these troops were to be raised, and the effort to enlist men was begun in England, but without success. Recruits could not be found in sufficient numbers to repay the effort. The ministry could not hope for better success in Ireland, as they had been 4 11^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. warned by General Howe that the Irish were strong sympathizers with the Americans and could not be relied upon to fight against them. In this emergency the government resolved to employ German troops for the subjuga- tion of America, and negotiations were opened with Brunswick and Hesse Cassel, two petty German States. The result was that Great Britain hired seventeen thousand troops from these states for the conquest of the English-speaking people of America. These mercenaries were generally known as Hes- sians, and became the objects of the bitter hatred of the Americans — a hatred which they fully earned by their subsequent cruel- ties towards the colonists. These measures were not adopted by the British government without opposition. There was a determined minority in Eng- land, consisting of such men as Burke, Barre and the Duke of Grafton, who manfully sought to obtain justice for the colonies up to the last moment at which a settlement wa? possible. The corporation of London and the mercantile interests of the country generally were opposed to the measures of the government, and sought to procure a just and peaceful settlement; but all ef- forts were in vain. The king and the ministry were resolved upon the subjuga- tion of America \ nothing else would satisfy them. i CHAPTER XXVII. The Declaration of Independence fbe Siege of Boeton — Difficulties of the American Army — Activity of the Privateers — Clinton's Expedition—Colone! Knox Arrives from Ticonderoga with Cannon — Seizure ot Dorchester Heights by Washington — The British Evacuate Boston — Royalist Plots in New York — Paper Money Issued by Congress — Gates Sent to the North — The British Attack Charleston — Battle of Fort Moultrie — The Howes in New York Bay — Change in the Character of the War-^ Growing Sentiment in Favor of Independence — Virginia Proposes that the Colonies Assert their Independence — A.ction of Congress — The Declaration of Independence — Articles of Confederation Adopted by Congress — Lord Howe's Efforts at Conciliation — Addresses a Letter to Washington — Battle of Long Island — Defeat of the Americans ^Retreat from Long Island — Evacuation of New York by the Americans — Loss of Fort Washington — Washington Retreats Through New Jersey — He Crosses the Delaware — Darkest Period of the War — Washington's Determination to Continue the War — Lord Howe's Proclamation — Its Effect — Congress at Baltimore — Carleton Invades New York — Defeats Arnold on Lake Champlain — Carleton Retires into Canada — Battle of Trenton — Happy Effects of the Victory — Congress Confers Dictatorial Powers upon Washington — Commissioners Sent to France. THE winter of 1775—76 was passed by the army before Boston in inaction. There was not ammunition enough in the camp to enable Washington to attack Boston, and the British were well content to remain within their lines without seeking to raise the siege. Washington exerted himself to the utmost to obtain artil- lery and powder. Henry Knox, a bookseller of Boston, who had entered the military ser- vice of the colonies, had attracted the attention of the commander-in-chief by his skill in the use of artillery and in planning the works erected for the defence of the camp. Knox now proposed to go to Ticonderoga and bring away from that place and from Crown Point all the artillery and powder that could be spared, and his plan was at once approved by Washington, who urged Congress to com- mission him a colonel of artillery. At the same time he wrote to Schuyler, the commander in New York, to give Knox every assistance in his power in his effort to bring the artillery from Lake Champlain to Boston. Great difficulties were experienced during the winter in inducing the troops to renew their enlistments. It required all the ingenu- ity and tact of which Washington was maste." to remove the prejudices and jealousies which had grown up in the camp since the com- mencement of the blockade of Boston, and which threatened to disband the army. He succeeded in a greater degree than he had expected. At the opening of the year 1776 he had about ten thousand men in camp, many of whom were raw troops newly enlisted and without arms. Still they were a more harmonious and contented force than the first army. Towards the close of 1775 the priva- teers made extensive captures from the British. Captain Manly, of the schooner " Lee," captured a British brig off Cape Ann, laden with arms, artillery and military stores for the British army at Boston. These were sent at once to Washington, and proved of the greatest service. Among the captures was an immense mortar, which Putnam named the " Congress," and placed in position a< Lechmere Point, on the north of Boston. Matters were gloomy indeed. The people were very anxious that Boston should be attacked, but such a course was impossible. As late as the tenth of February, 1776, Washington wrote ; " Without men, without 377 . ^7^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. arms, without ammunition, little is to be done," To increase the discouragement of the patriots news came of the defeat of the attempt to conquer Canada. The British were collecting a fleet for a demonstration against some point on the Atlantic coast, and as it was not certain where the blow would fall, a feeling of general uneasiness prevailed along the entire seaboard. This expedition sailed from Boston, under Sir Henry Clinton, about the first of Febru- ary, Washington, who had for some time GENERAL HENRY KNOX. suspected that it was designed to capture New York, had already sent General Charles Lee to raise troops to occupy that important city and hold it against the British. Lee executed his task with energy, and on the fourth of February entered New York and encamped in the suburbs, in what is now the City Hall Park. Governor Tryon, who had taken refuge on board a man-of-war, threatened to bombard the city if the Ameri- can forces should enter it ; but Lee informed him that tl^ first shot fired at New York would be the signal for the execution of the leading friends of the royal cause in that city. Th's decisive answer induced Tryon to delay his barbarous purpose. That afternoon Sir Henry Clinton, with his fleet, entered the harbor. Finding that he had come too late to secure the city, Clinton declared that he had merely called at the harbor to pay a visit to his friend Tryon, and in a iew days he sailed away for North Carolina, where the royalist Governor Martin, who, like Tryon, ' had taken refuge on board a man-of-war, had been endeavoring to stir up an insurrection of the Tories, as the royalists were called. The command of this movement was to be assumed by Clinton. Martin also expected a fleet under Sir Peter Parker from Ireland. Decisive Defeat of the Tories.* To gain time, and stir up the Tories to prompt action, he commissioned two retired officers of the British army, Scotchmen, named McDonald and McLeod, who had recently settled in North Carolina, to raise troops among the friends of the king in the interior. They succeeded in raising about fifteen hundred men, and set off for the coast to join Martin. The patriots at once rallied in considerable forc^ to oppose their march, and intercepted them at Moore's Creek Bridge, near Wilmington. On the twenty- fifth of February a sharp engagement was fought here, which resulted in the defeat of the Tories. McLeod was killed and McDonald was taken prisoner. Eighteen hundred stand of arms, one hundred and fifty swords, two medicine-chests, and the sum of fifteen thousand pounds sterling in gold fell into the hands of the victors, and went far toward supplying their deficiencies. The contem- plated rising of the Tories was put down in the interior counties, and Martin find- ing his hopes of raising troops in North Carolina destroyed, withdrew with Clinton THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 379 .o the Cape Fear to await the arrival of the fleet of Sir Peter Parker, In the meantime a Union flag had been provided for the army before Boston, and was formally displayed for the first time in the American camp on the first of January, 1776. It retained the English cross in the upper left-hand corner, in token of the rela- tions still existing between the colonies and England, and bore on its broad field thirteen stripes of alternate red and white, represent- ing the thirteen colonies united for the defence of their liberties. Towards the close of February the stock of powder was consider- ably increased, and a little later Colonel Knox arrived from Ticonderoga with the cannon and ammunition from that post. He had transported them on sledges across the long stretch of country between Lake Champlain and Boston, and had overcome difificulties in the accomplishment of this task which seemed at first insurmountable. The arrival of these guns gave Washington a fair supply of heavy ordnance and put an end to the long delay which had prevailed in the American camp. The regular army had been increased to fourteen thousand men, and had been reinforced by six thousand militia from Massachusetts. Ready for Decisive Action. All now was bustle and activity. The newly arrived cannon were mounted to com- mand the city, and Washington was at length able to attempt the long desired demonstra- tion against the enemy in Boston. As early as December, 1775, Congress had urged him to undertake the capture of Boston, and had authorized him to destroy the city if he could expel the British in no other way, and John Hancock, who was a large property-owner, regardless of the fate of his possessions, had written to him : " Do it, and may God crown your attempt with success." All through the winter Washington had been held back from such an attempt by the advice of his council of war, which hesitated to assume the offensive with an insufficient supply of ammunition and artillery. Putnam had suc- ceeded in fortifying the neighboring heights on the mainland, but had been obliged to do much of this work at night to avoid the fire of the enemy's shipping. The last obstacle to decisive action was now removed. Washington resolved to seize the eminence on the south of Boston, known as Dorchester Heights. It commanded the town from that quarter and also the shipping in the harbor. Its possession by the Americans would force Sir William Howe either to evacuate the city or risk a general engagement for its recovery. Heavy Fire of Shot and Shell. On the evening of the second of March a heavy fire was opened upon the British lines by the American batteries and also upon Boston. A number of houses were set on fire, and the attention of the British was fully occupied in extinguishing the flames. The bombardment was renewed the next night. At dark on the evening of the fourth of March the Americans renewed their fire with redoubled vigor, and were replied to with spirit by the British, and during the whole night the roar of cannon went on, covering the movements of the Americans from ob- servation by the enemy. The force assigned for the seizure of Dorchester Heights was placed under the command of General Thomas, and in case the movement should be discovered, and the enemy should seek to dis- lodge this detachment from the Heights, General Putnam was ordered to cross Charles River with a column of four thousand picked troops and attack the city from that quarter. Under the cover of the heavy cannonade the column of General Thomas passed the 38o THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. narrow isthmus in safety, and reached the Heights by eight o'clock undiscovered by the enemy. They at once set to work, though the ground was frozen to a depth of more than eighteen inches, and by morning had thrown up a series of earthworks which entirely commanded both the city and the harbor. General Howe was greatly aston- ished as he examined these works through his glass when the mists of the morning cleared away. " The rebels," he said, " have done more work in a night than m.y whole army would have done in a month." The British MEDAL STRUCK BY CONGRESS IN HONOR OF THE RECAPTURE OF BOSTON adu./ral declared that his ships could not remain in the harbor, as the possession of the Heights by the Americans placed the fleet entirtly at their mercy. It was evident to all tho British commanders that the Heights must be recovered or the city abandoned and General Howe determined to storm the American works that night, and made prep- arations for an attack. This movement was prevented by a severe storm, which put a stop to the cooperation of the fleet, and when the storm had died away the works had been so greatly strengthened as to render an assault hopeless. A council of war was held, and it was resolved to abandon the town. As such a step required some time, Howe secured the safety of his army by declaring that he would burn the town if his troops were fired on during their embarkation. A deputation of the citizens proceeded to the American camp and informed General Washington of Howe's determination, and in order to save the city from further suffering the British were allowed to depart in peace. They consumed eleven days in their embarkation. They embarked about fifteen hundred Tories with them, and after plundering a num- ber of stores and private houses, and robbing the inhabitants of a consid- erable supply of pro- visions, they embarked on the seventeenth of March, and dropping down the bay anchored at Nantasket Roads. They had scarcely lefl the city when the Ameri- can army, under Wash- ington, marched in and occupied the place. The long siege often months was at an end, and Bos- ton was again free. The patriot army was received with enthusiasm, and matters soon began to resume their accustomed condition. By the capture of Boston the Americans obtained possession of two hundred and fifty pieces of artillery, four mortars, and a con- siderable quantity of ammunition, provisions and clothing, which the British could not carry away. After the departure of the British fleet from Nantasket Roads several transports with troops, not aware of the evacuation, entered the harbor, and were captured. Several storeships, laden with military supplies of all kinds, also arrived THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 381 from England, and were captured in the same way. These captures were of the highest importance to the patriots. Their supply of ammunition was in this way increased more than sevenfold. The capture of Boston was justly esteemed the most important success of the war. It freed New England from the presence of the English, and enabled her to contribute men and money to the defence of the middle colonies. On motion of John Adams, Con- gress adopted a unanimous vote of thanks to defence. He soon discovered that the Tories in the city were in constant communication with Governor Tryon and the British ships in the harbor. Severe measures were at once adopted to stop this intercourse. A con- spiracy for the recovery of the city by Tryon was discovered, and his agents were found tampering with the American soldiers. One Thomas Hickey, a deserter from the British army, was hanged " for mutiny, sedition and treacher}'-," and this vigorous measure at once put a stop to the plots of the Tories. CONTINENTAL BILLS. Washington and the army, and ordered a gold medal to be struck in commemoration of the deliverance of Boston. The British fleet remained in Nantasket roads for several days after the evacuation of Boston, and then bore away for Halifax. Washington was fearful that its destination was New York, and leaving General Ward with five regiments to hold Boston, hastened southward with the main body of the army. He reached New York on the thirteenth of April, and set to work with vigor to put the city and its approaches in a state of Congress, in February, 1776, found itself obliged to issue four millions of dollars ot additional paper money in order to meet the expenses of the war, which were heavier than had been supposed. For the proper manage- ment of the finances, an auditor-general and assistants were appointed to act under the financial committee of Congress, and it was not long before this branch of the public service assumed the form of a treasury department. In April a war office was established by Congress under the super- vision of a committee of its members. John 382 THE AMERICAN REVOLQTION. Adams was made chairman of this committee, and resigned his post of chief-justice of Massachusetts to accept it. The retreat of Sullivan from Canada now became known, and the conduct of that officer was approved by Congress, which passed a vote of thanks to him. At the same time it appointed Major-General Horatio Gates to the command of the army in his place. Gates was an Englishman by birth, and had joined the colonial movement in the hope of winning honors and fame by his services. He had served in the British army during the colonial period, but had failed to receive the rewards he deemed himself entitled to, and had resigned his commission in disgust, and had come to America to reside a few years before the rupture with England. His experience and skill made him a valuable acquisition to the American army, but his ambition and jealousy were destined to cause it considerable trouble. Gates at once claimed that his command embraced not only the troops on Lake Champlain, but also the whole northern army under Schuyler. The matter was referred to Congress, and it was decided that Gates was independent of the control of Schuyler only while in Canada, Elsewhere he was subject to Schuyler's com- mand. Expedition Against Charleston. In the meantime Congress had sent Gen- eral Charles Lee to the south to take com- mand of the troops assembling to oppose Sir Henry Clinton, who was waiting off the mouth of the Cape Fear river for the arrival of the fleet of Sir Peter Parker from Ireland. This fleet joined Clinton in May, and a little later Congress learned by means of inter- cepted letters that Charleston, in South Carolina, was the object of attack. The command of the strong military force which the fleet brought was to be held by Sir Henry Clinton, to whom the general direction of the expedition was intrusted. Lee hastened at once to Charleston. He found there a force of about six thousand men, from the Carolinas and Virginia ; but the city was not defended by a single fortifi- cation. Had Clinton assailed it at once, it must have fallen into his hands, as he arrived in the harbor on the fourth of June, the very day that Lee reached the city ; but he delayed his attack until he could fortify his own position, and so gave Lee time to erect works for the defence of the city. Fort Moultrie Bombarded. Ihe key to the American position was Fort Moultrie, a small work built of palmetto logs, and situated on the southwest point of Sullivan's Island. It was commanded by Colonel William Moultrie, whose name it bore. In front of it lay the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker. Sir Henry Clinton had taken position with two thousand men on Long Island, which was separated from Sul- livan's Island by only a narrow creek, and was building batteries to cover his passage of the creek. His plan was to allow the fleet to breach the walls of Fort Moultrie and then to cross his troops to Sullivan's Island under the cover of his batteries, and carry the fort by storm. Lee, who was ignorant of the capacity of the soft, spongy palmetto wood for resisting the force of cannon shot, regarded the effort to hold Fort Moultrie as madness. He stationed a force under Colonel Thomp- son on Sullivan's Island opposite Clinton to dispute his passage of the creek, and took position on the mainland with the rest of his force where he could support either Moultrie or Thompson, as might be necessary. On the twenty-eighth of June the enemy's fleet opened fire on Fort Moultrie, which replied with spirit, and for ten hours the can- nonade wa= maintained with great vigor by THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 383 both sides. The enemy's balls buried them- selves in the soft, spongy wood of the pal- metto logs, and thus did little injury to the fort; but the well-directed fire of the Ameri- can guns inflicted great damage upon the fleet. The British were finally compelled to withdraw with heavy loss, and abandoned and set fire to one of their ships. During the engagement the flag of the fort was shot away, and fell out- side of the walls. Ser- geant Jasper, of the South Carolina forces, at once sprang over the wall and amidst a heavy fire secured the flag, tied it to a pole, and set it up again on the ramparts. This done, he rejoined his comrades at the guns. A few days later Gov- ernor Rutledge pre- sented Jasper with his own sword and offered him a lieutenant's com- mission. Jasper accepted the sword, but declined the commission on the ground that he could neither read nor write. Clinton made repeated efforts to cross the creek and storm the fort during the battle, but was as often driven back by the batteries under Thompson. At length, the fleet having withdrawn, he embarked his men, and soon after sailed for New York to join the troops assembling near that sity. Washington was correct in supposing that New York was the true destination of Sir William Howe after leaving the Nantasket Roads. That commander sailed first to Hali- SERGEANT JASPER AT FORT MOULTRIE. fax, where he landed the civilians and other useless incumbrances he had been obliged to carry away from Boston. Then, refitting his command, he awaited the arrival of his brother. Admiral Lord Howe, who was on 3§4 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. bis way from England with reinforcements. In the latter part of June he sailed from Halifax for New York, and arrived within Sandy Hook on the twenty-eighth cf June, the very day of the attack on Fort Moultrie, He landed his forces on Staten Island, where he was received with enthusiasm by the Tories. A little later he was joined by Sir Henry Clinton from Charleston, and about the mid- dle of July Lord Howe arrived with rein- forcements, a large part of whom were Hessians, hired, as we have stated, by the King of England from the Duke of Hesse Cassel, in Germany. Their arrival raised the strength of the British army in New York Bay to thirty thousand men. Their attack upon the city was merely a question of time, -md under the most favorable circumstances it was scarcely to be hoped that Washington would succeed in maintaining his hold upon New York. In the meantime an event of the highest importance had changed the whole character of the war as regarded the Ameri- cans. England ^Vill Not Relent. The colonists had taken up arms to resist the aggressions of the King and Government of Great Britain upon their liberties and to compel the mother country to respect the rights guaranteed to them by their charters and by the British Constitution. Thus far the war had been waged for these ends. At the outset of the struggle a few far-seeing persons, such as Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, had been convinced that an appeal to arms would render the final separation of the colonies from England inevitable, and that such an issue was but the fulfilment of the destiny of their country, and as such to be desired. The great majority of the people, however, neither thought of nor wished for independ- ence. They would have been satisfied to secure their liberties and privileges as English subjects, and would gladly have continued loyal to the king. The events of the war had made it plain to the most skeptical that England did not intend to do justice to her colonies. Neither the king, the ministry, nor Parliament were disposed to swerve from their purpose of reducing America to absolute submission to their will. They were determined that the colonists should bear every burden of British citizenship, and enjoy none of its privileges save what they should see fit to allow them. Americans were not to enjoy either liberty or property as lawful rights. The Feeling Toward Great Britain. This determination was so clear that none could mistake it. Since the commencement of the struggle public opinion in America had undergone a great change, and the party in favor of a total and final separation from the mother country had increased so rapidly that it now embraced the great major- ity of the American people. ■ Now that they had become convinced that they could main- tain their liberties only by a total and unqual- ified separation from Great Britain, they did not hesitate to choose that course. Their choice was made without regret. At the commencement of the war a very genuine attachment bound the people of the colonies to England ; but the course of the royal government and the severities of the British commanders in the Northern colonies, and the outrages of the royal governors in the South, had entirely alienated the people from their love for England. Still there were many Tories, or friends of the king, in America, and they were active and bitter in their opposition to the patriots. From the first the Americans regarded the Tories with a feeling of hatred which increased IS the struggle went on, and this feeling was THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 385 soon extended to all who fought under the royal flag or sought to uphold its cause. Not only had the people been gradually coming tc view independence as desirable and indispensable ; the exercise by Congress of the functions of a supreme government had accustomed them to it, and had shown them their capacity for conducting a gen- eral government for the whole country. Early in March, 1776, Congress granted let- ters of marque and re- prisal against British commerce, and some- what later sent Silas Deane as its commis- sioner to France to seek assistance from that country. In May it had formally recom- mended the colonies to disregard the roj'al governments and adopt systems suited to their needs, and in harmony with the changed state of affairs. To all men it was evi- dent that a formal re- nunciation of allegi- ance to Great Britain and the assertion of their independence by the colonies was mere- ly a question of time. It was, therefore, a surprise to no one when the first definite action looking towards inde- pendence was taken. On the fifteenth of May, 1776, the general assembly of Virginia instructed the delegates of that colony in 25 Congress to offer a resolution in favor of the separation of the colonics from England, and the formal declaration of their independence. On the thirtieth of May Massachusetts instructed her delegates to support this reso INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA. lution. On the seventh of June Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution in Congress, "that the united colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States, and that their political connection 3^6 THE AMERICAN kEVOLUTlON. with Great Britain is, and ou^'ht to be, dis- solved." The resolution was seconded by John Adams, of Massachusetts, and was debated with great earnestness. It was adopted by a bare majority of one — seven colonies voting for it, and six against it. In accordance with the resolution, a committee was appointed to draw up a declaration of independence, and, in order that the delegates might have an 'Opportunity to ascertain the wishes of their constituents, the consideration of the subject ■ IS postponed until the first of July. Two HOUSE IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS WRITTEN, PHILADELPHIA. other committees were also appointed. One of these was charged with the preparation of a plan for uniting the colonies in a single government ; the other was to report a plan for securing alliances with foreign nations. The committee charged with the preparation of a declaration of independence consisted of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman and Robert R. Livingston. On the twenty-eighth of June the com- mittee reported the declaration to Congress. It was written by Thomas Jefferson, and* with a few verbal alterations, v/as adopted by the committee as it came from his hand. It reviewed in a clear and comprehensive manner the cause which had impelled the colonies to take up arms for the defence of their liberties, and which now induced them to sever the ties that bound them to Great Britain. The declaration concluded in these mem orable words : " We, therefore, the repre- sentatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of all the world for the rectitude of our inten- tions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all alle- giance to the British crown, and that all poli- tical connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace contract alliances, establish commerce and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this decla- ration, with a firm reliance on the protection of a Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." The declaration was debated in Congress, and a few passages, which it was feared might offend the friends of the colonies in Great Britain, were stricken out. The vote SIGNING THE DECI A RATION OF INDEPENDENCE. %87 3SS THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. was then taken by colonies, and though some of the delegates voted against it, the declaration received the votes of all the colo- nies with the exception of New York, which accepted it a few days later. On the fourth day of July, 1776, the Declaration of Inde- pendence was formally adopted by Congress, and was ordered to be published to the world, and to be read at the head of the regiments of the army. Congress was in session in the hall of the state house in Philadelphia. In the spire of this venerable building hung a bell, inscribed OLD BELL OF INDEPENDENCE HALL. with the words of Scripture : " Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." On the morning of the fourth of July vast crowds assembled around the building, as it was known that Congress would on that day take definite action upon the declaration. The bell-ringer stationed himself in the tower, ready to proclaim the good news the moment it should be announced to him, and had posted his little son at the door of the hall to await the signal, of the door-keeper. When the announcement of the vote was made, the door-keeper gave the signal and the boy ran quickly to the tower. The old man heard him coming, and clutched the bell-rope with a firm grasp. The next instant the glad cry of the boy's voice was heard " Ring ! ring ! " he cried, and then the deep, sonorous tones of the bell went rolling out ol the tower, and were answered with a mighty shout from the assembled throng without The declaration was received by all the states and by the army with enthusiasm. Thus the thirteen united colonies became the thir- teen United States. It should not be for- gotten that the dc;claration did not make the colonies independent states, or states in any sense. It was simply their announcement to the world that they had, each for itself, by the exercise of its own sovereign power, assumed the independence which rightfully belonged to it. The Declaration of Independence put an end to all the hopes that had been cherished of an accommodation with Great Britain, and caused those who were still wavering to embrace the cause of their country. It relieved Congress of the disadvantage under which it had hitherto acted, and enabled it to pursue a more vigorous and decisive policy in the prosecution of the war. There was no retreat now ; nothing remained but to continue the struggle until Great Britain should be compelled to acknowledge the independence of the states, or they should be reduced to the condition of conquered provinces. On the twelfth of July the committee appointed to prepare a plan for the union of the states reported one, which is thus summed up: " 1st. The style of the confederacy v^as to be 'The United States of America.' " 2d. Each state retained its sovereignty, . freedom and independence and every power THE DECLARATION OF INDEPE'NDENC'E. 3^ and right which is not expressly delegated to the United States. " 3d. The object ot the confederation was for their mutual defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. ■' 4th. In determining all questions in Congress each State was to have one vote. " 5th. Each State was to maintain its own delegates. " 6th. The free inhabitants of each State, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from jus- tice excepted, were to be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States. " 7th. All fugitives from justice from one State into another were to be delivered up on demand. " 8th. Full faith and credit were to be given to the records of each State in all the others. " 9th. Congress was to grant no title of nobility. " loth. No person holding any office was to receive a present from a foreign power. "nth. No State was to form any agree- ment or alliance with a foreign power with- out the consent of the States in Congress assembled. " 1 2th. No two or more States were to form any alliance between themselves with- out the like consent of the States in Congress assembled. " 13th. No State, without the like consent of Congress, was to keep war ships or an army in time of peace ; but each was to keep a well-organized and disciplined militia, with munitions of war. " 14th. No State was to lay any duty upon foreign imports which would interfere with any treaty made by Congress. " 15th. No State was to issue letters of marque, or to engage in war, without the consent of the Congress, unless actually invaded or menaced with invasion. " 1 6th. When Federal land forces were raised, each State was to raise the quota required by Congress, arm and equip them at the expense of all the States, and to appoint all officers of and under the rank of colonel. " 17th. Each State was to levy and raise the quota of tax required by Congress for Federal purposes, " 1 8th. The faith of all the States was pledged to pay all the bills of credit emitted, or money borrowed on their joint account, by the Congress. " 19th. It was agreed and covenanted that Canada might accede to the union so formed if she chose to do so. " 20th (and lastly). Each State was to abide by the determination of all the States in Congress assembled, on all questions which, by the confederation, were submitted to them. The Articles of Confederation were to be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union was to be perpetual. No article of the confederation was to be altered without the consent of every State. " The delegations of power by each of the States to all the States, in general Congress assembled, upon a like analysis, may be stated as follows : " 1st. The sole and exclusive power to determine on war and peace, except in case a State should be invaded or menaced with invasion. " 2d. To send and receive ambassadors. " 3d. To make treaties, with a proviso, etc **4th. To establish rules for captures. " 5th. To grant letters of marque and re- prisal. " 6th. To appoint courts for trial of piracie.' and other crimes soecified. 59^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. *' ;th. To decide questions of dispute between two or more States in a prescribed manner. " 8th. The sole and exclusive power to Qjo^'L^^^ ^^ " loth. To regulate trade with the Indian tribes. " I ith. To establish post offices. J9^4r. f//,^ 7i.r:^^^ -ill never turn out again." Stark remr-rked his earnestness, and said, with a smile, " You would not turn out now, while it is dark and raining, would you ?" " Not just now," answered the parson. " Well," said Stark, " if the Lord should once more give us sun- shine, and I don't give you fighting enough, I'll never ask you to turn out again." The morning of the sixteenth came bright and clear, and Stark at once began his advance upon the enemy. Arriving in sight of the British works, he pointed them out to his men. " There are the red coats ! We THE YEAR 1777. 425 must beat them to-day or Molly Stark sleeps a widow to-night." A spirited attack was made upon the British lines, both in front and in the rear, and after two hours' hard fighting they were carried by storm. Baum fell mortally wounded and his men laid down their arms. The Indians and Tories had escaped to the woods at the opening of the battle. The fighting had scarcely ended when the force under Colonel Breyman appeared and at once engaged the Americans. At the same moment Warner's regiment, which had pushed forward all night in the rain, reached the field. The battle was continued until nightfall, when Breyman abandoned his artillery and made a hurried retreat to Bur- goyne's camp on the Hudson. The Ameri- cans had fourteen killed and forty wounded. They took six hundred prisoners, one thou- sand stand of arms and four pieces of cannon. Burgoyne in Straits. Burgoyne now found himself in a most critical condition. He had reached the Hudson, but his troops were short of pro- visions ; his efforts against Fort Schuyler and Bennington had failed, and his force was being reduced by the desertions of the Indians. Burgoyne, who was a man of humanity and true soldierly spirit, had no sympathy with the barbarous policy of his government in employing the savages against the Americans, and had sternly cut short their cruelties. The Indians had taken offence at his course and were leavine his army in great numbers. He made no effort to detain them, preferring to lose their ser- vices rather than allow them to continue their atrocities. On the other hand the American army was daily growing stronger. The militia were flocking to it in great numbers, 5n4 reinforcements vyere received from the Highlands. The militia of New Hanpshire and Massachusetts were threatening Ticon- deroga, the capture of which post would cut off his communications with Canada. The contrast between the present condition of the British army and that of a few weeks before was marked indeed. A Jealous General. Matters were in this state when General Gates arrived, late in August, and assumed the command of the army, which was now six thousand strong, and receiving reinforce- ments every day. Schuyler, superior to ah sense of personal wrong, cheerfully rendered him all the assistance in his power in mastering the question before him ; but Gates repaid his generosity with charac- teristic jealousy. He did not even invite Schuyler to his first council of war held a few days later. He at once left the position at the mouth of the Mohawk, and on the twelfth of September advanced to Behmus' Heights, a spur of hills bordering the Hud- son. The army now numbered nine thou- sand effective men, indifferently armed, but resolved to conquer. "Gates had no fitness for command," says Bancroft, " and wanted personal courage." He intrenched his posi- tion, and for the defence of his right and left flanks erected strong batteries. Burgoyne by great exertion succeeded in bringing up a month's provisions from Lake George for his army, which was now reduced to about six thousand men. He resolved to adhere to his original plan, and endeavored to force his way to Albany, and on the thir- teenth of September crossed the Hudson at Schuylerville, and encamped on the plains of Saratoga, intending to decide the campaign by a general engagement. On the morning of the nineteenth of Sep- tember he advanced against the American position. Gates wished to await the attack 426 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. ofthe enemy in his intrenched position, but Arnold urged him to throw forward a force to hold them in check, and not permit them to turn the American left, as they evidently intended. After considerable solicitation he obtained the desired permission from Gates, GENERAL HORATIO GATES. and moved forward to check the advance of the British. A determined conflict immedi- ately ensued and continued until nightfall. It was one of the most stubbornly contested engagements of the war, and its result was ms^inly Jue to the skill and courage of Ar- nold, who held the enemy In check during the day, and prevented the success of their plan for turning Gates' left flank. The Brit- ish remained in possession of the field at night, and the Americans rejoined their main body. The latter regarded the battle as a victory, as they had accomplished all they had expected. Burgoyne's diffi- culties thickened rap- idly. On the seven- teenth a detachment of Massachusetts militia seized the posts at the outlet of Lake George and captured a fleet of three hundred boats loaded with supplies for Burgoyne's army, and took three hun- dred prisoners. This force then united with another and laid siege toTiconderoga. These successes completely destroyed Burgoyne's communication with Canada, and svith it his means '^f supply- ing his army. In this emergency he was greatly encouraged by the receipt of a letter from Sir Henry Clinton at New York, informing him that he (Clinton) would in a few days make an effort to ascend the Hud- son and open communication with him. Burgoyne thereupon resolved to endeavor to hold his position until the arrival of Clinton. Three weeks passed away in inaction, and though skirmishes between the advanced THE YEAR 1777. 427 parties were frequent, neither commander cared to attack the other; Burgoyne because he was anxious to defer a decisive engage- ment, Gates because he was scantily supplied with ammunition. Arnold Again at the Front. The success of the battle of Behmus' Heights was generally attributed by the troops to Arnold, who was very popular with them. Gates' jealously was most probably aroused by this belief, and he unceremoni- ously deprived Arnold of his command. During this delay the American army was increased by the arrival of the Massachusetts militia and other reinforcements, to about eleven thousand men. Burgoyne's situation was now more critical than ever. His best officers favored a retreat to Fort Edward ; but the British commander decided before undertaking that movement to reconnoitre the American position in strong force. If it was found that it could not be attacked, he was willing to retreat to Fort Edward. A force of fifteen hundred picked men and ten pieces of cannon, com- manded by the most experienced officers in the army, v/as sent on the seventh of October to reconnoitre the American position. Gates, by the advice of Morgan, attacked this force on both flanks, and sent Morgan with his rifle- men to cut the enemy off from their camp. The sound of the firing roused Arnold, who was brooding over his wrongs. He mounted his horse and rode at full speed to the battle-field in spite of the efforts of Gates to stop him. He reached the scene of action and was reconized by the troops, who re- ceived him with cheers. Without orders or any definite command, he placed himself at the head of the troops and led them against the enemy. The British, led by General Frazer, held their ground manfully, but at length Frazer was rnortall^ wounded by one of Morgan's riflenien, and his line gave way. Burgoyne fearlessly exposed himself in the efforts to rally his men, but was at length obliged to order a retreat to the camp. This was accomplished with extreme diffi- culty, and the Americans, following in close pursuit, made a determined attack upon the British intrenchments, which were stubborn- ly defended. In this attack Arnold displayed great heroism, and was wounded within the enemy's works. Though they failed to cap- ture the whole line, the Americans carried the camp of Colonel Breymen's regiment of Hessians, the key to Burgoyne's position, and took a number of prisoners. Success of the Federals. The Americans bivouaced on the field, in tending to renew the battle the next day, but during the night Burgoyne abandoned his sick and wounded, and silently withdrew from his intrenchments. The roads being rendered bad by the rains, he halted and took posi- tion about two miles from the town of Sara- toga. On the night of the ninth, finding that the Americans held the Hudson in such heavy force as to render its passage impracti- cable, he retreated to Saratoga. He then sent out a detachment to rebuild the bridges on the road to Fort Edward, but found the road in the possession of the Americans, who also held Fort Edward, and had captured all the boats laden with provisions for his army. He was thus left with but three days rations for his men. On the twelfth the Amer- ican army, which had followed the British closely, invested their position, and opened a heavy fire on their camp. On the thir- teenth Burgoyne called a council of his offi- cers, and it was resolved to open negotiations with Gates. He proposed to Gates to surrender his army on condition that they should he allowed to sail for England from the port ot 428 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Boston, iirst pledging themselves not to serve again in North America during the war. Gates had heard of the successes of Clinton on the Hudson, and was fearful that he would reach Albany. He therefore weakly agreed to Burgoyne's proposal, and consented that the British army should march out of camp with the honors of war ; that the troops should be taken to Boston and sent to England, and that they should pledge themselves not to serve again in America during the war. These matters being arranged the British army surrendered on the seventeenth of October, and was fed by the Americans, for its provisions were exhausted. About six thousand prisoners were surrendered, together with nearly five thousand muskets, forty-two brass field- pieces and a large quantity of military stores. Upon the surrender of Burgoyne the British garrison at Ticonderoga evacuated that place and retreated into Canada. Surrender of Burgoyne. Congress refused to ratify the v;erms granted to Burgoyne by Gates. It was plain that if they were sent to England they could release an equal number of troops there, who could be sent to the aid of Sir Henry Clinton in New York. This would deprive the United States of one of the most important results of the surrender. Burgoyne and two attendants were permitted to return to England, but the captive troops were held as prisoners of war, and the next year were marched to Charlottesville, Vir- ginia, and quartered in log huts, where the greater part of them remained until near the close of the war. Some time before Burgoyne's surrender Sir Henry Clinton, having received rein- forcements from England, resolved to under- take the capture of the forts in the High- lands of the Hudson, the garrisons of which had been greatly weakened by the detach- ments sent from them to Washington and Gates. On the sixth of October he attacked and captured Forts Montgomery and Clin- ton. General George Clinton, who com- manded at these forts, finding he could not hold them, sent to General Putnam for assistance, but his messenger deserted to the enemy and the forts were abandoned. General Tryon was sent to occupy Kingston, which he ordered to be burned. When the enemy heard of Burgoyne's surrender they retreated, setting fire to the house of every patriot along the river. Clinton then dis- mantled the captured forts and returned to New York, taking with him all the heavy cannon and stores. The capture of Burgoyne's army was hailed with delight throughout the country. It was the most important success of the war, and put an end to the danger of invasion from Canada. Gates was greatly puffed up by his triumph, and imagined himself the hero of the war. He sent his official report of the surrender to Congress direct, and not through the commander-in-chiei, as his duty required, thus offering a grave insult to Washington. General Schuyler now demanded an inves- tigation of his conduct previons to his relinquishment of his command to Gates. He was thoroughly acquitted of the charges of mismanagement brought against him by his enemies, and was strongly urged by Congress to remain in the army. He declined to do so and resigned his commis- sion ; but was soon afterwards returned to Congress from the State of New York, «? ^A^i4g!flS»iS««| CARPENTER'S HAI.L-PHII.ADELPHIA In this building assembled the first Continental Congress on Monday. Sept. 5, 1774 Fifty four delegates were present, representing twelve Colonies. ' CHAPTER XXiX Aid from Abroad bufferings of the Army at Valley Forge — Appeals of Washington to Congress — The British in Philadelphia — The Con- way Cabal— Its Disgraceful Failure — Efforts to Improve the Army — Worthlessness of Continental Bills— General Lee Exchanged— Effect of Burgoyne's Surrender Upon England — The King is Forced to Agree to Measures of Concilia- tion — Action of France — Louis XVI. Recognizes the Independence of the United States— Alliance Between the United States and France — Failure of the British Measures of Conciliation— Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia — Battle of Monmouth— General Lee Dismissed from the Army— Attack Upon Newport— Its Failure— Withdrawal of the French Fleet to the West Indies — Outrages of the British on Long Island Sound — Massacre of Wyoming— The Winter of 1779-80 — The Army in Winter Quarters — Robert Morris — Condition of Congress — Georgia Subdued by the British — Prevost attempts to Take Charleston— Siege of Savannah— Its Failure — Capture of Stony Point — Capture of Paulus Hook— The Indians Punished— Naval Affairs— Exploits of John Paul Jones— Evacuation of Newport- Settlement of Kentucky — Conquest of the Illinois Country by George Rogers Clarke — Settlement of Tennessee. THE sufferings of the American army | during the long winter at Valley- Forge were very great. Many were barefooted, and their marches through the frost and snow could be traced by the blood from their feet. They were without clothing, without food and were utterly unable to keep the field. Yet in spite of these sufferings many persons severely censured the commander-in-chief for going into winter quarters without attacking Philadelphia. In reply to one of these remonstrances from the Legislature of Pennsylvania, Wash- ington wrote to Congress on the tweiity- third of December, 1777 : " Men are confined to hospitals or in farmers' houses for want of shoes. We have this day no less than iwo thousand eight hundred al^nd ninety- eight men in camp unfit for duty because they are barefoot and otherwise naked. Our whole strength in Continental troops amounts to no more than eight thousand two hundred in camp fit for duty. Since the fourth instant our numbers fit for duty from hardships and exposures have decreased nearly two thousand men. Numbers still are obliged to sit all night by fires. Gen- tlemen reprobate the going into winter quar- ters as much as if they thought the soldiers were made of stocks and stones. I can assure those gentlemen that it is a much easier and less distressing thing to draw remonstrances in a comfortable room by a good fireside than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and snow without clothes or blankets. However, although they seem to have little feeling for the naked and distressed soldiers, I feel superabund- antly for them, and from my soul I pity those miseries which it is neither in my power to relieve nor prevent." Congress did little or nothing to relieve the sufferings of the army. It promised the troops one month's extra pay, but made no effort to provide food or clothing for them. It authorized Washington to impress what- ever articles he needed, but he remonstrated against this arbitrary use of power, as he was convinced that it would not supply the wants of the army, but would certainly anger the people of the country. Congress towards the close of the winter manifested so much hostility to the army because of itz appeals for food and clothes, that Washing- ton earnestly remonstrated against this feeling 429 43^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. and reminded that body that the troops were " citizens, having all the ties and interests of citizens." It is not too much to say that the personal influence of Washington went further than anything else in keeping the army together during this trying winter. Under any other commander the troops would have dispersed. Encouraged by the calm and lofty patience of Washington, the troops remained faithful to their cause and bore their sufferings with a heroic fortitude which their descendants will ever bear in grateful honor. All this while the British army was com- fortably quartered in Philadelphia, and the officers were billeted upon the inhabitants. They were amply supplied with every com- fort, and their leisure time was given up to pleasure and dissipation on a scale the Quaker City had never dreamed of " By a proportionate tax on the pay and allowances of each officer a house was opened for daily resort and for weekly balls, with a gaming table which had assiduous votaries, and a room devoted to the game of chess. Thrice a week plays were enacted by amateur per- formers. . . . The officers, among whom all ranks of the British aristocracy were represented, lived in open licentiousness." The contrast between the pleasures and ease of these well-fed troops and the sufferings and privations of the ragged patriots at Valley Forge was marked indeed ; and when it is remembered that the comforts of the British could have been purchased by the patriots at the price of desertion their heroic constancy becomes more striking. The Conway Plot. The patriotism of Washington was not appreciated by all parties. A number of dis- contented members of Congress and officers of the army were anxious that he should be removed or forced to resign in order that their favorite General Gates might be pro= moted to the chief command of the army. One of the prime movers of the intrigue was an Irish adventurer named Conway, who had been promoted to the rank of brigader-gen- enal, from which circumstance the plot is known as the " Conway Cabal." The entire truth concerning this plot will never be known for after its failure the actors in it were only too glad to disavow their connection with it. The conspirators did not dare to make an open attack upon the commander-in-chief, but undertook by mean of anonymous letters underhanded appeals to the officers and men of the army, and comparisons between Gates success and what they termed Washington's failure, to destroy the confidence of the troops in their leader, and to disgust him with his command and so drive him to resign it. A Conspiracy Thwarted. Generals Mifflin and Gates were very ac- tive in th -s conspiricy, and even Sullivan and Wayne were in favor of making Gates com- mander-in-chief. Dr. Benjamin Rush wrote a letter, to which he did not dare to sign his name, to Patrick Henry, then governor of Virginia, representing the army of Washing- ton as without a head, and disparaging Wash- ington as no general. " A Gates, a Lee or a Conway," he added, " would in a few weeks render them an irresistible body of men. Some of the contents of this letter ought to be made public in order to awaken, enlighten and alarm our country." Patrick Henry took no notice of this paper save to forward it to Washington. A similar anonymous docu- ment was forwarded to Henry Laurens, the president of Congress, who also sent it to Washington. Great efforts were made to win ' over Lafayette to the plot, but without the least success. Washington was to a great extent aware of the plot against him but took no public AID f"ROM ABROAD. 4^1 rtotice of it. He was deeply pained by the unjust censure to which he was subjected, but he never for a moment harbored the thought of laying down the great work he had assumed. He knew his course would bear the most rigid inspection. He knew that the capture of Burgoyne's army which had made Gates the hero of the hour, was due to no skill on the part of that- officer but was the result of the plan of defence Washington had long before arranged with General Schuyler. In his efforts to contend against General Howe he was under many disadvantages, not the least of which was the fact that his army was encamped in a region abounding in Tories who refused him any sup- port and constantly aided the British. His array was imperfectly disciplined ; it was infer- ior in numbers and equipment to the enemy ; and was in no condition to meet Howe in the open field, still less to undertake the difficult task of driving him from his intrenchments at Philadelphia. Conway in Disgrace. "Had the same spirit pervaded the people of this and the neighboring States, as the States ol New York and New England," said Wash- ington, " we might have had General Howe nearly in the same situation as General Bur- goyne." Washington knew that the salva- tion of the country demanded his presence at the head of the army. He trusted to time for his vindication, and was chiefly anxious that the enemy should not learn of the dissensions in the councils and camp of the Americans. He firmly opposed the appointment of Con- way to the post of " inspector of the armies of the United States," but Congress, under the influence of the cabal, appointed Canway to that place with the rank of major-general. In a little while the actions of the conspir- itors became known and aroused such a storm of indignation from the officers and men of the army, from the legislatures of the States, and from the great mass of the people that Gates and Conway and their associates cow- ered before it, and Congress became heartily AN AMERICAN RIFLEMAN. ashamed of having given the plot any en- couragement. The only effect of the con- spiricy was to raise Washington higher in the confidence and affection of his countrymen. The members of the conspiricy were ever 432 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. afterwards anxious to deny their share in it. The punishment of Gates came as soon as he was entrusted with an independent com- mand, as we shall see. As for Conway, he was despised by the better part of the officers of the army, and found his position so unenvia- ble that he addressed a note to Congress complaining that he had been badly treated, and intimated his intention to resign because he was not ordered to the northern depart- ment. Congress was by this time ashamed of having bestowed upon him such unde- served honors, and gladly interpreted his let- ter as an actual resignation of his rank, and at once ended the difficulty by accepting it. Challenged to a Duel. Conway was profoundly astonished. He was confident that Congress would be terri- fied by his threat to resign, and urge him to remain in the service, and was utterly unpre- pared for the action of that body. He hast- ened to explain his letter but was not listened to. Some time after he ventured to de- nounce the commander-in-chief, and was challenged to a duel by General Cadwallader who had already charged him with cowardice at the battle of Germantown. Conway was wounded ; and beleiving himself near death wrote to Washington, apologizing for his conduct towards him. " You are," he said, " in my eyes the great and good man. May you long enjoy the love, veneration and es- teem of these States whose liberties you have asserted by your virtues." His wound was not mortal as he had supposed, and he recov- ered, and soon left the country. The winter was passed by Washington in an effort to increase the army, and render it more efficient. Baron Steuben, a Prussian officer, who had served under Frederick the Great, was appointed inspector, with the rank of major-general. He introduced into the army the drill and discipline of the Prussian service, and greatly increased its efficiency. The various States, save Georgia and South Carolina, were called upon by Ccngress to contribute their quota of troops to the army. In consideration of their large slave popula- tion, and the neccessity of retaining their troops for their own defence, those States were excused from compliance with thi^ de- mand. Congress and the Army. Count Pulaski succeeded in raising an in- dependent body of cavalry, and Major Henry Lee organized a regiment of light horse, which under his command subsequently be- came noted as one of the most efficient corps of the army. Congress proposed to in- crease the force of the army to sixty thous- and men, but was never able to bring it to more than half that number. The inability of Congress to pay the troops compelled many of the officers to leave the army, in order to provide for their families, who were suffering. Congress called upon the States to raise the money for the public expenses by taxing their people, but some of them neglected to respond to this appeal, and the remainder were too poor to render such as- sistance. Congress issued new bills of credit but the value of the " Continental Currency," as this money was called, had depreciated so greatly that a pair of shoes could not be bought for less than from five to six hundred dollars in these bills. The Tories and the British depreciated them still further by flood ing the country with counterfeits. A great improvement was made in the supply of provisions furnished the army by the appointment of General Greene, at the request of Washington, to the post of quarter- master-general, which had been held by Gen- eral Mifflin, who had neglected its duties on all occaisons. At the urgent solicitation of the commander-in-chief, Greene assumed Alt) FROM ABROAD. 433 the distasteful position for one year, and dis- charged its duties with a skill and precision which kept the army so well supplied with provisions and ammunition that it was never, during his administration, obliggd to aban- don a movement because of a lack of these necessities. A Traitor in the Camp. In April, 1778, General Prescott was exchanged for General Charles Lee, who at once returned to duty in the army. During his captivity Lee, who was willing to ruin the cause if he could benefit himself, pro- posed a plan to the British ministry by which they could, in his opinion, bring the war to a successful close. The ministers did not see fit to adopt Lee's plan, but filed it away among the British archives, and the traitor was exchanged and permitted to resume his command in the American army, to become again a source of trouble and loss to it. In the meantime the American cause had assumed a new phase abroad. The English government had confidently expected that Burgoyne's expedition would be successful, and the result of his operations was watched by France with the deepest anxiety. When news arrived of the defeat of Burgoyne the astonishment of King George and his min- isters was equalled only by their mortifica- Mon. It was resolved to wipe out the /lumiliation by a more vigorous prosecution of the war. It was rumored that France was about to aid the Americans, and that Holland was on the point of loaning them money. These rumors aroused the English people to a heartier support of the government than they had yet given it, and many of the principal cities offered to raise troops to supply the places of those who had been surrendered by Burgoyne. At the same time the friends of America were greatly 28 encouraged and resolved to make a new effort to put a stop to the war by offering America such terms as would either induce her to renew her former connection with Great Britain or to become the ally and friend of that country. A considerable sunc of money was subscribed by these for thv relief of the American prisoners, who were left by the government without even the necc^aries of life. Trouble in Parliament. When Parliament assembled a strong attack was made upon the policy of the king by the friends of America. The em- ployment of the Hessians, and, above all, ot the barbarous Indians of North America, whose cruelties shocked the English peoplt, was severely denounced. The mercantile class was seriously discontented. Its trade with America was destroyed, and the activity of the American cruisers was so great that six hundred English vessels had alread) been captured ; and it was necessary to con voy merchantmen by vessels of war fron: one port of the kingdom to another. Thus far the war had caused an expenditure of twenty thousand lives and one hundred mil- lions of dollars, and the conquest of America was as far off as at the commencement of hostilities. Under this pressure the king was con- strained to yield, and, in February, 1778, Lord North presented to Parliment two bills by which his majesty hoped to maintain his authority in America, and conciliate his re- volted subjects. The first of these renounced all intention on the part of Great Britian to levy taxes in America ; the other appointed five commissioners to negotiate with the Americans for the restoration of the authority of England and the close of the war. The consent of the king to these measures was wrung from him by the complaints of a large 434 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. part of the English people, and by his fear that France would openly aid the United States. These bills involved a direct sur- render of the whole ground of the war; but indicated no change of opinion on the part of the king. This action on the part of Great Britian LOUIS XVI, aroused the French government to a more energetic course, Louis XVI. was opposed to treating with the United States; but the French ministers were aware that a prompt recognition on their part of the independence of the republic would effectually neutralize the measures of Great Britain, and prevent a reconciliation. France was perfectly willing that America and England should weaken each other by their contest, but she was re- solved that Great Britain should never recover her colonies. The capture of Burgoyne's army had demonstrated the ability of Amer- ica to continue the war, and the French minis- ters resolved to lose no time in concluding an alliance with her^ On the seventeenth of Decem- ber, 1777, the Count de Ver- gennes caused Franklin and Deane to be informed of the .king's intention not only to acknowledge but to support the independence of America, and on the sixth of February a treaty of friendship and commerce, and a second treaty of defensive alli- ance, were concluded between the United States and France. The latter bound the United States to support France in case Great Britain should declare war against her. The King of France acknowledged the independence of the United States of America, and agreed to assist them with his fleet and army. No peace was to be made without mutual consent, and not until the inde- pendence of the United States should be acknowledged by Great Britain. These treaties were ratified by Congress, and were hailed with joy by the Americans, whose confidence was revived by the assurance of the assist- ance of one of the most powerful states of Europe. When the news of the treaties was received in England, the friends of America urged the government to abandon the war, and acknowl- edge the independence of the United States. AID FROM ABROAD. 435 as the only way of retaining the good feeling and trade of that country. The government would not even entertain the proprosition. The most it would do was to pass the concil- iatory bills of Lord North, If they failed to acv:ompHsh the desired end the war must go on. In March France formally communi- cated to England hei treaties with America. This was regarded by England as a declara- tion of war, and the British ambassador was at once recalled from Paris. In June the Bri- tish commissioners, appointed to treat under Lord North's conciliatory measures, arrived in America and opened negotia- tions. Congress de- manded as a prelude to any negotiations, that the independence of the United States should be recognized by England, and her fleets and armies with- drawn from America. The commissioners having no authority to treat upon any such basis returned to Eng- land, having first made several ineffectual ef- forts to detach prominent Americans from the cause by bribery. The course of Sir William Howe had not pleased the British government, and he was removed from his command on the eleventh of May, 1788, and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton. About the same time Clin- ton was informed by his government that a large French fleet might be expected at any moment on the American coast, and was ordered to evacuate Philadelphia and concen- trate all his forces at New York. SIR HENRY CLINTON. He accordingly sent his sick and wounded and most of his stores, with his fleet around to New York by sea ; while, with his arm.y, twelve thousand strong, he left Philadelphia on the eighteenth of June, and, crossing the Delaware, began his march through New «6 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Jersey to New York. As soon as Washing- ton learned of his movement he broke up his camp, on the twenty-fourth of June, and crossed the Delaware in pursuit of the Brit- ish army. The intense heat of the weather, and the heavy train which the British carried with them, caused them to move very slowly, and Washington soon overtook them. A council of war was called, at which General Charles Lee, who held the second rank in the American army, urged that Washington should confine his efforts to harassing the British on the march. It was resolved, how- ever to attack the enemy and force them to a general engagement, Lee at first declined to take any part in the battle, but at the last moment changed his mind, and solicited a command. Retreat of Clinton, Upon the adjournment of the council of war, on the twenty-seventh of June, Wash- ington sent Lafayette, with two thousand men, to occupy the hills near Monmouth Court-house and confine the enemy to the plains. On the morning of the twenty-eighth of June Lee, who had asked for a command, was sent forward by Washington with two brigades to attack the enemy. Upon coming up with Lafayette, who was his junior, Lee assumed the command of the whole advanced force and marched in the direction of the enemy, who had encamped on the previous night near .vionmouth Court-house, and had resumed their march early on the morn- ing of the twenty-eighth. As soon as Clin- ton heard of Lee's advance he determined to drive him back, and for this purpose wheeled about with his whole rear division, and made a sharp attack upon Lee, who fell back to higher ground. A misunderstand- ing of his order caused one of his subordi- nate officers to abandon his position and Lee's whole force fell back in some confusion. In the excitement of the moment Le^ forgot to send word to Washington of his movement, and the first the commander-in- chief, who was advancing with the main body, knew of it was the right of Lee's command falling back rapidly and in dis- order. Riding up to the fugitives he asked them why they were retreating, and was answered that they did not know, but had been ordered to do so. Suspecting that the retreat had been ordered for the purpose of ruining the plan of battle, Washington hastened forward until he met General Lee and sternly demanded of him : " What is the meaning of all this, sir? " Lee v/as dis- concerted for a moment, and then answered that the retreat was contrary to his orders ; and moreover, that he did not wish to en- counter the whole British army. " I am sorry," said Washington, " that you under- took the command unless you meant to fight the enemy." Lee answered that he did not think it prudent to bring on a general engagement. Washington replied, sternly,* ' Whatever your opinion may have been, I expect my orders to be obeyed." Fugitives Made to Halt. Washington at once reformed the men on a commanding eminence, and hurried the main body of the Americans forward to their support. The British soon appeared in force and endeavored to dislodge the Ameri- cans from their position, and failing in this, attempted, but without success, to turn their left flank. The battle lasted till nightfall and the American army bivouaced on the field, expecting to renew the engagement the next morning ; but during the night Clinton skilfully withdrew from his lines and continued his retreat. The weather was so warm that Washington did not deem it prudent to continue the pursuit, and Clinton was allowed to regain New York without AID FROM ABROAD. 437 further molestation. The Americans lost about two hundred men in this engagement, a number of whom died from the effects of the extreme heat. The British lost three hundred men. During the retreat two thousand Hessians deserted from the British yanks. Lee Dismissed from the Army. As General Lee possessed a large share of the confidence of the commander-in-chief, he might have saved himself from the con- sequences of his fault, had he sought to ex- plain his conduct in a proper manner. On the day after the battle he addressed an insulting letter to Washington, and met the reply of the commander-in-chief with another letter still more disrespectful in tone, demanding a court of inquiry. The court found him guilty of disobedience o^ orders, and of disrespect to the commander-in-chief, and sentenced him to be suspended from his rank for one year. Towards the close of his term of punishment he addressed an insolent letter to Congress, in consequence of some fancied negkct, and was dismissed from the army. A few years later he died in Phila- delphia. After the battle of Monmouth Washington halted for a short time to refresh his men, and then marching to the Hudson crossed that stream and took position at White Plains, in New York, to be ready to co- operate with the French fleet, which was daily expected, in an attack upon the city of New York. The French fleet under Count D'Estaing, with four thousand troops oa board, had arrived in the Delaware just after Lord Howe had sailed for New York. Fail- ing to find the enemy in the Delaware, D'Estaing sailed for New York, but Lord Howe withdrew his vessels into Raritan Bay, and as the larger French ships could fiOt cross the bar, the contemplated attack upon New York was abandoned, to the great regret of Washington. The French fleet brought the American commissioners who had negotiated the treaty with France, and also Monsieur Gerard, the first ambassador from the French king to the United States. In place of the combined attack upon New York it was resolved by Washington, in con- cert with the French admiral, to attack Newport and drive the British out of Rhode Island. The British had established one of their principal depots of supplies at this point, and had there a force of six thousand men under General Pigot. It was arranged that a force of American troops under General Sullivan should attack the enemy by land, while the French fleet and army should cooperate with Sullivan from the sea. On the twenty-ninth of July D'Estaing reached Narragansett Bay with his fleet, and on the eighth of August entered Newport harbor, in spite of the fire of the British batteries. A who's week had been lost, however, by the failure of the American troops to reach the positions assigned them as promptly as the French fleet. The delay was unavoidable, but it ruined the enterprise. The Fleet Scattered. Oil the ninth Lord Howe arrived off New- port harbor with his fleet to the assistance of General Pigot. On the tenth D'Estaing sailed out to engage the British fleet, but before this could be effected a sudden and terrible storm scattered both fleets. Howe returned to New York, and D'Estaing made his way back to Narragansett bay in a crippled condition. Instead of landing the four thous- and French troops he had brought with him, the French admiral sailed to Boston with his whole force to refit. Sullivan in the meantime had crossed from the mainland to t^ie island of Rhode Island 438 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. and had taken position before the British in- trenchments in front of Newport. Here he awaited the return of the French fleet, and in the meanwhile kept up a steady fire upon the British works. Upon D'Estaing's return he informed SulHvan of his intention to sail to Boston to refit his ships. Sullivan earnestly begged him to remain two or three days, as the British must certainly surrender by the end of that time. D'Estaing refused to do so. Sullivan then asked that the French troops might be left to cooperate with him and this also was refused. Left alone, Sulli- van was obliged to retreat to the mainland, as he learned that aid was on its way from New York to Pigot. He effected this move- ment with skill and success, on the night of the thirtieth of August. The next day Sir Henry Clinton reached Newport with a squadron of several ships and a reinforce- ment of four thousand men. Brutal W^arfare. As he had arrived too late to attack the force under Sullivan, Clinton sent the troops he had brought with him, under Major-Gen- eral Grey,to ravage the coasts to the eastward. Grey destroyed a large number of vessels along the coasts, and stripped Fair Haven, New Bedford, and the island of Martha's Vineyard of everything that could be carried off, and returned to New York laden with plunder. Late in October a Britisli fleet which had been dispatched from England under Ad- miral Byron in pursuit of D'Estaing, arrived off Boston harbor. Byron was unwilling to venture within the harbor, and the French Would not leave their place of security, and the English remained off'Boston until a storm arose and scattered their fleet. On the first of November the French, taking advantage of the enforced withdrawal of their enemy, stood out to sea and sailed for the West Indies, and on the same day Clinton des patched a force of five thousand British troops from New York to the West Indies. Brutal as was the conduct of General Grey, it had been already surpassed by the British and their Indian allies in Pennyslvania. The inhabitants of Wyoming valley, a beautiful region on the Susquehanna, had driven away the Tories from that region, and these hac' resolved upon revenge. Early in July a force of about eleven hundred Tories and Indians under Colonel John Butler and the Indian chief Brandt, entered the Wyoming valley. Nearly all the able-bodied settlers were ab- sent with the American army, and upor* hearing of the approach of the enemy a small force had been despatched by Wash- ington under Colonel Zebulon Butler, to the assistance of the settlers. This force was defeated by the Tories and Indians, who then proceeded to lay waste the valley and murder the inhabitants. They performed their bloody work in the most barbarous manner, and the beautiful valley was made a desolation. In the following month Cherry Valley in New York was rav- aged with equal cruelty by a force of Tories and Indians, and the inhabitants were either murdered or carried into captivity. The entire region of the upper Susquehanna and Delaware and the valley of the Mohawk were at the mercy of the savage allies o/ Great Britain. Battle of Savannah. In the latter part of November, Sir Henry- Clinton sent a force of two thousand men from New York under Colonel Campbell to attack Savannah, Georgia, which v/as held by a garrison of one thousand men unde General Robert Howe. The British carried the American position after a sharp engage- ment, and on the twenty-ninth of December, Savannah surrendered to them. General AID FROM ABROAD. 439 Prevost, the English commander in Florida, now repaired to Savannah, and assumed the command. On his march across the country he captured Sunbury, a fort of considerable importance. Upon reaching Savannah he sent Colonel Campbell to seize Augusta, which was quickly secured and fortified. ton established his headquarters at Middle- brook, New Jersey, near the centre of his line. The winter passed away without any event of importance. The British held New York and Newport with too strong a force to make an attack upon either post success- fully, and the withdrawal of the French fleet INDIAN SCALi- DANCE. Georgia was tnus entirely subdued by the British by the middle of January, 1779. After the failure of the attack upon New- port the American Army went into winter quarters, occupying a series of cantonments extending from the eastern end of Long Island sound to the Delaware. This dispo- sition enabled them to oppose a force to the British at every important point. Washing- to the West Indies left Washington without any means of encountering the naval force of the enemy. The season was not without its trials, how- ever. Washington wrote at the beginning of the year 1779, " Our affairs are in a more distressed, ruinous, and deplorable condition than they have been since the commence- ment of the war." The currency of the 440 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. country grew more worthless every day. During the year 1779 the enormous sum of one hundred and thirty-one million of dol- lars was issued in continental bills. The magnitude of the volume of the currency only served to depreciate it more and more, and though supplies and articles of trade were plentiful, their owners refused to accept the depreciated bills of Congress, and would sell for gold and silver only. " A wagon 'oad of money," Washington wrote to the president of Congress, " will not purchase a wagon-load of provisions." During the year the currency depreciated from eight dollars foi one dollar to forty-one dollars and fifty cents for one dollar. Congress had so little specie that everything must have gone to ruin but for the exertions of Robert Morris, a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, and a leading merchant of Philadelphia, who borrowed large sums of coin on his own credit, and loaned them to the government. This he continued to do throughout the war. Congress had long before this been de- prived of many of its ablest members, who had resigned their seats in order to accept appointments in their own States, or to enter the army. Their places were filled with weaker men, and many dissensions mark the deliberations of the Congress of this period. Many members of Congress and a large part of the people seemed to regard the alli- ance with France as decisive of the war, and were disposed to relax their efforts. France and Canada. During the winter it was proposed to join the French in an expedition for the recovery of Canada for France, and the scheme found favor with a majority of the delegates in Con- gress. Washington opposed it with firm- ness. He pointed out to Congress the diffi- culty of the undertaking, and declared his conviction that it was not to the interest of the United States that a power different in race, language and religion from the people of this republic should have a footing upon this continent. In addition to this he did not desire the people of the United States to increase their obligations to a foreign, even though a friendly, power. The American forces in the Southern States were commanded by General Benjamin Lincoln, The Tories were very numerous and very active in this region, and the feel- ing between them and the patriots was one of the bitterest hostility, and often manifested itself in bloody and relentless conflicts. Seven hundred Tories under Colonel Boyd set out in February, 1779, to join Colonel Campbell at Augusta. On the fourteenth they were attacked at Kettle Creek by a force of patriots under Colonel Pickens, and were defeated with heavy loss. Pickens hung five of his prisoners as traitors. Fighting at Charleston. General Lincoln now sent General Ashe with two thousand men to drive the British out of Augusta. Upon hearing of his approach Colonel Campbell evacuated Augusta and fell back to Brier Creek, a small stream about halfway to Savannah. Ashe followed him, but without observing proper caution, and on the third of March was surprised and routed by Campbell, with the loss of nearly his entire force. This defeat encouraged General Prevost to attempt the capture of Charleston. He marched rapidly across the country to Charleston, and demanded its surrender. Lincoln, who had been reinforced, no sooner heard of this movement than he hastened by forced marches to the relief of Charleston and compelled Prevost to retire to St. John's island, opposite the mainland. The British threw up a redoubt at Stone ferry to protect AID FROM ABROAD. 441 the crossing to this island. It was attacked on the, twentieth of June by the forces of General Lincoln, who were repulsed with heavy loss. A little later Prevost withdrew to Savannah. The intense heat of the wea- ther suspended military operations in the ^outh during the remainder of the summer. In September, 1779, the French fleet under Count D'Estaing arrived off the coast of Georgia from the West Indies, and the admi- ral agreed to join Lincoln in an effort to recapture Savannah. The American army began its investment of the city on the twenty-third of September, and every- thing promised favorably for success; but D'Estaing became impatient of the delay of a regular siege, and declared that he must return to the West Indies to watch the British fleet in those waters. Savannah must either be taken by assaulf:, or he would withdraw from the siege To please him Lincoln consented to storm the British works, and the assault was made on the ninth of October, but was repulsed with severe loss. D'Estaing himself was wounded, and the chivalrous Count Pulaski was killed. Lincoln now retreated to Charleston, and the Frenci. fleet sailed to the West Indies, having a second time failed to render any real assistance to the Americans. This dis- aster closed the campaign for the year in the south. In the meantime Sir Henry Clinton had been ordered by his government to harass the American coast, and in accordance with these instructions despatched a number of pliindcring expeditions from New York against exposed points. One of these was sent in May, under General Mathews, into the Chesapeake. Mathews entered the Eliza- beth river, plundered the towns of Norfolk and Portsmouth, and burned one hundred and thirty merchant vessels and several ships of war on the stocks at Gosport, near Ports- mouth. He then ascended the James for some distance and ravaged its shores. He destroyed in this expedition two millions of dollars worth of property, and carried off about three thousand hogsheads of tobacco. Upon the return of this expedition, Clinton ascended the Hudson for the purpose ol destroying two forts which the Americans were constructing a short distance below West Point, for the protection of King's Ferry, an important crossing-place between GENERAL BENJAMIN LINCOLN. the Eastern and Middle States. One of these, which was being built at Stony Point, was abandoned. The work on Verplanck's Point, on the east side of the Hudson, immediately opposite, was compelled to surrender early in June. Returning to New York, Clinton sent General Tryon with twenty-five hundred men to plunder the coast of Long Island Sound. He plundered New Haven, burned Fairfield and Norwalk, and committed other outrages at Sag Harbor, on Long Island. In 442 GALLANT CHARGE ^^ 'X)UNT PULASKL AID FROM ABROAD. 443 the course of a few days this inhuman wretch burned two hundred and fifty dwelling- houses, five churches, and one hundred and twenty-five barns and stores. Many of the inhabitants were cruelly murdered, and a number of women were outraged by the British troops. Tryon would have carried his outrages further had he not been recalled to New York by Clinton, who feared that Washington was about to attack him. The loss of Stony Point was a serious blow to Washington, as it compelled him to establish a new line of communication between the opposite sides of the Hudson by a longer and more tedious route through the Highlands. He resolved, therefore, the recapture of the post from the British at all hazards. The British had greatly strengthened the fort, which the Americans had left unfinished, and the only way in which it could be captured was by a surprise. It was a desperate undertaking, and Washington proposed to General An- thony Wayne to attempt it. Wayne readily consented, and the two generals made a careful recon- noissance of the position. It was agreed to make the attempt at mid- night, and in order to guard against a betrayal of the movement every dog in the vicinity was put to death. Al negro who visited the fort regularly to sell fruit, and who had been for some time acting as a spy for the Americans, agreed to guide them to the work. At midnight on the fifteenth of July the storming party, guided by the negro, ap- proached the fort in two divisions. Not a man was permitted to load his musket, lest the accidental discharge of a gun should ruin the movement. The negro, accompanied by two soldiers who were disguised as farmers, approached the first sentinel and gave the countersign. The sentinel was at once seized and gagged, and the same was done with the second sentinel. The thirc' however, gave the alarm, and the garrison flew to arms and opened a sharp fire upon the Americans. The latter now dashed for- ward at a run, scaled the parapet, and in' a few moments the two opposite divisions met' in the centre of the fort. The Americans took more than five hun dred prisoners and all the supplies and artillery of the fort fell into their hands. GENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE. Though they were justly exasperated by t^ brutal outrages of the British, which ^y have related, they conducted themselves towards their prisoners with a noble humanity. The British historian, Stedman, declares, " They (the Americans) would have been fully justified in putting the gar- rison to the sword ; not one man of which was put to death but in fair combat." It was one of the most brilliant expeditions of the war. Wayne now proceeded to prepar? 444 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. for the reduction of the fort at Verplanck's Point, but while he was thus engaged a heavy British force ascended the river to its rehef, and he was obliged to forego his attack and also to abandon Stony Point. On the night of the eighteenth of June Major Henry Lee made a bold dash at the British fort at Paulus Hook, now Jersey City, and captured it, taking one hundred and fifty-nine prisoners. The British made great efforts to intercept him, but he effected his retreat in safety, bringing off his prisoners and losing only two men. For LIEUTENANT-COLONEL HENRY LEE. .'hese gallant exploits both Wayne and Lee were each voted a gold medal by Congress. Towards the close of the summer of 1779 Washington resolved to inflict upon the Indians a severe punishment for their out- rages upon the whites, and especially for massacres of Wyoming and Cherry Valley in the previous year. Early in August General Sullivan was sent into Western New York with three thousand men, with orders to ravish the country of the Six Nations. He was joined by General James Clinton with two thousand men, and on the twenty-ninth of August attacked and de- feated a force of seventeen hundred Indians and Tories at Newtown, now Elmira. Sulli- van followed up his victory by pushing for- ward into the Indian country and laying it waste with fire and sword. In the course af a few weeks he destroyed more than forty Indian villages and burned all the cornfields and orchards. The beautiful valley of the Genesee was made a desert, and to avoid starvation the Indians and their Tory allies were obliged to emigrate to Canada. They were quieted but for a time by the terrible vengeance of the Americans, and soon re- newed their depredations, and continued them to the end of the war. Congress had made great efforts to increase the force of the navy, and the num- ber of American men-of-war had been materially enlarged. Many of them had been captured, however, by the enemy, and the navy was still weak and unable to render much service to the cause, American Cruisers. The privateers were unusually active, and were hunted with unremitting vigilance by the English war vessels. They managed to infiict great loss upon the commerce of Great Britain, however. A number of American cruisers were fitted out in France, and kept the English coast in terror. John Paul Jones, a native of Scotland, who had been brought to Virginia at an early age, was one of the first naval officers commissioned by Congress. He was given command of the " Ranger," a vessel of eighteen guns, and by his brilliant and daring exploits kept the English coast in a state of terror, and even ventured to attack exposed points on the coast of Scotland. In 1779 he was given command of a small squadron of three ships of war fitted out in France, and sailing from L'Orient, proceeded on a cruise along the coast of Great Britain. FAUIv JONES SEIZING THE SILVER PLATE OF LADY SELKIRK 445 446 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. On the twenty-third of September he fell in with a fleet of merchantmen convoyed by two English frigates, and at once attacked them. The battle began at seven in the evening and was continued for three hours with great fury. Jones lashed his flagship, jthe " Bon Homme Richard," to the English JOHN PAUL JONES. frigate " Serapis," and the two vessels fought muzzle to muzzle until the Serapis sur- rendered. The other English vessel was also captured. The battle was one of the most desperate in the annals of naval war- fare, and Jones' flagship was so badly inj'ured that it sunk in a few hours after the fighting was over. Jones was absent from home for ahout three years, during which time his exploits were numerous and of the most astonishing character. He was denounced as a pirate by the English, who became so alarmed by his achievements that many people did not feel safe even in London. Some of the timid ones looked out on the Thames, half-expecting to see the terrible fellow lay their city under tribute. At one time he landed on the coast of Scotland, and, appearing at the residence of the Earl of Selkirk. captured a large amount of silver plate and booty. But he treated the Earl's household with great courtesy, and the plate that was seized at the time is now in the possession of the members of the Selkirk family. Paul Jones returned to Phila- delphia February i8, 178 1, and received a hearty welcome. Con- gress gave him an appropriate medal and a vote of thanks. In October Sir Henry Clinton, in obedience to orders from home, evacuated Newport and concen- trated his forces at New York, which place he believed was in danger of an attack by the Ameri- cans and French. Until the close of the season Washington cher- ished the hope that the French fleet would return and assist him ia an effort to regain New York, and had called out militia for this purpose. When he learned that D'Estaing had sailed tc the West Indies after the failure of the attack upon Savannah he dismissed the militiato their homes and went into winter quarters in New Jersey, with his headquarters at Morristown. While these events had been transpiring, upon the Atlantic seaboard the United States AID FROM ABROAD. 447 had been steadily pushing their way west- ward beyond the mountains. In 1769, before ths commencement of the Revolu- tion, the beautiful region now known as Kentucky had been visited and explored by Daniel Boone, a famous Indian hunter. He was charmed with the beauty of the country jand the excellence of the climate, and re- 'solved to make it his home. The reports of Boone and his companions aroused a great interest in the new country among the in- habitants of the older settlements in Vir- ginia and North Carolina, more especially as it was in this region that the lands given to the Virginia troops for their services in the French war were located. Surveyors were soon after sent out to lay off these lands, dnd in 1773 a party under Captain Bullit reached the falls of the Ohio and built a fortified camp there for the purpose of sur- veying the region. The Celebrated Daniel Boone. This was the commencement of the city of Louisville, but the actual settlement of the place was not begun until 1778. In 1774 Harrodsburg was founded by James Harrod, one of Boone's companions ; and in 1775 Daniel Boone built a fort on the site of the present town of Boonesborough. The sav- ages made repeated attacks upon his party, but failed to drive them away. The fort was finished by the middle of April, and soon after Boone was joined by his wife and daughters, the first white women in Ken- Lucky. The region of Kentucky was claimed by Virginia, but the settlers submitted to the authority of that province with impatience. They sent a delegate to the Continental Congress in October, 1775, and claimed re- presentation in that body as an independent colony under the name of Transylvania; but the delegate of the fourteenth colony was not admitted by Congress, as Virginia claimed the territory as her own. In the spring of 1 777 the general assembly cf Virginia organized the Kentucky region as a county, and established a court of quartei sessions at Harrodsburg. In this condition Kentucky remained during the Revolution MEDAL STRUCK IN HONOR OF PAUL JONES. The population increased rapidly in spite of the war and of the unremitting hostility 0/ the Indians. During the revolution the Kentucky set- tlements suffered very much from the hos- tility of the Indians, who were urged on by the emissaries of Great Britain to a war of 448 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. DANIEL BOONE. extermination. The principal agent of the mother country in this barbarous warfare was Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In order to put a stop to his intrigues and deprive the Indians of his aid, Congress re- solved to despatch a force to attack Detroit. While this plan was in contemplation the State of Virginia in 1778, sent Colonel George Rogers Clarke with a force of two hundred men to conquer the ter- ritory northwest of the Ohio, which Virginia claimed as a part of her possessions. Clarke was a backwoodsman, but one of nature's heroes. He assembled his men at Pittsburg, and des- cended the Ohio to the falls in flat-boats. There he established a settle- ment of thirteen families, the germ of the present city of Louisville. Being joined by some Kentuck- ians he continued his descent of the river to a short distance below the mouth of the Tennessee. Landing and conceal- ing Lis boats, he struck across the country and surprised and captured the town of Kaskaskia, within the limits of the present State of Indiana. A detachment was sent to Kahokia, and re- ceived its submission. The people of these towns were of French origin, and were greatly averse to the English rule under AID FROM ABROAD, 449 which they had lived since the conquest of Canada. The alliance between the United States and France made them very willing to ac- knowledge the authority of the Union, to which they readily swore allegian,_. The fort at Vincennes was in a weak condition and was held by a small garrison, and readily submitted to Clarke. Hamilton no sooner heard of the suc- cesses of Clarke than he set out from De- troit on the seventh of October, 1778, with a force of three hundred and fifty warriors, and on the seventeenth of December reoc- cupied Vincennes. He now prepared to drive the Americans out of the Illinois country, and spent the winter in trying to arouse the savages against them. He offered a significant reward for every American scalp brought in to him, but offered nothing for prisoners. At the same time he pro- posed to invade Virginia in the spring with with an overwhelming force of Indians. '■' To Their Armpits in Water." Clarke and his party were in very great danger. They were entirely cut off from Virginia, and without hope of reinforements. In this emergency, Clarke, who had learned that Hamilton had greatly weakened the garrison at Vincennes, resolved to stake the fate of the west on a single issue, andattemnt the capture of that post. On the seventh of February, 1779, he left Kaskaskia with one hundred and thirty men, and marched across the country towards Vincennes. On the eighteenth they wer within nine miles of Vincennes. The Wabash had overflowed the country along its banks, and in order to reach the object of their march, Clarke and his men were obliged to cross the submerged lands, up to their armpits in water. They were five days in crossing these " drowned lands," 29 and had the weather been less mild ;'nust have perished. On the twenty-thirJ Vin- cennes was reached, and the town was at once carried. Clarke then laid siege to the fort, assisted in this task by the inhabitants of the town, and in twenty-four hours com pelled Hamilton and his men to surrendei themselves prisoners of war. A British Scheme Frustrated. Clarke was unable to advance against Detroit because of the insufficiency of his force. His successes, however, were among the most important of the war. They not only put an end to the British scheme of a general Indian war along the western frontier of the United States, but established the authority of the Union over the country east of the Mississippi, and prevented Great Bri- tain from asserting a claim to that region at the conclusion of peace, a few years later. Returning to the Ohio, Clarke built a block- house at the falls. The conquered territory was claimed by Virginia, and was erected by the legislature of that State into the county of Illinois. By order of Governor Jefferson of Virginia, Clarke established a fort on the Mississippi, about five miles below the mouth of the Ohio, which he named Fort Jefferson, and entered into friendly relations with the Spaniards at St. Louis, The Tennessee region, which formed a part of the province of North Carolina, had been settled previous to the outbreak of hos- tilities. Fort Loudon, about thirty miles southwest of Knoxville, was built in 1756. and in 1770 tha Cumberland Valley was settled, and Nashville was founded. By the* commencement of the revolution the Ten- nessee country was quickly settled, and the population was increasing at an encouraging rate. In 1776 the Cherokees, incited by the British, waged a formidable war upon the settlers, but were defeated. CHAPTER XXX The Close of the War Vvewy of the Winter of 1779-80 — Sufferings of the American Army — Clinton Sails for the Carolinas — Colonel Tarl« ton — Capture of Charleston — Conquest of South Carolina — Gates in Command of the Southern Army — Battle t)f Camden — Exploits of Marion and Sumter — Advance of Cornwallis — Battle of King's Mountain — Gates Succeeded by General Greene — Knyphausen's Expedition into New Jersey — Arrival of the French Fleet and Army — Arnold'? Treason — The Plot for the Betrayal of West Point — Arrest of Major Andre — Flight of Arnold — Execution of Andr6— Mutiny of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops — Measures of Congress — Arnold Captures Richmond, Virginia- Battle of Cowpens — Masterly Retreat of General Greene — Cornwallis Baffled — Battle of Guilford Court House — Corn- wallis at Wilmington — Battle of Hobkirk's Hill — Siege of Ninety-six — Execution of Colonel Hayne — Battle of Eutaw Springs — Washington Decides to Attack New York — The French Army on the Hudson — Financial Affairs — Re sumption of Specie Payments — Message from the Count De Grasse — Cornwallis at "V'orktown — The American Army Moves Southward — Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of Cornwallis — Effect of the News in England — Indian Troubles — Efforts in England for Peace — Negotiations Opened — Treaty of Paris — End of the War — The Army Disbanded—* Washington Resigns his Commission. THE winter of 1779-80 was passed by the American army in huts near Morristown. It was one of the severest seasons ever experienced in America. The harbor of New York was frozen over as far as the Narrows, and the ice was strong enough to bear the heaviest artillery. Communication between New York and the sea was entirely cut off and the British garrison and the citizens suffered from a scarcity of provisions. Knyphausen was afraid the Americans would seek to pass the Hudson on the ice and attack the city, and landed the crews of the shipping in the harbor and added them to the gar- rison. His precautions were useless, as the American army was too weak and too poorly supplied to undertake the capture of New York. I The troops at Morristown suffered very 'greatly during the winter. They had scarcely clothing enough to protect them from the cold ; and provisions were so scarce that in order to keep his men from starvation Washington was compelled to impress sup- plies from the people of the surronndinp- country. The heavy snows made the army entirely dependent upon New Jersey for its subsistence, as transportation from a long distance could not be attempted. The people of New Jersey bore the sacrifices im- posed upon them with a noble cheerfulness, and though their state was drained almost to exhaustion, were untiring in their efforts to provide food and clothing for the troops. The Continental currency had fallen so low that one dollar in silver was worth thirty dollars in paper by the beginning of the year 1780; but neither officers nor men could obtain their pay in this depreciated cur- rency. It was almost impossible for the government to purchase anything with its notes. About the last of December, 1779, Sir Henry Clinton, leaving a strong garrison under General Knyphausen to hold New York, sailed south, with the greater part oi his army, in the fleet of Admiral Arbuthnot He proceeded first to Savannah, and then moved northward for the purpose of besieg- ing Charleston. General Lincoln exerted himself with energy to fortify that city. Four 450 THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 451 thousand citizens enrolled ^licmselves to assist the regular garrison in the defence, but only two hundred militia from the interior responded to Lincoln's call for aid. Rein- forcements were received from Virginia and North Carolina, and Lincoln was able to muster seven thousand men, of whom but two thousand were regular troops. In February, 1780, the British landed at St. John's island, about thirty miles below Charleston. Clinton advanced towards the city along the banks of the Ashley, while the fleet sailed around to force an entrance into the harbor. The advance of Clinton was very gradual, and Lincoln was enabled to strengthen his works and prepare for a siege. It was not until early in April that Clinton's army appeared before the Amer- ican works and began preparations to reduce them. A day or two later the British fleet passed Fort Moultrie with but little loss and took position off the city. British Successes. Clinton had lost nearly all his horses on the voyage from New York, and was anxious to replace them from the country north of Charleston. The Americans had stationed bodies of militia at different points north of the city to keep open the communications with Charleston, and to prevent the foraging parties of the British from reaching the inte- rior, Clinton intrusted the task of breaking up these posts and obtaining fresh horses to 'Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton, a young and energetic officer. Tarleton was short of stature, of a dark, swarthy com- plexion, and broad shouldered and muscular He was insensible to fatigue, unscrupulous as to the means by which he accomplished his objects, merciless in battle, and unflag- ging in pursuit. He was one of the most efficient officers in the English army, and one of the most cruel. By purchase from friends and seizures fro«. foes, he soon supplied Clinton with all the horses he needed. Ho then began his at- tempt to break up the American posts north of Charleston. On the night of the 14th of April, he surprised a body of fourteen hun- dred cavalry under General Huger and Col- onel William Washington, at Monk's Corner, about thirty miles north of Charleston. The Americans were defeated with a loss of one hundred prisoners and four hundred wagons laden with stores. A little later Fort Moul- trie surrendered, and soon after Tarleton cut to pieces another detachment of American cavalry. Charleston was now completely invested, and the siege was pressed with vigor by Clin- ton. Lincoln's situation became every day more hopeless. The fire of the British artil- lery destroyed his defences and dismounted his cannon, and as he was entirely cut off from the country he had no hope of reliej' from without. On the ninth of May a terri ble fire was opened upon the defences and the city of Charleston. The city was set on fire in five places, and the American wo^ks were reduced to a mass of ruins. Surrender of Charleston. On the twelfth Lincoln surrendered the town and his army to Sir Henry Clinton. The pri- soners, including every male adult in the city, numbered about six thousand men. The reg- ulars were held as prisoners of wa^, but the militia were dismissed to their homes on their promise not to serve again during the war. Clinton followed up his capture of the city by a series of vigorous measures. Tarleton was despatched into the interior to attack a Virginia regiment under Beaufort, which was advancing to the relief of Charleston. Beaufort began his retreat as soon as he heard of the surrender of Charleston, but was overtaken and surprised by Tarleton at 452 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Waxhaw's, on the boundary of North Carolina. The British had made a forced march of one hundred and five miles in fifty-four hours. They gave no quarters to the Americans, and put to the sword all who were unable to escape. Their barbarous conduct on this occasion was termed by the American's *' Tarleton's quarters." A second column was sent by Clinton to Augusta, and a third towards Camden to reduce the country between Charleston and those points. They encountered but little resistance. Negroes Desert their Masters. Clinton issued a proclamation threatening to visit the severest punishments upon those who refused to submit to the royal authority, and this was followed a little later by another, offering pardon to all who would return to their allegiance and assist in restoring the authority of the king. The measures of the British commander were entirely successful, and South Carolina was so completely sub- jugated that early in June Sir Henry Clinton sailed for New York, leaving Lord Corn- wallis to complete the conquest of the State. The country abounded in Tories, who ex- erted themselves actively to assist the British commander in his efforts to hold the Carolinas in subjection. Large numbers of them joined the British army, and " loyal legions " were formed in various parts of the country. The only resistance kept up by the Ameri- cans was maintained by the partisan corps of patriots led by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. The exploits of these daring bands caused the British commander to feel that he could not hold the Carolinas except by the aid of a strong force, and kept him in a state of con- stant uneasiness. On the sixteenth of August Sumter defeated a large body of British and Tories at Hanging Rock, east of the Wateree river. Large numbers of negroes deserted their masters and fled to the British. In order to offer a definite resistance f:o the British, and to collect a regular army to oppose them, the Baron De Kalb was sent to to take command of the troops in the south, and all the regulars south of Pennsylvania were ordered to join him. De Kalb man- aged to collect about two regiments, and with these moved slowly southward. A lack of provisions forced him to halt three weeks on Deep river, one of the upper tributaries of the Cape Fear. Matters were so bad in the south that Con- gress resolved to send General Gates, the conqueror of Burgoyne, to take command of the army in that quarter. General Charles Lee, who knew that Gates was not the man to retrieve such losses, predicted that " his northern laurels would soon be changed into southern willows." Gates hastened south- ward, and overtook De Kalb at Deep river, and assumed the command. De Kalb ad- vised him to move into South Carolina by a circuitous route through the county of Meck- lenburg, which was true to the patriot cause, and where provisions could be easily ob- tained. Total Defeat of General Gates. Gates declined to take his advice, and marched towards Camden by the direct route, which led through a barren and almost uninhabited region. He was sure that his wagons from the north laden with provisions would overtake the troops in two days ; but he was mistaken ; the wagons never made their appearance, and the troops suffered greatly from hunger and disease. His army increased every day by reinforcements from Virginia and North Carolina. On the thir- teenth of August, he reached Clermont,' about twelve miles from Camden. His force now amounted to nearly four thousand men, nearly two-thirds of whom were Con- tinentals. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 453 Upon the approach of Gates, Lord Raw- don, the British commander in this part of the State, fell back to Camden, where he was joined by Cornwallis, who had just arrived from Charleston, and who assumed the com- mand. On the night of the fifteenth, Gates moved nearer to Cam- den, and at the same time Cornwallis advanced to attack Gates, whom he hoped to surprise. The advanced guards en- countered each other in the woods, and the two armies halted until morn- ing. The battle began with dawn, on the six- teenth of August. The militia fled at the first charge of the British, but the Continentals, under the brave De Kalb, stood firm, though attacked in front and flank. At length De Kalb fell mor- tally wounded, and the Continentals gave way. The American army was completely routed, and was broken up into small parties and scattered through the country. These continued a dis- orderly retreat, closely followed for about thirty miles by Tarleton's cav- alry, who cut them down without mercy. The battle of Camden was the most disas- trous defeat incurred by the Americans during the whole war. They lost nearly eighteen hundred men in killed and prison- ers, and all their artillery and stores. A few days after the battle. Gates reached Char- lotte, North Carolina, with about tvvo hun- dred men, the remains of the army which his incapacity had ruined. A few days previous to the battle, Sumter surprised a detachment convoying stores to the British army at Camden, and took two LORD CORNWALLIS. hundred prisoners. As soon as Cornwallis heard of this, he sent Tarleton in pursuit of the " Game Cock," as he styled Sumter. Tarleton pushed forward with such vigor that half of his men and horses were broken down. He overtook Sumter at Fisliins 4U THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 455 Creek, on the west bank of the Catawba, and routed him with the loss of the greater part of his partisan corps, and rescued the prisoners. Early in December afterwards, an engage- ment took place between the Whigs and Tories on Long Cane, near Ninety-Six, which resulted disastrously to the patriot cause, and which was of sufficient importance to be noticed. Colonel Benjamin Few, of Georgia, was the senior officer in com- mand of the Whigs, composed of Georgia and South Carolina militia. Colonel Cruger, the British officer in command at Ninety-Six, with a greatly superior force, determined to attack Few in his camp by surprise. His forces were within three miles of Few's camp before the latter was aware of their approach. Colonel Clarke, Lieu- tenant Colonel McCall,and Major John Lindsay, with one hundred men, were ordered out to meet and skirmish with the enemy until the main body of Few's forces could be brought to their assistance. In this skirmish, Clarke received a wound in the shoulder which was thought to be mortal, and was carried from the field. McCall was wounded in the arm, and his horse being killed under him, narrowly made his escape. Major Lindsay lost his sword-hand by a sabre cut just at the wrist-joint. The advance or skirmish- ing party were routed, with fourteen killed and seven, chiefly officers, wounded. Colonel Few, then acting as brigadier-general, re- treated with the balance of his forces with- out further loss. All united and organized resistance to the British in the Carolinas now ceased for a time. The true policy of Cornwallis was to conciliate the people by acts of clemency, but instead of this he exasperated them by his unneces- sary severity. Among the prisoners taken at the defeat of Sumter were a number who had given their parole not to serve during the war. Some of these were hanged on the spot; the remainder were subjected to a severe impri- sonment. These severities aroused a desire for vengeance among the people, and gave many recruits to Marion, who from the swamps of the lower Pedee maintained a constant and severe partisan warfare against the British. GENERAL FRANCIS MARION. At the same time, Sumter by great exer- tion recruited his command, and resumed his operations in the upper country. These bands were deficient in arms at first, but sup plied themselves from the enemy. They made their own gunpowder, cast their own bullets, and provided food for themselves and their horses. By their rapid and secret movements they kept the British in a state of constant alarm. They would make a sud- den and unexpected attack upon the enemy 456 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. at some exposed point, and before pursuit could be attempted would be miles away, or safe in the labyrinths of the swamps. Gates continued to retreat slowly to the northward after his defeat. He had now about a thousand men with him. Virginia and Maryland made great exertions to rein- force him, but without success. The Patriots Aroused. In September, Cornwallis advanced north- ward with the main body of his army. Upon reaching Charlotte he despatched Colonel Ferguson, one of his most trusted officers, to rally the Tories among the mountains in the interior. Cornwallis intended to advance from Charlotte by way of Salisbury and Hills- borough into Virginia, and form a junction with a force to be sent to the lower Chesa- peake by Sir Henry Clinton. The success of this movement would complete the subjuga- tion of the south . The patriots in the country through which his army passed were very active. His expresses were captured or shot, and his plans made known to the Americans. While Ferguson was on the march, Corn- wallis advanced to Salisbury. The movement of Ferguson roused the patriots of the interior counties to arms, and they assembled rapidly, with the intention of cutting him off from the army under Corn- wallis. They came from all directions, from as far as Kentucky and Tennessee. Their weapons were their rifles, to the use of which they had been trained from childhood ; they had no baggage ; and they moved forward as rapidly as their horses could carry them. These forces had been gathering for several days before the rumors of their march reached Colonel Ferguson. He regarded the reports with distrust at first, but upon receiving more accurate information began a rapid retreat. About the same time the various parties of the Americans effected a junction. They numbered three thousand men. A council of war was held, and it was resolved to send forward a detachment to bring Ferguson to a stand, and to follow with the main body as quickly as possible. Brilliant Exploits o^ Colonel CampbelL Nine hundred men mounted on swift horses, were sent .forward, under Colonel Campbell. They rode for thirty-six hours, a large part of the time through a drenching rain, and dismounted but once during this period. Ferguson, alarmed and astounded at this determination to crush him, fell back to a strong position on King's mountain, near the Catawba. He was attacked there on the seventh of October by the Americans, and defeated after a hotly contested fight. Fer- guson and about one hundred and fifty of his men were killed, the remainder were com- pelled to surrender. The prisoners num- bered about nine hundred and fifty, of whom about one hundred and fifty were wounded. The Americans lost twenty killed and a somewhat larger number wounded. The North Carolinians selected ten of the Tories who had earned their fate bv their cruelties to the Americans, and hanged them on the spot. The Americans then separated and re- turned home, after seeing their prisoners safe in the hands of the proper au':horities. Their victory raised the drooping spirits of their countrymen, and encouraged them to fresh exertions to resist the British. As soon as Cornwallis heard of it, he abandoned his for- ward movement, and, falling back into South Carolina, took position between the Broad and Saluda rivers. He remained there until the close of the year. Marion took advantage of the change of feeling caused by the victory of King's moun- tain to renew his operations on the Pedee, but Tarleton compelled him to withdraw t > W.s THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 457 fastness in the swamps. Sumter was more successful in the northern part of the State, and defeated a detchment sent in pursuit of him. Tarleton then went after him in person, but was defeated and forced to retreat. Sum- ter was wounded in this engagement, and was compelled to withdraw from the field for several months. During this period his com- mand, deprived of their leader, disbanded. The contest in the Carolinas de- generated into a savage civil war. The patriots and Tories fought each other wherever they met, and destroyed each other's property throughout the State. The country was thus kept in constant terror. Upon the retreat of Cornwallis from Salisbury, Gates advanced southward as far as Charlotte, Here he was relieved of his com- mand by General Nathaniel Greene, who had been appointed by Con- gress, at the urgent solicitation of Washington, to take charge of the southern department. Gates had given great disatisfaction by his failure in the south, and Congress ordered a court of inquiry to exa- mine into his conduct. Greene was placed in charge of the entire south from Delaware to Greorgia, "subject to the control of the commander-in- chief." Thus Washington was given supreme direction of the war. Greene pos- sessed his entire confidence, and the most cordial and affectionate relations existed between them. Greene found the rem- nants of Gates' army in a half mutinous condition. The men were without pay, without clothing, and suffering for the necessaries of life. Reinforcements were sent him from the north, among which were Morgan's regiment of riflemen, Lee's legfion of lighthorse, and several batteries of artil- lery. We must now return to the army under Washington. As the spring opened the sufferings of the troops at Morristown in- creased. Food was so scarce that the troops were driven to desperation. Two regiments of Connecticut troops declared their intention to abandon the army and march home, or wrest provisions from the people of the sur- the rounding country by force. Washington was compelled to exert all his influence and authority to restore order. It was with great dif^culty that provisions were procured, and the wants of the troops supplied. The dangei caused by this state of affairs was so great that Congress authorized Washington to declare martial law. The news of these troubles in the American camp induced Knyphausen to undertake an expedition into New Jersey. He landed ^ 458 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Elizabethtown, with five thousand men, on the sixth of June, and marched towards Springfield. His advance was warmly con- tested by the militia of the region, but he oenetrated as far as the village of Connecticut Farms. Being unable to advance farther he caused the village to be sacked and burned ; and Mrs. Caldwell, the wife of the minister most infamous deeds of the war, and gave rise to a fierce and general spirit of vengeance. Her bushand, an eloquent and highly es- teemed minister, animated his contrymen by his stirring sermons, and he soon had the satisfaction of seeing that his labors were not in vain. After the return of Sir Henry Clinton to NOW PUT WATTS INTO THEM, BOYS. of the village, was murdered by some of the British troops. The militia of the region gathered in force, and Knyphausen was obliged to make a hasty retreat to Eliza- bethtown. The murder of Mrs. Caldwell aroused the riost intense excitement throughout New jersey. It was denounced as one of the New York Washington moved a part of his troops towards the Highlands. Knyphausen again advanced from Elizabethtown towards Springfield, hoping to gain the passes beyond Morristown before his march should be dis- covered. His advance was detected, however, ' and General Greene, who was in command of the American forces, prepared to resist THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 459 hitn. A sharp fight ensued, in which Greene succeeded in checking the British advance. The New Jersey regiment, of which Caldwell was chaplain, was engaged in the battle. The wadding of the men gave out, and Caldwell, mounting his horse, galloped to the Presbyterian church, and returned with an armful of Dr. Watts' hymn books, which he distributed among the troops, with the pious injunction, " Now put Watts into them, boys ! " The militia came flocking in to the support of General Greene, and Knyphausen finding it impossible to advance farther, burned Springfield and fell back to Elizabeth- town. Return of Lafayette. The Americans were greatly encouraged in the spring by the return of Lafayette, who had spent the winter in France. He had been successful in his endeavors to induce the French court to send another fleet and army to the assistance of the patriots ; and he now brought the good news that a new expedition was on its way to America. In July a fleet under Count de Tiernay, with an army of seven thousand men, under Count de Rochambeau, reached Newport. The Count de Rochambeau was directed by his government to place himself under the orders of General Warhington in order to avoid disputes that might arise from military etiquette. This expedition was the first divi- sion of the army to be sent to America by France. The second division was to sail from Brest, but was unable to do so, as it was bh)ckaded in that harbor by a British squadron. Thus the supplies of arms and clothing which were to have been sent to the American army were delayed, and the troops under Washington were unable to cooperate with the French in an attack upon New York. An English fleet had followed the French across the Atlantic, and Clinton was anxious to secure its cooperation in an attack upon the French at Newport. He could not agree with Admiral Arbuthnot upon a plan of attack, and the English admiral contented himself with blockading the French in New-i port harbor. Washington called out the militia of New England to assist in the de- fence of Newport in case of an attack. The French fleet was shut up in this port, and to the great disappointment of Washington, was unable to take part in any combined operation. Some weeks later Washington, anxious to strike a decisive blow at the enemy, invited the French commanders, De Tiernay and Rochambeau, to meet him at Hartford, to arrange a plan for an attack upon New York. The meeting was held, but it was decided to ask the cooperation of the French admiral in the West Indies, as the fleet at Newport was not strong enough to cope with the British fleet at New York. Until the answer of the admiral was received nothing could be done. A Treasonable Plot, While absent at Hartford a plot was dis- covered which involved the fair fame of one of the most brilliant officers of the American army. General Benedict Arnold had been disabled by the wounds he had received at Quebec and Saratoga from undertaking active service, and through the influence of Wash- ington had been placed in command of Phila- delphia after its evacuation by Clinton in 1778. There he lived in a style far beyond his means, and became involved in debts, which he was unable to pay. To raise the funds to discharge them he engaged in pri- vateering and mercantile speculations. These were generally unsuccessful, and merely in- creased his difficulties. His haughty and overbearing manner involved him in n quar- 4(5o THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. rel with the authorities of Pennsylvania who accused him before Congres.'^ of abusing his official position and misusing the pubHc funds. He was tried by a court-martial and was sentenced to be reprimanded by the com- mander-in-chief. Washington performed this disagreeable task as delicately as possible, )ut did not lose his confidence in Arnold. BENEDICT ARNOLD. He knew him as an able officer, but, as his acquaintance with him was limited, was most likely ignorant of the faults of Arnold's char- acter, which were well known to the mem- bers of Congress from Connecticut, who had r;o confidence in him. To them he was known to be naturall>' dishonest, regardless of the rights of others, and cruel and tyran- nical in his dealings with those under his authority- Arnold never forgave the dis- grace inflicted upon him by the sentence of the court-martial, and cherished the deter- mination to be revenged upon Washingtan for the reprimand received from him. While in Philadelphia, Arnold had married a member of a Tory family, and was thus enabled to communicate readily with the British officers. He opened a correspond- ence with Sir Henry Clinton, signing himself Gustavus. He kept up this cor- respondence for several months, and then made himself known to the British commander. In the meantime, at his earnest soli citation, he was appointed by Washington, in August, 1780, to the command of West Point, the strongest and most important fortress in America. He did this with the deliberate intention 01 betraying the post into the hands of the enemy. The correspondence had been conducted on the part of Sir Henry Clinton by Major Joliv Andre of the British army, ,•? young man of amiable character and more than ordinary accom- plishments. He wrote under the assumed name of John Ander- son. He was an especial favorite of Sir Henry Clinton, and was beloved by the whole army in which he served. Soon after the appointment of Arnold to the command of West Point, Andre volunteered to go up the Hudson and have an interview with him for the purpose of completing the arrangements for the betrayal of that fortress. H's offer was accepted by Clinton, and he ascended the Hudson as far as Haverstraw in the sloop of war " Vulture." He was set ashore and was m.'t near Haverstraw on the west bank of the Hudson by General Arnold, THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 461 on the twenty-second of September. The meeting took place about dark, and the night had passed before the arrangements were completed. Much against his will, Andre was compelled to pass the next day within the American lines. During the twenty-third the " Vulture," having attracted the attention of the Americans, was fired upon and forced to drop down the river. Andre found the man who had set him ashore unwilling to row him back to the sloop, and he was compelled to return to New York by land. He changed his uniform for a citizen's dress, and, provided with a pass from Arnold, under the name of John Anderson, set out for New York along the east bank of the river, which he deemed safer than the opposite shore. All went well until Andre reached the vicinity of Tarry- town. There he was stopped by three young men, John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. They asked him his name and destination, and he, suppos- ing them to be Tories, did not use the pass given him by Arnold, but frankly avov/ed himself a British officer travelling on important business. To his dismay he then learned that his captors were of the patriotic party, and he offered them his watch, purse, and any reward they might name if they would suffer him to pro- ceed. They refused to allow him to stir a step, and searched his person. They found concealed in his boots papers giving the plan of West Point, and an account of its garrison. Andre was taken by his captors before Colonel Jamison, the commander of the ■earest American post. Jamison recognized the handwriting as that of Arnold, but, un- willing to believe that his commander could be guilty of treason, he detained the prisoner, and wrote to Arnold informing him of the arrest of Andre and of the papers found upon his person. The papers themselves he for warded by a special messenger to Washing- ton, who was on his return from Hartford. Arnold received Colonel Jamison's letter MAJOR ANDRE. as he sat at breakfast with some of his offi- cers. He concealed his emotion, andexcus ing himself to his guests, called his wife from the room, told her he must flee for his life, and hastening to his barge, escaped down the river to the " Vulture," and was received on board by the commander of that vessel. From his place of safety he wrote to Wash- ington, asking him to protect his wife, who, 462 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. he declared, was innocent of any share in his plot. When he learned that Arnold was safe, Andre wrote to Washington, and confessed the whole plot. He was at once brought to trial upon the charge of being within the American lines as a spy. The court-martial was presided over by General Greene, and Lafayette and Steuben were among its mem- bers. Andre asserted that he had been induced to enter the American lines by the misrepresentations of Arnold. The Infamous Plot Confessed. He denied that he was a spy, and though cautioned not to say anything that might criminate himself, he frankly confessed the whole plot. He was sentenced, upon his own confession, to be hanged. Clinton made great exertions to save him, and Washing- ton, whose sympathy was won by the amiable character of Andre, was anxious to spare him. The circumstances of the case de- manded that the law should be executed, and Andre was hanged at Tappan, near the Hudson, on the second of October, 1780. Congress voted to each of his three captors a pension of two hundred dollars for life and and a silver medal. The plot of Arnold had been discovered by the merest chance, and the American cause had narrowly escaped a crushing dis- aster. The loss of West Point would have given the British the entire control of the Hudson, and have enabled them to separate New England from the Middle and Southern States. It might have proved fatal to the cause, and certainly would have reduced Washington to great extremities. Arnold received for his treachery the sum of ten thousand pounds sterling and a commission as brigadier-general in the English service. He was regarded with general contempt by the English officers, who refused to associate with him, and were greatly averse to serving under him. In the summer of 1780 it seemed likely that England would be involved in war with the whole civilized world. The claim of Great Britain to the right to search the ves- sels of neutral nations for articles contraband of war was productive of great annoyance to the northern powers, whose commerce was subjected to serious loss by these arbi- trary measures. Catharine II. of Russia determined to resist it, and organized with Denmark and Sweden a league known as the " Armed Neutrality," for the purpose of enforcing the principle that neutral ships in time of war are entitled to carry merchan- dise without being liable to search or seizure by the belligerent powers. War in Europe. Holland joined this league, and concluded a secret commercial treaty with the United States. This treaty was discovered by Great Britain almost immediately, and in the fol- lowing manner : The American minister to Holland, Henry Laurens, was captured at sea by a British frigate. He threw his papers, the treaty among them, into the sea, but they were recovered by an English sailor, who sprang overboard and secured them. They were laid before the British government, which demanded that Holland should dis- avow the treaty and the correspondence with the United States. The Dutch government returned an evasive answer, and England immediately declared war against Holland. The English fleet at once proceeded to attack the Dutch possessions and commerce in all parts of the world. Holland declared war against Great Britain, and her fleet was added to that of France against England. Spain now made an alliance with France against England, and sent her fleet to co- operate with the French in the West Indies, ESCAPE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 4^4 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. and also laid siege to Gibraltar. The Irish about the same time demanded a reform of the many abuses from which that island had been suffering since the battle of the Boyne, and this demand was sustained by a force of eighty thousand armed Protestant volunteers which had been raised for the defence of Ire- land against a threatened attack of the French. They demanded an independent parliament, and even threatened a total separation from Great Britain. In the face of these difficul- ties the spirit of England rose higher than ever, and that country, with a vigor worthy of her ancient renown, put forth all her energies to find a way out of her difficulties. The whole world was arrayed against her, but in the face of it she held her own. The heroism manifested by England at this try- ing period is worthy of the highest admira- tion. Sufferings of the Patriots. The American army passed the winter of 1780-81 in cantonments east and west of the Hudson. The Pennsylvania troops were stationed near Morristown, and the New Jer- Jersey regiments at Pompton. Though the troops were better provided with food than during the previous winter their sufferings were still very severe. They were neglected by Congress, which was too much occupied with its dissensions to make any serious effort to relieve the wants of the soldiers. The Pennsylvania troops had an especial cause of complaint. Their enlistments were for three years or the war. The three years had expired, but the government refused to discharge them on the ground that the enlist- ments were for the period of the war no matter how long it should last. The troops on the other hand contended that the words, "for the war," meant that the enlistments should expire if the war closed in less than three years. On the first of January, 1781, thirteen hundred Pennsylvania troops left the camp at Morristown under arms and set off for Philadelphia to obtain redress from Con- gress. General Wayne, their commander, placed himself in front of them, and, pistol in hand, attempted to stop their march. In an instant their bayonets were at his breast. " We love, we respect you," they ex- claimed, " but you are a dead man if you fire. Do not mistake us ; we are not going to the enemy ; were they now to come out you would see us fight under your orders with as much resolution and alacrity as ever." They halted at Princeton, where they were met by the agents of Sir Henry Clinton, who endeavored to induce them to join the British service. They promptly seized these men and delivered them up to General Wayne as spies. At a later period it was proposed to reward them for this action, but they refused to accept anything, saying : " We ask no reward for doing our duty to our country." Mutiny Promptly Quelled. Congress was greatly alarmed by the ap« proach of these troops, and a committee, accompanied by Reed, the President of Penn- sylvania, was sent to meet them. The com- mittee met the leaders of the mutineers and agreed to relieve their immediate wants and to secure them their back pay by means of certificates. Permission was given to all who had served three years to withdraw from the army. Upon these conditions the troops returned to duty. The disaffection was increased by the yielding of Congress. On the twentieth of January the New Jersey troops at Pompton mutinied, but this out- break was quelled by a detachment sent from West Point by Washington. The mutiny opened the eyes of the coun- try to the sufferings of the army, and aroused THE CLOSE OF THE WAft. 465 sli parties to the necessity of providing for the troops. It was clearly understood that a failure to sustain the army would result in the defeat of the cause. Urgent appeals were made by Congress to all the States, especially to those of New England, to sup- ply the wants of the army, and Congress endeavored to negotiate a loan abroad. Direct taxation was resorted to to provide money at once. The British in Virginia. The year 1781 opened with a military ex- pedition under the command of the traitor Arnold, now a brigadier-general in the British service. Early in January he was sent by Sir Henry Clinton, with sixteen hundred British and Tories, from New York to the Chesapeake to ravage the shores of Virginia, After plundering the plantations along the lower bay and the James, Arnold ascended the river, and landing his troops marched to Richmond. Thomas Jefferson, tnen Governor of Virginia, called out the militia, but only a handful responded. Arnold occupied Richmond, burned the public buildings and some private dwellings, and then re-embarked and dropped down the the river to Portsmouth. Washington was anxious to capture him, and sent Lafayette with a force of twelve hundred men south- ward by land to prevent Arnold from escaping overland to join Cornwallis in the Carolinas, and at the same time the French fleet sailed from Newport for the Chesapeake to prevent the escape of the traitor by water. The British Admiral Arbuthnot followed the French fleet and brought it to an en- gagement off the mouth of the Chesapeake. The French were worsted and obliged to return to Newport, and Admiral Arbuthnot entered the bay and reinforced Arnold with two thousand British troops under General Philips, who assumed the command at Ports- 30 mouth and fortified his position there. From his camp he sent out detachments to ravage the country in all directions. Lafayette, in the meantime, upon hearing of the failure of the plan, halted at Annapolis, in Maryland. Arnold, upon being superseded by Philips, returned to New York. Battle of the " Cowpens." Early in January Cornwallis, who was at Winnsborough, South Carolina, sent Colonel Tarleton, with a force of one thousand cavalry and light infantry, to cut off Mor- gan's division from the column under Gen- eral Greene. Morgan was between the Broad and Catawba Rivers at the time, and upon hearing of Tarleton's approach began to retreat towards the Catawba. Tarleton pushed on with such speed that Morgan saw he must be overtaken. He accordingly halted and took position at the " Cowpens," ahout thirty miles west of King's Mountain, and rested his men. Tarleton arrived in front of this position on the seventeenth of January and made an impetuous attack upon the Americans. At first he drove the mili> tia before him, but Morgan keeping his Continentals well in hand, suddenly wheeled upon him and drove him from the field. The two forces were about equal. Morgan lost but eighty men, while the loss of the British was over six hundred. Tarleton escaped from the field with only a few of his cavalry. Cornwallio moved forward as soon as he learned of Tarleton's defeat. He supposed that Morgan would be encumbered with his wounded and prisoners, and would be slow in leaving the scene of his victory, and he hoped by a rapid march to come up with him, crush him, and rescue the prisoners before he could join General Greene. Mor- gan was much too wary to be caught in such a trap. He felt sure Cornwallis would 466 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. seek to avenge Tarleton's defeat, and leaving his wounded under a flag of truce, he re- sumed his retreat with all speed immediately- after the battle, and hurrying towards the Catawba, crossed that river. Two hours after he had passed it the advance of Cornwallis' army reached the bank of the river, but owing to a sudden rise in the stream were unable to cross it. The British were detained in this manner for two days, during which Morgan rested his GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN. men and sent off his prisoners to a place of safety. Two days after the passage of the Catawba Morgan was joined by the troops under General Greene, who had heard of the vic- tory of the Cowpens, and was advancing to the assistance of his lieutenant. Greene was not yet strong enough to meet the British, and he continued the retreat toward the Yadkin. He moved slowly, and his rear guard was still engaged in the passage of the Yadkin when the advance guard of Corn- wallis reached that stream, on tne third o* February. Cornwallis had burned all his heavy baggage, and had reduced his army to the strictest light marching order, in the hope of being able to intercept Greene. A skirmish ensued on the banks of the Yadkin, and night coming on the British commander deferred the passage of the stream until the next day. During the night a heavy rain swelled the river so high that it could net be forded, and the Americans had secured all the boats on the other side. Greene, profiting by this delay, hurried on to cross the Dan into Virginia, where he could receive reinforcements and sup- plies. Morgan was left to cover the retreat of the army, but falling ill was obliged to relinquish the command of the rear guard to Colonel Otho H. Williams. Cornwallis passed the Yadkin as soon as possible and strained every nerve to prevent Greene from crossing the Dan. He supposed the Americans would not be able to cross at the lower ferries, but would be obliged to pass the river higher up, where it could be forded. He there- fore urged his army to its utmost exer- tions to secure these fords before the a "ival of the Americans. Perceiving Co. nwallis' error. Colonel Williams re- treated towards the upper fords and so confirmed the British commander in hib delusion. Having led the British sufficiently out of the way, Williams wheeled about, and by a rapid march of forty miles in twenty-four hours down the river, rejoined Greene, who had moved with all speed to the lower ferries, where, in anticipation of his retreat, he had collected a supply of boats. The Dan was passed on the fifteenth of February, and the American army was safe from its pursuers. An hour or two later Cornwallis, who had discovered his mistake and had marched THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 46; i^ith speed from the upper fords, appeared on the opposite bank of the river, only to see his adversary safely beyond his reach. The river was too deep to be forded, and Greene had all the boats in his possession, Corn- wallis was deeply mortified at his failure to intercept Greene. He had pursued him for over two hundred miles, and had made great sacrifices to come up with him, but the American commander had managed to elude him and had successfully carried out one of the most brilliant retreats in history. The Americans regarded their escape as provi- dential, and not without cause. Their way across the Carolinas might be tracked by the blood from their feet ; and twice, when the enemy had come within gunshot of them, the rising of the waters of the Catawba and the Yadkin, which they had passed in safety, had held back the British and enabled them to escape. After resting his men for a few days on the banks of the Dan, Corn- wallis fell back to Hillsborough. Greene Compelled to Retreat. Having received reinforcements. General Greene recrossed the Dan, about the last of February, and advanced into the Carolinas to watch Cornwallis and encourage the patriots of that region. Cornwallis, being short of supplies, moved slowly southward. Greene followed him cautiously, too weak to risk a battle, but ready to take advantage of the first error on the part of his adversary. His movements were conducted with the utmost circumspection, and in order to guard against a surprise he never remained in the same place more than one day, and kept secret until the last moment the places he selected for his encampments. In the meantime he was gradually receiving rein- forcements from Virginia and Maryland, until his army numbered four thousand men. Feeling himself strong enough to attack the enemy, Greene left his baggage at a point of safety and advanced to Guilford Court-house, seventeen miles distant, with the intention of bringing Cornwallis to a decisive engagement. Here he was attacked by Cornwallis on the fifteenth of March, and after one of the hardest-fought battles of the war was compelled to retreat. Greene with- drew in good order, and Cornwallis, though victorious on the.field, was so sorely crippled that he was unable to make any pursuit, and was obliged to fall back to Wilmington, near the mouth of Cape Fear River. By the time he reached that place his army had been so much weakened by desertions and losses in battle that it amounted to but four- teen hundred men. Operations in South Carolina. Greene had lost a thousand militia by desertion during his retreat, but was soon enabled to supply their places. He then moved into South Carolina for the purpose of attacking the British force under Lord Rawdon, which was posted at Camden. He advanced to Hobkirk's Hill, about two vniles from Camden, where he was attacked on the twenty-fifth of April by Lord Rawdon. After a sharp engagement Greene was de« feated and obliged to retreat. He withdrew his army in good order, having inflicted upon his adversary a loss about equal to his own. Rawdon was unable to derive any advantage from his victory, as he could not bring Greene to another general engagement. The activity of the American partisan corps in his rear alarmed him for the safety of his communications with Charleston, and he abandoned Camden and fell back to Monk's Corner. In the meantime Lee, Marion, Pickens, and the other partisan leaders had broken up the fortified posts of the British with 468 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. such success that by the month of June, 1 78 1, only three positions of importance remained to the British in Sonth Carolina Charleston, Nelson's Ferry and Fort Ninety- six, near the Saluda. The last-named posi- LORD RAWDON, AFTERWARD MARQUIS OF HASTINGS. if-ion was of the greatest importance, and was held by a force of Carolina Tories. Lee and Pickens were sent against Augusta, Georgia, and captured it after a close invest- ment of seven days. General Greene him- self marched against Ninety-six and laid siege to it. Being informed that Lord Raw don was marching to relieve it, he deter- mined to carry the fort by assault before Rawdon could arrive. The assault was made on the eighteenth of June, but was repulsed with severe loss. Greene then raised the siege and retreated across the Saluda. Early in July the excessive heat put an end to active opera- tions on the part of the two armies. Greene withdrew to the high hills of the Santee, and the British went into camp on the Congaree. A bitter partisan war- fare now sprung up between the patriots and the tories, and continued during the summer. Houses were pillaged and burned, farms were laid waste and no quarter was given by either party. Even women and children were included in these dreadful mas- sacres. Lord Rawdon now resolved to add to the horrors of this war- fare by executing as traitors those who' had given their parole not to engage in the war or had received a protection, if they should be taken in arms. Among the prisoners taken by the British at the capture of Charleston, was Colonel Isaac Hayne, a distinguished citizen of that place. His wife THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 469 was dying and his children were helpless, and he gave his parole to remain neutral, in order to be able to take care of them, and was promised protection. At a later period, the British commander being in need of rein- forcements, Hayne was ordered to take up arms against his country in behalf of the king. He regarded himself as relieved from his parole by this command, and soon after escaped from Charleston and raised a partisan corps, at the head of which he was captured. He was condemned to die as a traitor ; and though the inhabitants of Charleston, both patriot and royalist, petitioned for his pardon, it was refused, and he was hanged, by order of Lord Rawdon, on the 5th of August. Life for Life. His execution was regarded by the Amer- icans as cruel and unjust, and as contrary to military law. General Greene felt himself obliged to retaliate by executing as deserters all those prisoners who had formerly served in his own army, and so bitter was the feeling of the American troops that they could scarcely be prevented from shooting the British officers who fell into their hands. Lord Rawdon now sailed for England, and left the command of his army to Colonel Stewart, an officer of ability and experience. At the close of the summer General Greene, whose army had been increased by the com- mands of Marion and Pickens to twenty-five hundred men, resumed the offensive. He attacked the British at Eutaw Springs on the eighth of September, and after a severely con- tested battle the left wing of the British was routed. In the moment of victory the Amer- ican army stopped to plunder the enemy's camp, and the British, taking advantage of the deUy, rallied and made a stand in a large stone l..>use, from which they could not be driven. Greene was forced to draw off his %roops an»d leave the field to the British, who lost seven hundred men in the engagement. The American loss was five hundred men. Both sides claimed the victory ; but the ad- vantage certainly was not with the British, who lost more than a third of their men. Colonel Stewart, in view of this loss, fell back to the vicinity of Charleston. Greene followed him as far as Monk's Corner, and then returned to the hills of the Santee. The American commander had abundant reason to be satisfied with the result of his opera- tions in South Carolina. He had rescued the greater part of the State hom the British, and had confined them to the region between the Santee and the lower Savannah. He had repeatedly engaged the enemy with the most inadequate means and under the most unfa- vorable circumstances, and had never failed, even though defeated, to accomplish the object for which he fought. He had baffled the British commanders over again, and, like William of Orange, had managed to derive greater advantages from his reverses than his adversaries were able to draw from their victories. Plan to Recapture New York. Washington was well pleased with the achievements, in the South, of his most trusted lieutenant. He was very anxious to attempt something decisive with his own army, if he could secure the aid of a French army and fleet. Two enterprises offered themselves to him — an attack upon New York, which had been greatly weakened by detachments sent from its garrison to the south, and an expedition against Cornwallis. That commander had left Wilmington on the twentieth of April, and had advanced, without encountering any serious resistance, to Petersburg, Virginia. He arrived there on the twentieth of May, and was joined by the troops under General Philips, who had been plundering the country along the James river. 470 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION While Washington was hesitating which would be the best course to pursue, a French frigate arrived at Newport, with the Count de Barras on board, who had come to take command of the fleet at Newport, He brought the good news that a fleet of twenty ships-of-the-line, under the Count de Grasse, having on board a considerable force of troops, had sailed for America, and might be expected to arrive in the course of a few months. Washington held a conference with the Count de Rochambeau, at Weathersfield, Connecticut, and it was resolved to attack New York. The French army was to march from Newport and form a junction with the Americans on the Hudson. A frigate was "iespatched to the West Indies to inform the Count de Grasse of this arrangement, and to ask his co-operation in the proposed attack. Cornwallis Strongly Intrenched. Si{ Henry Clinton, who suspected the designs o.^ Washington, now ordered Lord Cornwallis, who had crosssed the James river, and was at Williamsburg, to send him a reinforcement of troops. Cornwallis pre- pared to comply with this order, and for that purpose marched towards Portsmouth, followed cautiously by Lafayette and Steu- ben, who had with them about four thousand American troops. On the march a slight engagement occurred, near Westover, be- tween Lafayette and Cornwallis, in which the Americans narrowly escaped a defeat. The British army crossed to the south side of the James, and a detachment was embarked for New York. At this moment a second order was received from Sir Henry Clinton, who had received a reinforcement of Hessians from England, directing Cornwallis to retain all his force, choose some central position in Virginia, fortify himself in it, and await the development of the American plans. Corn- wallis should have taken position at Ports* mouth, from which place his line of retreat to the South would have remained intact. In an evil hour for himself he recrossed the James, and crossing the peninsula between that river and the York, took position at the towns of Gloucester and Yorktown, opposite each other, on the York River. He had with him an army of eight thousand effective troops, and proceeded to fortify his position with strong intrenchments. A number of vessels of war were anchored between Yorktown and Gloucester to main- tain the communication between those points and to assist in the defence of the place. During all this time the financial affairs of the republic were growing worse and more hopeless. The continental currency had become utterly worthless, one dollar in paper being worth only one cent in coin at the opening of the year 1781. In the spring of that year Congress sought to put an end to its financial troubles by taking the control of the finances from a board which had hitherto managed them, and intrusting them to Robert Morris, whose services in behalf of the cause have been mentioned before. Return to Specie Payments. Morris was an experienced financier, and had opposed with all his energy the system of making continental money a legal tender. He now made a return to specie payments the condition of his acceptance of the trust imposed upon him by Congress. On the twenty-second of May, 1781, Congress most unwillingly resolved : " That the whole debts already due by the United States be liqui- dated as soon as may be to their specie value, and funded, if agreeable to the creditors, as a loan upon interest ; that the States be severally informed that the calcu- lations of the present campaign are made ill solid coin, and, therefore, that the requisition* THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 471 from them respectively being grounded on those calculations, must be complied with in such manner as effectually to answer the the purpose designed ; that experience having evinced the inefficacy of all attempts to support the credit of paper money by compulsory acts, it is recommended to such States where laws making paper bills a tender yet exist to repeal the same." On the thirty-first of May continental bills, being no longer a legal tender, ceased to cir- culate. Henceforth all transactions were to be in hard money. The result amply vin- dicated Morris' views. He induced Congress to establish the Bank of the United States at Philadelphia, with a capital of two millions of dollars and a char- ter for ten years. This bank was allowed the privilege of issuing its own notes, which it was required to re- deem in specie upon presentation. This re- quirement gained for the bank the confi- dence of the people, and capitalists availed themselves of it for the investment of their money. Morris used the bank freely in his public operations, and at the same time used it so wisely that he was able to secure all the aid h was capable of bestowing without subject- ing it to too severe a strain. He raised the credit of the government higher than it had ever stood before, and was able to do much towards paying the soldiers and supplying them with food and clothing. As often as the public funds failed he pledged his own credit to supfh' the deficiency. No man did more to contrir"'te to the success of the cause than Robert Mer'i:., and no man received more ingratitude from the govern- ment and people of the Union than he. In July Washington was joined in the Highlands by the French army under Count de Rochambeau, and preparations were made to attack New York. An intercepted letter informed Sir Henry Clinton of this design, and he exerted himself to put the li-SU-iDO^ SCENE IN THE HIGHLANDS OF THE HUDSON. city in a state of defence. In the midst of his preparations Washington received a letter from the Count de Grasse, stating that he would sail for the Chesapeake instead of Newport. This decision of the French admiral compelled an entire change of plan on the part of the Americans. As De Grasse would not co-operate with them, they must abandon the attack upon New York, and attempt the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown, No time was to be lost in 472 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. making the attempt, lor it was now the month of August. By a series of skilful movements Sir Henry Clinton was induced to believe that an attack upon New York would soon be made, and at the same time the American army was marched rapidly across New Jersey, followed by the French. Lafayette, who was in Virginia, was ordered to prevent at all hazards a retreat of Corn- A^allis' army to • North Carolina, and was directed to ask assistance of General Greene if necessary. Cornwallis Entrapped. The plan of Washington was to blockade Cornwallis in the York river by means of the French fleet, and at the same time to besiege him in Yorktown with the army. The troops were somewhat unwilling to undertake a southern campaign in August, but their good humor was restored at Phila- delphia, where they received a part of their pay in specie, and a supply of clothing, arms and ammunition, which had just arrived from France. From Philadelphia the combined armies proceeded to Elkton, at head of the the Chesapeake, where they found trans- ports, sent by the French admiral and by Lafayette, to convey them to the James river. The first intimation Sir Henry Clinton had of a change in the American plans was the sudden sailing of the French fleet from New- port on the twenty-eight of August. Sup- posing that De Barras's object was to unite with another fleet in the Chesapeake, Clinton sent Admiral Graves to prevent the junction. Upon reaching the capes the British admiral was astonished to find the fleet of the Count de Grasse, consisting of twenty ships-of-the line, anchored within the bay. De Grasse at once put to sea as if to engage the enemy, but in reality to draw them off" and allow De Barras to enter the Chesapeake. For five days he amused the English by constan: skirmishing. De Barras at length appeaie*, and passed within the capes, and De Grasse at once followed him. Admiral Graves was unwilling to attack this combined force and returned to New York. The movement of the American army to the south was known to Clinton, but he sup- posed it was only a manoeuvre to draw him off of Manhattan Island into the open coun- try. When the Americans were beyond the Delaware and the French fleets had effected their junction in the Chesapeake, he recog- nized his mistake and saw that the object of Washington was the capture of Cornwallis. It was- too late to prevent it ; but in the hope of compelling Washington to send back a part of his force to defend New England, Clinton sent the traitor Arnold with s large body of troops to attack New Londo^~ Vi Connecticut. On the sixth of September Arnold captured that town and burned the shipping and a large part of the town. A Horrible Massacre. He then took Fort Griswold, on the oppo- site side of the Thames, by storm, and basely massacred Colonel Ledyard, the commander^ and sixty of the garrison after the surrender of the fort. The militia of the State were summoned to take up arms for its defence, and responded in such numbers that Arnold became alarmed for his safety and returned to New York. The object of his expedition failed most signally. Washington left New England to defend herself, and continued his movement against Cornwallis. Cornwallis was very slow to realize his danger. He believed the small force under Lafayette the only command opposed to him, and on the tenth of September wrote to Clinton that he could spare him twelve hundred men for the defence of New York. He did not perceive his error until the French fleet had THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 473 anchored in the Chesapeake and cut off his escape by water. He then attempted to retreat to North Carolina, as Washington had foreseen, but Lafayette, who had been reinforced by three thousand French troops under the Marquis de Sto Simon, from the fleet of De Grasse, was too active for him, und finding his retreat impossible, Cornwallis the British, and on the ninth of Oc tobei the cannonade was begun. It was continued for four days, and the British outworks were greatly damaged, and several of their vessels in the river were burned by means of red- hot shot thrown into them by the French vessels. On the fourteenth two of the ad- vanced redoubts of the enemy were stormed VIEW OF YORKTOWN. sent urgent appeals to Clinton for assistance, and strengthened his fortifications. In the meantime the American and French armies descended the Chesapeake, and took position before Yorktown, while the French fleet closed the mouth of York river. The siege was begun on the twenty-eight of Sep- tember. Sixteen thousand men were pre- sent under Washington's orders. Works Were erected completely enclosing those of and taken, one by the Americans, the other by the French. From the positions thus gained a very destructive fire was maintained upon the English lines, which were broken in many places, while many of their guns were dismounted and rendered useless. On the fifteenth Cornwallis found himself al- most out of ammunition, and unable to maintain his position but for a few days longer. 474 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. In this strait the British commander re- solved upon the desperate alternative of cross- ing the York to Gloucester, abandoning his sick and wounded and baggage, and endeavor- ing to force his way northward by extraor- dinary marches to New York. It was a hopeless undertaking, but Cornwallis resolved to make the trial. On the night of the six- teenth of October he crossed a part of his army from Yorktown to Gloucester, but a sudden storm delayed the passage of the He sent to Washington an offet to surren* der, and the terms were soon arranged. On the nineteenth of October Cornwallis sur< rendered his army of seven thousand met. as prisoners of war to Washington, as com mander of the allied army, and his shipping seamen and naval stores to the Count de Grasse, as the representative of the king ol France. Washington despatched one of his aids to Philadelphia to communicate the good news SURRENDER OF LORD CORNWALLIS. fiver by the second division' until after day- light, when it was useless to make the attempt. 'The first division was with difficulty brought back to Yorktown, as the boats were exposed to the fire of the American batteries while crossing th« river. Nothing was left to Cornwallis now but a capitulation, as his works were in no condition to with- stand an assault, and simple humanity to his men demanded that the contest should cease. to Congress. The officer pushed forwarc. with all speed, and reached Philadelphia at midnight, and delivered his message. Soon the peals of the State-house bell roused the citizens, and the watchmen took up the cry, " Cornwallis is taken ! Cornwallis is taken!" The people poured out into the streets in throngs, and no one slept in Philadelphia that night. The next day Congress proceeded in a body to a church and gave thanks for the great victory. A national thanksgiving THE CLOSfe OF THE WAR. 475 was ordered, and throughout the whole land rejoicings went up to God for the success which all men felt was decisive of the war. On the nineteenth of October, the day of the surrender of Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clin- ton sailed from New York to his assistance with a force of seven thousand men. Off the capes he learned of the surrender of the British army at Yorktown, and as his fleet was not strong enough to meet that of the French he returned at once to New York. " It is All Over." The news of the surrender of Cornwallis was received in England with astonishment and mortification. It was the second time England had lost an entire army by capture, and her efforts to subdue the United States were no nearer success than they had been at the opening of the war. The English people had[ never regarded the attempt to conquer America with favor, and they now became more open and energetic in their demands for peace. " Lord North, the prime minister," says an English writer, " received the intelligence of the capture of Cornwallis as he would have done a cannon ball in his breast; he paced the room, and throwing his arms wildly about, kept exclaiming, ' O God ! it is all over ! it is all over !' " The king and the aristocracy, however, had no thought of yielding yet to the popular pressure, and were resolved to carry on the war. After the surrender at Yorktown, Wash- ington urged the Count de Grasse to coop- erate with General Greene in an attack upon Charleston. The French admiral declined to comply with his request, alleging the necessity of his immediate return to the West Indies. The French troops were quar- tered for the winter at Williamsburg, Vir- ginia, and the American army returned aorthwai d and resumed its old position on the Hudson. Washington, though con- vinced that peace was close at hand, did not relax his vigilance, and urged upon Congress the necessity of preparing for a vigorous campaign the next year ; but so thoroughly was Congress carried away by the prospect of peace that his recommendations were unheeded. In the south the British and Tories were so disheartened by the surrender of Corn- wallis that they ceased active operations and evacuated all theii posts but Savannah and Charleston. General Greene at once dis- posed his army in such a manner as to con- fine them closely to Charleston. In the Northern States the only place held by the British was New York. Indian and Tory Outrages. Though active operations had ceased on the part of the two armies, a cruel and destructive warfare was continued by the Indian allies of the British against the border settlements of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and a similar warfare was maintained by the Tories and Indians along the frontier of New York. These outrages involved the Christ- ian Delaware Indians in the punishment of the guilty savages. The Delawares had become converted to Christianity under the influence of the Moravian missionaries, and had removed from the Susquehanna to the Muskingum. They were suspected by the Americans of the crimes of their heathen brethren, and in the spring and summer of 1782 their towns were destroyed and numbers of them were slain. The war was carried into the country of the Wyandottes by the whites, but with less success. On the sixth of June a force of Pennsylvanians under Colonel Crawford was defeated by the Wyandottes. In the same summer a band of northern Indians led by Simon Girty, a Tory of infamo' 476 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. character, invaded Kentucky. They were met by the Kentuckians under Boone, Todd, and other leaders. A severe battle was fought at the Big Blue Lick, and the Ken- tuckians were defeated with the loss of Oearly one-half their force. Story of Captain Huddy. Some of the staunchest patriots and some Df the most ferocious Tories resided in Mon- mouth county, New Jersey. The patriots built a block-house of logs at Dover, which was a strongly fortified building. The only method of ingress or egress was by the use of a scaling ladder. Captain John Huddy was commander of this post, and was one of the bravest men who fought for the Amer- ican cause. His house was once surrounded by his foes, but esccping he jumped into the waters of the bay, and as he swam he shouted, "I am Huddy!" His escape on this occasion was remarkable. On March 20, 1782, a party of forty Tories and eighty seamen, all fully armed, left New York in whaleboats for the pur- pose of capturing Captain John Huddy. Their coming was announced by scouts, and preparations were made to receive them. The batde was one of the fiercest of the war. The powder in the fortress at length gave out, and Huddy, with sixteen men, four of whom were wounded, was taken prisoner. Huddy was a prisoner of war, and was entitled to treatment as such, but his enemies conspired to put him to death. He was executed on the morning of April 12, and his last words were, " I shall die Innocent, and in a good cause." Captain Lippincott, who ordered Huddy's execution, cursed his men because they were unwilling to take the life of so brave a foe, and with his own hand helped to pull the rope. Returning to New York he reported to the board of loyalists that he had " ex- changed " Captain Huddy for Philip White. The pastor of the Presbyterian church at Freehold preached the funeral sermon from the front porch of the old Freehold hotel, and the body was buried with the honors of war. The desire of the English people for the close of the war had grown too strong to be resisted, and the king and his ministers were at length forced to yield. The impossi- bility of conquering America had become so apparent to the continental nations that in the spring of 1782 the Dutch republic recognized the independence of the United States, and received John Adams as envoy from that government. The king of Eng- land maintained his obstinate opposition to the wishes of his people to the last moment. On the twenty-second of February, 1782, a resolution was introduced into the House of Commons to put an end to the American war and was supported by the leaders of the Whig party. It was defeated by a majority of one, but on the twenty-seventh of February a similar resolution was introduced and was carried by a majority of nineteen. England Gives Up the Struggle. On the twentieth of March Lord North and his colleagues were forced to relinquish their offices, and a new ministry was formed under the Marquis of Rockingham. Sir Henry Clinton was removed from his com- mand in America, and was succeeded by Sir Guy Carleton, whose humane conduct of the war while governor of Canada we have related. Carleton arrived in New York in May, 1782, with full powers to open nego- tiations for peace. He at once put a stop to the savage warfare of the Tories and Indians on the borders of western New York, and opened a correspondence with Washington proposing a cessation of hostilities until a definite treaty of peace could be arranged- CAPTAIN HUDDY LED FROM PRISON TO BE HANGEP 477 478 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Five commissioners were appointed by Congress to conclude a peace with Great Britain. They were John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, who had just been released from the tower of London, where he had been kept a prisoner for about a year, and Thomas Jefferson. Mr. Jefferson was unable to leave America. Five commissioners were appointed by Great Britain to treat with " certain colonies " named in their instructions. A Treaty Formed. The commissioners from the two countries met at Paris, but the American commis- sioners refused to open negotiations except in the name of the " United States of America." This right was acknowledged by Great Britain, and on the thirtieth of November, 1782, a preliminary treaty was signed, which was ratified by Congress in April, 1783. This treaty could not be final because by the terms of the alliance between the United States and France neither party could make a separate treaty of peace with England. In January, 1783, France and Great Britain agreed upon terms of peace, and on the third of September, 1783, a final treaty of peace was signed by all the nations who had engaged in the war — by the United States, France, Spain and Holland on the one side, and Great Britain on the other. Great Britain acknowledged the independ- ence of the States of the Union in the fol- lowing words : " His Britannic Majesty acknowledges the said United States, viz. : New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecti- cut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Caro- lina, South Carolina and Georgia, to be free, sovereign and independent States ; that he treats with them as such; and for himself, his heirs and successors, relinquishes all claim to the government, proprietary and ter- ritorial rights of the same, and every part thereof" It should be observed that the treaty acknowledged the independence and sovereignty of each of the thirteen States, and not of the United States as a single nation. The independence of the States had already been recognized by several of the European powers : by Sweden, on the fifth of February, 1783; by Denmark, on the twenty-fifth of February, 1783,; by Spain, on the twenty-fourth of March; and by Russia in July, 1783. Treaties of friendship and commerce were entered into between the United States and these powers. Washington and His Army. During the year 1782 the greater part dt the American army was encamped at New- burg, on the Hudson. Washington mad* his headquarters in an old stone house, which was well adapted for defence and con- cealment, one of the rooms having seven doors leading to other parts of the house, and but one window. The troops were unpaid and were neglected by Congress and by the various States. Washington warned the government of the danger of further neglect of the army, but his warning was unheeded, and in March the patience of the army was so far exhausted that it was seriously proposed to march to Philadelphia and compel Congress to do justice to the troops. Washington appealed to the officers to remam patient a little longer, and pledged himself tq use his influence with Congress to fulfill its neglected promises to the army. His appeal quieted the trouble for a time. Congress shortly after agreed to advance full pay to the soldiers for four months, and to pay in one gross sum the full pay o^ the officers for five years. The condition of the country was a sub- ject of the gravest apprehension. It was WASHINGTON S HEAD-QUARTERS AT NEWBURGH, NEW YORK. THE ROOM WITH SEVEN POORS AND ONE wr^D,_,w. 479 480 plain that the articles of confederation were not capable of continuing the Union much longer, and many persons believed that the only hope of preserving a regular govern- ment, and a permanent union to the country, lay in the establishment of a monarchy. In May, 1782, Colonel Nicola, of the Pennsyl- v^ania line, at the instance of a number of officers, wrote a letter to Washington, pro- posing the creation of a monarchy, and offer- ing him the crown. Washington indignantly refused to entertain the proposition, and severely rebuked the writer of the letter. Peace at Last. In the spring of 1783 the news of tne signing of the preliminary treaty of peace was received in America, and was officially communicated to the nation in a proclama- ion by Congress. On the nineteenth of April, 1783. just eight years from the com- mencement of the war at Lexington, the close of hostilities was proclaimed, in general orders, to the army at Newburg. A general exchange of prisoners followed, and large numbers of Tories were obliged to leave the country, as they feared to remain after the prvu\ h'oii of the British forces was vM>h- THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. drawn. They emigrated chiefly to Canada,, Nova Scotia, and the West Indies. The final treaty having been signed, the army was dis- banded on the third of November, and the troops, with the exception of a small force, returned to their homes to enjoy their well- earned honors and the thanks of their grate- ful countrymen. On the twenty-fifth of November the British evacuated New York, which was at once occupied by a small force of Americans, under General Knox. In December Charleston was also evacuated by the British. On the second of December Washington issued a farewell address to the army, and on the fourth of that month took leave of the officers at New York. He then proceeded to Annapolis, where Congress was in ses- sion, and on the twenty-third of December, under circumstances of great solemnity, re- signed his commission to that body, and aftei- receiving the thanks of Congress for the able and faithful manner in which he had dis- charged the task intrusted to him, retired to his home at Mount Vernon, which he had not visited for eight years, except for a few hours, while on his way to attack Cornwailis at Yorktovvn. BOOK V From the Close of the Revolution to the Civil War CHAPTER XXXI The Adoption of the Constitution — Washington's Administration Unsettled Condition of the Country — Failure cf the Articles of Confederation — Desire for Reform — Meeting of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia — The Constitution of the United States — Adoption of a Decimal Currency — The North- vrest Territory — Washington Elected President — His Journey to New York — Establishment of the New Government — The First Cabinet — Financial Measures — Removal of the Capital Agreed Upon — The Government at Philadelphia — The First Census — The Indians of tlie Northwest Conquered — Re-election of Washington — Division of Parties — The French Revolution — The United States Neutral — Citizen Genet — Efforts to Commit the United States to the French Alliance — Genet's Recall Demanded — The " Whiskey Insurrection " — ^Jay's Treaty with England — Opposition to It- Negotiations with Algiers — Political Disputes — Hostility to Washington — His Farewell Address — Its Effect Upon the Country — Election of John Adams to the Presidency — Admission of Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee — Retirement ^f Washington — Results of His Administration. THE long war was over ana inde- pendence had been achieved; but the condition of the country was such as to excite the gravest ap- prehensions. The country was exhausted by the sacrifices and burdens of the war, and its debts amounted to the enormous sum of one hundred and seventy millions of dollars, a sum vastly out of proportion to its resources. Two-thirds of these debts had been contracted by Congress ; the re- mainder by the States. The articles of con- federation were found inadequate to the task of enforcing the authority of the general government, and the States treated the orders of Congress with neglect. Commerce was sadly deranged for the want of a uniform system. The spates entered into competition with each other for the trade of foreign nations, and articles which, were required to pay 31 hcctvy duties in some of the States were admitted free of duty in others. Many of the States were unable to enforce the collec- tion of taxes within their own limits. The British merchants at the close of the wai flooded the American markets with their manufactures at reduced prices. The result was that the domestic manufactures of the States were ruined ; the country wa5 drained of its specie, and the merchants and people of the Union were involved in heivy debts. A general poverty ensued in the Eastern States, which gave rise to much discontent. In Massachusetts, in Deo/;mber, 1786, a body of a thousand men, under Daniel Shays, assembled at Wore ster and com pelled the Supreme Court to adjourn in order to prevent it from issuing writs for the collection of debts. The niilitia was called out and " Shay's Rebellion '' was put down ; but it was evident that the sympathies oi 481 485 FkOM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. the people were largely with the insurgents. These troubles brought home to the whole country the necessity of a more perfect system of government, and measures were begun for bringing about the changes needed. In September, 1783, delegates from five of the States met at Annapolis to deliberate upon a plan for the improvement of com- merce and the revenue. They recommended the assembling of a convention to revise the articles of confederation : and, accordingly. delegates from all the States met for this purpose at Philadelphia in May, 1787. Among the more prominent of these may be named Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut ; Dun- ning Bedford and George Read, of Delaware; ' William Few, George Walton and Abraham Baldwin, of Georgia; Daniel Carroll, James McHenry and Luther Martin, of Maryland; Nathaniel Gorham, Caleb Strong, Elbridge Gerry and Rufus King, of Massachusetts; John Langdon and Nicholas Gilman, of New Hampshire ; Jonathan Dayton, William Livingston and William Patterson, of New Jersey ; John Lansing, Robert Yates and Alexander Hamilton, of New York ; Alex- ander Martin, Richard D. Spaight and Wil- liam R. Davie, of North Carolina ; Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris, James Wilsor and Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania; John Rutledge, Pierce Butler, Charles Pinckney and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina; Edmund Randolph, George Mason, James Madison and George Washington, of Virginia. Patrick Henry was opposed to the general objects of the convention, and therefore declined any par- ticipation in its action. Mr. Jefferson was Minister to France, and not in the country at the time. Birth of the Constitution. George Washington, who was one of the delegates from Virginia, was unanimously chosen president of the convention. The sessions of this body lasted four months, and the convention, instead of revising the arti- cles of confederation, adopted an entirely new constitution. Each article of this con- stitution was discussed with care and minute^ ness, and with great feeling. The sessions of the convention were held with closed doors ; but its proceedings were so far from harmonious that there were several occa- sions when it seemed likely the convention would break up in confusion, and leave its work unfinished. At length, however, through the patriotism and forbearance of its members, the convention brought its work to a close, and presented the constitu- tion to Congress. It was submitted by that body to the several States for their approval. The State gox^'^rnments summc ^.ed con- ventions of their respective people, and sub- mitted the constitutio. \ to them for their acceptance or rejection. By the end of 178^ 483 WASHINGS ^'^-J&iiWJii'XXON AT TRENTON 484 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. it was ratified by eleven States, North Carolina did not ratify it until November, 1789; and Rhode Island held aloof from the Union until May, 1790. The right of these States to reject the constitution, and to continue their separate existence as inde- pendent States, was not questioned by any one. The new constitution was not entirely satisfactory to any party, and represented the sacrifices made by all to achieve the government, strong the objects of the great end of a central enough to carry out Union. It was a document of compromises, three of which were of especial importance. The first was a concession to the smaller States, which had feared the loss of their independence ; they were placed on the same footing as the larger States by being given an equal representation in the Senate. The second was a concession to the slave- holding States of the south, and guaranteed that in apportioning their representation in Congress three-fifths of the slaves were to be included with the white population. The third was a concession to Georgia and South Carolina, and granted them permission to continue the African slave-trade until 1808. The delegates from those States refused to sign the constitution except upon this con- dition. Decimal Currency. In the meantime Congress had taken £. step of the highest importance in adopting the plan, presented by Mr. Jefferson, for a decimal currency. Until now the use of the English currency had been general in all the States. In August, 1786, our present sys- tem of dollars and cents was adopted by Congress, and a mint was established some what later. The government was so poor however, that it could only coin a small quantity of copper cents. The sessions of Congress were held at New York. In the session of 1787 a meas- ure was adopted, which had the most im- portant influence upon the subsequent his- tory of the country. The treaty of Paris fixed the Mississippi river as the western boundary of the United States. This river consequently became the western limit oi Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. In 1784 Virginia ceded to the general gov- ernment of the United States her claim to the vast region owned by her beyond the Ohio. Massachusetts and Connecticut soon followed her example, and New York also ceded her western territory to the govern- ment. In July, 1787, Congress organized this vast region as the territory of the northwest. It was provided that slavery should never be permitted to exist in this territory, or in any of the States which might afterwards be formed out of it. This wise provision, which WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 485 was the basis of the wonderful prosperity of this great region, was due to the foresight ot Thomas Jefferson. The northwest being secured to freedom, emigration soon set in, and it began its great career of prosperity which has since known no slackening. ^Vashington Elected President. It was provided by the constitution that when it should have been ratified by two- thirds of the States, it should go into opera- tion on the fourth of March, 1789. Eleven of the States having ratified the constitution, elections were held for President and Vice- President of the United States, and for mem- bers of Congress. New York was named as the seat of the new government. The fourth of March, 1789, was ushered in with a public demonstration at New York ; but a sufficient number of members of Congress to form a quorum for the transaction of busi- ness did not arrive until the thirtieth of March. On the sixth of April the electoral votes were counted, and it was found that George Washington had been unanimously chosen first President of the United States, and John Adams Vice-President. Charles Thompson, the oldest secretary of Congress, was sent to Mount Vernon to notify Washington of his election, and a mes- senger was despatched to Boston on a similar errand to Mr. Adams. Washington promptly signified his acceptance of the office, and, two days later, started for New York. It was his desire to travel as quietly and unos- tentatiously as possible, but the people of the States through which he passed would not permit him to do so. His journey was a constant ovation. Crowds greeted him at every town with the most enthusiastic demon- strations of affection and confidence ; trium- phal arches were erected ; his way was strewn with flowers by young girls ; and maidens and mothers greeted him with songs com- posed in his honor. In consequence of these demonstrations his progress was so much retarded that he did not reach New York until the latter part of April. On the thirtieth of April Washington appeared on the balcony of Federal Hall, New York, on the site of which the United States Treasury now stands, and took the oath of office in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, and a large crowd of citizens assembled in the streets below. He then repaired to the Senate chamber, and there delivered an address to both houses of Congress. The organization of the government being now complete. Congress proceeded to arrange the executive department by the creation of the depart- ments of state, the treasury and war. Presi- dent Washington appointed Thomas Jeffer- son, secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, and General Henry Knox, secretary of war. John Jay was made 486 T«E INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON, chiet juoLice of the United States, Edmond Randolph, attorney-general. The new government found itself face to face with many difficulties, the principal of which was the payment of the national debt. This debt was in the form of notes of the government, or promises to pay for value received. These notes had been issued by the States as well as by Congress during the revolution, and had been given in payment for services rendered the general and State governments, and for supplies. In Janu- ary, 1790, Alexander Hamilton proposed to pay all these debts in full, and that the general government should assume the war debts of States. This plan met with considerable oppo- sition at first, but was at length adopted. It was also arranged that the revenue of the country should be divided as follows: As the control of commerce had passed into the hands of Congress the revenue ^ derived from the duties levied upon im ported merchandise was to be applied to the uses of the general government. The proceeds of the direct taxes upon rea. estate and other property, which coulo be levied only by the respective States, were to be used for the expenses of those States. It had been for some time considered desirable to remove the seat of federal government to some point more central than New York, and which could be brought under the supreme control of Congress. In 1790 it was resolved that the seat of govern- ment be fixed at Philadelphia for ten years, and at the end of that time be removed to a new city to be built on the banks of the Potomac. A federal district, ten miles square, was ob- tained by cession from Virginia and Mary- land, and was placed under the sole control of the United States. The foundations of a new city, named Washington, in honor of WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION and 487 the " Father of his country," were laid on the left bank of the Potomac, a short dis- tance below the falls of that river, and build- ings for the accommodation of the general government were begun and pushed forward as rapidly as possible. The general government was removed to Philadelphia in 1791, and in December ol that year the second Congress began i( sessions in that city. The principal measui of this session was the establishment of thfe WASHINGTON. Bank of the United States, in accordance with the recommendations of Alexander Hamilton. The bank was chartered for twenty years, and its capital was ten millions of dollars, of which the government took two millions and private individuals the re- mainder. The measure was carried in the face of considerable opposition in Congress, but was very beneficial to the government, as well as to the general business of the country. The notes of the bank were 488 FROM THE REVOLU'l'ION TO THE CIVIL WAR. payable in gold and silver upon presentation at its counters. Commerce now began to show signs of a great revival from the stagnation and loss caused by the war. The duties levied upon foreign goods gave to domestic manufac- turers an opportunity to place themselves upon a firmer foundation. Very great im- provements were made in the character of American manufactures. In New England INDIAN CHILD IN CRADLE. the weaving of cotton and woolen goods was begun, in a feeble way it is true, but the foundation was laid of that great industry which has since been a constant and grow- ing source of wealth to that section. In 1790 the first census of the United States was taken, and showed the population to be 3,929,827 souls. The Indians of the northwest had been very troublesome for some time. The British agents in that region incited them to hostility against the United States, and urged them to claim the Ohio as their southern and eastern boundary. They com- mitted innumerable outrages along this river and almost put a stop to the trade upon its waters by attacking and plundering the flat-^ boats of the emigrants and traders which were constantly descending the river. The general government resolved to put a stop to their outrages, and General Harmer was sent against them in 1790, but was defeated with great loss. " Little Turtle " Defeats St. Clair. In 1 79 1 General St. Clair, the governor of the northwest territory, was placed in command of an expedition against the savages. He set out from Fort Washing- ton, now Cincinnati, about the middle of September, with a force of two thousand men, but near the headwaters of the Wabash was surprised and defeated by an Indian force under Little Turtle, a famous chief of the Miamis. The wreck of his army fled to Fort Washington, and the frontier was once more defenceless. President Washington now placed General Anthony Wayne in command of the forces destined to operate against the Indians. With his usual energy Wayne assembled his army at Fort Washington, and in the sum- mer of 1 794 marched into the Indian country, laid it waste and defeated the Indian tribes in the battle of the Maumee on the twentietli of August. In the summer of 1795 the Indians, cowed by their defeat and alarmed by the withdrawal of the British from the frontier posts, met General Wayne at his camp on the Miami and entered into a treaty with the United States by which they ceded all the eastern and southern part of Ohio to the whites and withdrew farther westward. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 489 In the elections of 1792 Washington and Adams were chosen President and Vice- President of the United States for a second term of four years. The disputes which had been begun by the adoption of the constitu- tion had been continued during the first term of Washington's presidency, and had given rise to two political parties — the Federalists, or those who favor a strong national government, and who supported the administration, and the Anti-Federalists, who opposed the policy of the administration. Among the leaders of the Federalist party were Washington, Adams, Hamilton and Jay ; among the Anti-Federalist leaders were Jefferson, Madison and Monroe. Reign of Terror in France. The differences between Jefferson and Hamilton increased with time, and soon as- sumed the character of a personal hostility, a circumstance which was productive of great trouble to the president, since it prevented his cabinet from acting harmoniously. As the quarrel deepened, the Anti-Federalist party repudiated that title, and took the name of Republican, as it better expressed their principles. The political questions entered largely into the second election, and pre- vented Mr. Adams from receiving the unani- mous vote which was given to Washington. Shortly after the commencement of Wash- ington's first term of office, the French revo- lution broke out, and drew upon France the attention of the whole world. The events of this great struggle were watched with the deepest interest in America, for the nation cherished the warmest sentiments of grati- tude to France for her aid in the revolution. The Republican party urgently favored an alliance with the French republic, but Washington and the greater part of his cabinet were resolved to maintain a strict neutrality as to all European quarrels. The excesses of the revolutionists shocked the public sentiment of America, and the events of the reign of terror cooled the zeal of many of the most ardent friends of the French republic. Still party feeling ran high upon the subject, and the disputes were yet very bitter when Mr. Edmond Charles Genet, or " Citizen Genet," as he was gen erally styled, arrived in the United States, in 1793, as minister from the French republic. He brought the news that France had de- clared war with Great Britain. He v.** well t ■'/'^y ALEXANDER HAMILTON. received by the Republicans, who were anxious that the United States should become the ally of F'rance, and thus engage in a new war with Great Britain. Washington and his cabinet were unmoved by this clamor, and a proclamation was issued declaring the neutrality of the United States in the war between Great Britain and France, and warning the American people to refrain from the commission of acts inconsistent with this neutrality. The firmness of the President in resisting the demand for 2A 490 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. alliance with France saved the country from innumerable losses, perhaps from the des- truction of the work of the revolution. Genet, encouraged by the sympathy of the Republican party, was determined to embroil the United States with Great Britain to such an extent that they would be compelled to make common cause with France. He therefore began to fit out privateers from American ports against the commerce of England. He was warned by the govern- itnent diat he was transcending his privileges as a minister of a friendly power, but paid no attention to this rebuke. The Republican party now took a more active stand in favor of the F'rench alliance, and its more ultra members assumed the name of Democrats, and others styled themselves Democratic Republicans. The determination of Presi- dent Washington not to interfere in the quarrels of Europe was vehemently assailed, and the newspapers of this party went so far as to denounce the President and his sup- porters as the enemies of France, and the friends and secret supporters of their old op- pressor, the king of England. Genet was greatly deceived by these clamors, which he mistook for the sentiment of the American people. He took a step fur- ther, and authorized the French consuls ii the American ports to receive and sell ves sels captured by French cruisers from the English, with whom the United States were at peace. He also contemplated raising a force in Georgia and the Carolinas for the purpose of seizing Florida, and another in Kentucky for the conquest of Louisiana, both of which regions were then held by Spain, a power friendly to the United States. The patience of the President having been exhausted by Genet's insolent conduct Washington requested the French govern ment to recall him, which it did in 1794, much to the astonishment of citizen Genet. M. Fauchet was appointed in his place. Genet did not return home, but became a. citizen of the United States. Whiskey Tax Unpopular. The impunity with which Genet had braved the federal government gave rise to fears that it was not strong enough to enforce its authority. Advantage was taken of this feel- ing in an unexpected quarter. The fertile region of Western Pennsylvania, watered by by the Monongahela and its tributaries, had been settled by a hardy population, chiefly of Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, who had with great labor and amid constant exposure to the attacks of the Indians, redeemed the land from the wilderness, and covered it with thriving farms and orchards. Grain and apples and peaches were their staple products ; the grain was distilled into whiskey, and the fruits were made into brandies. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 491 One ){ Hamilton's favorite measures for the raising of a revenue was the imposition of an excise or duty upon whiskey. This tax was generally unpopular throughout the country, but especially so in the four westfern counties of Pennsylvania. The settlers of this region organized themselves in secret societies for the purpose of resisting this tax, and at length, in 1792, rose in rebellion against the government, refused to pay the tax, and drove off the excise officers. The best men in this section were engaged in the rebellion, and it was openly proposed to separate from Pennsylvania and form a new State. Nearly seven thousand armed men assembled, and declared their intention to resist the authority of the State and federal governments. England '1 mcatens Our Commerce. Matters remained in this condition for about two years, and at length Washington, finding it necessary to employ force for the suppression of the revolt, sent a strong body of troops to compel the rebels to submit. Upon the appearance of the troops, the leaders of the movement fled, and the " Whiskey Insurrection " suddenly came to an end. This vigorous action of the federal govern- ment greatly added to its strength. The fidelity with which Washington so'-ght to discharge his duty towards England, as a neutral, was but little appreciated by the government of that country, which con- ducted itself towards the United States in a manner that seemed likely to result in an. other war. By the treaty of Paris England had agreed to surrender the frontier posts held by her forces within the limits of the United States. These were still retained, and were made by the British agents so many centres for stirring up the Indians to acts of hostility against the Americans. Orders were issued to the British nav?l officers to seize and detain all vessels laden with French goods, or with provisions for any of the French colonies. As the Ameri- can ships were largely engaged in trade with France and her colonies, this order threat- ened the commerce of the States with ruin. The feeling of indignation against Eng- land, caused by these outrages, was increasing throughout the Union, and the country was rapidly drifting into a war with that king- dom. The interests of the United States J^^^A demanded peace with all the world, as the country was yet too weak and unsettled to endure another war with safety. This neces- sity was recognized by Washington and his advisers, and the constant aim of the Presi- dent was to avoid, as far as possible, all com- plications which might lead to war. The conduct of Great Britain could not be passed by, and if a settlement of the matter, con- sistent with the honor and interests of the republic could not be arranged, war was in- evitable. 492 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. Anxious to exhaust all peaceful means of settlement, President Washington sent John Jay, the chief justice, to England to enter into negotiations with the British govern- ment for the settlement of all matters in dis- pute between the two countries. Mr. Jay was eminently qualified for the task, both by his remarkable abilities and his great and honorable services to the country since the outbreak of the revolution. He was received in England with great respect, and in the course of a few months concluded a treaty, which was submitted to the Senate of the United States for ratification. By the terms of this treaty Great Britain agreed to give up the western posts within two years, to grant to American vessels the privilege of trading with the West Indies upon certain condi- tions, and to admit American ships free of restrictions to the ports of Great Britain and the English East Indian possessions. On the other hand provision was made by the United States for the collection of debts due British merchants by American citizens. This treaty did not please any party entirely, not even Mr. Jay himself; but it was the best that could be obtained from Great Britain at the time, and as such was accepted by the administration, which threw all its influence in favor of its adoption. It met with very great opposition in the Senate and subjected the president to a great deal of adverse criticism throughout the country. One of the powerful advocates of the treaty was Fisher Ames, of Massachusetts, who did much by his resistless eloquence to insure the adoption of the measure. After a fortnight's debate in secret session the Senate advised the ratification of the treaty. The Treaty Secures Peace. The acceptance of this treaty, imperfect and unsatisfactory as it was, secured peace to the United States for a number of years at this most critical period of its history. In 1795 treaties were also negotiated with Spain, by which the boundaries between the United States and Louisiana and Florida were definitely settled. The navigation of the Mississippi was made free to both parties, and the Americans were granted the privi- lege of making New Orleans, for three years, the place of deposit for their trade. The commerce of the United States, which was increasing rapidly, was confined chiefly to the New England States. A lucra- tive trade with the countries of Europe bordering the Mediterranean had grown up, but was greatly interfered with by the Algerine pirates, who sallied out from their harbors on the African coast and captured many of the vessels engaged in this trade and sold the crews into slavery. The European powers had purchased exemption from these outrages by paying an annual tribute to the Dey of Algiers, The United WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 40i States for the present thought it best to follow the universal custom, and ransomed the captive American sailors by the payment of nearly a million of dollars. At the same time the more sensible policy of establishing a navy for the protection of American com- merce was resolved upon, and in 1795 a bill was passed by Congress for the construction of six first-class frigates. This was the be- ginning of the United States navy, Mr. Jefferson had retired from the cabinet at the close of 1793, and after his with- drawal party quarrels ran higher than ever. The motives and con- duct of the President were denounced with great bitterness by his opponents, and he was subjected to consider- able annoyance by these attacks. He continued with firm- ness the course he had marked out for himseif, ^.rusting to time and the good sense of his country- men for his vindica- tion. In September, 1796, he issued a fare- well address to the services of Washington, and enabled hi% countrymen to see him in his true light. The gratitude of the nation, which had been long obscured by party passions, burst forth in a mighty stream, and from every quarter came evidences of the affection and venera- tion of the American people for their great leader. Congress adopted a reply to the farewell address, expressing the highest con- fidence in the wisdom and integrity of Washington, and during the winter of SCENE IN THE MAMMOTH CAVE, KENTUCKY. people of the United States, in which he announced his purpose to retire from public life at the close of his second term, and delivered to his countrymen such counsels and admonitions as he deemed suited to their future guidance. It was the warn- ing of a father to his children engaged in a difficult and all-important undertak- ing. ' It had a most happy effect. It brought up the memory of the great and unselfish 1796-97 nearly all the State legislatures adopted similar resolutions. At the elections held in the fall of 1796 the Federalists put forward John Adams as their candidate, while the Republicans sup- ported Thomas Jefferson. The contest was' very bitter, and resulted in the election of Mr. Adams. Mr. Jefferson, receiving the next highest number of votes, was declared Vice President, in accordance with the law as it then stood. 404 FROM The revolution to the civil war. During the administration of President Washington three new States were admitted into the Union, making the whole number of States sixteen. They were Vermont, which was admitted on the fourth of March, 1791, making the first new State under the constitution ; Kentucky, which was admitted of the presidency the government was new and untried, and its best friends doubted its ability to exist long ; the finances were in confusion and the country was burdened with debt; the disputes with Great Britain threatened to involve the country in a new war; and the authority of the general gov- WASHINGTON's home at mount VERNON. in 1792 ; and Tennessee, admitted on the first of June, 1796. At the close of his term of office, Wash- ington withdrew to his home at Mount Ver- non, to enjoy the repose he had so well earned, and which was so grateful to him. His administration had been eminently suc- cessful. When he entered upon the duties ernment was uncertain and scarcely recog- nized. When he left office the state of affairs was changed. The government had been severely tested and had been found equal to any demand made upon it ; the finances had been placed upon a safe and healthy footing, and the debt of the country had WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 495 been adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties concerned in it. The disputes with England had been arranged, and the country, no longer threatened with war, was free to devote its energies to its improvement. Industry and commerce were growing rap- idly. The exports from the United States had risen from nineteen millions to over fifty- be millions of dollars, and the imports had increased in nearly the same proportion. The rule of non-interference in European quarrels, and of cultivating friendly relations with all the world, had become the settled policy of the republic, and its wisdom had been amply vindicated. The progress of the republic during the eight years of Wash- ington's administration was indeed gratify- ing, and gave promise of a brilliant future. *f*^i^ CHAPTER XXXn The Administrations of John Aaams and Thomas Jefferson inauguration of John Adams — Aggressions of France Upon the United States — The American Commissioners Insulted by the French Government — The Alien and Sedition Laws — The United States Prepare for War with France —France Signifies Her Willingness to Treat — New Commissioners Appointed — Settlement of the Dispute — Hostilities at Sea — Capture of the *' Insurgente " and " Vengeance " — Death of Washington — Removal of the Capitol to Washington City — The Second Census — Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson — The President's Message — His First Measures — Ad- mission of Ohio — Louisiana Purchased by the United States — War with the Barbary Powers— Burning of the " Phila- delphia " — Re-election of Mr. Jefferson — Aaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel — Burr's Subsequent Career — Fulton's Steamboat — Outrages of England and France Upon American Commerce — American Vessels Searched and American Seamen Impressed by England — Efforts to Settle These Questionr— Affair of the " Chesa- peake" and "Leopard" — The Embargo — Results of This Measure — Losses of the Eastern Siates — Election of JameP Madison to the Presidency — Repeal of the Embargo — Retirement of Mr. Jefferson. o N the fourth of March, 1797, John Adams was inaugurated Presi- dent of the United States, and Thomas Jeffer.son took the oath of office as Vice President. Mr, Adams was in the sixty-second year of his age, and in the full vigor of health and intellect. He made no changes in the cabinet left by President Washington, and the policy of his adminis- tration corresponded throughout with that of his great predecessor. He came into office at a time when this policy was to be subjected to the severest test, and was to be triumph- antly vindicated by the trial. Mr. Adams began his official career with the declaration of his "determination to maintain peace and inviolate faith with all nations, and neutrality and impartiality with the belligerent powers of Europe." The relations of the United States with France had been of an unfriendly nature for some time. Jay's treaty had greatly offended the French government, and the insolent conduct of M. Adet, the French minister to the United States, had led to a suspension of diplomatic intercourse between the two 496 republics. The French Directory now pro- ceeded to raianifest its disregard of the rights of America by ordering the seizure of all American vessels in its ports laden with English manufactured goods. At the same time the American minister to France, Charles C Pinckney, was treated with such studied insult that he demanded his pass- ports and withdrew to Holland. Privateers were sent out from French ports, which cap- tured American merchantmen and treated their crews as prisoners of war. France also exerted her influence with Spain and Holland to induce them to treat the United States with hostility because of the alleged partiality of Jay's treaty with Great Britain. All this while there was a considerable party in the United States which was anxious for the conclusion of an alliance with France, and which either could not, or would not, see the deliberate purpose of that country to treat v. itb .he American republic only as a dependent. In May, 1797, President Adams called a special session of Congress and laid before it a statement of the relations with France. ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 497 The announcement of the insults received by the American minister at the hands of the Directory, and the increased aggressions upon American commerce, aroused a feeling of deep indignation throughout the country, arid drew upon the partisans of France in America a considerable amount of deserved odium. In the hope that a peaceful and honorable settlement might yet be had, John Marshall and Eldridge Gerry, the former a federalist and the latter a republican, were appointed special commissioners, and were ordered to proceed to Paris and unite with Mr. Pinckney in the negotiation of a treaty which should not conflict with those existing with other nations, and which should place beyond question the right of the United States to maintain their neutrality. *' Not One Cent for Tribute. Marshall and Gerry joined Pinckney in Paris in October, 1798, and made their busi- ness known to the French minister of foreign affairs, the famous Talleyrand. He at first refused to receive the American envoys in an official capacity, and afterwards employed unknown agents to communicate with them, in order that he might be free to disavow any engagement entered into with them. It soon transpired that the object of these secret in- terviews was to extort money from the com- missioners. They were given to understand that if they would pay Talleyrand a certain sum of money for the use of himself and his friends, and would pledge the United States to make a loan to France, negotiations would be begun without delay. The answer of the American commission- ers was well expressed in the indignant words' of Pinckney : " Millions for defence, not one cent for tribute." Marshall and Pinckney were ordered to quit France at once, but Mr. Gerry was invited to remain and nesjoti.^te. a 32 treaty. He was nevertheless unable to accom- plish anything. The correspondence between the commissioners and Talleyrand's agents was published in the United States, and aroused such a storm of indignation that the French party disappeared. It never dared tc make its appearance again. JOHN ADAMS. About thirty thousand French exiles were residing in the United States at this time^ and it was believed by the government that some of these had acted as spies for the Directory. It was known that many had abused the hospitality extended to them by seeking to induce the people of the south and west to join them in an effort to wrest Louisiana and Florida from Spain, and by endeavoring to strengthen the opposition to the efforts of the government to discharge its duty of neutrality towards the European powers. In the spring of 1798, in order to remedy , this trouble, Congress passed the measures 49S FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. known as the " alien and sedition acts," by the first of which the President was em- powered to order out of the country " any foreigner whom he might beheve to be dan- gerous to the peace and safety of the United States." By the sedition act it was made a crime, with a very heavy penalty, for any one to " to write, utter, or publish " any " false, scandalous, and malicious writing " against "either House of the Congress of the United States or the President of the United States, JOHN MARSHALL, with intent to defame, or to bring them, or either of them, into contempt and disrepute." These acts met with great opposition through- out the country, and the latter especially was '•egarded as an effort on the part of the government to destroy the freedom of the press. The alien act was not executed, but a large number of foreigners left the country soon after its passage. Several persons were pro- secuted under the sedition act for their severe criticisms of the government, and the result was invariably to increase the ranks of the Republican party, which steadfastly opposed the laws as unconstitutional and violative of the freedom of the people of the Union: In the summer of 1798 Mr. Marshall returned from France, and his report con-; firmed the statements that had been made respecting the hostile intentions of the gov- ernment of that country. The President submitted to Congress a statement of the disputes between the two republics, and Congress, recognizing the danger of war, began to prepare for it. It was resolved to create a navy, and the three frigates just com- pleted were fitted for sea. A State of Defence. The President was authorized to nave built, or to purchase or hire twelve ships of war of twenty guns each. An army was ordered to be raised, and the prominent points on the coast were to be placed in a state of defence. Washington was made commander-in-chief of the army, with the rank of Lieutenant-General. He accepted the position, and applied himself with energy to the task of preparing the country for defence. He gave a hearty support to the measures of the President, and used his great influence to secure for them a similar approval on the part of the people. In the winter of 1798-99 Congress appropriated a million of dollars to defray the expense of the military preparations, and authorized the construe-" tion of six ships of war of seventy-four guns each, and six sloops of war of eighteen guns each. The energy and enthusiasm with which the Americans prepared for war opened the eyes of Talleyrand. He had not supposed they would fight, and now that he found they would, he was not willing to add to the difficulties of France by engaging in a new ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 499 war. He therefore signified in an informal manner to Mr. Van Murray, the United States minister in Holland, that the French government was willing to renew diplomatic intercourse with the United States. Mr. Adams, upon being informed of this, resolved to make one more effort to secure a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. A Council of Peace. He sent Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice of the United States; William R. Davie and William Van Murray, minister to Holland, as commissioners to treat with the French republic for a settlement of all difficulties between the two countries. In taking this step he greatly offiended many of the leaders of his party, who insisted that overtures for peace should come from France. The most rational and probable solution of Mr. Adams' course, in the absence of direct proof, says the Hon. A. H. Stephens, " is that he acted under the urgent private advice of Washing- ton. Be that as it may, it proved to be one of the wisest and most beneficent deeds of his life." The commissioners were ordered by the president not to enter France unless they were assured they would be received in a " manner befitting the commissioners of an independent nation." Upon reaching Paris the commissioners found that a great change had taken place in the affairs of France. A revolution had unseated the Directory, and Napoleon Bona- parte was at the head of the government as first consul. Commissioners were appointed CO meet the American envoys, and negotia- tions were begun and carried forward with such success that on the thirtieth of Novem- ber, 1800, a treaty of peace was signed between the United States and France. In the meantime, though war was not actually declared, hostilities had begun. More than three hundred merchant vessels were licensed to carry arms for their defence. On the ninth of February, 1799, ^^^^ Ameri- can frigate *' Constellation " captured the French frigate" L'Insurgente," of about equal force, after a severe engagement of an hour and a quarter, infiictmg upon her a severe loss in killed and wounded. Somewhat later the "Constellation " encountered the French frigate "La Vengeance," of superior force, and in an engagement of about five hours' duration silenced her fire and inflicted upon her a loss of one hundred and fifty-six men in killed and wounded. The French vessel succeeded in making her escape. These successes were very gratifying to the Ameri- cans, as they showed what their navy could accomplish if given a fair trial. Tiie news of the conclusion of peaee put a stop to hostilities. The army was disbanded, but the navy was kept afloat and the coast defences were maintained. Before the arrival of the new treaty the country was called upon to mourn the loss of its most illustrious citizen, George Wash- ington. He took cold while riding over his estate at Mount Vernon, and was seizec' with a violent sore throat, from the effects ol which he died on the fourteenth of Decern ber, 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of hi., age. He was buried in his family vault at Mount Vernon, where his ashes still lie. Honors to the Dead Patriot. The highest honors were paid to his memory by Congress and by the various State governments, and in all parts of the Union a universal mourning was held for the Father of his Country. Not less sincere were the tributes paid in foreign lands to the memory of the illustrious dead. Upon the receipt of the sad news the flags of the Channel fleet of Great Britain were placed at half-mast by order of the Admiral Lord Bridport. Napoleon, then first consul erf 500 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. France, caused the standards of the French army to be draped in mourning for ten days and announced the news to the army in the orders of the day. The proudest tribute of all to the grandeur and purity of the charac- ter of Washington is the unceasing and ever increasing love and veneration with which session of Congress was opened in the un- finished capitol of Washington. The elections for President and Vice- President were held in the autumn of 1800. Mr. Adams was the Federalist candidate for the Presidency, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney the candidate of that party (of Washington's grave, mount vernon. ^is memory is cherished by his country- men. During the summer of the year 1800 the seat of the general government was removed from Philadelphia to the new federal city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. On the twenty-second of November the Vice-President. The Republican or Demo- cratic party nominated Thomas Jefferson for the Presidency, and Colonel Aaron Burr, oi New York, for the Vice-Presidency. The alien and sedition laws had rendered the Federalist party so unpopular that the electors chosen at the polls failed to make a ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 501 choice, and the election was thrown upon the House of Representatives, according to the terms of the Constitution. On the seventeenth of February, 1 801, after thirty-six ballots, the House elected Thomas Jefferson President, and Aaron Burr Vice-President, of the capitol, in the city of Washington, on the fourth of March, 1801. He was in his fifty- eighth year, and had long been regarded as one of the most illustrious men in America. He was the author of the Declaration of In- dependence, had represented the country as THOMAS JEFFERSON. United States, for a term of four years, from and after the fourth of March, iSoi. The second census of the United States, taken in 1800, showed the population of the country to be 5,319,762 souls. Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, was inaugurated at the new minister to France, had served in the cabinet of General Washington as Secretary of State, and had filled the high office of Vice-Presi- dent during the administration of Mr. Adams. He was thefounder of the Democratic party, and was regarded by it with an enthusiastic devotion which could see no flaw in his 502 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. character. By the Federalists he was de- nounced with intense bitterness as a Jacobin, and an enemy of organized government. He was unquestionably a believer in the largest freedom possible to man, but he was too deeply versed in the lessons of statesman- ship, and was too pure a patriot to entertain for a moment the levelling principles with which his enemies charged him. Under him the government of the republic suffered no diminution of strength, but his administration was a gain to the country. Mr. Jefferson began his administration by seeking to undo as far as possible the evil AARON BURR. effects of the sedition act of 1798. A number of persons were in prison in consequence of sentences under this act at the time of his inauguration. These were at once pardoned by the President and released from prison. At the meeting of the seventh Congress, in December, 180 1, President Jefferson, in pur- suance of an announcement made some time before, inaugurated the custom which has since prevailed of sending a written message to each House of Congress, giving his views on public affairs and the situation of the country. Previous to this the President had always met the two houses upon their assem- bling, and had addreseed them in person. A strong Democratic majority controlled this Congress, and gave a hearty support to the President. The obnoxious measures of the last admin- tration, such as the internal taxes, the taxes on stills, distilled spirits, refined sugars, car- riages, stamped paper, etc., were repealed./ In accordance with a suggestion ofthePresi-' dent a period of naturalization was reduced from fourteen to five years. Measures were also set on foot for the redemption of the public debt, and it was provided that seven millions three hundred thousand dollars should be annually appropriated as a sinking fund for that purpose. Another act, of which the wisdom was not so apparent, was passed for the reduction of the army. Rapid Settlement of Ohio. During the interval which had elapsed since the orginzation of the Territory of the North- west, emigrants had been pouring into tiie southern and eastern part of it with great rapidity. In one year twenty thousand new settlers were added to the population of the Territory of Ohio. The population had now become so large that the eastern part of the northwest Territory applied for admission into the Union as a separate State. Its request was granted, and on the nineteenth of February it was admitted into the Union, as the State of Ohio, with a population of seventy thousand. In 1 801 France by a secret treaty received back from Spain the Territory of Louisiana. The French did not occupy the country, but left it under Spanish rule. In 1803 the Spanish governor of New Orleans, in viola- tion of the treaty of 1795, closed the port of New Orleans to American commerce. This act aroused the most intense indignation among the people along the tributaries of the Mississippi, who were thus cut of from ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 503 the sea, and it was with difficulty that they could be restrained from an attempt to take possession of Louisiana. Mr. Jefferson had long been anxious to obtain for the United States the country bordering the lower Mississippi, as he was convinced that the power holding the mouth )f that river must of necessity control the great valley through which it flows. Accord- ingly, Robert R. Livingston, the American minister at Paris, was ordered to open nego- tiations with the French government for the purchase of Louisiana. Purchase of Ljuisiana. He found this an easier task than he had expected, for Napoleon, who was on the eve of a great European war, was much in need of money, and was by no means anxious to add to his troubles by being obliged to defend Louisiana. A bargain was soon con- cluded by which the United States became the possessors of the whole region of Louisiana, from the Mississippi to thi Pacific, embracing over a million of square miles. The United States paid to France the sum of ;^i5,000,ooo for this immense region, and guaranteed to the then inhabitants all the rights of American citizens. "This acces- sion of territory," said Napoleon, upon the completion of the purchase, " strengthens forever the power of the United States, and I have just given to England a maritime rival that will sooner or later humble her pride." This purchase was of the highest import- ance. It about doubled the area of the (Jnited States, and placed the whole valley of the Mississippi within the territory of the republic. It was naturally a most popular act, and was approved by the entire nation, with the exception of a small number of the old Federalist leaders. Congress divided this great region into two territories — the Territory of Orleans, corresponding to the present State of Louisiana, and the District of Louisiana, comprising the remainder of the purchase. Mention has been made of the payment of tribute to the dey of Algiers by the United States during the administration of Wash- ington. Previous to 1801 the United States expended nearly two million dollars in pur- chasing exemption from capture for its mer- chant vessels in the Mediterranean. These payments were made to all the Barbary powers, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers and Morocco. The tribute for 1800 was taken to Algiers by Captain William Bainbridge, in the frigate " George Washington." Nothing could be more distasteful to the gallant Bainbridge, but he had to obey orders. Whils thus engaged, the dey of Algiers told him to take the tribute of the dey to the Sultan at Con- stantinople, and to haul down his own flag 504 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. and run up that of Algiers. This Bainbridge castle guns in the harbor held Bainbridgc at refused, whereupon the dey insolently said, I their mercy, he took the advice of the Araer NAPOLEON I " You are my slaves ; for if you are not, why do you pay me tribute ? I have the right to order you as I please." As the ican consul and obeyed the orders of his master, the dey, but the captain expressed the hope that he might deliver the next ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 505 tribute from the throats of his cannon. As the American republic lay at the other side of the Atlantic, and its ships of war were not often seen in the Mediterranean, the African pirates did not trouble themselves to comply with their agreements, and continued their outrages upon Amer- ican ships in spite of the tribute paid them. In 1 801 the bey of Tripoli, dissatisfied with the tribute paid him, declared war against the United States, and a number of American war ves- sels were sent to the Mediterranean to pro- tect the commerce of their country in that sea. In 1803 Com- modore Preble was sent to the Mediter- ranean with a fleet. The frigate " Philadel- phia " was stationed to blockade Tripoli, while Preble, with the remainder of the ves- sels, sought to punish the emperor of Mo- rocco by an attack on Tangiers. While thus engaged the " Phila- delphia " ran ashore in chasing an Algerine cruiser. In this help- less condition she was surrounded by Tripo- cers were held for ransom, but the seamen were reduced to slavery. On the fifth of February, 1 804, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, with a picked crew of seventy-six men, entered the harbor of Tripoli litan gunboats and captured after a fight which lasted the entire day. Captain Bain- bridge, her commander, and three hundred of her crew were made prisoners. The offi- CAPTAIN (afterward COMMODORE; BAINBRIDGE AND THE DEY OF ALGIERS. in a small schooner named the " Intrepid.** Placing his vessel alongside of the " Phila- delphia " by night, he boarded the frigate aS she lay under the guns of the castle and the 5o6 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. Tripolitan fleet, drove the Turkish crew into the sea, set fire to the frigate in every part, and retreated from the harbor without the loss of a man. During the year 1804 the American fleet repeatedly bombarded Tripoli, and did con- siderable damage to it. The war went on until the summer of 1805, when the bey of In the fall of 1804 Mr. lefferson was elected president for a second term, but this time Colonel Burr was dropped by his party, who nominated and elected George Clinton, of New York, vice-president in his place. Burr had at last experienced the reward of his insincerity : both parties had come tc distrust him. After his defeat for the vice DUEL BETWEEN BURR AND HAMILTON. Tripoli asked for peace, and a treaty was made by which the Tripolitan pirates sur- rendered their captives on payment of a ransom, and agreed to refrain from aggres- sions upon the commerce of the United ■States in future without payment of further tribute. For some years the American ves- sels were safe from the outrages of the Barbary pirates. presidency he had been nominated by his party as their candidate for governor of New York. He was warmly opposed by Alex- ander Hamilton, who was mainly instru- mental in bringing about his defeat. Bun never forgave Hamilton for his course in this election, and took advantage of the first opportunity to challenge him to a duel. They met at Weehawken, on the banks of ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 507 the Hudson, opposite New York, on the eleventh of July, 1804. Hamilton, who had accepted the challenge in opposition to his better judgment, and who had expressed his intention not to fire at Burr, was mortally wounded, and died within twenty-four hours. In him perished )ne of the brightest intellects and most ear- liest patriots of the republic. His loss was remaining years were passed in restless intrigue. In 1805 he went west, and there undertook the organization of a military movement of some sort, which from the secrecy with which it was conducted, was generally regarded as treasonable and in- tended for his own aggrandizement. Ir 1806 he was arrested by the United States, and after a prolonged trial, during which he FULTON S FIRST STEAMBOAT. Tegarded as second only to that of Wash- ngton, and the sad news of his death was /eceived in all parts of the country with profound and unaffected sorrow. A feeling of deep and general indignation was aroused against Burr, who found it expedient to withdraw from New York and retire to Georgia until the excitement had subsided. The murder of Hamilton, for it was nothing else, closed Burr's political career. His defended himself with great ability, he was acquitted of the charge of treason. His sub- sequent career was obscure, and he died in 1836, friendless and alone. He was a man of great ability; but he failed to put his great talents to an honest use. In the year 1807 a great change was made in the system of navigation by Robert Ful- ton, a native of Pennsylvania, who built and successfully navigated the first steamboat. ^oS FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. He named it the " Clermont," and made the «'oyage from New York to Albany, a dis- tance of about one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty-six hours. From this time steam navigation rapidly superseded the old sys- tem of sailing vessels in the waters of the United states and exercised a powerful in- fluence in the development of the wealth and prosperity of the country. Since the beginning of the century France and England had been at war with each other, and their quarrels had drawn the whole European world into the struggle. The administration of Mr. Jefferson had continued the neutrality of its predecessors, but in a fit of mistaken economy it exhibited the greatest hostility to the navy, which had been reduced to the most inefficient state possible. The commerce of the Union had grown with remarkable rapidity, and the need of a navy for its protection was now greater than ever. The administration could not be brought to recognize this fact, however, and- it regarded the navy as of no other use than to enforce the revenue laws in its home waters. Seizure of American Vessels. The general character of the European war had thrown the commerce of the old world into the hands of the few nations which were not engaged in the struggle. The United States obtained the largest share of this trade, but were not left long to enjoy it in peace. The efforts of Great Britain and France to injure each other had caused them to extend their attacks to neutral nations. The British government, by its " orders in council," declared all vessels engaged in conveying West India produce from the United States to Europe legal prizes. This measure was intended to cripple France, and at the same time to injure the United States, which had become too suc- cessful a commercial rival to England. A number of American vessels were seized and condemned upon this pretext. Great indig- nation was expressed throughout the United States, but the government did nothing to remedy the trouble. In May, 1806, Great Britain declared the European coast, from Brest to the mouth of the river Elbe, in a state of blockade, thus forbidding neutral vessels to trade with any port within these prescribed limits on pain of capture and con- fiscation. This high-handed measure was a direct blow to the United States. Mutterings of War. It was met on the part of France by ao act equally unjustifiable. Napoleon issued his famous " Berlin decree," by which he declared the whole coast of Great Britain in a state of blockade, and forbade the intro- duction of English goods into France, and the admission into French ports of any neutral vessel that should first touch at an English port. In answer to this decree Great Britain forbade all trade with France by neutral nations. Napoleon thereupon issued his " Milan decree," confiscating not only the vessels and cargoes that should violate the " Berlin decree," but also such as submit to be searched by the English. Thus the commerce of the world was placed at the mercy of these two nations. The United States were the chief sufferers by these arbi- trary measures. Their ships were captured by both British and French cruisers, and their remonstrances produced no cessation of the outrages. It was not possible to do anything for the protection of the commerce of the country, as the mistaken policy of the administration had deprived it of an efficient navy. The ' whole Atlantic seaboard demanded a change in this respect, and petitions poured in upon Congress asking for the construction of more ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 509 vessels of war and for protection from the aggressions of the European powers. The only result of these petitions was a recom- mendation from the president to Congress to build more gunboats. It was not possi- ble to go to war with both England and France, and the American government was ileft to make a choice as to which power it would undertake to settle the question with. The popular feeling was stronger against England, which, being the most active power at sea, was the principal ag- gressor, and the events to be related finally turned the scale against England. Remonstrance Against British Outrages. The British government maintained the doctrine that no subject could expatriate himself or become a citizen of another coun- try. This was the opposite of the view held by the United States, which welcomed emi- grants from other countries, bestowed upon them the rights of citizenship, and in their new character of adopted citizens protected them. The commanders of the British men- of-war were accustomed to stop American vessels on the high seas and search them for deserters. , Under this head they included all persons born within the dominions of Great Britain, whether naturalized American citizens or not. When found on American vessels these persons were removed by force and compelled to serve on board English ships of war. The British officers did not confine these impressments to " deserters," but seized and forced into their service great numbers of native-born Americans, who were thus torn from their homes and con- signed to a slavery which was bitter and cruel to them. The government of the United States addressed urgent remonstrances to that of Great Britain against these outrages, and finally, in the spring of 1806, sent William Pinckney as joint commissioner with James Monroe, then minister to England, for the purpose of negotiating a treaty which should put a stop to the acts complained of. The commissioners appointed by Great Britain expressed the desire of their country not to impress American seaman, and their willing- ness to redress as promptly as possible any mistake of the kind. They declined to relinquish the right to search for deserters, as it would be ruinous to the English navy. The truth is Great Britain treated her sea- men with such cruelty that they would have deserted by the thousand had they been assured of protection from arrest. The British commissioners declared that while their country would not relinquish the right of search and impressment, strict orders would be issued to their naval commanders to use the right with caution and moder- ation. The British government itself was sincerely desirous of conciliating the United Sid FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. States, but its naval commanders, tempted by the weakness of the American navy, paid no attention to its orders and conducted themselves with haughty insolence towards American vessels, seizing and searching them, and forcing men from their decks with the same activity as before, and rarely miss- ing an occasion to insult the flag of the I upon an act which threw the relations be^ tween the two countries into a more hope- less state than ever. The United States frigate " Chesapeake," 38, under the com- mand of Commodore Barron, was about to sail for a European station. Strict orders were issued to her officers not to enlist any British subject, knowing him to be such ; but OFFICERS OF THE CHESAPEAKE SURRENDERING THEIR SWORDS. republic. Meanwhile the commissioners concluded a treaty for ten years between the United States and Great Britain. It was on the whole more advantageous than Jay's 'reaty, but the president was not satisfied with it, and assumed the responsibility of rejecting it, in the spring of 1807, without submitting it to the Senate. A British naval commander now ventured it was said that four of her crew were desert- ers from the British frigate " Melampus." Several British war vessels were lying in thv^ Chesapeake Bay, and one of these, the " Leopard," a fifty-gun frigate, put to sea a few hours before the " Chesapeake " sailed. The latter vessel sailed before she was fuU^'- ready for sea, and the work of getting tne ship in order was still in progress, when she ADMINISTRATIONS OK was hailed off the capes by the " Leopard," under the pretence of sending despatches to Europe. A lieutenant of the British frigate came on board and demanded the surrender of the four men we have mentioned. Commodore Barron refused the demand on the ground tliat there were no such men on board. The lieutenant then returned to his ship, and the " Leopard " opened fire upon the " Chesa- peake," and killed three of her men and wounded eighteen others. The " Chesa- peake" was utterly unprepared for resist- ance, and Barron struck his colors after a single gun had been fired. The four men were taken from the " Chesapeake," the " Leopard " sailed for Halifax, and the Amer- ican frigate returned to Norfolk. The Embargo Act. The news of this outrage excited the pro- foundest indignation throughout the coun- try. On the second of July, 1807, the presi- dent issued a proclamation ordering all British vessels of war to depart from Ameri- can waters, and the people were warned against holding any intercourse with them. A special session of Congress was called, and the American minister at London was ordered to demand satisfaction for the out- rage. The British government had received infor- mation of the affair before the arrival of the American demand. The action of the com- mander of the " Leopard " was disavowed, and a special messenger was sent to the United States to arrange the matter. Great Britain disclaimed the right to search vessels of war, and the excitement was quieted for a time. In Deceember, 1806, as the outrages upon American commerce were continued, Con- gress, at the recommendation of the presi- dent, passed the " Embargo Act." bv which ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. $11 all merchant vessels of the United States were prevented from leaving the ports of this country. This measure entirely put an end to the intercourse between the United States and the European nations. James Madison Elected President. In the election of 1808 Mr. Jefferson fol- lowing the example of Washington, declined to be a candidate for a third term, and the Democratic or administration party support- ed James Madison for the Presidency, and George Clinton for the Vice-Presidency. They were elected by large majorities ; but the effect of the embargo was seen in the casting of the electoral votes of the five New England States against the administration. The disaffection of the New England States induced Mr. Jefferson, just before the expira- tion of his term of office, to recommend to Congress the repeal of the embargo act. His opinion was unchanged as to the propriety of the embargo, but he recommended its repeal as a measure of peace and concilia- tion. The law was repealed on the first of March, 1809, and in the same month Con- gress passed an act prohibiting trade with France and England. At the close of his term of office Mr. Jefferson withdrew from public life, and retired to his home at Montecello, in Virginia. The wisdom and success of the general policy of his administration had far outweighed his mistakes, and he retired from office with undiminished popularity, and with the res- pect and confidence of the nation. Indeed his popularity was greater at the close of his administration than at the beginning — a rare and gratifying reward to a public servant. His great services in the revolution, his draft of the Declaration of Independence, his acquisition of Louisiana, and the purity and grandeur of his character, placed him, in the public estimation, next to Washington. CHAPTER XXXIII The Administration of James Madison — The Second War with England 'aauguration of Mr. Madison — Negotiations with Mr. Erskine — Their Failure — Seizure of American Vessels in France- * Sufferings of American Ship-Owners — Great Britain Stations Her Ships of War Otf American Ports — Affair of the " President " and " Little Belt " — Trouble with the Northwestern Indians — Tecumseh — Battle of Tippecanoe — Meet- ing of the Twelfth Congress— Measures for Defence — Admission of Louisiana Into the Union — Death of George Clinton — The British Ultimatum — War Declared Against Great Britain — Opposition to the War — The British Offer of Settlement Rejected — The War for " Free Trade and the Sailors' Rights" — Mr. Madison Re-elected— Campaign of 1812 — Preparations for the Invasion of Canada — General Hull Surrenders Detroit to the British — Loss or the North- western Frontier — Failure of the Attack on Queenstown — Exploits of the Navy — Capture of the " Guerriere " by the " Constitution "—The Privateers — Russia Offers to Mediate Between the United States and England — Financial Affairs — Harrison's Campaign — Massacre at the River Raisin — Defence of Forts Meigs and Stephenson — Perry's Vic- tory on Lake Erie — Battle of the Thames — Death of Tecumseh — Recovery of the Northwest — Capture of York — British Attack on Sackett's Harbor Repulsed — Removal of General Dearborn — Failure of the Campaign on the Lower Lakes — The Creek War — Jackson's Victories — Naval Affairs — The British Outrages in Chesapeake Bay — Negoti- ations for Peace — Capture of Fort Erie — Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane— Sieg^ of Fort Erie — Successes of the Americans — Advance of Prevost — Battle of Plattsburg — Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain — Battle of Bladensburg — Capture of Washington — Destruction of the Public Buildings by the British — Attack on Baltimore — Death of General Ross — " The Star Spangled Banner "—The British Attack on the New England Coast— Oppo- sition of New England to the War — The Hartford Convention — The British in Florida — General Jackson Expels Them — Jackson at New Orleans — Arrival of the British Expedition Oft the Coast — Vigorous Measures of Jackson — Battle of New Orieans — Defeat of the British — Naval Affairs — The Treaty of Peace — The Barbary Powers Humbled — The Tariff — The Bank of the United States — Admission of Indiana — James Monroe Elected President. JAMES MADISON, the fourth presi- dent of the United States, was inaug- urated at Washington on the fourth of March, 1809. He was in the fifty- eighth year of his age, and had long been one of the most prominent men in the Union. He had borne a distinguished part in the convention of 1787, and was the author of the Virginia resolutions of 1786, which brought about the assembling of this convention. He had entered the convention as one of the most prominent leaders of the national party, which favored the consolida- tion of the States into one distinct and supreme nation, and had acted with Ran- dolph, Hamilton, Wilson, Morris, and King, in seeking to bring about such a result. When it was found impossible to carry out 512 this plan Mr. Madison gave his cordial sup' port to the system which was finally adopted by the convention ; and while the constitu- tion was under discussion by the States, he united with Hamilton and Jay in earnestly recommending the adoption of the constitu- tion by the States, in a series of able articles, to which the general title of the " Federalist " was given. ! After the organization of the government Mr. Madison was a member of the House of Representatives, and was regarded as one of the leaders of the Federalist party, and gave to Hamilton his cordial support in the finance measures of that minister. Towards the close of Washington's administration, however, Mr. Madison's political views Mnderwen*- a great change. He was a near ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 513 neighbor and warm friend of Mr. Jefferson, and was greatly influenced by the opinions and the strong personal character of that great statesman. As the political contro- versies of the times deepened he became more and more inclined to- wards the Republican or " Strict Construc- tion " party, and in Mr. Adams' adminis- tration took his posi- tion as one of the leaders of that party. At the time of his election to the Presi- dency, Mr. Jefferson having withdrawn from public life, Mr. Madison was the re- cognized leader of the Democratic party, as the Republican party had come to be called. In 1799 his famous report upon the Vir- ginia resolutions of 1798 stamped him as one of the first states- men in America, and this report has always been regarded by suc- ceeding generations as the most masterly exposition of the true principles of the con- stitution ever penned. During the whole o. Mr. Jefferson's admi- nistration Mr. Madison served as secretary or" state, and not only added to his great fame by his eminent services in that capacity, but prepared himself for the difficult duties of {he presidency. Mr. Madison had opposed the embargo, 33 ■ while sustaining the general foreign policy of Mr. Jefferson, but was in favor of the non- intercourse act, which forbade the country to trade with England and France. This act contained a clause which provided that JAMES MADISON. it should cease to apply to either or both of them as soon as they should repeal their " decrees," or " orders in council," affecting the commerce of the United States. Mr, Erskine, the British minister to the United States, a man of noble and generous • 5M FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. character, was anxious that the differences between the two countries should be settled amicably, and he entered heartily into nego- tiations with the American government for this purpose. In accordance with the in- structions he had received from England, he believed himself authorized to inform the American government that the " orders in council " of Great Britain would be revoked by that government, as far as they applied to the commerce of the United States, and to offer " a suitable provision for the widows and orphans of those who were killed on board the ' Chesapeake.' " Upon these assurances the President, on the nineteenth of April, 1810, issued a proclamation sus- pending the non-intercourse act, as to Eng- land, after the tenth of June following. Seizure of American Ships. The news was received with joy all over the country, and in the course of a few weeks over one thousand vessels sailed from the United States, laden with Americar pro- ducts, for foreign ports. They had hardly gottern to sea when the President was in- formed by the British government that Mr. Erskine had exceeded his powers in promis- ing the withdrawal of the " orders in coun- cil." The President immediately issued a second proclamation, withdrawing his first, and matters resumed their old footing. Mr. Erskine was recalled, and a Mr. Jackson was appointed in his place. The failure of the negotiations with Erskine had greatly morti- fied not only the President and his cabinet, but the whole nation, and Mr. Jackson was coldly received. That gentleman adopted a tone and style in his correspondence with the secretary of state, which were so offensive that the President refused to hold communi- cation with him, and demanded his recall. All the diplomatic intercourse between the two countries thus came to an end. The outrages upon American commerce continued. Danish privateers almost drove the American merchantmen from the Baltic. The American ship-owners asked permission to arm their vessels for their own defence, as the government had not a navy sufficient to protect them ; but their petition was refused by Congress, on the ground that such a state of affairs would be equivalent to war. The sentiment of the people of the country was rapidly settling in favor of war, and they could see little difference between the exist- ing state of affairs and open hostilities. France was equally guilty with Great Britain. In the spring of 18 10 Napoleon issued a decree by which any American vessel enter- ing any port of France, or of any country under French control, was made liable to seizure and confiscation. The decree was held back for six weeks after its date, with the deliberate design of involving as many American ships as possible in the ruin intended for them. The first intimation given to the United States of its existence was the seizure of one hundred and thirty-two Amer- ican ships in the French ports. They were shortly afterwards sold with their cagoes, and added the sum of eight millions of dol- lars to the French treasury. The government of the United States remonstrated against this high-handed outrage, but to no purpose, until Napoleon's want of money induced him to adopt a more honest course. Great Britain's Unlawful Acts. About the middle of the year 18 10 the American minister at Paris was informed that the Berlin and Milan decrees were re- voked, and would cease to have effect aftet the first of November of that year. In accord- ance with this information the President, on the first of November, 1810, issued a procla- mation suspending the non-intercourse act with respect to France, and announcing that ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADlSON. 5t5 the provisions of the act would be continued with respect to Great Britain unless her ** orders in council " should be revoked within three months from that date. The President also called the attention of the British government to the repeal of the French decrees, and as the " orders in council " were based upon these decrees, urged their repeal. Great Britain replied that the evidence of the revocation of the Berlin and Milan decrees was insufficient, and that the non-intercourse acts of Congress and the President's proclamation were partial and unjust. This '"answer was regarded in the United States as evidence of Great Britain's deliberate intention to continue her outrages upon this country, and very greatly increased the popular desire for war. England persisted in her determination to enforce her " orders in council," and even went to the inexcusable length of stationing her war vessels off the principal harbors of the United States for the purpose of intercepting our merchant- metv and injuring our commerce. British Sloop Disabled. While matters were in this unsettled con- dition, the American frigate " President," on the evening of the sixteenth of May, 1811, encountered a strange vessel off the mouth of the Delaware. As the dusk of the evening was too deep for Commodore Rodgers to distinguish the stranger's nationality, he hailed her, and was insolently answered by a gun from her. He replied with a broad- side, and after an action of twenty minutes the stranger was disabled. Rodgers then hailed again, and was answered that the dis- abled vessel was the British sloop of war " Little Belt." She was greatly damaged, and had thirty-two of her crew killed and wound- ed. The " President" was scarcely injured, and had but one man slightly wounded. A different statement of the affair was ren- dered to his government by each of the com- manding officers, and was accepted by each government. In this conflict of testimony, the matter was suffered to pass by. The news of the prompt chastisement of the insolence of the British commander was received with delight in the United States, and the affair ■ was generally regarded as, in some measure, an atonement for the disgrace of the sur- render of the " Chesapeake " to the " Leopard." Furious Attack by the Savages. The Indians of the northwest were becom- ing very troublesome, and their aggressions were attributed to the instigation of the British in Canada. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief of unusual abilities, attempted to unite the Indians of the continent in a grand effort against the Americans, and for this purpose passed from tribe to <-'be, from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and urged them to take up the hatchet. He was assisted by his twin brother, Elskwatawa, generally called " the Prophet," who appealed to the superstitious fears of the savages by his jugglery. The federal government determined to strike a blow at the savages before their plans for union could be brought to a suc- cessful issue. In the autumn of i8ii,Major- General William Henry Harrison, then gov- ernor of Indiana Territory, was sent to operate against the tribes on the Wabash. He took with him a body of Kentucky and Indiana militia, and one regiment of regular troops. On the sixth of November he arrived at the junction of the Tippecanoe and Wabash rivers near the town of the Prophet, the brother of Tecumseh. The Prophet sent several of the principal Indian chiefs to meet Harrison with offers of submission. They informed him that the Prophet would come into camp the next 5i6 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. day, and make a treaty with hitn. Harrison suspected that the purpose of the Indians was simply to gain time, and that they would probably seek to surprise him during the night, and accordingly caused his men to bivouac on their arms that night. His pre- cautions were well taken. About four o'clock on the morning of November seventh the savages made a furious attack on the Ameri- can camp. They were promptly received, In view of the threatening condition of affairs the President, by his proclamation, convened the twelfth Congress in session a month earlier than usual, and that body met on the fourth of November, i8ii. It was remarkable, as was also its successor, the thirteenth Congress, for the number of its members who afterwards took their places among the great men of the republic. The public men of the revolutionary period were A PIONEER HEROS FIGHT WITH THE SAVAGES. and after a severe conflict of several hours were put to flight. Tecumseh was not pres- ent in this engagement. General Harrison followed up his victory by destroying the Prophet's town, and building some forts for the protection of the country. The battle of Tippecanoe quieted the Indians of the northwest for a while, but greatly increased the desire of the people of that region for war with England. dropping out of political life, and new men, with new ideas, were taking their places la the councils of the nation. Among the new members of Congress were Henry Clay, a native of Virginia, but a representative from Kentucky ; John C. Cal- houn, of South Carolina; John Randolph, of Virginia; Felix Grundy, of Tennessee; Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts, and Lang- don Cheeves and William Lowndes, of South ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 517 Carolina. There was a large administration majority in both Houses, and the prevailing' sentiment of Congress was in favor of war with England. In this respect Congress fairly reflected the feeling of the coyntry. Under the influence of this feeling, Con- gress during this session voted to increase the regular army to thirty-five thousand men, and authorized the President to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and U) call out the militia whenever occasion might require. The vessels of the navy were ordered to be fitted for sea, and new ships were to be constructed. There was need for these measures, as the army at the time consisted of but three thousand men, dnd the navy of less than twenty frigates and sloops of war in commission, and about one hundred and fifty gunboats for harbor defence. The third census, taken in 18 10, showed the population of the country to be 7,239,903. W^ar Declared Against Great Britain. During this winter the government de- tected and laid before Congress an effort of Great Britain to produce disaffection in the New England States, with a view to secure their withdrawal from the Union. The agent of this plot was one John Henry. The committee appointed by Congress to investigate the matter reported that " the transaction disclosed by the President's mes- sage presents to the mind of the committee conclusive evidence that the British govern- ment, at a period of peace, and during the most friendly professions, have been delib- erately and perfidiously pursuing measures to divide these States and to involve our citizens in all the guilt of treason and the horrors of civil war." Amid these troubles the State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union on the eighth of April, 1812. Shortly afterwards the por- tion of the Louisiana purchase lying outside of the limits of the State of Louisiana was organized into the Territory of Missouri. On the twentieth of April, 1805, George Clinton, the Vice-President of the United States, died at Washington, at the age of seventy-three. His place was filled by William H. Crawford, of Georgia, the presi- dent /r^ tempore of the Senate. On the thirtieth of May, 18 12, the British minister at Washington delivered to the government of the United States the final reply of his government to the demands of this country in the questions at issue between them. This ultimatunt was submitted to Congress by the President on the first of June, accompanied by a message in which he recapitulated the wrongs inflicted by Great Britain upon this country, her violations of the rights of neutrals, her impressment of American seamen, her seizures of American ships and her refusal to enter into any equit- able arrangement for the settlement of these questions. The determination of Great 518 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR Britain to drive American commerce from the seas was evident, and the question was submitted to Congress whether the United States should continue to submit to these outrages or should resort to war to protect their rights. After a debate of several days an act declaring war against Great Britain was passed by Congress and was approved by the President on the eighteenth of June, !8i2. On the nineteenth the President issued a proclamation declaring that war existed between the United States and Great Britain and her dependencies. Congress Authorized the President to enlist twenty-five thousand men for the regular army, to raise a force of fifty thousand volunteers, and to call out one hundred thousand militia for garrison duty. General Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed to the chief command of the army. Opposition to the \A/^ar. The war measures of Congress were not passed without considerable opposition. A large party, composed of some of the ablest and best men in that party, was opposed to the war, and resented the effort to go to war with England alone. They claimed that France had given as good cause for war, but that nothing was said of punishing her. This was true, but this party lost sight of the fact that the United States could not go to war with both powers, and were compelled to direct their efforts against the principal offender, which was clearly England. The war was regarded as an administra- tion measure, and though it was sustained by a large majority of the American people, there was still a strong and respectable party especially in the New England States, which opposed it, and which claimed that all peaceful means of settlement had not yet been exhausted- John Randolph, of Vir- ginia, opposed the declaration of war in a speech in the House of Representatives re- markable for its boldness and vigor, and declared that he had no hesitation in saying that he should prefer a contest with France to one with England. Soon after the declaration of war England made an effort to settle the controversy with the United States by negotiation. In Sep- tember, 1812, Admiral Warren, command- ing the British fleet at Halifax, addressed a letter to Mr. Monroe, the secretary of state, informing him that he was authorized by his government to enter into negotiations for a cessation of hostilities upon a basis of revo- cation of the " orders in council." The Cause of Hostilities. Mr. Monroe replied that the President was willing to enter into an armistice provided Admiral Warren had power and was willing to include in the negotiations measures for the discontinuance of the practices of seizing and searching American vessels and impress- ing American sailors from their decks, as experience had shown that no peace be- tween the two countries could be lasting which did not include a settlement of these questions. As Admiral Warren had no authority to enter into these questions, the President declined to proceed further, and the effort at negotiations came to an end. It has been held by many that the rejection by the President of the British overture was a grave error. John Randolph thought that all the ques- tions at issue, save the right of a British sub- ject to expatriate himself and receive Amer- ican protection, could be settled by negoti- ation. That point he did not believe Eng- land would ever concede. His opinion was to some extent vindicated by the uncondi- tional revocation of the French decrees, and the immediate repeal of the British " orders ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 519 in council " upon the receipt of the news of this revocation. These measures were repealed within a month after the declaration of war by the United States. The only cause of the war remaining unsettled was the im- pressment question. The war thus became a struggle for the personal freedom of Amer- ican sailors ; and in a better cause no nation ever drew the sword. Plan of Carrying On the War. The weakness of the American navy made it impossible for this country to attempt any distant enterprise against Great Britain, and it was not believed by even the most enthu- siastic Americans that we could contend with her upon terms of equality at sea. The only means by which she could be crippled Dy this country was by the invasion and conquest of Canada, and to this end the efforts of the United States were directed during the war. It was also believed that the commerce of England could be seriously injured by the efifortsof American privateers, and from the commencement of hostilities great activity was displayed in getting vessels of this class to sea. In the autumn of 18 12 Mr. Madison was reelected to the presidency by a large ma- jority. Elbridge Gerry, of Connecticut, was chosen Vice-President. Mr. Madison entered upon his second term on the fourth of March, 1813, some months after the war had begun. At the outset of the war the American forces were stationed along the Canadian frontier as follows : General Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, held the right, or east- ern part of the line ; the centre was com- manded by General Stephen Van Rens- selaer; and the left was held by General William Hull, then governor of Michigan Territory. The forces under these com- manders were to cooperate with each other in their movements, and were to converge upon Montreal as the objective point of the campaign. Early in July General Hull, who had seen service in the war of the revolution, col- lected a force of about two thousand men at Detroit. His position was very much exposed, Detroit being at that time sep- arated from the other settlements by about two hundred miles of unbroken forest. He urged upon the government to increase hh force to three thousand men, and to secure the command of Lake Erie before the British STEPHEN VAN RENSSELAER. should obtain possession of it. His requests could not be complied with, and he was obliged to depend upon the force at Detroit. Immediately upon the declaration of war the British commanders in Canada displayed great activity, seizing the most important points along the frontier. In less than a month Fort Mackinaw and other points were in their possession, and Hull's position at Detroit was surrounded and his communi- cations with the States cut off. Hull there- upon fortified his position, and endeavored, but without success, to open communication 520 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. with the country in his rear. In the mean- time a strong British force assembled at Fort Maiden, in Canada, opposite Detroit, under the command of General Brock, the governor of Upper Canada ; and the British agents set to work to arouse the Indians of the northwest against the Americans. In these efforts they were successful. lines they were astounded to see a whil A^^ flying from them. An officer rode up to inquire the cause. The flag was the signal for a parley. Negotiations were begun, and later in the day Detroit, with its garrison and stores, and the whole of Michigan ter- ritory, was surrendered to the British by General Hull. The American troops were MASSACRE BY INDIANS AT FORT DEARBORN. Brock erected batteries on the Canadian side of the river, in a position to command Detroit, and demanded of Hull the surrender of that place. The demand being refused, Brock crossed his forces to the American shore, about three miles below the position occupied by General Hull, on the sixteenth of August, and advanced to attack him. As the British army drew near the American overcome with astonishment and mortifica- tion at this shameful surrender; for the force of the enemy, to whom they were betrayed by their commander, consisted of but seven hundred British and Canadians, and six hundred Indians. By the surrender of Detroit the whole northwestern frontier was exposed to the British and their Indian allies. Great Britain, ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 521 unmindful of the shame she had incurred by her employment of the savages during the revolution, did not hesitate once more to devote the American frontier to the horrors of a savage war. The west was greatly alarmed, and ten thousand volunteers offered their services to the government for the defence of the frontier. They were accepted, and were placed under the command of Gen- eral Harrison, who was appointed to succeed Hull. General Hull Gailty of Cowardice. Two years later, after being exchanged, General Hull was brought to trial by a court- martial for the surrender of Detroit and his army. He was found guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty, and was sentenced to be shot. He was pardoned by the President in consideration of his services during the revolution. When Detroit surrendered, Fort Dearborn stood on the site of the city of Chicago, and was occupied by Captain Nathan Heald and fifty regulars. Receiving orders from Ger Hull to evacuate the fort and join him at Detroit, he attempted to obey, though warned by several scouts and friendly Indians that it was certain death to make the attempt. Afraid of treachery on the part of the large number of Indians around the fort, Captain Heald destroyed during the night the gun- powder, firearms and liquor which he had promised them. The exasperated savages waited till he was well on his way with the fifty soldiers and several families, and then attacked him. The women fought as bravely as the men. Twenty-six of the regular troops, all the militia, and a number of the men and women were killed. One of the savages leaped into a wagon containing twelve little ones and tomahawked them all. The next day Fort Dearborn was burned to the ground. This was a sorry beginning for the war, and was followed by another disaster. Gen- eral Van Rensselaer, the commander of the centre of the American line, had collected a force, principally New York militia, at Lewis- ton, on the Niagara river. At Queenstown. on the opposite side of the river. General Brock had stationed himself with a British force. On the thirteenth of October General Van Rensselaer crossed a force, under Col- onel Van Rensselaer, and attacked the British fort and captured it. General Brock now arrived with a force of six hundred men, and endeavored to regain the fort, but was defeated and killed. General Van Rensselaer hastened back to the American side to bring over more troops, but his men refused to obey his orders, alleging that they could not be ordered out of their own State without their consent. The British were heavily reinforced, and the Americans were attackec and defeated ; all who had crossed to ths Canada side being killed or captured. Brilliant Successes of the Navy. Among the prisoners was Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott, afterwards com- mander-in-chief of the American army, then a young man, who had crossed over as a volunteer to aid the force on the Canada side. Utterly disgusted with the conduct of his troops, General Van Rensselaer resigned his command after the battle of Queenstown. General Smyth, of Virginia, was appointed to succeed him. He made one or two efforts to enter Canada, but being each time pre- vented by his council of war, resigned his command. Thus closed the year 18 12, and the first campaign of the war. Its results were dis- astrous and disheartening. The attempts to invade Canada had ended with the surrender of Detroit and the defeat at QueenstcAvn. A large »^«rt of the f'"on.tier was lost, and over 522 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. twenty-five hundred men had been captured by the enemy. These failures had aroused the discontent of a considerable portion of the people of the Union, and the opposition of the New England States to the war was greatly increased. Matters would have seemed hopeless had not the navy, which had been the most neglected branch of the they would certainly be captured by the British cruisers. The officers of the navy were indignant at these insinuations, and as soon as the news of the declaration of war was received at New York, several o^ the vessels of war in that port put to s^a at once to avoid the orders which their com-' manders feared were on the way to detain CAPTURE OF THE " GUERRIERE public service, redeemed the national honor by a series of brilliant siaccesses. It was the intention of the government at the outset of the war to retain the vessels of the navy in the ports of the country to assist in the defence of *;he harbors of the United States. The fear was openly expressed that if these vess^^ls should venture to put to sea BY THE " CONSTITUTION. them in port, and also for the purpose of making a dash at the Jamaica fleet, which was on its way to England. They followed this fleet to the entrance to the British chan- nel, but without overtaking it. A British squadron sailed from Halifax to cruise off the port of New York. The Amer- ican frigate "Constitution," Captain Hull, ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 523 while endeavoring to enter New York har- bor, fell in with this squadron, and was chased by it for four days. Her escape was due entirely to the superior skill of her officers and the energy of her crew. The chase was one of the most remarkable in history, and the escape of the American frigate won great rredit for Captain Hull. Failing to reach New York, Hull sailed for Boston, and reached that port in safety. Remaining there a few days, he put to sea again, just in time to avoid orders from Washington to remain in port. In July the American frigate "Essex" captured a transport filled with British soldiers, and a few days later encountered the British sloop of war " Alert," which mistook her for a mer- chantman. The " Essex " suf- fered her to approach, and then opened a rapid fire upon her, which soon disabled her, and forced her to surrender. The " Constitution " sailed from Boston to the northeast. On the nineteenth of August, while cruising off the mouth of the St. Lawrence, she fell in with the British frigate " Guerriere," Captain Dacres, one of the ves- sels that had chased her during the previous month. The "Guerriere" immediately stood towards her, and both vessels prepared for action. The English commander opened his fire at long range> but Captain Hull refused to reply until he had gotten his ship into a favorable position, and for an hour and a half he manoeuvred in silence, under a heavy fire from the British frigate. At length, having got within pistol shot of her adversary, the " Constitution " opened a terrible fire upon her, and poured in her broadsides with such effect that the " Guer- riere " struck her colors in thirty minutes. The " Guerriere" lost seventy-nine men killed and wounded, while the loss of the " Constitution " was but seven men. The " Guerriere " was so much injured in the fight that she could not be carried into port, ani Hull had her burned. The " Constitution " then returned to Bos- ton with her prisoners, and was received with an ovation. It was the first time In half a COMMODORE HULL. century that a British frigate had struck her flag in a fair fight, and the victory was hailed with delight in all parts of the country. On the eighteenth of October the Ameri- can sloop-of-war " Wasp," eighteen, Captain Jones, met the British brig " Frolic," twenty- two, convoying six merchantmen. In order to give her convoy a chance to escape, the "Frolic" shortened sail and awaited the approach of the " Wasp." The " Wasp '" poured a raking fire into her antagonist anci 524 FROM THE REVULUnUN TO THE CIVIL WAR. then boarded her. The boarders found the deck of the " Frolic" covered with the dead. Only one man remained unhurt, and he stood gallantly at his post at the wheel. Before the prize could be secured the British frigate " Poictiers, " 74, hove in sight and captured both vessels. The ** Wasp " lost eight men in the engagement ; the " Frolic " eighty. On the twenty-fifth of October the fri- gate '' United States," 44, Captain Decatur, Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate "Java," 38, off the coast of Brazil, after an action of three hours. The "Java" was reduced to a wreck, and as he was not able to get her into a friendly port, Captain Bainbridge caused her to be burned. The "Java" lost one hundred and sixty-one men out of a crew of four hundred ; the " Constitution " lost thirty-four in killed and wounded. Among the wounded was Cap- tain Bainbridge. THE WASP BOARDING THE " FROLIC. encountered the British frigate " Mace- donian," 49, off the Azores, and after a funning fight of an hour and a half forced her to strike her colors. The " United States" lost seven killed and five wounded ; the " Macedonian," thirty-six killed and sixty-eighty wounded out of a crew of three hundred men. Decatur succeeded in bring- ing his prize into New York. On the twenty-ninth of December the " Constitution," now under the command of These victories aroused the greatest en- thusiasm in the United States. The grea^ disparity in the losses sustained by tht respective combatants made it evident to both nations that the American ships had been better handled in every engagement. The British endeavored to account for the American successes by declaring that the United States vessels were seventy-fours in disguise, or that they carried heavier guns than their adversaries ; but the thinking men ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 5^5 of both countries saw that they had been won by the superior skill of the American officers, and that they were the plain an- nouncement of the fact that England had found a rival capable of contesting her supremacy on the ocean. British Commerce Damaged. The American privateers inflicted great damage upon the commerce of Great Britain. During the year i8i2 these vessels captured about five hundred British merchantmen and made prisoners of three thousand British seamen. The cargoes of the captured vessels amounted to an enormous sum. On the eighth of March, 1813, tlie Rus- sian minister at Washington communicated to President Madison an offer from the Em- peror Alexander of his mediation between the United States and Great Britain for the purpose of bringing about a peace between them. The President at once accepted the Russian offer, and sent Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard to St. Petersburg to join John Quiucy Adams, then Minister to Russia, as riiinisters to negotiate a treaty. The British government declined the Rus- sian mediation and the matter was drop- ped. The thirteenth Congress met on the twenty-fourth of May, 18 13, and entered upon the task of providing the means of carrymg on the war. The principal measure resorted to was the imposition of ditect taxes and internal duties. The financial situation of the government was disheartening. The expenses of the war had greatly exceeded the estimates, and a heavy deficit had to be provided for. To meet the necessities of the occasion new loans were authorized, but they were generally paid in the depreciated treasury notes which had been issued ac- cording to act of Congress, and did not yield much to the government. The business of the country was in a state of confusion. All the banks, save a few in New England, had suspended specie pay- ments, and the war spirit was dying out in many parts of the Union. New England had entered into the war with great reluc- tance and was a heavy loser by it. Her opposition to it was increasing daily. Discontent and Disagreement. The government opened the campaign of 1 8 1 3 with the determination to make another effort to conquer Canada. The army of the west, under General Harrison, was stationed at the upper end of Lake Erie ; that of the centre, under General Dearborn, the com- mander-in-chief, was posted along the Niagara river ; and that of the east, under General Wade Hampton, was at Lake Champlain. Simultaneous movements were to be made from these points against the British in Canada. To oppose these forces the British stationed their armies along their frontier as follows : General Proctor was stationed with a considerable force near Detroit; General Sheaf with another force covered Montreal and the approaches from the United States by way of Lake Champlain and the Sorel river; and Sir George Prevost, the com- mander-in-chief, held the line of the Niagara river. General Harrison was charged with the duty of recovering the territory lost by General Hull. Volunteers flocked to him from all parts of the west, and especially from Kentucky. A part of his force, under General Winchester, held a fort on the Maumee. In January, 1813, the British made a demonstration against Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, and Winchester sent a detachment to its relief, which compelled the British to retreat. A little later Win- chester followed with the rest of his troops and took position in the open country. His ^26 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. whole force amounted to scarcely one thou- sand men. Hearing of Winchester'^, exposed posi- tion, General Proctor marched from Fort Maiden, opposite Detroit, with fifteen hun- dred British and Indians, and, crossing the lake on the ice, attacked Winchester on the twenty-second of January, and after a des- perate encounter forced him to surrender; Proctor promised Winchester that his men save his reputation by protecting his prison- ers, and his inhuman conduct in leaving them to the fury of the savages, in violation of his pledge, met, as it deserved, the un- qualified denunciation of every honorable man. It roused a fierce spirit of revenge througout the west. Harrison was on his march to Winches- ter's assistance when he learned of his surrender. He halted at the rapids of INDIANS TORTURING PRISONERS. should be treated as prisoners of war, but in violation of his pledge set out at once on his retreat to Maiden, leaving the wounded Americans behind. The Indians of Proc- tor's command fell upon the helpless wounded men, massacred the majority of them, and carried the remainder to Detroit. Some of these they offered to release on pay- ment of heavy ransoms ; the others they held for torture. Proctor made no effort to Maumee, and built a fort which he named Fort Meigs, in honor of the governor of Ohio. Proctor advanced in the spriiig to attack this fort, and on the first of May opened his batteries upon ' it. A force of twelve hundred Kentuckians, under Gen- eral Green Clay, of Kentucky, advanced to the relief of the fort, and the British and Indians were obliged to raise the siege and retreat. I ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 327 General Clay was placed in command of Fort Meigs. In July Proctor again advanced and made siege to it, but was unable to cap- ture it. Hearing that Fort Stephenson, on the Sandusky, had a small garrison, Proctor withdrew from Fort Meigs and attacked Fort Stephenson. This fort had a garrison of one hundred and sixty men, and was commanded by Major George Croghan,ayoung man in his twenty-second year. He was summoned to surrender, but answered that he should hold the fort to the last man. On the second of August Proctor made a determined assault upon the fort, and his regulars gained the ditch, into which they crowded preparatory to attempting to scale the parapet. At this moment the only cannon in the fort, which had been doubly charged with musket-balls, opened upon them from a masked port-hole. The British were cut down by the score, and retreated in confusion. That night, fearing that Harrison would come to Croghan's relief, Proctor abandoned the siege, and re- treated towards Maiden. Battle of Lake Erie. It was clear that nothing of importance could be accomplished in this quarter as long as the British held Lake Erie. Oliver Hazard Perry, a young lieutenant of the United States navy, volunteered to win back the lake from the enemy, who held it with a small squadron under Captain Barclay. By extraordinary exertions Perry built and equipped a fleet at Presque Isle, now Erie. Tt consisted of nine vessels of various sizes, from one which carried tvventy-iive guns down to one which carried one gun. Its total armament amounted to fifty-five guns. It was manned by a small force of sailors from the east, and by a large number ot volunteers from General Harrison's army. As soon as his fleet was in proper condition Perry stood out into the lake to seek the enemy. The British squadron consis*:^d ol six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns. Each fleet carried about five hundred men. The two squadrons soon encountered each other, and on the tenth of September a severe battle was fought between them at the western end of the lake. Perry at the open- ing of the fight displayed a flag from his vessel bearing the words of the brave Law- rence, " Don't give up the ship." It was greeted with cheers from the men. During the ba^tle the American flag-ship, the " Law- COMMODuRE PERRY. rence," was disabled, and Perry passed in an open boat, under a heavy fire, to the " Nia- gara," the next largest ship, and tranferred his flag to her. The result was that the British fleet was defeated and forced to sur- render. Perry announced his victory to General Harrison in the following character- istic message : " We have met the enemy and they are ours. Two ship: , one brig, a a schooner, and a sloop." This victory was of the highest importance to the Americans. It gave them the com- nand of Lake Erie, and opened the way to 528 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVH. WAR. perry's victory on lake ERIE Canada. Harrison hastened to profit by it, and advanced rapidly towards Detroit and Maiden. Proctor aban- doned those places and retreated with his own forces and Tecumseh and his Indians into Canada. At Detroit Harrison was joined by thirty-five hundred mountedKentuckians, under the aged Gov- ernor Shelby, one of the heroes of King's Mountain, and Col- onel Richard M.John- son. He at once en- tered Canada in pur- suit of Proctor, and by a forced march of sixty miles came up with him on the banks of the Thames, on the fifth of October. A short but desperate battle ensued, in which Tecumseh was killed and his Indians put to flight. The British were routed, and Proc- tor saved himself only by the speed of his horse. By these successes the Americans won back Michigan Terri- tory, and for the pres- sent gave peace and security to the north- western frontier. The Kentuckians returned home, and Colonel Lewis Cass, who was soon after appointed governor o. Michigan, was left to garrison Detroit with his brigade. With fifteei^ ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 529 hundred regulars Harrison embarked on Lake Erie and sailed for Buffalo to assist in the invasion of Canada from that quar- ter A small fleet of armed vessels was main- tained in Lake Ontario by each of the com- batants. The American fleet was commanded by Commodore Chauncey. In April General Dearborn embarked a force of seventeen hundred picked men in these vessels and stores fell into the hands of the captors. They were transferred to Sackett's Harbor. As it was not part of the plan of General Dearborn to hold York, the place was eva- cuated. Just before the withdrawal of the Americans a small building, known as th? Parliament House, was burned. The British attributed this act to the Americans, who disclaimed it. The American officers believed that the house was set on fire by BATTLE OF THE THAMES — DEATH OF TECUMSEH. sailed across Lake Ontario to attack York, now Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada. The Americans landed a short distance below the town, and advanced upon it. On the the twenty-seventh of April the place was carried by assault. The British fired the magazine of one of the works from which they were driven, and General Pike, the commander of the storming party, and one or two hundred of his troops were killed by the explosion. A large amount of milit^Jrv the disaffected Canadians, who had threat ened to burn it. The burning of this build- ing was made by the British the pretext for the destruction of the capitol and other public buildings at Washington, the next year. From York General Deai'born sailed to the Niagara to attack Fort George. The commander of this work, on the approach of the Americans, blew up his magazines and retreated to Burlington Heights, near the 530 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL Vv^AR. western end of the lake. Dearborn followed them in pursuit, but was attacked and driven back by the British on the night of the sixth of June. Two American generals, Winder and Chanler^ were made prisoners in this engagement. Dearborn fell back in haste to Fort George. In the meantime General Prevost, having learned of Dearborn's absence from Sackett's Harbor, attacked that place, on the twenty- ninth of May, with one thousand men. He was repulsed with such vigor by the gar- rison, under General Brown, that he retreated to his ships, leaving his wounded behind. Failure of a Canadian Expedition. Soon after this General Dearborn suffered another reverse at Fort George, and allowed a detachment of six hundred men of his army to be cut off by the British. In con- sequence of these failures General Dearborn was removed by the President, who appointed General Wilkinson, the commander of the troops at New Orleans, as his successor. It was proposed that General Wilkinson should enter Canada with his troops and advance upon Montreal, and that General Hampton, commanding the forces on Lake Champlain, should join him on the St. Law- rence. Wilkinson and Hampton were not on friendly terms, and neither of them were possessed of sufficient patriotism to overlook their personal differences for the good of their country. Wilkinson advanced as far as the rapids of the St. Lawrence, and sent a body of troops, under General Brown, to cover the descent of the rapids by the army. An engagement occurred at Chrysler's Farm, on the eleventh of November ; the British were driven back ; bnt the Americans lost more than three hundred men. Wilk- inson now sent word to Hampton t^ move forward to his support, but the latter answered that he had abandoned the expe- dition, and was going into winter quarters, Under these circumstances Wilkinson fell back to French Mills, about nine miles from St. Regis, where he went into winter quar- ters. Hampton prepared to pass the wintei at Plattsburg on Lake Champlain. Thus the expedition was ruined by the quarrels of its. commanders. British Depredations, In December the Americans abandoned Fort George, and retreated across the Niagara river. Before doing so General McClure, the commanding officer, burned the village of Newark, in order to prevent the enemy from using it as quarters for their troops during the winter. There was no necessity and no excuse for the destruction of this village, and it was speedily avenged by the enemy. About the middle of Decem- ber the British crossed the Niagara river, surprised Fort Niagara, and put the garrison to the sword. In retaliation for the burning of Newark they burned every town and house that could be reached on the Amer- ican side of the river, including Lewistown, Youngstown, Manchester, Black Rock, and Buffalo. The war was not confined to the northern frontier. In the spring of 1813 Tecumseh had visited the Creek tribes in the southwest and aroused their war spirit. In August seven hundred Creeks attacked and capture^' Fort Mims, on the west bank of the Alabama river, near the mouth of the Tombigbee. Between three and four hundred settlers, who had taken refuge in the fort, were mas- sacred. The south was soon aroused by the nevrs of this massacre, and in a shorl while a forct of seven thousand volunteers was marching into the Indian country in four divisions. One division, under General Andrew Jack- son, of Tennessee, moved southward from ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 531 Nashville ; another from East Tennessee, under General Cocke ; a third from Georgia, under General Floyd, and a fourth from Mis- sissippi Territory. In addition to these forces the lower Creeks took up arms against their brethren, and the Cherokees and Choc- taws joined the Amer- ricans. The principal villages of the hostile Creeks lay on and near the Coosa and Talla- poosa Rivers, and their hunting-grounds ex- tended much farther north. The Tennessee for- ces, under General Jackson, were the first to enter the Indian country, and a num- ber of unimportant encounters occurred. On the third of Nov- ember the Indians were defeated in a bloody battle at Tal- lasehatche, and on the eighth of the same month at Talladega. These were hard-won victories for the Amer- icans, and terrible blows to the savages. On the twenty-ninth of November the Georgia volunteers under General Floyd, attacked the Creek town of Autossee, and killed two hundred warriors. The Creeks were badly armed, but their spirit was unbroken by their reverses. Early in the year 18 14 they assumed the offensive, and on the twenty-second of January attacked General Jackson at Emucfau. Jackson suc- ceeded in repulsing them, but in spite of his victory deemed it best to fall back to Fort Strother. On the twenty-fifth the Indians again attacked him and were again defeated. Soon after this Jackson, being largely lein CAPTAIN (afterward SIR PHILIP) BROKE. forced, advanced into the Indian country with an army of four thousand Tennes seeans. At the Horse-Shoe Bend of the Tallaposs the Creeks had their principal settlement, an intrenched camp, in which they had collected 332 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVH. WAR. their women and children, under the pro- tection of one thousand warriors. They were attacked here on the twenty-seventh of March, 1814, by Jackson's army, and their camp was carried, after a desperate fight, in which six hundred warriors were killed and two hundred and fifty women and children were made prisoners. This terrible blow put an end to the resistance of the Creeks. They sought peace, and were compelled to purchase it by the surrender of more than two-thirds of their hunting-grounds. Hot Naval Engagements. The year 1813 was eventful and important in the naval history of the republic, and once more the navy sustained the spirits of the country, which had been cast down by the failure of the army. On the twenty-fifth of February tjie America.: sloop-of-war " Hornet," Captain Lawrence, captured the British brig " Peacock," off the mouth of Demerara River, after an action of fifteen minutes. The " Peacock " was so terribly cut up by her adversary's fire that she sank in a few minutes after she struck her flag. Captain Lewrence returned to the United States and was promoted to the command of the frigate " Chesapeake, which was lying in Boston harbor preparing for sea. While there Lawrence was challenged by Captain Broke, of the British frigate " Shan- non," which was cruising off Boston harbor. Although his ship was badly manned and his crew undisciplined, Lawrence accepted the challenge and put to sea on the first of June to meet the " Shannon." The action was begun about thirty miles east of Boston Light and lasted but fifteen minutes. The "Shannon" was in every way superior to the " Chesapeake," and the latter ship was forced to strike her flag, with a loss of one hundred and forty-six of her crew. Captain Lawrence was mortally wounded. As he was being carried below his last words were " Don't give up the ship ! " — words which have since become the watchword of the service of which he was one of the brightest ornaments. Two Commanders FalL The rejoicings in England over the cap- ture of the " Chesapeake " were very great. Although not gratifying to the Americans, yet the little navy of the Union gained ' ?w courage, for its splendid services had won the respect of the " mistress of the seas." In the summer of 18 13 the "United States," " Macedonian " and " Hornet." while attempting to get to sea from New York through Long Island sound, were driven into the harbor of New London, and blockaded there by a British squadron. In August the American sloop of war "Argus" was cap- tured while cruising in the English channel by the " Pelican." In September the Ameri- can brig " Enterprise," twelve guns, Captain Burrows, captured the British brig " Boxer," Captain Blythe, off the coast of Maine. Both commanders fell in the engagement, and were buried with equal honors. During the summer of 181 3 the B'-'^ish fleet of Sir George Cockburn entered the Chesapeake repeatedly and ravaged its shores. All the shipping that could be reached by the enemy was destroyed, and the towns of Frenchtown, Georgetown, Havre de Grace and Fredericktown were plundered and burned. An attack was made on Norfolk, but was repulsed with hea\'y loss. Cockburn then plundered the town of Hampton, and sailed to the southward. The barbarities committed by this fleet along the Chesapeake and its tributaries were horrible. Neither age nor sex were spared by the British sailors and marines, and women were ravished, and old men and little children murdered, with the knowledge PUTNAM'S ESCAPE AT HORSE NECK FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR who made no effort to stop 534 of the admiral the outrages. During the winter of 1813-14 a communi- cation was received from the British govern- ment, stating that although Great Britain had declined the Russian mediation, she was willing to enter into direct negotiations with the United States, either at London or Got- tenburg, in Sweden, The President at once accepted the English offer, and Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell were added to the commissioners already in Europe. Gotten- ourg was at first selected as the place of meeting, which was afterwards changed to Ghent. Great Britain Ready for PeacCo At this time the opposition to the war was yery great in many parts of the Union. The Mew England States continued bitterly hos- tile to it, and the legislature of Massachusetts, m a remonstrance addressed to Congress, denounced the war as unreasonable, and urged the conclusion of a peace. Congress itself was more divided upon the support of the war than it had ever been. It contained many new men, some of them destined to play prominent parts in the future history of the country. Pre-eminent among those was Daniel Webster, of New Hampshire, who from the first took a high position as one of the most gifted men in Congress. Hostilities were resumed by the Americans on the Niagara frontier with the beginning of the spring of 18 14. Early in May General Brown, whose force had been increased to five thousand men, crossed the Niagara. Fort Erie surrendered to him without a blow dn the third of July. On the fourth General Scott, with the advanced guard of the army, moved towards the British, who had taken position, under General Riall, at Chippewa, fifteen miles distant. Scott was joined by General Brown, with the rest of the ai my, on the night of the fourth, and the -next day a severe engagement occurred, in which the British were defeated, with the loss of five hundred men. The loss of the Americans was three hundred. Victory at Lundy's Lane. After his defeat at Chippewa General Riall fell back to Burlington Heights, and the Americans advanced to Queenstown, but soon after withdrew to Chippewa. Being strongly reinforced by a body of troops, under General Drummond, Riall advanced from Burlington Heights to attack the Amer- icans, followed by General Drummond's command ; and at the same time General Brown, who had heard of Drummond's arri- val, set out from Chippewa to attack the British. The advanced forces of the Amer- icans were commanded by General Scott. The two armies unexpectedly met at Bridge- water, or Lundy's Lane, immediately opposite Niagara Falls, at sunset, on the twenty-fifth of July. The British occupied a strong position, and notwithstanding the lateness of the hour, Scott resolved to attack them. The main body of the Americans, under General Brown, soon arrived, and the battle became general. The British had posted a battery on a hill which commanded the field, and were doing great execution in the Amer- ican ranks. It was captured by the regiment of Colonel James Miller, and General Drum- mond, who had arrived on the field and had taken command in place of General Riall, who had been wounded and captured by the Americans, advanced to recover it Drummond made three determined efforts to retake the battery, but was driven back each time. It was now midnight, and about eight hundred men had fallen on each side. The Americans had exhausted their ammu- nition and were dependent now upon the cartridges they obtained from the boxes o* ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 535 the fallen British. Finding all their efforts vain the British sullenly withdrew and left the field to the Americans. The latter were so exhausted by their hard march of fifteen miles and five hours of constant fighting that they made no effort at pursuit, and soon withdrew from the hill to their camp. As they had no means of hauling off the cap- tured guns they were obliged to leave them on the field. General's Brown and Scott were both wounded during the battle^, as were nearly all of the field officers. Repulse at Fort Erie, The victory of Lundy's Lane was particu- larly gratifying to the Americans. It was won, not over Canadian militia, but over veteran troops who had served under Wel- lington in the wars with Napoleon. It broke the long series of defeats sustained by the Americans since the opening of the war, and showed what could be accomplished by American soldiers under competent and determined commanders and in anything like a fair fight. General Browne withdrew to Fort Erie after the battle, and being disabled by his wounds, relinquished the command to Gen- eral Gaines. General Drummond moved forward and on the fourth of August laid siege to Fort Erie. On the fifteenth he attempted to carry the fort by an assault at midnight, but was repulsed with a loss of one thousand men. In spite of this reverse he pressed the siege with vigor, and in the meantime General Brown recovered from his wounds and resumed the command of the fort. On the seventeenth of September the Americans made a sortie against the batteries of the Brittish, which were two miles in advance of their camp By a sudden dash from the fort they stormed and carried the batteries, spiked the guns, set fire to the magazines, inflicted a loss of six hundred in killed and wounded upon the enemy, and retreated into the fort, carrying with them four hundred prisoners. The American loss in this brilliant sally was three hundred men. Drummond immediately raised the siege and retreated across the Chippewa. Around Lake Champlain. In October a reinforcement of four thou- sand men arrived from Lake Champlain under General Izard, who assumed the com mand of the American Army on the Niagara, He was one of the old-style commanders, and at once proceeded to neutralize the fiallant achieven^ents of Brown and Scott. He did nothing until November, when, fear- ing that Drummond would be reinforced, he blew up Fort Erie and retreated across the Niagara, leaving the entire Canadian shore in the possession of the British. General Izard had succeeded General Hampton in command of the army on Lake Champlain. Upon his withdrawal to the Niagara, General Macomb took command of the troops that remained on Lake Champlain, and held Plattsburg with a force of about three thousand men. Hearing that General Prevost was advancing to attack him, Macomb called on the militia of New York and Vermont to come to his aid, and about three thousand of them joined him, bringing his force to six thousand men. General Prevost having been reinforced from Eng- land, advanced against Plattsburg with a force of twelve thousand veteran troops, for the purpose of invading the State of New York. Upon the approach of this force Macomb fell back behind the Saranac, a deep and rapid stream which empties into the lake at Plattsburg, and the small American squadron, under Commodore Macdonough, was moored across the entrance of Plattsburg bay. This squadron carried eighty-six guns, and was S3^ FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. manned by eight hundred and fifty-six men. The British army was accompanied by a squadron superior in strength to that of the Americans, and upon which they depended for the control of Lake Champlain. It was commanded by Captain Downie, mounted ninety-five guns, was manned by one thou- sand men, and had plenty of ammunition. SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF LAKE Prevost arrived before Plattsburg on the seventh of September, and proceeded to erect batteries to cover his passage of the Saranac. On the eleventh of September he made a combined attack by land and water upon the iAmerican position. The British squadron idvanced to force an entrance into Platts- hurg bay, and the British army at the same time attempted to force a passage of the Saranac. As the enemy's fleet advanced, Macdonough called the crew of his flag-ship around him, and kneeling on the quarter- deck of his vessel, prayed God to crown the American arms with victory that day. After a severe engagement of two hours and a quarter, the British fleet was defeated and forced to surrender, with the exception of a few gunboats, which escaped. While this battle was going on, Prevost tried repeat- edly to cross the Sara- nac, but was each time driven back with heavy loss. During the night the British army re- ^p treated in disorder, abandoning their sick and wounded and a large quantity of mili- tary stores, having lost twenty-five hundred men in the engage- ment. The country had ample cause to regret the weakness of its navy during this war. The exploits of those vessels which had managed to get to sea had shown what could be accomplished by this branch of the public service, and our deficiency in this respect enabled the enemy to blockade the ports of the Union, and to use the Chesapeake bay with as much freedom as if it were one of their own harbors. In the summer of .^814 h fleet of sixty British ships under Admirals Cockburn and Cochrane, having on board a land-force of five thousand men under General Ross, assembled in the Chesa- peake. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 537 Admiral Cochrane endeavored to induce the slaves of Virginia and Maryland to desert their masters, and offered them free transportation to the West Indies and Canada. As it was not known at what Loint General Ros:^ would land his troops, General Winder of Maryland was ordered to collect a force of fifteen thousand militia from the neighboring States. He proposed to occupy a central position from which he could cover Wa.^hington City, Annapolis, and Baltimore, and was anxious to call out the militia at once ; but General Armstrong, the secretary of war, decided that it v/ould be time enough to call out the militia when the British had revealed their designs more plainly. He did not believe the British had any idea of advancing upon Washington, and thought Baltimore could defend itself Mr. Madison submitted to the decision of the secretary of war, and the national capita) was left defenceless. Attack on Washington. In the meantime, the British commanders, learning the exposed condition of the city of Washington, determined to attack it. They divided their fleet for this purpose, one por- tion ascending the Potomac, and another the Patuxent. The latter division conveyed the troops of General Ross, and landed them at Benedict, on the Patuxent, about fifty miles from Washington. General Ross at once set out for Washington, advancing slowly and meeting with no resistance. As he had no horses, his troops were obliged to drag their three or four cannon by hand, and the British made but about ten miles a day. A few determined troops might have driven them back, ana the roads might at least have been obstructed and the progress of the enemy impeded. General Winder gathered a small foice of militia, and took position at Bladensburg, on the east branch of the Potomac, about thret miles from Washington. He was joined he-e by Commodore Barney with five hund.ed sailors and marines from the gunboat flotilla in the Patuxent, which Barney, unable to offer any resistance, had burned upon the approach of the British fleet. On the twenty- fourth of August the British reached Blad- ensburg, and attacked the force under Gen- eral Winder. The militia fled at the firsf fire, but Barney and his sailors and marines stood their ground, and served their gun? COMMODORE MACDONOUGH. With vigor until their position was turned o*? both flanks by the superior force of ihe enemy, when they retreated, leaving their guns and wounded in the hands ot the vic- tors. The so-called battle of Bladensburg was little more than a skirmish. General Ross halted to resi his men, vvho were worn out with the heat, and towards sunset resumed his march, and entered Wash- ington a little before dark. The government had abandoned the city some hours before, and had removed the greater part of its paper Nand archives, and such public property 538 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. is could be carried away, and only a few irightened citizens remained in the town. Admiral Cochrane had some time before announced that the British forces were ordered " to destroy and lay waste ali towns and districts of the United States* found accessible to the attacks of British arma- ments," and the army of General Ross now proceeded to carry out these infamous in- structions. They burned the capitol, and with it the library of Congress, the buildings occupied by the treasury and state depart- ments, and plundered the President's mansion and set it on fire. A number of stores and private dwellings were also pillaged and set on fire. The navy yard, with all its contents and several vessels on the stocks, was entirely destroyed. Capture of American Vessels. The British afterwards attempted to excuse their shameful conduct in Washington by alleging that it was in retaliation for the burn- ing of the parliament house at York in Canada, an act which had been disclaimed by the Americans, and which the British had not been able to prove was their work. General Ross occupied Washington during the night of the twenty- fourth, and until dark on the twenty-fifth. Then, fearing lest the Americans would assemble in. such force as to intercept him, he retreated stealthily from Washington on the night of the twenty- fifth, and on the twenty-ninth reached Bene- dict and re-embarked his troops. The Eng- lish vessels sent up the Potomac succeeded in passing Fort Washington, which made little or no effort to stop them, and on the twenth-eighth anchored off Alexandria. Twenty-one vessels were captured, and the town saved itself from bombardment by pay- ing a ransom of sixteen thousand barrels of flour and one thousand hogsheads of to- bacco. After resting his men, General Ross ascended the Chesapeake to the Patapsco, for the purpose of attacking Baltimore, which was defended by Fort McHenryat the mouth of the harbor, and a force of Maryland militia and some volunteers from Pennsylvania. A force of eight thousand men was landed at the mouth of the Patapsco, under General Ross, and on the twelfth of September ad- vanced towards the city, while the fleet ascended the river to capture Fort McHenry and force its way into the harbor. A small party of Americans contested the advance of the British army, and a skirmish ensued in which General Ross was killed. Gallant Defence of Fort McHenry. A sharp encounter followed, each side losing about two hundred and fifty men. The American militia retired in good order, and on the morning of the thirteenth the British resumed their march towards Balti- more. The Americans were discovered in considerable force, occupying a line of in- trenchments defended by artillery, and com- manded by General Samuel Smith, an officer of the revolution. The British commander now deemed it best to await the result of the engagement between the fleet and Fort McHenry, which was in progress at the time. The British fleet maintained a heavy fire upon the fort, which replied with vigor, and soon made it apparent to the enemy that they could not silence it or pass it. The attack on the fort proving a failure, the British withdrew to North Point on the night ot the thirteenth and reembarked on their ships. During this cannonade P'rancis S. Key, of Baltimore, who had visited the British fleet to obtain the release of certain prisoners, and who was detained by the admiral during the bombardment, wrote the famous song of "The Star-Spangled Banner," which has ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 539 since uecome the national song of Amer- ica. The Chesapeake was not the only part of the coast that suffered from the ravages of the British. The shores of Maine were ravaged with great barbarity. Stonington, Connecticut, was subjected to a four days' bombardment by a British fleet, but the militia repulsed every attempt of the enemy to land. The foreign commerce of the coun- try was completely destroyed. The superior naval strength of the British enabled them to blockade the Atlantic ports so thoroughly that the gov- ernment ordered the lights along the coasts to be des troyed, as they only served as guides to British cruisers. The opposition of the New England States to the war, which had caused them such severe loss, increased daily, and at length the legislature of Massachusetts recommended a convention of delegates from the seaboard States to devise amendments to the Constitu- tion for the purpose of secur- ing them from a recurrence of such evils as they were suffering from. The conven- tion met at Hartford, Con- necticut, on the fourteenth of December, 1 8 14, and was delegates from the New England States. The convention was bitterly opposed by the advocates of the war, who charged it with the intention to make a separate peace with Great Britain, which would have been a practical secession from the Union. The convention continued in session for twenty days, and adopted an address to the country very moderate in its tone. It proposed to amend the Constitution by making the rep- resentation in the lower House of Congress equal by basing it upon the free population only by forbidding embargo and non-inter- course laws; and by making the President ineligible for a second term. One of the strong opponents of the embargo was the composed of A NEW ENGLAND FARM HOUSE. eminent jurist and scholar, Joseph Story, whose influence was widely felt at this time. The convention was for many years exposed to the bitterest denunciation of the great mass of the American people. One of the results of the opposition to the war was the complete destruction of the old Federalist party which had opposed the war. 540 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. Previous to the assembling of the conven- tion the President, in hope of reheving the embarrassments occasioned by the opposi- tion of New England to the war, advised the repeal of the embargo and non-intercourse acts, and the abandonment of the entire re- strictive system. His recommendations were carried out by Congress. In the meantime stirring events were transpiring in the south. At this time 'P'lorida was a possession of Spain, which was supposed to be a neutral power. Great Britain had laid Spam under heavy obliga- tions in her struggle against Napoleon, and .the British had now no difficulty in entering ' Florida, and usmg it as a base of operations against the south. Their fleet entered Pen- sacola harbor and obtained possession of the forts. From this point they began to stir up the Creek Indians to make war on the Americans, and fitted out an expedition against Fort Bowyer, com.manded by Major Lawrence, who defended the harbor of Mobile. On the fifteenth of September an attack was made upon this fort, and was repulsed with the loss to the rnemy of a vessel and a number of men. Jackson and New Orleans. General Jackson, having collected a force of three thousand Tennesseeans, marched to Pensacola, entered the town on the seventh of November, demanded that the British should leave the place at once, and notified the Spanish Governor that he should hold him responsible for the occupation of the town or the forts by the British for purposes of hostility towards the United States. The British immediately blew up a fort which they had erected seven miles below the town and embarked in their ships. Confident that New Orleans would be the next object of attack by the British, and knowing that the city was poorly prepared to resist, General Jackson at once sent General Coffee vith the mounted Tennessee- ans to that city, and followed with the rest of his troops as rapidly as possible. New Orleans was at this time a city of about twenty thousand inhabitants, less than one- half of whom were whites. The whites were principally of French birth or parentage, and cared little for the United States. They could not be relied upon to hold the city against the British. The defences were in a misera- ble state, and the people were demoralized and insubordinate. Jackson set to work with vigor. He proclaimed martial law, and put down the opposition to his measures for the safety of the city with a firm hand. He called for volunteers to defend the city, and urged the free men of color to come forward and enroll themselves. They responded in considerable numbers. The prisons were emptied, and the prisoners enrolled in the ranks of the army. The services of Lafitte, a noted smuggler chief of Barataria bay, and ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 54f e>f his band, were accepted. The British had endeavored to secure the aid of this band as pilots, as they knew the coast thoroughly, but Lafitte and his men had re- fused to hold any communication with them. While Jackson was thus engaged, the British fleet arrived on the coast of Louisi- ana, and cast anchor off the mouth of Lake Borgne, the shortest passage by water to __,^^ ^~ ^- - New Orleans. It had on board a force of twelve thousand vet- eran troops, just re- leased from the wars against Napoleon, and four thousand marines and sailors. The Bri- tish army was com- manded by Sir Ed- ward Pakenham, the brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington, and an officer of tried ability, and under him were Generals Gibbs, Keene, and Lambert, veterans of the penin- sular war. The Americans hao a small flotilla in Lake Borgne, and by ex- traordinary exertions, Jackson rtianaged to collect a force of five thousand troops, only one thousand of whom were regulars. On the fourteenth of Decem- ber the British sent their boats into Lake Borgne, and after a severe engagement cap- tured the American flotilla, and opened the way to the city. On the twenty-second of December the British landed twenty-four hundred men under General Keene, who advanced to a point on the bank of the Mis- sissippi, about nine miles below New Orleans. Jackson attacked this party on the night of the twenty-third with the regulars and Coffee's Tennesseeans dismounted, and drove them to take shelter behind a levee. The success of the Americans in this engagement greatly encouraged them to hope for a similar issue to the final conflict. THE PLAIN OF CHALMETTE — SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. The next day Jackson took position on solid ground behind a broad and deep trench that extended across the plain of Chalmette from the Mississippi to an im passable swamp, and covered his position with a line of intrenchments. The British, believing Jackson's force to be much stronger than it really was, made no attempt to interfere with him for several days, and 542 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. he employed this delay in strengthening his line with bales of cotton. The British on the twenty-eighth of December opened a heavy cannonade upon the American line. Jackson replied with energy with his five pieces of artillery, and the firing was con- tinued without accomplishing anything defi- nite for several hours. On the first of January, 1815, they attempted a second can- nonade, but the American guns soon silenced I their fire. On the fourth of January a body of twenty-two hundred Kentucky riflemen, who had descended the Mississippi to his assistance, reached Jackson's camp. Only one-half of them were armed. Jackson could not supply the remainder with arms, but set them to work to construct a second lir'=; of intrenchments in the rear of his first. Brilliant American Victory. Having finished their preparations the British erected a battery of six eighteen- pounders on the night of the seventh of January, and on the morning of the eighth advanced to carry the American line by storm. Their centre was led by General Pakenham in person, and other columns under Generals Gibbs and Keene moved against the right and left wings of the Americans. The open .space over which the enemy were obliged to pass was nearly a mile in width, and was completely com- manded by Jackson's guns. The British advanced in .splendid style, and were soon within range of the American artillery, u hich opened on them with terrible effect, rhey never wavered, but closing up their ranks firmly pressed on. As they came within musket shot the Kentucky and Ten- nessee riflemen opened a fatal fire upon them which literally mowed them down. They wavered and broke. General Pakenham attempted to rally them, and was shot down. Generals Gibbs and Keene were wounded while engaged in the same attempt, tha latter mortally. The command devolved upon General Lambert, who made two more attempts to carry the line by storm. Each time the fatal fire of the American riflemen drove back the tried veterans of Wellington's campaigns, and at last they broke and fled in confusion. General Lambert continued the retreat to the shore of the gulf, where the British fleet lay, and about a fortnight later embarked his troops and withdrew. Close of the W^ar. The American loss in the battle of New Orleans was seven killed and six wounded. The British lost two thousand in killed and wounded. The victory was of the highest importance. It saved not only New Orleans but the mouth of the Mississippi from British con- trol. Had the army of General Pakenham been successful, there is good reason to believe that England wouid have refused to relinquish the Mississippi, and the war would have gone on, or peace would have been made with the mouth of the great river under the control of England. The victory closed the war, and was won as we shall see three weeks after the treaty of peace was signed. At sea the war was carried on by the few American cruisers that managed to elude the blockade of our coast. The frigate " Essex," Commodore Porter, went to sea in 1 81 3, and made a number of captures in the Atlantic. Learning that the British whalers, which had been armed for the pur- pose of capturing American vessels, engaged in the same trade, were doing considerable damage in the Pacific, Commodore Portef sailed around Cape Horn and entered thai ocean. He captured twelve armed British whalers in the course of a few months, and then learning that the British frigate 545 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR 544 " Phcebe " had been sent in pursuit of him, Porter sailed to Valparaiso to look for her. While he lay there the " Phoebe," accompa- nied by the English sloop of war " Cherub," arrived off the harbor. The " Phoebe " was herself a full match for the " Essex," but Porter resolved to fight both vessels. As he was leaving the harbor a sudden squall carried away his maintop- mast, and left him at the mercy of his ene- mies, which at once attacked him. His defence was one of the most gallant and COMMODORE DECATUR. desperate in history, but he was forced to surrender, but not until he had lost fifty- eight of his crew killed, and sixty-six wounded. In January, 1815, the frigate " President," Commodore Decatur, managed to elude the blockade of New York, and get to sea. She K'as chased by a British squadron of five vessels, and a running fight ensued. Being entirely disabled, the " President " was forced to surrender. In February, 181 5, while cruising off the port of Lisbon, one fine moonlight' night, the " Constitution," Captain Stewart, encoun- tered two British sloops of war, the "Cy ane," 24, and the " Levant," 18, and captured both of them after a short engagements These vessels were captured after peace was signed and were restored to the British. On the twenty-third of March, the " Hornet," Cap- tain Biddle, captured the British brig " Pen- guin" of the Cape of Good Hope. The " Penguin " was so much injured that Biddle was forced to destroy her. On the thirtieth of June the " Peacock," Captain Warrington, ignorant of the close of the war, captured the " Nau- tilus " in the East Indies. The latter vessel was res- tored to the British. Thus the war, which opened so gloomily for the Americans, closed with a series of bril- liant successes for them. In the meantime negotia- tions for peace had been conducted between the American and British com- missioners at Ghent, in Belgium. The American commissioners had been instructed to demand thft settlement of the impress- ment question, and at the same time to give assurance that upon the relinquishment of that claim by England Congress would enact a law forbidding the enlistment of English sailors in either the navy or merchant service of the United States. On the fourteenth of December, 1 8 14, the labors of the commissioners were brought to a close, and a treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain was signed. The treaty provided that all places cap tured by either party during the war should be restored to their rightiul possessors. ADIVriNISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 545 ArraMgements were made for determining | to revive it, so that the object of the war the the northwest boundary of the United States, protection of American sailors from impress- and for setthnor matters of minor importance, ment by England, was attained after ail The treaty was silent on the subject of | The treaty was unanimously ratified by the DECATUR AND THE DEY OF ALGIERS. impressments, the cause of the war. Nev- ertheless Great Britain ceased to exercise her claim to this right as regarded the United States, and has not since attemoted Senate, and on the eighteenth of February peace was proclaimed by the President. A kw days later the President recommended to Congress the passage of a law forbidding U46 FROM THE RFVOLQTION TO THE CtVtL WAR. the enlistment of foreign seamen in American vessels. The oroclamation of peace was hailed with delight in all parts of the country, especial .y in the Atlantic cities which had suffered heavily by the war, and the national rejoic- ings were intensified by the news which arrived a few days later of the brilliant /ictory of New Orleans. Soon after the conclusion of peace with Great Britain, the United States were called 'jpon to punish the insolence of the dey WILLIAM C. C. CLAIBORNE. of Algiers. That ruler, thinking that the United States was too much crippled by their recent conflict with Great Britain to punish his insolence, suddenly made war upon them. He threatened to reduce Mr. Lear, the American consul, to slavery, and compelled him to purchase his liberty and that of his family by the payment of a large ransom. Several American merchantmen were captured by the Algerine pirates, and their crews reduced to slavery. The excuse offered by the dey for these outrages was ihat the presents cf the American govern- ment were not satisfactory. The government of the United States determined to compel the Barbary powers to make a definite settlement of the questions at issue between them and this country, and in May, 1815, Commodore Decatur was despatched to the Mediterranean with a fleet oi ten vessels, three of which were frigates. He was ordered to compel the dey to make satisfaction for his past out- rages, and to give a guarantee for his future good conduct. On the voyage out Decatur fell in with the largest frigate in the Algerine service, near Gibraltar, on the seventeenth of June, and captured her after a fight of thirty minutes. On the nineteenth another Algerine cruiser was taken. Decatur at Tunis and Tripoli. The fleet then proceeded to Algiers, but upon its arrival found the dey in a very humble frame of mind. The loss of his two best ships, and the determined aspect of the Americans, terrified him into submission, and he humbly sued for peace. He was required to come on board of Decatur's flag- ship, and there sign a humiliating treaty with the United States, by which he bound him- self to indemnify the Americans from whom he had extorted ransoms, to surrender all his prisoners unconditionally, to renounce all claim to tribute from the American gevern- ment, and to cease from molesting American vessels in future. The difficulty with Algiers having been satisfactorily settled, Decatur sailed to Tunis and Tripoli, and demanded of the govern- ment of each of those countries in- demnity for some American vessels which had been captured by the British in their harbors with their connivance. The demand was coupled in each case .with a threat of bombardment, and was complied with. ADMINTSTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 547 ADOut the middle of the summer Commo- dore Bainbridge joined Decatur with the " Independence," seventy-four, the "Con- gress," and several other vessels, but the energetic Decatur had settled all difficulties, 1 and had so humbled the Barbary powers I that they never again renewed their aggres- sions upon American commerce. The American fleet then visited the principal ports of the Mediterranean. The brilliant record made by the navy during the war with England secured it a flattering recep- tion everywhere. Indian Tribes at Peace. In the autumn of 1815 the Indian tribes, deprived of the support of Great Britain, made peace with each other and with the United States. The northwestern frontier was thus secured against the further hostility of the savages. The finances of the country were in a wretched condition at the close of the war. All the banks but those of New England had suspended specie payments, and none were now in a condition to return to a specie basis. The public debt was over ;^ 100,000,000 and there was a general lack of confidence throughout the country. Mr. A. J. Dallas, the secretary of the treasury, in view of the general distress, proposed to abolish a num- ber of the internal taxes which had been levied for the support of the war. In their place he advised the imposition upon im- ports from foreign countries of duties suffi- ciently high not only to afford a revenue, but also to protect the manufactures which had sprung up during the war, and which were ithreatened with ruin by the competition of /European goods. The President, in his annual message, warmly recommended such a course. Another important measure was also enacted. The charter of the first Bank of the United States expired in 181 1. Efforts had been made, without success, to obtain its renewal, and Mr. Madison in January, 1814, had vetoed a bill for this purpose which had passed both Houses of Congress. In the spring of 18 16 a bill was passed by Congress chartering a new Bank of the United States for twenty years, with a capital of ^35)000,000, and received the President's signature on the tenth of April. It was located in Philadelphia, but had branches in other States. It gave the people a uniform currency, good in all parts of the country, and redeemable on demand in gold and silver, and thus did much to remedy the financial difficulties of the times. Somewhat later a law was passed requiring that all sums of money due the United States should be paid in gold or silver coin, " in treasury notes, in notes of the Bank of the United States, or in notes of banks payable and paid on demand in specie." On the nineteenth of April, 1816, the Ter- ritory of Indiana was admitted into the Union as a State, making the nineteenth member of the Confederacy. William C. C. Claiborne, a distinguished lawyer and states- man and former governor of the Territory, was one of the senators-elect of the new State, and became a famous member of that body. The Presidential election took place in the fall of 1 8 16. Mr. Madison having decline-, to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic party nominated James Monroe, of Virginia, for President, and Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, for Vice-President, and elected them by large majorities over the Federal candidates, who were: For President, Rufus King, of New York ; for Vice-President, John Howard, of Maryland. CHAPTER XXXTV The Administrations ot James Monroe and John Quincy Adams Inauguration of Mr. Monroe — His Tour through the Eastern States — Admission of Mississippi into the Union- -^v-niubles with the Indians — General Jackson's Vigorous Measures against the Spaniards in Florida — Purchase of 'j'^orida bj the United States — Illinois becomes a State — The First Steamship — Maine admitted into the Union — Tlie Slavery Question — The Missouri Compromise — Admission of Missouri as a State — The Fourth Census — ke-eiection of Mr. Monroe — The Tariff — Protective Policy of the Government — Recognition of the Spanish RepulJiics — The Monroe Doctrine — Visit of Lafayette to the United States — Retirement of Mr. Monroe — John Quincy Acianvs elected President — His Inauguration — Rapid Improvement of the Country — Increase of Wealth and Prosperity — Internal Improve- ments — The Creek Lands in Georgia Ceded to the United States — Death of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams— The Anti-Masons — The Tariff of 1828— Andrew Jackson elected President of the United Staces, JAMES MONROE was inaugurated President of the United States, at Washington, on the fourth of March, 1817. He had served during the revolution in the army of the United States, and had entered Congress soon after the for- mation of the government as a representative from Virginia, and had won great credit by his services in that body. He had been secretary of state during the eight years of Mr. Madison's administration, and had greatly increased his fame by his discharge of the difficult and delicate duties of this posi- tion. He Avas a man of amiable and con- ciliatory character, and was popular with both parties. In his inaugural address he declared his intention to administer the government in ac- cordance with the principles of Washington, and the sentiments of this document were warmly applauded throughout the country by Federalists as well as Democrats. The administration of Mr. Monroe covered a period generally known in our political history as " the era of good feeling." Party lines were alinost blotted out, and the people of the country were more united than at any 548 previous or subsequent period in the support of national measures. A few months after his inauguration Presi- dent Monroe made a tour through the Eastern States. He was received witl: marked attention everywhere, and the Fed- eralist city of Boston entertained him with the cordial hospitality which is one of her characteristics. On the tenth of December, 18 17, the western portion of the Territory of Mississ- ippi was admitted into the Union as the State of Mississippi. The eastern portion of the former Territory became the Territory of Alabama, for which a government was pro- vided by Congress, Towards the dose of the year 18 17 the Seminole Indians, whose lands lay within the Spanish province of Florida, began to com- mit depredations along the borders of Geor- gia and Alabama Territory. They were joined by the Creeks, and their operations soon became so important as to demand the immediate action of the federal government. General Gaines, commanding the federal troops in Alabama, attempted to check the Indians, but his forces were inadequate to the ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 549 task, and he was compelled to ask assistance of the government. General Jackson, com- manding the southern department, was ordered to call out the militia and take the field against the Indians. He collected a force of one thousand mounted Tennesseeans, and in March, 1818, invaded the Indian country, and in a few weeks laid it waste, the villages and cornfields were burned, and the cattle captured or killed. Being satisfied that the Spaniards in Florida had incited the Indians to make war on the United States, General Jackson, as soon as he had pun- ished the Indians, march- ed into Floridaandseized St.Marks,on Appalachee bay, the only fortified town of the Spaniards in that part of Florida. An armed American vessel, cruising off the Florida coast, hoisted the British colors, and two promin- ent hostile Creek chiefs were decoyed on board, and were summarily hanged by order of Jack- son. In one of his forays against the Indians Jack- son captured two Bri- tish traders, Robert C. Ambrister, or Ambuster, and Alexander Arbuthnot. Thev were accused of aiding the Indians, were tried and found guilty by a court-martial, and were promptly hanged. The Spanish governor indignantly protested against the invasion of Florida, but Jackson, unmoved by this protest, advanced in May to Pensacola, the seat of the Spanish provincial government, which place was immediately surrendered to him. The Spanish governor fled to Fort Barrancas, below the town. Jackson attacked the fort and compelled it JAMES MONROE. to surrender after a brief resistance, where- upon the governor continued his flight to Havana. The invasion of Florida by Jackson drew forth an indignant protest from the Spanish government, but his conduct was sustained by a decisive majority in both $KO FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR, Houses of Congress. The Spanish govern- ment did not press the matter, as negotiations were soon entered upon which brought about an amicable settlement of the difficulty. The Spanish kingdom was indebted to certain citizens of the United States in sums amounting in the aggregate to five million dollars. Spain instructed her minister at Washington to conclude a treaty with the United States ceding Florida to them as an equivalent for these claims. The treaty was arranged in 1819. Spaiin ceded to the United States all her claims to East and West Florida, and to the territory claimed by her on the Pacific coast north of forty-two degrees of north latitude, and the federal government assumed the Spanish debt to the citizens of this country. Two years later this treaty was ratified by Spain, and on the twenty- second of April, 1 82 1, the President formally announced the acquisition of Florida by the United States. Oregon and Illinois. This purchase also included the territory m Oregon claimed by Spain, and embraced an area of 367,320 square miles. Florida was at once organized as a Territory, and General Jackson was appointed its first gov- ernor. On the third of December, 18 18, the Ter- ritory of Illinois was admitted into the Union as a State. The year 18 19 was marked by an event o^ great importance in the hLtory of the world^ Steam had been used for some time in the inland navigation ot" the Union, but it was not generally believed it could be applied to sea-going vessels. The steamship " Savan- nah," built in New York, but owned in the city from which she was named, made a suc- cessful voyage from New York to Savannah in the early part of 18 19. In May of that year she sailed from Savannah for Liverpool, and reached that port in safety From Liver- pool she subsequently made a voyage to St Petersburg. She was the first steam vessel that ever crossed the Atlantic, and, wherever she went, was an object of the greatest interest. The question of steam navigation, on the ocean was thus satisfactorily settled by America. On the fourteenth of December, 18 19, Alabama was admitted into the Union as a State, making the total number of States twenty-two. North and South. On the fifteenth of March, 1820, Maine, which had formed a part of Massachusetts, but had been ceded by that State to the gen- eral government, was admitted into the Union as a State. The object of the erection of this new State was to offset the growing power of the Southern States by the creation of? new member of the Union in New Eng- land. The number of the New England States was thus increased to six. For some years past the question of African slavery in the States had been assuming an important and alarming position in the public mind. The States of the north and west had gotten rid of such negro slaves as they had originnlly possessed, and had forbidden their citizens to own or bring within their limits for purposes of labor any persons of this class. The Southern States, on the other hand, comprised a region in which slave labor was particularly profitable, and k was believed by the people of this region that the industry of many parts of the soutl * could not be properly developed by white men, as the climate was more unsuited to them than the negroes. The production of cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco depended on the labor of the negro, and in the States where those great staples were raised slavery was regarded as a necessity. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 551 At the period we are now considering slavery existed in the States of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Caro- lina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Missis- sippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Being regarded by these States as necessary to their prosperity, they considered any and all plans for its removal as attacks upon their chief source of wealth. In the non-slaveholding States the feeling that slavery was sinful had been gradually gaining ground, and there were many per- sons in the south who held the same views. Certain religious bo- dies in the country had distinctly expressed their belief that it Vv^as contrary to the teach- ings of Christianity to own slaves, and mem- orials had been pre- sented to the legisla- tures of some of the States, and to the Con- gress of the United States, praying for the abolition of slavery The law for the organization of the Northwest Territory forbade the admis- sion of slavery into the States to be formed out of that Territory, and thus secured them for free labor. Though Congress did not hesitate to legislate upon the subject of slavery in this case, it steadily refused to comply with the demands of the petitions presented to it praying it to take measures for the abolition of slavery throughout the nation. The exist- ence of slavery within the individual States was recognized and protected by the Consti- tution, and Congress held that it had no right to interfere with the domestic relations of those States in which slavery, thus recog- nized and protected, was established. In February, 1819, the Territory of Mis- souri, which was formed out of a part of the-. Louisiana purchase, asked permission to form a constitution preparatory to being admitted into the Union as a State. When OLD WAY OF PICKING COTTON. the bill for this purpose was presented to the House of Representatives on the thirteenth of February, Mr. Tallmadge, of New York, proposed to insert a clause providing " that the further introduction of slavery, or invol- untary servitude, be prohibited, except for the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted ; and that all children born in said State, after the admis- 552 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. sion thereof into the Union, shall be free at the age of twenty-five years. The announcement of this amendment produced a great sensation in the House, and throughout the country. It was believed by the advocates of slavery that the resolu- tions of the House of Representatives of 1 790,, in reply to the first petition presented to it for the abolition of slavery, had settled the question of the powers of the federal government respecting slavery. No effort had been made to revive the subject in the admission of Kentucky, Tennessee, Louis- iana, Mississippi, or Alabama, in each of which States negro slavery existed. Many of the most determined opponents of slavery believed that, under the constitution and the Louisiana treaty with France, Congress had no right to adopt the proposed restri..cioa upon the admission of Missouri as a State. Free and Slave Labor. Among these were Mr. Jefferson, then living in retirement at Monticello, and John Quincy Adams, the secretary of state in Mr. Monroe's cabinet. Both of these gentlemen were sincerely desirous of the abolition of slavery. Mr. Jefferson believed that the States alone had power to legislate upon the subject within their respective limits. The opponents of slavery, on the other hand, contended that while Congress had no power to interfere with slavery in the thirteen orig- inal States, it had full power to legislate concerning it in the Territories, which were the common property of the States north and south. The advocates of slavery con- tended that, as the treaty under which the Louisiana purchase was made contained a pledge to the inhabitants of that Territory that they should enjoy " all the privileges of citizens of the United States," such a restric- tion as that proposed by Mr. Tallmadge would be a violation of this pledge. They claimed also that as slaves were property, and the Territories the common possession of the States, the citizens of the slaveholding States had the right to carry their property into the Territories ; and that the prohibition of slavery in the Territories would be to deprive the south of her share in their enjoyment. The anti-slavery advo- cates replied to this, that slave and free labor could not coexist on the same soil, and that to allow slavery in the Territories would be to drive free labor out of them ; and that it would be a great wrong to allow the intro- duction of a few hundred thousand slaves at the cost of driving millions of free men from the Territories. The National Controversy. The discussion of this question produced intense feeling between the Northern and Southern States, and the sectional division of the country was drawn too deep to be effaced while the cause of it remained. It was very clear to thinking men that the feelings aroused by this controversy could not be quieted until the institution of slavery should be abolished throughout the country, or should be introduced into every new State formed out of the Territories remaining to the republic. The excitement deepened daily, and at one time became so Intense as to threaten the existence of the Union. Good men of all parties gave their best efforts to the task ofeflecting a settlement of the difficulty, but amid the storm of passion which was aroused by the debate in Congress it was hard to accomplish anything. The bill allowing the people of Missouri to form a State constitution passed the House of Representatives with Mr. Tall- madge's amendment by a small majority. It was defeated in the Senate. When Com gress met again in December, 18 19, the debate was renewed upon the Missouri' ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADaMS. 553 question. The House again passed the bill for- bidding the existence of slavery in Missouri. The Senate struck out Mr. Tallmadge's amendment, and added to the House bill, as a substitute for it, a proviso offered by Mr. Thomas, of Illinois, that slavery should not exist in any part of the Louisiana Territory lorth of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes north latitude, and west of the proposed State of Missouri, or in any State to be formed out of this Territory. The House refused to accept the Senate's amend- ment, and in order to adjust their dif- erences a committee of conference was appointed by the two Houses. Maine, whose admission we have re- lated, was an applicant for admission into the Union at this time, and it was contended by the south that it was unjust to admit her without any restric- tion as to her domestic institutions, and yet to impose upon Missouri a restric- tion which would deprive a large part of her population of their property, and close the State against emigration from the south. The result of the committee on conference was that after long and exciting debates the amendment offered by Mr. Thomas, of Illinois, was ac':epted. Maine was admitted as a free State. It was enacted by Congress that slavery should never exist north of the line of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude; and that Missouri should be admit- ted into the Union as a slave State upon the adoption of a constitution by her people. This was regarded as an equitable settle- ment of the difficulty, and the measure is known as the Missouri Compromise. The act for the admission of Maine received the President's approval on the third of March, ,1820, and the State was admitted into the Union under it on the fifteenth of March. The separate act in relation to Missouri was approved by the President on the eighth of March, 1820. Its title shows its object. It was " An act to authorize the people of Mis- souri Territory to form a constitution and State government, and for the admission of such State into the Union on an equal foot- ing with the original States, and to prohibit slavery in certain Territories." As we shall see, the State of Missouri was not admitted into the Union under the famous Missouri Compromise. HENRY CLAY. When Congress met in December, 1820, the constitution adopted by Missouri was presented to that body. It contained a clause which prevented free people of color from settling in the State. " This clause," says Colonel Benton, " was adopted for the sake of peace — for the sake of internal tranquil- ity — and to prevent the agitation of the slave question." * It was objected to in Congress * Benton's Thirty Years' View, vol. L, p. 8. 554 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. by the party that had previously opposed the admission of Missouri as a slave State. This party argued that the constitution required that the citizens of one State should be entitled to the privileges of citizens in the other States ; and that as some of the States recognized free people of color as citizens, this provision of the Missouri constitution was in open hostility to the constitution of the United States, since it deprived the citi- zens of some of the States of their rights. The friends of the compromise measure were astounded, as they ha i supposed that it had removed all obstacles to the admis- sion of Missouri, which had already exer- cised the privileges of a State in electing senators and representatives to Congress, and in taking part in the presidential election of 1820. The subject was reopened in Con- gress in all its bitterness, and the country again plunged into profound agitation. The Struggle Renewed. At this juncture Henry Clay exerted him- self with great energy to bring about a settle- ment of the dispute. He induced the House to commit the matter to a committee of thir- teen, of which he was made chairman. This committee advised the admission of Missouri upon the condition that the obnoxious clause in her constitution should be withdrawn and that her legislature should pass no law vio- lative of the rights of citizens of other States. Mr. Clay supposed that as this recommenda- tion amply met the objection to the admis- sion of Missouri, it would remove the last obstacle to the accomplishment of that object. To his astonishment it was defeated by a vote of eighty for it and eighty-three against it. The struggle now became more bitter than ever. The anti-slavery party, which had by this time obtained a definite existence, were determined that the right of the general government to control the slavery question should be acknowledged. The pro-slavery party were determined to resist the exercise of that claim. Threats were freely indulged to destroy the Union by the withdrawal of the States.' Mr. Clay, undaunted by his failure, itinewed his patriotic efforts to bring about a settlement of the dispute, and at length secured the passage of measures sub- stantially the same as those advised by his first committee. The act of Congress for this purpose was approved by the President on the second of March, 1821. The Missouri legislature on the twenty-sixth of June expunged the obnoxio\is article from the constitution of the State, and on the tenth of August the President issued his proclamation admitting Missouri into the Union.* The slavery question was quieted for a time by the admission of Missouri, but it was not settled. We shall encounter it again and again in the remaining chapters of this work. In 1820 the fourth census of the United States placed the population of the republic at 9,638,191 souls. In the fall of 1820 Mr. Monroe and Gov- ernor Tompkins wc^e re-elected President and Vice-President of the United States. Mr. * " A general idea prevails very extensively that Missouri was admitted as a slave State in 1820, under an agree- ment with the Restrictionists, or Centralists, proposed by Mr. Clay, that she should be so admitted upon condition that negro slavery should be forever prohibited in the public domain north of 36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude. No greater error in any important historical event ever existed. The truth is, Mr. Clay was not the author of the territorial line of 36 degrees 30 minutes, incorporated in the act of 1820, nor was Missouri admitted under the provisions of thai act. On the contrary, she was admitted on the tenth of August, 1821, by presidential proclamation, upon the ' Funda- mental Conditions,' in substance, that the State government, in all its departments, should be subject to the constitution of the United States, as all the State governments were, and are." — A Compendium of the History of the United Statu. By Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, p. 329. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 555 Monrue received at the polls a majority of the votes of every State in the Union, and every electoral vote but one, which was one in the college of New Hampshire, and was cast for John Quincy Adams. Mr. Monroe entered upon his second term on the fourth of March, 1 82 1. Next in importance to the slavery ques- world, and compelled the States to depend upon their own exertions for the supply of their wants. During this period numerous manufacturing enterprises had sprung up, especially in New England, where capital was idle and labor abundant. At the close of the war the country was flooded with European goods, which were UNIQUE COTTON HARVESTER. tion was that of the tariff, or the imposition of a protective duty in favor of home manu- factures. In his inaugural address the Presi- dent had recommended the imposition of such a system of duties. During the war the non-intercourse laws of Congress, and the rigid blockade maintained by the British fleet, entirely cut the United States off from commercial intercourse with the rest of the sold at reduced prices for the especial pur- pose of ruining American manufactures. In their weak and helpless condition the Ameri- can enterprises could not endure this com- petition, and the tariff was proposed as the only means of saving them from ruin. The first measure of this kind was passed by Congress in 18 16, and was opposed by the New England States, which were then largely 556 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. engaged in commerce, and was supported by the south. In 1820 the tariff was revised. The New England States, which had directed the chief efforts to manufactures since 18 16, had felt the beneficial effects of protective duties, and now became the warm supporters (of the tariff. The south being an agricultural -section had found that its interests demanded ^free trade, had changed its position and -resolutely opposed the tariff. In spite of the opposition to the measure, however, the duties were increased in the tariff of 1820. Mexico and South America, For some years past Mexico and the States of South America formerly held by Spain as provinces had been struggling to achieve their independence of the mother country. Henry Clay had exerted himself with enthusiasm to obtain from Congress a recognition of their independence, but such a step had been considered premature. In March, 1822, however, his efforts were crowned with success, and a bill was passed by Congress in accordance with the recom- mendation of the President, recognizing the independence of Mexico and the South American republics, and providing for the establishment of diplomatic relations with them. The next year President Monroe declared in a message to Congress that, " as a princi- ple, the American continents, by the free and independent position they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." This claim that America belongs to republicanism, and is not to be the scene of European schemes for territorial aggrandizement, has since been known as the " Monroe doctrine," and been regarded as one of the cardinal points of the policy of the government of the United States. The last year of Mr. Monroe's administra- tion was marked by an advent of the deepest interest to the whole country. In 1824 the venerable Marquis de Lafayette came to the United States at the express invitation of Consfress to visit the nation whose freedom he had helped to achieve. He reached New York on the thirteenth of August, and was received with enthusiasm. He travelled through all the States, and was everywhere received with demonstrations of respect and affection, and he was given abundant evi- dence in all parts of the country that the nation cherished with love and pride the memory of the generous stranger who came to its aid in its darkest hour of trial Re- turning to Washington during the session of Congress, Lafayette spent several weeks there. Congress, as a token of the gratitude of the nation for his services, voted him a a township of land and the sum of two hun- dred thousand dollars. The frigate " Brandy- wine," just finished, was appointed to ccnvej^ him back to France, a delicate compliment, as the vessel was named after the stream on whose banks Lafayette fought his first battle and was wounded in the cause of American independence. At the time of his visit to the United States Lafayette was nearly seventy years old. Election of John Quiqcy Adams. In the fall of 1824 the Presidential election was held amid great political excitement. The " era of good feeling " was at an end, and party spirit ran high. There were four candidates in the field, Mr. Monroe having declined a third term : Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford and Henry Clay. None of these received a popular majority and the election was thrown into the House of Representatives in Congress, and resulted in the choice of John Quincy Adams, of ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 557 Massachusetts, as President of the United States. John C. Calhoun, of South CaroHna, had been chosen Vice-President by the popular vote. On the fourth of March, 1825, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated President of the United States. He was the son of John Adams, the second President of the republic, and was in his fifty-eighth year. He was a man of great natural ability, of strong personal character, and of unbending integrity. He had been carefully educated, and was one of the most learned men in the Union. Apart from his general education he had received a special training in statesmanship. He had served as minister to the Nether- lands, and in the same capacity at the courts of Portugal, Prussia Russia and England, where he had maintained a high reputation. He had represented the State of Massachusetts in the Federal Senate, and had been secretary of state in the cabinet of Mr. Monroe during the last administration. He was therefore thoroughly qualified for the duties of the high office upon which he now entered. "King Cotton." He called to his cabinet men of marked ability, at the head of which was Henry Clay, who became secretary ot state. The administration of Mr. Adams was one of re- markable prosperity. The country was growing wealthier by the rapid increase of its agriculture, manufactures and commerce, and abroad it commanded the respect of the world. Still party spirit raged with great violence during the whole of this period. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney, in 1793, by which the seed was separated from the cotton, had so cheapened the cost of producing that great staple, that it had become the principal article of export from the United States, and a source of great and growing wealth to the whole country. Several important undertakings were prosecuted with vigor, or were completed during Mr. Adams' term of office. The National Road, a splendidly constructed highway, built by the general government, from Cumberland, Maryland, across the mountains, was completed to Wheeling, on the Ohio, in 1820, and was carried beyond that stream during Mr. Adams' administra- JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. tion, the design being to extend it to the Mississippi. It furnished a broad and well- built thoroughfare between the seaboard and the west, and exerted a marked influence upon the internal trade of the country. The road from Cumberland to Wheeling cost ;^ 1, 700,000. ! The Erie canal, extending from Buffalo on Lake Erie to the Hudson at Albany, was projected by De Witt Clinton. The plan was at first pronounced impracticable, but Clinton succeeded in inducing the State of 51 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. New York to undertake the scheme, and in 1825 the great work was completed and the waters of the lakes and the Hudson were united. The completion of this canal secured to the city of New York the control of the western trade, and added to its wealth and importance in a marked degree. Mauch Chunk railway, from the coal mines to the Lehigh river, in Pennsylvania, in 1827. These were merely local works, and of but little importance, except in so far as they helped to demonstrate to the public mind the possibility and the usefulness of such enter- prises upon a larger scale. STEAMBOAT LOADING WITH COTTON. Steam had been for some years in use as the motive power in the navigation of the rivers of the Union, and it now began to be applied to purposes of land transportation. The first railroad in this country was a mere tramway, for the transportation of granite irom the quarries at Quincy to the Neponsett river, in Massachusetts, and was constructed in the year 1826. This was followed by the Charters lor roads of more importance were soon obtained in several of the States. In 1828 work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and in 1829 on the South Carolina railroad, In the year 1827 there were three miles of railroad in operation in the United States. In 1875 the number of miles in operation is a little over seventy thousand. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 559 For some time previous to the entrance of Mr. Adams upon office, Georgia had been involved in a dispute with the general gov- ernment and with the Creek Indians con- cerning the lands of the latter, which the United States had agreed to purchase for the benefit of Georgia. Twenty-five years passed after the promise was made, and the lands re- mained unpurchased be- cause the Indians would not sell them. A treaty .^ was finally made in 1825 «.. ^ by which some of the chiefs ceded to the gen- eral government the lands in question. The majority of the Indians declared the chiefs had no authority to enter into this treaty, and called upon the United States to repudi- ate it. It was cancelled by the general govern- ment, but the State of Georgia determined to enforce it. The general government took the side of the Indians, and for a while it seemed that an open conflict would ensue between the State and federal authorities. The matter was settled by the Creeks consent- ing to sell their lands and to accept new i'homes in the west. The Indian lands ■ were purchased by the United States, and the Creeks emigrated beyond the Missis- sippi. On the fourth of July, 1826, died, within a few hours of each other, two ex-presidents of the republic — John Adams and Thomas Jef- ferson — the latter the author of the Declara- tion of Independence, and the former its most efficient supporter. Mr. Adams died at his home at Quincy, Massachusetts, at the ripe old age of ninety years ; Mr. Jefferson, at STATUE OF JEFFERSON AT WASHINGTON. Monticello, his beautiful Virginian home, at the age of eighty-two. Both had filled the highest stations in the republic, and both had lived to see the country they loved take rank among the first nations of the globe. They died on the fiftieth anniversary of American independence. s6o FROM Trie REVOLUTION TO TrfE CIVIL WAR. In the year 1826 a new party made its appearance in our politics, A man named William Morgan, residing in the western part of New York, published a book purport- ing to reveal the secrets of the order of Free- masons. He suddenly disappeared, and it was charged that he had been seized and murdered by the Freemasons in revenge for his exposures. The affair caused great ex- citement in the Northern and some of the Western States, and gave rise to a political DANIEL WEBSTER. party known as the Anti-Masons, whose avowed object was the exclusion of Masons from office. It acquired considerable strength in some of the States, but in a few years died out. The tariff question now engaged the atten- tion of the country once more. The manu- facturing interests were still struggling against foreign competition, and it was the opinion of the Eastern and Middle States that the gen- eral government should protect them bv the imposition of high duties upon products of foreign countries imported into the Union. The south was almost a unit in its opposition to a high tariff. Being, as we have said, an agricultural section, its interests demanded a free market, and it wished to avail itself of the privilege of purchasing where it could buy cheapest. The south and the west were the markets of the east, and the interests of that section demanded the exclusion of for- eign competition in supplying these markets. In July, 1827, a convention of manu- facturers was held at Harrisburg, Penn- sylvania, and a memorial was adopted praying Congress to increase the duties on foreign goods to an extent which would protect American industry. When Congress met in December, 1827, the protective policy was the most important topic of the day. It was warmly dis- cussed in Congress and throughout the country. The interests of New England A'ere championed by the matchless elo* quence of Daniel Webster, who clai/iied that as the adoption of the protective policy by the government had forced . New England to turn her energies to manufacturers, the government was bound to protect her against competi- tion. After a very able and exhaustive dis^ cussion, the tariff bill was passed by the House on the fifteenth of April, 1828^ and was approved by the President a little later. It was termed by its opponents the " Bill of Abominations." In the midst of this excitement the Presi- dential election occurred. Mr. Adams was a candidate for re-election, but was over- whelmingly defeated by Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. John C. Calhoun was chosen Vice-President. The election of Jacksonj was regarded as a popular condemnation of the protective policy of the government. CHAPTER XXXV The Administrations of Andrew J«ickson ana Martin Van Buren Character of Andrew Jackson — Indian Policy of this Administration — The President Vetoes the Bill to Renew the Char- ter of the United States Bank — Debate Between Hayne and Webster — Jackson's Quarrel With Calhoun — Death a ex-President Monroe — The Cholera — Black Hawk's War — Re-election of President Jackson — The Tariff — Action ol gouth Carolina — The Nullification Ordinance — Firmness of the President — The Matter Settled by Compromise — Pa- triotism of Henry Clay — The Removal of the Deposits — The Seminole War Begun — Great Fire at New York — Settle- ment of the French Claims — Arkansas Admitted Into the Union — The National Debt Paid — Death of ex-Presideni Madison — Martin Van Buren Elected President — Michigan Admitted Into the Union — The Panic of 1837 — Causes of It — Suspension of Specie Payments — Great Distress Throughout the Union — The Sub-Treasury — Repudiation of State Debts — The Canadian Rebellion — The President's Course — The Seminole War Ended — The Anti- Slavery Party^ Resolutions of Congress Respecting Slavery — William Henry Harrison Elected President — The Sixth Census. ANDREW JACKSON, the seventh President of the United States, was inaugurated at Washington, on the fourth of March, 1829. President Jackson was in many respects one of the most remarkable men of his day. He was of Scotch-Irish descent, and was born in North Carolina during the contro- versy between the colonies and Great Britain, which preceded the revolution. He was left fatherless at an early age, and his youth was passed amid the stirring scenes of the war for independence. At the age of thirteen he began his career by taking part in the fight at Hanging Rock, under General Sumter. The home of the Jacksons was broken up and pillaged by the Tories, and the mother and her two sons became wan- derers. The sons were shortly after made prisoners by the Tories, and the day after his capture Andrew Jackson was ordered by a British officer to clean his boots. He indignantly refused, and the officer struck him with the flat of his sword. The boys were at length exchanged through the exer- tions of their mother. Both had contracted the small-pox during their captivity, and the elder son soon died of his disease. 36 Not long afterwards Mrs. Jackson, with some other ladies, went to Charleston to minister to the wants of the American pri- soners of war confined there by the British. A fever was raging among these unfortunates at the time, and Mrs. Jackson was soon num- bered among its victims. Thus, at the age of fifteen, Andrew Jackson was left alone in the world without a relative. Though young in years, he had been greatly matured in character by his trials. Even at this early age he was generous to a fault to his friends, and immovable in his resolutions when once formed. A few years later he removed to Tennes- see, then a Territory, and upon the admis- sion of the State into the Union was elected as her first representative in Congress. His services during the war of 1 8 1 2- 1 5 have been related. His brilliant victory over the British at New Orleans made him one of the most noted men of the day, and his prompt and decisive measures against the Spaniards in Florida during Mr. Monroe's administration greatly added to his reputation. During the administration of John Adams General Jackson occupied a seat in the United States Senate, and gave a cordial support to 561 $62 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. the principles of Mr. Jefferson. Resigning his seat in the Senate before the close of his term, he was elected one of the judges of the Supreme Court of Tennessee. The election of General Jackson to the ANDREW JACKSON. Presidency was regarded with some anxiety, for though his merits as a soldier were con- ceded, it was feared by many that his known imperiousness of will and his inflexibility of purpose would seriously disqualify him for the delicate duties of the Presidency. Nature had made him a ruler, however, and his adminis tration was marked by the fearless energy that characterized every act of his life, and was on the whole successful and satisfactory to the great majority of his countrymen. General Jackson began his administra- tion by appointing a new cabinet, at the head of which he placed Martin Van Buren, of New York, as secretary of state. Until now the Post- master-General had not been regarded as a cabinet officer. Gen- eral Jackson now in- vited that officer to a seat in his cabinet and a share in its delibera- tions, and his course has since been pur- sued by each and all of his successors. The first important act of the new Presi- dent was to recom- mend to Congress the removal of all the In- dian tribes remaining east of the Mississippi to new homes west of that stream. Such a measure, he con- tended, would give to them a broader range, and one more suited to their wants, and would relieve the States east of the Mississippi from all further apprehension of Indian wars. This removal involved considerable loss and hard- ship to the Creeks in Georgia, who had made an encouraging advance in civilization A ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 563 Nil was passed by the Twenty-first Congress in May, 1830, for the purpose of carrying this policy into effect ; but the removal of the Indians was not completed for some years afterwards. In his first annual message to Congress, in 1829, the President took strong ground against the renewal of the charter of the Bank of the United States, which was about to expire. This was a bold step, as the bank was the most powerful institution in the United States, and had warm friends in every part of the country. The stockholders of the bank applied to the Twenty-second Con- gress during its first session, which began in December, 1831, for a renewal of their char- ter, and in the late spring of 1832 a bill renewing this charter was passed by both Houses of Congress. The President refused to ""'gn the bill, and returned it to Congress with his objections. He held that Congress had no constitutional power to charter such a bank, and regarded it as inexpedient to continue its existence. An effort was made by the friends of the bill to pass it over the President's veto, but it failed to obtain the necessary two-thirds vote, and consequently did not become a law. The bank was there- fore obliged to suspend its operations at the expiration of its charter in 1836. A Historic Debate. In 1830 Senator Foot, of Connecticut, sub- mitted a resolution of inquiry to the Senate concerning the disposal of the public lands. The debate upon the resolution extended far beyond the subject embraced in that docu- ment, and in the course of it Senator Robert V, Hayne, of South Carolina, a brilliant orator, declared that any State had the right, in the exercise of its sovereig:: power, to declare null and void any act of Congress which it should consider unconstitutional. This was a plain statement of the doctrine that the Union was simply a compact between the States, from which any of the States could secede at pleasure, and it was the first time such a sentiment had been expressed on the floor of Congress. Mr. Webster, of Massa- chusetts, replied to Mr. Hayne, in an oration of superb eloquence. He denied the doc trine that the Union was a compact of sover eign, independent States, from which any one of them could withdraw at pleasure ; and argued that the constitution was the work o the people themselves, not as spoarate States ROBERT Y. HAYNE. but as members of a great nation, and was designed to make the Union perpetual ; that the controversies between the States and the general government were to be decided by the supreme court, the tribunal created for that purpose by the constitution, and not by the States themselves ; and that any attempt on the part of the people of a State to with- draw from the Union was treason. The debate added greatly to the fame of both senators, and the sentiments of Mr. Webster were unanimously re-echoed by the 564 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. north, and by a large majority at the south. The effect of the debate was to direct the attention of the people to a study of the principles of the constitution. Different views were maintained. The Northern and Western States regarded the Union as indis- soluble, while the Southern States held that \ was a compact of sovereign States, and A LUMBERMAN S CAMP IN THE WOODS OF MAINE. that any State could withdraw from the Union for just cause. During the session of the Twenty-first Congress a breach occurred between Presi- dent Jackson and Mr. Calhoun, the vice- president. The former was told for the first time that Mr. Calhoun, while a member of Mr. Monroe's cabinet, had endeavored to prevent the government from sustaining him in his invasion of Florida in 1818. General Jackson deeply resented this, and the breach between himself and Mr. Calhoun widened daily. Shortly afterwards Mr. Calhoun re- signed the vice-presidency, and was elected to the Senate by the legislature of South Carolina in 1831. In the same year Mr. Clay was elected to the Senate from Ken- tucky, and Adward Livingston was mt Ae secretary of state. On the fourth ol July, 1 83 1, ex-Presi- dent Monroe died in New York, in the se- venty-fourth year of his rige. In June, 1832, the Asiatic cholera made its first appearance in the United States, and swept with fearful ra- pidity over the whole country. Thousands of persons of all ages and conditions died of it within a few months, and a feeling of general terror per- vaded the country. Its principal ravages* occurred in the North- ern States and in the valley of the Missis- sippi. In the spring of 1832 the Sacs and Foxes, and some other tribes of Indians, inhabiting the region now known as Wisconsin, made incursions against the frontier settlements of Illinois. General Atkinson was sent by the general government with a force of troops to crush them, and, with the assistance of the militia, after a series of skirmishes, drove them beyond the Mississippi. Black Hawk, ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 565 a chief of the Sac nation, and the leader of the movement, was taken prisoner. He was kindly treated, and to impress him with the folly of attacking a great nation, he was taken to Washington, and then to the prin- cipal eastern cities, that he might see for himself the power of the whites. Jackson Re-elected. Early in 1831 General Jackson was nomi- nated for re-election to the Presidency by the legislature of Pennsylvania. The Presi- dential election took place in the fall of 1832. General Jackson was supported by the Democratic party, and Mr. Clay by the Whigs, for the Presidency. The contest was marked by intense bitterness, for Jack- icon's veto of the charter of the Bank of the United States, his other vetoes of public improvement bills, and his attitude in the " Nullification " controversy between the United States and South Carolina had created a powerful opposition to him in all parts of the country. In spite of this op- position he was re-elected by a triumphant majority, and Martin Van Buren, of New York, the Democratic nominee, was chosen vice-president. In the meantime serious trouble had arisen between the general government and the State of South Carolina. During the year 1832 the tariff was revised by Congress, and that body, instead of diminishing the duties, increased many of them. This action gave great offence to the Southern States, which regarded the denial of free trade as a L^reat wrong to them. They were willing to submit to a tariff sufficient for a revenue, but were utterly opposed to a protective tariff for the reasons we have already stated. The States of Virginia, Georgia and South Caro- lina were the most energetic in their opposi- tion to the measure, but the first two, upon its passage, submitted to it, hoping to carry out their wishes by constitutional means at some future time. The State of South Carolina, holding the views advocated by Mr. Hayne in the Senate, in his debate with Mr. Webster, resolved to " nullify " the law within its own limits. A convention of the people of the State was held, which adopted a measure known as the " Nullification Ordinance." This ordinance declared that the tariff act of 1832, being based upon the principle of pro- JOHN c. tection, and not upon the principle of raising revenue, was unconstitutional, and was there- fore null and void. Provision was made by another clause for testing the constitutionality of the law before the courts of the State. The State assumed the right to forbid the collection of the duties imposed by the tariff within its limits ; and if the general govern- ment should resist the course of the State by force, the State of South Carolina was declared to be no longer a member of the 566 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. Union. This ordinance was to take effect on the twelfth of February, 1833, unless in the meantime the general government should abandon its policy of protection and return to a tariff for revenue only. Matters had reached this state when the Presidential election occurred in the fall of 1832. The country at large was utterly opposed to the course of South Carolina, and denied its right to nullify a law of Con- gress or to withdraw from the Union in support of this right. Intense excitement EDWARD LIVINGSTON. prevailed, and the course of the President was watched with the gravest anxiety. He was known to be opposed to the protective policy ; but it was generally believed that he was firm in his intention to enforce the laws, however he might disapprove of them. Congress met in December, 1832, and in his annual message President Jackson urged upon that body a reduction of the tariff. The message gave great satisfaction to the opponents of the tariff. A few days later the President issued a proclamation against nullification, moderate in language, but firm in tone. He expressed his opinion that the course of South Carolina was unlawful and wrong, and intimated that he would exert the power intrusted to him to compel obedi- ence to the constitution and laws of the Union. He appealed to the people of South Carolina not to persist in the enforcement o' their ordinance, as such a course on their part must inevitably bring them in collision with the forces of the federal government; and told them plainly that any citizen of any of the States who should take up arms against the United States in such a conflict would be guilty of treason against the United States. Referring to the action of the convention, he said : " This ordinance is founded, not on the indefeasible right of resisting acts which are plainly unconstitutional, and too oppres- sive to be endured ; but on the strange posi- tion that any one State may not only declare an act of Congress void, but prohibit its execution ; that they may do this consist- ently with the constitution; that the true construction of the instrument permits a State to retain its place in the Union, and yet be bound by no other of its laws than those it may choose to consider as constitu- tional." Trouble in South Carolina. The leaders of the South Carolina move- ment were Governor Hayne and John C. Calhoun, then a senator of the United States from South Carolina. Governor Hayne re- plied to the President with a counter procla- mation, in which he warned the people of the State against " the dangerous and perni- cious doctrines " of the President's procla- mation, and called upon them to disregard " those vain menaces " of military force, and '* to be fully prepared to sustain the dignity and protect the liberties of the State, if need J ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 567 be, with their lives and fortunes." The State prepared to maintain its position by force. Troops were organized and arms and mihtary stores were collected. The President, on his part, took measures promptly to enforce the law. He ordered a large body of troops to assemble at Charles- ton under General Scott, and a ship of war was sent to that port to assist the federal officers in collecting the duties on imports. Gvil war seemed for a time inevitable. The ginia sent Benjamin Watkins Leigh, a dis- tinguished citizen, as commissioner to South Carolina, to urge her to suspend the execu- tion of her ordinance until March 4th, as there was a probability that a peaceful set- tlement of the difficulty would be arranged before that time. South Carolina consented to be guided by this appeal. Henry Clay, with his usual patriotic selt' sacrifice, now came forward in the Senate with a compromise which he hoped would THE UNITED STATES TREASURY AT WASHINGTON, D. C. President was firmly resolved to compel the submission of South Carolina and to cause the arrest of Mr. Calhoun and the other leading nullifiers and bring them to trial for treason. The issue of such a conflict could not be doubtful. Fortunately a peaceful settlement of the trouble was effected. Mr. Verplanck, of New York, a supporter of the administra- tion, introduced a bill into Congress for a reduction of the tariff, and the State of Vir- put an end to the trouble. He was an ardent advocate of the protective system, but he was prepared to sacrifice it to the welfare of the country. He introduced a bill providing for the gradual reduction in ten years of all duties then above the revenue standard. " One-tenth of one-half of all the duties for protection above that standard was to be taken off annually for ten years, at the end of which period the whole of the other half was to be taken off, and thereafter all duties c68 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. were to be levied mainly with a view to revenue and not for protection." This measure with some modifications was adopted by both Houses of Congress, and was approved by the President on the second of March, 1833. The people of South Caro- Una rescinded their " Nullification Ordi- nance," and the trouble was brought to an end.* It was generally believed that the Union had escaped from a grave peril. The firm- ness of the President received the approval of the nation, except in South Carolina. The action of that State was generally condemner', and the result was looked upon as a decided triumph of the national authority. Renewed Excitement. On the fourth of March, 1833, General Jackson entered upon his second term of office. The troubles which had disquieted the country had been satisfactorily settled, and the President took advantage of the peaceful condition of affairs to visit New York and the New England States. He was received everywhere with enthusiasm. Upon his return to the capital the Presi- dent took a step which plunged the country into great excitement once more. The charter of the Bank of the United States made that institution the legal depository of the funds of the United States. The secre- tary of the treasury, with the sanction of Congress, alone had authority to remove them. The President was of the opinion that the public funds were not safe in the keeping of the bank, and announced his in- tention to remove them from the Bank of the United States and deposit them with certain State banks. The majority of the cabinet were opposed to the measure, and the secretary of the treasury, William J, Duane, when ordered by the President to withdraw the funds, refused to obey him as he considered the President's course " un- necessary, unwise, arbitrary and unjust." He was at once removed from his position by President Jackson, who appointed Roger B. Taney, of Maryland, in his place. Mr. Taney issued an order to the collectors, for- bidding them to deposit the public money? paid to them in the Bank of the United States. As for the funds already in the pos- session of the bank it was decided to with- draw them as they were needed for the pay- ment of the current expenses of the govern- ment. This measure was productive of great financial distress throughout the Union, which continued for some time. President Jackson Censurec, The President's course also produced open war between himself and the Senate, in which body he was opposed by Clay, Cal- houn and Webster, its foremost members. He was defended by Benton, of Missouri, and Forsyth, of Georgia, but in spite of their efforts a resolution declaring the President's course unconstitutional and severely censur- ing him for it was adopted by the Senate. The President remained firm, however. He submitted an able protest against the action of the Senate, and by the help of the House of Representatives defeated the bank on every point. The Senate subsequently recognized the propriety of the President's * " Mr. Clay, on this occasion," says Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, " had to break with his old political friends, while he was offering up the darling system of his heart upon the altar of his country. Whatever else may be said of him, no one can deny that Henry Clay was a patriot — every inch of him — a patriot of the highest standard. It was said that when he was importuned not to take the course he had resolved upon, for the reason amongst others that it would lessen his chances for the presidency, his reply was, ' I would rather be right than be president.' This showed the material he was made of. It was worthy a Marcellus or Cato." — The War Between the States, vol. i.,p. 438. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 569 action, and of its own motion expunged the esolution of censure from its journal. In pursuance of its policy towards the In- ship of their great chief, Osceola, opposed a determined resistance to the efforts of the general government. Major Dade, with one OSCEOLA, CHTEF OF THE SEMINOLES. dians, the government attempted in 1835 to remove the Seminoles from Florida beyond the Mississippi. They were unwilling to relinquish their lands ; and under the leader- hundred and seventeen men, was sent from Tampa Bay to the assistance of General Clinch at Fort Drane, which was threatened by the Indians. He was attacked on the 570 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. twenty-eighth of December, 1835, while on the march, and he and all but four of his men were massacred. On the same day another blow was struck at Fort King, many miles away from the scene of this massacre. Mr. Thompson, the Indian commissioner, and a party of his friends, while dining out- side of the walls of the fort, were attacked by a band of Seminoles led by Osceola in person, and killed and scalped. General Clinch at once took the field against the savages, and on the thirty-first of December defeated them at Withlacooche, ninety miles north of Tampa Bay. In February, 1836, General Gaines won an important >"*ctory over the savages neir the same place. The Seminole War. The Creeks joined the Seminoles in May, 1836, and the war spread into Georgia, The former were soon crushed by the United States troops, and were sent west of the Mississippi. The Seminoles continued the war, and as often as they were defeated in the open field would take refuge in the swamps and everglades, where it was diffi- cult for the whites to follow them, and from which they maintained a constant and effect- ive warfare upon their enemies. Osceola was always ready to make a treaty, and never hesitated to break it. At last he was con- quered by his own weapon of deceit. In October, 1837, he came into the American camp under a flag of truce. He was at once seized, with all his followers, by General Jessup, the American commander. Osceola was sent as a prisoner to Fort Moultrie, in South Carolina, where he died of a fever. The war went on for several years longer. The winter of 1834-5 was one of the oldest ever known in America. The Chesa- peake Bay was frozen from its head to the Capes, and on the eighth of February, 1835, the mercury stood at eight degrees below zero as far south as Charleston. On the fourth of January the mercury congealed at Lebanon, New York. On the night of De- cember 16, 1835, a fire broke out in the city of New York, and in fourteen hours con- sumed the greater part of the business por- tion of the city, and destroyed over seven- teen million dollars worth of property. Dispute with France Settled. i In the last years of his administration Pres- ident Jackson brought to a successful close a vexatious dispute with France, which had long been a source of annoyance to the coun- try. American merchants held claims to the amount of five million dollars against France, for the " unlawful seizures, captures, and destruction of vessels and cargoes" during the wars of Napoleon. The government of Louis Philippe acknowledged the justice of these claims, and in 1831 a treaty was nego- tiated between the United States and France for their payment. The Chamber of Deputies refused three times during as many years to appropriate the money for the payment of these claims, and in 1834 President Jackson ordered the United States minister at Paris to demand his passports, and advised Congress to make reprisals on French vessels. This vigorous course brought France to her senses, and at this juncture Great Britain offered hermedia- tion for the settlement of the difficulty. The Chamber of Deputies appropriated the neces- sary sum, and the American claims were paid and the matter settled to the satisfaction of all parties. Claims for similar seizures were brought against Spain, Naples, and Denmark, and were satisfactorily settled through the firm- ness of the President. Treaties of friendship and commerce were negotiated with Russia and Turkey. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 571 On the fifteenth of June, 1836, Arkansas was admitted into the Union as a State. One of the most important acts of General Jackson's administration was the payment He not only left the but handed over to of the national debt, nation free from debt his successor a sur- plus of forty millions of dollars in the na- tional treasury. On the twenty- eighth of June, 1836, ex-President James Madison died at Montpelier, his home, in Virginia, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. The Presidential election was held in the fall of 1836. Gen- eral Jackson having declined to be a can- didate for a third term, the Democratic party supported Martin Van Buren for President and Richard M. John- son, of Kentucky, for Vice-President. Mr. Van Buren was elected by a large majority; but the electors hav- ing failed to make a choice of a candidate for Vice-President, that task devolved upon the Senate, which elected Colonel Richard M. Johnson by a majority of seventeen votes. On the twenty-sixth of January, 1837, Michigan was admitted into the Union as a State, making the twenty-sixth member of the Confederacy. The original thirteen States had been doubled in number, and the Union was strong at home, and respected abroad. At the close of his term General Jackson retired from public life, and passed the remainder of his days at bis beautiful home. MARTIN VAN BUREN. near Nashville, in Tennessee, which he had named the " Hermitage." He had conducted one of the most remarkable administrations in our history, and one of the most success- ful, and had shown himself to be an earnest, incorruptible, and self-sacrificing patriot, and 572 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. a man of unbending honesty and of extra- ordinary energy and inflexibility of purpose. Martin Van Buren, the new President, entered upon the duties of his office on the fourth of March, 1837. He was in his fifty- fifth year, and had occupied many distin- guished positions in public life. He had represented the State of New York in the Senate of the United States, and had been governor of that State. He had been min- ister to England, had been made secretary of state at the commencement of General Jack- son's first term, and had been elected Vice- President of the United States at the period a^ )ickson's re-election. ^Vild Speculation. The extraordinary prosperity which had prevailed throughout the nation during the last year of Jackson's term came to a sudden end almost immediately after the inaugura- tion of Mr. Van Buren. For some time past a reckless spirit of speculation had engrossed the nation, and had led to excessive banking and the issuing of paper money to an extent far beyond the necessities of the country. The State banks, with which the public funds had been deposited by President Jackson, supposed they would be able to control these funds for an indefinite period, as the revenue of the government was largely in excess of its expenses ; and they made loans freely, and upon not the best securities, in all cases. Few of the new banks which sprang into existence had enough gold and silver in their j vaults to redeem the notes with which they ilooded the country. Fictitious values pre- vailed in every department of trade, and the banks vied with each other in affording the means for the wildest speculations. In the midst of this excitement two acts of the general government brought matters to a crisis. The speculation mania had extended to the public lands, and in order to restrain it within manageable bounds President Jack- son caused the secretary of the treasury to issue an order to the collectors at the local offices to receive only gold and silver in pay- ments for land. This order was generally known as the " Specie Circular." In the summer of 1836 a law was passed by Con- gress requiring the President to distribute among the States the funds on deposit in the banks. This was an unexpected measure to the banks, and forced them to call in their loans to meet the withdrawal of the govern- ment funds. The operations of the " Specie Circular" at the same time sent large quan- tities of their notes back to them to be redeemed in coin. This complication of difficulties brought them at once to the end of their resources, and they were rendered powerless to extend their usual facilities to their customers. The result was that the business of the country was thrown into a state of hopeless confusion, and by the spring of 1837 the failures in New York alone amounted to one hundred million dollars. All parts of the country were affected by the financial troubles, and in New Orleans the failures amounted to twenty-seven million dollars. Suspension of Specie Payments. Petitions were addressed to the President from all parts of the Union, praying him to take some steps to relieve the general distress, and in May a deputation of merchants and bankers from New York waited upon Presi- dent Van Buren, and urged him to postpone the immediate collection of duties for which merchants had given bonds, to withdraw the treasury orders requiring sums duethe United States to be paid in gold and silver, and to convene Congress in extra session for the purpose of devising measures of relief. The President complied with their request to suspend the collection of duties for which ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 573 bonds had been given, but declined to take the other steps asked of him. Within a few days after his answer was known the banks of New York suspended specie payments, and their example was followed by the rest of the banks throughout the Union. The Country in Distress. The distress of the country was very ofreat. Hundreds of thousands of laborers were thrown out of employment, and busi- ness of all kinds was at a standstill. The government, which a few months before had been out of debt and in possession of a sur- plus of forty millions, now found itself unable to provide funds for its ordinary ex- penses. The President was compelled to summon an extra session of Congress, which met on the fourth of September, 1837. The President in his message attributed the em- barrassed condition of the country to the excessive issues of bank notes, the great fire in New York in 1835, and the reckless speculations of the people for several years past. He suggested no special legislation for the relief of these troubles, as he regarded such a course as beyond the constitutional authority of the general government. Indeed, the government could do but little to restore public confidence ; that was the task of the people themselves, and it was not accomplished for several years. To meet the necessities of the government and pro- vide a legal currency Congress, at the re- commendation of the President, issued treasury notes to the amount of ten millions of dollars. Another recommendation of the President did not give such general satisfac- tion. The President advised the creation of an independent treasury for the public funds, as a means of avoiding the risks assumed by the government in depositing its funds in the banks. These treasuries were to be located at certain central points, and the sub- treasurers were to be appointed by the Presi- dent, and were to give bonds for the proper fulfilment of their duties. The President believed that the adoption of this measure would withdraw large sums of money from active circulation and so put a stop to specu- lation. The bill for the creation of the inde- pendent treasury was warmly opposed in and out of Congress, as it was feared by many that the withdrawal of so much gold and silver from circulation would seriousl}' injure the business of the country. Mr. Calhoun supported the measure with all his great abilities, and Mr. Clay and Mr. Web- ster opposed it. The measure failed at the extra session, but became a law in 1840. In 1 841 it was repealed, and in 1846 it was re- enacted. It is still in force, and its wisdom and usefulness are now generally admitted. Great Increase of Debt. The spirit of speculation had extended to the State governments as well as to private individuals, and State bonds had been issued to the amount of one hundred million dol- lars. The pretext for this excessive increase of debt was the necessity of raising funds to carry out their system of internal improve- ments. The panic involved the States in its effects, and eight of them found themselves unable in 1838 to pay the interest on their bonds. In course of time they made good their obligations, but the State of Mississippi and the Territory of Florida not only refused to pay the interest on their bonds, but repu- diated their debts. The sale of their bonds had been made principally in Europe, and their repudiation of their debts aroused great indignation on the other side of the Atlantic, and brought disgrace upon the whole nation The effects of this were seen a few years later, when the United States sought to negotiate a national loan in Europe. Not a 574 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR or a dollar obtained bond could be sold there. In 1837 a movement was made by the people of Canada to throw off their connec- tion with Great Britain and to establish their independence. It aroused the sympathies of a large number of the people of the United States, and in northern New York associa- tions called "Hunters' Lodges" were formed for the purpose of aiding the Canadian of Schlosser on the American shore to the island. The British authorities in Canada determined to destroy the boat. One dark night in December, 1837, a detachment from Canada was sent to Navy Island foi this purpose. Not finding the "Caroline" they went over to Schlosser, where she was moored at her dock. The boat was captured after a short struggle, in which one American wa*^ CANADIAN TRAPPERS. patriots. The President of the United States and the Governor of New York endeavored to suppress these illegal associations, but without success, A body of seven hundred Canadians and American sympathizers took possession of Navy Island in the Niagara River, The island is a part of Canada, and lies near the shore of that country. The force on the island employed the steamboat " Caroline " to convey men and provisions from the town killed, and was carried out into the stream and set on fire. She drifted down to the falls and plunged over them in a blaze. The British minister at Washington at once de- clared the responsibility of his government for the capture of the boat, and justified it on the ground of self-defence. In the meantime the President had sent General Wool with a strong force to the Canadian border with orders to prevent an\' expedition from leaving this country to aiJ ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 575 the Canadians. He compelled the force on Navy Island to surrender, but the border war continued until the close of 1838, when it was put down. On the first of September of this year (1838) the United States, by their agent, received the liberal donation which was be- queathed to them in trust for the " general diffusion of knowledge among men," by James Smithson,an Englishman, which con- stitutes the endowment of the Institute in Washington city that bears his name. The amount of the legacy received, in American coin, was ^575,169. In 1840 the question of the " Carolina " re- vived. Alexander Mc- Leod, a British subject residing in Canada, boasted that he had been engaged in the capture of the " Caroline," and had killed the American who fell in the conflict. Shortly afterwards he visited the New York side of the river and was at once arrested upon a charge of murder by the authorities of that State. The British government demanded his unconditional release on the ground that he had simply obeyed the orders of his government, which was alone respon- sible for his act. The general government of theUnitedStates also demanded the surrender of McLeod to the Federal authorities. The State of New York, however, held that the offence with which McLeod was charged had been committed on her soil, and brought the prisoner to trial. As he succeeded in prov- ing that he was not engaged in or present at the attack, he was acquitted. This conflict between the Federal and State authority led to the passage by Congress of a law requir- ing similar offences to be tried before the United States courts. In the midst of the Canadian controversy a quarrel sprang up between the State of Maine and the British provinces of New Brunswick, concerning the northeast bound- ary of the United States. Both parties pre- pared for a conflict, but the President sent THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C. General Scott to the scene of danger, and he, by his moderation and firmness, suc- ceeded in maintaining peace until the matter could be settled by treaty. The war with the Seminole Indians in Florida continued through the whole of this administration. The capture and death of Osceola, which we have related, though a severe blow to his followers, did not dis- hearten them. On the twenty-fifth of December, 1838, Colonel Zachary Taylor 576 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAk. mllicted a severe defeat upon the Indians at Lake Okeechobee. The war was at length brought to an end in 1842, but not until it had lasted seven years and had cost many i^aluable lives and the enormous sum of nearly forty million dollars. The Seminoles were subdued and were removed from Florida to new homes beyond the Mississipi. The Missouri Compromise did not quiet the agitation of the slavery question. It gave to the country only a momentary respite. The Anti-slavery or Abolition party had now become one of the recognized politi- cal organizations of the country. Its avowed object was the abolition of slav^ery in every State in which it existed. It was argued in opposition to their principles that the consti- tution recognized and protected slavery in the States in which it existed ; but they met this assertion by the bold declaration that they would continue their agitation until they had destroyed either slavery or the Union. They did not wish to live under a constitution which protected slavery, and which one of their principal leaders de- nounced as " a covenant with death and an agreement with hell." The body embraced the extreme Anti-slavery men of the north. Opposition to the Abolitionists. Among its adversaries were some of the sincerest opponents of slavery, who hoped to accomplish their ends by constitutional means and by the influences of a better and more enlightened public opinion, and who deprecated and opposed the violence of the extreme Abolitionists. The leader of the ultra party in Congress was John Quincy Adams, who had been returned to the House of Representatives from Massachusetts in 1 83 1. Memorials were presented to Con- gress praying the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and gave rise to excit- ing debates in that body, which affected the whole country profoundly, and did muuh to widen the breach between the Northern and Southern States. This agitation continued through the whole of Mr. Van Buren's term of office. Congress Must Not Interfere. Early in the session of 1838-39, Mr. Ath- erton, of New Hampshire, offered a series of resolutions expressing the relations of the general government towards the States, and declaring the inability of Congress to inter- fere with slavery in those States in which it already existed, or in the District of Colum- bia, or the Territories. These resolutions were adopted by the House by decisive majorities, and were regarded by Mr. Clay and by the leading public men of the country as effectually disposing of the troublesome question as far as the general government was concerned. The resolutions were as follows : " Resolved, That this government is a govern- ment of limited powers, and that by the constitution of the United States Congress has no jurisdiction whatever over the institution of slavery in th-, sev- eral States of the confederacy." The vote upon this resolution stood : 196 for it, and 6 against it. The second resolution was in these words : " Resolved, That petitions for the abolition oJ slavery in the District of Columbia and the Terri- tories of the United States, and against the removal of slaves from one State to another, are apart of a plan of operations set on foot to affect the institu- tion of slavery in the Southern States, and thus indi- rectly to destroy that institution within their limits.'' On this resolution the vote stood : 136 for it, and 65 against it. The third resolution was in these word.^i : " Resolved, That Congress has no right to do that indirectly which it cannot do directly ; and that the agitation of the subject of slavery in the District of Columbia, or the Territories, as a means, and with a view, of disturbing or overthrowing that institution in the several States, is against the true spirit an^' VIEW OF THE NATIONAL CAPITOL AT VVASHINGION. 677 57S FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. meaning of the constitution, an infringement of the rights of the States affected, and a breach of tbe public faith upon which they entered into the con- federacy." The vote on this resolution was: 164 in favor of it, and 40 against it. The fourth of this series was in these words : " Resolved, The constitution rests on the broad principle of equality among the members of this confederacy, and that Congress, in the exercise of its acknowledged powers, has no right to discrimi- nate between the institutions of one portion of the States and another, with a view of abolishing the one and promoting the other." The vote on this resolution was: 174 in favor of it, and 24 against it. Resolution Agaii>st Slavery Agitation. The fifth and last of Mr. Atherton's reso- lutions was in these words : " Resolved, That all attempts on the part of Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, or the Territories, or to prohibit the removal of slaves from State to State, or to discriminate between the insti- tutions of one portion of the confederacy and another, with the view aforesaid, are in violation of the con- stitution, destructive of the fundamental principle on which the union of these States rests, and beyond the jurisdiction of Congress ; and that every peti- tion, memorial, resolution,* proposition, or paper, touching- or relating in any way, or to any extent whatever to slavery, as aforesaid, or the abolttion thereof, shall on the presentation thereof, without any further action thereon, be laid upon the table, without being debated, printed, or referred." The vote on the first branch of this reso- lution was, 146 in favor, and 52 against it ; on the second branch of the resolution the vote stood, 126 for it, and 78 against it. As we shall see, this declaration of Con- gress was far from quieting the agitation upon this troublesome question. The slavery conflict had in reality just begun. In the fall of 1840 the Presidential election was held. Mr. Van Buren and Vice-Presi- dent Johnson were nominated for re-election by the Democratic party, and the Whigs supported General William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, for President, and John Tyler, of Virginia, for Vice-President. The financial distress of the country had been but slightly relieved, and was generally attributed by the people to the interference of the government with the currency. This feeling made the Democratic nominees exceedingly unpop- ular, and the political campaign, which was one of the most exciting ever conducted in this country, resulted in the election of Har- rison and Tyler by overwhelming majorities. In 1840 the sixth census showed the popu- lation of the United States to be 17,069,453. ^s^^r^'^"^"^"'\''. CHAPTER XXXVI ■ The Administrations of William Henry Harrison ano John Tyler An Extr. Jession of Congress Summoned — Death of President Harrison — ^John Tyler becomes President of the Unites States — Meeting of Congress — The Bankrupt Law — President Tyler Vetoes the Bills to Revive the United States Bank— His Quarrel with His Party—The " Tyler Whigs"— The Tariff of 1842— The Treaty of Washington— The United States will not Tolerate the Exercise of the Right of Search — Dorr's Rebellion — The Mormons — Invention of the Electric Telegraph^Explosion on the " Princeton " — Efforts to Secure the Annexation of Texas— Early History of Texas — The Texan War of Independence — Battle of San Jacinto — Texan Independence Established — Texas Ap- plies for Admission into the Union — Opposition to the Measure — Significance of the Vote at the Presidential Election — James K. Polk Elected President — Texas Admitted into the Union — Iowa and Florida become States. ON THE fourth of March, 1841, WilHam Henry Harrison was inaugurated President of the United States at Washington in the presence of an immense concourse of citizens from all parts of the Union. He was in his sixty-ninth year, and had spent forty years of his life in the public service. His services during the Indian hostilities which preceded the war of 1812-15, and his exploits during that war, have been related. He had served as governor of Indiana Ter- ritory, and had been both a member of Con- gress and a senator of the United States. He was a man of pure life and earnest character, and the certainty of a change of policy in the measures of the federal govern- ment had caused the people of the country to look forward to his administration with hope and confidence. He began by calling to seats in his cabinet men of prominence and ability. At the head of the cabinet he placed Daniel Webster, as secretary of state. The President issued a proclamation con- vening Congress in special session on the thirty-first of May, 1841- He was not destined to fulfil the hopes of his friends, howev<^.r. He was suddenly seized with pneumonia, and died on the fourth of April, 1 841 — j'ust one month after his inaugura- tion. It was the first time that a president of the United States had died in office, and a gloom was cast over the nation by the sad event The mourning of the people was sincere, for in General Harrison the nation lost a faith- ful, upright and able citizen. He had spent forty years in prominent public positions, and had discharged every duty confided tc him with ability and integrity, and went to his grave a poor man. " Brave old Cincinnatus ! he left but his plow." Upon the assembling of Congress, that body, " out of consideration of his expenses in removing to the seat of government, and the limited means he had left behind," appro- priated the equivalent of one year's presi- dential salary — twenty-five thousand dollars — to Mrs. Harrison. According to the terms of the constitutior^. upon the death of General Harrison, the office of president of the United States devolved upon the vice-president, John Tyler, of Vir- ginia. Mr. Tyler was not in the city of Washington at the time of the death of his predecessor, but repaired to that city without 579 sSo PROM THE kEVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. loss of time, upon being notified of the need of his presence, and on the sixth of April took the oath of office before Judge Cranch. chief justice of the District of Columbia. Mr. Tyler was in his fifty-second year, and had served as governor of Virginia, and as representative and senator in Congress from that State. On the ninth of April President Tyler issued an address to the people of the United States, in which there was no indica- tion of a departure from the policy announced in the inaugural of General Harrison. He WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. retained the cabinet ministers of his preae- cessor in their respective positions. On the thirty-first of May the Twenty- seventh Congress convened in extra session. It was known as the " Whig Congress," as a large majority of its members were of that party. Had this party remained united they could have controlled the action of Congress to suit themselves, but as we shall see, the policy of the executive soon divided them. The first act of this Congress was to repeal the sub-treasury bill which had been passed in 1840. The effects of the commercial crisis had involved thousands ol merchants in hopeless bankruptcy, and under the old laws they had no means of recovering their lost position, as they were crushed down by their debts Neither their creditors nor the country at large derived any benefit from this state of affairs, and Congress at once passed a general bankrupt law for the relief of persons thus situated. It was highly beneficial to the country, and was repealed in 1843, when the necessity for it had ceased to exist. Important Veto by President Tyler. ' Efforts were made to revive the Bank of the United States, and a bill was passed establishing an institution known as the " Fiscal Bank of the United States." Mr. Tyler, who was a member of the strict con- structionist school, now found himself at variance with a majority of his party in both Houses of Congress. As he did not believe that Congress could constitutionally charter such an institution, he vetoed this bill. The advocates of the measure could not com- mand the requisite two-thirds majority for the passage of the bill over the president's veto, and his action was sustained. Another bill was passed by Congress of a similar character, establishing " The Fiscal Corpora- tion of the United States," but this also was vetoed by the president for the same reasons. His veto was sustained by Congress in this instance also. The vetoes of these measures were generally approved by the strict con- structionists throughout the Union, without regard to party ; but they were bitterly de- nounced by the majority of the Whigs, who charged the president with having violated the implied pledges upon which he was elected, and with having betrayed his party. The Whigs were for the time forgetful of the fact that at the time of his nomination to the vice-presidency Mr. Tyler was known ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 581 to be opposed to the Bank of the United States. The members of the cabinet, with tne single exception of the secretary of state, resigned their positions in consequence of Mr. Tyler's course. Mr. Webster retained his position in order to complete the important negotiations he was at the time conducting iwith England. The lolaces of the other members of the cabi- net were filled by the President with pro- (uinent members of the strict construc- tionist school of the Whig party, who sus- tained the President. The second session of the Twenty-seventh C. ingress met in De- cember, 1 84 1, and con- tinued its sittings until August, 1842. It was noted a:s the longest session ever held up to this ti:re. It found the Whig party divid- ed, and the opposing factions bitterly hostile :o each other. The majority, led by Mr. Clay, opposed the administration. The minority, because of their support of the President, received the name of " Tyler Whigs." The principal question agitated during this session was the tariff. Accord- ing to the compromise act of 1833, the duties this year were to be regulated accord- Vig to a revenue standard. The majority in Congress, however, paid no regard to the pledge given in this com- promise, and a new tariff bill was passed by both Mouses of Congress, regulating the duties on a strongly protective basis, and with the avowed object of reviving the pro- tective policy. It was vetoed by the Presi JOHN TYLER. dent. Anotlier measure of a similar though slightly modified character was passed, and this was vetoed also. Congress then passed the tariff of 1842, in which the principles of the compromise of 1833 were altogether set aside, and the '^'uties made strictly protective. 582 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. It required a sharp struggle in Congress to secure tlie passage of this bill, which received the executive signature on the thirtieth of August. Settlement of Disputes. In the meantime Mr. Webster succeeded in bringing the negotiations with Great Bri- tain to a successful close. These negotia- tions had grown out of the revolutionary disturbances in Canada, and the controversy respecting the northeast boundary of the United States- during the administration of Mr. Van Buren, which we have related. The boundary question was of older origin than the former controversy, and had been pending between the United States and Eng- land for fifty years. Mr. Webster, imme- diately upon his entrance upon the office of secretary of state, had, with the approval of the President, signified the desire of this country to terminate the controversy, and Lord Ashburton had been sent by the British government as special minister to the United States, with full power to settle all the con- troversies between the two countries. The treaty of Washington was concluded in 184.?, and was accepted by both countries as a settlement of the questions at issue between them. By the terms of this treaty the northeastern boundary was arranged as it exists at present ; the United States obtained the free naviga- tion of the St. John's river to the sea ; and gained possession of the important military position of Rouse's Point, at the outlet of Lake Champlain. The two countries mutually agreed to surrender upon proper demand all fugitives from justice escaping from the territory of one into that of the other ; and to maintain a certain number of ships of war on the African coast to aid in suppressing the slave trade. When the treaty was completed two sub- jects presented themselves to the negotiators. One of these was the right claimed by Great Britain for her cruisers to stop and if neces- sary to search merchant vessels belonging to other nations on the high seas ; the other was the impressment of seamen from Amer- ican merchant vessels by British cruisers. Mr. Webster, in a paper of great ability, ad- dressed to the American minister at London, but intended for the British foreign minister, denied the right of search, and sustained his position by arguments that were simply irre- fu table. In a letter t j Lord Ashburton Mr. Web- ster refused to consider the impressment question, as the United States could in no case admit such a claim on the part of Great Britain, and declared that every case of im- pressment would be considered an act of hostility and would be repelled as such. He declared as the unalterable policy of this country the doctrine that " Every merchant vessel on the high seas is rightfully con- sidered as a part of the territory to which it belongs ; " that " in every regularly docu- mented American merchant vessel the crew who navigate it will find their protection in the flag which is over them ; " and that " the American government, then, is prepared to say that the practice of impressing seamen from American vessels cannot hereafter be allowed to take place." The tone of the secretary of state, though firm, was courteous and conciliatory, and the negotiations were conducted in the same spirit of conciliation by the British m'P';;ter. Insurrection in Rhode Island. With this treaty the United States for- mally took their position as one of the great powers of the world. The negotiations being completed, Mr. Webster resigned his place in the cabinet in May, 1843, ^"^1 was suc- ceeded by Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia, ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 583 In 1842 an insurrection broke out in the State of Rhode Island, which required the intervention of the United States for its sup- pression. It is known as the Dorr rebellion. The old charter of the colony, granted by Charles II., in 1663, had up to this time served as the constitution of the State. It was found to be unsuited to the requirements of the people in their more prosperous condi- tion, and an effort was made to change it. Two parties were formed, one in favor of the proposed changes, the other opposed to them. Each party nominated its candidate for the office of governor and elected him. The " suffrage party," which favored the changes, elected Thomas W. Dorr governor, took up arms, and attacked the State arsenal for the purpose of arming their followers. They were repulsed by the State militia assisted by the United States troops. Dorr was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to imprison- ment for life. He was released in 1845. The opponents of the "suffrage party" deemed it best to yield to the popular wish, however, and in November, 1842, a new constitution, embracing the desired changes, was adopted by the legislature. Mormons Found a C.ty. About the same time a series of disturb- ances occurred in the State of Illinois, which were but the forerunners of a more serious embarrassment to the general government at a later period. A new religious sect had sprung up some years before in the western part of New York. They called themselves Mormons, and were founded by a remarkable man named Joseph Smith, who professed to have received a new revelation from God, written on plates of gold. Among the arti- cles of the Mormon faith is one which teaches the doctrine of a plurality of wives. Feeling that 'die east was not favorable to their growth, the Mormons at an early day ^^ removed to tne west. They settled at first in Missouri, but so exasperated the people ft S3 ^ ^ of that State by their conduct, that they were soon driven out of Missouri. 584 ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND 'TYLER. 585 Crossing the Mississippi, they settled in Illinois, a'^d founded a city which they called Nauvoo, and built a temple. Their numbers iiicr.'ased ra[)idly f.'om emigration from nearly every country in luu'opo. The new- comers were mainly persons of low position and without education. Conscious of their strength they raised troops, and set the authority of the State of Illinois at defiance. The State endeavored to reduce them to obedience, and their conduct, as in Missouri, westward, and after a long and painful jour- ney across the plains, reached the valley of Salt Lake, and established a settlement there. Out of this settlement grew the Ter- ritory of Utah. In 1844 occurred one of the most im- portant events in the history of the world. In 1832 Samuel F. B. Morse, a native of Massachusetts, invented the electric tele- graph. He spent some years in perfecting his invention, and in 1 838 applied to Congress THE MORMON HAND-CART COMPANY CROSSING THE PLAINS. turned the people against them. .Several conflicts ensued between the Mormons and the authorities. In one of these Joe Smith, the prophet, and his brother were seized and put in jail, and while lying there were murdered by the mob in July, 1844. This brought matters to a crisis, and the people of Illinois determined to drive the Mormons Bcross the Mississippi. Nauvoo was attacked in 1845, and the Mormons were compelled to ieave the State. In 1846 they bent their steps for a small appropriation to assist him in building a line of wire to demonstrate the usefulness of his discovery. He was obliged to wait five years for a favorable answer, and it was not until he had givea up all hope of receiving aid from Congress that that body, on the last day of the session of 1843, appro- priated the sum of thirty thousand dollars to construct a telegraph line between Washing- ton City and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. The line was completed in 1844, an ! 586 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. was successfully operated by Professor Morse. This was the first line eetablishcd in the world. In the number of years which have elapsed since then the use of the telegraph has become general throughout the civilized world, and in the United States alone hun- dreds of thousands of miles of telegraph lines are in operation at the present time. On the twenty-eighth of February, 1844, the President, accompanied by the members spectators. This sad event was greatly lamented throughout the country. Judge Upshur was succeeded as secretary of state by John C. Calhoun, then a senator from South Carolina. The last years of Mr. Tyler's administra- tion were devoted to the effort to secure the annexation of the republic of Texas to the United States. The territory embraced within the limits of Texas constituted a part MORMON TABERNACLE AT SALT LAKE, UTAH. of his cabinet and a number of distinguished citizens, officers of the army and navy, and ladies, went on board the new steam frigate " Princeton," lying in the Potomac, to wit- ness the experimental firings of a new cannon of unusual size on board that ship, to which the name of " The Peacemaker " had been given. At one of the discharges the gun exploded, causing the instant death of Messrs. Upshur and Gilmer, the secretaries gf state and ol the navy, and several other of the Spanish-American possessions, and was generally regarded as a part of Mexico. During the last eentury a number of forts had been erected in Texas by the Spaniards as a means of holding the province against the French, and each fort was made a mis- sionary station, from which efforts were made to convert the Indians, but withou- success. The United States were, in the early part of the present century, inclined to regard Texas ^s rightfully a part of the ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 587 Louisiana purchase, but this claim was waived when Florida was purchased. Early in the present century pioneers from the United States began to find their way to Texas which was then a wild country, in- habited only by roving Indians and the gar- risons of the few Spanish forts within its limits. One of these emigrants, Moses Austin, of Durham, Connecticut, conceived the plan of colonizing Texas with settlers from the United States. For this purpose he obtained from the Spanish government, in 1820, the grant of an extensive tract of land ; but before he could put his plans in execution he died. His son, Stephen F. Austin, inherited the rights of his father under this grant, and went to Texas with a number of emigrants from this country, and explored that region for the purpose of locating his grant. He selected as the most desirable site for his colony the country between the Brazos and Colorado rivers, and founded a city, which he named Austin, in honor of the originator of the colony, to whom Texas owes its existence as an American commonwealth. Having seen the settlers established in theii new homes, Mr. Austin returned to the United States to collect other emigrants for his colony. During his absence Mexico and the other Spanish provinces rose in revolt against Spain, and succeeded in establishing their in- dependence. Texas, being regarded as a part of the Mexican territory, shared the fortunes of that country. Upon his return to Texas, Austm, m consideration of the altered state of affairs, went to the city of Mexico and obtained from the Mexican government a confirma- tion of the grant made to his father. Such a confirmation was necessary in order to enable him to give the settlers valid titles to the lands of his colony. Mexico at first e?cercised but a nominal authority over the new settlements, and the colonists were allowed to live under their own laws, subject to the rules drawn up by Austin. In order to encourage settlements in Texas, the Mexi- can Congress on the second of May, 1824, enacted the following law, declaring, " That Texas is to be annexed to the Mexican prov- ince of Cohahuila, until it is of sufficient importance to form a separate State, when it is to become an independent State of the Mexican republic, equal to the other States i of which the same is composed, free, sover- x^ROFESSOR MORSE. eign, and independent in whatever exclu- sively relates to its internal government and administration." Encouraged by this decree, large num bers of Americans emigrated to Texas, and to these were added emigrants from all the countries of Europe. The population grew rapidly, new towns sprang up, and Austin's colony prospered in a marked degree, until 1830, when Bustamente having made himself by violence and intrigue president of the so-called Mexican republic, prohibited th^ 588 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAK. emigration of foreigners to the Mexican territory, and issued a number of decrees very oppressive to the people, and in viola- tion of the constitution of 1824. In order to enforce these measures in Texas, he occu- pied that province with his troops, and placed Texas under military rule. The Texans resented this interference with their rights, and finally compelled the Mexican troops to withdraw from the province. In 1832 A VILLAGE IN TEXAS. another revolution in Mexico drove Busta- mente from power, and placed Santa Anna at the head of affairs as president or dictator. Texas took no part in the disturbances of Mexico, but after the accession of Santa Anna to power, formed a constitution, and applied for admission into the Mexican republic as a State, in accordance with the constitution of 1824, and the act of the Mexican Congress which we uve quoted. Stephen F. Austin was sent to the city of Mexico to present the petition of Texas for this purpose. He was refused an answer to this petition for over a year, and at last wrote to the authorities of Texas, advising them to organize a State government with- out waiting for the action of the Mexican Congress, For this recommendation, which the Mexi- can government regarded as treasonable, Santa Anna caused the arrest of Austin, and kept him in orison for over a year. Texas now began to manifest the most determined opposition to the usurpation of Santa Anna, and measures were taken to maintain the rights of the province under the constitution of 1824. Troops were organized, and prepara- tions made to resist the force whiih it was certain Mexico would send against them. Santa Anna did not allow them to remain long in sus- pense, but at once despatched a force under General Cos, to disarm the Texans. On the second of October, 1835, Cos attacked the town of Gon- zilez, which was held by a Texan force, but was repulsed with heavy loss. A week later, on the ninth of October, the Texans captured the town of Goliad, and a little later gained possession of the mission house of the Alamo. Both places were garrisoned, and the Texan army, which was under the com- mand of Austin, in the course of a few months succeeded in driving the Mexicans out of Texas. On the twelfth of November, 1835, a con- vention of the people of Texas met at the ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 589 city of Austin, and organized a regular State government. Prominent among the members was General Sam Houston, a settler from the United States. Soon after the meeting of the convention General Austin resigned the com- mand of the army, and was sent to the United States as the commissioner of that State to this government, and was succeeded as commander-in-chief by General Sam Houston. Henry Smith was elected gov- ernor of Texas by the people. Orders to Shoot Prisoners. As soon as Santa Anna learned that his troops had been driven out of Texas, and that the Texans had set up a State govern- ment, he set out for that country with an army of seventy-five hundred men. He issued orders to his troops to shoot every prisoner taken, and intended to make the struggle a war of extermination. He arrived before the Alamo late in February, 1836 This fort was very strong, and was held by 3 force of one hundred and forty Texans under Colonel Travis. It was besieged by the whole Mexican army, and was subjected to a bombardment of eleven days. At last, on the sixth of March, the garrison being worn out with fatigue, the fort was carried by assault, and the whole garrison was put to the sword. Among the heroes who fell at the Texan Thermopylae was the eccentric but chivalrous Colonel Davy Crockett, of Tennessee, who had generously come to aid the Texans in their struggle for liberty. The capture of the Alamo cost the Mexicans a loss of sixteen hundred men, or over eleven men for every one of its defenders. On the 17th of March, 1836, the conven- tion adopted a constitution for an independ- ent republic, and formally proclaimed the independence of Texas. David G. Burnett was elected president of the republic. The fort at Goliad was held by a force of three hundred and thirty Texans, under Colonel Fanning, a native of Georgia. On the twenty-seventh of March it was attacked by the Mexican army. The garrison main- tained a gallant defence, but their resources being exhausted, and the Mexicans being reinforced during the night, Fanning decided to surrender his force, if he could obtain honorable terms. He proposed to Santa SANTA ANNA Anna to lay down his arms and surrender the post on condition that he and his men should be allowed and assisted to return to the United States, The proposition was accepted by Santa Anna, and the terms of the surrender were formally drawn up and were signed by each commander. As soon as the surrender was made, however, and the arms of the Texans were delivered, Santa 590 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. Anna, in base violation of his pledge, caused Fanning and the survivors of the garrison, to the number of three hundred men, to be put to death. The massacres of the Alamo and Goliad, and the steady advance of the Mexican army under Santa Anna caused a feeling of pro- (found alarm throughout the new republic. The government was removed temporarily to Galveston, and General Houston retreated GENERAL HOUSTON. behind the San Jacinto. Santa Anna pur- sued the Texan forces, and at length came up with them on the banks of that stream. Houston had but seven hundred and fifty men with him, and these were imperfectly armed and without discipline. With this force he surprised the Mexican camp, on the twenty-first of April, and routed the Mexican army, inflicting upon it a loss of over six hundred killed, and taking more than eight hundred prisoners. Santa Anna himself was among the prisoners. Houston at once entered into negotiations with him for the withdrawal of the Mexican forces from Texas, This was done at once, and the independence of Texas was achieved. Santa Anna also recognized the independ- ence of the new republic, but the Mexican Congress refused to confirm this act. Houston was now the idol of the Texan people as the deliverer of their country from the hated Mexicans. At the next gen- eral election he was chosen President of the republic, and was inaugurated on the twenty-second of October, 1 836. General Mirabeau B. Lamar was the third Presi- dent of the republic of Texas, and entered upon his office in 1838. He was suc- ceeded in 1844 by Anson Jones, the fourth . President. The territory of the republic was sufficiently large to make five States the size of New York, and its climate and soil were among the most delightful and fertile in the world. It contained a population of about two hundred thousand, and was increasing rapidly in inhabitants and in prosperity. On the third of March, 1837, the inde- pendence of the republic of Texas was acknowledged by the United States, and in 1839 by France and England. Being young and feeble, and being settled al- most entirely by Americans, the people of Texas at an early day came to the conclusion that their best interests required them to seek a union with the United States, and as early as August, 1837, a proposition was submitted to Mr. Van Buren looking to such a union. It was declined by him, but the question was taken up by the press and people of the Union, and was discussed with the greatest interest and activity. The south was unanimously in favor of' the annexation of Texas, as it was a region in which slave labor would be particularly ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 59» profitable ; and a strong party in the north opposed the annexation for the reason that it would inevitably extend the area of slavery. An additional argument against annexation was that it would involve a war with Mexico, which had never acknowledged the inde- pendence of Texas, In April, 1844, Texas formally applied for admission into the United States, and a ing issues of the campaign. Its candidatfe. were James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. The Whig party supported Henry Clay, of Ken- tucky, and Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, and opposed the annexation of Texas. During this campaign, which was one ol unusual excitement, the Anti-slavery party GENERAL POST OFFICE WASHINGTON. treaty for that purpose was negotiated with her by the government of this country. It was rejected by the Senate. I In the fall of 1844 the Presidential election took place. The leading political question of the day was the annexation of Texas. It was advocated by the administration of President Tyler and by the Democratic party. This party also made the claim of the United States to Oregon one of the lead- made its appearance for the first time as a distinct political organization, and nominated James G. Birney ?:s its candidate for the. Presidency. The result of the campaign was a decisive victory for the Democrats. This success was generally regarded as an emphatic expression of the popular will respecting the Texas and Oregon questions. Mr. Birney did not receive a single electoral *9i. FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. ote, and of the popular vote only sixty-four thousand six hundred and fifty-three ballots were cast for him. When Congress met in December, 1844, the efforts for the annexation of Texas were renewed. A proposit'on was made to receive Texas into the Union by a joint resolution ol Congress. A bill for this purpose passed the House of Representatives, but the Senate added an amendment appointing commis- sioners to negotiate with Mexico for the annexation of Texas, which she still claimed as a part of her territory. The President was authorized by a clause in these resolu- tions to adopt either the House or the Senate plan of annexation, and on the second of March, 1845, the resolutions were adopted. Senator Benton, of Missouri, the author of the Senate plan, was of the opinion that the matter would be left to Mr. Polk, the Presi- dent-elect, to be conducted by him ; and that gentleman had expressed Lib intention to carry out the Senate plan, as he hoped an ^micable arrangement could be made with Mexico. Mr. Tyler, however, determined not to leave the annexation of Texas to his successor, and at once adopted the plan proposed in the House resolutions, and on the night of Sunday March 3d, a messenger was despatched with all speed to Texas to lay the proposition before the authorities of that State. It was accepted by them, and on the fourth of July, 1845, Texas became one of the United States. The area thus added to the territory of the Union comprised two hundred and thirty-stven thousand five hundred and four square miles. It was provided by the act of admission that four additional States might be formed out of the territory of Texas, when the population should increase to an extent which should make such a step desir- able. Those States lying north of the Mis- souri Compromise line — 36° 30' north lati- tude — were to be free States ; those south of that line were to be free or slaveholding, " as the people of each State asking admission may desire." To Texas was reserved the right to refuse to allow the division of her territory. On the third of March, 1845, the President approved an act of Congress admitting the Territories of Iowa and Florida into the Union as States. No President has ever been more unpop' ular during his administration than Mr. Tyler. His administration speaks for itself however, and bears out the truth of his mem- orable words : " I appeal from the vituper- ation of the present day to the pen of impar> tial history, in the full confidence that neither my motives nor my acts v.'ill bear the inter- pretation which has, for sinister purposes, been placed upon them." CHAPTER XXXVII The Administration of James K. Polk — The War With Mexico. Fhe Oregon ^^uestion — Position of President Polk respecting it — The Question Settled — Treaty for Settlement of Clalm» a;,ainst Mexico — Mexico Resents the Annexation of Texas — General Taylor Ordered to Texas— He Advances to the Rio Grande — Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma — The War with Mexico Begun — Invasion of Mexico — Occupation of Matamoras— Action of the United States Government — Taylor Advances into the Interior — The Storm ing and Ca[jtiire of Monterey — The Armistice — Return of Santa Anna to Mexico — President Polk Duped — SarU Anna Seizes the Mexican Government — General Wool Joins General Taylor — Troops Taken from Taylor's Army- Advance of the Mexicans — Battle of Buena Vista — Conquest of California by Fremont and Stockton — Occupation c Santa Fe — New Mexico Conquered — Doniphan's March— Occupatio' o^ Chihuahua — Sailing of Scott's Expedition — Reduction of Vera Cruz — Santa Anna Collects a New Army--Batt!o of Cerro Gordo — Occupation of Puebla by Scott — Troubk with Mr. Trist — Vigorous Measures of Santa Anna — Scott /.c'ances upon the City of Mexico — E» Penon Turned — Battles of Contreras and Churubusco — Capture of Mouno del Rey — '^forming of Chapultepec — Capture of the City of Mexico — Siege of Puebla Raised — Flight of Santa Anna — Treaty of Peace Negotiated — Cos* of the War — Acquisition of California and New Mexico — Discovery of Gold in California — Rapid Em'/^ration to tha Pacific — Death of John Qpincy Adams — The Wilmot P' oviso — Revival of the Slavery Question — L«er_.al Taylo* Elected President. T^HE inauguration of James K. Polk, as President of the United States, took place on the fourth of March, 1845. He had served the country as governor of the State of Tennessee, and for fourteen years had been a member of the House of Representatives in Congress from that State, and had been several times chosen speaker of that body. His cabinet was selected from the first men of his party. James Buchanan was secretary of state ; Robert J. Walker was secretary of the treas- ury ; William L. Marcy, secretary of war, and George Bancroft, tb<" historian, secretary of the navy. Two important questiour presented thein- selves to the new administration for settle- ment: the troubles with Mexico growing out of the annexation of Texas, and the arrange- ment of the northwestern boundary of the fjnitcd States. The question of the northwestern bound- ary had been left unsettled by the treaty of ,i8 Washington in 1842. Great Britain was anxious to arrange the matter, and late in the year 1842 Mr. Fox, the British minister at Washington, proposed to Mr. Webster, then secretary of state, to open negotiations. The British proposition was accepted, but nothing further was done until February, 1844, when Sir Richard Packenham, the British minister at Washington, proposed to take up the question of the Oregon boundary and settle it. Mr. Upshur, the secretary of state, accepted the offer, but was killed a few days later by the explosion on board tlie " Prince- ton." Six months later, Sir Richard Pack- enham renewed the proposal to Mr. Calhoun, who had become secretary of state, and nego- tiations were entered upon in earnest. ^ The territory of Oregon lay between the forty-second and fifty-fourth parallels of north latitude, and extended from the Rocky moun- tains on the east to the Pacific ocean on the west This .region was originally claimed by Spain, by whose subjects it was first 593 m FkOM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. discovered. At the cession of Florida, Spain ceded to the United States all her territory north of the forty-second parallel of north latitude, from the headwaters of the Arkan- sas to the Pacific. Mexico, upon achieving her independence, had acknowledged by a treaty with the United States the validity of this boundary The line of fifty-four degrees forty minutes north latitude was established by treaty between the United States, Great Britain and Russia as the southern boundary of the Russian possessions in America. JAMES K. POLK. The United States claimed the entire re- gion of Oregon in virtue of the cession of Spain in the Florida treaty ; the discoveries of Captain Gray of Boston, who circumnavi- gated the globe, and in 1792 discovered to a certain extent and explored the Columbia river ; the explorations of Lewis and Clarke in 1805 and 1806 of the southern main branch of the Columbia, and of the river itself from the mouth of that branch to the sea ; and the settlement of Astoria, planted at the mouth of the Columbia in 181 1 by John Jacob A^*^'^'" of New York. Oregon was also claimed by England, who also rested her pretensions on discovery, and on the set- tlement made by the Northwest Company on Eraser's river in 1806, and on another near the head waters of the north branch of the Columbia. '* All of Oregon, or None." In 18 18 the United States and Great Britain had agreed upon the forty-ninth degree of north latitude, as the boundary between the United States and British Amer- ica from the Lake of the Woods to the sum- mit of the Rocky mountains. Mr. Calhoun now opened the negotiations by proposing to continue this line to the Pacific. The British minister would not consent to this, but proposed to extend the forty-ninth paral- lel from the mountains to the north branch of the Columbia, and then to make the boun- dary follow that stream from this point of intersection to the sea. Mr. Calhoun at once declined to accept this boundary, and the further consideration of the subject was post- poned until Packenham could receive addi- tional instructions from his government. During the Presidential campaign of 1844 the Democratic party adopted as its watch- word, " all of Oregon or none," and the ex- citement upon the question ran high. The election of Mr. Polk showed that the Ameri- can people were resolved to insist upon their claim to Oregon, and when the new President in his inaugural address took the bold ground that the American title to " Oregon terri- tory " " was dear and indisputable," and declared his intention to maintain it at the cost of war with England, the matter assumed a serious aspect, and for a while it seemed that party passion would involve the two countries in hostilities. President Polk, upon a calmer consideration of the subject, caused the secretary of state to reopen the negotia- tions by proposing to Great Britain the forty* ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. tOLlC. <95 Ai'nth parallel of latitude as a boundary. The British minister declined the proposition, and the matter was dropped. According to the treaties of i8i8 and 1828, the joint occupation of Oregon could be ^.erminated by either party by giving the other twelve months' notice. The President now proposed to give the required notice, which was done by a resolution of Congress. British ministry decided at lengtn to reopen negotiations, and Sir Richard Packenham shortly after communicated to Mr. Buchanan the willingness of his government to accept the forty-ninth parallel as a boundary. The time at which thejoint occupation would terminate was rapidly drawing to a close, and the President was anxious to settle the mat ter, but at the same time was not willing to A BASIN ON THE COLUMBIA RIVER, OREGON AND MOUNTAIN-PEAK IN THE DISTANCE. This put an end to the old arrangement, and compelled the two countries to make a new settlement of the difficulty ; and this was the object of the President in terminating the '.oint occupation. The subject was brought to the notice of the British Parliament by Sir Robert Peel who expressed his regret that the last offer of the United States had been declined. The assume the responsibility of accepting a boundary which fell so far short of the popular expectations. At the suggestion of Senator Benton, of Missouri, he asked the advice of the Senate as to the propriety of accepting the British offer, and pledged him- self to be guided by its decision. The Senate advised him to accept it, and when the treaty was sent to it, ratified it after a warm debate 596 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. Thus the matter extending over two days. was brought to a close. By the treaty, which was concluded in 1846, the forty-ninth parallel of north lati- tude was made the boundary between the United States and the British possessions, from the summit of the Rocky Mountains to the middle of the channel between Van- couver's Island and the mainland, and thence southerly through the middle of the Straits of San Juan de Fuca to the Pacific. The navigation of the Columbia river and its main northern branch was made free to both parties. Trouble with Mexico. In the meantime the Mexican difficulty had beer, found much harder of settlement. Mexico had never acknowledged the inde- pendence of Texas, and since the defeat at San Jacinto had repeatedly threatened to restore her authorit)' over the Texans by force of arms. She warmly resented the annexn- tion of Texas by the United States, and a few days after that event was completed, General Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washing- ton, entered a formal protest against the course of the United States, demanded his passports and left the country. Some years before this a numbc of American ships trading with Mexican ports had been seized and plundered by the Mex- ican authorities, who also confiscated the property of a number of American residents in that country. The sufferers by these outrages appealed foi redress to the govern- ment of the United States, which had repeat- edly tried to negotiate with Mexico for the collection of these claims, which amounted to six millions of dollars. Mexico made several promises of settlement, but failed to comply with them. In 1840, however, a new treaty was made between that country and the United States, and Mexico pledged her- self to pay the American claims in tWfenty annual instalments of three hundred thousand dollars each. Three of these instalments had been paid at the time of the annexation of Texas ; but Mexico now refused to make any further payment. Troops Sent to Texas. Mexico claimed that tli: limits of Texa \ properly ended at the N nces river, while the Texans insisted that their bouu'I.iry was the Rio Grande. Thus tlie region between these two rivers became a debatable land, claimed by both parties, and a source of great and immediate danger. It was evident that Mexico was about to occupy this region with her troops, and the legislature of Texas, alarmed by the threatening attitude of that country, called upon the United States gov- ernment to protect its territory. The Presi- dent at once sent General Zachary Tayloi with a force of fifteen hundred regular troops, called the "army of occujjation," to "take position in the country liolween the Neuce? and the Rio Grande, and lo repel any irvr sion of the Texan territory." General Taylor accordingly took position at C'orpus Christi, at the mouth of the Neuces, in September, 1845, and remained there until the spring of 1846. At the same time a 'squadron of war vessels under Com- modore Conner was despatched to the Gulf to cooperate with General Taylor. Both of these officers " were ordered to commit no act of hostility against Mexico unless she declared war, or was herself the aggressor by striking the first, blow." At the commencement of the dispute! between the two countries, Herrera was President of Mexico. Although diplomatic communications had ceased between the United States and Mexico, he was anxious to settle the quarrel by negotiation, but at the Presidential election held about this time ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 597 Herrcra was defeated, and Paredes, who was bitterly liostile to the United States, was chosen President of the Mexican repubh'c. Paredes openly avowed his determination to drive the Americans beyond the Neuccs. In February, 1S46, General Taylor was oi dered by President Polk to advance from ihe Neuces to a point on the Rio Grande, cpposite the Mexican town of Matamoras, and establish there a fortified post, in order to check the Mexican forces which were assembhng there in large numbers for the purpose of invading Texas. Taylor at once set out, and leaving the greater part of his stores at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, advanced to the Rio Grande, and built a fort and established a camp opposite and within cannon shot of Matamoras. General Am- pudia, commanding the Mexican forces at Matamoras, imn^ediately notified General Taylor that this was an act of war upon Mexican soil, and demanded that he should "break up his camp and retire beyond the Neuces " within tv^enty-four hours. First Blood Shed. Taylor replied that he was acting in accordance with the orders of his govern- ment, which was alone responsible for his conduct, and that he should maintain the position he had chosen. He pushed forward the work on his fortifications with energy, and kept a close watch upon the Mexicans. Neither commander was willing to take the responsibility of beginning the war, and Am- pudia, notwithstanding his threat, remained inactive. His course did not satisfy his gov- ment, and he was removed and General Arista appointed in his place. Arista at once began hostilities by interposing detach- ments of his army between Taylor's iorce and his depot of supplies at Point Isabel. On the twenty-sixth of April Taylor sent a party of sixty dragoons under Captain Thornton to reconnoitre the Mexican lines. The drag(jons were surprised with a loss of .sixteen killed. The remainder were made prisoners, and Thornton alone escaped. This was the first blood shed in the war with Mexico, the beginning of the struggle. Gallant Major Brown. A day or two later, being informed byi Captain Walker, who, with his Texan Rangers was guarding the line of communi- cation with Point Isabel, that the Mexicans were threatening the latter place in heavy force, General Taylor left Major Brown vvith three hundred men to hold the fort, and marched to Point Isabel to relieve that place. He agreed with Major Brown that if the fort should be attacked or hard pressed, the latter should notify him of his danger by firing heavy signal guns at certain intervals. He reached Point Isabel, twenty miles dis- tant, on the second of May without meeting any opposition on the march. General Arista, attributing Taylor's with- drawal to fear, determined to capture the fortification on the opposite side of the river. On the third of May he opened fire upon it from a heavy battery at Matamoras, and sent a large force across the Rio Grande, which took position in the rear of the fort and intrenched themselves there. In the face of this double attack the little garrison defended themselves bravely, but at length Major Brown fell mortally wounded. The command devolved upon Captain Hawkins, who now felt himself justified in warning Taylor of his danger, and began to fire the signal guns agreed upon. Taylor was joined at Point Isabel by a small detachment, and his force was increased to twenty-three hundred men. He listened anxiously for the booming of the signal guns from the fort on the Rio Grande, and at length they were heard. He knew that the 598 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. reed of assistance must be great, as the little Daiid in the fort had held out so long with- out calling for help, and he at once set out to join them. He left Point Isabel on the seventh of May, taking with him a heavy supply train. The steady firing of the sig- nal guns from Fort Brown (for so the work was afterwards named in honor of its gallant commander) urged the army to its greatest exertions. Ringgold's light battery on the right, Dun- can's battery on the left, and a battery of eighteen-pounders in the centre. The artillery was thrown well in front of the infantry, and the order was given to advance. The Mexicans at once opened fire with their batteries, but the distance was too great to accomplish anything. The American bat- teries did not reply until they had gotten within easy range, when they opened a fire BATTLE OF PALO ALTO. On the eighth of May the Mexican army, six thousand strong, was discovered holding a strong position in front of a chaparral, near the small stream called the Palo Alto, in- tending to dispute the advance of the Ameri- cans. Taylor promptly made his disposi- tions to attack them. His troops were ordered to drink from the little stream and to fill their canteens. The train was closed up, and the line was formed with Major the accuracy and rapidity of which astonished the Mexicans. Their lines were broken and they fell back, and the Americans advanced steadily through the chaparral, which had been set on fire by the discharge of cannon, until a new position within close range was reached. Paying no attention to the Mexican artillery, the American guns directed their fire upon the enemy's infantry and cavalry, and broke ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. hem again and again. The battle lasted (ive hours and ceased at nightfall. It was fought entirely by the artillery of the two armies, and was won by the superior hand- Zing and precision of the American guns. The loss of the Mexicans was four hun- dred killed and wounded; that of the Americans nine killed and forty-four vvounded. Early in the battle Major Ring- gold wis mortally wounded and died a little 599 occupying a much stronger position than they had held at Palo Alto. Their line was formed behind f ravine, called Resaca de la Palma, or the Dry River of Palms. Their flanks were protected by the thick chaparral, and their artillery was thrown forward beyond the ravine and protected by an intrenchment, and swept the road by which the Americans must advance. During the night fresh troops had joined the Mexican army, and had MAJOR RINGGOLD MORTALLY WOUNDED. later. He was regarded as one of the most gifted officers of the army, and to him was chiefly due the precision and rapidity of movement acquired by the " flying artil- lery" of the American army, which were so successfully tested during this war. The American army encamped on the battle-field, and the next morning, May 9th, as the Mexicans had retreated, leaving their dead unburied, resumed its advance. In the afternoon the Mexicans were discovered increased their force to seven thousand men. Taylor formed his line with his artillery in the centre. The artillery was ordered to advance along the road commanded by the Mexican battery, and the infantry were directed to move as rapidly as possible through the chaparral, and drive out the Mexican sharpshooters. The infantry execut- ed this order in handsome style, but the chaparral was so dense that each man was 6oC FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. obligea to act for himself as he forced his way throught it. The Mexican battery was handled with great skill and coolness, and held the centre in check until some time after the infantry had forced their way close to the edge of the ravine. At this juncture Captain May was ordered to charge the Mexican guns, and started down the road at a trot. As he reached the positionof the American artillery, Lieutenant guns. Leaving the battery to the American infantry which now hurried forwaid to secure it, the dragoons charged the Mexican centre and broke it. The whole American line then advanced rapidly ; the Mexicans gave way, and were soon flying in utter confusion towards the Rio Grande, which they crossed in such haste that many of them were drowned in the attempt to reach the Mexican shore. CHARGE OF THE UKAGOUNS. Ridgely suggested that May should halt and allow hirn to draw the Mexican fire. Ridgely opened a rapid fire on the Mexican guns, which answered immediately. At the same moment May dashed at the Mexican battery with his dragoons, and reached it before the cannoneers could reload their pieces. They were sabred at their guns, and the battery was carried. Captain May himself made a prisoner of General La Vega, as the latter was in the act of discharcrincr one of the General Arista, the Mexican commander fled alone from the field, leaving all his pii- vate and official papers behind him. The Americans lost one hundred and twenty-two men killed and wounded ; the Mexicans twelve hundred. All the Mexican artillery two thousand stand of arms, and six hundrcc mules were captured by the Americans. General Taylor advanced from the battle- field to Fort Brown, the garrison of which had heard the distant roar of the battle, anc^ ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 60 1 had seen the flight of t!ie Mexicans across the Rio Grande. The defeat of the Mexicans at Palo Alto and Resaca dc la Palma had greatly disheart- ened them. They not only abandoned their intention to invade Texas, but gave up all hope of holding the Rio Grande frontier. On the night of the seventeenth of May their army evacuated ])'Iatamoras, and retreated upon Monterey, On the eighteenth the American army cror.sed the Rio Grande, and occupied Matamoras. General Taylor scrupulously respected the municipal laws of the town, and protected the citizens in the exercise of their civil and leligious privileges. All supplies needed by the troops were purchased at a liberal price, and no plundering or disorder was allowed or aUempted. In the meantime the news of the attack upon the dragoons under Captain Thorn- ton had reached the United States, and with it the rumor that the American army was confronted on the Texan side of the Rio Grande by a vastly superior force of Mexicans, and that its destruc- tion was almost certain. The President sent a special message to Congress on the eleventh of May, in which he informed that body that " war existed by the act of Mexicc»," and called upon Congress to recognize the state of war, and to provide for its support by appropriating the necessary funds, and to authorize him to call for vol- unteers. Undei- the impression that the perilous situation of Taylor's army made instant action necessary, Congress appropriated ten millions of dollars for the prosecution of the war, and authorized the President to accept the services of fift) thousand volunteers. One-half of this force was to be mustered into the service ; the remainder held as a re- serve. The President's call was responded to with enthusiasm all over the land, and in the course of a few weeks two hundred thousand volunteers offered their services. General Wool was ordered to muster the volunteers accepted by the President into the service. Preparations were made by the American government to prosecute the war with vigor At the suggestiofk of General Scott a com- prehensive plan of operations was adopted Two separate expeditions were to be organ^ eral Lane, on its way to reinforce General Scott. Lane d^ove off Santa Anna's army, and re- lieved Puebla on the eighth of October. Ten days later Santa Anna was reported to be col- lecting another force at Alixo. Lane set out im- mediately for that place, reached it by a forced march, and dispersed the Mexicans beyond all hope of reunion. Immediately after the capture of the city of Mexico Santa Anna re- signed the presidency of the republic in favor of Senor Pena y Pefia, pre- sident of the Supreme Court of Justice, but re- tained his position a?, commander-in-chief o f the army. The fall of the city was followed by >.he inauguration of a new government, one of the first acts of which was to dismiss Santa Anna from the command of the army. He at once left the country, and filed to the West Indies. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 62 i The Mexican government was removed to the city of Queretaro, and a new congress was elected, which began its sessions in that city. Negotiations for peace had been opened in the meantime, and the meetings of the \Mexican commissioners and Mr. Trist were 'leld at the town of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, A here, on the second of February, 1848, a treaty of peace was signed by Nicholas P. Trist, on the part of the United States, and Senors Couto, Atristain and Cuevas, on the part of Mexico. Though Mr. Trist's powers had been withdrawn by President Polk some time before, he ventured to continue his authority on the ground that the opportunity for bringing the war to a close was too favorable to be lost. The commissioners appointed by the President to super- sede him reached Mexico a little later, but found the treaty signed and sealed. It was forwarded to Wash- ington, and was laid by the President before the Senate, which body after a brief discussion ratified it. On the Fourth of July, 1848, President Polk issued a proclamation an- nouncing the return of peace. By the terms of the treaty the Rio Grande was accepted by Mexico as the western boundary of the United States and of Texas, and that republic ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upper California. For this immense territory the government of the United States agreed to pay to Mexico the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, and to assume the debts due by Mexico to citizens of the United States, amounting to the sum of three and a half millions of dollars. The treaty having been ratified, the Ameri- can forces were promptly withdrawn from Mexico. By the cession of California and New Mexico, regions as yet unknown, a territory four times as large as France, was added to the dominions of the United States. Califor- nia bordered the Pacific coast for about six hundred and fifty miles, and extended inland for about the same distance. It embraced an area of about four hundred and fifty thousand square miles, comprising what is now known as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and A MEXICAN CATHEDRAL. parts of Colorado and New Mexico. At the close of the war it contained about fifteen thousand inhabitants. In February, 1848. occurred an event des- tined to change the whole history of the Pacific coast. A laborer on the plantation of Captain Sutter, situated in Coloma county, California, on a branch of the Sacramento river, while working on a mill-race, discov- ered gold in the sands of the little stream. The precious metal was soon found to be in abundance in the neighborhood, and the news spread rapidly. It reached the United States about the time of the ratification of 624 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVH. WAR. the treaty, and produced the most intense excitement. In the course of a few months thousands of emigrants were on their way to California t THE CIVIL WAR. The Confederate government was con- vinced that war was inevitable ; and since its inauguration, had been preparing for the coming struggle. Nearly all the officers of the army and navy of the United States, who were natives of the seceded States, resigned their commissions in the old service, and were given similar positions in the army of the ARRIVAL OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN AT THE CAPITOL Confederate States. The forces collected at Charleston and Pensacola were reinforced by troops from other States, and the command at the former place was conferred upon Gen- eral Pierre G. T. Beauregard, and at the latter upon General Braxton Bragg, both of whom had been distinguished officers of the old army. Just before the close of Mr. Buchanan's term of office, the Confederate government despatched John Forsyth, of Alabama, Mar- tin J. Crawford, of Georgia, and A. B. Roman, of Louisiana, to Washington as commission- ers to endeavor to effect a peaceable adjust- ment of the matters at issue between the two governments, and to treat for an equitable division of the public property of the United States. Mr. Buchanan refused to receive the commis- sioners in their official capacity, and after the inauguration of the new administration they ad- dressed a note to Mr. Seward, the new Secretary of State, set- ting forth the objects of their mission, and soliciting an official interview with the President. Mr. Seward declined to receive them in their official capacity, but answered them verbally through Mr. Justice John A. Campbell, of the Supreme Court of the United States, that he was in favor of a peaceful settlement of the dififi- culty, and that the troops would be withdrawn from Fort Sumter in less than ten days. Mr. Sew- ard's object appears to have been to deceive the commissioners, and lull their suspicions, in order to gain time for the preparations which had been determined upon for the relief of Fort Sumter. In the meantime, the govern- ment having resolved to rein- force and provision Fort Sumter at all hazards, every nerve was strained to carry out this design before it should become known to the Confederates. An expedition consisting of seven ships, carrying two hun- dred and eighty-five guns and twenty-four hundred men, was prepared at New York ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 669 and Norfolk. The southern commissioners, whose suspicions had been allayed by Mr. Seward's message, were alarmed by the ru- mors of these preparations, which they sus- pected were for the relief of Fort Sumter. They waited upon Judge Campbell to ask an explanation, and that gentleman, on the sev- enth of April, addressed a note to Mr. Sew- ard asking if the assurances he had given were well or ill founded. Mr. Seward replied as follows : " Faith as to Sumter fully kept ; wait and see." • In the meantime the expedition had sailed from New York , ,^:^ and Norfolk, and was on its way to Charleston harbor. On the eighth of April, 1 861, Gov- ernor Pickens, of South Carolina, was notified by the general govern- ment of its inten- tion to relieve Fort Sumter at all haz- ards, and of the sailing of the fleet for that purpose. Governor Pickens at once informed General Beauregard of this notification, and the news was telegraphed by him to the Confederate government at Montgomery. The Confederate Secretary of War there- upon ordered General Beauregard to demand the immediate surrender of Fort Sumter ; " and if this should be refused to proceed to reduce it." On the eleventh of April General Beauregard demanded of Major Anderson the surrender of the fort. The demand was refused in writing ; but Major Anderson added verbally to the mes- senger, " I will await the first shot, and if you do not batter us to pieces, we will be starved out in a few days." Beauregard telegraphed this remark with Anderson's reply to his government, and was answered, " Do not desire needlessly to bom- bard Fort Sumter. If Major Anderson will state the tim at which, as indicated by him- self, he will evacuate, and agree that, in the meantime, he will not use his guns against us unless ours should be employed against Fort Sumter, you are authorized thus to avoid the effusion of blood. If this or its equivalent be refused, reduce the fort, as rOKT PlCkFNS. your judgment decides most practicable." The Federal fleet was on its way to Charles- ton, and if the attack of the Confederates was to be made at all, no time was to be lost. General Beauregard, therefore, gave Major Anderson warning that he should open fire upon Fort Sumter at half-past four o'clock the next morning. At the designated hour on the morning of April 1 2th, the Confederate batteries opened fire upon Fort Sumter, which replied to them with spirit. The bombardment lasted over thirty-two hours, and the fort was greatly );d THE CIVIL WAR. damaged, and mafty of* the guns were dis- mounted. The fleet arrived off the harbor during the bombardment, but remained in the offing, and took no part in the engage- ment. Not a single life was lost in this memorable battle. Late in the afternoon of the thirteenth, Major Anderson agreed to capitulate, and the firing ceased. The MAJOR ANDERSON. victors granted liberal terms to Anderson and his men, whose heroism had aroused their warmest admiration ; and on the morn- ing of Sunday, April 14th, the fort was sur- rendered to the Confederate forces, and Major Anderson and the garrison embarked in one of the vessels of the fleet, which at once sailed for New York. The attack upon Fort Sumter put an end to the last hope of pea^e, ail(! afoused the most intense excitement in both sections of the country. On the fifteenth of April, Presi- dent Lincoln issued a proclamation calling upon the States to furnish seventy-five thousand troops for the suppression of the rebellion, and convening Congress in extra session on the Fourth of July. The Northern and Western States re- sponded with enthu- siasm to the President's call for troops, and at once began to forward their quotas to the points designated by the war department. ..-"^ The enthusiasm in the South was fully equal to that of the North. The Confederate government issued a call for volun- teers to repel the threat- ened invasion of the fed- eral forces, and it was responded to with ala- crity. Until now the States of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennes- see, Kentucky, Arkansas and Missouri, generally known as the Border States, had remained in the Union, hoping to be able to effect a peaceable settlement of the quarrel. Their sympathies were with the Southern States, and it was gen- erally believed that in the event of war they would cast their lots with those States. Each of these States was included in the call of President Lincoln for troops. The governors of most of them replied by refusing to furnish the quotas required of them, and by denouncing the President's demand as illegal. Administration of Abraham uisfcOLN. 671 Conventions of the people were held, and ill but Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri withdrew from the Union. The secession of Virginia took place on the seventeenth of April ; that of Arkansas on the sixth of May; that of North Carolina on the twentieth of ( May ; and that of Tennessee on the eighth .of June. These States subsequently ratified the constitution of the Confederate States, and became members of the new republic. Kentucky and Missouri remained neutral. The passage of the act of secession by the Virginia convention was kept secret for a day or two in order to give the authorities of that State an oppor- tunity to seize the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and the navy yard at Ports- mouth. The officer P^^ in command of the arsenal, upon hearing of the approach of a f o r c e . o f Virginia troops, destroyed a number of the mus- t kets stored there, set ^i fire to the buildings, and retreated into Pennsylvania. The Virginians extinguished the flames and secured a large quantity of arms and equipments and the valuable ma- chinery for the manufacture of arms. The commandant of the navy yard at Portsmouth, upon the approach of the Virginians, made no attempt to defend his post, but spiked the cannon, burned or sunk the war vessels lying in the harbor, set fire to the buildings, and retreated with two war steamers. The navy yard was at once occupied by the Virginians, who secured nearly two thousand pieces of cannon, and an immense quantity of stores and munitions of all kinds. The governors of the seceded Border States issued calls for volunteers immediately upon the withdrawal of their States. Men came for- ward in such large numbers that arms could not be provided for all of them. The prominent points of danger in Virginia were occupied and fortified by the State troops ; but the control of tlie military af- fairs in all the Border States soon passed ^^^^ FORT SUMTER IN 1 86 1. into the hands of the Confederate govern- ment. As it was certain that the first operations of the war would take place upon the bor- ders of Virginia, the city of Richmond was made the capital of the Confederate States, and on the twenty-first of May the Confed- erate government was removed to that city. The western part of the State of Virginia refused to join the remainder of the State in its withdrawal from the Union. On the eleventh of June, 1 861, the people of the 6;^ THE CIVIL WAR. western counties met in convention at Wheel- ing, declared their independence of the old State, organized a State government, and proclaimed their intention to remain faithful to the Union. The action of this convention was sustained bythe Federal government, and on the twenty-sixth of November, 1861, another convention met at Wheeling, and FORTS SUMTER AND MOULTRIE. adopted a constitution for the new State of West Virginia. This constitution was rati- fied by the people at the polls on the third of May, 1862, and application was made for I the admission of West Virginia into the Union as a State, which was accomplished by act of Congress on the twentieth of June, 1863. In the meantime the Federal government set to work with energy to prepare for the strucfsfle before it. The call of President Lincoln for troops had been answered by three hundred thousand volunteers. On the seventeenth of April, two days after the Pres- ident's proclamation, the Sixth Massachu- setts regiment left Boston for Washington. In passing through Baltimore it was at- tacked by a crowd of citizens who sympa- thized with the South, and three soldiers were killed and eight Avounded. Several citizens were killed and wounded. The reg- iment reached Wash- ington the same day. In a short time the force at the capital was sufficient to put an end to all fears for its safety. Alexandria and the Virginia shore opposite Washington were seized and for- tified. Baltimore was occupied by a force under General Butler, and the communica- tions of Washington with the North and West were made sure. On the nineteenth of April the President issued a proclamation declaring all the southern ports in a state ot blockade ; and on the third of May he put forth another proclamation ordering the regu- lar army of the United States to be increased to sixty-four thousand seven hundred and forty-eight men, and the navy to eighteen thousand seamen. On the tenth of May he ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 673 issued a fourth proclamation, suspending the writ oi habeas corpus in certain localities, and authority to suspend this privilege was con- ferred upon the commanders of military de- ■partments soon afterward. Under the instructions of the government these commanders now proceeded to arrest great numbers of persons in various parts of the country who were suspected of sympa- government paid no attention to this deci- sion, and held the prisoner in confinement. A little later the Legislature of Maryland, which was strongly Southern in its sympa- thies, was prevented from meeting by tho sudden arrest and imprisonment ot a large, number of its members by order of the secretary of war. On the fourth of July, 1861. Congress FORT MOULTRIE, CHARLESTON HARBOR. thizing with trie South. They were impris- oned at the military posts, and were denied trial by the civil courts. John Merryman, a citizen of Maryland, was one of the persons so arrested. His friends applied for redress to the Chief Justice of the United States, who held the suspension of the habeas corpus act by the President to be unconstitutional, and ordered the discharge of the prisoner. The 43 convened in extra session at Washington, in accordance with the President's proclama tion. This body proceeded to give to the government a prompt and effectual support. Resolutions were introduced to legalize the extraordinary acts of the President in setting aside the writ of habeas corpus, in ordering the arbitrary arrest and confinement of citi- xens, and in assuming certain other powers e574 THE CIVIL WAR. which belonged to Congress. Congress refused to throw over these acts, however necessary, the sanction of the law ; but in view of the necessity of prompt and vigorous action on the part of the President, excused his acts on the distinct ground of the" necessities •.-^ war." Measures were adopted without delay for putting in the field an army of five hundred and twenty-five thousand men, and for equipping a powerful navy : and the sum of five hundred millions of dollars was appro- priated for the prosecution of the war. During this session Congress also adopted a solemn resolution declaring " that this war is not prosecuted on our part in any spirit of THE CONFEDERATE FLAG. oppression, nor for any purpose of conquest or subjugation, nor for the purpose of over- throwing or interfering with the rights or established institutions of those [the seceded] States ; but to defend and maintain the supremacy of the constitution and all laws made in pursuance thereof, and to preserve the Union with all the dignity, equality and rights of the several States unimpaired ; that as soon as these objects are accomplished the wa*" ought to cease." In the meantime the Conrecfera.,es had collected troops at important points to resist the advance of the Federal troops into Virginia. A force under Brigadier-General Garnf^t^ was stationed in West Virginia to cover the approaches from that direction ; Harper s Ferry, which commanded the entrance into the valley of Virginia, was held by an army of seven thousand or eight thousand men, under General Joseph E. Johnston ; a much larger force, under General Beauregard, tool? position near Manassas Junction, about thirty miles from Washington, and a column of several thousand men, under General John B. Magruder, was stationed at Yorktown, on the peninsula between the York and James rivers, to cover Richmond iVom the direction of Fortress Monroe at the mouth of Hamp- ton Roads, which was still held by the Federal troops. Norfolk was also held by a strong Jorce. With the exception of that occupied lyy General Garnett's command, all these positions were carefully fortified. Bethel Church and Rich Mountain. The Union army at Fortress Monroe num- bered about twelve thousand men, and was commanded by General B. F. Butler. Early in June, Magruder moved a force of eighteen hundred men and several pieces of arUllery from Yorktown, and took position at Bethel Church, about half way between Yorktown and Hampton. On the tenth of June he was attacked by a force of four thousand trooos under General Pierce, of Massachusetts, but succeeded in repulsing the attack and main taining his position. In the opposite quarter of the State, the Union forces were more successful. In order to prevent the Confederates from overrun- ning West Virginia, a strong body of Ohio and Indiana troops, under General George B. McClellan, was sent into that region. McClellan set to work at once to drive the Confederates out of West Virginia, and on the third of June a portion of his command, under General Kelly, defeated General Garnett at Philippi. McClellan now advanced ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 675 against the main body of Garnett's forces. On tile eleventh of July, he attacked the com- mand of Colonel Pegram at Rich Mountain, and defeated it. This defeat compelled Gen- eral Garnett to fall back towards the valley of Virginia. He was pursued by McClellan and overtaken at Carrick's ford, on the Cheat 'river In the battle which ensued here, Gar- mander, Colonel Ellsworth, was killed by a citizen. Strong defences were erected on the Virginia shore between Washington and Alexandria, and the army was encamped within these lines. Two months were passed in organizing and disciplining this force, and in the meantime the people of the Northern and Western States became impatient of the THE SIXTH MASSACHUSETTS REGIMENT PASSING THROUGH BALTIMORE. nett was killed, and the remnant of his com- mand was driven beyond the mountains. The United States had assembled a con- siderable army of volunteers and regulars at Washington under Major-General Irwin Mc- Dowell. On the twenty-fourth of May, Alex- andria, on the Virginia side of the Potomac, rdne miles below Washington, was seized by a detachment from this army. Its com- delay, and demanded an immediate advance upon the southern army and Richrr.rnd. Preparatory to his own advance. General McDowell sent General Patterson with twenty thousand men to cross the Potomac at Wil- liamsport, and prevent General Johnston fram leavmg the valley and joining Beauregard at Manassas. Upon the arrival of Patterson on the upper Potomac, General Johnston 6/6 THE CIVIL WAR. evacuated Harper's Ferry and took position at Winchester. Patterson ma.de a consi'aerabie show cuf force in the valley, but refrained from attacking Johnston, although the latter sought to induce him to do so. He took position about nine miles from Winchester, and remained hiactive there. In the meantime the preparations for the FORTIFICATIONS IN AND AROUND WASHINGTON. advance of McDowell's army were completed, and on the seventeenth of July he began his march from the Potomac towards Bull Run, on the banks of which the Confederates were posted. His army numbered over fifty thou-, sand men, and forty-nine pieces of artillery. As soon as the advance of this army was known to him, General Beauregard informed General Johnston of it, and begged him to come to his assistance. Johnston skilfully eluded Patterson^s army, and hastened to Bull Run, arriving there with a part of his command in time to take part in the battle. The Confederate army had taken position behind Bull Run, and in advance of Manassas Junction. Including the force brought by General Johnston, who assumed the chief command b) virtue of his rank, it con- sisted of thirty-one thousand four hun- dred and thirty-one men and fifty-fi^'f guns. On theeighteeniii ofjuly General Mc- Dowell attempted to force a passage of Bull Run at Blackburn's ford, but was repulsed. On the morning ot the twenty-first, the Union aimy advanced in force, and endeavoied to turn the left of the Southern line. An obstinately- contested battle ensued, which lasted from sunrise until nearly sunset. It resulted in the total defeat of the Federal army, which was driven back in uttei rout upon Alexandria and Washington, with a loss of between four and five thou- sand men in killed, wounded and prison- ers, and twenty-eight pieces of artillery. For a while the effects of this disaster upon the Federal army were so great that Washington was almost defenceless ; but the Confederates made no effort to follow up their victory. They were almost as hadly de- moralized by their success as the Union army by its defeat. Recovering from the dismay of its firs'" crreat reverse, the government went to work PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. 677 678 THE CIVIL UAK with vigor to repair the disaster. The levy of five hundred thousand men ordered by MAP SHOWING THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY. Congress was raised promptly and without difficulty, so eager was the desire of the people to wipe out the d^^graccoi bull Run. At his own request General Scott, whose bodily infirmities were so great as to render him unable to dis- charge the duties cJ his position, was re-' lieved of the com- mand of the army. Major-General Geo. B. McClellan was given the chief com- mand of the armies of the Union, and or- dered to take charge of the force assem- bling before Wash- ington, which was named the Army of the Potomac. He devoted himself with success to the task ot organizing and dis- ciplining the recruits, which came pouring in during the fall and wi .icr. The remainder of the year 1861 passed away quietly on the Potomac, with the single exception of the battle of Lees- burg. Colonel Baker, with a force of two thousand men, was sent by General Stone to cross the Potomac at Edward's ferry, and drive back the Con- federate force under General Evans from its position near Leesburg. He made his attack on the twenty-first of October, but wa? I ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 679 repulsed with the "loss of eight hundred killed and wounded, being himself among the slain. The Confederate army held its position at Centreville through the fall and winter, and at one time its outposts were pushed forward within view of the city of Washington. In the fall of 1861 an army of ten thou- .sand men was sent by the Confederate gov- ernment into the valley of Virginia to pre- vent its occupation by the federal forces. The command of these troops was conferred upon General T. J. Jackson, whose conspicuous gallantry at Bull Run had won him the so- briquet of " Stonewall Jackson," by which he was afterwards known by both armies. He established his headquarters at Winchester. Prompt Action in Missouri. In the meantime the war had been going on in Western Virginia. After the transfer of General McClellan to Washington, the com- mand of the Union forces passed to Briga- dier-General Rosecranz, an able officer. He had several indecisive encounters with the commands of Generals Floyd and Wise, in the region of the Gauley and New rivers. General Robert E. Lee was sent by the Con- federate government to assume the chief command in the west. He attacked the brigade of General Reynolds at Cheat moun- tain on the fourteenth of September, but was repulsed and obliged to retreat. On the fourth of October, General Reynolds attacked a Confederate force under General Henry R. Jackson on the Greenbrier river, but was re- pulsed. The State of Missouri took no part in the secession movements of the spring of 1861. Her people were divided ; a large party sympathized with the South ; but still a larger party was determined that the State should remain in the Union. These parties soon came in conflict. The governor and leading officials of the State were in favor of seces- sion, and used all their influence to "pring about the withdrawal of Missouri from the Union. A camp of the State militia was formed near St. Louis, and was called Camp Jackson in honor of the governor. It was known that the force assembled at this camp was intended to serve as a nucleus around which an army hostile to the federal govern- ment might assemble. By extraordinary exertions Colonel Frances P. Blair. Jr., a member of Congress from St. Louis, and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, commanding the troops at the Jefferson barracks, near St. Louis, succeeded in collecting a force of five regiments of Union volunteers. On the tenth of May, 1861, Lyon with these five regiments suddenly surrounded Camp Jackson, and compelled General Frost, the commanding officer, to surrender his whole force, camp and equipments. By this prompt action the State forces were prevented from carrying out their plan for seizing the United States arsenal at St. Louis, which contained sixty thousand stand of arms of the latest patterns, and a number of cannon, and a large quantity of ammunition. For this decisive action Captain Lyon was commis- sioned a brigadier-general by the President. Movements of General Lyon's Army. Satisfied that the desire of the southern party in Missouri to remain neutral was but a pretext to gain time to arm the State for a union with the Confederates, President Lin- coln determined to compel all the State forces not in the federal service to disband. An in- terview was held at St. Louis on the eleventh of June between Governor Jackson and Gen- eral Lyon, now commanding the federal troops in Missouri. Governor Jackson de- manded that no United States forces should be quartered in or marched through Mis- souri. General Lyon refused to comply with this demand, and insisted that the State forces Pi ei O < CO < o w H 680 ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLl^5. 681 should be disbanded, pledging himseff to respect the rights and privileges of the State. At the close of the interview the Governor returned to Jefferson City, the capital of the State, and the next day, the twelfth, issued his proclamation calling 50,000 of the State militia into active service for the purpose of driving the Federal troops from the State, and protecting the " lives, liberty and property of the citizens." General Lyon at once marched upon Jefferson City, and occupied it on the fifteenth, the Governor and his supporters having retired to the interior of the State. On the seventeenth Lyon proceeded to Booneville and defeated the State troops stationed there under General Price. The southwestern part of Missouri is rich in deposits of lead, and valuable mines of this mineral are worked there. The State authorities were anxious to hold this region, as it was of the highest importance to them to obtain the use of these mines to supply their army with lead. A column of Federal troops under General Sigel was sent by Gen- eral Lyon to intercept the retreat of the State troops. On the fifth of July, Sigel attacked the State troops under Governor Jackson at Carthage, but was repulsed. Battle of W^ilson's Creek. The next day, July 6th, Governor Jackson was joined at Carthage by General Sterling Price, of the Missouri State Guard, and Gen- eral Ben McCuUoch, of the Confederate army, with several thousand men. The command of the whole force was conferred upon Gen- eral McCuUoch, who had been ordered by his government to advance into Missouri. The Southern army, according to General McCulloch's statement, numbered 5,300 infantry , 6,000 mounted men and fifteen pieces of artillery. It advanced rapidly into the in- terior of the State, and on the ninth of August reached Wilson's Creek, near Springfield. General JLyon naa taRen position there with a force somewhat smaller than that of the Confederates. On the morning of the tenth he attacked the Southern army. The battle lasted six hours, and was hotly con- tested. General Lyon was killed at the head of his troops while endeavoring to turn the left flank of the Confederates, and his army was forced back. His body was left in the hands of the Confederates, who treated it with becoming respect. Springfield was occupied by the Confeder- ates the day after the battle ; but McCuUoch and Price being unable to agree upon the plan of the campaign, they soon withdrew CAPITOL AT RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. to the Arkansas border. The Union army after the battle withdrew to RoUa, near the centre of the State. A few weeks later General Price with a force of over five thousand Confederates laid siege to Lexington, on the Missouri river, which was held by about three thousand men under Colonel Mulligan. After a gallant defence Mulligan was forced to surrenderor* the twentieth of September. Major-General John C. Fremont was now appointed by President Lincoln to take com- mand of the western army. He forced Price's command back into the southwestern part of the State. /Arriving near Springfield, i -\VSC.Si'Ji'Si=-'>Ss,-»JSS^ 682 rORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. AH MINISTRATION O? ABRAHAM LB^COLN. e'*3 Fremont prepared to bring the Confederates to a decisive engagement, but on the second of November was removed from his com- mand. He was succeeded by General Hunter, who abandoned the pursuit, and fell back to St. Louis. On the eighteenth r f November Hunter was superseded by Major-General Halleck, who by a rapid advance drove Price once more towards the Arkansas border. This movement closed the campaign of 1861 in Missouri. The Union army had not only saved the State to the Union, but had con- fined the Confederates to the Arkansas border. Southern Party in Kentucky. In the meantime Governor Jackson had summoned the legislature of Missouri to meet at Neosho. It assembled at that place in October, passed an ordinance of secession, and elected delegates and senators to the Con- federate Congress. Though this action was merely formal, and received the support of but a small part of the people of Missouri, it was recognized as valid by the Confederate government, and Missouri was proclaimed one of the Confederate States. The governor and State authorities of Kentucky attempted at the outset of the war to hold the position of armed neutrality between the parties to the contest ; but as in the case of Missouri, this effort failed. Neither the Federal government nor that of the Southern Confederacy could, in the nature of things, respect this neutrality. The Federal troops were poured into Ken- tucky, and the Confederates seized Columbus, on the Mississippi, Bowling Green, in the centre of the State, and other positions in the western part. The Southern party in Kentucky, within the protection of the Con- federate lines, organized a provisional govern- ment for the State, sent senators and repre- sentatives to the Congress at Richmond, which formally recognized Kentucky as one of the Confederate States. The force at Columbus was con^manded by General Polk of the Confederate army. At Belmont, on the Missouri shore of the river, immediately opposite Columbus, a body of Confederate troops Vv^as stationed. On the seventh of November, General U. S. Grant having descended the Mississippi from Cairo, attacked the force at Belmont with his command of three thousand men. After a sharp struggle he was »"epulsed, and forced to retreat to Cairo. On October nth, ..ue privateer "Nash- ville," which had been fitted out by the Con- federates to capture Federal vessels, escaped from Charleston harbor and began to com- mit depredations upon the commerce of the North. The bold operations of the " Nash- ville" and other privateers produced a reign of terror on the high seas. Naval and Military Expedition. At the outset of the war the Confederates occupied the principal ports of the South, and a number of prominent points on the Atlantic coast. These were fortified by them as well as the means at hand would permit. The general government resolved to capture these as rapidly as possible, as their reduction was necessary in order to render the blockade of the southern coast effectual. The first expe- dition was despatched from Fortress Monroe in August, 1 861, under Commodore String- ham aud General Butler, and was directed against the Confederate works at Hatteras Inlet, which commanded the entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. These works were captured on the twenty-ninth of August. The great extent of the coast to be block- aded by the navy made it necessary that a good harbor at some central point should be secured, where supplies could be stored for ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 685 the fleet, and where vessels could refill with- out returning to the northern ports. Port Royal harbor, in South Carolina, was selected as the best place for this purpose. It was defended by Fort Walker on Hilton Head and Fort Beauregard on the opposite side of the harbor. A powerful naval and military expedition under Commodore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman attacked these vorks on the seventh of November, and reduced them after terrible bombardment by the fleet. Port Royal was at once occupied by the expedition, and during the war was the principal depot on the southern coast for the fleets and armies of the Union. It was not possible, however, to render the blockade effective. Great efforts were made to increase the number of vessels employed in this duty, but the Confederates succeeded in eluding the Union cruisers almost at plea- sure, and a steady communication was main- tained between the southern ports and Eng- land by way of the West Indies. A number of armed vessels in the service of the Con- federacy succeeded in getting to sea. By the close of the year they had inflicted severe damage upon the commerce of the Northern States, and had almost driven the foreign trade of the United States from the ocean. Affair of the "Trent." During the early part of the war the South- ern government was encouraged to hope that the governments of England and France would recognize the independence of the Confederate States, and in the fall of 1861, James M. Mason, of Virginia, and John Slidell, of Louisiana, were ordered to proceed to Europe, as commissioners from the Confederate States, to secure this recog- nition. They sailed from Charleston on the twelfth of October, and reached Cuba in safety. There they took passage for England on board the British mail-steamer " Trent." Hearing of this, Captain Wilkes, of the United States war-steamer " San Jacinto," overhauled the " Trent " upon the high seas boarded her, and seized the two commission- ers and their .secretaries and sailed with them to Boston harbor, where they were im- prisoned in one of the forts. The "Trent" in the meantime proceeded on her voyage, and upon reaching England her commander informed the British govern- ment of the outrage that had been commit- ted upon its flag. The English government at once demanded of President Lincoln the immediate and unconditional release of the LIEUTENANT-GENERAL POLK. Confederate commissioners and satisfac- tion for the insult to its flag. It was under* stood that France was prepared to sustain England in her demands. The Federal gov- ernment disavowed the action of Captain Wilkes in seizing the commissioners, and those gentlemen were released and allowed to continue their voyage. They reached England in due time. Mr. Mason proceeded to London and Mr. Slidell to France. Neither the English nor the French govern- ments would receive the commissioners offic- ially. It was understood that the United States would regard the interference of either in the American quarrel as a cause of war, and neither power cared to join in the struggle. Tennessee seceded from the Union, as we have related, in the spring of 186 1. Th* 686 THE CIVIL WAR. western ancf central portions of the State were unanimously in favor of joining the Southern States and gave a hearty support to the Confederacy during the war, but East Tennessee, inhabited by a race of hardy mountaineers, was devoted to the Union, and was unwilling to leave it. In the autumn of 1 86 1, the East Tennesseans took up arms against the Confederate Government, and began to destroy the railway bridges in thai part of the State. This movement was full of danger to the Confederacy, as the principal line of commu- nication between Virginia and the Mississippi passed through East Tennessee. A consid- erable force of Confederate troops was sent JAMES M. MASON, into East Tennessee to hold the people in subjection and protect the railroads, but throughout the war, the hostility of the peo- ple of this region was a constant source of danger and weakness to the Confederates. When the year 1862 opened, the war had assumed colossal proportions. The military operations extended almost across the conti- nent, and engaged a number of powerful armies, and a formidable navy. The call of President Lincoln for troops had been cheer- fully responded to, and the opening of the year found the United States provided with a force of over half a million of men, splendidly armed and equipped, and supplied with every- thing necessary for the successful prosecution of the war. The North had profited by its first reverses, and was resolved that its next effort, which was to be made at the opening of the season for active operations, should find it thoroughly prepared for the task it had undertaken. A cordial support was given to the meas* ures of the government by the people. Its wants were supplied by means of a heavy loan which was readily negotiated with the capitalists of the Eastern States. From the moment that the despondency caused by the reverse at Bull Run had subsided sufficiently to enable the people of the loyal States to face the situation calmly, everyone saw that the work of preparation must all be done over JOHN SLIDELL. from the beginning, and it was done bravely and thoroughly. During the fall and winter the army was rapidly increased ; vessels were purchased and built for the navy. The Southern armies, en the other hand, had grown steadily weaken The first suc- cesses of the Confederate troops had greatly demoralized the Southern people. Volun- teering soon ceased almost entirely. Even the heaviest bounties failed to bring recruits. There was a widespread delusion throughout the South that the war was practically ended. The measures of the Confederate Congress steadily thinned, instead of filling up the ranks of the Southern armies, and when the new year dawned there was grave reason to THE ARREST Ui^' MAbUN AND i-LlDf-LL OJNT THE BRITISH STEAMER « TRENT. " 6Sf 688 THE CIVIL WAR. fear that the spring camp«ign would find the South without an adequate army unless more vigorous measures were resorted to. It was exceedingly doubtful whether the troops already in the service would renew their en- listments, which expired in the spring of 1 862. During the winter the Southern Congress adopted a law granting a furlough and a heavy bounty to every soldier who would re-enlist for the war. The furlough was to be granted during the winter ; the bounty to be paid at a later period. Many of those who went home on these furloughs did so with the intention of remaining there ; and the practi- GRANTS HEAD-QUARTERS NEAR FORT DONELSON cal effect of the measure was to diminish the strengtn of the Confederate armies. At length the Confederate Congress was driven by the necessities of the situation to adopt a most stringent and sweeping measure. On the sixteenth of April, 1862, a conscription act was passed, giving to the President of the Confederacy the power to call into the mili- tary service the entire male population of the various States between the ages of eighteen and thirty- five years. In September, 1862, a second act was passed extending the con- script age to forty-five years. The measure was acquiesced in by the Southern people, but was never popular with them. It served the purpose for which it was intended, however, and enabled the Confed erate Government to collect a force of several hundred thousand men in the spring of 1862, and thus to fill up the ranks of its armies in the field, and to retain the regiments already in the service. When the spring opened, General Halleck, whose headquarters were at St. Louis, held Missouri against the Confederates with a powerful army. General Buell, with a con- siderable force, was stationed in Central Ken- tucky. In his front an inferior force of Con- federates, under General Albert Sidney John- ston, held Bowling Green and covered Nashville and the Tennessee and the Cumberland Rivers. They also held Colum- bus and other prominent points on the Mississippi, The Army of the Poto- mac, under General Mc- Clellan, lay along the Potomac, confronting the Confederate army of Northern Virginia,which held Centreville. A con- siderable force was col- lected at Fortress Monroe, and an army o about 10,000 Confederates, under Magruder, held a strongly fortified line, extending from Yorktown across the Peninsula to the James River. In addition to these forces, the Federal Government had collected a powerful flotilla of steamers and gunboats at Cairo, the junc- tion of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, to assist in the operations of the Western armies. The capture of New Orleans had been resolved upon, and a combined naval and military expedition under Commodore Farragut and General Butler was assembled for that purpose; and another expedition ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 68g was organized in the Chesapeake for the reduction of Roanoke Island and the forts on the North Carolina coast. Soon after the opening of the new y.*ir, Mr. Cameron, whose administration of the war department had failed to give satisfac- tion to the country, was removed by Presi- dent Lincoln, and sent to Russia as minister from the United States. The President on the thirteenth of January appointee' Edwin M. Stanton, of Ohio, Secretary of War. The new secretary was confessedly one of the ablest men in America^ and his accession to the control oi the war department infused newlifeintothe mil- itary preparations of the government. During the remain- der of the war he occupied this posi- tion, and it is not too much to say that his vigorous adminis- tration of his de- partment was one of the chief causes of the final success of the Union arms Active operations were resumed earlier in the west than in the east. On the nineteenth of January, General George H. Thomas drove the Confederates under General Zol- licoffer from Mill Spring in Kentucky. The defeated force had held the right of the Con- federate line in Kentucky, the centre of which wa.9- at Bowling Greer, and the left at Columbus, and its reverse was a serious disaster to the Confederates The department of Gen^^ral Halleck em- Sraced Kentucky vn 4odf^von to the country 44 west of the Mississippi. In order to hold the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, which afforded water communication far back into the country in the rear of their line, the Con- federates had built a work, known as Fort Henry, on the Tennessee, a little south of the Kentucky border, and another and a stronger work, known as Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland and a little below Nashville. At the solicitation of Brigadier-General U. S. Grant, commanding at Cairo, Generai A VIEW OF THE COUNTRY, SHOWING FORT DONELSON IN THE DISTANCE. Halleck determined to capture these forts^ and so break the Confederate line, and com- pel their army to fall back from Kentucky. Fort Henry was to be first attacked. The fleet of gunboats under Commodore Foote and Grant's troops from Cairo were sent against Fort Henry, which Vv'as captured on the sixth of February after a severe bombard- ment by the gunboats which had ascended the Tennessee. The garrison escaped to Fort Donelson, twelve miles distant aero.*" the country. dgO TH£ CIVIL WAR. The loss of Fort Henry compelled the Confederates to evacuate all their positions MAP SHOWING PITTSBURG LANDING AND CORINTH. in Kentucky. General Beauregard fell back from Columbus to Corinth, Mississippi and General Sidney Johnston slowly retired frofft Bowling Green upon Nashville, followed by General Buell After the capture of Fort Henry the gunboats returned to Cairo, and, taking on board sup- plies and reinforce ments for the army ascended the Ohio and entered the Cumber- land, up which they passed to Fort Donel- son. Grant, in the meantime, marched across the country from Fort Henry to Fort Donelson.and in- vested the latter work. The roads were so dif- ficult that although the distance between the two forts was but twelve miles, Grant spent six days in marching it. This delay gave General Johnston an oppor- tunity to reinforce Fort Donelson. He halte-d at Nashville with his main army to await the result of Grant's attack on the fort. The gunboats diA not join Grant until the fourteenth of Febru' ary, and the invest- ment was not begun until their arrival. The f o 1 1 o w i n g graphic description of the capture of Fort Henry is from the pen oi the historian, John Laird Wilson : ■'I : 691 ©9^ THE CIVIL WAR. "Immediately on receiving permission from Halleck to proceed with his proposed plan, Grant made arrangements for the attack on Fort Henry. He had at his disposal some seventeen thousand men. It was arranged that Commodore Foote, with a flotilla of seven gunboats, should move along the Ohio, steer up the Tennessee, and open the attack, while Grant, on the land side, should to move slowly and shell the woods, in order to discover whether there were any concealed batteries. "On the morning of the sixth it was under- stood that everything was in readiness for the attack, which was to be made simultaneously on land and water. A heavy thunder-storm had raged the previous night ; and, as a con^ sequence, the roads were heavy and the IRON-CLAD GUNBOAT. render what assistance was necessary and cut off all retreat. On Monday, the second of February, Foote left Cairo, and on the morning of Tuesday he was a few miles below Fort Henry. Grant, in the meantime, with the divisions of McClernand and C. F. Smith, had embarked in transports which were convoyed by the flotilla, These landed a few miles below the fort ; and Foote pro- ceeded up the river, having orders from Grant streams so swollen that bridges had to be built for the passage of artillery. The land forces, thus encountering unlooked-for obsta- cles, were considerably delayed. Shortly after twelve o'clock Foote opened fire upon the fort. Beginning at a thousand yards distance, he gradually ran his vessels to within six hundred yards of the enemy. The firing for a time was vigorously returned; but Foote pressed forth with irres'stiWe ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 093 bravery, and his men worked with a will and as if ""hT,- meant to win. It was evident to crhman from the first that it was next to ifnpossible for him to hold the fort. He nevertheless exerted himself to the utmost, encouraging his men alike by word and example, going so far as to work one of the guns himself. Serious Accidents. *'A series of accidents meanwhile occurred inside the fort, A rifled twenty-four pounder burst, killing and wounding a number of the men. A forty-two pounder burst prematurely and killed three of the gunners. In a short time the well-directeo fire from the gunboats had dismounted seven of the guns and made them useless ; the flagstaff also was shot away. The garrison became completely demoralized. It was in vain that Tilghman attempted to re- place the exhausted gunners. The troops in the camp outside the fort made good their escape, some by the Dover road, leading to Fort Donelson, others on board a steamer which was lying a little above Fort Henry. "Foote had promised to reduce the fort within an hour. When he made that promise he counted on assistance from the forces on the land side. Without any such aid — for the land forces had not yet arrived on the scene — he made good his word; for the hour had scarcely expired when the white flag was raised. There was no unnecessary delay. The main body of his troops having made good their escape, Tilghman, with his staff and some sixty artillerists, surrendered to the victorious Foote. In killed and wounded the Confederate loss was twenty- one men. The only serious damage sus- tained by the fleet in the river was on board the ironclad Essex. A shot from the enemy had penetrated her boiler ; and some twenty- nine officers and men, including Commander Porter, were seriously scalded." The capture of Fort Henry was felt by the South to be a damaging blow; and it led to bitter murmuring and even loud complaints against the authorities at Richmond. It was justly regarded by the North as a victory of great importance. It was full of instruction, inasmuch as it proved the value of gunboats on the narrow rivers of the West, especially when acting in conjunction with land forces. It inspired hope, inasmuch as it reclaimed lost territory, and restored the old flag. " Fort Henry is ours I" said Halleck in his despatch to McClellan. " The flag of the Union is re-established on the soil of Ten- nessee. It will never be removed." Foote was formally thanked by the Secretary of the Navy. " The country," he was told, " appre- ciates your gallant deeds, and this Depart- ment desires to convey to you and your brave associates its profound thanks for the service you have rendered." Important Union Success. Fort Donelson was a stronger work than Fort Henry, and was held by a force of about thirteen thousand men, commanded by Gen- eral John B. Floyd. On the fourteenth of February the gunboats opened fire upon the fort, and at the same time the army of Gen- eral Grant, reinforced to about thirty thou- sand men, began to occupy the positions as- signed it in the investment. The operations of the fourteenth ended with the repulse of the fleet, Commodore Foote being severely wounded in the engagement. Satisfied of his inability to hold the fort against the over- whelming force of the Federal army, General Floyd resolved to cut his way through, and retreat upon Nashville. On the fifteenth he made a gallant attempt to break Grant's lines, but was driven back, and a portion of the Southern intrenchments remained in the hands of the Union army. On the night of the fifteenth a council ol ^94 THE CIVIL WAR. war was held by the Confederate comman- ders. It was evident that escape was impos- sible and a surrender inevitable. General Floyd refused to surrender, and retreated from the fort with a considerable force of infantry and cavalry, with which he suc- ceeded in reaching Nashville. General Pil- low, who Avas left by Floyd in command, turned over the command to General Buck- ner, the next in rank, and joined Floyd in his flight. Being unable to offer further re- sistance, General Buckner, on the morning of the sixteenth, suri-endered the fort and his troops unconditionally to the Federal army. ,'A-i^' ISLAND NO. lO. The capture at Fort Donelson was by far the most important success that had yet been won by the Union armies, and was hailed with rejoicings throughout the north and west. By this capture over five thousand prisoners, besides the Confederate wounded, fell into the hands of the Union forces. The Federals also lost heavily in killed and wounded. General Johnston, upon learning of the fall of Fort Donelson, fell back from Nashville to Murfreesboro', from which place he subse- quently continued his retreat across the State, and eventually joined General Beaure- gard, who had taken position at Corinth, at the junction of two importan'f railway lines on the northern border of Mississippi, Beau- regard, in falling back from Columbus, had left a force at Island No. lo, which had been strongly fortified, to hold the Mississippi against the efforts of the Federal fleet and army to obtain the control of the river. Nashville was occupied by the army of General Buell, and Grant's army was moved up the Tennessee as far as Pittsburgh Land- ing. General Buell was ordered to march across the country from Nashville to the Tennessee, to unite his forces with Grant's and attack the Confederates at Corinth. General Johnston, the Confederate com- mander, had feared this concentration, which would make the Federal power in ^^^■" this quarter irresis- .,,l^^^^tf=^ - ' tible, and had de- ' - .1^. termmed to attack Grant's army and crush it before Buell could arrive, after which he would be free to engage Buell. His plan was ably con- ceived but his march was delayed by the fearful state of the roads, and he did not arrive opposite the Federal position until two days after the time fixed for his attack. Grant was encamped at Shiloh Church, near Pittsburgh Landings with the Tennessee river in his rear. On the morning of Sunday, April sixth, his army- was suddenly attacked by Johnston, and was driven steadily from its original position to the banks of the Tennessee, where it was sheltered by the fire of the gunboats. The battle was stubbornly contested, and thf losses on both sides were very heavy. Late in the afternoon General Johnstoi; was mortally wounded, and died soon after- wards. The command passed to GeneraJ :— ,:-i: MaS;, ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 695 iieauregard, who failed to follow up his advantage. During the night the army of General Buell arrived, and reinforced Grant. On the morning of the seventh Grant attacked the Confederates, and after a sharp fight drove them back. They retreated slowly and returned to Corinth, While these operations Avere in progress, the gunboats under Commodore Foote and a strong force of Western troops under Pope laid siege to Island No. 10, on the Mis- sissippi. After a bombardment of twenty- three days, the Confederate works were cap- i:ured, together with five thousand prisoners, on the seventh of April, the day on which Beauregard was driven back from Shiloh. The Confederates still held Fort Pillow, a strong work a short distance above Mem- phis, If this could be captured, the Federal forces would obtain the control of the river as far south as Vicksburg. General Pope was anxious to move against it at once, but his army was ordered to join General Hal- leek. Commodore Foot being disabled by his wound received at Fort Donelson, was succeeded by Captain Davis, who descended the river and took position above Fort Pil- low. General Halleck now repaired to the Ten- nessee, and took command of the Union armies there, amounting to more than one hundred thousand men. He moved forward leisurely towards Corinth, and laid siege to that place. Beauregard, seeing that it was impossible to hold Corinth against this greatly superior force, evacuated it on the night of the twenty-ninth of May, and retreated to Tupelo, Mississippi. The next day General Halleck occupied Corinth. The loss of Corinth compelled the evacuation of Fort Pillow, which was abandoned by the Confederates on the fourth ot June. On the sixth the Union gunboats descended the river to Memphis, and defeated the Confederate flotilla above that city, Memphis at once surrendered, and was occupied by the Union forces. All West Kentucky and West Ten- nessee were now under the control of the Union armies, which now occupied a line extending from Memphis, through Corinth, almost to Chattanooga. Early in July news came to the East of another massacre in the Mormon territory. ' A fanatic by the name of Morris, who claimed to be the true successor of Joseph Smith, and had gathered several hundred followers, was accused of having committed various depredations, and a small force was sent by order of the chief Mormons to arrest i-- BURNING HORSES AT SHILOH, him. The force was under command of one Burton, sheriff of Salt Lake county. Morris refused to surrender, a conflict ensued, the camp of the Morrisites was riddled with cannon balls, and Morris was shot by Burton, Two Brighamites and ten Morrisites were killed, and a large number were wounded. The attacking party appears to have prac- ticed unnecessary cruelty. Returning to the story of the war, the Confederates still held East Tennessee in heavy force. Shortly after the evacuation ol Corinth General Beauregard was removed from his command, and was succeeded by General Braxton Bragg. Bragg was strongly d96 THK CIVIL WAR. reinforced, and it was determined to make a bold effort to drive back the Federal advance and regain West Tennessee and, if possible, Kentucky. Bragg's army was concentrated at Chattanooga, and Geneneral Kirby Smith at Knoxville was strongly reinforced. Smith was to move from Knoxville, while Bragg was to advance from Chattanooga, and the two armies were to unite in the centre of the State of Kentucky. Their combined forces amounted to over fifty thousand men, and it Smith then occupied Lexington and Frank fort, and advanced towards Cincinnati ; but ascertaining that a strong force was assem bling at that city, under General Lewis Wal lace, he fell back to Frankfort, where he joined General Bragg on the fourth of October. Bragg had begun his march as soon as Kirby Smith had gotten fairly started. His objective point was Louisville, and he hoped to be able to elude the army of General Buell, which was at Nashville, and bv a rapid nd- MASSACRE OF THE MORRISITES. was hoped that this movement would compel the Federal army to abandon its advance, and fall back into Kentucky to protect that State and Ohio from the Confederates. Then, by a decisive victory, Bragg expected to be able to overrun and hold Kentucky and even to invade Ohio. The division of General Smith moved for- tward about the middle of August, and on the 'thirtieth of August defeated a Union force under General Manson at Richmond, Ken- tucky, inflicting upon it a loss of 6,000 men. vance seize Louisville before Buell's arrival. By the seventeenth of September he was at Munfordsville, Kentucky, which he captured after several slight encounters, taking forty- five hundred prisoners. Buell in the mean- time had divined Bragg's purpose, and had set out fron" Nashville for the Ohio by forced marches. He reached Louisville before the arrival^of the Confederates, and being heavily reinforced advanced to attack Bragg, who had turned aside and occupied Frankfort on the fourth of October. PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT CONFEDERATE GENERALS. 6q7 098 THE CIVIL WAH. Bragg fell back slowly, ravaging the coun- try along his route, and was followed by Buell with equal deliberation. On the eighth of October an indecisive battle was fought be- tween the two armies at Perryville. After this conflict, in which both sides lost heavily, Buell refrained from attacking Bragg again, and the latter continued his retreat leisurely into Tennessee, taking with him a wagon train forty miles in length, loaded with plunder captured in Kentucky. Grant Strikes Decisive Blows. During this campaign the Federal army under General Grant had held its line in West Tennessee, extending from Corinth to Mem- phis. A Confederate army under Generals Price and Van Dorn was assembled in Mis- sissippi in front of the Union position. Grant, who was now in command of the Federal forces in West Tennessee (Halleck having been summond to Washington as Com- manding General), ordered General Rosecrans to his assistance. Upon the arrival of this commander with his troops, Grant advanced upon Price at luka, and defeated him on the nineteenth of September. He then repaired to Jackson, Tennessee, leaving Rosecrans with nineteen thousand men to hold Corinth against the Confederates. After his defeat at luka Price was joined by Van Dorn, whose troops brought the strength of the Confederate army to eighteen thousand men. They at once advanced upon Corinth, and on the fourth of October attacked that place. The battle which ensued was noted for the obstinacy with which it was contested by both sides. The Confed^ ,<;Les .were defeatf-d with a loss .if about three thou- sand ki'' .d and woun'ded, and were pursued for about thirty miles southward. The Union loss was about five hundred and eighteen killed, wounded and missing. The Federal Government was grea^^ly dis- satisfied with Buell's failure to intercept Bragg, and upon his arrival at Nashville he was removed from the command of his army, which was conferred upon General Rose- crans, as a reward for his victory at Corinth. Bragg had taken position near Murfreesboro', about thirty miles distant from Nashville, and Rosecrans, towards the last of December, moved upon that place to attack him. Bragg had at the same time completed his prepara- tions to resume the offensive, and had begun his advance upon Nashville, and the two armies encountered each other at Stone River, near Murfreesboro', on the thirty-first of December^ They were about equal in strength, each numbering about forty thou- sand men. Bragg Repulsed by Rosecrans. The battle was fiercely disputed, but al nightfall Rosecrans was driven back with heavy loss, and Bragg telegraphed to Rich* mond news of a great victory. Rosecrans, however, had merely fallen back to a new and stronger position. On the second o) January, 1863, Bragg renewed his attack, but was repulsed with terrible slaughter. On the third a heavy rain fell and prevented all military operations, and that night Bragg retreated from the field. He retired in good order to TuUahoma, about thirty miles from Murfreesboro'. The losses on both sides in this battle were heavy, ranging from ten thousand to twelve thousand men in each army. The Confederates, having lost the uppei and lowef Mississippi, had fortified Vicksburg and Port Hudson, in order to maintain theii hold upon that stream, and to keep open theii communications with the country west of the Mississippi. Vicksburg had been made a;, post of extraordinary strength, and was gar^ risoned by a considerable force of Confed- erate troops. Towards the last of the yeai ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 699 General Grant determined to undertake an expedition against it. He sent General Sher- man with forty thousand men, and a fleet of gunboats, under Commodore Porter, to de- scend the Mississippi and attack the southern works above the city ; and advanced south- ward from Corinth with the main army by land. Grant had accomplished fully half the distance when a strong body of Con- federate cavalry, under General Van Dorn, made a dash into his rear, and on the twen- tieth of December cap- tured Holly Springs, Grant's principal de- pot of supplies. This movement compelled Grant to abandon his advance upon Vicksburg, and to fall back and re- establish his com- munications with his base. Sherman, ignor- ant of this disaster, left Memphis on the twentieth of Decem- ber, and a few days later landed his troops on the banks of the Yazoo, from which he advanced upon the Confederate works at Chickasaw bayou, en the north of Vicksburg. On the twenty-ninth of December he made a spirited attack upon them, but was repulsed. He withdrew his troops to the boats, and retired to Young's Point, on the Louisiana shore, a short distance above Vicksburg. The Confederates were driven out of Mis- souri at the close of 1861, and retired into Arkansas. General Van Dorn was now sent by the Confederate government to take command of the forces of Price and McCul- GENERAL SHERMAN AT THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. loch, which numbered about sixteen thousand men. He reached the head-quarters of this force on the third of March, 1862. The Federal army, under General Curtis, with General Sigel as his second in command, had taken position on the heights of Pe;» td a C/J O w en W X w o H O 700 ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. yxj\ Ridge, around Sugar creek, in the north- western part of Arkansas. It numbered about eleven thousand men. On the seventh of March Van Dorn attacked the Union army in this position, and after a bloody- fight, which lasted for about seven or eight hours, drove it back. Curtis took up a new position during the night, and the next morning the Confederates renewed the attack, and were repulsed. After the battle of Shiloh, the troops of Price and Van Dorn were withdrawn across the Mississippi to reinforce General Beau- regard at Corinth. We have seen them bearing the brunt of the campaign in northern Mississippi against Grant's army. Towards the close of the summer, it being necessary to make a vigorous effort to hold the trans- Mississippi region against the efforts of the Union forces, the Confederate government sent Lieutenant-General Holmes to take command of it. The operations in .his region during the remainder of the year were of an unimportant character. General Burnside's Expedition. The plan of the Federal government for seizing the prominent points on the coast was carried forward with great energy during the year 1862. Between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, on the coast of North Caro- lina, lies Roanoke Island, famous as the scene of Sir Walter Raleigh's unfortunate attempts to colonize America, and com- manding the entrance to Albemarle Sound. The possession of this island by the Federal forces would give them the command of the rivers entering into the sounds, place the rear defences of Norfolk at their mercy, and afford them a safe base from which to attack the towns on the North Carolina coast. The Federal government having determined to obtain possession of Roanoke Island, a powerful expedition against it was fitted out early in the year, under the comnrana 01 Major-General Ambrose K. Burnside. The expedition sailed from Hamptop Roads on the eleventh of January, 1862, and after narrowly escaping being scattered by a severe storm, passed through Hatteras inlet, and anchored in Pamlico Sound on the twenty-eighth. On the sixth of February the fleet took position off Roanoke Island, and on the seventh opened fire upon the Confederate works. Under the cover of this fire a force of over ten thousand troops was landed upon the island. On the eighth, Gen- eral Burnside attacked the Confederate in- trenchments and carried them after a sharp contest. The entire Confederate force, num- bering about twenty-five hundred men, fell into his hands as prisoners of war. On the tenth, the Confederate squadron in Albemarle Sound was attacked and destroyed, or cap- tured. Having established himself firmly on Ro- anoke Island, General Burnside prepared to reduce the towns along the coast of North Carolina. On the fourteenth of March, New* berne surrendered to him, and on the twenty- fifth of April, Fort Macon, at the entrance of Beaufort Harbor, one of the strongest works on the coast, capitulated. Successes on rhe Florida Coast. Some important successes were won on the Coast of Florida during the spring of this year. An expedition from Port Royal cap-y tured Fernandina and Fort Clinch, on the twenty-eightb. of February, and a little later Jacksonville, on the St. John's River, and St. Augustine passed into the hands of the Fed- eral troops. Brunswick and Darien, import- ant places on the coast of Georgia, were cap- tured about the same time. The most important naval expedition ni the year was that which resulted in the capture of New Orleans. The Federal TC. ^^'"XrcOMMA^NDEKS DURING THE WAK. PORTRAITS OF THE PRINCIPAI-NMA^^-^ ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 703 Government had recognized from the first the importance of regaining possession of the Mississippi, and, as we have seen, a large fleet of gunboats had been prepared on the upper waters of that stream to co-operate with the army in its eftbrts to capture the fortified posts along the river. All these efforts, how- ever, were useless as long as the Confederates retained possession of the lower river or of the important city of New Orleans, the com- mercial metropolis of the South. It was resolved at an early period of the struggle to wrest New Orleans from the Confederates, and a fleet of forty-five vessels of war and mortar-boats was assembled for this purpose, and placed under command of Commodore Farragut, an able and experienced officer. To the fleet was added a force of fifteen thousand troops, under General B. F. Butler. The expedition rendezvoused at Ship Island, near the mouth of the Mis.sissippi, in the .arly part of March. Tactics of Admiral Farraguf About twenty miles above the heao of the passes of the Mississippi, and about seventy miles below New Orleans, the entrance to the river is defended by two strong works — Fort Jackson on the right bank of the stream, and Fort St. Philip on the left — both built before the war. The Confederates had further strengthened their position by stretching six heavy chains, supported on a series of dismasted schooners, across the river, from shore to shore, to prevent the passage of ships. Early in April the fleet sailed from Ship Island, leaving the troops there to await the result of its operations, and entering the Mississippi took position below the forts. On the eighteenth the bombardment of the forts was begun by the ships and the mortar-boats, and was continued with great rigor until the twenty-fourth. The results of this bombardment was most discouraging, and Farragut became convinced that the forts could not be reduced by the fire of the fleet. He therefore determined to pass them with his vessels and so neutralize them. The chain and raft barricade across the river had been broken by a severe storm, and Farragut sent a party to enlarge the gap made in it, so as to admit the passage of the fleet. This task was accoriiplished with great gallantry. At three o'clock, on the morning of the twenty-fourth of April, the fleet got under headway and began to ascend the river, the commodore in his flag-ship, the " Hartford," leading the way. The fleet consisted of seventeen vessels, carrying two hundred and ninety-four guns. Desperate Naval Battle, As the vessels came abreast of the forts the Confederates opened a heavy fire upon them, to which they responded with vigor. The forts were passed in safety at letigth and a short distance above them Farragut encountered the Confederate fleet, consisting of sixteen vessels, but eight of which were armed. Two of these were iron-clads, how- ever. A desperate battle ensued, which resulted in the total destruction of the south- ern fleet. When the sun rose on the morn- ing of the twenty-fourth the forts had been passed, and the resistance of the Confederate vessels had been overcome. There was nothing now between the Federal fleet and New Orleans, and Farragut, ascending the river slowly and cautiously, anchored in the stream, in front of the city, on the morning of the twenty-fifth. He at once demanded the capitulation of New Orleans, which had been evacuated by the Confederate troops on the previous day. and the city was surrendered to him by the municipal authorities. On the twenty-eighth Forts Jackson and St. Philip surrendered to 704 ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 705 i^aptain Porter, the commander of the mor- tar fleet. New Orleans being taken, word was sent to General Butler, at Ship Island, to hasten forward with his troops to occupy it. He arrived on the first of May, and at once took possession of the city. Baton Rouge, the capital of Louisiana, was occupied by the Federal forces, and Farragut pushed on up the river, and, passing the Confederate bat- teries at Grand Gulf and Vicksburg, joined the fleet of Commodore Davis at Memphis. The capture of New Orleans was a terrible blow to the South. It deprived the Con- federacy of the largest and wealthiest city within its limits, and wrested from it the whole of the lower Mississippi. Fort Pulaski Surrenden. Another success was gained by the Union arms on the Southern coast. An expedition from Port Royal, under General Hunter, laid siege to Fort Pulaski, near the mouth of the Savannah River. This fort was constructed by the Federal government previous to the war, and constituted one of the principal defences of the city of Savannah. On the eleventh of April, after a bombardment of fifteen days, it surrendered to General Hunter. Its capture closed the Savannah River to the entrance of the class of vessels known as blockade runners, and deprived the South of the use of one of its principal ports. The events of this year in Virginia were of the highest importance. The Army of the Potomac, nearly two hundred thousand strong, was ready for active operations with the early spring. General McClellan was anxious to avail himself of the superior naval strength of the United States to transport his army to a point on the Chesapeake Bay, from which it could easily interpose between the Confederate army, under General John- ston, and Richmond. Suspecting such a design on the part of 45 McClellan, Johnston abandoned his position at Centreville, on the eighth of March, and fell back to the Rappahannock, and a little later moved back still farther to the line of the Rapidan. McClellan advanced to Cen- treville as soon as informed of Johnston's withdrawal, but was too.late to interfere with the movements of the Confederate army. Exploits of the " Merrimac." Simultaneous with Johnston's withdrawal from Centreville occurred an incident which forms one of the most striking episodes of the war, and led to results of world-wide importance. Upon the evacuation of the Norfolk navy yard by the Federal forces, at the outset of the war, the splendid steam frigate " Merrimac " was scuttled and sunk This vessel was subsequently raised by the Confederates, and rebuilt by them. Her upper deck was removed, and she was covered with a slanting roof. Both the roof and her sides were heavily plated with iron, and a long, stout bow was fitted to her to enable her to act as a ram. She was then armed with ten heavy guns, and named the " Vir- ginia." Thus prepared, she was the most powerful vessel afloat. As soon as the " Virginia " .;as ready fcK service the Confederate authorities deter mined to test her efficiency by attempting t( destroy the Federal fleet to Hampton Roads On the eighth of March the " Virginia," ac companied by two small vessels, left Norfolk and steamed down the Elizabeth River into Hampton Roads. Her appearance took the Federal fleet by surprise, and a heavy fire was concentrated upon her fromtne fleet and the batteries on shore at Nevport News, at the mouth of the James Riven Shot and shell flew harmlessly from her iron sides, and, firing slowly as she advanced, she aimed straight for the sloop of war "Cumberland" — the most formidable vessel of her class in 7o6 tHE CIVIL WAR. -and sunk her with a blow of her the navy- iron prow. The frigate " Congress," lying near by, was -chased into shoal water and compelled to surrender, after which she was set on fire. 3ENERAL GEORGE B. M CLELLAN The ram then endeavored to inflict a similar fate upon the frigate " Minnesota," but that vessel escaped into water too shallow for the iron-clad to venture into. At sunset the "Virginia" drew off, and returned to the EHzabeth River. She had destroyed two of the finest vessels in the Federal navy, and inflicted upon her adversaries a loss of two hundred and fifty officers and men. She was herself uninjured, and had but two men killed and eight wounded. The success of the " Virginia " struck terror to the fleet in Hampton Roads, and it was by no means certain that the vic- torious vessel would not the next day either attack Fort Monroe, or pass by it and as- cend the Chesapeake, in which case both Washington and Bal- timore would be at her mercy. During the night, however, a most unlooked-for assist- ance arrived. The " Monitor," an iron- clad vessel of a new plan, invented by Cap- tain John Ericsson, entered Hampton Roads on her trial trip from New York. Upon learning the state of affairs her commander, Lieuten- int Worden, deter- mined to engage the " Virginia " the next day. On the morning of the ninth the "Vir- ginia" again steamed out of the EHzabeth River into Hampton Roads. The " Monitor,' though her inferior in size, and carrying but a single gun, at once moved forward to meet her. An engagement of several hours' duration ensued, in which both vessels were fought J ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 707 with great gallantry ; and at the end of this time the " Virginia " drew off, and returned to Norfolk severely injured. The arrival of the " Monitor" was most fortimate. It saved the Federal fleet in Hampton Roads from total destruction, and prevented the " Vir- ginia " from extending her ravages to the ports of the Union. The battle between the " Monitor" and the " Virginia " will ever be famous as the first engagement between iron- clad vessels. It inaugurated a new era in naval warfare. In spite of the result of the battle, however, the presence of the *' Vir- ginia" at Norfolk deterred the Federal forces from risking an attack on that place, and prevented them from mak- ing any effort to ascend the James River with their fleet. In the meantime the army of 'jen- eral McClellan had returned to its position near Alexandria, after the retreat of the Confederates to the Rapidan. General McClellan now proposed to move the bulk of his army to Fortress Monroe, and to advance from that point upon Rich- mond by way of the peninsula between the York and James Rivers. About seventy-five thousand men were left on the Potomac to cover Washington, and the remainder, about one hundred and twenty thousand in number, were trans- ported by water to Fortress Monroe, This movement was accomplished by the second of April. Johnston's Successful Retreat. On the fourth the Army of the Potomac began its march towards the lines of York- town, which were held by about eleven thousand five hundred men. under General Magruder. The Confederate commander had passed the first year of the war in forti- fying his position, and had constructed a series of powerful works which enabled him, with his small force, to hold McClellan's whole army in check. On .he fifth and sixth of April McClellan made repeated attempts to force the southern lines, and failing in these decided to lay siege to them. The time thus gained by Magruder enabled General Johnston to move his army from the Rapidan to the peninsula. It was in position on the lines of Yorktown by the seventeenth of April, making the force opposed to McClellan about fifty-eight thousand strong. The Confederates did not expect to hold VIEW OF THE CHICKAHOMINV NEAR MECHANICSVILLE. their position on the peninsula, but from the first intended to move back nearer to Richmond, and occupy the line oftheChick- ahominy. When their preparations were completed ihey fell back from the lines of Yorktown, on the night of the third of May, just as McClellan was about to begin his bombardment of their position. The Federal army discovered' the retreat on the morning of the fourth of May, and moved forward promptly in the hope of inter- cepting the Southern army. On the morning of the fifth the advanced forces attacked the 7oB THE CIVIL WAR. rear-guard of Johnston's army at Williams- burof. The Confederate commander held his ground until his safety, and then MAP OF NORTHERN VIRGINIA trains had gotten off in resumed his retreat, and reached the Chickahominy about the tenth of May without further molestation from the Union forces. General McClellan, following leisurely, took posi- tion on the left bank of the Chickahominy, with the river between the two armies. In accordance with General McClellan's urgent request. Presi- dent Lincoln decided to order the Ibrce lef^ to cover Washington to join the Army of the Potomac, before Richmond, by the way of Fredericks- burg. With his force thus augmented the Union commander had no doubt of his ability to capture Richmond. Alive to this danger General Johnston directed General Jackson, whu had been left to hold the valley of Vir- ginia, to manoeuvre his army so as to threaten Washington, and com- pel the Federal gov- ernment to retain the force intended for Mc- Clellan for the defence of Washington. While awaiting the arrival of this force McClellan threw his left wing across the Chicka- hominy, and lodged it in a position nearer to Richmond. The Federal lines now extended ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 709 from Bottom's Bridge, on the Chickahoininy, to Mechanicsville, north of that stream. The evacuation of the peninsula compelled the Confederates to abandon Norfolk also. They withdrew their troops from that city on the ninth of May, and sent them to rein- force General Johns- ton. 0.1 the tenth Nor- folk and Portsmouth were occupied by the Federal forces under General Wool. Before leaving the Confeder- ates had set fire to the navy yard, which was destroyed. The iron- clad steamer " Vir- ginia" was taken into the James River, atvd on the eleventh was abandoned and blown up. The loss of this steamer, which could have held the James against the whole Union fleet, left the river open to within eight miles of Rich- mond. The gunboats, in- cluding the " Moni- tor," were sent up to try to force their way to Richmond, but on the fifteenth of May were driven back by a battery of heavy guns located on the heights at Drewry's bluff, eight miles below Richmond. They were badly injured by the plunging fire of the Confederates. The river was securely obstructed at this point to prevent a pas- rage of the batteries by the Federal fleet. Having been heavily reinforced, Genera^ Johnston determined to attack McClellan's exposed left wing, and on the thirty-first of May fell upon it at Seven Pines, and drov^e it back with heavy loss. General Johnston LIEUTENANT-GENERAL T. J. JACKSON. was severely wounded towards the close of the day, and was unable to carry out the plan upon which he had begun the battle. The next day there was heavy skir- mishing until about ten o'clock in the morn- iu'r, but nothinijof a more ■serious nature was 7IO THE CIVIL WAR. attempted by either side. General McClel- lan, warned by the narrow escape of his left wing, now proceeded to fortify his position on the south bank of the Chickahominy. While these events were in progress on the Chickahominy, General Jackson carried out with brilliant success the movements assigned him in the valley of Virginia. His task required the exercise of the greatest skill and determination. He was to neu- tralize the forces of Fremont, Banks and McDowell, and prevent them from render- ing any assistance to McClellan. Jackson's aii-my fell back from Winchester on the elev- enth of March, and retired as far as Mount Jackson. Then rapidly retracing its steps it attacked Banks' forces at Kernstown, near Winchester. Though repulsed in this engagement, it succeeded in alarming the Federal government for the safety of Wash- ington. Banks' command was therefore retained in the valley to watch Jackson, and the force under McDowell was not allowed to go to McClellan's assistance on the peninsula, lest by so doing it should uncover Washington. After the battle of Kernstown Jackson retired up the valley, and a season of comparative quietude ensued. The Federal government even believed that his troops had been sent to Richmond. Jackson's Brilliant Achievements. Fremont's army was ordered to move from western Virginia into the valley ; Banks was directed to march to Manassas and cover Washington ; while McDowell, with forty thousand men, was ordered to move from F'redericksburg, from which he was to march across the country and unite with McClel- lan's left wing, which was thrown out far to the north of Richmond to meet him. These orders were in process of execution when Jackson, who had been reinforced by a divis- ion under General Evvell, destroyed the whole Federal plan of campaign. Knowing that he could not possibly resist the combined forces of Fremont and Banks, Jackson determined to beat them in detail. Marching rapidly westward, he crossed the mountains, fell upon the advance guard of Fremont's army at McDowell, on the eighth of May, defeated it, and drove it back into western Virginia. Then retracing his steps with remarkable speed, he returned to the valley, and on the twenty-third of May attacked Banks' outlying force at Front Royal, and drove it in upon the main body at Strasburg. Banks at once broke up his camp and fell back down the valley, pursued by Jackson, who dealt him a terrible blow at Winchester on the twenty-fifth. By extraordinary exer- tions Banks succeeded, in escaping across the Potomac, but left about three thousand prisoners, several pieces of artillery, nine thousand stand of arms, and the greater part of his stores in the hands of the Confederates. Richmond Saved from Capture. This bold advance greatly alarmed the government at Washington, and the Presi- dent ordered Fremont to move with speed into the valley, and directed General Mc- Dowell to suspend his movement to the assistance of McClellan, and send a force of twenty thousand men to gain Jackson's rear and prevent his return up the valley. Mc- Dowell sent the required force under General Shields, and Fremont hurried on to gain the upper valley in advance of Jackson. These movements entirely prevented McClellan from receiving the assistance of McDowell's corps, and saved Richmond from capture. Jackson was too good a general to be caught in a trap so skillfully laid for him. He retired up the valley with the greatest speed, and having interposed his army fORTRAlTS OF PROMINENT CONFEDERATE GENERALS. 7^ ^12 THE CIVIL WAR. between Fremont and Shields, turned upon the former, and with a part of his force attacked him at Cross Keys on the eighth of June, and checked his advance. Then re- uniting his forces he fell upon Shields at Port Republic on the ninth of June, and drove him back with heavy loss after one of the hardest fought battles of the war. Hav- ing thus put an end to the pursuit of his antagonists, Jackson withdrew to a safe posi- tion, from which he could hold them in check or go to the aid of the army defend- ing Richmond. The latter move being decided upon, he eluded the Federal forces in the valley, and marched rapidly to the Chickahominy. Be fore his absence from the valley was sus- pected, he had joined General Lee. His campaign in the valley is justly regarded as one of the most brilliant of the war. With less thar twenty thousand men !ic had neu- tralized a torce of sixty tliousand Union troops, and prevented the execution of Mc- Clellan's carefully laid plans for the capture of Richmond. General Lee Takes Command. Upon the fall of General Johnston the command of the Confederate army before Richmond was conferred upon General Robert E. Lee, whom subsequent events proved to be the ablest of the Southern leaders. Troops were drawn from every pos- sible point to reinforce General Lee's army, and by the middle of June his forces, includ- ing Jackson's army, amounted to ninety thousand men. The Federal army was one hundred and fifteen thousand strong. Both armies were in fine condition. General Mc- Clellan, finding it impossible to obtain the assistance of McDowell's corps, and fearing for the safety of his communications with his base of supplies, which was at West Point, at tlie head of the York River, prepared to move his army to the south side of the Chickahominy, and establish a new and more secure base upon the James River. Before he could put this design in opera- tion he was attacked by General Lee, who, on the twenty-fifth of June, fell upon the right of the Union line at Mechanicsville, and forced it back upon the centre at Cold Harbor. On the twenty-sixth the position at Cold Harbor was attacked and carried by the Confederates after a desperate struggle. With great difficulty McClellan secured his retreat to the south side of the Chickahom- iny, and destroyed the bridges in his rear. Having decided to retreat to the James River rather than attempt to retain his com- munication with West Point, McClellan destroj'cd his stores, and on the twenty- eighth began his retreat from the Chicka hojciiny by way of White Oak Swamp. As soon as his movement was discovered pur- suit was made by the Confederates, who attacked his rear guard under General Sum- ner at Savage Station late in the afternoon of the twenty-ninth. Sumner held his ground until the darkness put an end to the action, and during the night of the twenty-ninth withdrew across White Oak Swamp, destroy- ing all the bridges after him. End of the " Seven Days' Battles." On the thirtieth General Lee made a last effort to prevent McClellan from reaching the James, and towards the close of the afternoon the bloody battle of Frazier's Farm was fought. It was continued until nine o'clock. The Federal force at Frazier's Farm held its ground until the remainder of McClellan's army had safely traversed White Oak Swamp. The object of the battle hav- ing been accomplished, McClellan resumed his retreat to the James River, and took posi- tion upon Malvern Hill, within a short dis- tance of that stream. Here he massed his ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 7M artillery, and the <^unboats in the James River moved up to a point from which they could throw their shells into the Confederate lines. On the afternoon of the first of July the Confederates made a gallant attempt to carry Malvern Hill, but were repulsed with severe loss. The next morning the Federal army v/ithdrew to Harrison's Landing on the James River. Thus ended the " Seven Days' Battles," during which the Federal army lost about twenty thousand men in killed, wounded and prisoners, fifty-two pieces of artillery, thirty-five thousand stand of arms, and an enormous quantity of stores of all kinds. The Confederate loss was nineteen thousand five hundred and thirty-three killed, wounded and missing. The retreat of McClellan's army threw the North into the deepest despondency. On . the second of July President Lincoln issued a call for three hundred thousand fresh troops. The necessities of the struggle, however, made this force insufficient, and on the fourth of August the President ordered that a draft ttf three hundred thousand militia should be made and placed in the service of the United States for a period of nine months unless sooner discharged. The States complied \\ itli the requisitions upon them, and in the brief pcri(jd of three months the enormous mass of six hundred thousand fresh troops was raised, armed and placed in the field. Battle of Cedar Mountain. For the protection of Washington the Federal government now collected the com- mands of Banks, Fremont and McDowell in one army, and placed it under command of Major-General John Pope, whose capture of island No. lo and other points in the west had given him a fair reputation. He assumed his new command with a profusion of boasts, and promised to succeed where McClellan had failed. According to General Pope ilt-.t capture of Richmond was the easiest under- taking in the world. His army towards the, latter part of July advanced to the Rapidan. To watch this force General Lee, late in July, sent General Jackson's corps to the Rapidan. On the ninth of August Jackson attacked the advanced corps of Pope's army at Cedar Mountain, and defeated it. This defeat suspended General Pope's forward movement. General McClellan now received orders from Washington to evacuate Harri- son's Landing and to reinforce General Pope with his army. He at once put this order in execution. The withdrawal of his troops was detected by General Lee, who rapidly reinforced Jackson, and finally moved with his whole army to the Rapidan. Daring Flank Movement. About the same time Burnside's corps, which had been withdrawn from the southern coast, and was awaiting orders in Hampton Roads, was directed to move into the Potomac and reinforce Pope. General Pope had now under his command a force of over one hundred thousand men. The Confed- erate army, which was concentrated upon the Rapidan by the eighteenth of August, num- bered about seventy thousand men. Its strength was greatly overestimated by Gen- eral Pope, who deemed it most prudent to retire behind the Rappahannock, which he did on the eighteenth and nineteenth of August. His new position was w^eli chosen. His right was at Rappahannock Station, and his left at Kelley's ford, some distance lower down the river. General Lee now resolved to attack Pope before he could be joined by McClellan's troops. He divided his army into two columns, and sent Jackson's corps by a cir- cuitous route, by way of Thoroughfare Gap, to gain the rear of the Federal army This THE CIVIL WAR. Jackson, and on the twenty-a.xth of Augu^^ PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. poRTRAiibur I ;ntPndinewall Jackson — Invasion of the North by Lee's Army — Battle of Gettysburg — Retreat of Lee into Virginia— Grant's Army Crosses the Mississippi — Battle of Champion Hills — Investment of Vickshurg — Surrender of 'Vicksburg and Port Hudson — P>attle of Chickamauga — Rosecrans Shut Up in Chattanooga — Grant in Command of the Western Armies — Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge — Defeat of Bragg's Army — The Campaign in East Tennessee — Retreat of Longstreet— Capture of Galveston — Attack on Charleston — Capture of Fort Wagner— Charleston Bombarded — State of Affairs in the Spring of 1864 — The Red River Expedition — Grant Made Lieutenant-General — Advance of the Army of the Potomac^ Battle of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania and Cold Harbor — Sheridan's Raid— Death of General J. E. B. Stuart— Battle of New Market — Early Sent into the Valley of Virginia — Butler's Army at Bermuda Hundreds — Grant Crosses the James River — The Siege of Petersburg Begun — Early's Raid upon Washington — Sheridan Defeats Early at Winchester and Fisher'sHill — Battle of Cedar Creek — The Final Defeat of Early's Army— Sherman's Advance to Atlanta— Johns- ton Removed — Defeat of Hood Before Atlanta — Evacuation of Atlanta — Hood's Invasion of Tennessee — Battle of Franklin— Siege of Nashville — Hood Defeated at Nashville — His Retreat— Sherman's " March to Sea " — Capture of Savannah — Battle of Mobile Bay — Attack on Fort Fisher — The Confederate Cruisers— Sinking of the " Alabama" by the " Kearsarge " — Re-election of President Lincoln — Admission of Nevada into the Union — The Hampton Roads Peace' Conference — Capture of Fort Fisher — Occupation of Wilmington — Sherman Advances through South Carolina —Evacuation of Charleston — Battles of Averasboro' and Bentonville — Sherman at Goldsboro' — Critical Situation of Lee's Army— Attack on Fort Steadman — Sheridan Joins Grant — Advance of Grant's Army — Battle of Five Forks^ — Attack on Petersburg — Evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg— Retreat of Lee's Army — Richmond Occupied — Surrender of Gener^til Lee's Army — Rejoicings in the North — Assassination of President Lincoln— Death of Booth- Execution of the Conspirators — Johnston Surrenders — Surrender of the Other Confederate Forces— Capture of Jeffer- son Davis — Close of the War. IN accordance with his proclamation of September 22, 1862, President Lincohi, on the first of January, 1863, issued his proclamation of emancipation, in which he declared all the slaves within the limits of the Confederate States free from that day. The plan of campaign adopted by the Federal government for 1863 was very much hke that of the previous year. In the east the Army of the Potomac was to push for- ward towards Richmond ; and in the west the army of General Grant was to capture Vicksburg, and thus open the Mississippi, after which it was to march eastward, unite with the forces of General Rosecrans and occupy East Tennessee, thus cutting the communication between the Border and the Gulf States. In addition to these operations an expedition against Charleston, South Ca- rolina, was to be attempted. The Army of the Potomac was greatly disheartened by its defeat at Fredericksburg, and had lost confidence in General Burnside. That commander, at his own request, was removed from the command, and was suc- ceeded by General Joseph Hooker on the twenty-fifth of January. Hooker at once began the reorganization of his army, and soon brought it to a splendid state of effi- ciency. By the opening of the spring it numbered one hundred and twenty thousand men and four hundred pieces of artillery. General Lee had remained in his position back of Fredericksburg all winter, and his 719 720 PORTRAITS .^UME OF THE GENERALS Ot TllK ? MV ' m THE POTOMAC ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 721 army Lad been weakened by the withdrawal of General Longstreet's corps, twenty-four thousand strong, by the Confederate govern- ment, leaving him about fifty thousand men. General Hooker, upon learning of Lee's weakened condition, determined to attack him. He divided his army into two columns. One of these, consisting of the Second, Fifth, Eleventh, and Twelfth army corps, under his own command, was to cross the Rap- pahannock above Fredericksburg and turn the Confederate position. The other column, consisting of the First, Third, and Sixth corps, under General Sedg- wick, was to cross the river at Fred- ericksburg and attack the heights. Be- tween these forces it was believed that Lee's army would be crushed. On the twenty-seventh of April Hooker moved off with the first column, crossed the river on the twenty-eighth and twenty- ninth at Kelley's Ford, and on the thir- tieth took position at Chancellorsville, on the left and in the rear of Lee's forti- fied line. On the twenty-ninth General Sedgwick crossed his column about three miles below Fredericksburg, and during that day and the thirtieth made demon- strations as though he intended to assault the southern position in the rear of the town. general Lee's situation was now cri- tical, and demanded the most extra- ordinary exertions of him. Leaving a small force to hold the heights in the rea: of Fredericksburg, he moved with his main body towards Chancellorsville, where Hooker had intrenched himself with about eighty thousand men. His only hope of safety lay in defeating this force before Sedgwick's column could arrive to its assist- ance. On the second of May he sent Jack- son's corps to turn the Federal right, and with the remainder of his force, deceived 46 Hooker into the belief that he meant to storm the intrenched position of the P"ederal army. Jackson performed his flank march with success, and on the afternoon of the second of May made a fierce attack upon the Federal right, and drove it in upon its centre. In this attack he received a mortal wound, of which he died on the tenth oi May. GENERAL JOHN SEDGWICK. The next day, the third, having reunited Jackson's corps with his main force, Lee attacked Hooker at Chancellorsville, and drove him back to the junction of the Rap- pahannock and Rapidan rivers. He was preparing to storm this new position when he learned that Sedgwick had defeat'^-d the force left to hold the heights of Fredericks- burg on the third of May, and was marching against him. His danger was now greatei ^22 THE CIVIL WAR. than ever. Leaving a part of his army to hold Hooker in check, he marched rapidly to meet Sedgwick. He encountered him at Salem Heights on the fourth of May, and compelled him to recross the Rappahannock GENERAL GEORGE G. MEADE Jt Banks' Ford. Then moving back towards Hooker's position Lee prepared to storm it. General Hooker, however, disheartened by Sedgwick's defeat, withdrew his army across the Rappahannock on the night of the fifth, and returned to his old position on the north side of that stream, having lost twelve thoU sand men and fourteen pieces of artillery in the battle of Chancellorsville. The Confederate loss was also heavy. Out of an army of about fifty thousand men, ten thou- sand two hundred and eighty-one were killed, wounded and captured. The victory was dearly bought by the Confed- erates by the death of Stonewall Jackson, who was worth fully fifty thousand men to their cause. At the mcmenl of his success again!" the Federal right, he wa shot down by liis own men, who mistook his escort for a party of Federal cavalry. The success of the Confederates in Virginia was more than counter- balanced by their re- verses in the West and Southwest. The South- ern government, anxious to change the course of the war by a bold stroke, decided to fol- low up the victory at Chancellorsville by an invasion of the North by Lee's army. This army was reinforced heavily and by the last of May numbered seventy thou sand infantry and artillery, and ten thou- sand cavalry. General Hooker's army, on the other hand, had been reduced by deser- tions and expirations of enlistments, to about eighty thousand men. making the two forces about equal. ' ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 723 On the third of June, 1863, Lee began his forward movement, and marching through the valley of Virginia, captured Winchester, which was held by General Milroy's com- mand, on the fourteenth, taking four thou- sand prisoners and twenty-nine pieces of cannon. On the twenty-second of June the Potomac was crossed at Williamsport, and the Confederate army moved towards Hagers- town, Maryland. General Hooker had fol- lowed Lee from the Rappahannock, and had manoeuvred his army so as to interpose it between the Confederates and Washington. Invasion of the North. On the twenty-third the advanced corps of Lee's army, under General Evvell, occupied Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and on the tv/enty-fifth and twenty-sixth, General Hooker crossed the Potomac at Edward's Ferry, and marched to Frederick, Maryland. He was anxious to withdraw the garrison of Harper's Ferry, which had retired from that place to the Maryland heights, opposite the town, but the war department refused to allow him to do so. Hooker thereupon relin- quished the command of the army, and was succeeded by Major-General George G. Meade, the senior corps commander, and a soldier of genuine ability. General Lee now moved his army east of the mountains, and directed his advance towards Gettysburg. In ignorance of his adversary's design, Gen- eral Meade hastened forward to occupy the same point. The invasion of Pennsylvania by the Con- federate army aroused the most intense ex- citement in the North. President Lincoln called out one hundred thousand militia to serve for six months, unless sooner dis- charged, and as far north as New York, preparations were made to receive the Con- federate army with a stubborn resistance should it succeed in penetrating so far. Every effort was made to raise troops and forward them to General Meade in time to be of service to him. On the morning of the first of July, the left wing of the army of the Potomac, under General Reynolds, and the advanced corps of Lee's army, under Generals A. P. Hill and Ewell, encountered each other at Gettysburg. General Reynolds was forced back and killed. General Hancock was at once sent by Gen- eral Meade to assume the command of the left wing, and upon his arrival he at once recognized the importance of the position at Gettysburg, and occupied it. He was promptly reinforced by General Meade, and by the afternoon of the second of July, the army of the Potomac was securely posted on the heights known as Cemetery Ridge. The Confederate army took position on the opposite hills known as Seminary Ridge. Between the two armies lay the battle-field on which the engagement of the first of July was fought. Heavy skirmishing prevailed throughout the day on the second, the advan- tage being with the Confederates. Great Battle at Gettysburg. On the third of July General Lee made a general attack upon the Federal position on Cemetery Ridge, which, very strong by nature, had been rendered impregnable by entrenchments. His attack was made with determination, and was a splendid exhi- bition of American courage, which won for his troops the generous admiration of their adversaries ; but it was unsuccessful. The grand charge of the Confederates was made in the afternoon, and was repulsed with ter- rible slaughter. Still Lee's position was so strong, and the morale of his army so unim- paired, that General Meade deemed it best to remain satisfied with his victory, and not to risk its fruits by an attack upon the Con- federate lines. 724 THE CIVIL WAR. The stirring events on the third and last day of the battle are vividly described by John Laird Wilson, the eminent war corres- pondent and historian. Mr. Wilson's account is as follows : " As early as three o'clock on the morn- ing of the third, there were signs of acti\^ity attack by discharging his pistol. The battle at once becarne general. A fearful struggle ensued. A heavy artillery fire was opened at once on the enemy's position. But, a.^ the ground was rugged and broken and also covered with trees, and as every advantage was ..aken of places of shelter and conceal- W^''- GENERAL PICKETT'S FAMOUS CHARGE AT GETIYSBURG In the enemy's front. It was evident that an attack was intended ; and Geary, having been informed by General Kane, who commanded his first brigade, of what was going on, resolved to seize whatever advantage might be gained by opening the battle himself. His men were aroused ; and at twenty minutes before four o'clock, he gave the signal for ment. the fight partook very much c^ ihe character of sharpshooting on a grand scale. " As the battle progressed the contestants got intermingled, and it became more and more difficult to use the artillery. The Con- federates not only held their position, but charged again and again, in heavy masses, on the National lines, only, however, to be ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 725 repulsed with tremendous loss. The slaugh- ter was terrible. The sun arose ; the day advanced; the air became clouded with dust and smoke ; the heat became almost intoler- able ; but still the battle raged. At last there is a lull in the long-continued tempest. Then, suddenly, there is a fierce yell from thousands of throats ; and Evvell's men, hav- ing gathered up their strength for a final effort, are ■seen rushing forward with tremen- dous fury. They are allowed to come within easy .nusket range, when the men in blue, springing to their feet, pour in upon them a dehberate volley. It was the last charge on this part of the line. Discomfited and dis- couraged, torn and bleeding, their dead and wounded companions piled in heaps on the ground where they fell, the survivors drew back through the v/oods towards Rock Creek, fighting as they retired, with a courage which commanded the admiration of their foes. The Victors Exultant. " Shouts of victory now filled the air. ' Men/ says one who was present and shared in the triumph, * cheered themselves hoarse, laughed, rolled themselves on the ground, and threw their caps high in the air, while others shook hands with comrades, and thanked God that the Star Corps had again <;riumphed.' Geary, not disposed to allow she Confederates to re-form, as soon as this charge was repelled, made a vigorous coun- ter-charge ; and the enemy, yielding easily, »"he breastworks were reoccupied, and the right flank secured. Thus ended the fighting on the right. " Ewell had been completely baffled in his plan. He had flung away his opportunity me night before ; and to reclaim it he had now done his best, and failed. He could not find fault with his men , for never, even under Jackson, had they fought more bravely. * It cannot be denied,' says General Kane, who, with his glorious first brigade, of Geary's division, bore the burden of that morning's fight, 'that they fought most courageously.' But they were pitted against men of equal bravery, of equal determination with them- selves — -men who were now on their own soil, and fighting for the sanctity of their own homes. " Never, perhaps, before, since the war com- menced, had the fighting been more deter- mined and severe than it was during those long, dreary morning hours. The ground, after the battle, red with gore, and thickly covered with the bodies of the slain, gave evidence of the terrible character of the struggle. The grey and the blue uniforms were sometimes found in one common heap. Some poor fellows, after hours of suffering, and having almost bled to death, were found writhing in mortal agony. The wood in which the battle raged was ' torn and rent with shells and solid shot, and pierced with innumerable minie balls.' In the following summer, the trees were leafless, as if the mute but stalwart giants of the forest had yielded up their lives with those who fell beneath their shade. An Ominous Silence. *' It was now shortly after ten o'cIock. The lasi" sounds of battle had died away. There was silence over the whole battle field. It was evident, however, that preparations were being made inside the Confederate lines for another gigantic and possibly crowning effort. The morning sky had been obscured by broken clouds. As the forenoon advan- ced, the clouds dispersed ; and a hot July sun poured down his rays with a tropical intensity. Pickett's division, of Longstreet's corps, which had not come up on the pre vious day, had now arrived on the field Stuart, also, after his long detour, had joinet 726 THE CIVIL WAR. Lee with his cavalry. It soon began to be manifest that the point of attack was to be the National left centre — the depressed part of the ridge immediately north of Little Round Top. By noon, the guns were got into position on the ridge occupied by Long- street and Hill. Meade had an abundant supply of the same instruments of war; but owing to the peculiarity of the ground, he could only, out of the three hundred guns, make use of eighty, against those of the enemy. Loud Thunder of Guns. " About one o'clock, the report of a Whit- worth gun was heard. It was the signal for attack. Seminary Hill seemed as if swept with a tongue of flame. Then came the loud, thundering roar of artillery; and one hundred and forty five guns, from their angry mouths, poured death and destruction on the National lines. The National commanders ordered their men to lie flat on the earth, and to take every advantage of objects of pro- tection. All this was done ; but, notwith- standing every precaution, the destruction of lite and property was terrible. Solid shot, chain-shot, shrapnel, shells, fell with deadly effect inside the National lines. Men and horses were dreadfully cut up; caissons filled with ammunition were exploded ; and gun- carriages and other pieces of war material were shattered to pieces. The shot and shell and canister fell thick and fast in and around General Meade's headquarters, killing men and horses, ripping up the roof and knocking away the pillars of the cottage. " General Hunt, Meade's chief of artillery, was in no haste to reply. Waiting until the first hostile outbreak spent itself, he then ordered the batteries to open fire. Instantly, the whole ridge, from Cemetery Hill to the Round Tops, seemed ablaze. The din was terrific, the thunder of artillery rivalling, in fierce grandeur, the most magnificent displays of nature. For two hours this artillery duel lasted ; and, during that time, war was ex- hibited in its sublimer and more imposing aspects. " At the expiration of two hours, there was a lull in the cannonade. Hunt, dreading the possible exhaustion of his ammunitions and not willing to bring up loads of it from the rear, lest it should be exploded, had ordered a gradual slackening of the fire. The Confederates were deceived. It was Lee's belief that he had silenced all the enemy's guns, except a few which still kept firing from a clump of woods. Now came the more serious business of war. The fire of the Confederate guns also slackened ; and the columns of attack were seen forming on the edge of the woods which crown the summit of Seminary Ridge. It was just three o'clock. When formed, the front was about a mile in extent ; and, as it emerged from the woods, and began to move steadily and firmly down the slope of Seminary Ridge, a thrill of admiration passed through the National ranks. It was a splendid sight, and well fitted to call forth admiration, even in the breast of an enemy. The fresh division of Pickett, composed mostly of veteran Vir- ginians, was singled out and appointed to lead the van. Pickett's men were formed and arranged in double line of battle. The attacking force numbered about eighteen thousand men. Ammunition Exhausted. " The distance between the two lines of battle was about a mile. For the attacking party there was a hill to descend and a hill to climb, and a valley between. It was matter of observation that, as the columns advanced, the Confederate guns were silent. 'Why?' was the question put by the men Avho were rushing into the jaws of death. 'Why?' POSITIONS DURING THE SECOND AND THIRD DAYS AT GETTYSBURG. 728 THE CIVIL WAR. said the men on the heights behind. ' Why ?' said the Nationals on the heights in front. The reason was not known till afterwards. It was not then known to Lee himself His ammunition was already exhausted. The silence of the guns in their rear did not affect the firm and steady step of the advancing columns. It did not encourage the Nationals to slacken their artillery fire. On came Longstreet's men, in face of the withering tempest of bullet and canister and shell which, at each successive step, decimated their front. On, on they came ; and it was already a question in the National ranks whether their own thin line of defense could resist the fierce onset of those firm and com- pact battalions who seemed to fear no fire, to dread no foe. The Green Mountain Troops. " The Nationals, however, were not ill pre- pared for the attack. Doubleday was on the left, with Stannard's brigade of Vermont troops well advanced in a little grove on his own right, and at an angle with the main hue. Hancock was more to the right with his two divisions of Gibbon and Hays in front. From the direction in which the assaulting columns were moving, it seemed for a time as if the first heavy blow would fall upon Doubleday. Such, however, was the severity of the artil- ] -Ty fire from Little Round Top that they were forced to bend more to their own left. Still they moved on, their line of march now bringing them more directly in front of Han- cock's position. " Now came the opportunity for Stannard's brave Vermonters. They were in no haste to wa.?te their ammunition. The Confederate columns were allowed to come so well for- ward that their right flank was fully exposed. Then, at the signal given, the Vermont men pour forth a well-directed and most destruc- tive fire, Volley suggeeds yolley in r^ipid succession ; and the now trembling lines, already torn and tattered, are under the oblique fire of eight batteries In charge of Majof McGilvray. Not a few of Pickett's men, unable to endure this terrific fire, were compelled to surrender. The main body, how- ever, presses on, and, inclining still more to his own left, Pickett is moving straight on the' divisions of Gibbon and Hays. ' Hold your fire, boys ! they are not near enough yet,' was Gibbon's injunction as he moved calmly and composedly along the ranks. The rifled guns of the National artillery, having fired away all their canister, were now withdrawn to await the issue of the struggle between the opposing infantry. The hostile lines are now within two and three hundred yards of the National front. Gibbon and Hays simul- taneously open upon the advancing columns a most destructive fire. The response is swift and well directed, the Confederates using their muskets for the first time since they began to face this terrific storm of artil- lery and musketry. All at once the battle becomes general. Terror and Confusion. " The swing made by the advancing col- umns to their own left, after the terrific blow received by them from Stannard, had the effect of flinging Pettigrew, who commanded Heth's division, of Hill's corps, well towards Hays' right. Pettigrew's men were, for the most part. North Carolina troops, and were comparatively raw and unused to battle. They had been deceived into the belief that they would meet only the Pennsylvania mili- tia. They were quickly undeceived. Hays* men were admirably posted. His right was well advanced ; and the nature of the ground was such as to enable him to open a simiul- taneous fire on Pettigrew's troops, not only with his right and front, but also with sev- eral lines in his. rQar... Woodruff's batterj^ ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 729 was also in position ; and the destructive effects of a very tempest of bullets were to be aggravated by showers of grape and canister. "All at once, this tremendous f>re fell ujjou the already torn and decimated lines on Pickett's left; and they knew they were in die presence of the Army of the Potomac. There was no more fight in them. Terror- stricken, Pettigrew's men broke in utter con- fusion, large numbers of them flinging down their arms, and accepting mercy at the hands of their antagonists. General Pettigrew him- self was wounded ; but, being able to retain command, he vainly strove to rally his men. Fifteen colors, and two thousand prisoners rewarded the skill and activity with which Hays met the threatened attack. *' While disaster was thus befalling the Confederate columns on the right and left Pickett's brave Virginians were pressing forward vigorously towards Gibbon's front, and were about to fall with all their weight on Owen's brigade, now temporarily co*n- manded by General Webb. The Final Struggle. *' In spite of the dreadful fire of artillery and musketry which was mowing down their ranks, Pickett's men rush bravely on. They are now close to the stone wall. The two National regiments in front, yield and fall back to the regiment in the rear. Webb and his of^cers are at hand ; the retreating regi- ments are quickly rallied and re-formed ; and the second line is held. But the Confederates have pushed themselves over the breast- works, and planted their battle flags on the wall. The struggle now becomes fierce and terrific in the extreme. It is a hand-to-hand conflict, man facing man, and fighting with the energy of despair. The clothes of the men are actually being burned by the powder tH the exploding cartridges; and the National cannoneers, refusing to retire, sut^ clubbed and bayoneted at their guns. " Pickett, however, is now left entirely alone. The forces which were intended to cover his left have been defeated, captured or d^'iven from the field. Wilcox, whose duty it was to come up and cover his right, has failed to advance. The right of his own division has been badly cut up and destroyed. Hancock, who this day revealed all the qualities of a great commander in actual conflict, now massed his men on the point which was in danger. Hall and Harrow, who had now no longer an enemy in their front, were brought over with their brigades to reinforce the centre. The Nineteenth Massachusetts, Col- onel Devereux, and Mallou's Forty-Second New York, both of Gate's brigade, of Double- day's division, of the First corps, were moved in the same direction. " Stannard, at the same time, moved for- ward two of his Vermont regiments to strike che enemy on the right flank. The situation, Hancock tells us, 'had now become very pecu- liar. The men of all the brigades had, in some measure, lost their regimental organiza- tion, but individually, they were firm. The ambition of in'^'ividual commanders to cover the point penetrated by the enemy, the smoke of the battle and the intensity of the engage- ment caused this confusion. The point, how- ever, was covered. In regular formation, our line would have stood four ranks deep.' Pickett's men were now pressed on all sides. "The colors of the different National regi- ments were well advanced. Cheered by the words, and fired by the example of their oflficers, the men pressed bravely forward. It is the climax of the fight; but the end is at hand. Pickett's men had done their best and their utmost — they had fought like true heroes ; but now, utterly overpowered, and reduced to the last stage of desperation, they give up the fight. Flinging their arms from 72>o THE CIVIL WAR. them, many of them, raise their hands in tDkeii of surrender; others fall upon the " In this last struggle, Gibbon's division took twelve colors and two thousand five hundred prisoners. So far, Hancock had captured twenty- seven battle flags and four thousand five hundred pris- oners. It was a magnificent trophy. The losses on both sides were very heavy. The face of the hill and the low ground Avas literally covered with the dead and wounded. In no previous battle had the officers suffered so severely. On the National side large numbers had been struck down, Generals GiJabon and Hancock being among the wounded. The Confederates left on the field fourteen of their field-officers, only one of that rank escaping unhurt; and, of the three brigade com- manders, of Pickett's division, Garnctt was killed, Armitage fell within the National lines, fatally wounded, and Kemper was carried off the field, dan- gerously hurt." The victory was decisive. It put an end to the Confed- erate invasion. On the night of the fourth of July General Lee withdrew from Seminary Ridge and retreated to the Potomac, which he crossed on the thirteenth and four- teenth without serious opposi- tion from the Federal army. On the fifteenMi Lee moved back to Winchester. The Fed- eral loss at Gettysburg was ground to escape the destructive fire; the I twenty-three thousand, and that of the Con- remainder seek safety in precipitate flight. j federates about the same. MAP SHOWING VICKSBURG AND ITS APPROACHES ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 7^'^ On the seventeenth and eighteenth of July General Meade crossed the Potomac below Harper's Ferry, and moving east of the Blue Ridge, endeavored to place his army between Lee and Richmond. The Confederate com- ,iiander by rapid marches reached Culpepper Court-house in advance of him, however, and about the first of August occupied the line of the Rappahannock. The remainder of the year w itnt-sscd btit one important oper- the Federal arms. At the opening of the year the army of General Grant lay on the Mississippi above Vicksburg, assisted by the fleet of gunboats under Admiral Porter. The first three months of the year were passed by the Federal army in a series of movements along the Yazoo River, the result of which was to convince General Grant that Vicks- burg could not be taken from that quarter. He therefore determined upon a new and VICKSBURG, MISSISSIPPI. ation by the armies in Virginia. In October General Lee made a sudden forward move- ment for the purpose of throwing his army between Meade and Washington, but the latter eluded him and reached Centreville in safety. Lee then withdrew to the Rapidan, and the army of the Potomac took position on the north side of that stream. Both armies passed the wjiter there. In the west and southwest success crowned more daring plan of operations. He lecided to march his army across the Louisiana shore from Milliken's bend, above Vicksburg, to New Carthage, below that city, and to run his gunboats and transports by the bat- teries. Should the boats succeed in passing, he meant to cross his command to the Missis- sippi shore, and attack Vicksburg from the rear. By investing the city from the land H 'Jx < O l-H "A tn H O « ^732 ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 733 side his flanks would rest upon and be cov- ered by the Mississippi, and lie could re-estab- lish communication between his right wing and his base of supplies at Milliken's Bend. The plan was daring in the highest degree, and required the greatest skill and resolution in its execution. In order to retain their hold upon the Mis- sissippi the Confederates had fortified Vicks- burg with great care. Port Hudson, about two hundred and forty miles lower down the river, had also been fortified, but not so strongly as Vicksburg. As long as the Con- federates held these points they were able to keep a considerable extent of the river open to themselves and closed to the Union gun- boats. Preparing for the Struggleo Thus they were enabled to cross in safety the enormous herds of beef cattle which they drew from the rich pastures of Texas for their armies east of the Mississippi. A strong force lield the works at Port Hudson. Vicks- burg was occupied by a large garrison, and was under the command of Lieutenant-Gen- eral John C. Pemberton, who, with an army of about thirty thousand men, independent of the garrison of Vicksburg, held the country in the rear of that city. Appreciating the importance of defeating the Federal army in this quarter, the Confederate Government, in the spring of 1863, sent General Joseph E. Johnston to take command of all the forces in Mississippi. It failed to supply him with a proper force of troops, and General Pem- berton treated his orders with open defiance. Grant having comple*^ed his preparations moved his army from Milliken's Bend to a point on the Louisiana shore opposite Grand Gulf. On the night of the sixteenth of April a division of gunboats and transports ran by the Vicksburg batteries, suffering severely from the heavy fire to which they were exposed for a distance of eight miles. On the night of the twenty-second a second division passed the batteries with similar loss. Once below Vicksburg, however, the boats were safe. They then proceeded to Grant's position on the river below. On the twenty-ninth oi April the gunboats attacked the batteries at Grand Gulf, but were repulsed. The troops were then marched to a point opposite Bruins- burg, Mississippi, and the gunboats and transports were run by the Grand Gulf bat- teries. On the first of May the Federal army was ferried across to the Mississippi shore, and at 1\ i GENERAL JOHN C. PEMBERTON. once began its march into the interior. Nea. Port Gibson a part of Pemberton's army was encountered and defeated on the same day. This success compelled the evacuation of Grand Gulf by the Confederates. Grant now boldly threw his army between Johnston's forces at Jackson and Pemberton's army, intending to hold the former in check, and drive the latter within the defences of Vicks-' burg. On the fourteenth of May he attacked Johnston at Jackson, the capital of Mir.sis- sippi, and forced him to retreat northward towards Canton. Then turning upon Pem- berton he attacked him at Champion Hills, or Baker's Creek, on the sixteenth, and 734 THE CIVIL WAR. inflicted a severe defeat upon him. Pem- berton withdrew towards the Big Black River, and the next day met a second iefeat there. He now retreated within the defences of Vicksburg, which place was .promptly invested by Grant's army. stand of arms, together with a large quan- tity of military stores, fell into the hands oi the Union forces. It was justly esteemed the greatest victory of the war. While the vit:ge of Vicksburg was in pro- crress. General Eanks ascended the Mis- On the nineteenth of May Grant attempted i sissippi from New Orleans and laid siege to to carry the Confederate position by assault, Dut was repulsed with heavy loss. The issault was repeated with a like result on the twenty-second. There remained then nothine but a regular siege. This was grant's headquarters near vicksburg pressed with vigor, and the city was sub- jected to a terrible bombardment, which caused great suffering to the people. While the siege was carried on Johnston's army was held back, and prevented from under- taking any movement for the relief of Vicks- burg. At length, reduced to despair by the steady approach of the Union trenches, Pem- berton surrendered the city and his army to General Grant on the fourth of July. By this surrender thirty thousand prisoners, two hundred and fifty cannon, and sixty thousand Port Hudson. Upon hearing of the fall of Vicksburg, the Confederate commander sur- rendered the post and his army of sixty=two hundred and thirty-three men to General Banks, on the eighth of July. These victories wrested from the Confederates their last hold upon the Mississippi. They cre- ated the most intense rejoicing in the Northern and Western States, and a corresponding depres- sion in the South. Being simultaneous with the defeat of the Southern army at Gettysburg, they were regarded as deci- sive of the war: as indeed they were. P'rom this time we shall trace the declining fortunes of the Southern Confederacy and the gradual but steady re-establishment of the authotlty of the Union over the Southern Stales. After the battle of Murfreesboro", or StorW River, the army of General Rosecrans remained quietly in winter quarters at Nash- ville and Murfreesboro'. Bragg's army passed the winter at Chattanooga. Towards the last of June Rosecrans moved forward from Nashville, and advancing slowly threat- ened Bragg's communications with Rich- mond. The Confederate commander had no wish to emulate the example of Pemberton ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. ^s."; wing, under the ccmmand of General George Mad that g-iven at Vicksbnrg, and at once evacuated Chatta^ nooga, on the eiglith, of September, and H. Thomas, remained firm retired towards Dal- ton, Georgia. This movement, which was 'nterpreted by Rose- crans as a retreat, was designed to secure the union with Bragg's army of Longstreet's corpSj which had been detached from Lee's army and sent to join Bragg. This junc- tion was effected on the eighteenth, anc' other reinforcements arrived from Missis- sippi. Thus strength- ened Bragg suddenly wheeled upon Rose- crans, and on the nine- teenth of September attacked him at Chick amauga. The battle was severe, but inde cisive, and was re- newed the next day. Towards noon, on the twentieth, Rose- crans having greatly weakened the other parts of his line to help the left, which was hard pressed, Longstreet made a fu- rious dash at the weak- ened part, and in an ir- resistible attack swept the Federal right and centre from the field.- Rosecrans endeavored MAP OF THE CHICKAMAUGA AND CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGNS. to Stop the retreat, but was borne along in I way the rout would have been complete; the dense crowd o)' fugitives. Only the left f but all through the long afternoon, Thomas 736 THE CIVIL WAR. DIAGRAM I. POSITIONS OF THE ARMIES AT THE BATTLE OF MISSIONARY RIDGE. he withdrew his corps in good order and re- tired upon Chatta nooga. The Union loss at Cliickamauga was sixteen thousand men and fifty-one guns; Bragg's about eighteen thousand men, Bragg advanced at once upon the defeated army of Rosecrans. which had taken re- fuge in Chattanooga, occupied the heights commanding the city, and seized the com- munications of the Federal army with Nashville. Thus close- ly besieged, the Union forces suffered consid- erably from a scarcity of provision^. General Rosecrans was now removed from the command of the Army of the Cum- berland, and General Grant was appointed to the chief command of all the western ar- mies. He at once set to work to extricate the Army of the Cum- berland, to the com- mand of which Gen-, eral Thomas had suc- ceeded, from its perih .ous situation. Hooker was sent with twenty- i held on to his position with a grim resolution | three thousand men from Meade's army to irvhich nothing could shake. After nightfall I his assistance, and Sherman was ordered ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. ni to march with the force which had taken Vicksburg along the hne of the railway from Memphis to Chattanooga. The arrival of these reinforcements soon changed the aspect of affairs. On the twenty-third of November the Army of the Cumberland made a vigorous sortie and drove the Confederates from the important position of Orchard Knob. On the twenty-fourth, Hooker stormed Lookout Mountain, the left of the Confederate line, and carried it after a hard fight. The invest- ment was now thoroughly broken, and the Confederates were confined to Missionary Ridge, which had formerly constituted the right of their line. On the twenty-fifth,this posi- tion was assaulted by the whole strength of the Federal army, and was carried after a stubborn fight. Bragg, beaten at all points, with heavy loss, retreated into Geor- gia, where he was soon aTer removed from his command and immedi- ^ ately succeeded by Gen- eral Joseph E.Johnston. During the progress of this campaign General Burnside had moved from Kentucky with a force of about twenty-five thousand men, about the time that Rosecrans began his advance from Nashville in June. The strong position of Cumberland Gap was sur- rendered to him with scarcely an effort for its defence by the Confederates, and he moved into East Tennessee. Driving back the Confederate forces, which sought to stop his march, he occupied Knoxville. The object of his expedition was to afford a ral- lying point for the Union men of East Ten- nessee. After the battle of Chickamauga, and the investment of Chattanooga, President 47 Jefferson Davis visited Bragg's army, and being convinced that the capture of Rose- crans' force was inevitable, decided to with- draw General Longstreet's corps from Bragg, and to send it to drive Burnside out of East Tennessee. Longstreet's men were in no condition to undertake such a campaign, but under their energetic commander, succeeded in confining Burnside's army to the defences of Knoxville. The siege of that place was formed, and several assaults were made upon the Union works, but were each repulsed with heavy loss. Burnside's men were reduced almost to starvation, but held out with unshaker GRANTS HEADQUARTERS NEAR CHATTANOOGA. resolution. After the defeat of Bragg at Mis sionary Ridge, Grant ordered Sherman tc march with his corps to the relief of Knox- ville. Upon the approach of this force Long- street, on the fourth of December, raised the siege and retreated into Virginia. Beyond the Mississippi the war was car- ried on with varying success throughout the year 1863, but to the general advantage of the Federal forces. On the third of July the Confederates, under General Holmes, attacked Helena, Arkansas, but were re- pulsed. By the close of the year the Con- federate forces had been pressed back as far as the Red River, 738 THE CIVIL WAR. On the first of January, 1863, Galveston, Texas, which had surrendered to the Federal forces in the fall of 1862, was recaptured by the Confederates, under General Magruder. By the capture of this place, the Confederates obtained one more port from which they could maintain communications with and receive supplies from Europe. of land troops, under General Gilmore, effected a lodgment on the south end of Morris' Island, and secured their position by intrench- ments. The Union parallels were pushed forward steadily towards Fort Wagner, at the north end of the island, and a final assault of that work was ordered. Before the order could CAPTURE OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. In the spring of 1863, a powerful naval I be executed, Fort Wagner was evacuated on expedition, under Admiral Dupont, was des- patched against Charleston. On the seventh of April, Dupont attempted to force his way into the harbor, but was driven back by the forts and batteries, and nine of his iron-clads the night of the sixth of September. The Federal batteries on Morris' Island now maintained a heavy and constant fire upon Fort Sumter, and reduced it to a shapeless mass of rubbish on the land side. Yet, in wv.^, „,.i-i ^.v^^. , wore severely injured. Early in July, a force j this condition it was strons^er than at first, ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 739 the mass of rubbish offering a more effectual resistance to shot and shell than the walls. The long-range guns on Morris' Island threw shells into the city of Charleston, which was regularly bombarded from this time until its fill, in 1865. The capture of Fort Wagner enabled the Federal forces to close the har- !jor of Charleston effectually against blockade runners. In spite of the victories of Chancellorsville and Chickamauga, and the invasion of the North, the close of the year found the South fairly on the downward road to firhal failure. Missouri was freed from the presence of the Confederate army, and the greater part of Arkansas was held by the Federal troops. The Mis- sissippi was lost to the South, and the heavy demands of the Federal government for men and money. Specie had long since disappeared from circulation, but a system ol Treasury notes, which were made a lega! tender, had replaced coin as a circulating medium. The new paper money was abun dant, and the North gave few outward sign^ of distress. Everything spoke of prosperity The contrast between the condition of the Union and the Confederacy was striking anc' most suggestive. Early in the spring of 1864 an expedition was sent into that part of Louisiana known as the Red River country. It consisted of a force of ten thousand troops, under Generr' immense supplies pi^^s^^ from the trans-Mis- sissippi region were no longer available to the Confederate forces east of the great river. Tennes- see was occupied by the Federal forces, and the invasion of the North had ended in disaster. The resources of the South were gradually becoming exhausted, and the supply of men was falling off. The North, on the other hand, was increasing in determination. The war had opened new channels of industry, 'and these had more than repaid the losses of the first period of the struggle. The North was growing richer in spite of the war, while the South was growing poorer because of it. At the end of 1863 the Federal debt had reached the enormous total of ^ i ,300,000,000, with the certainty of a heavy increase during the coming year. Still the people of the loyal States responded with heartiness to the MISSIONARY RIDGE FROM THE CEMETERY AT CHATTANOOGA. Smith, from Vicksburg, and a fleet of gun- boats, under Admiral Porter. On the four- teenth of March Fort de Russy was captured by the troops, and on the twenty-first Natch- itoches was occupied General Banks now arrived with a strong reinforcement of troops from New Orleans, and took command of the expedition. About the first of April he set out for Shreveport, at the head of navigation on the Red River, his army marching along the shore, and the gunboats ascending the stream. The Confederates gathered in heavy force, under the command of General Kirby Smith, to oppose his advance. On the eighth of April the Confederate army attacked Banks at Sabine Cross-Roads, ;4o THE CIVIL WAR. near Mansfield, and inflicted a stinging defeat upon him. The Union forces were raUied at Pleasant Hill, where they were attacked by the Confederates on the ninth. The Confed- erates were repulsed, but Banks continued his retreat, and reached Alexandria on the twenty-fifth of April. The expedition then r'eturned to the Mississippi. Banks wds The Red River expedition was thus a total failure, and was a source of great mortifica- tion, as well as serious loss, to the Federal government. Early in March General Grant was raised to the grade of Lieutenant-General, that rank having been revived by act of Congress to reward him for his great services during THE ATTACK ON FORT SUMTER BY THE MONITOR FLEET. relieved of the command at New Orleans, and was succeeded by General Canby. General Steele, commanding the Union forces in Arkanses, had moved from Little Rock, on the twenty-third of March, towards Shreveport, to co-operate with General Banks. He was attacked by the Confed- erates and driven back to Little Rock, which he reached on the second of May. the war. It had been held only by Wash- ington, General Scott having been given only the brevet rank. He was also appointed commander of all the armies of the United States. He decided to assume the immedi- ate direction of the campaign in Virginia, and established his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac. At the same time General W. T. Sherman was appointed to - A^.^ PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. 741 742 THE CIVIL WAR. the command of the military division of the Mississippi, in which were included the Armies of the Cumberland, of the Ohio, and of the Tennessee. The supreme control of the military oper- ations both east and west was vested in Gen- eral Grant — a great gain, inasmuch as the oper- ations in the two quarters of the Union could now be made to assist each other. The plan of the campaign embraced a simultaneous advance of both armies ; the Army of the Potomac was charged with the task of defeat- ing Lee and capturing Richmond ; the west- ern army, under Sherman, was to force John- ston back into Georgia. r^TEgk^ FORT DE RUSSY. xhe Army of the Potomac numbered one hundred and forty thousand men on the first of May, 1864; the Confederate army, under General Lee, about fifty thousand. General Meade retained the immediate command of the Army of the Potomac, but General Grant accompanied it, and directed its movements. On the morning of May 4th — just three days before Sherman moved from Chattanooga — the Federal army crossed the Rapidan, and, turning the right of Lee's position, entered the region known as the Wilderness. Gen- eral Lee determined to attack this force and prevent it from reaching the open country beyond the Wilderness. On the fifth of May he encountered the Army of the Potomac in the Wilderness, near the old battle-fieid of Chancellorsville. The attack was made by the Federal forces, which endeavored to drive off Lee's army, which blocked the route by which they were advancing. Lee held his ground during the day, and that night both armies bivouacked upon the field. The battle was renewed on the sixth, but Grant failed to force the Confederate position. The fighting during these two days was carried on in a thickly-wooded region, in which the artillery of the two armies could not be used to advan- tage. On the sixth the Confederates suf- fered a serious loss in the person of General Longstreet, who was severely wounded, and was incapacitated from continuing in ^ command. The losses in killed and wounded were very heavy on both sides, as the fight- mg was of a desperate character. Six Days' Fighting in Virginia. On the seventh General Grant moved his army around Lee's right, and marched rapidly to seize the strong position of Spottsylvania Court-house, which would have placed him between the Confederates and Richmond. Lee at once divined his purpose, and fell back rapidly to the heights around Spottsylvania Court-house, which he occupied on the eighth. Upon arriving before this position Grant found his enemy strongly entrenched in it, and at once re- solved to drive him from it. On the tenth of May he made a determined attack upon the Confederate line, but failed to carry it. On the morning of the eleventh, General Grant sent a characteristic dispatch to the Secretary of War. " We have now," he wrote, " ended the sixth day of very hard fighting. The result to this time is much in our favor. Our losses have been heavy, as well as those of the enemy. I think th? I ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 743 loss of the enemy must be greater. We have taken over five thousand prisoners in battle, while he has taken from us but few, except stragglers. I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer." The eleventh was Wednesday. The morning rose bright and clear. The two opposing armies lay in close proximity to each other. As the day advanced there was some skirmishing ; but on neither side was any attempt made to provoke a general engagement. Both commanders, it was evi- dent, were preparing for battle; nor could doubt remain in any mind that, whatever might be the result, another and even more fearful encounter at _ ^5^io«i5.i Spottsylvania was imminent. Grant was still bent on carrying out his policy o continuous ham- mering. His suc- cess, however, on the Tuesday, in his ^ repeated attacks on the enemy's left and left centre, had not been encouraging. There was no rea- son to hope that another attack, made in the same direction, would be attended with any better results. It was resolved, there- fore, to strike a bold and effective blow on the enemy's right centre. At that point, and near the Landrum House, Lee's lines formed a salient. It was Grant's conviction that the point was vulnerable. Arrangements for the attack were made forthwith. Hancock, who wa 5 chosen to strike the blow, was ordered to \eave his entrenchments in front of A. P. Hill, and, by moving to the left, to take position between the Sixth and Ninth corps. The movement was to have the sup- port of the entire army. Wright was to extend his left, and to concentrate on that wing. Warren was to make a diversionary movement on the Confederate left, in his own front, the object being to give the enemy sufficient employment in that direction, and so prevent the withdrawal of his troops for the relief of the menaced point. Burnside, for a similar reason, was to make a vigorous assault on the extreme left. Rain fell heavily in the afternoon. When night came the rain-storm had not abated; and, as the moon was in its first quarter, the night was dark and dismal. Soon after midnight, under cover of the darkness and the storm, Hancock moved out from his intrenchments. bailey's red river dam. and, guided by the compass, passed in rear of Warren and Wright, and took position within 1,200 yards of the enemy's front, at the point to be attacked. Barlow's division, in two lines of masses, was placed on the lelt ; Birney's division, in two deployed lines, was placed on the right ; Mott's division, Hancock's Fourth, supported Birney, and Gibbon's division was held in reserve. Of the actual strength of the position about to be attacked, the Nationalists knew nothing. It might be weak and defenceless. It might be well fortified and proof against any attack. It mattered not. Hancock was ready, wait- ing for the first streak of early dawn to launch forth his brave battalions to victory or to 4Aish. 744 THE CIVIL WAR. It is now half-past four o'clock on the morning of Thursday, May twelfth. A heavy fog is resting on the entire surrounding country, and the feeble light of the rising sun struggles hard to penetrate the gloom. I lancock's divisions are already in motion. Meadily and silently they move towards the salient — Barlow over open ground, which extends up to the Confederate lines, Birney through the thickly wooded ground more to the right. Not a shot has yet been fired — not a word uttered. More than half of the intervening distance has already been crossed. GRANT WRITING DISPATCHES BEFORE CROSSING THE RAPIUAN Suddenly there is a loud-resounding cheer, which rings along the whole line. Spontan- eously the men take the double-quick. On they roll like a resistless wave. Nothing can now restrain their fierce impetuosity. They have reached the abatis, torn it up and tossed it aside. With wild cries, they rush bounding over the entrenchments, Barlow and Birney's men entering almost simultaneously. Inside the intrenchmects there is a terrible hand-to- hand strug«^le, the bayonet and the clubbed- musket being freely u^ecj. Nothing, how- ever, can save the doomed Confederates. Some four thousand men, including General Johnson, of Ewell's corps, and General George H. Stewart are surrounded and cap- tured ; and with them thirty pieces of artil- lery and as many colors. Meanwhile, the remainder of the Confederate force, stricken with terror and thrown into the wildest con- fusion, have fallen back, seeking safety in the rear. This attack of Hancock's was justly regarded as the most brilliant feat of arms yet accomplished in the campaign. Never was surprise more com- plete or more succcs; f,il. The officers were taken at their breakfast. The captured generals weie greatly mortified. An hour only had ela|)scd since the column of at- tack was formed. Along with the prisoners, v\ hicb he sent to Grant, Han- cock sent a note hastily written in pencil, sa}ing: 'T have finished upjohn- son, and am now going into Early." This second task, as we shall soon see, he found to be less easy of accomplishment than the former. Early, like Johnson, commanded a divis- ion of Ewell's corps. At the point pene- trated, Lee's army, as we have seen, formed a salient. Hancock had, therefore, by his first success, thrust a wedge between the Confederate right and centre. It was his hope that he would be able to cut Lee's army in two ; and there can be no doubt that if sufficient provision had been made, promptly and in force, to follow up the advantage Hancock had won by his first brilliant assault, the desired end would hav^ ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 745 been aocomplished. As it was, Hancock's troops, flushed with success, and incapable of being restrained after the capture of the intrenchments, pressed on through the forest in the direction of Spottsylvania driving the flying enemy before them. / At the distance of *half a mile, they were suddenly brought to a halt in theirtriumph- ant career. They had reached a fresh line of breast-works. Behind these works, Ewell had taken shelter ; and reinforcements had reached him from the corps of Anderson and Hill. The Na- tional advance was now effectually check- ed. It was not only impossible to make headway — it was im- possible to remain in the position in which they found them- selves. The tide of battle was now turned. Gathering themselves up for a supreme ef- fort, the Confederates, in overwhelming numbers and in mag- nificent array, rushed from the breast-works, and, falling with crush- ing weight on Hancock's men, now slightly disordered by their fearless rush through the woods, drove them back to the line which they had captured in the early morning. Here, however, Hancock managed to rally his troops ; and, getting them into line on the right and left of the angle of the works, he stoutly resisted the fierce and repeated onsets of the enemy, and firmly held his position. His situation, however, was becom- ing every moment more critical. Lee was GENERAL JAMES LONGSTREET. resolved, if possible, to recover the lost line of works ; and, with this end in view, he waa putting forth the most Herculean efforts, and bringing his entire strength to bear on the one point. It was now six o'clock — one li )ui and a half sinc^ the first onset. Ha"^c'jc! 746 THE CIVIL WAR. was still holding his position ; but relief was sorely needed. At this opportune moment, when most needed, relief came. Wright, who had been hurried forward with his Sixth corps, arrived on the ground, and took position on the risht of the salient. Hancock, thus relieved, concentrated his troops on the left of the angle. A little later, about eight o'clock, and with a view to relieve the pressure on Hancock and Wright, Burnside and Warren were ordered to attack along their whole fronts. The battle now raged furiously at every point. No evidence was given that Lee had changed his purpose. The last line THE PLACE WHERE SEDGWICK WAS KILLED. at the salient was still the object of his ambi- tion. On Hancock and Wright he dealt his heaviest and most terrific blows. Again and again, and in rapid succession, he rolled against them his heavy masses. He seemed resolved to dislodge them. Seeing this, and becoming convinced that Burnside and Warren were producing no impression on their respective fronts. Grant detached two divisions from the Fifth corps — those of Cutler and Griffin — and sent them to the aid of the Second and Sixth corps at the angle which was still regarded as the prize of battle, and where was the focus of the fight. Five times did Lee hurl his heavy columns against the National lines entrusted with the defense of this position. Five times, after severe hand-to-hand fighting, in which the slaughter on both sides was dreadful, were the attacking columns repulsed. It was not until after midnight that Lee with- drew his shattered and bleeding lines and re-formed them in his interior position. Hancock held the works he had captured in the morning. The battle had lasted twenty hours. The losses on either side were about io,ooo men. Such was the great battle of Spottsylvania Court House. Although not a decisive vic- tory it was a positive gain to the National cause. Its moial effect was great. It was one of the bloodiest battles of the \\ii\ Thesightpiesenten at the angle wlieif the tide of battlt surged and roared from earliest dawn till i^ast midnight of that summer day, as described by eye-witnesses, was somethin'', shocking to wit- ness. The bodies of the dead an I wounded were piled in heaps and mingled together ia wild confusion. It was, as one has said, " an angle of death — one hideous Golgotha." The severity of the musketry fire was evidenced by the condition of the forest after the battle. The trees were not only pierced by the bullets, but literally cut down. At Washington, as a relic of this fight, there is preserved the trunk of an oak tree which was cut through and through by bullets. The trunk is about twenty inches in diameter. It was evident that the Confederates could not be dislodged from their position without a still heavier loss to the Union army, and ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 747 General Grant determined to draw them from the heights of Spottsylvania by another march to the right. On the twenty-first of May the Army of the Potomac moved from Spottsylvania to the banks of the North Anna River, and reached that stream on the twenty-third. Lee had marched rapidly by a shorter route, and his army was in position on the south side of the river when Grant reached the northern shore. Lee had chosen a posi- tion of very great strength in front of Hanover Junction, and had covered it ■with earthworks. On the twenty-fifth Grant crossed a large part of his force to the south side of the North Anna, and endeavored to force the Confederate line, but discover ing its remarkable strength, withdrew hi troops to the north shore, and on tlu twenty-sixth moved around Lee's rigli in the direction of the Chickahominy Lee followed him promptly and tof position at Cold Harbor, on the noi t side of the Chickahominy, and withn nine miles of Richmond, occupying ver\ much the same position held by McClel- lan's army in the battle of Cold Harbor, on the twenty-seventh of June, 1862. He covered his entire line with strong earthworks. On the first of June a sharp encounter occurred between the Federal right and the Confederate left wings, and on the morning of the third of June, Grant made a general assault upon the Confederate works. The attack was made with great gallantry, but was repulsed with a loss to the Federal army of thirteen thousand men. The losses of the Army of the Potomac since the passage of the Rapidan had reached the enormous total of over sixty thousand men. The Con- federate loss during the same period was ^bout twenty thousand. Failing to force the Confederate line at Cold Harbor, General Grant drew off leisurely towards the James River at Wilcox's Landing, intending to cross that river and attack Richmond from the south side of the James. In the meantime, upon reaching Spottsyl- vania Court-house, General Grant had sent General Sheridan, with ten thousand cavalry, to destroy the railroads connecting Rich- GENERAL FITZHUGH LEE. mond with Lee's army and the valley of Vir- ginia. Sheridan executed his oraers with complete success, and went within seven miles of Richmond. On the tenth of May he reached Ashland. He was attacked there by the Confederate cavarly under General Stuart, and moved off towards Richmond. Stuart, marching by a shorter route, threw his cavalry between Sheridan and Richmond, and again encountered him ^.t the Yellow 748 THE CIVIL WAR. Tavern, on the Brook turnpike, seven miles from the city. Stuart was mortally wounded, and Sheri- dan secured his retreat across the Chicka- hominy and down the peninsula. In General Stuart the Confederates lost their only great cavalry leader. Had Sheridan, instead of halting at Ashland, pushed straight on to Richmond, the Confederate capital must have fallen into his hands. On the twenty- fifth of June he rejoined General Grant. a force of about eighteen thousand men, under General Beauregard, and posted them in a fortified line, extending from the James to the Appomattox, in front of the Richmond and Petersburg railroad On the sixteenth of May, Butler's army, having advanced within a short distance of this line, was attacked by the Confederates and driven back to Bermuda Hundreds. The Confederates then formed their lines across the narrow peninsula, and kept Butler's force enclosed BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR. At the opening of the campaign, General Butler, with a force of about thirty thousand men, known as the Army of the James, was sent up the James River to attack the defen- ces of Richmond, on the south side of that river. He occupied City Point and Bermuda Hundreds on the fifth of May, and a few days later, advanced up the neck of land lying between the James and the Appomattox Rivers. To oppose him, the Confederates collected between their works and the two rivers until the crossing of the James River by the Army of the Potomac. The Federal plan of campaign also included the seizure of the valley of Virginia, and of the railway connecting Virginia with East Tennessee and Georgia. On the first of May, General Sigel, with an army of ten thousand men, advanced up the valley towards Staun- ton. On the fifteenth, he was defeated with considerable loss by the Confederates, under ADMIRAL JOHN PAUL JONES ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 749 General Breckenridge, at New Market, and was driven back down the valley. General Hunter was appointed in Sigel's place, and succeeded in forcing his way to the vicinity of Lynchburg. Lee, becoming alarmed for the safety of that place, sent General Early, with twelve thousand men, to its assistance. advanced upon Petersburg. At the same time General Butler moved forward with the Army of the James against the southern works between the James and Appomattox. On the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth, Grant made repeated attempts to storm the Con- federate works before Petersburg and south BATTLE OF SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT-HOUSE. Early, at once attacked Hunter, and forced him to retreat by a circuitous route into West Virginia. In the meantime. General Grant had reached the James River, where his army was reinforced to one hundred and fifty thousand men. On the fifteenth and sixteenth of June he crossed his troops near City Point, and of the James, but was repulsed with a total loss of nine thousand six hundred and sixty- five men. Being unable to carry the southern work^ by storm, he began the siege of Petersburg. His right rested on the James above Ber- muda Hundreds, and from this point his line extended across the Appomattox, with his 7SO THE CIVIL WAR. left thrown out towards the Weldon railroad. During the summer and fall he continued to extend his left until he had seized the Weldon road. From this point he sought to extend his left still further, and to seize the South GENERAL J. E. B. STUART Side railroad, Lee's only remaining line of communication with the South and South- west. Frequent encounters occurred between the two armies during the summer and fall, a number of which attained the proportions of battles, but we have not space to relate them all. On the thirtieth of July a mine was sprung under one of the principal works of Lee's hne, and the explosion was followed by an assault by Burnside's corps. The attack was repulsed with a loss of over five thou- sand men to the Union troops. During the early autumn General Grant extended his lines across the James river, and established a force on the north side of that river to lay siege to the de- fences of Richmond. The rij?ht of this force was extended as far as the Williamsburg road. This was the situation of the two armies at the close of the year. In the meantime Early had advanced into the valley of Vir- ginia after the defeat of Hunter. The retreat of that commander in- to West Virginia had left the Potomac un- guarded, and Wash- ington City exposeA to attack. General Lee at once reinforced Early to fifteen thou- sand men, and ordered him to cross the Potomac and to threaten Washington, hoping by this bold movement to compel Grant to weaken his army for the protection of the capital, if not to raise the siege of Petersburg. Early moved rapidly, crossed the Potomac near Martinsburg on J ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 751 the fifth of July, and on the seventh occupied Frederick City in Maryland. On the ninth he defeated a small force under General Lewis Wallace at Manocacy Bridge, and advanced upon Washington. The Nine- teenth army corps of the Federal arm.y was at Fortress Monroe, where it had just arrived from New Orleans, en Woute to join Grant's army. It was at once or- dered to Washington, which, until its arrival, was held by a small gar- rison, and Grant at the same time embarked the Sixth corps, and sent it with all speed around to the Potomac. These troops reached •«. Washington before the arrival of Early, who appeared before the de- fences of that city on the eleventh of July. He found the works too strongly manned to be attacked by his force. After skirmishing for several days before them, he withdrew across the Potomac on the four- teenth, and retreated to the neighborhood of Winchester. Early's movement so alarmed the Federal gov- ernment for the safety of Washington that a force of forty thousand men, ten thousand of which were the splen- did cavalry of Sheridan, was stationed in the valley, and Major-General Sheridan was ap- pointed to the command of this army. Had Grant been able to retain these troops with his own army, it is safe to say that Lee would have been forced to abandon his position at Petersburg in the autumn of 1864. Their absence in the valley enabled the Con- federate leader to prolong his defence through the winter. As soon as he had gotten his forces well in hand, Sheridan advanced upon Early, and GENERAL WINFIELD S. HANCOCK, at Win- Fisher's on the nineteenth defeated him Chester, and drove him back to Hill, where on the twenty-second, he again defeated him and drove him out of the valley, pursuing him as far as Staunton. By the orders of General Grant, General Sheri- dan now laid waste the entire valley of the 752 STUART'S CAVALRY CUTTING TELEGRAPH WIRES. ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 753 Shenandoah, destroying all the crops, mills, barns, and farming implements, and driving off the cattle with his army as he moved back. Early was reinforced after his retreat to the upper valley, and about the middle of October advanced down the valley towards the Federal position with a force of nine thousand men and forty pieces of cannon. The Union army lay at Cedar Creek, and was under the temporary command of Gen- eral Wright during the absence of General Sheridan. On the nineteenth of Oc- tober Early attack- ed this force, and drove it back for several miles. In- stead of continuing the pursuit, hi> troops stopped to olunder the Federal camp,which had fal- len into their hands. General Wright rallied his men and reformed them in a new position, and at this moment General Sheridan arrived on the field. He had heard the firing at Winchester, "twenty miles away," and had ridden at full speed from that place to rejoin his army. He at once ordered it to advance upon Early, whose men, laden with the plunder of the captured camp, were driven back with terrible force and pursued up the valley for thirty miles. This success cleared the valley of the Confederate forces, for Early was not able after this to collect more than a handful of men, and Lee had no troops to spare him. Sheridan's brilliant victories cost him a total loss of seventeen thousand men. 48 A more extended account of Q nerai Sheridan's operations, by the historian. John Laird Wilson, will be of interest lo the reader : "As Sheridan returned down the valley towards Cedar Creek, he was closely followed by the Confederate cavalry under Rosser, supported by the main body of Early's army. On October ninth, the head of Sheridan's infantry column having entered Strasburgby the east road, while the rear was still some miles further south, the enemy following the PONTOON BRIDGE AT DEEP BOTTOM. cavalry on the west road, had advanced so far as to get on the left flank of the infantry column. Custer and Merritt then turned and attacked with their cavalry, when a report having spread among Rosser's men that the National infantry were at the same time flanking them, they immediately gave way and broke into a stampede. The pursuit was continued seven miles. The loss of the enemy was not great, being only about three hundred men, including prisoners ; but he abandoned eleven guns, four caissons, and an ammunition train. 754 THE CIVIL WAR. "Things remained quiet for several days after this affair; but on the twelfth, the Con- federates again appeared in the neighborhood of Strasburg and opened an artillery fire on Emory's and Crook's corps. These troops were then partially withdrawn and Crook pushed out a reconnoissance, which brought GENERAL PIITT.IP H. SHERIDAN on a smart engagement of three hours' dura- tion. Night, however, closed upon the scene without any advantage and with little loss to either side. " On the fifteenth, Sheridan went to Wash- ington on important business, leaving the army under the command of General Wright, whose corps was, in the meantime, intrusted to General Ricketts. Fisher's Mill had been abandoned as not affording any good defens- ible line on its southern slope, on which side Early would be likely to approach, and the army had now lain for several days in front of Strasburg, behind breast-works thrown up on rising and rolling ground, mostly along the east side of Cedar Creek — Crook, with the Eighth corps on the left, the Nine- teenth corps in the centre, the Sixth on the right. On the right of the Sixth, a little in the rear and in reserve, were the two cav- ^alry divisions of Custer and Merritt. The line was four or five miles long, and following the course of the creek, nearly north and South. " Crook's corps rested its left flank on the North Fork of Shenandoah and its right on the Winchester and Strasburg turnpike, the principal highway in that region. Behind Crook's left and at right angles to it, with a view to guard against any turning move- ment on that flank, lay a force about equivalent to a brigade, known as Kitch- ing's provisional division. North of the turnpike came the Nineteenth corps, Grover's division holding its left and resting on the turnpike, where it joined Thorburn's Division of Crook's command. The Sixth corps on the right, and the second cavalry division, were not strongly protected with works, as was all the rest of PORTRAITS OF FEDfiRAL CAVALRY COMMANDERS. \ TSS ;56 THE CIVIL WAR. the line, but were well posted on high ridges, and held firmly the Middle road, or that which runs next north of the turnpike. A small stream called Meadow Run, flows into the creek between the two roads mentioned. was picketed by Powell's cavalry division from Cedar Creek all the way to Front Royal. Weir's battery commanded the fords, supported by cavalry which were so posted as to prevent surprise from the direction of SHERIDAN S CAVALRY CHARGE AT CEDAR CREEK. '* In front the National position was consid- ered impregnable, except by surprise, and to turn it would be, it was believed, an under- taking of extreme temerity. To guard against surprise on the left, the North Fork the Luray Valley. Artillery was posted in front of the positions of Crook and Emory, so as to command the ford and the bridge over Cedar Creek, as well as the rising ground on the west side. The wasfon trains and ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 757 reserve artillery lay in the rear on the turn- pike. On the .seventeenth, the cavalry on the right, under Custer, was attacked by Con- federate cavalry and infantry, and a severe skirmish ensued, re- sulting in the repulse of the enemy. Next day a careful recon- noissance was made from the left towards Strasburg and Fish er's Hill; but no sign of movement on the part of the enemy was discovered. Dis- patches, however.were captured , and it was thus ascertained that reinforcements had been sent to Early, for the purpose of enabling him to attack and defeat Sheridan. " Early, in fact, had just received a rein- forcement of some twelve thousand men. His actual strength was thus increased to twenty-seven thou- sand. His army was still smaller than that of Sheridan. Encour- aged, however, by so large an accession of strength, Early pre- pared to put in execu- tion one of the mor.t audacious movements of the war. began to move against Sheridan's lines. His cavalry and light artillery were directed to COUNTRY BETWEEN CHATTANOOGA AND ATLANTA. " Before break of day on the nineteenth, advance against the National right, so as to he arranged his troops at Fisher's Hill and occupy the attention of Torbert and the ?."8 THE CIVIL WAR. Sixth corps. His infantry marched in five columns, of which Gordon's, liamseur's, and Pegram's were ordered to place themselves by daybreak on the left rear of the whole National position, while Kershaw's and Wharton's were to endeavor to get, about the same time, close under the entrenched rising ground on which lay Crook's com- mand. To turn the National left, it was GENERAL JOSEPH E. JOHNSTON. necessary that Early's columns should descend into the gorge at the base of the Mas.sanutten Mountain, ford the North Fork of the Shenandoah, and skirt Crook's en- campment for some distance, in some places within four hundred yards of his pickets. " It was a hazardous as well as audacious experiment ; but it was executed with won- derful skill, and, as the result proved, with complete success. The movement was con- ducted quietly, and with great caution. The result was that before daybreak the Con- federate infantry, formed and ready for battle, lay within six hundred yards o/the National camps. Gordon's column was diagonally in the rear of the Nineteenth corps ; on the left of Crook, facing Kitching's provisional division, was Ramseur supported by Pegram ; in front of Crook was Kershaw supported by Wharton, Under cover of the morning mist, Kershaw's column moved rapidly through Crook's picket line, and with tremendous fury rushed upon the entrenchments. The onslaught was fearful. The surprise was complete. "In a quarter of an hour Crook's gallant army of Western Virginia became a dis- organized mass of fugitives in rapid rout towards the position of the Nineteenth corps. Crook lost several batteries, some seven hundred men made prisoners, and about one hundred in killed and wounded. The Sixth corps was at the same time menaced; and its attention occupied by the enemy's cavalry and light artillery. It fell to the lot of the Nineteenth corps to resist unaided the shock of Gordon's col- umn, now advancing solidly massed up the slope of a broad, bare hill which com- manded Emory's camp. The Confederate force, including the divisions of Ramseur and Pegram, was as strong as Emory's, and was supported by another column coming up through the woods on the left, and along the turnpike in front. " The Nineteenth corps was thus not only taken in the rear, but outnumbered. Still it held out for about an hour ; and then its left gave way, leaving a part of the artillery in the enemy's hands. The left and centre of the National army had now fallen into com- plete confusion ; and all the trains that could be got away were sent off in haste along the turnpike towards Winchester. The sun was ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 759 now high in the heavens, and the extent of the disaster was rendered visible. The Con- federates had succeeded in rolling up the left of the line, and in severing Powell's cavalry- division on the extreme left from the rest of the army; and they were now forcing back the entire centre, and occupying the entrench- ments of the Nineteenth corps as they had those of Crook's command. They had also captured eighteen pieces of artillery, thus not only lessening the National power for defense, but increasing their own power for attack. The captured cannon were turned with terrible effect on their late possessors. The Sixth corps was now ordered over from the right ; and these troops, executing quickly :; change of front which brought them at right angles to their former line, were soon engaged in desperate battle. A Desperate Struggle. " The resistance made by the Sixth corps in covering the retreat afforded opportunity for re-enforcing the fugitives to some extent ; but the Confederates increased their artillery and musketry fire to the utmost, and still pressed the National left flank, with the view, apparently, of getting full possession of the turnpike, that they might seize the tra...s and get between the National army and Winchester. The enemy pressed the left much more vigorously than the right. Merritt's and Custer's cavalry were trans- ferred from the right to the left ; and a severe contest took place in the thickly-wooded country near Middletown, in which the left had been placed by its rapid retreat. " About nine o'clock Sheridan's army had got into line of battle again, and made des- perate efforts to check the enemy. Both sides used artillery ; but the Confederates had greatly the advantage in this arm, having not only their own batteries, but the cap- tured guns of their antagonists besides. The Sixth corps held its ground well ; but Crook's corps on the left was forced back, and the whole line gradually gave way, the enemy again getting past the National left flank, and finally gaining the village of Mid- dletown, about three miles northeast of the position from which Sheridan's army had been driven. The principal aim of the National commanders now was to cover the trains and draw off the army with as little loss as possible to Newton, where they hoped to be able to re-form and offer an effective resistance. The battle had been completely lost. Camps, earth-works, some twenty-four guns and one thousand eight hundred pris- oners — all were left in the hands of the enemy. The routed Nationals were flying in all directions, large numbers of them making their way to Winchester. " Face the Other Way, Boys ! " " The National army fell back, as we hav« seen, first towards Middletown, and after- wards in the direction of Newton. About a mile or so in the rear of Middletown,Wright succeeded in restoring something like order. Sheridan was still absent. He had been, as we have mentioned, on a visit to Washing- ton. On his return, he spent the night at Winchester. It v/as not until his army had been defeated that he was made aware of Early's attack. He was in his saddle in a minute. He had scarcely left Winchester when he beheld sad evidences of the disaster which had befallen his army. The road was covered with wagon trains and crowds of weary fugitives. " As he rode along on his splendid charger, the air was rent with cheers. The fugitives felt abashed and halted ; and the wounded by the wayside feebly waved a joyful salute. He did not slacken his pace to rebuke or encourage. Waving his hat to the cheering crowds, his horse still at full 760 THE CIVIL WAR. gallop, he shouted, ' Face the other way, boys ! Face the other way ! We are going back to our camps. We are going to lick them out of their boots.' The words were electric. The tide of fugitives began to turn. Ashe neared the main body, the enthusiasm became unbounded. Officers and men tossed their hats and cheered to the echo. He repeated his fiery words, ' Boys, if I had been here this would never have happened. We are going back. We'll have all these camps and cannon back again.' What Sheridan said he meant ; and the men believed him. He was in the field shortly after ten o'clock. General Early Repulsed. " There was a lull in the fight, which lasted several hours. Wright, as has been mentioned, had already restored order, and made dispositions, if not for attack, at least for effective resistance. Sheridan approved of the arrangements; and mid the most enthusiastic cheers, he rode along the lines, studying the ground and encouraging the men. About one o'clock Early made a charge, which was vigorously repulsed by Emory. About three o'clock Sheridan gave the order, 'The entire line will advance. The Nineteenth corps will move in con- nection with the Sixth. The right of the Nineteenth will swing to the left, so as to drive the enemy upon the pike.' " The order was promptly obeyed. The entire line moved forward — Getty's divis- ion leading the charge. Merritt's cav- alry covered the left flank ; and Custer's cavalry was thrown out on the right. As the Nationals advanced they were checked for a moment by a tremendous fire of artillery and musketry. The check, however, was but momentary ; for Emory swung around upon the foe, and by two gallant charges greatly disordered his lines. Almost at the same moment, the National cavalry fell upon Early's flank. The tide of battle had already turned. " The Confederates fought with bravery and determination ; but Sheridan's men now fighting in the presence of their favorite chief, were not to be resisted. The battle, in fact, was already won ; and what was so recently a retreat, was now changed into a pursuit. It was a perfect rout. On his arri- val, Sheridan said, ' We'll have all those camps and cannon back again.' His word was made good. That night, the National infantry halted within their old camps ; but the cavalry pursued, hanging upon the flanks and rear of the retreating foe, until he was beyond Strasburg, and night fell upon the scene. Early halted for the night at Fisher's Hill, and in the morning resumed his retreat southward. In the pursuit, all the captured guns were recovered. The Nationals cap- tured not only their own guns, but twenty- three of those of the enemy, together with one thousand five hundred prisoners, and any quantity of horses, mules, ambulances, wagons and stores of various kinds." Sharp Struggle at Resaca. i je Western army under General Sherman was increased to one hundred thousand men, and was concentrated in and around Chatta- nooga about the last of April. Opposed to this force, General Joseph E. Johnston had collected an army of fifty thousand men at Dalton, Georgia. The objective point of Sherman was Atlanta, Georgia, the key to the railroad system of the South. On the seventh of May the Federal army began its advance. The position at Dalton being too strong to be assaulted, Sherman turned it by a flank movement upon Resaca, to which place Johnston fell back. On the fourteenth and fifteenth of May Sherman endeavored to force the Confederate lines near ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 761 .esaca, but without success. He therefore moved around Johnston's left again, and com- peUed him to fall back to Dallas. Severe fighting occurred on the twenty fifth at New Hope Church, but Johnston maintained his position. Heavy skirmishing ensued until the twenty-eighth, when Sherman hav- ing turned Allatoona Pass, Johnston oc- cupied a new position, embracing Pine, Lost and Kenesaw Moun- tains. Between the fifteenth of June and the second of July Sherman made several attempts to force this position, which was one of the strongest yet occupied by the Confederates, and fail ing to carry it, again moved to the left and turned it. Johnston at once fell back across the Chat- tahoochee and within the lines of Atlanta. He had prepared this city for a siege, and strongly fortified it. He had his army v/ell in hand, and he was determined as soon as the Federal army had passed the Chat- tahoochee to attack in its ruin, and at all events would be de- cisive of the campaign. At this juncture, however, he was removed from his command on the seventeenth of July by the Confeder- ate President, who was greatly dissatisfied with the results of the campaign, and who. MAJOR GENERAL JAMES B. m'pHERSON. Sherman and force him to a decisive en- counter. He hoped to defeat him, and had purposely avoided a general battle until now. Should he succeed in his attempt the defeat of the Federal army at such a lireat distance from its base might result it was generally believed, was influenced by his personal hostility to Johnston. General John B. Hood, a gallant soldier, but unfit for the great task imposed upon him, was appointed to succeed General Johnston. In Johnston General Sherman 762 THE CIVIL WAR. had recognized an antagonist of the first rank, and had conducted the campaign accordingly. He regarded the appoint- ment of General Hood as greatly simplify- ing the task before him. The Federal army had already paid the heavy price of over thirty thousand men for its advance to Atlanta, while Johnston had lost less than eight thousand men. The conditions were now to be reversed. GENERAL GEORGE H. THOMAS. On the seventeenth of July the Union army crossed the Chattahoochee, and advanced towards Atlanta. On the twen- tieth and twenty-second Hood attacked the Federal lines on Peach Tree Creek, but only to be beaten back with a loss of over eight thousand men, without inflicting any serious injury upon the Union army, which, how- ever, lost General McPherson, one of its ablest commanders. Sherman now drew in his lines closer to Atlanta, and by a skilful movement thrust his army between the two wings of Hood's forces, thus exposing them to the danger of being beaten in detail. This movement sealed the fate of Atlanta, which was evacuated by the Confederates on tlic thirty-first of August. On the second of September Sherman occupied the city. Hood retreated towards Macon. The loss of Atlanta was a serious blow to the South. It placed the Federal army in the heart of Georgia, and destroyed the principal source from which the Con- federate armies were supplied with mili- tary stores, which had been manufactured in great quantities at Atlanta. Rome, Georgia, which was captured by Sher- man's army during the campaign, was also largely engaged in the manufacture of arms and ammunition. General Sherman was now anxious to march his army through Georgia, and unite with the Union forces on the coast, but he was unable as yet to undertake lb-is movement, as Hood, with an army of thirty-five thousand men lay in his front, and his communications with Chat- tanooga and Knoxville were exposed to the raids of the Confederate cavalry. He now learned that the Confederate government had ordered General Hood to invade Tennessee for the purpose of drawing his army out of Georgia, and concluded to make no effort to prevent this movement. The task of watching Hood was confided to the Army of the Tennessee, under General George H. Thomas, who was. given a sufficient force to hold Tennessee, and Sherman set about preparing his army for his march to the sea. Thomas was heavily reinforced from the North. Hood began his forward movement towards the last of October, and on the thirty-first of i^RTRAITS OF SHERMAN AND SOME OF HIS COMMANDERS 763 764 THE CIVIL WAR. that mcnth, crossed the Tennessee, near Florence. He remained on this river until command of General Schofield, and effecting a passage of Duck River, on the twenty- ninth. Schofield fell back to Franklin eighteen miles south of Nashville. He was attacked on the thir ' tieth, by the Confed- erates and forced back to Nashville, within the defences of which city, General Thomas had collected an army of about forty thou sand men. Hood in- vested the city, and hastened forward his preparations to assault the Federal works. General Thomas, how- ever, anticipated him, and on the fifteenth of December, attacked the Confederate army and forced it back at all points. The next day, the sixteenth, the battle was renewed, and Hood was com- pletely routed. On the seventeenth the Union army set out in pursuit o' Hood's broken col umns, and followed them for over fifty miles. But for the gallantry of a small rearguard, which pre- served its discipline and covered the re- IHE COUNTRY TRAVERSED BY SHERMAN IN HIS MARCH THROUGH GEORGIA. the middle of November, and on the nine teenth, marched northward, forcing back the treat to the last, the Confederate army would have been scattered beyond all hope of reunion. Hood recrossed ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 765 the Tennessee with barely twenty thousand men out of the thirty-five thousand with which he had begun the campaign. He had lost half of his generals and nearly all of his artillery. He fell back to Tupelo, Mississippi.andon the twenty-third of Jan- uary, 1865, was, at his own request, relieved of his command. In the meantime Gen- eral Sherman, leaving Thomas to deal with Hood, had begun his march through the State of Georgia. Sat- isfied that the war was practically de- cided in the South- west, he proposed to march to the sea near Savannah, and thence through the Confed- eracy to the position of General Grant's army. This move- ment would compel the Confederates to mass their forces in his front, and would confine the decisive operations of the war to the country be- tween his own and Grant's armies, be- tween which it was believed the Southern forces could be crush- ed. Everything being in readiness, Sherman cut loose from his communications with Chattanooga and set fire to Atlanta. On the fourteenth of No- vember he set out on his " March to the Sea," MAP SHOWING THE CITY OF MOBILE AND ITS DEFENCES. at the head of a splendid army of sixty thousand men. He ravaged the country as y^ THE CIVIL WAR. he went, leaving behincl him a broad belt of desolation, sixty miles in width and three hundred in length. The Confederates had not sufficient force to offer serious opposition '::: his march, and COMMODORE DAVID G. FARRAGUT. left at Sherman's mercy, and was occupied by his army on the twenty-second of Dece? n- ber. By this successful march to the s» \, General Sherman had not only gotten hiS army in a position to co-operate with Grant in the final struggle of the war, but had struck terror to the South. The most hopeful Confeder- ate now saw tha/ the triumph of the Union cause was inevitable and close at hand. During the yeai important opera- tions had been un- dertaken by the Federal forces or the coast. In July, a powerful fleet un- der Admiral Far- ragut, accompanied by a strong force oi troops under Gen- eral Granger, was sent against Mo- bile. This city was one of the principal ports of the Con- federacy and was strongly fortified. The entrance to the bay was com man fl- ed by Forts Mor- gan and Gaines, two powerful works built before the war, In about four weeks he reached the coast near the mouth of the Savannali River. On the thirteenth of December he stormed and captured Fort McAllister, which commanded that river. The city of Savannah was thus and a number of batteries and a Confederate fleet under Admiral Buchanan— who had commanded the "Virginia" in her fight with the "Monitor"— lay beyond the forts ready to contest the possession of the bav ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 1^7 On the fifth of August Farragut passed the forts with his fleet with the loss of but one iron-clad, and entered Mobile Bay. He im- mediately attacked the Confederate fleet, the flag-ship of which was a powerful iron-clad ram — the "Tennes- see." After one of the most desperate fights in naval annals, the entire fleet was destroyed or captured by the Union vessels. Fort Powell was evac- uated and blown up by its garrison on the same day. On the seventh of August Fort Gaines surren- dered to General Granger, and on the twenty-third Fort Morgan also capitul- ated. These successes made the Federal forces masters of Mo- bile Bay, and closed the port to blockade- runners ; but the city, which was strongly fortified, was not taken until the next year. Wilmington, on the Cape Fear River, was now the only port in the Confederacy re- maining open to block- ade runners. It was defended by Fort Fisher, an unusually formidable work near the mouth of the Cape Fear. A larger fleet than had yet been employed during the war was assembled in Hampton Roads under Admiral Porter. A CAPE FEAR RIVER AND APPROACHES TO WILMINGTON, N. C. force of eight thousand troops under General Butler was embarked, and the expedition 768 BOAT OF THE "DEERHOUND" RESCUING CAPTAIN SEMMES ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 769 sailed to the Cape Fear. Fort Fisher was subjected to a vigorous bombardment, which was begun on the twenty-fourth of Decem- ber, and the troops were landed ; but at the last moment General Butler decided that the fort was too strong to be assaulted, and the expedition returned to Hampton Roads, Mobile in August of that year. In January^ 1863, she ran the blockade, and in three months captured and destroyed fifteen mer- chant vessels. She was at length seized in the harbor of Bahia, in Brazil, by a Federal man-of-war, and taken to Hampton Roads. The Brazilian Government, resenting this SINKING OF THE "ALABAMA" BY THE " KEARSARGE. Since the opening of the war the Confed- erate cruisers had nearly driven the commerce 'of the Northern States from the ocean. These vessels were built in England, and were usually manned by crews of English seamen under Confederate naval officers. One of these, the " Florida," put to sea in the summer of 1862, and succeeded in reaching 49 breach of its neutrality, demanded the release of the " Florida," but v/hile the negotiations were in progress, she was sunk in Hampton Roads by a collision with another vessel. The most famous of all the Confederate cruisers, was the 'Alabama." She was built at Liverpool, and was suffered to go to sea in spite of the protest of the American m THE CIVIL WAR. minister at London. She was co mmanded by Captain Raphael Semmes, and during her long career, captured sixty-five merchant vessels, and destroyed over ten millions of dollars worth of property. During her entire career, she never entered a Confederate port. In the summer of 1864, she put into the harbor of Cherbourg, in France, and was blockaded there by the United States war steamer, " Kearsarge," Captain Winslow. The French government ordered the "Ala- bama " to leave Cherbourg, and she went to sea on the nineteenth of June. She was at once attacked by the " Kearsarge," and was sunk by the guns of that steamer, after an RA.^HAEL SEMMES engagement of an hour and a quarter. Semmes was saved from drowning by the English yacht, " Deerhound,^" that had wit- nessed the battle and wai set ashore. The destruction of the "Alabama" was hailed with delight throughout the North. In the fall of 1864, the presidential election was held in the States remaining faithful to the Union. The Republican party nominated President Lincoln for re-election, and Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee for the vice-presidency. The Democratic party supported General George B. McClellan for the presidency, and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, for the vice- presidency. Mr. Lincoln received at the polls, 2,213,665 votes to 1,802,237 cast fol McClellan ; and the electoral votes of every State, save those of New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky, were cast for him. On the thirty-first of October, 1 864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as a separate State. j The year 1864 closed brilliantly for the Union cause. Though the Confederates had gained a number of important victories dur- ing the year, they had, on the whole, steadily lost ground. Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida, were over- run by the Federal armies, and on the coast there was not a single port remaining open to the Confederacy save that of Wilmington^ which was blockaded by a powerful fleet. A Million Union Troops. It was evident that the coming spring cam- paign would end the war. The Federal force? had been increased to the enormous total of one million of men. The Confederates could bring into the field scarcely two hundred thousand men, and for these it was difficult to find subsistence. The vicious nnancial system adopted by the Confederate Govern* ment had run its appointed course, and the notes of the Confederate Treasury were worth scarcely three or four cents on the dollar. The year 1865 opened with an effort to secure the return of peace without further bloodshed. In January Mr. F. P. Blair, Sr., came from Washington to Richmond, and on his own responsibility proposed to the Con- federate Government the appointment of •commissioners to negotiate with the Federal Government for the close of the war. The following commissioners were appointed by the Confederate Government : Alexander H. Stephens, Vice-President of the Confederate States; R. M. T. Hunter, Senator from Vir- ginia in the Confederate Congress, and John A. Campbell, Assistant Secretary of War. PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. 771 17^ THE CIVIL WAR. They proceeded to City Point under a safe conduct from General Grant, and were con- veyed from t'hat place to Hampton Roads in a Government steamer. On the third of February President Lincoln and Secretary Se'"ard having reached Hampton Roads, an MAJOR-GENERAL J. M. SCHOFIELD, informal conference was held between the President and the commissioners. The Presi- dent refused to entertain any propositions which were not based upon the unconditional submission of the Southern States to the authority of the Union, and as the commis- ment to enter into any such arrangement the conference accomplished nothing. In the meantime, however. Admiral Porter, undaunted by the failure of Butler to take Fort Fisher, had remained off the fort with his fleet and had asked for troops to renew the attempt. The same force that Butler had commanded, with fifteen hundred additional men, was placed under Gen- eral Terry's command and ordered to join Por- ter. This force arrived off Fort Fisher on the twelfth of January, and on the morning of the thirteenth accomplished its landing with success. A terrible fire was rained upon the fort by the fleet during the thirteenth and fourteenth, and on the fourteenth a daring re- tonnoissance of the Union force revealed the fact that the fort had been severely damaged by this bombardment. The trenches of the Union army were pushed rapidly through the sand to within two hundred yards of Fort Fisher in order to attract the atten- tion of the garrison, and on the fifteenth a feint was< made by a force of sailors and marines from the fleet in this direction. At the same time the troops under General Terry stormed the fort from the land side, and after a hard hand- to-hand struggle of about five hours, during which each traverse was carried in succession sioners had no authority from their govern- < by a separate fight, Fort Fisher was captured. PORTRAIT. OF FEDERAL CAVALRY COMMANDERS. 773 774 THE CIVIL WAR. On the sixteenth and seventeenth the Con- federates blew up their other works at the mouth of the Cape Fear and retreated towards Wilmington. The mouth of the river was now in the possession of the Fed- eral forces, and the last port of the South was closed. A number of blockade runners, igno- rant of the capture, ran into the river and fell into the hands of the victors. Later in the month. General J. M. Schofield was placed in command of tlie department of North Carolina, and on the twenty-second of Feb- ruary occupied the city of Wilmington, North Carolina, with his troops. INTERIOR OF FORT STEADMAN. Sherman, after the capture of Savannah, allowed his army a month's rest on the coast, and towards the end of January moved northward through South Carolina towards Virginia. His force was sixty thousand strong and moved in four columns, covering a front of fifty miles. His route was marked by the same desolation he had spread through Georgia. The roads were in a horrible con- dition, and in many places the men were forced to wade through the icy waters up to the armpits. Still he pressed on right into the heart of the Confederacy. On the seven- teenth of February he reached Columbia, South Carolina, having destroyed the rail- road leading north from Charleston. General Hardee, commanding the Con- federate forces at Charleston, apprehensive of being shut up in that city, which was utterly unprepared for a siege, evacuated Charleston and its defences on the seven- teenth of February and retreated northward to join General Johnston in North Carolina. The next day Charleston was occupied by the Federal forces. Fort Sumter was also taken possession of at the same time. The fort was a mass of ruins ; the city was not much better off. It had suffered severely from the bombardment to which it had been subjected since the fall of Fort Wagner, and the Confederates upon their withdrawal had set fire to a considerable part of it. From Columbia, Sherman moved to- wards Fayetteville. North Carolina, driv- ing back the Confederate forces that resisted his progress, and entered that place on the twelfth of March. From Fayetteville he moved towards Golds- borough. The Confederate government, in the emergency to which it was reduced, was obliged to reappoint General Joseph E. Johnston to the command of the force assembling in Sher.Tian's front. Johns- ton succeeded in collecting about thirty-five thousand troops,with which he attacked Sher- man at Averasborough on the sixteenth of March, and again at Bentonville on the nine- teenth. The Confederates fought with their old enthusiasm in these encounters, but were unable to stay the progress of the Federal army, and on the twenty-third of March Sherman occupied Goldsborough. Johnston withdrew towards Raleigh. At Goldsborough Sherman was joined by the forces of Gen- erals Schofield and Terry, which had come up from the coast. The armies of Grant and Lee had lain con- fronting each other during the winter. General Lee had little hope of maintaining ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 775 his position after the opening of hostilities. His army was growing weaker from sickness and desertion, and no more men could be obtained. The Con- federate Congress made a feeble effort during the winter to enlist negro troops in its service, but with singular recklessness refused to offer the boon of freedom to such of the blacks as would take up arms. That body believed that the negroes would fight for their own enslavement. Early having been driven out of the val- ley. General Sheridan was ordered to start from Winchester with a column often thou- sand cavalry, and cut the communications of Lee's army by rail- road and telegraph north and east of Rich- mond. He left Win- chester on the twenty- seventh of February, and defeating Early's force at Waynesbor- ough, broke the Vir- ginia Central Railroad :it that point and moved to Charlottes- ville, which surrend- ered to him. He then divided his force into destroyed the railroad between Charlottes- ville and Lynchburg for about forty miles, two columns and resumed his "ride" on the sixth of March. He most thoroughly POSITIONS OF THE ARMIES NEAR PETERSBURG, VA. and the canal between Richmond and Lynchburg shared the same fate for a 776 THE CIVIL WAR. considerable distance. Being unable to cross i the James above Richmond on account of the high water, he moved around the north of Richmond, crossed the river at Deep Bottom and joined Grant before Petersburg ton the twenty-sixth of March. He had utterly laid waste the country along his jroute. The arrival of this splendid force of ■cavalry was of the greatest service to Grant, as we shall see. The situation of General Lee's army was GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. growmg more critical every day. He had less than forty thousand troops. He was fully convinced of the necessity of abandon- ing Richmond and Petersburg, and was anx- ious to do so at once, and unite his army with that of General Johnston and occupy a new position in the interior of the South. In order to secure the withdrawal of his army, he determined to make a vigorous attack upon Grant's right, hoping to compel him, in order to help his right, to draw back his left ' wing, which was in dangerous proximity to the road by which Lte wished to retreat. Could he succeed in this effort, he meant to evacuate his position at Petersburg and retire towards Danville, where he hoped to unite with General Johnston. On the twenty-fifth of March, he made a heavy attack upon Fort Steadman, on the, right of Grant's line, and captured it. The Federal forces rallied, however, and drove the Confederates from the captured works back to their own line, inflicting upon them a loss of three thousand men. Lee had now no alternative but to await the move- ments of General Grant, as he could not afiford to make the sacrifice of men which a renewal of his efforts would require of him. General Grant lost no time in taking the field. By the last of March, his army, numbering about one hundred and seventy thousand men, including Sheridan's mag- nificent cavalry division, was in readiness to begin the campaign. On the twenty- ninth of March, the advance of the Federal army was begun. Leaving the bulk of his army before Petersburg, Grant sent a col- umn of twenty-five thousand men to turn the Confederate right and seize the South- side railroad, Lee's only means of com- munication with Johnston's army and the country in his rear. By the morning of the thirtieth, the Federal left had gotten fairly to the right of the Confederates. On the thirtieth, a heavy storm prevented a further advance, and Lee took advantage of the delay to reinforce his right wing with all the troops he could spare. On the thirty- first, he attempted to drive back the Federal left, but without success. While this battle was going on, Sheridan swung around the Confederate right and seized the important position of Five Forks. Lee then sent Pick- ett's and Johnston's divisions to recover this pointy and they drove off the cavalry, and ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 117 occupied Five Forks at night-fall on the thirty-first. Being joined by the Fifth corps, Sheridan attacked the Confederates on the morning of the first of April, and defeated them after a determined encounter, taking over five thousand prisoners. As soon as Sheridan had secured Five Forks, Grant opened a heavy artillery fire upon the lines of Petersburg along his whole front, and continued the bombardment through the night. On the morning of the second of April he made a determined attack upon Lee's line and broke it at several points. Gen- eral Lee was now forced to assume a new and shorter line immediately around Petersburg. The Federal army made a vigorous effort to force its way into the city, but vas unsuccessful. The fate of Petersburg was now decided. It was impossible to hold it longer. On the night of the second of April Gen- eral Lee withdrew his army from Richmond and Petersburg and re- treated in the direction of Amelia Court-house. His intention was to move towards Danville and endeavor to join Johnston. His retreat was discovered on the morning of the third of April, and the Federal army, leaving a small force to occupy Petersburg, set off in pursuit, following the line of the Southside Railroad. On the morning of the third the withdrawal of the Confederates from the lines of Rich- mond was discovered by General Weitzel commanding the Federal forces on the north side of the James. He at once advanced and Qccupied the city of Richmond, a large part of which was in flames as he entered it, hav- ing been set on fire by the Confederates upon their evacuation of it. Thus fell the Confed- erate capital after four long years of bloody war for its possession. Upon reaching Amelia Court-house Gen- eral Lee found that the supplies he had ordered to be sent there from Danville were not to be had. The trains sent from Danville by his instructions had been ordered to Rich- mond to remove the property of the Confed- erate government, and had not been allowed THE LAST CAVALRY CHARGE OF THE WAR. to unload their stores at Amelia Court-house. This was a terrible blow to Lee, who was now unable to furnish food to his troops, who had eaten nothing since the commencement of the retreat. Parties were sent into the sur- rounding country to obtain supplies, and this consumed the whole of the fourth and fifth of April, which Lee had hoped to spend in pushing on beyond his pursuers. The delay enabled Sheridan, with eighteen thousand mounted men, to seize the Confed- erate line of retreat at JetersviHe, This 7/8 THE CIVIL WAR. movement put an end to Lee's hope of reach- ing Danville and joining Johnston. A battle was impossible, for Sheridan had a force nearly equal to his own, and Grant was hurrying on with the rest of the Federal army. General Lee therefore turned off and retreated towards Farmville, hoping to be able to reach Lynch- burg, but Sheridan, after passing Farmville, pushed forward again, and by a forced march reached Appomattox Station, on the South- side Railroad, on the night of the eighth, and planted his force squarely across the Confed- erate line of retreat. Surrender of General Lee. ' The next morning Lee, when near Appo- mattox Court-house, discovered this obstacle in his way, and about the same time Sheridan was joined by the Army of the James, under General Ord, while the Army of the Poto- mac, under General Meade, was closing in fast upon Lee's rear. General Lee had now but eight thousand men with arms in their hands. The bulk of his forces, being too much broken down by fatigue and hunger to keep their places in their ranks, accompa- nied the regiments in a disorganized mass. As soon as he discovered Sheridan in his front, Lee attempted to cut his way through his lines, but failing in this effort, and being convinced that further resistance would merely be a useless sacrifice of his men, he asked for a suspension of hostilities, and went to meet General Grant. The two commanders met at a house near Appomattox Court-house, and after a brief interview arranged the terms of the surren- der. General Grant treated the beaten army with great liberality. The hungry Confed- erates were fed by the victors, and after laying down their arms were permitted to return to their homes. In order that the men might betake themselves as soon as possible to the cultivation of the soil, and so avoid the suffering which the failure of the harvest would entail upon the South, Gen- eral Grant released all captured horses which were identified as the property of the sol- diers surrendering them. The terms of the surrender were arranged on the ninth of April. On the twelfth thej Army of Northern Virginia formed in divis- ions for the last time, and marching to a des- ignated spot near Appomattox Court-house laid down its arms, and disbanded. About seventy-five hundred men with arms, and about eighteen thousand unarmed strag- glers, took part in the surrender. The Fed- eral troops treated their vanquished oppo- nents with true soldierly kindness, and care- fully refrained from everything which might seem to insult the valor that had won their earnest admiration. Terms of Surrender. The following is a detailed account of the correspondence which passed between Gen- erals Grant and Lee, and a full statement of tho terms upon which the Confederate Gen- eral surrendered his army. On the evening of April 7th Lee received Grant's first letter. " April 7th, 1865. " General : The result of the last week must con- vince you of the hopelessness of further resistance on the part of the Army of Northern Virginia in this struggle. I feel that it is so, and regard it as my duty to shift from myself the responsibility of any further effusion of blood, by asking of you the sur- render of that portion of the Confederate States army known as the Army of Northern Virginia. "U. S. GRANT, Lieut.-General. '' General R. E. Lee." To this letter Lee wrote an immediate answe*-; but it was not until the following morning that it reached Grant at Farmville. It was couched in these words : " April 7th, 1865. " General : I have received your note of this date. Though not entertaining the opinion you ex- press of the hopelessness of further resistance on the ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 779 part of the Army of Northern Virginia, I reciprocate your desire to avoid useless effusion of blood, and, therefore, before considering your proposition, ask the terms you will offer, on condition of its surren- der. " R. E. LEE, General. " Lieut.-General U. S. Grant." On the instant Grant replied as follows : "April 8th, 1865. " General : Your note of last evening, in reply to mine of the same date, asking the condition on which I will accept the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia, is just received. In reply, I would say that peace being my first desire, there is but one condition that I insist upon, viz. : That the men surrendered shall be disqualified for taking up arnis against the government of the United States until properly exchanged. I will meet you, or des- ij5:nate officers to meet any officers you may name for the same purpose, at any point agreeable to you, for the purpose of arranging definitely, the terms upon which the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia will be received. "U. S. GRANT, Lieut.-General. -' General R. E. Lee." Lee was in a strongly intrenched position, a few miles to the north of the Appomattox. As soon as he indited his reply to Grant's first message he resumed his retreat under cover of the darkness ; and so quietly was it conducted that Humphreys was ignorant of the fact until morning, when he was prepared to renew the attack. Lee's skillful general- ship was again conspicuously revealed. Ever vigilant, ever fertile in resource, and ever active, he had again put miles between him- self and his pursuers. Lee's Hurried Retreat. The fact that Lee had retreated durmg the night was at once made known to Grant, who immediately gave orders for the renewal of the pursuit. The Second and Sixth corps, under the '-^mediate direction of Meade, who was accompanied by the General-in-chief, were pushed forward with all possible haste along the north bank of the Appomattox. Sheridan meanwhile had made excellent use both of his troopers and of his time. Lee was pressing along that gradually narrowing neck of land which lies between the head- waters of the Appomattox and the affluents of the James. It was of the utmost importance that Sheri- dan should be able to interpose his troops between Lee's army and Lynchburg. If he could close the outlet in the direction of that city it would be all over with Lee, pursued closely as he was by the Second and Sixth corps, under the direction of Meade and the General-in-chief. This was precisely what Sheridan was aiming at, and what, within a few hours, he actually did accomplish. Hav- ing learned from one of his scouts early on the morning of the eighth that four trains of cars with supplies for Lee's army were at Appomattox Station, he at once notified Mer- ritt and Crook, and briskly pushed the whole command towards that point. Desperate Attempt to Escape. Lee was not ignorant of the extreme peril of his situation; but he kept pressing eagerly forward, still clinging to the skirts of hope, and, in spite of almost irresistible evidence to the contrary, indulging the thought that he might yet find refuge among the ranges of the Blue Ridge, beyond Lynchburg. In these circumstances he received Grant's second let- ter, and replied as follows : " April 8th, 1865. " General : I received at a late hour your note of to-day. In mine of yesterday, I did not intend to propose the surrender of the Army of Northern Vir- ginia, but to ask the terms of your proposition. To be frank, I do not think the emergency has arisen to call for the surrender of tliis army ; but as the reS' toration of peace should be the sole object of all, I desire to know whether your proposals would tend to that end. I cannot, therefore, meet you with a view to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia ; but so far as your proposition may affect the Confed- erate States forces under my command, and tend to the restoration of peace, I should be pleased to meet 78o THE CIVIL WAR. you at ten A. M., to-morrow, on the old stage-road to Richmond, between the picket-Hnes of the two armies. " R. E. LEE, General. " Lieut.-General U. S. Grant.'' This note was received by Grant about midnight ; and he replied next morning in the following terms : "April 8th, 1865, '* General : Your note of yesterday is received. GENERAL JOHN B. GORDON. As I have no authority to treat on the subject of peace, the meeting proposed for ten A. M., to-day, could lead to no good. I will state, however. Gen- eral, that I am equally anxious for peace with your- self; and the whole North entertain the same feel- ing. The terms upon which peace can be had are well understood. By the South laying down their arms they will hasten that most desirable event, save thousands of human lives, and hundreds of millions of property not yet destroyed. Sincerely hoping that all our difficulties may be settled with- out the loss of another life, I subscribe myself, " U. S. GRANT, Lieutenant-General. " General R. E. Lee." As soon as he had finished this letter Grant left Meade in charge of the Second and Sixth corps and hurried on to join Sheridan and Griffin. While the letter was on its way, and before the General-in-chief had joined the one or the other, further parley had become unnecessary. Sheridan had already settled the question. On the morning of the eighth, after a forced march of about thirty miles, his advance, under Custer, had reached Appomattox Station, about four miles to the south of Appomat- tox Court House. Lee's vanguard hacl just arrived with four trains of cars, laden with supplies. Custer Makes a Dash. Custer, with lightning-like rapidity, dashed upon the rear of the trains, and cap- tured them. Supported by Devin, who had come up, he then rushed with fierce energy on the vanguard, and drove it back to Ap- pomattox Court House, near which was the main body of Lee's army. Twenty-five guns, a hospital train, a large number of ad- ditional wagons, with many prisoners, were captured by the National cavalry. Sheridan, hurrying forward with the remainder of his command, flung himself across the line of Lee's retreat, with the determination of hold- ing his ground at any and every risk until the morning, when, he knew, he would be joined by Ord, and the Army of the James, and by Griffin with the Fifth corps. He knew also that by that time, Meade, with the Second and Sixth corps, would be well forward and able to fall with effect on the Confederate rear. Such was the situation of affairs on the night of the eighth. Lee was completely cut off from his own line of retreat. Brave and resolute to the last, and believing that he had notning but cavalry in front of him, he ADMINISTRATION OF* ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 7B1 decided to make an attempt, at least, to cut through Sheridan's hnes. Early on the morning of the ninth Lee was ready to carry out his purpose. His heart, however, must have bled within him, when he looked around him, and beheld the wretched remnant of what was once the proud and invincible army of Northern Vir- ginia. It consisted of two thin lines — the one composed of what was left of Hill's, now Gordon's command, the other of the wreck of Longstreet's corps. Between these lines were the debris of the wagon-train, and some thousands of miserable creatures who were too weak to _^^.__ carry arms. Lee gave orders to ^ Gordon to cut his way through, at all hazards. The charge was made with tremendous energy. Such, in truth, was the violence of the shock, and so persistent was the pressure, that Sheridan's men who had dismounted to resist the attack, were forced back. At this critical moment, Sher- idan, who had been to Appomat- tox Station for che purpose of hurrying forward Ord, arrived on the scene of action. Knowing well the purpose of the enemy, and keenly alive to the value of time, he directed his troopers to fall back gradually, but to continue to offer a firm and steady resistance, so as to allow Ord, with his infantry, to come up and form his lines. This done, they were to move to the right and mount. Sheridan's orders were admirably executed. As soon as the cavalry moved towards their own right, the Confed- erates beheld to their amazement, the glit- ;tering arms and serried rankc of the in- fantry. The unlooked-for vision had all the effect of a stunning and unexpected blow The Confederates immediately discontinued their pressure, and began to give way. The Na- tional infantry were now pressing upon the confused and bewildered multitude. Sheridan had ridden round to the Confederate left flank ; his bugles had sounded the order to remount, and he was just about to fall with' all his weight on the already disordered mass, when a flag of truce was presented to Custer who led the advance. Sheridan rode to Appomattox Court House, where he was met by General Gordon and General Wilcox. Gordon asked for a suspension of hostilities, THE McLean house. and informed Sheridan that Grant and Lee were, even now, making arrangements for the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia. There was no more fighting between the two great rival armies — the Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern Virginia. On the morning of the ninth, a heavy fog enveloped the entire country around Appo- mattox Court House. Long before that fog dispersed, Lee, clad in a new gray uniform, might have been seen at a camp-fire with Mahone and Longstreet. Care and anxiety were written on each of their countenances. Longstreet, his arm in a sling, and a cigar in 782 THE CIVIL WAR. his mouth, sat on the trunk of a felled tree. Gordon had been sent on his mission. It ^ "^ . "flHw^-iifnil™''™' ill"' ^1" ' '^''"— ""''™'''*'''''— ""^ [ ' SURRENDER OF GENERAL LEE. Of Gordon's failure to penetrate the National lines, they were soon made aware. Lee mounted his horse. " General Longstreet," he said, "I leave you in charge; I am going to hold a conference with Gen- eral Grant." He then rode off. On his way he received Grant's letter, before quoted. He replied immedi- ately : "April 9, 1865. "General : I received your note of this morning, on the picket-line, whither I had come to meet you, and ascertain definitely what terms were embrac- ed in your proposition of yesterday, with reference to the surrender of this army. I now ask an in- terview, in accordance with the offer contained in your letter of yesterday for that purpose. " R. E. LEE, General. " Lieut.-General U. S. Grant." To this Grant re= plied as follows : "April 9th, 1865. "General: Yournote of this date is but this moment (11.50 a. m.) re- ceived. In consequence of my having passed from theRichmondand Lynch- burg road to the Farmville J and Lynchburg road, I am at this writing about four miles west of Walter's was agreed that if success were denied him I Church, and will ,.ash forward to the front for the there was no longer any chance of escape. J purpose of meeting you. Notice sent to me on this 784 THE CIVIL WAR. road, where you wish the interview to take place, will meet me. " U. S. GRANT, ijieutenant-Ceneral. " General R. E. Lee." The scene and the main features of the interview have been preserved for v. ; by an eye-witness. It took place at the house of Mr, Wilmer McLean — a square brick build- ing surrounded with roses, violets and daffo- dils. Grant — with his slouched hat, dark blue frock-coat unbuttoned and covered with mud, gray pantaloons tucked in his soiled boote, and a dark waistcoat, and with nothing to indicate his rank, except the double row of brass buttons and the three silver stars — walked up to the house, accompanied by Ord, Sheridan and their respective staffs. Lee had already arrived ; and his blooded iron-gray horse, in charge of an orderly, was nibbling at the grass. Grant and two aids entered the house; the others who accom- panied him, sat down on the porch. Lee was standing beside a table, wearing a bright bluish-gray un^ppn, a military hat, with a gold cord, bg^ ticin gauntlets, high riding boots, and t^ffl[iielendid dress-sword which had been prei|g>'ed to him by the State of Virginia. Tai^^nd erect, he had a fine soldierly bearing. It was noticed that his hair was long and gray. He was attended only by Colonel Marshall, his chief of staff. On Grant's entrance the two shook hands, sat down and proceeded to business. Grant Delivers His Terms. As Lee made no special request. Grant at once wrote out his terms : " Appomattox Court House, "[ April 9, 1865. j I " General : ... accordance with the substance of my letter to you of the eighth instant, I propose to receive the surrender of the Army of Northern Vir- ginia on the following terms, to wit : Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate, one copy to be given to an officer designated by me, the other to be retained by such officers as you may designate. The officers to give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or regimental commander to sign a like parole for the men of his command. The arms, artillery and public property to be parked and stacked and turned over to the officers appointed by me to receive them. This will not embrace the side-arms of the officers, nor their private horses or baggage. This done, each officer and man will be allowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where they m.ay reside. " U. S. GRANT, Lieiite7tant-General. "General R. E. Lee." I The following is Lee's letter of acceptance : " Headquarters Army of Northern ) Virginia, April 9, 1865. | "General: I have received your letter of this date, containing the terms of the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia, as proposed by you. As they are substantially the same as those expressed in your letter of the eighth instant, they are accepted. I will proceed to designate the proper officers to carry the stipulations into effect. " R. E. -jEF., General. " Lieut.-General U. S. Grant." The signatures had just been attached, when Lee, after a moment's reflection, said that he had forgotten one thing. Many of the cavalry and artillery horses belonged to the men who had charge of them. It was too late, however, to speak of that now. Grant replied, " I will instruct my paroling officers that all the enlisted men of your cavalry and artillery, who own horses, are to retain them, just as the officers do theirs. They will need them for their spring plough- ing, and other farm work." Lee seemed greatly pleased with Grant's prompt com- pliance with his only half-expressed wish. "General," he said earnestly, "there is nothing which you could have accomplished more for the good of the people or of the govern- ment." Grant's terms were in the last degree magnanimous and liberal. 786 THE CIVIL WAR. The news of the capture of Richmond and Petersburg and the surrender of Lee's army- was received in the North with the greatest rejoicing. Bells were rung, cannon fired, and illuminations flashed from every town and village, for it was understood that these great successes were decisive of the war. In the midst of these rejoicings occurred THE GRAVE OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. a terrible tragedy which plunged the country into mourning. President Lincoln, whose re-election we have related, entered upon his second term on the fourth of March, 1865, amid the congratulations of the country. On the evening of the fourteenth of April he attended a performance at Ford's Theatre, in the city of Washington. During the midst of the performance the report of a pistol rang through the house, and the next moment a man leaped from the President's box upon the stage, and waving a pistol over his head, shouted " Sic semper tyrannis'' (Thus always with tyrants), and disappeared behind the scenes. The cry was raised that the Presi- dent had been killed, and in the commotion which ensued the assassin escaped. The murderer had en- tered the lobby of the theatre, and had fired from the door of the private box upon the unsuspic- ious President, who was sitting with his back to him. Mr. Lincoln fell heavily forward and never spoke again. He was conveyed to a house on the opposite side of the street, and the high- est skill was exert- ed to save him, but all in vain. He died on the morning of the fifteenth, sur- rounded by his fa- mily and the lead- ing men of the na' tion. Appropriate funeral services were held on the nineteenth, and the body of the martyred President was conveyed through the principal cities of the North and West to Springfield, Illinois, where it was buried. Along the entire route it was received with the evidences of the nation's grief. Qties were draped in mourning, and dense crowds poured out to greet the fun- eral cortege, and testify their love and sorrow ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 1^1 for the dead man. Even in the South, which had made the election of Abraham Lincoln the occasion of the dissolution of the Union, the unaffected and manly virtues of this simply great man had conquered the people, who had come to regard him as their best and truest friend. i. His death was sincerely lamented there, and in the lamentation of the South, Abra- ham Lincoln had his proudest triumph. His death was a crushing misfortune to the whole country. He was the only man capable of carrying out a policy of generous concilia- tion towards the South, and he had resolved upon such a course. He was sincerely desirous to heal the wounds of the war as soon as possible, and was strong enough to put down all opposition to his policy. His untimely deaths is well as the manner of it, threw back the settlement of our national troubles fully five years. The Assassin Escapes. As he leaped from the President's box to the stage, the assassin's foot caught in an American flag with which the box was draped, and he fell heavily, breaking his leg. He managed to escape, however. It was immediately ascertained that the assassin was John Wilkes Booth, a younger son of the famous actor Junius Brutus Booth. Almost at the same time that the President was shot, another assassin, one Payne, alias Powell, entered the residence of Secretary Seward. Proceeding to the chamber where the Secre- tary was confined to a sick bed, he attacked the two attendants of the invalid and his son, Frederick W. Seward, and injured them severely, and then attempted to cut Mr. Seward's throat. He succeeded in gashing the face of his intended victim, but fl'^A before further harm could be done. Booth, who was most probably insane,'had drawn quite a number of persons into a con- spiracy, which had for its object the murder of the President and Vice-President, Secre- taries Seward and Stanton, and Chief Justice Chase. The plot failed through unexpected movements of some of the intended victims and the cowardice of some of the conspirators. Booth and a young man named Harold fled into lower Maryland, from which they crossed the Potomac into Virginia. The}> were pursued by the government detectives and a squadron of cavalry, and were tracked to a barn in Caroline County, Virginia, between Bowling Green and Port Royal. Booth Shot by Sergeant Corbett. Here they were surrounded on the twenty- sixth of April. Harold surrendered himself, but Booth, refusing to yield, was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett, and died a few hours later, after suffering intensely. His accomplices were arrested, and were brought to trial before a military commission at Washington.. Payne or Powell, Atzerot, Harold, and Mrs. Surratt were condemned to death, and were hanged on the seventh of July, 1865, for complicity in the plot. Dr. Mudd, O'Laughlin and Arnold were im- prisoned in the Dry Tortugas for life, and Spangler fcr six years. What Booth expected to accomplish by his horrible deed yet remains a mystery. It is now generally believed that he was insane ; rendered so perhaps by his dissipated habits — and in this state of mind had conceived the idea that Mr. Lincoln was a tyrant, and as such ought to be put to death. He had no accomplices in the South, and his bloody deed was regarded with horror by the southern people. We must now return to Sherman's army, which we left resting at Goldsboro'. John- ston's army was in the vicinity of Raleigh, I and after the fall of Richmond was joined by Mr. Davis and the various officers of the Confederate government. On the tenth of 788 THE CIVIL WAR« April Sherman advanced from Goldsboro' towards Johnston's position, and steadily pressed the Confederate army back. On the thirteenth Sherman entered Raleigh. Being convinced that further resistance was hope- less, and having learned of the surrender of General Lee's army, General Johnston now States of the Confederacy to their lost places in the Union, it was disapproved by the Federal government, and Sherman was ordered to resume hostilities. General John- ston was at once notified by General Sherman of this order, and on the twenty-sixth of April entered into an agreement with him by INTERVIEW BETWEEN GENERALS SHERMAN AND JOHNSTON. opened negotiations with General Sherman for the surrender of his army to the Federal commander. The result of these negotiations was an agreement signed by the two commanders on the eighteenth of April. As this agree- ment provided for the restoration of the which he surrendered to General Shermat all the Confederate forces under his command, on terms similar to those granted to General Lee by General Grant. The example of Generals Lee and John- ston was followed by the other Confederate comnianders throughout the South. The ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 789 last to surrender was General E. Kirby Smith, in Texas, on the twenty-sixth of May. On the twenty-ninth of May Presi- dent Johnson issued a proclamation announc- ing the close of the war, and offering amnesty to all who had participated in it on the Con- federate side, with the exception of fourteen specified classes. Upon the surrender of Johnston's army, Mr. Davis and the members of his former cabinet endeavored to make their way to the coast of Florida, from which they hoped to be able to reach the West Indies. Some of them succeeded in doing so, but Mr. Davis was captured at Irwinsville, Georgia, on the tenth of May, and was sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, where he was held in con- finement until May, 1867. The civil war was over. It had cost the country one million men in the killed and crippled for life of the two armies. In money the North and South had expended proba- bly the enormous sum of ^5,000,000,000. The exact amount will never be known as the Confederate debt perished with the gov- ernment which created it. ^^ s^?S 5^^ CHAPTER XLIII The Administration of Andrew Johnson rhe Ne^ fijrfiki^it— Return of the Army to Civil Life — The Public Debt — The Reconstruction Question — Action of the President^Ke Declares the Southern States Readmitted into the Union — The Fifteenth Amendment — Meeting of Congress — The President's Acts Annulled— Reconstruction Policy of Congress — The Fourteenth Amendment — The Freedman's Bureau and Civil Rights Bills — The Tenure of Office Act — Admission of Nebraska into the Union — The Southern States Or^mzed as Military Districts — Admission of Southern States into the Union — The Fourteenth Amendment Ratified — President Johnson's Quarrel with Secretary Stanton — Impeachment of the President — His Acquital — Release of Jefferson Davis— Indian War — The French in Mexico — Fall of the Mexican Empire — Laying of the Atlantic Telegraph — Purchase of Alaska — Naturalization Treaty with Germany — Treaty with China — Death of General Scott — Death o4 ex-President Buchanan — General Grant Elected President — The Fifteenth Amendment. UPON the death of Mi-. Lincoln, Andtew Johnson, the vice-Pres- ident, by the terms of the Consti- tution, became President of the United States. He took the oath of office on the fifteenth of April, and at once entered upon the discharge of his duties. His first act was to retain all the members of the cabinet appointed by Mr. Lincoln. Mr. Johnson was a native of North Caro- lina, having been born in Raleigh on the twenty-ninth of December, 1808. At the age of ten he was bound as an apprentice to a tailor of that city. He was at this time unable to read or write. Some years later, being determined to acquire an education, he learned the alphabet from a fellow-workman, and a friend taught him spelling. He was soon able to read, and pursued his studies steadily, working ten or twelve hours a day at his trade, and studying two or three more. In 1826 he removed to Greenville, Tennes- see, carrying with him his mother, who was dependent upon him for support. Upon attaining manhood he married, and 2ontinued his studies under the direction of his wife, supporting his family in the mean time by his trade. He was subsequently chosen alderman of his town, and with this election entered upon his political career. 790 Studing law he abandoned tailoring, and devoted himself to legal pursuits and politics. He was succesively chosen mayor, member of the legislature, presidential elector, and State senator. He was twice elected gover- nor of Tennessee, and three times a senator of the United States from that State. Upon the secession of Tennessee Irom the Union he refused to relinquish his seat in the Senate, and remained faithful to the cause of the Union throughout the war, wining consider- able reputation during the struggle by his services in behalf of the national cause. He was an earnest, honest-hearted man, who sincerely desired to do his duty to the country. His mistakes were due to his tem- perament, and proceeded from no desire to serve his own interests or those of any party. In his public life he was incorruptible. A man of ardent nature, strong convictions, and indomitable will, it was not possible that he should avoid errors, or fail to stir up a warm and determined opposition to his policy. The first duty devolving upon the new administration was the disbanding of the army, which at the close of the war numbered over a million of men. It was prophesied by foreign nations, and feared by many per- sons at home, that the sudden return of such a large body of men to the pursuits of civil ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 791 Ai'e would be attended with serious evils, but both the Union and the Confederate soldiers went back quietly and readily to their old avocations. Thus did these citizen-soldiers give to the world a splendid exhibition of the triumph of law and order in a free country, and a proof of the stability of our institutions. Two questions — both difficult and de- licate — presented themselves for settle- ment by the govern- ment. In June, 1865, the war debt amount- ed to ;^2,7oo,ooo,ooo. The interest on this sum was ;^ 1 33,000,000, and was nearly all pay- able in gold. The gov- ernment was called upon to raise the latter amount to pay the interest on its bonds, and at the same time lio take measures to strengthen the confi- /ience of the bond- holders in the security of their investments. The latter object was accomplished by a solemn resolution of the House of Repre- sentatives, adopted with but one dissent- ing voice on the fifth of December, 1865, pledging the faith of the nation to the payment of the public debt, "principal and interest." In order to provide for the immediate wants of the government Congress levied additional duties on imported articles, and imposed taxes upon manufactured articles, incomes, etc. These burdensome imposts were cheerfully submitted to by the people, and a revenue of over ;^300,ooo,ooo was raised, providing not only for the payment of the interest on the debt, and of the current ANDREW JOHNSON. expenses of the government, but also leaving a large surplus, which was applied to the reduction of the national debt. In the year 1866, " before all the extra troops called out by the war had been discharged, the debt had been diminished more than thirty-one 792 THE CIVIL WAR. millions of dollars " — a striking proof of the ibility as well as the willingness of the nation to discharge its financial obligations. During the remainder of Mr. Johnson's term this policy was faithfully adhered to under the able guidance of Hugh McCulloch, secretary of the treasury. which he claimed they had no power to renounce. Now that they had submit- ted to the authority they had formerly endea- i vored to reject, he claimed that they were entitled to immediate restoration to their old places in the Union. In support of his position he quoted the RUINS OF RICHMOND AFTER THE WAR. The other question demanding immediate attention was the adjustment of the relations of the States of the South to the Union. The President held that they had never been out of the Union but had simply been in insur- rection, and had been brought back to the acknowledgment of their allegiance to the constitution and laws of the United States, solemn declaration of Congress in the sum- mer of 1 86 1, and the assurances of Mr. Lincoln's administration that the war was fought for the restoration of the Union, and not for purposes of conquest. In accordance v/ith these declarations, provisional govern- ments had been formed in some of the South- ern States and their representatives had been ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 793 admited to Congress during the progress of the war. A considerable party in the North supported President Johnson in this position ; but the Republican party, now the dominant political organization of the United States, opposed his views with great determination. The Republicans insisted that the results of the war should be secured by stringent laws, and that the Southern States, before their admission into the Union, should be President Johnson, however, proceeded alone and without delay to the work oi restoring the Southern States to their places in the Union. On the twenty-ninth of May, 1865, he issued a proclamation appointing a provisional governor for the State of North Carolina, and providing for the assembling of a convention in that State for the purpose of forming a new constitution, under which the State would be recognized by him as 9 FORT WARREN, BOSTON HARBOR. compelled to give guarantees for the perpet- uation of these results. The Republican party, moreover, claimed that the work of reconstructing the Union properly belonged to the legislative branch of the government and not to the President. Had the President summoned Congress in extra session and sought the aid of that body in the task before him, a conciliatory policy might have been agreed upon, and the work of recon- struction have been completed without delay. member of the Federal Union. In the mean- time North Carolina was kept under military rule. A similar course was pursued by the President towards the States of Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississipi, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas. The people of the ten Southern States held conventions in accordance with the President's requirements, annulled their or- dinances of secession, renewed their obliga- tions to the Federal Union, adopted new 794 THE CIVIL WAR. State constitutions, and ratified the thirteenth amendement to the constitution of the United States prohibiting slavery forever in all the States of the Union. They also elected sen- ators and representatives to Congress, and were recognized by the President as formally restored to their places in the Federal Union. On the first of February, 1865, Congress passed a resolution submitting to the legisla- tures of the various States the following amendement to the constitution : " Article XIII. Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. " Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation." On the eighteenth of December, William H. Seward, Secretary of State, formally an- nounced that this, the thirteenth amendment. had been duly ratified by the States, and had become a part of the constitution of the United States. The ratification of this amend- ment had been required of the Southern 'States by the President as a condition of their readimission into the Union. The Thirty-ninth Congress met in Decem- bre, 1865, and at once took measures to neutralize the reconstruction policy of the President. The Republican party had a large majority in each house, and was thor- oughly united in its opposition to the Presi- dent. The senators and representatives of the Southern States were refused admission to seats in Congress, and the reconstruction measures of the President were treated as null and void. Congress insisted that the Union should not be " restored " as it was before the war, but " reconstructed " upon an entirely new basis. The measures of the President had made no change in the political status of the black population of the South. The negroes were secured in their freedom by the thirteenth amendment. Congress now proceeded to make the negro a citizen of the United StateS; and to reconstruct the Union upon this basis. The following, known as the fourteenth amendment to the constitution^ was adopted by Congress and proposed to the States for ratification : , " Article XIV. Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 1 and of the States wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United btates ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. "Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respec- tive numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed ; but when the right to vote at any election, for the choice of electors for President and vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State (being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States), or in any way abridged except for participa- tion in rebellion or other crime, the basis of repre- sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age, in said State. "Section j. No person shall be a senator or repre- sentative in Congress, or elector of President and vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States or as a member of any State legislature, or as an execu- tive or judicial officer of any State, to support the constitution of the United States, shall have en-[ gaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. ! "Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized by law, including debts ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 795 incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall aot be questioned ; but neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebel- lion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. *'Seciion j. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article." This amendement was rejected by all the Southern States except Tennessee, and by several of the North- ern States. Tennessee ratified the amend- ment, and was admit- ted by Congress into the Union. Congress at this session enacted what is known as the ** Freedman's Bureau Bill," creating a de- partment under the Federal Government for the care and pro- tection of the newly emancipated negroes and the destitute whites of the South. This measure was ve- toed by the President as unconstitutional, and was passed over his veto. It was immediately put in operation throughout the South. While the Freed- man's Bureau did much to assist the negro in adapting himself to the duties of his new position, it was productive of an immense amount of corruption and fraud. Another measure of Congress which was vetoed by the President upon constitutional grounds, and was passed over his veto, was the " Civil Rights Bill," which secured to the negro the rights of a citizen. As the quarrel between the President and Congress deepened, various efforts were made by the latter to hamper the executive and impair his powers. The Thirty-ninth Con- gress adopted for this purpose a measure known as the " Tenure of Office Act," by the terms of which the President was forbid- den to remove any person from a civil office under the government without the consent of the Senate. This bill was promptly vetoed by the P'-esident, but was passed over his veto by the Congress. ^■*i*=S*^^55&K£^>*. ii tied in their allegiance more firmly than ever. In April, 1875, an engagement occurred at the north fork of Sappa Creek. On the morning of the nineteenth of April Lieuten- ant Austin Henely, of Fort Wallace, Kansas, started to find the trail of a party of Indians reported to be at Punished Woman's Fork. With him were forty men of Company H, Sixth Cavalry, Lieutenant C. C. Hewitt, Sur- geon F. H. Atkins, and Mr. Homer Wheeler, post trader of Fort Wallace, as guide. He also had fifteen days' rations, ten days' forage and two Si^-mule teams. On the Trail. On the second day he directed that his wagons, with a guard under the command of Sergeant Kitchin, should proceed directly to Hackberry Creek while he scouted Twin Butte and Hackberry to find a trail. About noon Corporal Morris, commanding the ad- vance, discovered traces of twelve lodges. Lieutenant Henely at once collected his wagons, abandoned one of them, as well as half his forage, rations and camp equipage, notified the commanding ofificer at Fort Wal- lace of the fact, in order that they might be recovered, and started on the trail at the rate of nearly fiv^e iniles an hour, reaching Smoky Hill River that night. A heavy rain during the night rendered it difficult to fol- low the tracks the next day. At the Kansas Pacific Railroad the trail was scattered and lost. ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. gi7 After considerable deliberation it was de- cided to take a northeast course to the North Beaver and follow it to its source, upon the supposition that the Indians would collect there and pass down for the purpose of hunt- ing. Shortly after daylight a party of hunt- ers was met, who informed Lieutenant Henely that the Indians he was in search of were on the north fork of Sftppa Creek, and had robbed their camp during their absence the day before. Three of the hunters volunteered to guide the party to the Indian encamp- ment. In the gray dawn of the morning the squad arrived at the creek, about three-quarters of a mile above the camp, being attracted to the spot by the sight of a number of ponies graz- ing. Presently Mr. Wheeler came back, galloping with furious speed, swinging his hat and shouting in a loud voice. As the force came up with him the Indian camp was displayed to view. Plan of Attack. The plan for the attack had been arranged as follows : Sergeant Kitchin was detailed to kill the herders, round up the herd as near as possible to the main command and take charge of it with half of his men. Corporal Sharpies, with five men, was left with the wagon and instructed to keep as near as pos- sible to Lieutenant Henely, the rest of *he command were to attack the savages. The north fork of Sappa Creek at this point is very crooked, is bordered by high and precipitous bluffs, and flows sluggishly through a marshy bottom, making it ex- tremely difficult to cross. As the men charged down the sides ten or twelve of the Indians ran rapidly up the bluff to a small herd of ponies ; others escaped down the creek to another herd ; while the remainder, the last to be awakened, probably seeing that flight was impossible, prepared for a des- 52 perate defence. By this time the men had reached the creek, which looked alarmingly deep and marshy. Lieutenant Henely, realizing that no time was to be lost in searching for a crossing, plunged in with his horse, followed by Mr. Wheeler. By extraordinary efforts their horses struggled through. A corporal who followed became mired ; but at length, by strenuous endeavors, all succeeded in cross- mg just as a number of dusky figures with long rifles confronted them, their heads ap- pearing' over a bank made by the creek in highwater. The Battle-ground. This bank, with the portion of the creek and bluffs in the immediate vicinity, possessed the rather remarkable feature of a large num- ber of curious holes or pits, for what purpose constructed did not appear. Some of the Indians took refuge in these hollows ; others lined the bank, with their rifles resting on the crest. Lieutenant Henely rapidly formed his men in line and signalled to the savages to surrender, as did likewise Mr. Wheeler. One, who appeared to be a chief, made some rapid gesticulations which seemed to be motions for a parley ; but it was soon obvious that they were meant for Indians in the rear. The lieutenant now ordered his men to dismount and fight on foot, and as they did so the enemy fired, but in so excited a manner that no one was hurt. The troops, posted around in a skirmish-line, were com- manded to fire. If the reader will imagine the dress circle of a theatre lowered to within about five feet of the pit, the men to be deployed about the edge, and the Indians down among the orchestra-chairs, they will have some idea of the relative positions of the parties. The most exposed portion was near the centre of the arc. Here Sergeant Theodore Papier and Private Robert Theims, 8i8 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRAl4t: of Company H, Sixth Cavalry, were instantly killed while fighting with great valor. After some twenty minutes of firing the VIEW IN THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO RIVER. Indians ceased to return the attack, and the lieutenant prepared to draw off his men in pursuit of those who had fled Scarcely had they mounted when two ^aVages rah up id the two bodies iii the endeavor to gain pos- seSSioh of them ; but three or four msri charged them at a gal- lop and rendefed their efforts useless. At this moment an In- dian, gaudily dressed, jumped from a hole and,with peculiar side- long leaps, attempted to escape, but was shot down. Lieutenant Henely then posted his men at the ends of the crest and resumed the attack, the savages^ returning it from their pits, but without doing any damage. The firing having ceased, it was inferred that all were killed.and A the command moved ^ in the direction of the 1 ponies, driving off the "S Indian guard, and bringing in a herd of the animals. As they ;;:^ returned a solitary shot was fired from the holes, piercing the horse of one of the officers entirely through the body. Lieutenant Henely then determined to make a termination, and ordered the men to advance on all sides, keeping up a steady fire. The only response was a few shots from the pits, which did no damage. Nineteen dead warriors were counted, in ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 819 addition to eight squaws and children acci- dentally killed. From the war-bonnets and rich ornaments, two were judged to be chiefs, and one whose bonnet was sur- mounted by two horns was thought to be a medicine-man. ' The Indian camp was burned and the cap- tured stock, amounting to one hundred and thirty-four animals, driven off. On the re- turn march to Fort Wallace the command was overtaken by a terrible snow-storm and forced to encamp under a bank. It was im- possible to herd the captured stock, the en- tire attention of the men being required to save themselves and their horses from freez- ing to death. Having no tents and but one blanket each, the men passed a night of in- tense suffering. Some of them were frozen; others, who had dug holes in the banks for shelter, had to be extricated in the morninr by their comrades. On the following da'^ the men disbanded into small squads to search for the captured stock, and succeeded in recapturing about one hundred head. In January, 1875, Congress passed an act providing for the resumption of specie pay- ments, and requiring that on and after Janu- ary I, 1879, the legal tender notes of the Government shall be redeemed in specie. In the meantime silver coin is to be substituted for the fractional paper currency. On the fourth of March, 1875, Congress authorized the Territory of Colorado to form a State Constitution. She was admitted as a State August i, 1876. Centennial Celebration. The political troubles in Louisiana and Arkansas assumed a most serious character during the year 1873, amounting to civil war in both States. The President, in view of the serious nature of the disturbances, inter- vened with force in each State, and compelled the rival parties to refrain from additional hostilities, and the quarrels were settled in the course of the year without further blood- shed. The year 1875 completed the period of one hundred years from the opening of the revolution, and the events of 1775 were cele- brated with appropriate commemorative cere- monies in the places where they occurred. The centennial anniversary of the battles at Lexington and Concord was celebrated at those places on the nineteenth of April with great rejoicings. On the seventeenth 01 June the centennial of Bunker Hill was cele- brated at Charlestown. Vast crowds were present from all parts of the country. One of the most gratifying features of the cele- bration was the presence and hearty partici- pation in the ceremonies of a large number of troops from the Southern States. Nearly all of these had served in the Confederate army, and their presence in the metropolis of New England was an emphatic proof that the Union has indeed been restored. The memory of the common glory won by the fathers of the republic has already done much to heal the wounds and obliterate the scars of the civil war. May the good work go on. Imposing Ceremonies. As early as 1872 measures were set 01? foot for the proper observance of the one hundredth anniversary of the independence of the United States. It was resolved to commemorate the close of the first century of the republic by an International Exhibi- tion, to be held at Philadelphia in 1876, in which all the nations of the world were in ' vited to participate. Preparations were at once set on foot for the great celebration. The European governments with great cordiality responded to the invitations ex- tended to them by the government of the United States, and on the tenth of May, 820 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 1876, the International Centennial Exhibi- 1 tion was opened with the most imposing ceremonies, in the presence of an immense concourse of citizens from all parts of the Union, and of the President of the United States and the Emperor of Brazil. The ex- hibition remained open from May loth to November loth, 1876, and was visited by several million people from the various States of the Union, from Canada, South America and Europe. It was one of the grandest and most notable events of the cen- tury, and illustrated our country's progress. MEMORIAL HALL, FAIRMOUNT PARK, PHILADELPHIA. On the fourth day of July, 1876, the United States of America completed the one hun- dredth year of their existence as an inde- pendent nation. The day was celebrated with imposing ceremonies and with the most patriotic enthusiasm in all parts of the Union. The celebrations began on the night of the third of July, and were kept up until near midnight on the fourth. Each of the great cities of the Union vied with the others in the splendor and completeness of its rejoic- ings ; but the most interesting of all the celebrations was naturally that which was held at Philadelphia, in which city the De- claration of Independence was adopted. The arrangements for the proper observ- ance of the day were confided to the United States Centennial Commission, and extensive preparations were made to conduct them on a scale of splendor worthy of the glorious occasion. The city of Philadelphia and the State of Pennsylvania lent their cordial co- operation to the effort to have all things in readiness for the Fourth, and the work went forward with a heartiness and vigor that could not fail of complete success. It was wisely re- solved by the Com- mission that as the Declaration of In- dependence was signed in Independ- ence Hall and pro- claimed to the peo- ple in Independence Square, the com- memorative cere- monies should be so conducted as to make the venerable building the grand central figure of all the demonstrations. The city authorities caused the building to be handsomely draped in the national colors, and enormous stands, covered with canvas awnings and orna- mented with flags and streamers, were erected in Independence Square for the accommodation of the singers and invited guests who were to take part in the rejoic- ings. A new bell of vast proportions — the gift of a patriotic and public-spirited citizen — was hung in the State House tower, ready to join its deep tones to the shouts of the multitude when the moment of rejoic- ing should arrive. ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 821 Being' anxious that the Centennial celebra- tion should do its share in cementing the reunion of the Northern and Southern States, the Commission began, at least a year before the occasion, the formation of a " Centen- nial Legion," consisting of a detachment of troops from each of the thirteen original States. The command of this splendid body of picked troops was conferred upon General Ambrose E. Burnside, of Rhode Island, and General Henry Heth, of Virginia, was chosen Lieutenant-Colonel. Both were veterans of the late civil war. The Legion was readily made up, the best volunteer commands of the original States being eager to serve in it. For a week previous to the fourth of July crowds of people began to pour steadily into Philadelphia. Volunteer organizations from the various States were constantly arriving and were either encamped at various points in and around the Exhibition grounds or were quartered at the various hotels. Gay Decorations. The city was gayly decorated with flags and streamers, and the view down any of the principal streets was brilliant by reason of the clouds of bunting with which it was decorated. The principal buildings were almost hidden by the flags which adorned them, or were ornamented with patriotic inscriptions, and at various points on Chestnut street triumphal arches were erected. By the night of the third of July it was estimated that at least two hundred and fifty thousand strangers were assembled in Philadelphia. The Centennial ceremonies were begun on the- morning of Saturday, the first of July. The leading writers of the Union had been invited to prepare memoirs of the great men of our revolutionary period, which were to be deposited among the archives of the State House, and all who were able to accept the invitation assembled in Independence Hall at eleven o'clock on the morning of July i, 1876, where they were joined by a number of invited guests. The ceremonies were opened by an address from Colonel Frank M, Etting, the Chairman of the Committee on the Restoration of Independence Hall, and a prayer by the Rev. William White Bronson. Whittier's Centennial Hymn was then sung by a chorus of fifty voices. The names of the authors were then called, to which each responded in person or by proxy, and laid his memoir on the table in the hall. The exercises were then brought to a close, and the company repaired to the stand in Inde- pendence Square, where a large crowd had assembled. Odes, Speeches and Orations. The ceremonies in the square were begun at half-past twelve o'clock with Helfrich's Centennial Triumphal March, performed by the Centennial Musical Association. Mr. John William Wallace, the president of the day, then delivered a short address, after < which Whittier's Centennial Hymn was sung' by a chorus of one hundred and fifty voices, and Mr. William V. McKean reviewed at some length the great historical event in commemoration of which the ceremonies were held. After the band had played " God Save America," the Hon. Leverett Saltonstall, of Massachusetts, delivered an address, which elicited warm applause. " The Voice of the Old Bell," a Centennial ode, was then sung, and Governor Henry Lippitt, of Rhode Island, made a short speech. The band followed with a number of patriotic airs, and Mr. Wallace announced the unavoidable absence of General John A. Dix, and intro- duced in his place Frederick De Peyster. President of the New York Historical Society, who made a few remarks. After a Cen- tennial Ode, by S. C Upham, had been sung ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 823 by the chorus, the Hon. Benjamin Harris Brewster deHvered an eloquent address, at the close of which another Centennial Hymn, by William Fennimore, was sung. Senator Frank P. Stevens, of Maryland, then said a (e\v words, after which the " Star Spangled Banner" was sung, and the exercises were brought to a close by a prayer from Bishop Stevens. All through Sunday, the second, the crowds continued to pour into the city, and on Mon- day, third, the streets were almost impassable. Business was generally suspended from the first to the fifth of July. Brilliant Illuminations. The celebration ushering in the Fourth of July was begun on the night of the third. A grand civic and torchlight procession paraded the streets, which were brilliantly illuminated along the whole line of march. The proces- sion began to move about half-past 8 o'clock at night, and consisted of deputations repre- sentative of the various trades of the city, the Centennial Commissioners from the various foreign countries taking part in the Exhibi- tion, the Governors of a number of the States of the Union, officers of the army and navy of the United States, civic and political asso- ciations and officers of foreign men-of-war visiting the city. Some of the deputations bore torches, and these added to the bril- liancy of the scene. All along the line fire- works were ascending into the air, and cheer after cheer went up from the dense masses of enthusiastic spectators which filled the side- walks. The illumination of the streets along the route of the procession was superb. Chest- nut and Broad streets flashed resplendently in lines of fire and colored lanterns. The dense masses which thronged these streets stood out boldly in the clear light of the illu- mination, and the long, slow-moving line of the procession flowed through them like a vast river. Crowds had collected around Independence Hall, filling the street before it and the square in the rear of it. An orchestra and chorus were stationed on the stands in the square tc hail the opening of the Fourth with music. The movements of the procession were so timed that the head of the column arrived in front of Independence Hall precisely at mid- night. Grand Military Parade. The crowd, which had been noisy but good natured, was husiied into silence as the hands of the clock in the tower approached the nn'dnight hour, and one hundred thousand people waited in breathless eagerness the strokes which were to usher in the glorious day. As the minute-hand swept slowly past the hour there was a profound silence, and then came rolling out of the lofty steeple the deep, liquid tones of the new liberty bell, sounding wonderfully solemn and sweet as they floated down to the crowd below. Thir- teen peals were struck, and the first tone had hardly died away when there went up from the crowd such a shout as had never been heard in Philadelphia before. It was caught up and re-echoed all over the city, and at the same time the musicians and singers in the square broke into the grand strains of the " Star Spangled Banner." All the bells and steam whistles in the city joined in the sounds of rejoicing, and fireworks and firearms made the noise tenfold louder. When the " Star Spangled Banner " was ended the chorus in Independence Square sang the " Doxology," in which the crowd joined heartily, and the band then played national airs. The festivities were kept up until after two o'clock, and it was not until the first streaks of the dawn began to tinge the sky that the streets of the city resumed their wonted appearance. V24 7\UMiM IS i RATION OF ULYSSES S. GKAINl. The lull in the festivities was not of long duration. The day was at hand, and it threat- ened to be mercilessly hot, as indeed it was. As the sun arose in his full-orbed splendor, the thunder of cannon from the Navy Yard, from the heights of Fairmount Park, and from the Swedish, Brazilian, and American war vessels in the Delaware, and the clanging of bells from every steeple in the city, roused the few who had managed to snatch an hour or two of sleep after the fatigues of the night, GENERAL J. R. HAWLEY. and by six o'clock the streets were again thronged. In view of the extreme heat of the weather, the military parade had been ordered for an early hour of the day. The troops numbered about ten thousand men, rank and file, and the whole column was under the chief com- mand of General Hartranft, Governor of Penn- ylvania, and a gallant veteran of the civil a'ar. The command was madf. up of troops, who during that bloody struggle had fought each other gallantly, and who had now come to testify their devotion to their common country, and to show to the world that in trusting its defence to its well-regulated mil- itia, the American republic is stronger than the most powerful monarchies of the old world. At half-past eight, the column began to move down Chestnut street towards Indepen- dence Hall, in front of which the troops were reviewed by General W. T. Sherman, the Commanding General of the armies of the United States; the Secretary of War ; Prince Oscar of Sweden ; Lieutenant-General Saigo, of the Imperial army of Japan ; the officers of the Swedish men-of-war in the harbor; the governors of several of the States; and Gen- eral Hawley, the President of the Centennial Commission. As the troops passed along they were greeted with enthusiastic cheers by the crowds on the street. The Centennial Legion and the troops from the Southern States were the objects of an especially hearty demon stration. The route chosen was a short one, the extreme heat forbidding an extended parade, and by ten o'clock, the military cere monies were over. Huzzahs in Independence Square. As soon as the parade was ended the crowd turned into Independence Square, which was soon tilled The approaches to the building byway of Chestnut and Sansom streets were kept clear by the police, in order that those who were entitled to seats on the stand might reach their places. Four thousand persons were given seats on the stand, and a vast crowd filled the square. As the invited guests appeared and took their seats on the platform, the prominent personages were cheered by the crowd. The Emporer of Brazil received a welcome that was especially noticeable for its heartiness. It was hoped that the President of the United States would be present and preside ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 825 over the ceremonies ; but General Grant declined the invitation to do so, which it was at once his privilege and his duty to accept, and remained in Washington, preferring his selfish ease to a little patriotic exertion and exposure to the heat on this grandest of his country's festivals. His absence was gen- erally remarked and severely condemned by his countrymen. At a few minutes after ten o'clock, Gen- eral Hawley, the President of the United States Centennial Commission, appeared at the speaker's stand and signalled to the orchestra to begin. The opening piece, which was an overture entitled " The Great Republic," based on the national air, " Hail Columbia," and arranged for the occasion by Professor George F. Bristow, of New York, was rendered in fine style by the orchestra under the leadership of Mr. P. Gilmore. As the music ceased General Hawley again came forward and introduced as the presiding officer of the day the Hon. Thomas W. Ferry, Vice-President of the United States, who was received with loud cheers. Great Enthusiasm Over the Declaration. After a few remarks appropriate to the occasion Vice President Ferry presented to the audience Right Reverend William Bacon Stevens, D. D., the Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Pennsylvania, whom he introduced as the ecclesiastical successor of the first chaplain of the Continental Congress. The bishop was in his canonical robes, with prayer book in hand. He delivered a solemn and impressive prayer, during the utterance of which the whole audience stood with un- covered heads, silent and attentive, unmind- ful of the blazing sun which poured down upon them. When the prayer was ended the "Hymn, ' Welcome to All Nations/ words by Oliver Wendell Holmes, music, ' Keller's Hymn,' " was sung. The Vice-President then an- nounced that Richard Henry Lee, of Vir- ginia, a grandson of the patriot of the Revolution who offered the resolution in Congress that " these United Colonies are and of right ought to be free and independ- ent States," would read the Declaration of Independence from the original manuscript, which the President had entrusted to the Mayor of Philadelphia. The faded and crumbling manuscript, held together by a simple frame, was then exhibited to the crowd and was greeted with cheer after cheer. Richard Henry Lee, a soldierly-looking Vir- ginian, then came forward and read the Declaration ; but the enthusiasm of the crowd was too gre?t to permit them to listen to it quietly. At the close of the reading the orchestra performed a musical composition entitled "A Greeting from Brazil," a hymn for the first Centennial of American Independence, composed by A. Carlos Gomez, of Brazil, at the request of His Majesty Dom Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil. It was received with cheers by the crowd, Avhich were repeated for the Brazilian Emperor, whose hearty interest in the (-entennial celebrations and the Exhibition liad made him a favorite in Pl'''adelphia. The Hallelujah Chorus Mr. John Welsh, Chairman of the Centen- nial Board of Finance, then, at the sugges- tion of Vice-President Ferry, introduced Bayard Taylor, the poet of the day, who recited a noble ode, which was listened to with deep attention, the audience occasionally breaking out into applause. When the poem was ended, the chorus sang "Our Natlouai Banner," the words by Dexter Smith, of Massachusetts, the music by "^n/ j uhus Be"-* diet, of England. 8^6 • INTERSECTION OF NLNTH AND CHESTNUT STS., PHILADELPHIA, ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 82; As the music died away the Vice-Presi- dent introduced the lion. WilUam M. Evarts, of New York, the orator of the day. Mr. Evarts was greeted with hearty cheers, after which he proceeded to deHver an eloquent and able address, reviewing the lessons of the past century, and dwelling upon the great work America had performed for the world. When Mr. Evarts retired from the speak- er's stand, General Hawley gave the signal to the leader of the orchestra, and the " Hal- lelujah Chorus," from " The Messiah," was sung ; after which the vast audience, at the request of the Vice-President, joined in the One Hundredth Psalm, with which the memorable ceremonies came to an end. At night the city was brilliantly illumin- ated, and a magnificent display of fireworks was given by the municipal authorities at old Fairmount. W^ar with the Sioux. The year 1876, however, was not destined to be entirely a period of peace. In 1867 the Government of the United States made a treaty with the Sioux Indians, by which the latter agreed to relinquish to the United States all the territory south of the Niobrara River, west of the one hundred and fourth meridian of longitude and north of the forty- sixth parallel of latitude. This treaty secured to the Sioux a large reservation in the south- western part of Dakota, and they agreed to withdraw to this reservation by the first of January, 1876. A few years later gold was discovered in the Black Hills countr}-, a very desirable region situated in southwestern Dakota, and lying within the Sioux reser- vation. The announcement of this discovery pro- duced great excitement among the mining class. In the summer of 1874 an expedition under General Custer was sent by the War Department to explore the Black Hills region, partly for the purpose of ascertaining the character of the country, and partly to discover practicable military routes between Fort Lincoln, in the Department of Dakota, opposite the terminus of the Union Pacific Railway, and Fort Laramie, in the Depart- ment of the Platte. The report of this expe= OBVERSE OF CENTENNIAL MEDAL. REVERSE OF CENTENNIAL MEDAL dition confirmed the stories of the discovery of gold, and immediate preparations were made by parties of miners to proceed to the favored lands for the purpose of working the gold mines. These expeditions being re- ported to the Government, measures were taken by the War Department to prevent 528 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. any intrusion into the Indian reservation. Notwithstanding this prohibition, private expeditions were fitted out and started for the Black Hills. Some of these were driven back by the Indians, with loss of life and property, but others succeeded in reaching the Black Hills. It was now evident that a systematic and determined effort would be made to settle the Black Hills, in spite of the opposition of to retire to the reservation to which the treaty of 1867 confined them, and now took advantage of the intrusions of the whites into their territory to gratify their long-cherished wish for war. They broke away from their reservation, and made repeated forays into Wyoming and Montana, laid the country waste, carried off the horses and cattle, and murdered such settlers as ventured to oppose them. ,fV SHOSHONEE FALLS, IDAHO. the army ; and the government decided to endeavor to purchase the region from the Sioux and throw it open to emigration Efforts were made during the year 1875 to induce the Sioux to sell their lands, but the weak and vacillating course pursued by the government simply disgusted the Indians, and they refused to make the desired ar- rangement. The Sioux had never been really willing This brought m.itters to a crisis, and early in 1876 the government resolved to drive the Sioux back upon their resefvation. A force of regular troops, under Generals Terry and Crook, was sent into the difficult moun- tainous region of the Upper Yellowstone, and an active campaign was begun against the Indians. The force was too small, how- ever, for the work required of it. In spite of the smallness of its numbers, ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 829 the army on the frontier succeeded in forc- ing the savages, who were led by Sitting Bull, their most famous chief, and who num- bered several thousand fighting men, back to the Big; Horn mountains. The Indians now took up a strong position in the mountains, and on the twenty-fifth of June, 1876, the Seventh Cavalry, under Generals Custer and Reno, were sent forward to ascertain the whereabouts of the enemy. They found the savages encamped on the left bank of the Little Horn River, and occupying a large village some three miles in length. General Custer, with his little command, at once made a gallant attack upon the Indian vil- lage, hoping that General Reno would be able to come up in time to support him. Reno was unable to advance, however, Cus- ter's little band was soon surrounded by sev- eral thousand of the bravest Sioux warriors. The conflict which ensued was one of the most heroic in the annals of the American army, and one of the most disastrous. Cus- ter was slain, together with every man who accompanied him into the fight, but not until they had exacted a fearful price for their lives at the hands of the savages. The Indians Defeated. General Reno, in the meantime, had be- come engaged at the opposite end of the town, and was so hard pressed by the Indians that he was unable to go to Custer's assist- ance. He succeeded in drawing off his men and in retiring to the bluffs of the Little Horn, where he held his position until the arrival of Gencal Gibbon with reinforcements com- pelled the savages to retreat, and saved the remnant of the Seventh Cavalry from destruc- tion. The disaster of the Little Horn was the most terrible defeat ever inflicted upon the United States army by the savages, and was directly due to the criminal folly of the administration in sending a mere handful of troops to meet a strong body of the bravest Indian warriors on the continent. The disaster aroused such a storm of indig- nation throughout the country that the Gov- ernment hastily forwarded reinforcements to the frontier, and Generals Terry and Crook were able to conduct their campaign with more vigor. The Indians were beaten in a number of engagements, and on the twenty- fourth of November suffered a decisive defeat in a battle with the Fourth Cavalry, under Colonel McKenzie, at one of the passes of GENERAL GEORGE CROOK. the Big Horn Mountains. Negotiations were in progress during the summer and autumn for the removal of the Sioux to the Indian Territory, and by the beginning of the winter the greater part of the savages had surren- dered. A few bands under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse continued in the field. They were not allowed to remain insecurity during the win- ter, and on the eighth of January, 1877, a decisive victory was won over the band of Crazy Horse at Wolfe Mountains, in Mon- tana Territory, by General Miles, with a force Sso ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. of infantry and artillery. This victory led to territory of British America. By tht spring the surrender of other bands of Indians, and of 1877 th- war had been practically brought to a close. The question of the re- construction of the South- ern States was one of the legacies which President Grant received at the hands of his predecessor. It was fondly hoped by the coun- try at large that under the new administration " the work of reconstruction would be accomplished and the wounds of civil war healed." The utterances of President Grant upon en-, tering upon his new duties justified these expectations, as it was not believed that he cherished extreme views, or that he harbored vindict- ive feelings. " Nor is it probable," says a distinguished Northern writer,* "that those who relied upon the President's disposition to deal fairly and even liberally with the Southern States, were at all mistaken in that regard; but his ignorance in civil affairs, which in some cases was conspicuous and mor- tif\ ing, seems very early to have thrown him into the hands of managing politi- cians, and these were mainly of the extreme type, who made up in bitterness what they lacked in breadth. The politicians from the South early in 1877 the operations against Sitting I who were most abou^ him were generally Bull obliged that chief to take refuge in the | ^^^chad^s Francis Adams, j.. INDIANS SURPRISED AND DEFEATED. ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 831 adventurers, who found the power of the government a convenient instrument for the furtherance of personal schemes, and who did not scruple to make use of their influence with the President to that end. Among these was one of the President's brothers-in-law, who amazed the country by his daring disregard of the rights of the judicial fairness? Republican leaders who were disposed to amnesty and a real oblivion for past offences, were elbowed out of place, and at last driven to the rear." The labors of reconstruction were nomi- nally completed in 1870. "Had the course of the managing men of the jiaity in power been wise and conciliatory, had it been actu- HOKSESIKtls I'.ENO ON THE PENNSYLVANIA NEAR ALTOONA. State which he had chosen as the scene of his operations. The Northern politicians who surrounded the President were largely of a similar stripe Was it to be expected of such men that they would deal generously with a fallen foe, or was it within the compass of partisanship like theirs that their opponents should be treated with ated by high motives and statesmanlike views, and had the men who represented the party in the Southern States been men who were laboring for the good of their section, rather than for the advancement of their own personal interests, it is not to be doubted that the administration would have been able to attach to itself the support of a rrajority ol 832 ADMINISTRAiION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. the Southern people. The colored people were naturally its friends. " The patronage of the administration was CANYON OF THE LODORE AND GREENE RIVERS, WYOMING. large, and it would have drawn a strong support to the party had it been distributed wisely and from an evident desire to accom- plish only the purposes for which offices are created. Moreover, the Southern people needed peace and quiet to recuperate their exhausted interests; and while many hot-heads were sup- posed to be violent and troublesome, the best and most influential of them, of whom the late Vice-President of the Confederacy was an example, were disposed to accept with grati- tude such advances of their late enemies as promised to render peace pos- sible and perma- nent. But as, un- fortunately, all were not of thi.= clsiss, the persons who had the Presi- dent's ear, and who assumed to speak for the party in Congress, found it convenient for their purpose to present the impracticable and violent as the proper representa- ! tives of Southern sentiment, and to speak of and deal with the Southern people as unrepent- ant rebelSjWho were to be held down by the strong hand. " That the white people of the South were alienated from the Republican party was not ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 833 surprising. It was almost a matter of course that the control of the Southern States should pass to the Democratic party, for it was quite impossible to retain all the freedmen in one party, while their late masters, the persons upon whom they now relied for employment, were mainly to be found in the other. The 'color line' was drawn when the narrow pol- icy of extreme partisans among the Repub- lican leaders arrayed against them Southern whites ; the drawing of it 'ndeed left some white leaders among the freedmen, but it did not prevent a still greater number of the lat- ter following the political fortunes of those with whose material interests their own were so closely identified ; and the political ascen- dency of the Republican party in the South- ern States was lost permanently."* Trouble in Louisiana. This interference of the President ivi the affairs of a State was brought to a crisis in the winter of 1874-75, in the State of Louisi- ana. At the election for members of the Legislature, held during the fall of 1874, both the Republican and Conservative parties claimed the victory. The Legislature met in New Orleans, on the fourth of January, 1875, and a struggle ensued for the control of the organization of the lower House. By their superior strategy the Democrats, or Conservatives, wore successful, and proceeded to organize the House and seat five members of their own party, who had contested as many Republican seats in the House. The Democratic triumph was of short duration, however, for in a few moments, General De Ti obriand, of the United States army, entered the hall and announced that he had orders to remove the five members sworn in. The Democratic Speaker, and the five members themselves, protested against this * Charles Francis Adams, Jr. S3 interference on the part of the Federal troops,' and declared that they would not leave their seats until forced from them. General De Trobriand immediately summoned a file ol soldiers, and the five members were removed from their seats and expelled from the hall, the Democratic Speaker and members at once withdrew from the hall, and the House was organized by the Republicans. This strange and inexcusable spectacle of the interference of the Federal troops in the domestic affairs of a State had no parallel in American history. It aroused a feeling of SAMUEL J TILDEN. general indignation throughout the North and the President was sharply '^'cnounced, even by men of his own party, for his inter- ference with the organization of a State Legislature. Several Governors addressed special messages on the subject to the Legis- latures of their respective States, and legisla- lative resolutions were passed denouncing the course pursued by the Federal govern- ment. The indignation which thus expressed itself was greatly increased by a dispatch f.-^.., General Sheridan, commanding at New «34 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. Orleans, to the War Department, dated fifth of January, 1 875, advising the general govern- ment to declare the people of Louisiana banditti, and to turn them over to him and to his troops for punishment. This savage sug- gestion was deeply resented by the people of the whole country, who had by this time good cause to deplore any interference of the military in civil affairs. There is reason to believe that the public indignation was felt by even the President, for, in a message to Congress upon the sub- ject, he made this admission, while defending THOMAS A. HENDRICKS. the course of the administration : " I am well aware that any military interference by the officers or troops of the United States with the organization of a State Legislature or any of its proceedings, or with any civil department of the government, is repugnant to our ideas of government. I can conceive of no case not involving rebellion or insur- rection where such interference by authority of the general government ought to be per- mitted, or can be justified.'' In the summer of 1876 the various poiliti- cal parties of the Union met in their respective conventions to nominate candidates foi the Presidency and Vice-Presidency of the United States, which officers were to be chosen at the general election in November. The Republican Convention assembled at Cincinnati, Ohio, on the fourteenth of June, and resulted in the nomination of Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President of the United States, and of William A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. The Democratic Convention was held at St. Louis on the twenty-seventh of June, and nomi- nated Governor Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for the Presidency, and Governor Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for the Vice-Presidency. A third convention, repre- senting the Independent Greenback party, met at Indianapolis, on the eighteenth of May, and nominated Peter Cooper, of New York, for President, and Samuel F. Cary, of Ohio, for Vice-President. Result of the Campaign. The campaign which followed these nomi- nations was one of intense bitterness, and was in many respects the most remarkable the country has ever witnessed. A most dis- creditable feature of it was the appearance of Mr. Chandler, the Secretary of the Interior, as the chief manager of the Republican party. It was the first time in the history of the country that a member of the President's Cabinet had ever held so questionable a position ; the first time that the patronage of the government had ever been used so openly in behalf of a political party. Under the leadership of Secretary Chandler, the manly and conciliatory letter of accept- ance of Governor Hayes was ignored, and a campaign of great bitterness was inaugur- ated. The election was held on the seventh o) November. The popular vote was a« follows : Administration of ulysses s. grant, 8^; For Samuel J. Tilden, 4,284,265 '' Rutherford B. Hayes, 4,033,295 " Peter Cooper, 81,737 Tilden thus received a popular majority of 250,970 votes over Hayes, and a majority of (69,233 votes over both Hayes and Cooper. In the Electoral Colleges, one hundred and eighty-five votes were necessary to a choice. Carolina to Governor Hayes, Mr. Tilden had fairly carried both Florida and Louisiana, and was entitled to one hundred and ninety-six electoral votes. The revision of the vote in Florida and Louisiana had been confided, since the reorganization of those States, to Returning Boards. It was evident from the first that each of POINT PLEASANT, OHIO, THE BIRTHPLACE OF PRESIDENT GRANT. Of this number, Governor Tilden received one hundred and eighty-four, and Governor Hayes one hundred and sixty-three undis- puted votes. The votes of the States of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Car- olina, twenty-two in number, were claimed by both parties for their respective candidates. It was declared by the Democrats that, even conceding the votes of Oregon and South these boards would return the vote of its respective State for the Republican candidate, and it was feared that this would be produc- tive of trouble, as the Democrats claimed a majority in these States. Immediately aftet ' the election, therefore, President Grant appointed a number of prominent P.epub.i- cans to proceed to Florida and Louisiana to watch the counting of the votes of those 336 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. States; and a number of prominent Dem- ocrats repaired to Tallahassee and New Orleans for the same purpose. These gen- tlemen had no official character, and were without power to interfere in any way with the counting of the votCo It was loped, how- ever, that their presence as witnesses would act as a check upon the boards, and thus a fair count be secured. Both States were returned for Hayes. Investigations showed that the electoral vote of South Carolina had been fairly cast for Hayes, and it was generally conceded to SAMUl'. KaNDALL nim by both parties. The Democratic Gov- ernor of Oregon attempted by a transparent fraud to give the electoral vote of that State to Tilden, and thus elect him ; but it came to be the general sentiment of the country that the electoral vote of Oregon should right- fully be cast for Hayes. This confined the real struggle to the votes *of Florida and Louisiana. It was the general conviction of the country that both of those States had been fairly carried by the Demo- cratic party, and many earnest Republicans gave open expression to this belief. The action of the Return Boards, however, was still within the letter of the laws under which they had acted. The Republican party, there- fore, claimed that as such action was not con- trary to the laws of Florida and Louisiana it must stand; that neither Congress nor any other body had power to go behind the cer- tificate of the electoral vote of a State, prop- erly signed and authenticated by the State officials ; and that when such certificates were presented to the two Houses of Congress, at the counting of the electoral votes of the States, they must be accepted without ques- tion, and the electoral votes of Flo^'da and Louisiana be counted for Hayes. They declared that the States had pov/cr to make any laws they might see fit for the counting of their popular vote, and that for Congress to seek to interfere with such laws would be to illegally trespass upon the reserved rights of the States. They held, therefore, that as th; action of the Return Boards was within tht letter of the laws of their respective States Florida and Louisiana must be counted foi Hay^rj. The Country Agitated. The Democrats, on the other hand, main triined that the popular majority for Tilden in Florida and Louisiana was too evident to be doubted being simply overwhelming in the latter State -^nd Lhat the Return Boards had overcome these majorities only by a fraudu' lent use of their powers in throwing out Democratic votes to an extent sufficient to give Florida and Louisiana to the Republi- cans. They declared, moreover, that, as the Louisiana Board had refused to appoint a Democratic member to the vacancy in that body, as required by the law under which they acted, their action was necessarily ille- gal. They held that, as both Florida and Louisiana had been wrongfully and fraudu- lently given to the Republicans by the Return ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 837 Boards in defiance of the will of the people of those States as expressed at the polls, the electoral votes of both of those States should not be counted by Congress. Such action on the part of Congress would have resulted in a declaration by that body that there had been no popular choice of a President and Vice-President, and the elec- Boards ; and the liepublicans announced their decision to insist upon the counting of the votes of those States as certified bv the State officials. Each party denounced the other with great bitterness ; the country was deeply agitated, and threats of armed resist- ance were freely indulged in by both parties. The crisis was the most alarming; that had THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, D. C. tion of the President would have devolved upon the House of Representatives, and the choice of the Vice-President upon the Senate, in accordance with the provisions of the Con- stitution. The Democrats, therefore, declared that thev would insist upon the rejection of the votes of Florida and Louisiana upon the ground of fraud on the part of the Return threatened the country since the outbreak of the civil war. A feeling of general uneasiness prevailed throughout the Union, which showed itself in the depression of business in all sections. Congress met on the fourth of December, 1876. The House of Representatives was organized by the Democratic majority by thp 83S ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. election of Samuel J. Randall, of Pennsyl- vania, as Speaker. Immediately upon the organization of Congress the question of the manner of counting the electoral votes of the States came up in that body. The Repub- lican majority in the Senate claimed that, by the terms of the Constitution, the Vice-Pre- sident was compelled to open the certificates of the States in the presence of the two Houses of Congress, in joint convention, and declare the result, the two Houses being present merely as witnesses of the GEORGE F. EDMUNDS. count by the Vice-President. With this view the Republicans in the lower House agreed. The Democrats in both Houses maintained that while the Constitution required the Vice- President to open the certificates and count the electoral votes, the two Houses of Con- gress Avere made the judges of the legality of those certificates, and that, in the case of the presentation of two certificates from the same State, the two Houses were the rightful judges of which was the proper one; and '"hat, in the event of a failure of the two Houses to agree in such a decision, the vote of such State must be rejected. In support of this view, they brought for- ward the Twenty-second Joint Rule of Con- gress, adopted February sixth, 1865, by a Republican Congress, and under which the counting of the electoral vote in 1865, 186'! and 1873 had been conducted. In January, 1876, the Senate, still Republican, passed a concurrent resolution adopting the joint rules of the previous session of Congress, as the joint rules for that session, " excepting the Twenty-second Joint Rule." The House failed to act upon the resolutions. At the opening of the session in December, 1876, the President of the Senate ruled that there were no joint rules in operation. The Speaker of the House, on the other hand, ruled that the joint rules previously existing, still existed. Angry Speeches and Threats. Thus the issue between the two Houses was distinctly made. The House declared its intention of insisting upon the right secured to it by the Twenty-second Joint Rule of objecting to the vote of a State, and that it would withdraw from the joint convention if this right were denied it by the Senate. The Senate declared that, in case of such with- drawal by the House, the count would be continued by the Senate, and the result pro- claimed by the Vice-President, '^he House, on tne other hand, announced its intention of acting in such a case if there had been no choice by the electoral vote; it would at once proceed to elect the President as re- quired by the Constitution. Each House was firm in its resolution, and the breach between them widened daily. Angry speeches and threats were made by members of Congress, and the general alarm and uneasiness deepened throughout the country. The time appointed by the Con- stitution for counting the electoral vote was ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 839 rapidly drawing nigh, and it seemed likely that an era of anarchy was about to ensue. Each House would act for itself; two Presi- dents would be declared elected. There was no doubt that President Grant would sustain the choice of the Senate with the army. In such an event civil war was inevi- table. The danger was so great that patriotic men of both parties in Congress set to work to devise some means of settlement. It was plain that this could be accomplished only by a compromise. A conference committee was appointed by each House, which com- mittee, after a long deliberation, reported to the two Houses of Congress a bill providing for the appointment of a commission, to consist of fifteen members. Five of these were to be appointed by the Senate, and five by the House of Representatives. The re- maining five were to be chosen from the Justices of the Supreme Court. Four of the justices were designated by the bill ; the fifth was to be chosen by the justices named in the bill. The Joint Convention. The bill provided for the meetmg of the two Houses of Congress in joint convention on the first Thursday in February. The votes were to be opened by the Vice-Presi- dent, and counted by tellers appointed for the purpose. Each House was to have the right to object to the vote of a State, but in cases where only one certificate was pre- sented the objection must be sustained by the affirmative vote of both Houses. If not so sustained, the objection must fall and the vote be counted. Section II. of the bill pro- vided : " That, if more than one return, or paper purporting to be a return from a State, shall have been received by the President of the Senate, purporting to be the certificates of electoral votes given at the last preceding election for President and Vice-President in such State (unless they shall be duplicates of the same return), all such returns and papers shall be opened by him in the pre- sence of the two Houses when met as afore- said, and read by the tellers, and all sucU returns and papers shall thereupon be submit* ted to the judgment and decision as to which' is the true and lawful electoral vote of such State," of the commission appointed by the bill. The decision of the commission, with the THOMAS F. BAYARD. reasons therefor, was to be submitted to th€ two Houses of Congress. Should objection be made by five senators and five representa- tives to the report of the commission, the two Houses were to separate and discuss the said objections, the time allowed for debate being limited by the bill ; but unless both Houses should agree to sustain the objections, the decision of the commission should stand. This plan met with considerable favor from the conservative element of both Houses, but was strongly opposed by the more ultra of both parties. It was debated at length and 84c ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. with great vt j^or. It passed the Senate on the twenty-fiftli (jf January, 1877, by a vote of forty-seven yeas and seventeen nays ; ten senators not voting. The vote in the House was taken the next day, and stood, yeas, one hundred and ninety-one; nays, eighty-six; fourteen representatives not voting. The vote in the Senate was divided as follows ' Yeas — Republicans, twenty-one; Democrats' forty-six. Najs — Republicans, sixteen; Dem- ocrats, one. In the Mouse it stood : Yeas — Democrats, one hundred and fifty-nine : Republicans, thirty-two. Nays — Democrats, eighteen; Rcoublicans, sixty-eight. The bill was immediately signed by President Grant, who had from the first given it his warm encouragement. Counting the Electoral Vote. The members of the commission were promptly appointed. They were as follows ; Justices Clifford, Strong, Miller, Field and Ih'adley, of the Supreme Court; Senators l'2dmunds, Morton, Frclinghuysen, Thurman and Bayard ; and Representatives Payne, Hunton, Abbott, Garfield and Hoar. The two Houses of Congress met in joint convention on the first of February, 1877, and began the counting of the electoral vote. When the vote of Florida was reached, three certificates w^cre presented and were referred to the Electoral Commission. This body, upon hearing the arguments of the counsel of the Democratic and Republican parties decided that it had no power to go behind the action of the Return Board, and that the certificate of that body giving the vote of that State to Hayes, must be accepted by the two Houses of Congress. The vote by wnich this decision was reached stood eight all Republicans) in favor of it, and seven (all Democrats) against it. The party line appear- ing thus so sharply in the commission mor- tified and disgusted the whole country, which had looked to the commission for a decision that should be beyond question. A similar conclusion was come to in the case of Louisiana. Objections were made to the reception of the votes of Oregon and South Carolina. In the Oregon case the decision was unanimously in favor of counting I the votes of the Hayes electors. In the vSouth Carolina case the commission decided that the Democratic electors were not law- fully chosen ; but on the motion to give the State to Hayes, the vote stood eight yeas to seven nays. So South Carolina was counted for Hayes. Objection was made, on the ground of ineligibility, to certain electors from Michigan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont and Wisconsin, but the objections were not sustained by the two Houses. The final result was reached at ten minutes after four o'clock on the morning of the second of March, 1877. The counting of the votes of the States having been con- cluded, Mr. Allison, one of the tellers on the part of the Senate, announced the result of the footings ; whereupon the presiding ofificer of the two Houses declared Rutherford B, Hayes, of Ohio, the duly elected President, and William A. Wheelei, of New York, the duly elected Vice-President, for the term of four years, commencing on the fourth of March, 1877. i m i o o >^ CO I— I o w Pk H Q ame day an autopsy was held upon the body by the surgeons who had been in attendance upon the President, assisted by several others. The autopsy revealed the fact that the wound had been fatal from the first. On the morning of the twenty-firbt, funeral ceremonies were held in the cottage at Long Branch in which the President died, and at ten o'clock the remains were placed on board of a special train, and conveyed to Washington, and accompanied by the family and friends of the dead President, and by President Arthur and a number of distin- guished personages. Washington was reached at 4.35 in the afternoon, and the body was escorted by a detachment of mil- itary and Knights Templar to the Capitol, where it was laid in state until the twenty- third. During the twenty-second and twenty- third it was visited by over one hundred thousand persons. On the afternoon of the CHESTER A, ARTHUR. twenty-third, the public funeral services were held in the rotunda of the Capitol, after which the body was escorted to the Baltimore and Potomac depot, and conveyed to Cleveland, Ohio, by a special train. Cleveland was reached the next day, and the remains were laid in state in a structure especially prepared for them, until the morning of the twenty- sixth, when they were buried with the most imposing ceremonies in Lake View Cemetery 8s8 ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. in the suburbs of that city. Business was suspended and memorial services were held during the day in all parts of the United States, On the twenty-second of September, Pres- ident Arthur again took the oath of office, this time at the hands of the Chief-Justice of the United States, and was quietly inaugura- ted in the Vice-President's room, in the Cap- itol, delivering upon this occasion, a brief inaugural address. Soon after the attempt upon the life of President Garfield, a popular subscription was set on foot to provide a fund for the support JOHN A. LOGAN. of his family in the event of his death. The movement was successful, and over ;^330,ooo were raised, and invested in United States bondj for the benefit of the widow and chil- "^ren of the " Martyred President." President Arthur entered quietly upon the auties of his administration, and his first acts were satisfactory to a majority of his country- men. As he had been the leader of " the Stalwart," section of the Pv.epublican party, it was felt by the members of the Cabinet of the late President that he should be free to choose his own advisers. Therefore, imme- diately upon his accession to the Executive chair, Mr. Blaine and his colleagues ten- dered him their resignations. They were requested, however, by the new President to retain their offices until he could find suitable successors to them. To this they agreed, but before the year was out several import- ant changes had been made in the Cabinet. The principal of these were the substitution of Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jer- sey, for Mr. Blaine, as Secretary of State, and the appointment of Judge Charles J. Folger to the Treasury Department. Indictment of Garfield's Assassin. One of the first acts of the new adminis- tration was to cause the indictment of Charles J. Guiteau for the murder of President Gar- field. The grand jury of the District of Columbia met on the third of October, 1881, and promptly found a true bill against Guiteau, who was arraigned in the Criminal Court of the District on the fourteenth of October. After some delay the trial of the assassin began on the fourteenth of Novem- ber. The first three days were consumed in selecting a jury, and then the trial began in earnest. It ended on the twenty-fifth of January, 1882, in the conviction of Guiteau for the murder of the late President. The prisoner was defended by able counsel, and was allowed many privileges never before granted to persons on trial for so grave an offence. The plea upon which the defence was based was insanity, but the evidence entirely destroyed this assumption, and the verdict of the jury was received throughout the country as just and proper. An effort was made by Guiteau's counsel to obtain a new trial for him, but this was denied by the court, and on the fourth of February Guiteau was sen- tenced to be hanged on the thirtieth of June, 1882. The counsel for the prisoner still continued his efforts to secure a new trial, ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 859 but these being unsuccessful in each and every instance, his only resource was an appeal to the clemency of the Executive. The President declined, however, to interfere with the sentence. Execution of Guiteau. During the interval between his sentence and his execution, Guiteau was confined in 'he jail of the District of Columbia, at Wash- ington. His conduct during this interval was in keeping with that which had marked bis trial — vain, egotistical, and blasphemous. To the last the prisoner was confident that President Arthur would interfere in his behalf, but the result proved this to be a vain hope. The execution took place in the District jail on the thirtieth of June, 1882, and was witnessed by about two hundred people, nearly all representatives of the press. Guiteau displayed more firmness than had been expected of him. He walked to the gallows without making the violent scene which had been anticipated by many, and ascended it with a firm step. Upon the scaffold, how- ever, he displayed considerable emotion, which he quickly subdued. His religious adviser, Rev. Dr. Hicks, offered a short prayer, and Guiteau read a selection from the Holy Scriptures. Then he read a prayer, strangely at vari- ance with his religious professions, in which he called down the curse of the Almighty upon all who had been engaged in his trial and execution, and upon the nation at large, and denounced President Arthur as a coward and an ingrate. Finally he chanted a poem which he had written during the morning. At the close of this singular recital the trap fell,precisely at forty-three minutes pasttwelve o'clock, and the great crime against the American people was avenged. Guiteau's neck was broken by the fall, and his death was painless. He died without a struggle, and with scarce a tremor. At the opening of Congress in 18C3, John G. Carlisle, of Kentucky, was chosen speaker of the House. In 1 88 1 an attempt was made to establish a signal station at a point north of the eighty- first parallel, and Lieutenant A. W. Greeley, of the United States Navy, was selected as the officer to take charge of the expedition. He received his instructions from the chief JOHN G. CARLISLE. signal officer. General Hazen. The steamer " Proteus," which was to convey the party to its destination sailed from St. John's, New- foundland, on the seventh of July, and imme- diately encountered rough weather. The adventurers pressed forward and, notwithstanding almost insurmountable ob- stacles succeeded in reaching a point beyond the eighty-first parallel, where they estab- lished a post and named it Fort Conger. After landing the party the " Proteus " had returned. 86o ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A ARTHUR. As is usual with all polar expeditions anxiety began to be felt for the safety of the party, and attempts were made in 1882 and 1883 to send relief. The colonists were not found, and at length, on account of their provisions being exhausted, they were reduced to terrible straits. The expedition of Greeley is especially memorable for having reached the highest the northern sky ; the Arctic moon wore a strange appearance ; the air was sharp with penetrating frost ; and the long night of the Arctic winter was attended with a loneliness impossible to describe. The brave company at length retreated from their post. Few pages in the history of polar exploration record such terrible hardships and sufferings as fell to the lot of I' *ilHii;i||Wilfci, ,.,'M'i!il'l,.li;. .l,i'J SANDERSONS HOPE, UPERNAVIK, BAFFIN BAY. point ever gained ia Arctic exploration. This achievement was due to Lieutenant Lockwood, who approached nearer the 'North Pole than any other explorer either before or since. The records of the expedi- jtion are replete with valuable information ^concerning the meteorology of that latitude, and with descriptions of very remarkable natural phenomena. Brilliant auroras lighted the Greeley expedition. Three relief ships, the "Thetis," "Bear" and "Alert," were sent to Lady Franklin Bay. The survivors were at last found when they were in dire distress and must soon have perished from starvation, except for the timely relief which reached them. The officers of the expedition Avere charged with cannibalisrn and inhuman cruelty. One ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 86i of their number who was accused of stealing rations was shot, and if half suppressed reports are to be credited, his body furnished food for his famishing comrades. All who were left of Greeley's command were found on the twenty-second of June, 1884, three ^years after the party started on its perilous "voyage. The heroism of the brave explorers ^excited the admiration of the world, and uni- trating events in the early history of Penn- sylvania. It was estimated that upwards of four hundred thousand persons attended the celebration. One of the notable events of 1883, was the opening of the great Suspension Bridge over the East River, between New York City and Brooklyn. Work commenced January 3, 1870, and the bridge was opened to the ARCTIC REGION — BEECHEY HEAD. versal interest was felt in the thrilling story of their sufferings. On the twenty-seventh of October, 1882, the two-hundredth anniversary of the landing of William Penn was celebrated at Phila- delphia, The exercises included public addresses, a military display, and an indus- trial parade. In addition to these there were various historic devices and tableaux, illus- public May 24, 1883. The total cost M^as ;^i 5,500,000. The total length from New York to Brooklyn is 5,989 feet, and the length of the main span is i,S9S/4 feet. The height of the towers is 2767^ feet. The height of the floor of the bridge at the cen- tre, above high water mark is 135 feet. The height of the floor of the bridge at the piers is II 8 feet. » I- SCENE IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS—AMONG THE ICEBERGS. ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. S6 The caisson for the New York pier was sunk 78 feet, and that for the Brooklyn pier 45 J^ feet below the bed of the river. Each cable is 15^ inches in diameter and is made up of 5,000 wires, each y^ inch in diam- In the campaign of 1884, James G. Blaine, of Maine, and John A. Logan^ of Illinois, were the nominees of the Republican party for the offices of President and Vice-Pres ident. Grover Cleveland, of New York, and THE BROOKLYN SUSPENSION BRIDGE. eter. The anchorages are 930 feet from the towers and weigh 120,000,000 pounds each. The cables are capable of sustaining 49,200 tons. The weight of the central span is 6,742 tons. Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, were the nominees of the Democratic party. The campaign resulted in the election of Cleve- land and Hendricks, the vote in the Elec- toral College being 219 to 182. CHAPTER XLVII ' The Administration of Grover Cleveland. Mr. Cleveland's Early Life Governor of New York — Elected President — Inauguration Ceremonies — Civil Service anA Revenue Reform— The New Cabinet — Death of General Grant — Imposing Obsequies — Honors to the Illustrious Dead Death of General George B. McClellan — Free Trade Conference at Chicago —Death of Vice-President Thomas B. Hendricks — Pension Granted to the Widow of President Grant — President Cleveland's Message — Bill Regulating the Presidential Succession — Labor Agitations— Riot at Chicago Instigated by "Anarchists" — Statue of Liberty En- lightening the World — President Cleveland's Marriage — Soldiers' Pensions — Capital and Labor — Centennial ^^nni- versary of the Adoption of the Constitution — Nomination of President Cleveland — Nomination of Benjamin Harrison — Harrison's Election. THE twenty-second President of the United States was Hon. Grover Cleveland. Mr. Cleveland was a native of New Jersey, and was born in Caldwell, Essex County, March i8, 1837. He came from sturdy New England stock, many of his ancestors having held honor- able positions in their respective localties. President Cleveland, after teaching two or three years, studied law in Buffalo, was admitted to the bar, became sheriff of the county, mayor of the city, and, having received the nomination for governor of New York, was elected by a large majority. This was followed by his nomination in the Democratic Convention of 1884, and his election in the following November to the Presidency. Naturally the departure of the Republican administration and the return of the Demo- cratic party to power after twenty-four years of exile from the highest seats in the coun- cils of the Republic awakened a profound interest. As the fourth of March, 1885, approached, eyes were turned toward Wash- ington, and multitudes went up to the Capital as to a Mecca. Washington itself, accus- tomed to civic displays, exciting events and magnificent parades, was more than usually awakened, and an interest was exhibited in 864 the inauguration which overshadowed all other concerns. The representatives of the press throughout the country were there in full force to record the event and depict the scene in its imposing aspects. The ceremonies incident upon the inaugu- ration presented a pageant exceeding in civic and military display any such preceding occasion in the history of the government. There were in attendance more than one hundred thousand visitors, and the city in its profuse decorations was a bewildering maze of bright colors. Among the significant allegorical designs was a great floral ladder reaching to the roof of a business house on Pennsylvania Avenue, which bore upon its rungs the words, " Sheriff," " Mayor," "Gov- ernor," " President," thus graphically sym- bolizing the life-work of the President elect. The inaugural of President Cleveland began as follows: "In the presence of this vast assemblage of my countrymen I am about to supplement and seal by the oath which I shall take the manifestation of the will of a great and free people. In the exercise of their power and right of self-government they have committed to one of their fellow-citizens a supreme and sacred trust, and he here consecrates himself to their service. ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 86 1 " This impressive ceremony adds little to the solemn sense of responsibility with which I contemplate the duty I owe to all the people of the land. Nothing can relieve me from anxiety lest by any act of mine their in- terests may suffer, and nothing is needed to purpose by which he would be guided in the administration of the affairs of the government: " In the discharge of my official duty I shall endeavor to be guided by a just and unstrained construction of the Constitution, a careful observance of the distinction between GROVER CLEVELAND. strengthen my resolution to engage every (acuity and effort in the promotion of their welfare." Having stated his sense of the importance and sacredness of the trust confided in him, President Cleveland gave expression to the 55 the powers granted to the Federal govern ment and those reserv^ed to the States or to the people, and by a cautious appreciation of those functions which, by the Constitution and laws, have been especially assigned to the executive branch of the government." m ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. Upon the question of civil service reform President Cleveland expressed himself in accordance with the sentiments enunciated in the platform of his party, adopted at the con- vention of 1 884 : " The people demand reform in the administration of the government and the influence of those who promise and the vicious methods of those who expect such rewards. And those who worthily seek public employment have the right to insist that merit and competency shall be recog- nized instead of party subserviency, or the surrender of hon-st political belief" CHIEF-JUSTICE WAITE ADMINISTERING THE OATH OF OFFICE TO PRESIDENT CLEVELAND. apphcation of business principles to public affairs. As a means to this end civil service reform should be in good faith enforced. Our citizens have the right to protection from the incompetency of public employees who hold their places solely as the reward of partisan service, and from the corrupting Revenue reform was another topic referred to in President Cleveland's inaugural address. Thus early in his administration he presented a matter which was very fully discussed in his subsequent messages to Congress, and became the subject of contention between the two great parties. I ADMIT>JISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. Z6'; ■'A due regard," he says, " for the interests and prosperity of all the people demand that our finances shall be established upon such a sound and sensible basis as shall secure the safety and confidence ofbusiness interests and make the wage of labor sure and steady, and thatour system ofrevenue shall be so adjusted as to relieve the people from unnecessary taxation, having a due regard to the interests Interior; Augustus H. Garland, of Arkansas, Attorney-General ; William Crowninshield Endicott, of Massachusetts, Secretary of War; William F. Vilas, of Wisconsin, Post- master-General ; William Collins Whitney, of New York, Secretary of the Navy. On the fourth of March, the day of Presi- dent Cleveland's inauguration, ex-President Grant was placed on the retired Hst of the DEATH OF GENERAL GRANT. of capital invested and workingmen employed in American industries, and preventing the accumulation of a surplus in the treasury to tempt extravagance and waste." The new cabinet was composed as follows : Thomas Francis Bayard, of Delaware, Secre- tary of State; Daniel Manning, of New York, Secretary of the Treasury ; Lucius Q. C. Lamar, of Mississippi, Secretary of the army. For some months previous to this there were ominous rumors respecting the state of his health. The great general who had led the Federal forces in the last part of the civil war, and who had gained a military reputation second to that of no commander of modern times ; who had also been lifted to the highest position in the gift of a grate- ful people, and had served eight years in the 868 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. White House as our chief executive, was reported to be in his last illness. The sympathy of the entire country was profoundly stirred by this announcenient. Medical skill of the highest order was sum- moned ; daily bulletins of the condition of the illustrious patient were issued ; hope was expressed that his life might be spared for many years, a hope which soon proved to be unfounded ; and although his labors in the preparation of his " Memoirs " continued, it became evident that he was sustained more by will-power than by any increasing THE COTTAGE IN WHICH GRANT DIED AT MT. McGREGOR. strength, and that very soon he would be compelled to lay down his pen as he had already laid down his sword. In the summer of 1885 he was removed to Mount McGregor, in the northern part of the State of New York, in the hope that he would be invigorated by the mountain air. Disease, however, had progressed so far that his death became inevitable, and this occurred on the twenty-third of July, at 8 o'clock A. M. Demonstrations of sorrow attended his obsequies. A special train bore his remains from Mount McGregor to the city of New York, where the funeral services and the interment were to take place. On the sixth of August he was laid in state in the City Hall, and vast crowds of people came to take their last look. On August eighth the funeral took place, which was an extraordi- nary pageantry. It was attended by celeb- rities from all parts of the land. All that statesmen, members of Congress, Governors of States, Judges of Supreme Courts and per- sons in the highest walks of professional and mercantile life could do to give honor to the illustrious dead was rendered on this ocasion. The Grand Army, of which General Grant had been the leader, was fully represented. A procession num- bering from fifty to sixty thou- sand men followed the hearse from the City Hall to the mau- soleum erected on the banks o( the Hudson, which was to con- tain the remains of the illustrious dead. The closing scenes of the life of General Grant were as im- pressive as his previous illness had been painful, and fitted to awaken public sympathy. Thus was laid in the tomb another of the renowned sons of the Re- public who had done much to add to her fame and brighten her glory. It was not long after this that another death occurred which added to the affliction caused by that of ex- President Grant. On the 29th of October General George B. McClellan died at his residence at Orange Mountain, N. J. General McClellan's name comes out conspicuously in the history c f our country since i860. In the early part ol the war he was commander of the Army of the Potomac. Having been displaced, the part that he occupied in the war was not afterward prominent. He was widely known, however, in political life, and was invested ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 869 with several offices, one of which was the governorship of New Jersey. His funeral took place in the city of New York on the second of November. The public agitation of the question of free trade and revenue reform took definite shape in the latter part of this year. At Chicaijo on the eleventh of November there more and more prominent, entering more largely into public discussion, and was des- tined to be the leading issue in the next presi- dential campaign. On the twenty-fifth of November Vice- President Thomas B. Hendricks died sud- denly at Indianapolis, and his obsequies were attended December first. Thus passed GENERAL GRANT'S TEMPORARY TOMB, RIVERSIDE PARK, NEW YORK. was a national conference of free-traders and revenue reformers. This was preliminary to political action which, it was understood, would be taken afterward. The conference was attended by representative men, views were freely exchanged, and it was thought that by this action the cause of free trade would be materially promoted. Thus it may be seen that the tariff question was becoming away another of the prominent figures whose removal made the year 1885 conspicuous as a year of death in high places. In December both houses of Congress passed a bill granting a pension to President Grant's widow. This was thought to be an act of justice in consideration of the services rendered to the nation by her distinguished husband — a measure which was heartily 870 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. approved by the people at large, and which was another evidence of the fact that, not- withstanding the old saying that " Repub- lics are ungrateful," ours is not to be classed in that number. In the early part of December, Congress reassembled at Washington, and President Cleveland submitted his annual message. In this message the matter of silver coinage was given a prominent place, and in connection with it the existing condition of the laboring classes throughout the country was dis- cussed. The president expressed the gravest anxiety for the prosperity of the country, unless measures should be taken by Con- gress to remedy the existing evils. Another important recommendation had reference to the Indians. It was maintained that the pres- ent laws and regulations for their control should be prudently administered, while at the same time it was stated that there was a lack of fixed purpose or policy on this subject. The Presidential Succession. The president took the ground that the Indians were within the care of the govern- ment, and their rights should be protected from invasion by the most solemn obliga- tions. It was stated that there was a general concurrence in the proposition that the ulti- mate object of their treatment should be their civilization and citizenship, and it was urged that measures to this end should be pressed forward as speedily as possible. The pass- age of a law was recommended which should authorize the appointment of six commis- sioners to carry out the preceding recom- mendations. These were the most important matters which were submitted by President Cleveland in this message. ' A bill stating the terms of the presidential succession was passed by Congress on the fifteenth of January, 1886. The opinion had long been held by members of Congress, and had been discussed by the journals through- out the country, that the statutes regulating the succession in the office of president were not sufficiently adequate. The intention was, by this bill, to set up such safeguards as would prevent any revolutionary act in the event of the death of the chief executive, the vice-president, or both, during a single pres- idential term. Agitations upon the labor question con- tinued throughout the country; organiza- tions were rapidly formed, conventions were held, leading agitators inflamed the laboring classes, and the subject assumed such grave proportions that on the twenty-second of April, 1886, President Cleveland sent a spec- ial message to Congress. The object was to recommend such measures as would tend to quiet the labor agitation, and at the same time guard the interests of capital. Anarchists Sentenced to be Executed. The next event of importance, although occurring in Chicago, very soon assumed a national aspect. On the fourth of May a riot occurred in that city, instigated by a company of revolutionary spirits who have been denominated " Anarchists." After having held secret and public meetings for a long time, which were promoted and reported by one or two journals edited by the leaders in the movement, an open outbreak occur- red on the above date. While a public meet- ing was being held and speeches were being made of a revolutionary description, the police attempted to disperse the crowd. At that instant dynamite bombs were thrown, and seven policemen were killed, and eighty- three officers and citizens were wounded, A number of arrests followed, and on the twentieth of August, after a protracted trial, i seven anarchists were convicted of murder and sentenced to be executed. Able coun- sel defended them, and managed their trial ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 871 in such a way as to indicate that they were as much in sympathy with the measures proposed by the anarchists as they were with the maintenance of law and order. On the seventh of October a new trial was refused, and on the ninth formal sentence of execution was pronounced. Four were exe- cuted on November 1 1, 1887, one committed suicide in prison, two were sentenced to imprisonment for life and one to fifteen years in the penitentiary. Earthquake at Charleston. On the thirty-first of August, 1886, tlie city of Charleston, South Carolina, was visited by a severe earthquake. Nearly seven thousand buildings were totally destroyed or seriously injured. About one hundred lives were lost, and so great was the work of destruction that more than one-half of the city had to be rebuilt. This calamity threw a gloom over the entire country ; prompt aid was offered the sufferers, and the people of the stricken city began at once to repair their desolated homes. On Thursday, October 28, 1886, the great statue of Liberty Enlightening the Wnild was unveiled on Bedlow's Island, in New York Harbor. This massive work was ccn- ceived and executed by M. Auguste F. Bar- tholdi, of Paris, France, and was presented by the French nation to the people of the United States. The first steps toward its construction were taken in I874, when the French-American Union was established, a banquet given, and an appeal made to the people of France. In 1876 M. Bartholdi had begun his great work, and with extended right arm of the statue — the first part that was completed — came to America and placed it with the torch in the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, whence it was subsequently removed to Madison Square, NcAV York, In February, 1877, Congress set apart Bedloe's Island for the statue, and a committee was chosen, with William M. Evarts at its head, to make preparations for receiving the great work. The statue weighs 450,000 pounds, or 225 tons. The bronze alone weighs 200,000 pounds. Forty persons can stand comfort- ably in the head, and the torch will hold twelve people. The total number of steps in the tempor- ary staircase, which leads from the base of the foundation to the top of the torch is 403. From the ground to the top of the pedestal, 195 steps. The number of steps in the statue from the pedestal to the head is 154, and the ladder leading up through the extended right arm to the torch has 54 rounds. The cost of the statue was estimated at ^250,000; the cost of the pedestal and the erection of the statue, ;$350,ooo. Total cost of the work completed and in place, ;^6oo,ooo. President Cleveland's Marriage. A social event of great interest during the administration of President Cleveland was his marriage at the White House, on the second of June, 1886, to Miss Frances Fol- som, of Buffalo, New York, who was educated at Well's College, and who, just previously to her marriage, had made the tour of Europe. At seven o'clock in the evening the wedding guests assembled in the Blue Room. Owing to the President's desire that the affair should be as private as possible, the Diplomatic Corps had not been invited. The guests placed themselves in the form of a semicircle, Mr. Bayard being at the extreme left and Rev. Mr. Cleveland at the extreme right. The Marine Band, which was stationed in the ante-room, gave forth the dulcet strains of the perennial wedding-march of Men- delssohn as the Rev. Dr. Sunderland took his position at the south end of the room. 872 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. and immediately after the bridal party- entered. The bearing of the couple was dignified and impressive. They were fol- lowed by the few guests who were closely related to the contracting parties. The reverend doctor then performed the marriage ceremony in a manner at once MRS. FRANCES FOLSOM-CLEVELAND. solemn and impressive, the bride and groom making their responses in clear tones. The ' , was then passed and piac^a on die bride's ;<.r, and the two were pronounced man 1 wife. The following benediction was ^5, okcn by the Rev. Mr, Cleveland, brother of the President ; " God the Father, God the Son, and Gou the Holy Ghost, bless, preserve and keep you; the Lord mercifully fill you with all temporal and all spiritual blessings, and grant that you may so live together in this world that in the world to come you may have life everlasting. Amen." Ex-President Chester A. Ar thur died November 18, 1886, aged fifty-six years. In his message of December, ! 886, President Cleveland made special reference to the statutes granting and regulating pensions. This was done, doubtless, in part to answer criticisms upon his many vetoes of bills passed which granted pensions to disabled sol- diers and their families. He says : "The usefulness and the jus- tice of any system for the distri- bution of pensions depend upon the equality and uniformity of its operation. It will be seen from the report of the Commissioner that there are now paid by the government one hundred and thirty-one different rates of pen- sion. " He estimates from the best information he can obtain that nine thousand of those who have served in the army and navy of the United States are now sup- ported, in whole or in part, from public funds or by organized charities, exclusive of those in soldiers' homes under the direction and con- trol of the government. Only thirteen per cent, of these are pensioners, while of the entire number of men furnished for the late- war something like twenty per cent., includ- ing their widows and relatives, have been or are now in the receipt of pensions.. p CD a1 o o o <1 3 I — I 3 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 873 "The American people, with a patriotic and grateful regard for our ex-soldiers — too broad anc too sacred to be monopolized by any special advocates — are not only willing but anxious that equal and exact justice should be done to all honest claimants for pensions. In their sight the friendless and destitute soldier, dependent on public charity, if otherwise entitled, has precisely the same work an injustice to the brave and crippled, but poor and friendless soldier, who is entirely neglected or who must be content with the smallest sum allowed under general laws." In the same message occurred a further discussion of the labor question as fol- lows : " The relations of labor to capital and of laboring men to their employers, are of the THE NEW POST OFFICE BUILDING, PHILADELPHIA. right to share in the provision made for those who fought their country's battles as those better able, through friends and influence, to push their claims. " Every pension that is granted under our present plan upon any other grounds than actual service and injury or disease incurred in such service, and every instance of the many in which pensions are increased on other grounds than the merits of the claim, utmost concern to every patriotic citizen. When these are strained and distorted, unjus- tifiable claims are apt to be insisted upon by both interests, and in the controversy which results, the welfare of all and the prosperity of the country are jeopardized. Any inter- vention of the General Government, within the limits of its constitutional authority, to avert such a condition, should be willingly accorded. 874 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. " In a special message transmitted to the Congress at its last session, 1 suggested the enlargement of our present Labor Bureau, and adding to its present functions the power of arbitration in cases where differences arise between employer and employed. When these differences reach such a stage as to result in the interruption of commerce be- tween the States, the application of this remedy by the General Government might be regarded as entirely within its constitu- tional powers. THE NEW CITY HALL, PHILADELPHIA " And I think we might reasonably hope that such arbitrators, if carefully selected and if entitled to the confidence of the parties to be affected, would be voluntarily called to the settlement of controversies of less extent and not necessarily within the domain of Federal regulation. "I am of the opinion that this suggestion is worthy the attention of the Congress. " But after all has been done by the pas- sage of laws either Federal or State to relieve a situation full of solicitude, much more remains to be accomplished by the reinstate- ment and cultivation of a true American sen- timent which recognizes the equality of American citizenship. This, in the light of our traditions and in loyalty to the spirit of our institutions, would teach that a hearty co-operation on the part of all interests is the surest path to national greatness and the happiness of all our people, that capital should, in recognition ot the brotherhood of our citizenship and in a spirit of American fairness, generously accord to labor its just compensation and consideration, and that contented labor is capital's best protection and faithful ally. It would teach, too, that the diverse situations of our people are insepar- able from our civilization, that every citizen should, m his sphere, be a contrib- utor to the general good, that capital does not neces- sarily tend to the oppression of labor, and that violent disturbances and disorders alienate from their pro- moters true American sym- pathy and kindly feeling." In September, of 1887, the centennial anniversary of the adoption and promul- gation of the United States Constitution was celebrated in Philadelphia. The celebration occupied the three days — Thursday, Friday and Saturday, September fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth. On the fifteenth there was a grand industrial display under the general direction of Colonel A. Louden Snowden, which was seven hours in passing a given point, and was by far the largest exhibition of the sort ever made in America. On Friday, the sixteenth, there was a mili- tary parade, composed of United States regular troops, United States marines, GirarJ ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 875 College cadets and companies of State militia from over half the States in the Union. Fif- teen thousand men were in line, the gov- ernors of States riding at the head of their several State troops, the whole under the command of Lieutcnant-General Phillip H. Sheridan. It was reviewed by the President in Independence Square, at which President Cleveland presided, the opening and closing prayers being made by Bishop Potter of New York and Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore, respectively. There were addresses by Presi- dent Cleveland and President Kasson, of the Constitutional Celebration Committee, and STEAMSHIP DOCKS ON THE DELAWARE KIVEK, PHILADELPHIA. of the United States. Stands had been erected along Broad street from Wharton to Dauphin streets, and on Market and Chestnut streets from Broad to Fifth streets, and they were filled with tier upon tier of enthusiastic thousands, the^ whole forming one of the grandest military spectacles of the century. On Saturday there were public exercises the oration was given by Associate Justice Samuel F. Miller, of the United States Supreme Court. Hon. Roscoe Conkling, ex-United States Senatorof New York, died April 18, i888,aged fifty-nine. Hon. Morrison R. Waite, Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, died March 23, 1 888, aged seventy-two years. ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND, 876 At St. Louis, June 5, 1888, the Democratic National Convention was held for the pur- pose of nominating candidates for the offices of President and Vice-President. When the convention was called to order the scene was an inspiring one. Back of the delegates rose tier after tier of spectators, a vast, undulating sea of heads and faces. In the galleries the bright ribbons of the ladies and the highly- colored fans fluttered among the red, white and blue, the silver stars and the graceful folds of bunting. The morning was close and muggy and threatened rain, but when ALLEN G. THURMAN. Chairman Barnum, of the Democratic Na- tional Committee, and Secretary Frederick O. Prince came upon the platform the sun burst through the clouds, and through the windows of the convention hall as well. President Grover Cleveland, of New York, was unanimously nominated for the office of President of the United States, and Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio, for the office of Vice- President; after which the convention ad- o.irned on June 7. The meetings of the convention were attended by scenes of excite- ment and enthusiasm, which indicated com- plete harmony in the Democratic party, resolute determination to make the ap- proching campaign one of great vigor, and hope of success at the general election to be held in November. The Republican National Convention, held at Chicago from the nineteenth to the twenty-fifth of June, 1888, nominated the Hon. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, for the office of President. Previous to the assembling of the con- vention, and even during its early sessions, Mr. Harrison was not so prominently named for the nomination as several others. Sher- man, of Ohio; Gresham, of Illinois; Alger, of Michigan, and that distinguished leader of the Republican party, James G. Blaine, had their respective enthusiactic following. The nomination was given to Mr. Harrison after a long and patient effort to secure the best man for the high honor of leading the Repub- lican hosts. Nomination of Benjamin Harrison, When the convention, on the eighth ballot, declared in favor of Harrison, the decision was hailed with univeisal delight. Although the friends of other candidates had worked with great zeal to secure the prize for their favorites, there was a hearty acquiesence in the final decision, the choice was made unanimous, the building shook with hearty plaudits, great waves of excitement swept over the vast audience, and the scene was one never to be forgotten by those who wit- nessed it. At once all differences among the delegates were harmonized, and they pre- pared to push the canvass with vigor up to the day of decision in November. Hon. Levi P. Morton, of New York, was nominated for the office of Vice President. On the twentieth of July, 1888, the nomi- nation of Melville W. Fuller, of Illinois, as Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, was confirmed by the Senate, and <»n ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 87? the fourteenth of August General John M. Scofield was appointed to command the army of the United States. General Philip H. Sheridan, the distin- guished cavalry commander, died August 5, 1888, aged fifty-seven years. In October occurred an incident which resulted in the recall by tlie British Govern- ment of its Minister at Washington. On the thirtieth Lord Sackville-West was notified by Secretary Bayard that his presence in this country in a diplomatic capacity was no longer desired by the United States. This action was taken because of the publication of a letter from Minister West to a mythical per- sonage named Murchison,in which headvised support of Cleveland for President because he was favorable to British interests. Result of the Election. On the sixth of November the election was held, which resulted in a victory for the Republican party, the States voting as they did at the election four years before, with the exception of New York and Indiana, which gave their votes to Benjamin Harrison. The first session of the Fiftieth Congress was the longest continuous session ever held, having lasted 321 days, ending October twen- tieth. In the Senate 3,641 bills and 1 16 joint resolutions were introduced ; in the House, 11,598 bills and 230 jonit resolutions — a grand total of 15,585 measures. President Cleveland's message calling attention to the surplus and recommending a revision of the tariff forced a discussion of that economic question which extended through and pro- longed the session. What became known as the Mills bill was reported to the House, and passed July twenty-first. A substitute measure known as the Senate bill was reported to the Senate LEVI p. MORTON. October fourth and debated, but no action \\ as taken thereon. So much time was occu- pied by the tariff debate and other discus- sions brought about for effect on the Presi- dential election that there was very little important legislation. About 1,200 bills were passed, of which 800 were private pen- sion bills. CHAPTER XLVIII The Administration of Benjamin Harrison nauguration of President Harrison — Imposing !-cene at Washington — Vast Assembly — Civic and Militaiy Parade- President Harrison's Inaugural Address — Celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of Washington's Inauguration — Fine Naval Parade — Religious and Literary Exercises — Military Display — President Harrison at the Banquet — The President's Address — The New Cabinet — Terrible Calamity at Johnstown^Admission of New States — President's Message to the Fifty-first Congress — Legislation of the First Session of the Fifty-first Congress — The New Tariff Law — Indian War in the Northwest — Death of Sitting Bull — Restriction of Immigration — Mob Law in New Orleans — • Trouble with Chile — Political Conventions of 1S92 — Labor Contest at Homestead — Defeat of the Bland Silver Bill. THERE was an imposing demonstra- tion at Washington on the occasion of President Harrison's inaugura- tion, March 4, 1889. A vast con- course of people assembled from all parts of the country, and the civic and military dis- play surpassed all pageantries ever before witnessed at the capital. President Harrison's inaugural address, while recommending some important meas- ures, was regarded as conservative in its tone, and served to inspire confidence in the new administration. The address traced the necessary growth of tariff legislation. This legislation was adopted in the early history of the nation. " Societies for the promotion of home manufactures and for encouraging the use of domestics in the dress of the people were organized in many of the States. The revival at the end of the century of the same patriotic interest in the preserva- tion and development of domestic industries, and the defence of our working people against injurious foreign competition, is an incident worthy of attention. It is not a departure, but a return that we have wit- nessed. The protective policy had then its opponents. The argument was made, as now, that its- benefits inured to particular classes or sections." 878 Continuing, the President said : " 1 look hopefully to the continuance of our protec- tive system and to the consequent develop- ment of manufacturing and mining enter- prises in the States hitherto wholly given to agriculture, as a potent influence in the per- fect unification of our people. The men who have invested their capital in these enterprises, the farmers who have felt the benefit of their neighborhood, and the men who work in shop or field will not fail to find and to defend a community of interest." The President gave some timely sug- gestions respecting the formation of trusts and the evils which are likely to attend them. Among other things he said : " The evil example of permitting individuals, corpora- tions or communities to nullify the laws because they cross some selfish or local interest or prejudices is full of danger, not only to the nation at large, but much more to those who use this pernicious expedient to escape their just obligations or to obtain an unjust advantage over others. They will presently themselves be compelled to appeal to the law for protection and those who would use the law as a defense must not deny that use of it to others. " If our great corporations would more scrupulously observe their legal limitations and duties, they would have less cause to Administration of beniamin Harrison. S79 complain of the unlawful limitations of their rights or of violent interference with their operations. The community that by concert, open or secret, among its citizens denies to a portion of its members their plain rights under the law, has severed the only safe bond of social order and prosperity. The evil works, from a bad centre, both ways. It demoralizes those who prac- tice it, and destroys the faith of those who suffer by it in the efficiency of the law as a safe protector. The man in whose breast that faith has been darkened is natur- ally the subject of danger- ous uncanny suggestions. Those who use unlawful methods, if moved by no higher motive than the selfishness that prompted them, may well stop to in- quire what is to be the end of this." The President also recom- mended that our naturaliza- tion laws be so amended as to exclude the worst class of immigrants. "We should not cease to be hospitable to immigration, but we should cease to be careless as to the character of it." The address recommend- ed that care be exercised to maintain friendly relations with the other nations of the globe, but not at the expense of our own interests. A strong navy for the protection of the United States was urged as a prime consid- eration, with such appropriations as would be needed to build and equip a fleet of war vessels capable of defending our coasts and upholding the dignity of our flag. The reform of the civil service, the admis- sion of new States, the freedom of the ballot and the safeguards needed to give efficacy to our election laws, were topics discussed by the address in a timely, patriotic manner. The new cabinet was constituted as fol- lows : Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, Maine (resigned), succeeded by John W. ^%^ BENJAMIN HARRISON. Foster, Indiana ; Secretary of the Treasury, William Windom, Minnesota (deceased), suc- ceeded by Charles Foster, Ohio ; Secretary of War, Redfield Proctor, Vermont (resigned), succeeded by Stephen B. Elkins, West Vir- ginia; Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin F. Tracy, New York; Secretary of the Interior, John W. Noble, Missouri ; Post-master- General, John Wanamaker, Pennsylvania ; 88o ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. Secretary of Agriculture, Jeremiah M. Rusk, Wisconsin ; Attorney-General, William H. H. Miller, Indiana. On the thirtieth of April, 1889, the Cen- tennial Anniversary of Washington's Inaug- uration was celebrated in New York city. On the morning of the twenty-ninth, Presi- dent Harrison was received in New York harbor with a naval parade, which comprised The religious exercises comprised a prayer by Rev. R. S. Storrs, D. D., LL. D., and a sermon by Bishop Potter, of New York. The literary exercises comprised a poem written for the occasion by John Greenleat Whittier, and an oration by Hon. Chauncey Depew. At a banquet in the evening, President Harrison spoke as follows : BIRDS-EYE VIEW OF NEW VOKK CITV. ships of the navy, steamboats, and a large numberof vessels belonging to the merchant marine. On the thirtieth, religious and liter- ary exercises were held, and these were fol- lowed by a fine military parade, comprising regiments from the regular army and militia from a number of States. On a stand erected at Madison Square, President Harrison and several cabinet officers reviewed the parade. " The occasion and all its incidents will be memorable, not only in the history of your city, but in the history of our country. New York did not succeed in retaining the seat of national government here, though she made liberal provision for the assembling of the first Congress in the expectation *hat Con- gress might find its permanent home here. But though you lost that which you coveted, ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. I think the representatives here of all the States will agree that it was fortunate that the first inauguration of Washington took place in the State and city of New York. " For where in our country could the cen- tennial of the event have been so worthily celebrated as here ? What seaboard offered so magnificent a bay, on which to display our merchant and naval marine ? What city your great exchanges have closed and your citizens given themselves up to the observ- ance of the celebration in which we are par- ticipating. " I believe that patriotism has been inten- sified in many hearts by what we have wit- nessed to-day. I believe that patriotism has been placed into a higher and holier fane in many hearts. The bunting with which you THE POST OFFICE, NEW YORK. ofifered thoroughfares so magnificent or a people so great or so generous as New York has poured out to-day to celebrate that event ? ' I congratulate you to-day, as one of the instructive and interesting features of this occasion, that these great thoroughfares dedi- cated to trade have closed their doors and covered up the insignia of commerce ; that 56 have covered your walls, these patriotic inscriptions, must go down, and the wage and trade be resumed again. " Here may I not ask you to carry those inscriptions that now hang on the walls into you homes, into the schools of your city, into all your great institutions where children are gathered, and teach them that the eye of the young and old should look upon that 882 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON^ flag as one of the familiar glories of every American. " Have we not learned that no stocks and bonds nor land is our country? It is a spiritual thought that is in our minds ; it is the fireside and the home ; it is the flag and what it stands for ; it is the thoughts that are in our hearts ; born of the inspiration which comes with the story of the flag of martyrs the inhabitants of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and the neighboring villages on the preced- ing day. Instantly the whole land was stirred by the startling news of this great disaster. Its appalling magnitude, its dread- ful suddenness, its scenes of terror and agony, the fate of thousands swept to instant death by a flood as frightful as that of the cataract of Niagara, awakened the profoundest horror. THE BATTERY AND CASTLE GARDEN, NEW YORK. to liberty ; it is the graveyard into which a common country has gathered the uncon- scious deeds of those who died that the thing Imight live which we love and call our coun- try, rather than anything that can be touched or seen." On the advent of summer, June first, the country was horror-stricken by the announce- ment that a terrible calamity had overtaken No calamity in the history of modern timc^ so appalled the civilized world. The South Forks dam, situated a few miles above the city of Johnstown, suddenly gave way, precipitating an immense body of water into the valley below. The impetuous tor- rent swept downward with frightful velocity, overturning trees, carrying with it barns- houses, fences and vast accumulations oi ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 8^3 debris. I^eople fled in terror to save their lives, but were overtaken by the rushing tor- rent. The destruction to hfe and property was appalling. The greatest damage occurred at Johns- town, a large part of the dwellings being swept away, transforming a flourishing manu- facturing town of twelve thousand persons into a scene of utter desolation. The story of this great disaster is replete with thrilling incidents, narrow escapes from death, the rending asunder of families, the loss of husbands, wives and chil- dren, and in many instances the obliteration of entire households. It was esti- mated that upwards of four thousand persons perished. Profound sympathy throughout the world was awakened for the surviving sufferers,and immense sums of money and contributions of clothing were sent to the scene of the disaster. On the twenty-second of February, 1889, an act was passed by Congress admit- ting the following Terri- tories into the Union a§ States: North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington. President Harrison issued his proclamations by which the admission of these Territories took effect during the same year, that of the two Dakotas on November 2, that of Montana on No- vember 8, and that of Washington on No- vember 1 1. The addition of so many States in one year was styled by the President " an event as unexampled as it is interesting." The message of the President, sent to the Fifty-first Congress at the beginning of its first session, made reference to the conference held during the year of the representatives of all the independent States of North and South America for the purpose of per- petuating and expanding the relations of mutual interest and friendliness existing among them. While it was hoped com- mercial results would follow, the crowning benefit would be found in the better secu- rities that would be devised for the mainten- HARBOR OF NEW YORK, ance of peace among all American nations, and the settlement of all contentions by the methods of Christian civilization. The message also called attention to the international conference at Washington to adopt a uniform system of marine signals and to amend the rules and regulations governing vessels at sea. The foregoing conferences brought together the accredited representa- tives of thirty-three nations. S{ ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON, The President then discussed the question of Chinese immigration. After calling attention to the fact that previous legislation had failed, he continued : " While our supreme interests demand the exclusion of a laboring element, which experience has shown to be incompatible with our social life, all steps to compass this imperative need should be accompanied with a recognition of the claim of those strangers now lawfully among us to humane and jurt treatment." cities against foreign attack, the impfovefnen* of rivers and harbors, how far " trusts " should be brought under Federal jurisdiction, the revision of our naturalization laws, the allotment of lands to the Indians and such legislation as was required for the protection of these wards of the nation in their lawful rights and of the white settlers on our fron- tiers. The message dealt largely with the subject of pensions for our ex-soldiers, and urged that, with due regard to the public THE BREAK IN THE SOUTH FORKS DAM, JOHNSTOWN, PA, The message took strong ground upon the question of protection to American industries. A new schedule of customs duties was recommended. " The inequalities of the law should be adjusted, but the pro- tective principle should be maintained and fairly applied to the products of our farms as well as of our shops." Other subjects discussed in the message were silver coinage, provision for our coast treasury. Congress should meet every just claim on the part of those who made heroic sacrifices in the hour of the nation's peril The foregoing were the most important subjects treated by the President, all of which were discussed with marked ability and with a breadth of view which impressed the country with his statesmanlike sagacity. For many years the Louisiana State Lot- tery carried on its operations in defiance of ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 885 the moral sentiment of the country. Both Houses of Congress finally passed, without a division, an act forbidding the use of the United States mails by any person or com- pany engaged in conducting any lottery, gift enterprise, or any scheme for obtaining money by false and fraudulent pretenses. The passage of this act resulted in the sup- pression of the Louisiana Lottery. An act was also passed declaring to be illegal every contract, combination in the form of trust or conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations. This act passed both Houses of Congress without a division. Its aim was to check the growing evils of trusts and all combinations of capital whereby a restriction is put upon the manufacture and sale of commodities which constitute the necessaries of life. Increasing the Navy. President Harrison's administration was also signalized by important legislation affect- ing the Navy. Provision was made for the construction of three sea-going coast-line battle ships, to carry the heaviest armor and ordnance, the cost not to exceed ^4,000,000 each ; one protected cruiser, to have a maxi- mum speed of 2 1 knots, and to cost not more than ;^2,750,ooo; one swift torpedo cruiser, to have a maximum speed of not less tha.i 23 knots ; and one torpedo boat. Acts were passed admitting the Territories of Idaho and Wyoming as States into the Union, the act admitting Idaho being ap- proved July 3, and that admitting vVyoming July 10, 1890. By a vote of 29 to 5 in the Senate, and a vote of 1 19 to 93 in the House of Represen- tatives, Congress passed an act providing that " All fermented, distilled or other intoxi- cating liquors or liquids transported into any State or Territory remaining therein for use. consumption, sale or storage therein, shall, upon arrival in such State or Territory, be subject to the operation and effect of the laws of such State or Territory enacted in the exercise of its police powers, to the same extent and in the same manner as though such liquids or liquors had been produced in such State or Territory, and shall not be ex- empt therefrom by reason of being introduced therein in original packages or otherwise." The act was approved August 8, 1890, WILLIAM Mckinley, a'.d wca occasioned by a decision of the United States Supreme Court (three judges dissenting) that brewers in Illinois had the right to import into Iowa beer, and to sell it in original packages without regard to the law of Iowa. Congress took up the matter promptly and provided ample legislation for the enforcement by the various States of their laws relating to the traffic in liquors. On the twenty fifth of April, 1890, Con- gress passed an act relating to the Colum- bian Exposition at Chicago. The act provides for an exhibition of arts, indus- tries, manufactures, products of the soil, mine 886 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. and sea, in 1893, in Chicago, Illinois, in cele- bration of the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, A commission of two persons from each State and Territory tabe appointed by the President on the nomination of the Governors, and of eight commissioners at large and two from the District of Columbia, to be appointed by the President, in all which there shall be one from each of the two lead- ing political parties — with alternates— shall be the World's Columbian Commission, with CHARLES F. CRISP. power to accept the site, etc., on condition of their being satisfied that ;$ 10,000,000 are secured for the complete preparation for said Exposition, The Commission is required to appoint a board of lady managers, who may appoint one or more members of all com- mittees authorized to award prizes for exhibits which may be produced in whole or in part by female labor. A naval review is directed to be held in New York harbor in April. 1893, and the President is authorized to extend to foreign nations an invitation to send ships of war to join the United States navy in rendevous at Hampton Roads and proceed thence to said review. The buildings shall be dedicated October 12, 1892, and the Exposition open not later than May i, 1893, and closed not later than October 30, 1893. The Commis- sion shall exist no longer than January i, 1898. A government building for ^400,000 shall be erected, to contain the government exhibits. The United States shall not in any manner^ '.lor under any circumstances, be liable for any of the acts, doings, proceedings or repre- sentations of the said corporation organized under the laws of the State of Illinois, its officers, agents, servants or employees, or any of them, or for the service, salaries, labor or wages of said officers, agents, servants, or employees, or any of them, or for any sub- scriptions to the capital stock, or for any cer- tificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, or obli- gations of any kind issued by said corpora- tion, or for any debts, liabilities or expenses of any kind whatever attending such cor- poration or accruing by reason of the same. The foregoing were the main provisions of the act. On December 24, 1890, Presi- dent Harrison issued a proclamation inviting the nations of the earth to take part in the Chicago Exposition of 1893. The New Tariff Law. One of the most important measures en- acted during President Harrison's admin- istration was the McKinley Tariff Bill. After a lengthy discussion the bill was passed by a party vote, the Republican party being pledged to the principle of protection. The act went into effect October i, 1890, and in its practical workings was closely watched and universally discussed. A remarkable political revolution swept over the country in the autumn of 1890, ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 887 which was considered largely due to the enactment of the McKinley Tariff Bill. In the Fifty-first Congress the House of Represen- tatives contained one hundred and seventy-six Republicans and one hundred and fifty-five Democrats. In the Fifty- second Congress there were eighty-eight Re- publicans and two hun- dred and thirty-five De- mocrats. The House was organized by elect- ing Charles F. Crisp, of Georgia, as Speaker. In the autumn of 1890 troubles broke out afresh at the Indian agencies. The several tribes were seized with a peculiar craze, and began to per- form the "ghost dance," which was supposed to indicate their belief in a coming Messiah who was about to appear. It seems impossible to trace the exact origin of the Indian faith. An Indian from the upper Columbia River, named Smohalla, preached the doctrine of an Indian Messiah about the year 1880. This Indian taught that there would be an upheaval of nature, which would destroy the white man and restore to the Indian his ancestral re- mains, and that the dust of countless dead In- dians would spring to life, and would surround without one word of warning each pale face, who would be swept from the face of the SITTING-BULL IN HIS WAR-DRESS. earth. None of the deadly weapons of civilization or skill in their use would avail. 888 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. and the blood of eighty milHons of whiles would atone for the wrongs done to the red race. Within a few months the belief in this new religion spread from tribe to tribe with marvellous rapidity. Runners traversed thousands of miles to reach distant tribes n.nd bear the glad tidings. The Arrapahoes, CHIEF AMERICAN HORSE. the Shoshones, the great Sioux tribes, the Cheyennes, both north and south, and many other tribes, were taught the faith ; and the *' ghost-dance," the religious ceremony of the creed, was danced by all these tribes. Possessed by these superstitious notions, these extraordinary beliefs, the powerful tribe of Sioux began and continued to perform their fantastic ghost-dances. Sitting-Bull, the old deadly foe of the white men, took advantage of the craze to inflame the anger of his people and prepare for deeds of blood. The disquietude among the Sioux Indians resulting from Sitting-Bull's prophecy that a new Messiah was soon to appear to restore to the Indians the land taken from them by the pale-faces, and to bring back the buffalo, ■:!il{|ii| assumed such proportions that on the fourteenth of Novem- ber the Interior Department transferred the control of the Indians of North Dakota, un- der orders of the President, to the War Department, and General Miles, commanding the Department of the Mis- souri, was placed in control. Troops were ordered to be sent forward, and it was ex- pected that within a short time there would be three thousand regulars massed in North Da- kota. Sitting- Bull had about three thousand warriors, and it was the intention of the War Department to overawe the Indians by bringing against them an equal force of United States soldiers. The Indian hostility to those of their number who were friendly to the United States Government showed itself in the attempted assas- sination of American Horse. This In- dian was a prominent Sioux chief, and a friend of the United States. He was so regarded for years, and was always inclinea to be peaceable and loyal. To nothing but the turbulent, hostile and disaffected spirit of the Indians can be attributed the attempt to murder him. They were seemingly angry because American Horse opposed ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON, 889 the turbulent spirit manifested by the In- dians. On the seventh of December some of the hostile chiefs from the Bad Lands appeared at the Pine Ridge agency to hold a confer- ence with General Brooke. They came bear- ing a flag of truce and armed with Winchester and Springfield rifles. The entrance of the novel procession cre- ated great excitement. First came the chiefs, who were Turning Bear, Big Turkey, High Pine, Big Bad Horse and Bull Dog, who was one of the leaders in the Custer massacre. Next came Two Strike, the head chief, seated in a bug- gy with Father Jule, a priest who induced the chiefs to take this step. Surrounding these was a body guard of four young warriors. All the Indians were decorated with war paint and feathers, while many wore ghost-dance leggings and the ghost-dance shirt dangling at their saddles. The warlike lavalcade proceeded •t once to General Brooke's spacious head- quarters in the agency residence. At a given signal all leaped to the ground, hitched their ponies and, guided by Father Jule, entered the General's apartments, where the council was held, lasting two hours. At the beginning of the pow-wow General Brooke explained that the Great Father, through him, asked them to come in and have a talk regarding the situation. A great deal of misunderstanding and trouble had arisen by the reports taken to and fro betweer. the camps by irresponsible parties, and it was therefore considered very necessary that they have a talk face to face. Through him, he said, the Great Father wanted to tell them if GENERAL NELSON A. MILES. they would come in near the agency, where he (General Brooke) could see them often, and not be compelled to depend on hearsay, that he would give them plenty to eat and would employ many of their young men as scouts, etc. The soldiers did not come there to fight but to protect the settlers and keep peacCo Sgo ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. He hoped they, the Indians, were all in favor of peace, as the Great Father did not want war. As to the feeling over the change in the boundary line between Pine Ridge and Rosebud Agency, he said that and many other things would be settled satisfactorily after they had shown a disposition to come in, as asked by the Great Father. Wounded Knee was suggested as a place that would It would be a bad thing for incm to come nearer the agency, because there was no water or grass for their horses here. He could not understand how their young men could be employed as scouts if there was no enemy to be watched. They would be glad to be employed and get paid for it. They might come in, but as the old men and old women have no horses, and as their people have CAPTAIN WALLACE FOUND AFTER THE WOUNDED KNEE FIGHT. prove satisfactory to the Great Father to have them live. The representatives of the hostiles listened with contracted brows, sidelong glances at one another and low grunts. When the General had concluded his remarks, Turning Bear cime forward and spoke in reply. He proved a most entertaining person. Sim- mered down to a few words, Turning Bear gave expression to the following ideas : nothing generally to pull their wagons, it would take them a long time to come. If they should come they would want the Great Father to send horses and wagons to the Bad Lands camp and bring in great quanti- ties of beef, etc., they had there, and take it anywhere to a new camp that might be agreed on. In conclusion, the speaker hoped that they would be given something to eat before they started back. ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 891 To this the general replied that they should be given food. As for horses and wagons being sent after the beef, the general said that and other things would be considered after they had acceded to the Great Father's request to move into the agency. Any reference whatever to the wholesale devasta- tion and depredation, thieving and burning of buildings, etc., was scudiously avoided on both sides. After the pow-wow was over the band was conducted to the quarter- master's department and there given a big feast. The squaws living at the agency came out in gala-day feathers and gave a squaw dance. The conference amounted to nothing, and the trouble was no nearer a settlement than before. Bloody Engagement with the Sioux. The next news received was of a startling character. It was known that General Miles considered Sitting-Bull the chief instigator of the hostilities on the part of the Indians, yet no public notice had been given of his inten- tion to have the crafty old warrior arrested. The Indian police, however, employed on the Pine Ridge reservation, were ordered to make the arrest. The chief was taken, and in the melee which followed an attempt to rescue him he was shot, together with his son and six braves, while four of his captors were slain. The following is the dispatch announcing the capture : Fort Yates, N. D., December 15, 1890. "At daybreak this morning there was a desperate fight at the camp of the hostile Indians, forty miles northwest of Standing-Rock Agency, and before it could be quelled Sitting-Bull, his son. Crow Foot, and six other Indians were killed, besides four of the Indian police, while quite a number on both sides were wounded. The fight was the result of an attempt to arrest Sitting-Bull in order to prevent his departure for the Bad Lands. " The Indian police were ordered early this morn- ing to proceed to the camp and arrest the wily old chief, who it was known had arranged to make an early start for the Bad Lands, where he would be almost absolutely safe from arrest. The police were followed by a troop of cavalry in command of Cap- tain Fechet and a company of infantry under Col- onel Drum. When the police reached Sitting-Bull's c imp on the Grand River, they found arrangements being made for the departure of the band, and with- out waiting for the soldiers to come up, at once placed the old chief under arrest and started back with him to the agency. Efforts to Rescue the Chief. " Scarcely had the officers gotten under way when the friends of the old Indian rallied to his rescue. They announced their determination to retake him, and a terrible fight ensued. The police were sur- rounded, and, though greatly outnumbered, they fought like demons and succeeded in holding their own against the redskins until the cavalry, attracted by the firing, came up on a quick run and succeeded in compelling the Indians either to fly or surrender. " The fighting was of the hand-to-hand description, and is said to have been exceedingly savage. One of the Indian police jumped on Sitting-Bull's horse as soon as he saw the old man fall and rode back for the infantry, which arrived on the scene shortly after the cavalry had relieved the overmatched police. Then the Indians began to break away, and probably one hundred of the braves deserted their families and fled west, up the Grand River. The Killed and Wounded. "When the smoke of battle had cleared away it was found that Sitting-Bull was dead, as also was his son, Crow Foot, and six braves. Four of the police- men, whose names could not be learned, were also dead, and three of them badly wounded. A num- ber of the Indians were badly injured, but managed to escape on their ponies. Captain Wallace, com- manding Troop K, of the Seventh Cavalry, was killed, and Lieutenant Garlington of the same regi- ment was shot in the arm." After the death of Sitting-Bull his warriors saw the hopelessness of continuing the strife and surrendered, December twenty-second, to the United States troops. General William Tecumseh Sherman died at New York City, February 14, 1891, 892 aged seventy-one years. The interment took place at St. Louis, with miHtary honors. Important action was taken by the fifty- ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. be excluded from admission into the United States, in accordance with the existing acts regulating immigration : "All idiots, insane persons, paupers, or persons likely to become a public charge, persons suf- fering from a loath- some disease or a dangerous conta- gious disease, those who have been con- victed of a felony or other infamous crime or misde- meanor involving moral turpitude, polygamists, and also any person whose ticket or passage is paid for with the money of another or who is assisted by others to come, unless it is affirmatively and satisfactorily shown on special inquiry that such person does not belong to one of the fore- going excluded ii^y^ classes, or to the ^ classof contract la- borers excluded by the act of February 26, 1885, but this section shall not be held to exclude persons living in SCENE ON THE YELLOWSTONE RIVEK. first Congress on the question of immigra- tion. The act of March 3, 1891, provides that the following, besides Chinese laborers, shall the United States from sending for a relative or friend who is not of the excluded classes' under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe : Provided, that ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 893 hothing in this act shall be construed to apply to or exclude persons convicted of a political offense, notwithstanding said polit- ical offense may be designated as a felony, crime, infamous crime, or misdemeanor, involving moral turpitude, by the laws of the land whence he came or by the court convicting." Mob Law in New Orleans. On March 14, 1891, eleven Italians, v/ho had been accused of conspiracy and the murder of Chief of Police Hennessy, were lynched in New Orleans by an enormous mob, who broke open the jail. The Italian Government made a pro- test and demanded satisfaction from the United States. Dissatisfied with Mr. Blaine's reply, the Italian Minister to the United States was recalled. Our government finally paid indemnity for the lives lost at New Orleans, and referred all judicial action to the State Courts of Louisiana, thereby restoring peaceful relations with Italy. The steamer " Itata," loading at San Diego, California, with arms and ammunition for the Chilean insurgents, was seized on May 6, 1 89 1, by the United States Government. She sailed the following day with the United States deputy marshal on board. The war- ship " Charleston " was sent in pursuit, and the " Itata " was finally turned over to the United States officers in the harbor of Iquique, T me fourth. An International Copyright Lav/ went into effect July i, 1 891, according to proclamation by President Harrison. The Governments of the United States, Great Britain, France, Bel- gium and Switzerland are parties to the same. The Hon. James Russell Lowell, the dis- tinguished author and plenipotentiary, died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, August 12, 1 89 1 . aged seventy-two years. The necrology of the year also included the deaths of the two eminent historians, George Bancroft, who died at Washington, January seventeenth, aged ninety, and John Benson Lossing, who died at Chestnut Ridge, New York, June third, aged seventy-eight. The Chilean Affair. On October 26, 1891, the United States demanded of Chile an explanation and repara- tion for the attacks in the streets of Valpa- raiso on American seamen on the sixteenth instant, and the subsequent action of the Chilean police. The affair caused much excitement throughout the country, and also indignation at what was considered a wanton act of cruelty and an insult to the American flag. President Harrison and his Cabinet took prompt action, a special message detail- ing the outrage was sent to Congress, and soon a satisfactory explanation and apology by Chile ended the unfortunate affair. On July nineteenth the Secretary of State an- nounced that an entirely cordial and mutually satisfactory settlement had been reached between the government of the United States and Chile, respecting the indemnity to be paid by the latter on account of the assault upon the crew of the Baltimore. Seventy- five thousand dollars in gold were to be dis- tributed among families of the two men who lost their lives and to the surviving members of the crew who were wounded. On the seventh of June, 1892, the Repub- lican Convention met at Minneapolis. The nomination of President Harrison had been considered a foregone cqnclusion up to June fourth, when the country was startled by the news that Secretary Blaine had resigned from President Harrison's Cabinet. A letter writ- ten by Mr. Blaine in the preceding February announced that under no consideration would he consent to be a candidate for the Presi- dency. This letter was very generally ac- cepted in good faith, and there was a general h4 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. :onvicti6h that Mr. Blaine was entirely out of the race. It was known, however, that for some time before the Convention assembled, persistent efforts had been made by enemies of the administration to induce Mr. Blaine to reconsider his letter of Feb- ruary, and allow his name to be used at Min- neapolis ; and when he suddenly resigned from the Cabinet by a curt letter, and his resignation was accepted by President Har- rison in a letter equally brief and barren of all complimentary expressions, it was com- monly believed that the " Plumed Knight " had decided to seek the nomination. President Harrison Renominated. There was consequently great excitement preceding the organization of the Conven- tion and during its progress. It bL-camc evi- dent at once that there would be a hard contest between the two leading candidates. The States at their Conventions had strongly indorsed the administration of Presid nt Harrison, and many of the delegates had been instructed to vote for his renomination in the National Convention. His friends, after they recovered from the first shock which followed the announcement of Mr. Blaine's resignation, rallied bravely, and remained firm to the end, Minneapolis was the scene of animated discussions and unique popular demonstra- tions. The loud huzzahs for Blaine showed that he had a strong hold upon the popular heart; but the thoughtful mass of delegates who were to decide the question remained true to the President, and worked diligently and wisely to secure his nomination. The brilliant eloquence of Chauncey M. Depew, of New York, awakened an unpar- alleled scene of enthusiasm as he placed Mr. Harrison in nomination before the Conven- tion. Mr. Blaine was nominated by Senator Wolcott, of Colorado. When the vote was taken it Was found tti be as follows : Harrison, 535^; Blaine, 182^; McKinley, 182 ; Reed, of Maine, 4; Robert Lincoln, of Illinois, i. On motion of Gov- ernor McKinley, of Ohio, who was chairman of the Convention, the nomination was made unanimous. The Hon. Whitelaw Reid, of New York, was nominated for the Vice- Presidency. The platform which was adopted by the Convention was highly commended as a sound exposition of the great principles of the Republican party. Ex-President Cleveland Nominated. The National Democratic Convention of 1S92 was held in Chicago June twenty-first to June twenty-third. It was conceded before the Convention assembled that ex-President Cleveland would again receive the nomina- tion for the Presidency, and the result on the first ballot proved the prediction to have been correct. The vote was as follows : For Mr. Cleve- land, 6i6i'3 ; for Senator Hill, of New York, 112; for Governor Boies, of Iowa, 103; for Senator Gorman, of Maryland, 36^ ; for Hon. A. E. Stevenson, of Illinois, 16^ ; for Senator Carlisle, of Kentucky, 15 ; for Wil- liam R. Morrison, of Illinois, 5 ; for ex-Gov- ernor Campbell, of Ohio, 2 ; for Governor Robert E. Pattison, of Pennylvania, i ; for Hon. William C. Whitney, of New York, i ; for Governor Russell, of Massachusetts, i. Ohio moved the rules be suspended and Mr. Cleveland made the nominee by acclama- tion. Governor P"lower, of New York, sec- onded the motion to make the nomination unanimous. The motion to suspend rules and declare Mr. Cleveland nominee by accla- mation was carried. Hon. Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, was nominated unanimously for the office of Vice- President. AbMlNISTRAtiON OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. §95 " The People's Party of the United States" was formed at a convention at Cincinnati, May 4, 1891. The first National Convention was held in Omaha, Nebraska, July i, 1892. On July fourth the nominations were made, resulting in the choice of General James B. Weaver as the nominee for Presi- dent, and George Field, of Virginia, for Vice- President. The platform adopted demanded the free and unlimited coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, the establishment of postal savings banks, the operation of the railroads, the telegraph and telephone by the government, and the election of senators by direct vote of the people. The convention also approved of the Sub-Treasury plan of the Farmers' Alliance, and adopted other resolutions demanding a free and fair ballot, and opposing the granting of subsides to any private corporation for any purpose, Prohibition Party. The National Convention of the Pro- hibition Party opened in Cincinnati, on the morning of June 29, 1892, and continued in session until July first. The platform declared that the liquor traflfic is a foe of civilization, and the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors as a beverage should be suppressed; favored female suffrage ; declared that an increase of the volume of money is needed, and its volume should be fixed at a definite sum per capita, and made to increase with population ; favored the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold; declared that tariff should be levied only as a defence against foreign governments which levy tariff upon or bar out our products from their markets, revenue being incidental; favored government control of railroads and tele- graphs, and stricter immigration laws ; con- denmned alien ownership of land ; favored arbitration for settling national disputes, while speculation in margins, the cornering of grain, and the promotion of trusts and pools should be suppressed. The party pledged itself to grant just pensions, and affirmed that it was opposed to any appro- priation of public money for sectarian schools. Lockout at Homestead. On June 29, 1892, the managers of Car- negie & Co.'s steel works at Homestead, Pennsylvania, closed their establishment, and five thousand employes ceased work. An attempt was made by the company ^to intro- duce non-union laborers, and in order to protect them, as well as to retain possession of the plant, a Pinkerton force of three hun- dred armed men was sent by boat to Home- stead. They attempted to land on the morn- ing of July 6, when a sanguinary contest took place, resulting in the death of several men on each side and the wounding of many morCc The next day the Pinkerton force was withdrawn, and the sheriff of Allegheny county telegraphed to Governor Pattison for a force of State militia sufficient to enable him to hold the company's property. After some delay the Governor ordered out the entire militia of the State, under com- mand of General Snowden. The troops arrived on the twelfth, and were quartered in and around the town, their presence having a restraining effect upon the strikers. On the fourteenth General Snowden placed the borough of Homestead under martial law. On July twenty-third an Anarchist named Berkman attempted to assassinate Mr. H. C. Frick, chairman of the Carnegie Steel Com- pany. Mr. Frick was shot twice, but not fatally. His assailant was captured and lodged in jail. Subsequent developments revealed a plot of the Anarchists to take the lives of leading capitalists. What was designated as the Bland Silver Bill was defeated in the House of Representa- tives at Washington on the thirteenth of July §96 ADMINISTRATION OF 1892, by a vote of 154 to 136. The bill which provided for the free coinage of silver, had passed the Senate by a small majority. Cyrus W. Field, the projector of the first Atlantic cable, died July 12, 1892, at the age of seventy-three. Canadian Tolls. On the twentieth of August President Harrison issued a proclamation intended to secure just commercial relations between the United States and Canada. The govern- ment of the Dominion had made a practice of discriminating against the citizens of the United States in the use of the Welland Canal, in violation of the treaty of Wash- ington, concluded May 8, 1871. The Pre- sident maintained that this discriminating system was unjust and unreasonable. He therefore directed that fiom and after Sep- tember I, 1892, until further notice, a toll of 20 cents per ton be levied, collected, and paid on all freight of whatever kind or description passing through the St. Mary's Falls Canal in transit to any port of the Dominion of Canada, whether carried in vessels of the United States or of other nations ; and to that extent he suspended from and after said date the right of free passage through said St. Mary's Falls Canal of any and all cargoes or portions of car- goes in transit to Canadian ports. During August, 1892, alarming reports of the spread of cholera in Europe caused our government to take action intended to prevent the introduction of the pestilence in the United States. On September ist. President Harrison issued a proclamation subjecting all vessels from infected ports to a quarantine of twenty days. George W. Curtis, the eminent author, journalist, and orator, died August 31, 1892, aged sixty-eight years. The poet, John G. Whittier, died on Sep- tember 7, 1892, aged eighty-four years. BENJAMIN HARRISON. The arrival of the steamer " Kite" at St. John, Newfoundland, September 12, 1892, ended one of the most successful Arctic expeditions ever made. The commander was Lieutenant Peary, of the United States Navy. On his arrival he telegraphed to the Navy Department at Washington as follows: "United States Navy claims highest discoveries on Greenland, east coast, Independence Bay, 82 degrees north latitude, 34 degrees west longitude, dis- covered July 4, 1892. Greenland ice cape ends south of Victoria Inlet. The highest point heretofore attained on the east coast is about 75 or yj degrees, and was made by Holdenby, a German. The highest point on the west coast was 83, made by Lockwood and Brainard, of the Greely ex- pedition." Lieutenant Peary's expedition was rich in scientific treasures and geo- graphical discoveries. The buildings of the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago were dedicated, the ceremonies beginning on the nineteenth of October, and continuing to the twenty- second. Distinguished persons were pre- sent from all parts of the country, including Vice-President Morton and members of President Harrison's Cabinet. There were military and civic parades, and orations by Hon. Chauncey M. Depew and Hon. Henry Watterson. On Oct. 25, 1892, Mrs. Caro- line Lavinia Scott, wife of President Har- rison, died, aged sixty years. Funeral ser- vices were held at the White House, Wash- ington, and at Indianapolis. The interment was at the latter place on October 28th.. The national election on November 8th resulted in the success of the Democratic party by a large majority. The official re- turns showed that Cleveland and Stevenson obtained two hundred and seventy-eight electors, or fifty-five more than a majority of the Electoral College. ADMlNiStRAtlON OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. ^97 Oil January ii, 1893, General Benjamin F. Butler died at Washington, aged seventy- five years. He became prominent during the civil war by the capture and occupation of New Orleans. t)eath of James G. Blaine. Closely following the death of General Butler occurred that of James G. Blaine at his residence, in Washington, on January lwenty-.seventh. From 1862 he served four- teen years in Congress as Representative 'roni Maine, and during the last three terms he was Speaker of the House. In the Repub- lican nominations for the Presidency in 1876 and 1880 he was defeated by Hayes and Garfield. Appointed United States Senator in 1876, he served till 1881, and acted as Secretary of State under Garfield, but resigned after Garfield's assassination. He was the Republican candidate for the Presidency in 1884, but was defeated by Cleveland. On the fourth of March, 1888, he received the portfolio of Secretary of State in Presi- dent Harrison's Cabinet. In the long and intricate controversy with Great Britain respecting the Behring Sea fish- eries, Mr. Blaine vigorously maintained the rights of the United States and showed him- self a master of diplomacy. By his speeches and writings he was known as an advocate of protection to American industries, and he niade this one of the leading issues in the presidential campaign of 1884. To his ability as a statesman was added the charm of varied accomplishments, a com- n landing personal appearance, gveat contro- versial power, and those eminent gifts which t istinguish the persuasive orator and suc- cessful leader. Always intensely American in his convictions and sympathies, his con- duct of the State Department at Washington, aimed to maintain our national prerogatives, 57 and to extend our influence among the other powers of the globe. Early in February, the question of the annexation of Hawaii was brought to the attention of Congress, accompanied with news of a revolution in the Islands. On January fifteenth, the Queen tried to get the Cabinet to sign a new constitution that dis- franchised all foreigners and put the whole government in the hands of the native poli- ticians. The Ministers refused, and when threatened by the Queen, fled for iheir lives. They returned later and induced the Queen to postpone her stratagem. There \\m s a pub- lic meeting in front of the palace. The Queen announced the failure of her plans, and a native orator demanded the lives of the Min- isters. Committee of Public Safety. Early in the evening, citizens met and formed a committee of public safety. On January sixteen, the United States steamship, Boston, landed three hundred men, fully armed. They marched to the office of the Consul General of the United States. The marines were sent to the American Legation, while the sailors, with two Gatling guns camped for a time on private grounds. The committee of public safety rapidly completed its organization, and made arrangements for the proclamation of a provisional goxe'nmeni. and its protection by armed force. Commissioners soon arrived in Washing- ton to conduct negotiations with our govern- ment with a view of forming a protectorate of the Islands or annexing them to the United States. A treaty of annexation was concluded between Secretary of State Foster, and the Commissioners, and on January twenty-first was transmitted to the United States Senate. No action with a view to annexation was taken b)- Congress. CHAPTER XLIX. Second Administration of Grover Cleveland. Second Inauguration of President Cleveland — ^The New Cabinet — Extraordinary Session of Congrfca6^ Repeal of the Sherman Silver Law — New Tariff Bill — The Bill Passes the House of Representatives- Discussion iu the Senate — Over Six Hundred Amendments — Senate Bill Rejected by the House — After wards Passed — The President Refuses to Sign the Bill — Bland Seigniorage Bil — Utah Admitted as -f^ State— Congress Investigates the Relations of the United States to Hawaii — Subsequent Events. ON THE 4th of March, 1893, Grover Cleveland entered for the second time upon his duties as President of the United States. The ceremonies of inauguration drewvisitors to Washington from all parts of the country, and were of the usual imposing character. Mr. Cleveland announced the members of his Cabinet as follows : Secretary of State, Walter Q. Gresham, of Illinois; Secretary of the Treasury, John G. Carlisle, of Kentucky ; Secretary of War, Daniel S. Lament, of New York; Attorney- General, Richard Olney, of Massachusetts; Postmaster-General, Wilson S. Bissell, of New York ; Secretary of the Navy, Hilary A. Herbert, of Alabama ; Secretary of the Inte- rior, Hoke Smith, of Georgia; Secretary of Agriculture, Julius S. Morton, of Nebraska. Congress was called together in extraordi- nary session August 7th, and received a mes- sage from President Cleveland. The main object ot the message was to recommend the immediate repeal of what was known as the Sherman law, relating to the purchase of silver by the government for coinage. The session was preceded by a period of great financial depression, the closing of many manufacturing establishments and a general disturbance of the industrial and business interests of the country. A bill for the repeal of the obnoxious law was introduced into the House of Representatives by Hon. William L. Wilson, of West Virginia, and 898 after brief discussion, was promptly passed by a large majority, August 28th. The bill then went to the Senate, where a protracted struggle ensued, attended at times by bitter personalities, and by " filibustering *' on the part of the minority, thereby prevent- ing the majority from declaring its expressed will. At length the bill passed the Senate, October 30th, by a vote of forty-three to thirty-two. The New Tariti Bill. The second session of the Fifty-third Con- gress began on the first Monday of Decem- ber, 1893. The most important business was the passage of the Tariff bill. The new Tariff bill derived its name from Mr. Wilson, Chairman of the Ways and Means Com- mittee. Preliminary work was begun upon the bill by the Ways and Means Committee of the House, in October, 1893, during the extra session called by the President for the repeal of the Sherman Silver act. It was reported to the Hou.se on December 19, and on Janu- ary 8, 1894, It began to be discussed in that body. It passed the House, February i, by a vote of 204 to 140, having been modified in only one important feature — sug^ar being made free of duty. On the 2d of February it was reported to the Senate and a*: once referred to the Finance Committee. Promptly on receiving the Wilson bill, the Finance Committee P"ave over its ♦:ask to s SECOND ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 899 sub-committee, consisting of Mills, Jones and Vest, who completed a bill on tariff- reform lines, making few changes in the Wilson bill. This was reported to the full committee on February 26. Thereupon Mr. Gorman called together the Democratic caucus to instruct the sub-committee to go to work again and reconstruct the bill so that it would suit the Protectionist Democratic Senators, A New Bill Reported. The sub-committee made a new bill, "amending " the Wilson bill in several hun- dred particulars, and altering its character in a Protectionist sense. It was reported to the Senate on March 20, but was still unsatisfac- tory. On May 5, Mr. Gorman called another caucus to secure unanimity, after which, on May 8, some four hundred new amendments were reported. " The Senate bill " had assumed its Hnal form. On July 3 it passed the Senate, and on the 7th — the House rejecting the 634 Senate amendments in gross — consideration of points of disagreement between the two Houses was begun in the conference com- mittee. The Senate conferees presented an ultimatum — " the Senate bill as it is or no tariff legislation." The House conferees demanded free raw materials and no protection for sugar, but in vain. On July 19, Mr. Wilson reported the continued disagreement to the House, at the same time making public the President's letter insisting on free raw materials. In the Senate, Mr. Gorman replied in a defiant speech, full of personal flings. After a week of sensations, Senator Hill's proposal to recede from the amendments putting a duty on ore and coal was voted down and the bill sent back to conference. After some further dickering by the " com- promisers " and an attempt on the part of Mr. Hill to kill the bill in the Senate, the House became alarmed at the supposed prospect of failure of all tariff legislation, and on August 13 passed the Senate bill. On the same day the House passed four bills, putting sugar coal, ore and barbed wire on the free list, but they were not acted on b> the Senate. The President neither signed nor vetoed the Tariff bill and it became a law without his signature, taking effect August 28, 1894. Next in general importance to the Tarifi and Silver Repeal bills, were two measures which passed both the Senate and the House, one to receive the approval of the President, and the other to be returned to the body whence it came, accompanied by a veto mes- sage. These were the Bland Seigniorage bill, which was vetoed, and the bill repealing " all statutes relating to Supervisors of Elec- tions and Special Deputy Marshals." Action Concerning the Chinese. Another important measure enacted into law, was that providing that all Chinese now in the United States should register in the offices of Internal Revenue Collectors. An act enabling Utah to enter the Union was also enacted, the same to go into effect July 4, 1895. Acts enabling New Mexico and Arizona to become States, were passed by the House. Other bills which became laws durinsf the session, were to give effect to the award ren- dered by the Bering Sea Arbitration Tribunal ; to permit the construction of a bridge across the Hudson, between New York City and the New Jersey shore ; to permit the construction of a bridge acrosst the Delaware at Frankford, Philadelphia; extending the limits of the port of New York so as to include Yonkers ; making Labor Day a legal holiday ; extending for one year the time for final proof and payment of lands 900 SECOND ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. claimed under the public land laws; reducing the time of enlistments in the army from five to three years ; to promote the efficiency of the naval militia by allowing the naval reserves of a State the use of a war vessel for manoeuvres; to exempt the articles of foreign exhibitors at the Inter-State Fair at Tacoma, Washington, from the payment of duties; joint resolutions conferring diplomas upon designers, inventors, and expert artisans who assisted in the perfection and production of exhibits awarded medals or diplomas at the World's Fair; providing for the appoint- ment of a commission to the Antwerp Inter- national Exposition ; permitting' taxation of National Bank notes, and authorizing the condemnation of land at Gettysburg for marking the lines of battle and the position of troops, and for opening avenues, etc. During: the session about 8000 bills were introduced in the House and referred to the various committees. These measures covered every conceivable subject of legislation. The committees acted on about 1500 of them. About 800 of them were passed by the House and sent to the Senate, but owing to the extended debate on the Tariff bill in the latter body they did not receive its consideration. The policy of the Administration with reference to the admission of Hawaii, and more particularly Secretary Gresham's allega- tion that Queen Liliuokalani's overthrow was accomplished through the presence of United States marines in Honolulu, formed a subject of a long inquiry by the Committee on Foreign Relations. Dozens of witnesses were examined, and the committee finally made a report which was construed to mean a vindication of both Commissioner Blount and Minister Stevens, the Administration and the Provisional Government. The report was not considered in the Senate, but the matter was settled by the adoption of a resolution practically indorsing all parties concerned and reaffirming the Monroe doctrine witl^ respect to Hawaii. During the session there were sent to the Senate by the President 246 1 messages con- taining nominations. In^^^much as some of these messages contained more than are usual, notably, in the case of military and naval promotions, a fair estimate of the total number would be 3000. Of these, all were acted upon but about fifty. The most cele- brated cases that resulted in rejection, w^ere those of Messrs. Hornblower and Peckham, both of New York, nominated to be Asso- ciate Justices of the Supreme Court. During the session there were created by death and resignation five vacancies in the Senate and eighteen in the House. Subsequent events included two issues of bonds to maintain the gold reserve. Anothe/ issue was provided for, and the subscription was opened in New York, February 2 J, 1895. Subscriptions for ;^6o,ooo,ooo were made in a few minutes. On April 8, 1895, the United States Supreme Court delivered a decision respect- ing the Income Tax law, which declared that the Federal Government had no author- ity to collect a tax on incomes derived from state, county and municipal bonds. A message sent to Congress by President Cleveland concerning the dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela awakened great interest throughout the country, and led to the formation of a Commission for investiga- tion. On January 4, 1896, President Cleveland issued a proclamation admitting Utah as a state into the Union. Bids for ;^ 100,000,000 of 4 per cent, bonds were opened at the Treasury Department, Thursday, February 6, 1896. There were nearly 4700 distinct offers, aggregating nearly ^700,000,000. CHAPTER L. Cuba and Venezuel Sicry of Cuban Insurrections — Great Revolution of 1848— Gallant Uprising of the People for Life and Liberty Long and Bitter Struggle — Political Situation in Cuba — Insurrection of 1895-96 — Boundary Line Dispute betweca Venezuela and Great Britain — The Monroe Doctrine Asserted. SINCE the beginning of the present century Cuba has been the scene of revolutions or uprisings of one kind or another. The direct aim of most, if not all, of these has been to free the island from Spanish control. The city armed natives, joined by bands of stragglers and aided by filibusters, have struggled without organization against drilled, uniformed and comparatively well-equipped regular troops representing Spain. For a long time insurrection was the term applied to these uprisings. At first and, Indeed, until recently, it may be doubted if these uprisings had the genuine sympathy of the Cubans as a body. And, conse- quently, they were foredoomed to be failures- • But the history of these struggles is re- plete with brave deeds and exhibitions of personal courage and strategy that would do credit to a body of men familiar with the science of warfare and accustomed to facing danger on the battle-field. The Spanish colonies, Cuba excepted, gained their independence in 1820-21. Boli- var was their successful leader, and when he had freed the other provinces of Spain he turned his attention particularly to Cuba. But for a time his project failed ; some revo- lutionists allege that it was the refusal of the United 3tetes to countenance such efforts which prevented their success. Be that as it may, the efforts of the islanders to throw off the Spanish yoke came to nothing mate- rial. But Bolivar and his fellow-conspirators were determined and sought by every means in their power to stir up rebellion in the island. Commissioners were sent to Cuba to create sentiment favorable to revolution. They were soon seized by the Spanish au- thorities and executed. Bolivar's plan came to a dismal end. Revolution was in the blood of many of the Cubans, however, and not many years later it had manifestation. From 1848 to 1854 small and ill-planned uprisings took place. Certain elements in the Southern States assisted in ticouraging these insur- rections. There was for some time in Southern cir- cles a project looking to the annexation of Cuba and its division into four States, each of which, of course, would have been entitled to representation in Congress, giv- ing the South, perhaps, eight Senators and sixteen Representatives, and so throwing the balance of power here into the hands of the slavery advocates. The most important of these movements was that headed by Narciso Lopez, who had served in the Spanish army as a gen- eral of division, but who, on going to Cuba, 901 902 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. espoused the cause of the revolutionists. He, with Crittenden, the Kentuckian, with a force of some 400 Americans and 200 Cubans, set out from New Orleans, landing at Cardenas, on the north coast of Cuba, and captured it by assault. The victory was a hollow one, for the time had been ill-advised and the country did not rise. Finding themselves without support and seeing that without aid from the Cubans, they must be captured or driven into the sea, the invaders returned to Key West. The Cubans on that occasion regarded the movement as one solely in the interest of slavery, and believed its projectors i^^pired by mercenary motives. His Star in the Ascendant. But Lopez was not to be cast down by oue failure. He made a second attempt, and landed at Bahia Honda. There he encoun- tered a force of Spanish troops, under Gen- eral Henna, and put them to rout. The Spanish commander was killed, and for the time the star of Lopez was in the ascendant. Still the country did not rise. Lopez, in the western end of the island, where Spanish troops were strongest and the revolution- ary spirit weakest, soon found himself sur- rounded and overpowered. Crittenden, who was to have joined him, remained on the coast, and finally attempted to escape by taking to the open sea in boats. He was captured, with fifty of his men, and all were put to death in Havana. The execution was marked by atrocities, the news of which rang through the civil- ized world. The forces of Lopez, overpowered by Spanish troops, were dispersed with ease. The commander himself was garroted. The island was quiet for a time then, but not for lon^. Other attempts to raise the country up to 1854 were those of Pinto, a Spaniard of revolutionist tendencies ; Es- trampes and Aguero, the last-named of whom freed all his slaves before he raised the rebel standard. He was the first out- spoken abolitionist in Cuba. He and the other leaders were captured after a brief struggle and executed. Minor Insurrections. There were some unimportant risings after that, but none of note until after the Ameri- can civil war. This conflict abolished sla- very. Then the Southern States had no further object in meddling with Cuba. The filibustering movements died out. It re- mained for Cuba to attempt to work out its own salvation. In 1868 came the hour which thousands of patriots hailed as the dawn of deliver- ance; for on October 10, of that year, Ces- pedes raised the five-barred flag at Yara. He was a lawyer and logical above all things , so to begm with he freed his two hundred slaves and they followed him to battle to a man. The entire eastern end oi the island rose against the Spaniards at the call of Cespedes, but the men were without arms or discipline. Their spirit was un- questioned, but they were of little utility against well-armed and disciplined forces. Their leaders were Maximo Gomez, who is now commander-in-chief of the revolution- ary forces ; Marmol and Figueredo. The centre of the island, called Cama- guey, flocked to the standard of the Mar- quis de Lucia and the Agramontes in No- vember, and as enthusiasm and confidence came with numbers the beginning of 1889 saw Las Villas in rebellion with 14,000 men, among whom there were not more than 100 armed with effective firearms. To oppose these unarmed and undisciplined enthusiasts there were i$,ooo regulars. CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 903 The western end of the island proved cold, but even there small uprisings were fomented. They were put down without dif- ficulty. Aid from without was not wanting. In December, 1868, General Quesada landed with the first expedition from Nassau, bring- ing the first consignment of arms and muni- tions of war. The revolutionist cause prospered, and on April 10, 1869, a new government was constituted and a House of Assembly established. Cespedes was Presi- dent of the provisional government, and Quesada commander-in-chief of the forces. Proclamation of Freedom, The government, which had little beyond its name, issued a proclamation giving free- dom to all the negroes in the island — a mat- ter which gave great offence to the Spaniards, even those of liberal tendencies. Ten years of desultory warfare followed. The revolutionists held the centre of the island and the mountains, but were unable to obtain any standing in the seaports, as their flag was not recognized there by the great powers, although it was duly saluted from time to time by the South American Republics. The United States did not recog- nize the revolutionists, despite the efforts of General Rawlings and Senator Sherman to that end. Every effort was made to send arms to the insurgents. There were continual attempts at blockade running. Some of these expe- ditions evaded capture, but others were taken by Spanish troops and the leaders were promptly executed. The most notable was that of the Virginms, under Captain Fry. The Virginius put out from Kingston, Jamaica, The capture of the Virginius and the sum- mary execution of American citizens by the Spanish authorities so excited this nation at the time that war with Spain seemed cer- tain. This was one of the most notable inci- dents in Cuban history, at least in point of American interest. Public Agitation. Had the popular voice been heeded at that time a peaceful solution of the difficulty would have been impossible. Feeling ran so high throughout the country that public meetings were held all over the country denouncing the execution as a butchery, and warlike preparations were begun in many cities. In some cases ships were prepared to go to sea in anticioation of an immediate declaration of war. The voyage of the Virginius was begun in November of 1873. The steamer was pur- sued by the Spanish v/arship Tornado, and captured within sight of the Morant Point Light-house, at the east end of Jamaica. She was towed at once into Santiago de Cuba, despite the fact that she was flying the Stars and Stripes and was in British waters. Fifty-three of her men were shot in a public square in Santiago, in some instances after they had been given a trial lasting only ten minutes. Among them was Captain Joseph Fry, who commanded the ship; Bernade Varona, W. A. C. Ryan, Jesus del Sol and Pedro Cespedes. There was no United States cruiser within reach of Santiago, but the British man-of-war Niobe arrived in time to prevent further slaughter of American and English subjects. Her commander, Sir Lambon Lorraine, acted with quickness and determination. " Shoot another Englishman or Ameri- can," he said, " and the Niobe will bombard the city." Then the slaughter ceased. Both the United States and England protested through their representatives, and sent men-of-war to 904 CUBA AND VENEZUELA, protec' the other prisoners. The survivors were dehvered up to the icscuiiv^ .ships and brought to New York, and the l^ir^i/iuts, j with a hole in her bottom, sank off Frying I'an Shoals. The Difficulty Settled. The return of the survivors and an accu- rate knowledge of the details of the shootmg only served to fan into fierce blaze the fire of popular indignation. The general voice was ior war with Spain, and General Sickles, then American Minister in Madrid, had already asked to be recalled, and was preparing to leave the capital. Finally, however, the mat- ter was adjusted diplomatically. The Spanish Government paid an indemnity for the Amer- ican subjects shot with General Ryan and Thomas Ryan, and the war cloud blew over. But in Cuba the revolutionists continued their fight for supremacy. For five years — until 1878 — they strove against terrible odds in the centre of the island and in the moun- tains. At last they saw that the lack of arms and supplies and of money to purchase either had made the struggle a hopeless one, and they decided to make peace. A treaty was signed, by which Spam granted the native Cubans certain liberties, promised to reform their administration in some measure, and recognized the freedom of all the slaves who had fought in the Cuban army. It had been a long and des- perate fight. Oue.sada had been succeeded ar general-in-chief by General Thomas Jor- dan, formerly General Beauregard's chief of staff and a West Pointer, He lent much strength to the cause, but abandoned it as hopeless after a year's campaigning in the face of overwhelming odds, and with a few arms and scant supplies. After him came Agramonte, but he died in a year, and then, when the rebel cause seemed to be prosper- ing. General Gomez took command. He invaded the western part of the island and almost reached Matanzas, but he, too, saw that he could not gain ground with unarmed men and withdrew his forces. That was in 1S76, and from that time the revolution waned until the treaty of El Zanjon in Feb- ruary, 1878. Still there was not entire quiet. In the east end of Cuba General Maceo refused to recognize the treatv, and continued to fight for eleven months, only to fail in the end and be driven from Cuban soil. The Latest Uprising. The ^reaty concessions were by no means liberal enough to maintain order for any length of time. In 1889 General Garcia tried again. He had been captured in Cuba in 1875 and sent to a fortress in Spain. He shot himself while in prison ; but the bullet failed, and when he recovered he made his escape and reached the United States. Here he conferred with Jose Marti, Presi- dent of the Cuban revolutionary party, 1895-96, and they planned another expedi- tion to Cuba. They landed and held their ground for six months, only to find that the country was not ripe for revolt. The Cubans, weary of continual turmoil and bloodshed, longed for quiet. At last Garcia was cap- tured and sent once more to Spain. From this time dates the autonomist party, started by a group of men who maintained that experience would not justify further attempts to gain freedom for Cuba by force of arms, and that the island's hope lay in peaceful measures alone. The party gained a footing very rapidly ; indeed, its existence and doctrine had much to do with the failure of General Garcia. Despite the efforts of the peace party, how- ever, there were revolutionist leaders who were ready to try again. In 1884 Generals Gomez and Maceo visited the United States CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 905 and Central America with a view of prepar- InLT for another invasion. The movement o was opposed bitterly by the home- rule j^arty in Cuba and was abandoned. Small and il- advised attempts at revolution followed from time to time after that, notably those headed by Limbana Sanchez, Benitez and Aguero. The home-rulers, in the meantime, were attempting to get what concessio'^s they could from Spain by peaceful means. In 1890 they became restless again. The peace policy did not prosper. Cuba was growing uneasy again. The concessions, small and unsatisfactory at all times, began to be regarded as sops which Spain dis- tributed to maintain peace. They gave no promise of more liberaC treatment in future. Men began to say that the native Cubans were cheated at the polls, and in time their representatives went to the Cortes no more. Changes in Cuba. For lourteen years the home-rulers, led by such men as Covin Monture, Figueroa, Fernandez, De Castro and Siberga, had made most vigorous fights at the polls, and, not- withstanding conservative frauds, had sent their best orators to the Spanish Parliament. It was to no purpose. The home-rulers spoke to empty benches in Spain, and no party there recognized them. They suc- ceeded, nevertheless, in forcing the conserva- tives in Cuba to modify their policy and aided manfully to complete the emancipation of the negro, following the Cuban constitution, which declared that "all men are free." With the economic party they forced the government to celebrate the Spanish-Ameri- can treaty, without which the fate of the island was sealed. The conservatives divided into two groups, one leaning toward union with the Cubans on economic questions, and hoping secretly for the annexation of Cuba by the United States. They were demoralized by the re- fusals of the liberals from the polls, the autonomists having declared that unless the obnoxious suffrage laws, which gave the Spaniards a sure majority at the polls and disfranchised the Cuban rural population, were abolished, they would never go to Parliament again. The Liberal Party. The Spanish liberals really formed the economist party to obtain commercial con- cession and secure a treaty with the United States, and by joining hands with the Cubans they forced Spain's hand in the matter. But this, like the other efforts to restore quiet and content, proved a failure. The Cubans complained that in return for the treaty and its benefits to the island, Spain imposed new taxes, which more than coun- terbalanced all the good that had been done. Representatives were sent to the Spanish 1^3 liament again, the home-rule contingent demanding, as of old, electoral reform sufifi- cient to guarantee just representation. It was then that the Cuban revolutionary party began to gain prominence — the party which has drawn the sword now — and as- serted boldly that peaceful measures, look- ing to freedom and equality, had failed, and that Cuba must take up arms again and drive the Spanish soldiers into the sea. Such talk was dangerous on Cuban soil. Leaders of the party who were not already in exile left Cuba and began to plan from the outside, to raise money, to stir up the native population by secret agents — in a word, to prepare the island for one grand united effort to be free. While this sentiment was being nursed at home and outside of Cuba the peace party was still at work on its own lines. In 1894 the reform wing of the Spaniards joined the Cubans in their fight against the Spanish conservatives. They secured some reforms, 9o6 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. but these, the Cubans say, are a mere farce, as the proposition now being passed upon is the establishment of a council in Cuba in which the Spanish element will predominate. This council was to consist of thirty mem- bers, of which fifteen were to be appointed by the crown, and the remainder elected. The method of electing, the Cubans contend, would insure a majority for the Spaniards, and in any event the council might be dis- solved at pleasure by the Captain-General, Callejas. The Cubans want universal suffrage, and have been unable to secure it, as the Span- iards have insisted upon certain property qualifications. Spread of the Insurrection, On the 14th of March, 1895, Marti and Gomez, the Cuban exiles, with a handful of companions, landed at Baracoa, on the east- ern coast of Cuba, and proclaimed the re- public. The effect of this bold move was instantaneous. The news spread from end to end of the island, and although the fi-iends of Cuba thought the moment ill-timed, hun- dreds of sympatkizers flocked to the patriot standard. Like a prairie fire before a brisk breeze the single spark of insurrection fired the dry tinder of the oppressed Cubans, and the rebellion grew in volume as it flew west- ward. This is not Spain's first experience of the temper of her colony. For the past seventy years conspiracy, insurrection, rebellion and red war have followed one another in endless progression. A few words will suffice to explain the cause leading up to the conflict of 1895-96. Cuba became a possession of Spain by the right of discovery on Columbus' second voyage. He named it Juana, after the son of Ferdinand and Isabella, and it has suc- cessively been known as Juana, Fernandina, Santiago, Ave Maria and Cuba, the latter being the native name of the Queen of the Antilles. It was colonized by Spain, and its early history is a series of sacks and ravages by European foes. Not until the rule of Captain-General Las Casas, beginning 1790,; did prosperity begin. A Wise Administration. Under his guidance agriculture and com- merce flourished, and the condition of the native population was ameliorated. The effect of his sagacious rule was felt for over thirty years, and when Napoleon deposed the royal family of Spain, every member of the Cabildo took oath to preserve the island for their monarchy, and, going even further, they declared war against the French con- queror. This much to show the instinctive feeling of the colony toward the mother country. Spanish coffers were empty with the re- storation of the Bourbons in the person of Ferdinand VIL, and Spain's mistress looked with hungry eyes upon the rich island with her 1800 miles of seacoast, gemmed with prosperous ports and her plantations of in- digo, sugar, tobacco and fruit. It was For- tunata's purse wherein Spain might dip her fingers and forever find it full to overflowing. With this discovery came oppressive taxa- tion. With the gradual impoverishment of Spain came added demands. Then the de- privation of all civil, political and religious liberty and the exclusion of Cubans from all public stations, and in order to enforce this the Cubans were taxed to support a standing army and navy — their gaolers. With their oppression came their desire for liberty. In 1829 the Black Eagle con- spiracy arose. The purpose of this was to throw off the Spanish yoke. It was sap- pressed, but was followed in 1840 by an insurrection of the colored population, After CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 90> smouldering and blazing for a while the fires of insurrection were smothered only to break out eight years later in a genuine conspiracy of the Cubans under the leadership of Nar- ciso Lopez. This rebellion was quelled and Lopez fled. In 1850 he landed in Cuba with 600 men from the United States. He made a third attempt in 185 1, and together with most of his companions was captured and executed by the Spanish authorities. Insurgents Recognized. The Reformist party, which sprang up at this time, succeeded in getting an inquiry of the abuses at Madrid, with the result, how- ever, of increased taxation. In 1868 the Advance party in Cuba rose in the district of Bayamo, and on October 10, 1868, signed a declaration of independence at Manzanillo. Their first successes were so great that almost all the Spanish-American republics recognized the insurgents as belligerents. After a war of ten years, that was confined to the mountainous regions east of the town of Puerto Principe, the rebellion was put down. To confine it to that locality the Spanish troops built a great fortified trench, known as La Trocha, across the entire width of the island, in the western portion of the State of Puerto Principe. It was here that Captain-General Campos drew up his forces last summer to prevent the eastward march of the insurgents, who were now heavily re- inforced. All during the summer of 1895 the insur- gent leaders were organizing their forces and receiving supplies of arms and ammunition. The people were flocking to the standard of revolt, and during October, 1895, Gomez and Maceo, with ease, penetrated the lines of the Spanish captain-general, crossing La Trocha, and causing the regular troops to fall back to a line just east of Remedios. The insur- gents still pushing on, this was followed by a retreat of Campos to Santa Clara, in the province of Santa Clara, still further west. Gomez and Maceo were now in supreme authority, for Marti died just as the com- mand started west. This blow to the insur- gent cause was more than offset by the character of the people among which they found themselves. Of all the provinces of Cuba, Santa Clara is the most outspoken and loyal to the cause of liberty. The ranks of Gomez and Maceo were increased by thou- sands of volunteers of an intelligence and physical strength superior even to those of Santiago. Horses were procured in abund- ance, and the bulk of the insurgent army was formed into a speedy and well-equipped cav- alry. They were armed with rifles, and car- ried with them an abundance of ammunition. Fully Armed. Each man also carried a machete, which is a long, heavily-weighted iron knife, used by the sugar planters to cut the cane, and by all travelers to open up paths through the heavy tropical underbrush. They are terrible weap- ons in the hands of the Cubans, and the Spanish troops fear them more than the rifles. The insurgents took no supply train with them. A stray pig or fowl supplied them with supper, while an ox meant dinner for a company. Thus prepared they turned their faces toward the setting sun and Ha- vana. All this while Campos, the Spanish gen- eral, was " concentrating," according to the official dispatches. In other words, he was drawing dead lines across the island at points where he announced that he would bring the insurgents to a pitched battle. Each suc- cessive dead-line was further west than the one preceding it. And each time the insur- gents slipped by the troops, leaving a harried country behind them. Railroads, bridges and roads were destroyed ; plantations burned and 908 CUBA AND VENEZUELA- store-houses empty. The troops, under the spur of necessity, followed as rapidly as pos- sible, leaving the insurgents in possession of the country to the east. In this way not only did the Cubans make this remarkable march westward, but they garrisoned it. In Santiago the insurgents kept the Spanish forces in the fortified cities, and in a short time two large expeditions successfully landed at that end of the island. One, armed with cannon, fired upon and crippled the Niieva Espana, of the Spanish navy, while such leaders as Rabi, Martinez and Aguirre were fighting as valiantly there as Gomez and Maceo in the province of Matanzas, Similar reports came from Puerto Principe and Santa Clara, showing that the insurgents had complete control of the interior of these provinces. But Campos claimed that it was his plan to get the insurgents between his forces and Havana and crush them as a nut is crushed in a nut-cracker. General Campos Repulsed, Then came decisive attacks by the insur- gents. Campos was driven from pillar to post, changing his headquarters from Santa Clara to Cienfuegos, from Cienfuegos to Pal- millas, from Palmillas to Colon, from Colon to Jovellanos, from Jovcllanos to Limonare, from Limonare to Guanabana, and from Guanabana to Havana, where he was feted as a conqueror by the Spanish authorities, and where he received telegrams of congratula- tion from the Queen Regent of Spain and her Prime Minister. Just prior to this noisy welcome, namely on December 24, 1895, General Maximo Gomez, at the head of 12,000 men, by a feint, turned the flank of the Spanish commander at Colon, and passing the sleepy old seaport of Matanzas, marched straight on to a point only fifty miles from Havana, Campos with all his 80,000 pickea Spanisn troops, to the contrary notwithstanding. Christmas and New Year's passed and the insurgents were still there, marching and countermarching in three columns, holding Spain at bay, and waiting for additional supplies of ammunition and arms before pushing on. The grave question now was what the insurgents would do ? Havanna was in an agony of suspense and preparing for a siege. The loyalty of the citizens was questionable, as well as that ol the Grande Civil, or local militia. Campos and all his troops seemed unable to cope W'th the situation. It was believed that should the insurgents push on and take Havana, the defeat of Spain and the liberty of Cuba would arrive. Advent of General Weyler. The next move on the part of Spain wao to recall General Campos, his campaign in Cuba having proved a failure. He was replaced by General Weyler, whose tyran- nous policy and barbarous cruelties, when previously commanding the Spanish forces in the island, are well known. The steamer Alfonso XIII. arrived at Havana, February 10, 1896, having on board General Valeriano Weyler, the new Captain General of Cuba; Nicolau, Marquis of Tcne- riffe; and Generals Enrique, Barges, Ferde- rico Ochando, Miguel Melquiso, Marinues Ahumada, Luis Castelloi, Sanchez Bernal and Juan Arolas, the latter being the hero of Jolo, Philippine Islands. The entire city was brilliantly decorated in honor of the occasion and the bay was a splendid sight, all the warships and mercliant craft present being decorated with bunting. The wharfs were crowded with people at an early hour and all the steamers and tugs were loaded with sightseers. The Chamber of Commerce, the Bourse, all the big com- mercial houses and government departments. CQBA AND VENEZUELA. 909 the Canarian Association, General Weyler's countrymen and others, crowded upon the chartered steamers or about the landing- place. The troops and volunteers were turned out to a man, together with the fire depart- ment and police, and for a long time no such brilliant display had been witnessed in Havana. Among the high military officers present were Generals Suarez Valdez, Pando, Marin and Navarro, Admiral Yanas and staff, Colonel Castanedo, Major Moriano and many others. Enthusiastic Reception. General Weyler was welcomed by uic City Council on board the Alfonso XIII. He was presented with an address of wel- come and assurance of loyalty. At eleven o'clock the Captain General came ashore and was received by General Marin and staff. The streets were packed with people, who displayed the greatest enthusiasm. In fact, rarely has a distinguished person been received so warmly as was General Weyler when he landed. There is no doubt that considerable real enthusiasm was manifested, in addition to the greetings which would naturally be b'jstowed upon the representa- tive of Spain. The balconies in all the streets about the water front and in the vicinity of the Palace were full of ladies in holiday attire, and they showered flowers upon the new commander as he passed. Besides, numerous floral offer- ings of the most beautiful description, princi- pally in the shape of crowns, were presented to the general, who expressed his thanks in each case in a few brief words. He seemed to be much pleased with his reception, and upon arriving at the Palace formally took over the duties of the captain-generalship, taking the oath of fealty over a crucifix and upon a Bible. General Marin administered the oath of office and soon afterward he received the local military and civil authori- ties, the different corporations and the bishops and priests. The German warships which were in the harbor saluted the arrival of General Weyler, as did all the Spanish warships in port and the forts ashore. The Loyalists, of course, were out in the strongest force possible ; but it may be said that the entire popula- tion of Havana turned out, and hardly a representative of the shipping or business interests of the city failed to make the day a holiday. Cheers and Cannonading. After the reception of the local military and civil authorities, corporations and clergy was completed. General Weyler appeared upon the balcony of the palace and reviewed the troops. His appearance before the pub- lic was the signal for a long outburst of the most enthusiastic cheering, the firing of can' non and the sound of martial music, all the bands in the city being stationed at different points. In addition to the inhabitants of the city proper, thousands of people flocked into the city from all directions before daybreak. Accompanying General Weyler were Cap- tains Gelaber and Linares, who are known as " military editors." They were to have charge of the press censorship, and it was rumored that there would be considerably more difficulty experienced in this connection by the correspondents in the future. The press regulations had been considerably relaxed, and not much difficulty had been experienced in getting average matter upon the cable. But, it was thought, the new captain-general would be very severe with correspondents who sent false accounts of Cuban successes or in any way brought about the publication of false news. By this it was not meant that General Weyler intended to interfere with I 9ic eUBA AND VENEZUELA. the proper liberty which the press can be allowed in war time. It really meant only that he would do everything possible to pre- vent the sending out of news undoubtedly false. A disinterested observer of the situation wrote as follows, under date of February lO, 1896: " So far as the general situation is con- cerned there is not much change. Indeed, no change of importance is expected for some days. General Weyler will first devote himself to a complete review of the opera- tions already undertaken, and he will then figure out the situation as it actually exists. For this purpose, almost immediately after taking the oath of fealty, he caused orders to be sent to all the commanders in the field to draw up promptly and forward to headquar- ters here complete returns of the condition of their commands, together with the state of railroads, telegraphs and public thorough- fares and the probable location and strength of the enemy in their neighborhood; Reasons for this Action. "This action upon the part of General Weyler is supplementary to the regular report and returns which were handed over to him by General Marin after the new cap- tain-general had been sworn in. While it is no reflection upon General Marin or the other Spanish commanders here or in other parts of Cuba, the captain-general took this step in order thoroughly to go over the ground himself, and possibly in view of the sensational reports which have been circu- lated by agents of the insurgents and others lo the effect that large quantities of stores, .irms and ammunition are missing from the different depots and have found their way into the hands of the insurgents. Between this and the tales of wholesale dishonesty circu- lated here and elsewhere there is quite a dif- ference, and nobooy here believes that there has been any treachery of importance." General Marin, who has been appointed captain-general of Porto Rico, is expected to leave for his new post to-morrow. W^eyler's Plans of Campaign. The exact plan of campaign of General Weyler is not known, but it is believed that it will be a very different one from that of Campos. He is likely to call in all of the small detachments of troops, which have from the first had such a weakening effect upon the Spanish operations, and will try to drive the insurgents into a position from which they cannot escape without a pitched battle. General Weyler will also do every- thing possible to muster as strong a force of cavalry as he can. Considerable reinforce- ments of this branch of the service have already arrived here, and more are expected during the week. Some reports credit the insurgents with desiring to concentrate all their scattered detachments and columns into one body, and so bring the insurrection to a direct issue. But Spaniards here who are well posted on the situation say that there is no truth in the report that the insurgents will make any effort to risk a pitched battle. Captain- General Weyler clearly defined the policy he intended to pursue in the con- duct of the campaign for the suppression of the insurrection. Before he had been at Havana many hours he issued the following proclamation : " To the People of Cuba : Honored by Her Majesty, the Queen, and her govern- ment, with the command of this island, under the difficult circumstances now prevailing, I take charge of it with the determination that it shall never be given up by me, and that I shall keep it in the possession of Spain, will- ing as she is to carry out whatever sacrifice CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 9H Ahall be required to succeed, as she has been in the past. " I rely upon the gallantry and discipline of the army and navy, upon the patriotism, never to be subdued, of the volunteer corps, and more especially upon the support that I should be given by the loyal inhabitants, born here or in Spain. " It is not necessary to say that I shall be generous with the subdued and to all of those doing any service to the Spanish cause. But I will not lack in the decision and energy of my character t punish with all the rigor that the law enacti those who in any way shall help the eneny, or shall calumniate the prestige of our name. " Putting aside at present any idea of pol- itics, my mission is the honorable one of finishing the war, and I only see in you the loyal Spaniards who are to assist me to defeat the insurgents. But Her Majesty's government is aware of what you are and of what you are worthy, and the status of peace that these provinces may obtain. It will grant you, when it is deemed suitable to do so, the reforms the government may think most proper, with the love of a mother to her children. " Inhabitants of Cuba, lend me your co- operation, and in that way you will defend your interests, which are those of the coun- try. " Long live Spanish Cuba ! " Your General and Governor, " Valeriano Wevler, " Marquese of Tenerife." To the Volunteers and Firemen. General Weyler also offered the following address : " Volunteers and Firemen : Being again at your head, I see in you the successors of the volunteers and firemen who fought with me in the previous war and, with their brav- ery, energy and patriotisn?i, brought about peace, defended the towns and cities, and contributed most powerfully to save Cuba for Spain. Remember these virtues brighten your spirits, and, relying on my whole atten- tion, my decisive support and my utmost confidence, lend me the same help and co- operation, and with the same ambition save the prestige of your name and the honor of our flag, which, forever victorious, should fly over this island. To the Soldiers. " Soldiers of the army, I greet you in the name of Her Majesty, the Queen, and of the government. Having the honor of being at your head, I trust that at my command you will continue to show the bravery in face of hardships proper for the Spanish soldier, and that you will confer new wreaths to add to those already attained under the command of my predecessors. Generals Mar- tinez Campos and Sabas Marin. " On my part, answering to the great sac- rifice made by the nation, and using the efforts of all arms and bodies in the work entrusted to each of the organic units, I will not omit anything to place you in the condi- tion for obtaining the victory and the return of peace to this island, which is what she longs for. " Sailors, I have again the satisfaction to be at your side, and I again trust that, as in Mindanao recently, you will lend me your powerful co-operation to bring peace to this island. Thus I expect surely that you will afford me a new chance to express my thanks and my enthusiasm to the Spanish navy." The following circular of General Weyler was addressed to the military officers : " I have addressed my previous proclama- tions at the moment of my landing to the loyal inhabitants, to the volunteers and fiirc men, and to the army and navy. 012 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. " I may give you a slight idea of the inten- tions I have and the measures I shall follow as Governor-General-in-Chief, in accordance with the general desire of Spain, and with the decided aim of Her Majesty's govern- ment to furnish all the means required to control and crush this rebellion. The Question Argued. " Knowing this, and knowing my charac- ter, I may perhaps need to say no more to make you understand what is the conduct that I am to follow. But with the idea of avoiding all kinds of doubt, even keeping (as you are to keep) the circulars to be pub- hshed, I deem it necessary to make some re- marks. " It is not unknown by you that the state in which the rebellion has come and the raid made by the principal leaders recently, which could not be stopped even by the active pur- suit of the columns, is due to the indiffer- ence, the fear or the disheartenment of the inhabitants. Since it cannot be doubted that some, seeing the burning of their property without opposition, and that others, who have been born in Spain, should sympathize with the insurgents, it is necessary at all hazards to better this state of things and to brighten the spirit of the inhabitants, making them aware that I am determined to lend all my assistance to the local inhabitants. So I am determined to have the law fall with all its weight upon all those in any way helping the enemy, or praising them, or in any way de- tracting from the prestige of Spain, of its army, or of its vo''un*''»ers. It is necessary for those by our side to siiow their intentions "/ith deeds, and r^eir behavior should leave no doubt, and sh-^uid j^rove that they are Spanish. " Since the defence of the country demands tne sacrifice of her children, it is necessary that the towns should look to their defence, and that no precautions in the way of scouts should be lacking to give news concerning the enemy, and whether it is in their neigh borhood, and so that it niay not happen that the enemy should be better informed than we. "The energy and vigor of the enemy will be strained to trace the course of our line, and in all cases you will arrest and place at my disposal to deliver to the courts those who in any way shall show their sympathy or suppoiL for the rebels. Enlistments Called For. "The public spirit being heatened, you must not forget to enlist the volunteers and guerillas in your district, this not preventing at the same time the organization, as oppor"- tunity offers, of a guerilla band of twenty- five citizens for each battalion of the army. " I propose that you shall make the dis • positions you think most proper for the caj- rying out of the plan I wish, but this shall not authorize you to determine anything not foreseen in the instructions, unless the urgency of some circumstances should de- mand it. " I expect that, confining yourself to these instructions, you will lend me your worthy support towards the carrying out of my plan for the good of the Spanish cause. '^^'Weyler." The proclamation produced iio perceptible change in the situation. The insurgents continued to land arms and ammunition secretly and to carry on their peculiar mode of warfare. No great battles were fought, and in the majority of the skirmishes, the Spanish troops were successful, it being apparently the policy of the rebels to worry and harass their enemy instead of coming to open conflict. Thus far it has been the his- tory of Cuban insurrection repeated — a work of devastation, a scattered warfare, an attempt CUBA ANt) VENEZUELA. 913 by Spanish troops to rout or capture the insurgents, yet without success. Spain has maintained a large army in Cuba which seems to be incapable of bringing order out of confusion. We come now to the trouble between Venezuela and England, with some state- ments showing the spirit and intent of what is known as the American Monroe Doctrine. The Venezuelan Question. For fifty-five years the location of the boundary line between British Guiana and Venezuela has been in dispute. Nine times the line has been surveyed by British engi- neers, and each time it was unsatisfactory to the South American Republic, and was not accepted. The two governments agreed that neither nation should occupy the ground claimed by both until the controversy should be settled, and the question has dragged along in a neglected way until recent events have opened the old wound afresh. Some time ago one Sergeant Behrens and two companions of the British constabulary on duty in Guiana, were discovered on the disputed strip of land, and through some clashing witli the authorit}' of the Venezuelan Government, were arrested and taken into custody as trespassers on Venezuelan soil. The English Government contended that the arrest had been made on British soil, and demanded redress for the action, as unlawful and an insult to British citizens. The Vene- zuelan Government protested that the arrest had occurred on its own soil, and therefore Behrens was amenable to the laws of the Republic. Thus the question was brought to a crisis. Venezuela offered to arbitrate the whole matter, but Great Britain insisted on the sur- render to itself of a large and important por- tion of the disputed territory, and would then submit to arbitration what was left. The evi- 58 dence thus far obtainable on the question of the boundaries was somewhat wrapped in thf uncertainties of the terms of the original ces- sion to England of Guiana, which was acquired from Holland in 1814, and the world cannot form an accurate idea of the merits of the controversy until a tribunal of arbitration has sifted them out. There are, however, certain features of England's position which give color to the suspicion generally entertained by the Amer- ican press, that that nation was afraid to trust its case to arbitration, and was bulldozing the weaker Government of the South American State out of a very large portion of its terri- tory. Most people believed that Great Bri- tain's scruples were none too fine to attempt this, and in the public mind, at least, the burden of proof in the dispute rested upon her. The property at issue includes the greater part of the country lying between the Orinoco and Esequibo Rivers, and is believed to contain valuable gold and .'.ilver deposits. Reply from the British Premier. The question between these Governments becomes of special interest to the people of the United States in view of the action that our representatives at Washington have taken. Some time ago Secretary of State Olney addressed a communication to the British Government reminding it that the United States expected it to observe the restrictions which the Monroe Doctrine placed upon the operations of European powers on American soil. Lord Salisbury replied that the matter was of so great moment as to require further consideration before answering. Judging from the widely varying com- ments of the press, it would seem that in the public mind the real meaning of that famous doctrine is as uncertain as i^. tlie knowledge of the true rights of th: foreign countries to 914 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. vvhoni the doctrine is now sought by some to be applied The principle of the Monroe Doctrine originated not with President Monroe, but — oddly enough, as it now seems — with a great English Premier. In the year 1815 the Governments of Russia, Austria and Prussia concluded a treaty known as the " Holy Alliance," by which they pledged mutual support in all military operations of every kind. After a few years the alliance was joined by France, and it then became known as the defender of the divine right of mon- archy, and the powerful combination used its armies to suppress popular movements for liberty in a number of countries, notably in Spain. Congress of Nations. The Alliance made such progress in the objects of its existence, that in 1823 steps were taken to call another congress of the Powers with the view of crushing the revo- tionary governments in Spanish America. At this point the Prime Minister of England, George Canning, saw in the new proposal a menace to his own country in that the growing commerce of England with the Spanish-American Republics would be di- verted if those countries returned to the condition of colonies of Spain or of any other Power. Mr. Canning then proposed to tne United States Minister, Mr. Rush, that the two gov- ernments unite in a protest against the inter- ference of the allies with the affairs of the Spanish-American States. This was the origin and the first public proposal of the principle which has since become the most famous rule in the foreign policy of the United States. President Monroe and his Cabinet gave the subject anxious considera- tion. Thomas Jefferson, in commenting on the proposal, used this language : " Our first and fundamental maxim should be never to entangle ourselves in the broils of Europe ; our second, never to suffer Europe to inter- meddle with cis- Atlantic affairs. While Eu- rope is laboring to become the domicile o:' despotism, our endeavor should surely be to make our hemisphere that of freedom. One nation most of all could disturb us in this pursuit ; she now offers to lead, aid and ac- company us in it. By acceding to her propo- sition we detach her from the bands, bring her mighty weight into the scale of free gov- ernment, and emancipate a continent at one stroke." When Congress assembled in the month of December following Mr. Canning's proposal, President Monroe in his annual message de- fined in carefully chosen words the principles by which he proposed to be guided in the matter of the threatened interference of the allies. The statements touching on this for- eign policy are included in the following extract from his message, almost every phrase of which has become a classic in interna- tional history : Only Injuries Resented " Of events in that quarter of the globe (Europe) with which we have so much inter- course, and from which we derive our origin, we have always been anxious and interested spectators. The citizens of the United States cherish sentiments the most friendly ir favoi of the liberty and happiness of their fellow- men on that side of the Atlantic. In the wars of the European Powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy to do so. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defence. " With the movements in this hemisphere, we are, of necessity, more immediately con- CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 913 tiected, and by causes which must be obvious to all enlightened and impartial observers. The political system of the allied Powers is essentially different in this respect from that of America. This difference proceeds from that which exists in their respective govern- ments. And to the defence of our own, which has been achieved by the loss of so much blood and treasure, and matured by the wisdom of their most enlightened citizens, and under which we have enjoyed unexam- pled felicity, this whole nation is devoted. Dangerous to Our Safety. " We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those Powers to declare that »ve should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or de- pendencies of any European Power, we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the governments who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great con- sideration and on just principles, acknowl- edged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or con- trolling in any other manner their destin)-, by any European Power, in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposi- tion toward the United States. " Our policy in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early stage of the wars which have so long agitated that quarts of the globe, nevertheless remains the same, which is, not to interfere in the internal con- cerns of any of its Powers , to consider the Government de facto as the legitimate Gov- ernment for us ; to cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations by a frank, firm and manly policy, meeting, in all instances, the just claims of every Power, submitting to injuries from none. But in regard to these continents, circumstances are eminently and conspicuously different. " It is impossible that the allied Powers should extend their political system to any portion of either continent without endan gering our peace and happiness ; nor can any one believe that our Southern brethren, if left to themselves, would adopt it of their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should behold such interposition, in any form, with indifference. If we look to the comparative strength and resources of Spain :.nd those new Governments, and their distance from each other, it must be obvious that she can never subdue them. It is still the true policy of the United States to leave the parties to themselves in the hope that other Powers will pursue the same course." Comments of the Press. The leading daily papers of New York waged a lively war of words over the proper application of the Monroe Doctrine, arising out of the varying interpretation of some ex- pressions used in this message. It must be admitted that President Monroe had reference solely to the overturning of republican forms of government, when he stated that any at- tempt on the part of European Powers to extend " their system " to any portion of this hemisphere would be considered as danger- ous to our peace and safety. The only loophole for controversy is the clause, " We could not view any interposition for the puspose of oppressing them (the Spanish-American republics) or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European Power." Does this clause forbid any "oppressing" of whatsoever kind? Or does it constitute an appendage to the pre- ceding clause and refer only to " oppress- ing " when coupled with the intention to ex- 1 tend the monarchical " system " over the op- 910 CUBA And Venezuela. pressed, and thus establish colonial allegiance to the European Power who may be the aggressor? Some influential newspapers and one or more jurists of prominence extended to the word " oppressing," as used above, a mean- ing of almost unlimited scope. They con- strued it to cover almost any sort of unfair dealing by a European Power with an Amer- ican State. The second interpretation, on the other hand, was the one which has usu- ally guided our State Department, and re- ceived the support of Calhoun and Webster, as well as the published opinions of one or more college professors of international his- tory. Seward's Interpretation. This view was also clearly expressed by Secretary Seward in a note of instruction to our Minister to France at the time of the collision between that country and Mexico in 1862: "France has a right to make war against Mexico, and to determine for herself the cause. We have a right and interest to msist that France shall not improve the war she makes to raise up in Mexico an anti- republican or anti-American government, or to maintain such a government there. France has disclaimed such designs, and we, besides reposing faith in the assurances given in a frank, honorable manner, would, in any case, be bound to wait for, and not anticipate, a violation of them." If the first interpretation be the proper one, then the United States may have some right to insist on the submission to arbitra- tion of the question at issue between Great Britain and Venezuela. If, however, the second interpretation is correct — and the weight of authority i.5 c-tainly in support of it — then there is as yet no violation of the principles of the Monroe Doctrine in the Venezuelan controversy, and the United States cannot invoke the same in justification of any interference in behalf of the South American republic. The tremendous sensation created all over the world by President Cleveland's message to Congress in December, 1895, on the con- troversy between Great Britain and Ven- ezuela quieted down, and the general belief among Government circles was that an* ami- cable settlement would be reached by the two nations most intimately concerned, with- out the necessity of further action on the part of the United States. It was well known that the Foreign Office at London was trying to bring about this result. British sentiment seemed to incline more and more toward the propriety of mak- ing concessions, if necessary, to preserve peace with the United States, and very strong speeches were made in Parliament favoring arbitration of the entire dispute and recog- nizing the justice of the position of the United States. A Senate Resolution. The indications were that President Cleve- land's action would result in establishing the force of the Monroe Doctrine in its broadest application, and its efficacy as a rule of American international law would not be disputed in the future. The Monroe Doctrine has had some dis- cussion in the Senate, arising from a resolu- tion introduced by Senator Davis, of Minne- sota, which aimed to commit Congress to a definite positive declaration of the existence and enduring force of the doctrine in the widest meaning which American construc- tion has placed upon it. The resolution was vigorously opposed by a few of the Senators as an ill-timed agitation of the question, an unwise extension of the meaning of the doctrine. CHAPTER LI. Latest Events of American History. Prtsidenti.nl Election of 1896- Slru^-gle of Cula for Indepeudence— Blowing up of the Battleship Maine— Spanish-Ainericaii War— Masbacres of Americans in China— Great Galveston Calamity- Presidential Election of 1900. IN the beginning of 1896 a remarkable interest was shown by the press and the people throughout the country in the pending Presidential campaign. There was a stir in the nation like that in the forest which precedes the coming storm. Radical differences of opinion existed upon the monetary question, and it was evident that these would find expression in the national conventions which were soon to be held. On the one hand, the majority of the Republi- can party were prepared to maintain the gold standard. As time advanced it became evi- dent that a large part of the Democratic party had adopted the cause of free silver, ilthough President Cleveland, Secretary Carlisle, and many other influential party leaders were opposed to the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to i. The wave of discussion rose higher and higher and the country was filled with clamor. Among all classes of citizens national questions were discussed, and the heat and fervor of the pending campaign were such as had not been witnessed since the days of the Civil War. The eleventh Republican National Con- vention met at St. Louis on June i6th, and nominated as the candidates of the Republi- can party Hon. Wm. McKinley, of Ohio, for President, and Hon. Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, for Vice-President. The Con- vention was an unusually harmonious one, choosing its platform without debate, except- ing for the protests of the advocates of a plank for the free coinage of silver, who were voted down by a large majority. Twenty-one silver advocates under the lead of Senator Teller, of Colorado, there- upon " bolted " from the Convention and severed their allegiance from the Republican party. The scene in the Conventioti was im- pressive when Senator Teller, under deep emotion, made a farewell address to the representatives of the party of which he had so long been a conspicuous member, and, followed by twenty of the delegates, left the hall. Both Mr. McKinley and Mr. Hobart were nominated en the first ballot long before the roll call of the States was finished, and the enthusiasm for McKinley was intense. For some time before the holding of the Conven- tion it was plain that Mr. McKinley would be the choice of the Republicans, the rising tide in his favor engulfing all opposition. He received the nomination amidst the acclama- tions of the vast majority of his party. The platform pledged renewed allegiance to the principle of protection ; declared in favor of the gold standard; demanded reci- procity ; reasserted the Monroe doctrine ; expressed sympathy for suffering Cuba ; de- manded that the immigration laws be rigidly enforced ; renewed the party's declarations in favor of civil service ; insisted upon the right of trial by jury for criminals, in opposition to lynchings, and recommended arbitration for the settlement of the differences which may arise between employers and employed en- gaged in interstate commerce. The nomi- nations and the platform were favorably received and were at once heartily ratified by 917 9i8 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. public meetings and the formation of political clubs. The Democratic National Convention met at Chicago on July 8th, and nominated for President, Hon. Wm. J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and for Vice-President, Hon. Arthur Sewall, of Maine. The remarkable feature of the Convention was the strength of the supporters of free coinage of silver, who constituted over two-thirds of the delegates and repre- sented chiefly Southern and Western States. This turn in the Convention was quite unex- pected to many and suddenly revealed a strong sentiment in favor of free silver in many parts of the country. Mr. Bryan's nomination was largely due to a speech he made in the Convention which received the hearty applause of many of the delegates. The silver question thus became the prime issue of the national campaign, and large contingents from both the old parties aban- doned former political ties and enrolled themselves on the one side or the other of the monetary question. The populous East- ern States were the strongholds of the gold standard of currency, and scarcely a doubt was entertained that the movement looking towards free coinage of silver by the United States without waiting for an international agreement could not prevail. The success of the silver advocates in the Democratic convention, however, gave the cause of the white metal a great impetus, and roused the people of the nation to study the currency question with more earnestness and thought than they had ever done before. A cam- paign of education was carried on in which the arguments for and against free coinage of silver were widely circulated and discussed. The Democratic platform denounced the gold standard, opposed the issue of bonds in time of peace ; declared in favor of an in- come tax and tariff for revenue only ; recom- mended that the Federal government have more control over railroads!; denounced the arbitrary interference by Federal authorities in local affairs, and expressed opposition to a third term for President. The divided state of public sentiment on the silver question appeared strikingly in the convention of the Prohibition party, which was held in Pittsburg, May 2. A large number of delegates were present, represent- ing all parts of the country. The silver question was thrust into the deliberations of the convention, and created great excitement. Many of the delegates wanted Prohibition without any other issue; many others wanted Prohibition and free silver. The conven- tion was rent in twain ; the seceders met and formed a new party, and the outcome was a complete disruption of that very considera- ble body of citizens who considered legis- lation on the Temperance question the first duty of the nation. Hon. Joshua Levering, of Maryland, was nominated by the Prohibitionists for Presi- dent, and Hon. Hale Johnson, of Illinois, for Vice-President. The National party nomi- nated Hon. Joseph E. Bentley, of Nebraska, for President, and Hon. J. H. Southgate, of North Carolina, for Vice-President. Neither of these parties acted any conspicuous part in the campaign, as the financial question overshadowed all others, affecting, as it did, every individual in the nation. A number of influential Democrats ex- pressed a strong opposition to the action of the Democratic Convention at Chicago, and resolved that some movement shculd be inaugurated to save the party, if possible^ from being entirely captured by the advocates of free silver. The sound-money delegates in the convention, under the leadership of Senator Hill, of New York, entered a strong protest against the rule of the majority. This, however, was without avail, and during the latter part of the convention those who LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. Q19 favored the gold standard took no part in the proceedings. It was felt by many of the old-line Demo- ctats that something should be done to pre- serve the party-name and its time-honored principles. A call was issued for a conven- tion to be held at Indianapolis, September 2. The delegates were among the most influen- tial and conservative of the Democratic party, and were thoroughly in earnest. A platform was adopted, denouncing free-silver coinage, and advocating the gold standard. Strong denunciations were hurled at the Populistic notions and ideas so prevalent in many of the States. The first paragraph of the plat- form was as follows : " This convention has assembled to up- hold the principles upon which depend the honor and welfare of the American people, in order that Democrats throughout the Union may unite their patriotic efforts to avert disaster to their country and ruin from their party. The Democratic party is pljdged to equal and exact justice to all m.en of every creed and condition; to the largest freedom of the individual consistent with good government; to the preservation of the Federal Government in its Constitutional vigor, and to the support of the States in all their just rights; to economy in public ex- penditures, to the maintenance of the public credit and sound money, and it is opposed to paternalism and to all class legislation. The declarations of the Chicago Convention attack individual freedom, the right of private con- tract, the independence of the judiciary and the authority of the President to enforce Fed- eral laws." Hon. John M. Palmer, of Illinois, was nominated for President, and Hon. Simon B. Buckner, of Kentucky, for Vice-president. They made an active canvass throughout the country, but failed to unite the Democratic forces to any great extent, as it was conceded from the outset that there was no possibility of their election. The campaign throughout was one of un- exampled activity, the eminent leaders of all parties entering the contest with great spirit. All the influences and resources of the press and of men in public life were brought to bear upon the great issues involved which, it was admitted by all, affected the integrity o^ the nation, if not its vv^ry existence. In the election of No /ember, Mr. McKIn- ley received 7,101,401 of the popular vote; Mr. Bryan 6,470,656; Mr. Palmer, 132,056, and Mr. Levering 130,560. Of the Electoral College, Mr. McKinley received 271 votes, and Mr. Bryan 176. On the 4th of March, 1897, Mr. McKinley was inaugurated President with imposing ceremonies, and Mr. Hobart was inducted into the office of Vice-president. A nailti- tude of people from all parts of the country assembled in Washington, and nothing oc- curred to mar the success of the inaugura- tion. Mr. McKinley entered upon the duties of his office with the best wishes, not only of his party, but of all classes of his fel- low-countrymen. His Cabinet was consti- tuted as follows : Secretary of State, John Sherman, of Ohio; Secretary of the Trea- sury, Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois ; Secretary of War, Russell A. Alger, of Michigan ; At- torney-General, Joseph McKenna, of Califor- nia; Postmaster-General, James A. Gary, of Maryland; Secretary of the Navy, John D. Long, of Massachusetts; Secretary of the Interior, Cornelius N. Bliss, of New York; Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, of Iowa. Mr. McKinley immediately called an extra session of Congress, which assembled on March 15th, for the express purpose of revis- ing the tariff, providing a revenue sufficient for the wants of the Government, and placing the finances of the nation upon a sound basis. Hon. Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, was re-elected Speaker of the House. LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 920 The extraordinary session of Congress was called by President McKinley two days after he took the oath of office on the steps of the Capitol. It met in pursuance to his proclamation at noon on March 15. The special message transmitted by him to both Houses on the opening day was brief. It explained the deficiencies in the revenues, reviewed the bond issues of the last Adminis- tration, and urged Congress promptly to cor- rect the then existing condition by passing a tariff bill that would supply ample revenues for the support of the government and the liquidation of the public debt. No other subject of legislation was mentioned in the message, and the tariff bill was the all-absorb- ing feature of the session. The Republican members of the ways and means committee of the preceding House had been at work throughout the short session, which ended March 4, giving hearings and preparing the bill which was to be submitted at the extra session. Three days after the session opened the tariff bill was reported to the House by the ways and means committee, and thirteen days later, March 31, 1897, it passed the House. It went to the Senate, was referred to the committee on finance, and the Republican members of that committee spent a month and three days in its consideration and in preparing the amendments, which were sub- mitted to the Senate May 4. Its considera- tion was begun in the Senate May 7, and exactly two months later, July 7, it passed the Senate with 872 amendments. The bill then went to conference, where after a ten days' struggle, on July 17, a complete agree- ment was reached by which the Senate re- ceded from 118 amendments and the House from 511. The others, 243 in number, were compromised. The conference report was adopted by the House July 19 at the con- clusion of twelve hours of continuous Hebate. The report was taken up in the Senate July 20 and adopted Saturday July 24. The tariff bill was signed by the President the same day. In open session, after much debate, the Senate passed the Cuban belligerency resolu- tion, a bankruptcy bill, including both volun- tary and involuntary features, and the " free- homes bill." But none of these important questions received consideration in the House. Late in July reports came of the discovery of rich gold deposits in the Yukon Valley, Alaska. Upwards of $1,000,000 worth of gold dust was brought by one steamer to Seattle, Wash., and many prospectors from all parts of the country set out for the new gold fields, while others were deterred from doing so by reports of the terrible hardships and dangers incurred by the miners. In August President McKinley promul- gated amendments to the civil service rules which elicited enthusiastic praise from civil service reformers. The order considered of most importance provides that " no re- moval shall be made from any position sub- ject to competitive examination except for just cause and upon written charges filed with the head of the department or other appoint- ing officer, and of which the accused shall have full notice and an opportunity to make defence." Through the Hon. Stewart L. Woodford, American Minister to Spain, our Cabinet at Washington addressed a note in September to the Spanish government concerning the war in Cuba, urging that the most strenuous efforts be made to bring it to an end and offering mediation between the contending parties. Spain's reply, which was received in November, was considered satisfactory and not likely to lead to any rupture between the two countries. LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 921 In February, 1898, an incident occurred which created universal connnent, A letter was written by the Spanish Minister at Wash- ington, Senor De Lome, rcllecting seriously upon President McKinley, in connection with the poHcy our administration was , pursuing toward the government of Spain with regard to the insurrection in Cuba. This letter was written by De Lome to a friend, but failed in some way to reach its destination, and was made public. Public indignation was expressed at this perfidy of the Spanish Minister, and he was compelled to resign, being subsequently recalled by the government at Madrid. The struggle in Cuba for independence continued to be the one absording topic that occupied the attention of Congress. Gen- eral Weyler ordered all the inhabitants of Cuba who were suspected of sympathizing with the insurgents into the towns, where they were left to obtain the necessaries of life as best they could. This act, which was , pronounced nihuman by the American peo- ple, resulted in the death of tens of thou- sands of men, women and children by star- vation. Meanwhile, accurate reports of the. appalling situation in Cuba were brought by several members of Congress who visited the island with a view to ascertaining the exact facts. These reports so inflamed the Senate- and House of Representatives that a number of resolutions were introduced demanding that belligerent rights should be granted to the Cubans, and further that the United States should intervene with force of arms to end the war in Cuba, and secure the independence of the island. These resolutions, which were referred to the committee on foreign relations, were indicative of the temper oi Congress. A profound sensation was created by the destruction of the United SUtes battleship ' Maine " in the harbor of Havana. The " Maine " was lying in the harbor, having been sent to Cuba on a friendly visit. On the evening of February 15th a terrific ex- plosion took place on board the ship, by which 266 .sailors and officers lost their lives and the vessel was wrecked. The cause of the explosion was not apparent. The wounded sailors of the " Maine " were unable to explain it. The, explosion shook the whole city of Havana, and the windows were broken in many of the houses. The wounded sailors .sUted that the explosion took place whi'e they were asleep, so that they could give no particulars as to the cause. The Government at Washington and the whole country were horrified at the destruc- tion of one of our largest cruisers and the loss of so many of our brave sailors. The cxcitciLient throughout the country was in- tense. The chief interest in the " Maine " disaster now centered upon the cause of the explosion that so quickly sent her to the bottom of Havana harbor. A Naval Board of Inquiry, composed of Captain Sampson, of the " Iowa ; " Captain Chadwick, of the " New York ; " Captain Marix, of the "Vermont," and Lieutenant- Commander Potter, of the " New York," went to Havana, and proceeded promptly to investigate the causes of the explosion that destroyed the battleship. The further the inquiry into the causes that led to the " Maine " disaster proceeded, the more remote appeared the chances that any evidence would be discovered to show that the disaster was due to accident. Those divers who penetrated into the forward part of the wreck found that the whole forward end of the ship from a point just abaft the forward turret had been twisted fifteen or twenty degrees to starboard. That part of the vessel was a wilderness of debris and curled and twisted plates. 922 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. For upwards of twenty days the country awaited in profound suspense the result of the inquiry of the Naval Board. During this time all sorts of conflicting rumors were afloat, but it was well understood that the government at Washington was pursuing a conservative course and would not plunge the country into war without the greatest provo- cation. At length the investigation by the Naval Board was completed and was trans- mitted to Congress, accompanied by a mes- sage from President McKinleyas follows: " To the Congress of the United States : " For some time prior to the visit of the ' Maine' to Havana harbor our consular repre- sentatives pointed out the advantages to flow from the visit of national ships to the Cuban waters in accustoming the people to the presence of our flag as a symbol of good will and our ships, in the fulfillment of the mis- sion of protection to American interests, even though no immediate need therefor might exist. "Accordingly on the 24th of January last, after conference with the Spanish Minister, in which the renewal of visits of our war vessels to Spanish waters was discussed and accepted, and the peninsular authorities at Madrid and Havana were advised of the pur- pose of this government to resume friendly naval visits at Cuban ports, and that in that view the ' Maine ' would forthwith call at the port of Havana. This announcement was re- ceived by the Spanish Government with appreciation of the friendly character of the visit of the ' Maine ' and with notification of intention to return the courtesy by sending Spanish ships to the principal ports of the United States, Meanwhile, the ' Maine ' en- tered the port of Havana on the 25th of January, her arrival being marked with no special incident besides the exchange of customary salutes and ceremonial visits. " The ' Maine ' continued in the harbor of Havana during the three weeks following her arrival. No appreciable excitement attended her stay ; on the contrary, a feeling of relief and confidence followed the resumption of the long interrupted friendly intercourse. So noticeable was this immediate effect of her visit that the Consul General strongly urged that the presence of our ships in Cuban waters should be kept up by retaining the ' Maine ' at Havana, or, in the event of her recall, by sending another vessel there to take her place. " At forty minutes past nine in the evening of the 15th of February the ' Maine ' was de- stroyed by an explosion, by which the entire forward part of the ship was utterly wrecked. In this catastrophe two officers and two hun- dred and sixty- four of her crew perished, those who were not killed outright by her explosion being penned between decks by the tangle of the wreckage and drowned by the immediate sinking of the hull. " Prompt assistance was rendered by the neighboring vessels anchored in the harbor, aid being especially given by the boats of the Spanish cruiser 'Alphonse XII.' and the Ward Line steamer ' City of Washington,' which lay not far distant. The wounded were generously cared for by the authorities of Havana, the hospitals being freely opened to them, while the earliest recovered bodies of the dead were interred by the municipality in the public cemetery in the city. Tributes of grief and sympathy were offered from all official quarters of the island. " The appalling calamity fell upon the people of our country with crushing force, and for a brief time an intense excitement prevailed, which in a community less just and self-controlled than ours might have led to hasty acts of blind resentment. This spirit, however, soon gave way to the calmer processes of reason and to the resoKc to in- vestigate the facts and await material proof LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 923 before forming a judgment as to the cause, the responsibility, and, if the facts warranted, the remedy. This course necessarily recom- mended itself from the outset to the Execu- tive, for only in the light of a dispassionately ascertained certainty could it determine the nature and measure of its full duty in the matter. " The usual procedure was followed, as in all cases of casualty or disaster to national vessels of any maritime state. A Naval Court of Inquiry was at once organized, composed of officers well qualified by rank and practical experience to discharge the duty imposed upon them. Aided by a strong force of wreckers and divers, the Court pro- ceeded to make a thorough investigation on the spot, employing every available means for the impartial and exact determination of the causes of the explosion. Its operations have been conducted with the utmost delibe- ration and judgment, and while independ- ently pursued, no source of information was neglected, and the fullest opportunity was allowed for a simultaneous investigation by the Spanish authorities. " The finding of the Court of Inquiry was reached after twenty-three days of contin- uous labor, on the 2 1st of March, and having been approved on the 22d by the Com- mander-in-Chief of the United States naval force of the North Atlantic station, was transmitted to the Executive. " It is herewith laid before the Congress, together with the voluminous testimony taken before the Court. Its purport is in brief as follows : " When the ' Maine ' arrived at Havana she was conducted by the regular govern- ment pilot to buoy No. 5, to which she was moored in from five and one-half to six fathoms of water. The state of discipline on board and the condition of her magazines, boilers, coal bunkers and storage compart- ments are passed in review, with the con elusion that excellent order prevailed, and that no indication of any cause for an inter- nal explosion existed in any quarter. " At 8 o'clock in the evening of February 15 everything had been reported secure and all was quiet. At forty minutes past 9 o'clock the vessel was suddenly destroyed. There were two distinct explosions, with a brief interval between them. The first lifted ihe forward part of the ship very perceptibly- the second, which was more open, prolonged and of greater volume, is attributed by the Court to the partial explosion of two or i.ore of the forward magazines. " The evidence of the divers establishes that the after part of the ship was practically intact and sank in that condition a very few minutes after the explosion. The forward part was completely demolished. Upon the evidence of a concurrent external cause the finding of the Court is as follows : " ' At frame 17 the outer shell of the ship^ from a point eleven and one-half feet from the middle line of the ship and six feet above the keel when in its normal position, has been forced up so as to be now about four fee t above the surface of the water ; therefore about thirty-four feet above where it would be had the ship sunk uninjured. " The outside bottom plating is bent into a reversed V shape, the after wing of which, about fifteen feet broad and thirty-two feet in length (frame 17 to frame 25) is doubled back upon itself against the continuation of the same plating extending forward. At frame 18 the vertical keel is broken in two and the flat keel bent into an angle similar to the angle formed by the outside bottom plates. This break is now about six feet below the surface of the water and about thirty feet above its normal position. " In the opinion of the Court this effect could have been produced only by the explo- 924 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. sion of a mine situated under the bottom of I government pilot. The United States Consul the ship, at about frame l8 and somewhat i General at Havana had notified the aulhor- on the port side of the ship. "The conclusions of the Court are : That the loss of the ' Maine ' was not in any re- spect due to fault or negligence on the part o^ any of the officers or members of her crew " That the ship was destroyed by the ex- plosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial explosion of two or more of her forward magazines ; and " That no evidence has been obtainable fixing the responsibility for the destruction of the * Maine ' upon any person or persons. " I have directed that the finding of the Court of Inquiry and the views of this gov- ernment thereon be communicated to the government of her Majesty, the Queen Re- gent, and I do not permit myself to doubt that the sense of justice of the Spanish nation will dictate a course of action sug- gested by honor and the friendly relations o* the two governments. " It will be the duty of the Executive to advise the Congress of the result, and in the meantime deliberate consideration is invoked Signed " William McKinley. "Executive Mansion, March 28, 1898." The following is the full text of the report of the Court of Inquiry appointed to innvestigate the disaster to the " Maine " at Havana: "U. S. S. Iowa, 1st rate, Key West, Fla., Monday, March 21, 1898. — After full and mature consideration of all the testimony before it, the court finds as follows : " I. That the United States battleship ' Maine ' arrived in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, on the twenty-fifth day of January, Eighteen Hundred and Ninety-eight, and was taken to Buoy No. 4, in from five and one- half to six fathoms of water, by the regular ities at that place the previous evening of ihe intended arrival of the ' Maine.' " 2. The state of discipline on board the ' Maine ' was excellent, and all orders and regulations in regard to the care and safety of the ship were strictly carried out. All ammunition was stowed in accordance with prescribed instructions, and proper care was taken whenever ammunition was handled. Nothing was stowed in any one of the maga- zines or shell rooms which was not permitted to be stowed there. " The magazines and shell rooms were always locked after having been opened, and after the destruction of the ' Maine' the keys were found in their proper place in the cap- tain's cabin, everything having been reported secure that evening at 8 P. M. The tem- peratures of the magazine and shell room were taken daily and reported. The only magazine which had an undue amount of heat was the after lO-inch magazine, and that did not explode at the time the ' Maine ' was destroyed. " The torpedo warheads were all stowed in the after part of the ship under the ward room, and neither caused nor participated in the destruction of the ' Maine.' The dry gun cotton primers and detonators were stowed in the cabin aft, and remote from the scene of the explosion. " Waste was carefully looked after on board the * Maine ' to obviate danger. Spe- cial orders m regard to this had been given by the commanding officer. Varnishes, dry- ers, alcohol and other combustibles of this nature were stowed on or above the main deck and could not have had anything to do with the destruction of the ' Maine.' The medical stores were stowed aft under the ward room and remote from the scene of the explosion. No dangerous stores of any kind LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 92: were stowed below in any of the other store rooms. " The coal bunkers were inspected daily. Of those bunkers adjacent to the forward magazines and shell rooms four were empty. One bunker had been in use that day and another was full of new river coal. This coal had been carefully inspected before receiving it on board. The bunker in which it was stowed was accessible on three sides at all times. " The fire alarms in the bunkers were in working order, and there had never been a case of spontaneous combustion of coal on board the ' Maine.' The two after boilers of the ship were in use at the time of the dis- aster, but for auxiliary purposes only, with a comparatively low pressure of steam and being tended by a reliable watch. These boilers could not have caused the explosion of the ship. The four forward boilers have since been found by the divers and are in a fair condition. " On the night of the destruction of the ' Maine' everything had been reported secure for the night at 8 P. M. by reliable persons, through the proper authorities, to the com- manding officer. At the time the ' Maine ' was destroyed the ship was quiet, and, there- fore, least liable to accident caused by move- ments from those on board. " 3. The destruction of the ' Maine ' oc- curred at 9.40 P. M. on the 15th day of February, 1898, in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, she being at the time moored to the same buoy to which she had been taken upon her arrival. " There were two explosions of a distinctly different character, with a very short but dis- tinct interval between them, and the forward part of the ship was lifted to a marked degree at the time of the first explosion. " The first explosion was more in the na- ture of a report, like that of a gun, while the second explosion was more open, prolonged and of greater volume. This second explo- sion was, in the opinion of the court, caused by the partial explosion of two or more ol the forward magazines of the ' Maine.' " The evidence bearing upon this, being principally obtained from divers, did not en- able tlie court to form a definite conclusion as to the condition of the wreck, although it was established that the after part of the ship was practically intact and sank in that con- dition a very few minutes after the destruc- tion of the forward part. " 4. The following facts in regard to the for- ward part of the ship are, however, estab- lished by the testimony : That portion of the port side of the protective deck which ex- tends from about frame 30 to about frame 41 was blown up aft, and over to port, the mam deck from about frame 30 to about frame 41 was blown up aft, and slightly over to star- board, folding the forward part of the midd'c superstru :ture over and on top of the aftci part. " This was, in the opinion of the court, caused by ths partial explosion of two o: more of the forward magazines of the ' Maine.' " 5. At frame 17 the outer shell of the sliip, from a point eleven and one-half feet fion; the middle line of the ship and six feet above- the keel when in its normal position, h.is been forced up so as to be now about four feet above the surface of the water, thrreforc. about thirty-four feet above where it would be had the ship sunk uninjured. The outside bottom plating isbent into a reversed V-shape, the after wing of which, abo t fiiteen fict broad and thirty- two feet in length (from frame 17 to frame 25) is doubled back upon itself against the continuation of the same plating extending forward. "At frame 18 the vertical keel is broken in two and the flat keel bent into an angle similar to the angle formed by the outside 926 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. bottom plating. This bidak is now about six feet below the surface of the water and about thirty feet above its normal position. " In the opinion of the court this effect could have been produced only by the explo- sion of a mine situated under the bottom of the ship at about frame 18, and somewhat on the port side of the ship. "6. The court finds that the loss of the ' Maine' on the occasion named was not in any respect due to fault or negligence on the part of the officers or men of the crew of said vessel. "7. In the opinion of the court the 'Maine' was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial explosion of two of her forward magazines. " 8. The court has been unable to obtain evidence fixing the responsibility for the de- struction of the 'Maine' upon any person or persons. " W. T. Sampson, " Captain U. S. N., President. "A. Marix, " Lieutenant Commander U. S. N., Judge Advocate. " Following the destruction of the battle- ship " Maine," which, as already noted, stirred the resentment of the entire country to a marked degree, negotiations were con- tinued by our government with Spain for the purpose of putting an end to the war in Cuba, which, it was admitted by all, had been attended with intolerable cruelties. Per- haps the exact number of those who perished by starvation, as a result of the Spanish policy in that island, will never be known; suffice it to say, that the land was in desola- tion ; starvation and death on every side aroused the indignation of the civilized world. Meanwhile there was a very restless feel- ing in Congress and definite action toward intervention between Spain and Cuba was delayed only by the expectation of a message from President McKinley that would deal vigorously with the whole question. The message was held back in order that the views of our government might, if possible, be accepted by Spain and the issues between the two countries settled by diplomacy. The President's Message was sent to Con- gress at noon, April nth, accompanied by the Consular reports. The Message opened with a detailed ac- count of the revolution and of its effect upon American interests. It called attention to the fact that President Cleveland's offer of mediation was rejected by Spain. A descrip- tion was then given of the " new and inhuman phase " added to the horrors of the strife by the concentration of the inhabitants in forti- fied places, which brought the narrative down to the opening of the present Adminis- tration, when 300,000 or more people had been herded in towns and villages, and h.ilf of them had died of starvation and the diseases incident thereto. The new Administration in Spain, while not admitting mediation, proposed reforms in the government of Cuba, and, while ne- gotiations were in progress, relief plans were proposed and accepted, under which nearly ;^200,ooo in money and supplies reached the sufferers, and then the Spanish Government revoked the orders of General Weyler, per- mitted the reconcentrados to return to their homes, and appropriated ^600,000 for their relief. The President said that the war in Cuba was of such a nature that a final military victory for either side seemed impracticable. Realizing this, he submitted to the Spanish Government propositions for an armistice until October i for the negotiation of peace with the good offices of the President. He also asked for a revocation of the order for reconcentration. LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 92; Spain replied that the preparation of terms of peace would be referred to the Insular Parliament. The President then abandoned negotiations. The President then discussed, in the light of freely quoted State papers, the untried measures — recognition of the insurgents as belligerents, recognition of the independence of Cuba, neutral intervention to end the war by imposing a rational compromise between the contestants, and intervention in favor of one or the other party. He showed that we could not at this time, without departing from the settled policy of the Government, recognize the insurgents as belligerents or recognize the independence of Cuba. He used the destruction of the "Maine" to illus- trate the elements of danger and disorder that prevailed in Cuba and called for inter- vention, and said of the Maine disaster: " In any event the destruction of the ' Maine,' by whatever exterior cause, is a patent and impressive proof of a state of things in Cuba that is intolerable. This con- dition is thus shown to be such that the Spanish Government cannot assure safety and security to a vessel of the American navy in the harbor of Havana on a mission of peace and rightfully there." An able argument in favor of intervention was followed by these conclusions and re- commendations : " The long trial has proved that the ob- ject for which Spain has waged the war can- not be attained. The fire of insurrection may flame or may smoulder with varying seasons, but it has not been and it is plain that it cannot be extinguished by present methods. The only hope of relief and re- pose from a condition which can no longer be endured is the enforced pacification of Cuba. In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests which gi"c us the right and the duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop. " In view of these facts and of these con- siderations I ask the Congress to authorize and empower the President to take measures to secure a full and final termination of hos- tilities between the Government of Spain and the people of Cuba, and to secure in the island the establishment of a stable govern- ment capable of maintaining order and ob- serving its international obligations, ensuring peace and tranquillity and the security of its citizens as well as our own, and to use the military and naval forces of the United States as may be necessary for these pur- poses. " And in the interest of humanity and to aid in preserving the lives of the starving people of that island, I recommend that the distribution of food and supplies be con- tinued, and that an appropriation be made out of the public treasury to supplement the charity of our citizens. " The issue is now with the Congress. It is a solemn responsibility. I have ex- hausted every efTort to relieve the intolerable condition of affairs which is at our doors. Prepared to execute every obligation im- posed upon me by the Constitution and the law, I await your action." The President submitted the armistice granted by Spain at the eleventh hour as a fact to be considered by Congress and said of it : " If this measure attains a successful re- sult, then our aspirations as a Christian, peace- loving people will be realized. If it fails, it will be only another justification for our con- templated action." There was no doubt whatever from the manifestations and utterances of Senators and Representatives on both sides that the Message had not met popular expectation. The ooinion had obtained that the President Q28 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORV. would disclaim against Spain in the most vigorous terms and that his recommenda- tions would be favorable to legislative action that would speedily lead to hostilities. Congress debated a week over the recom- mendations contained in the President's message, and on April i8th both Houses united in passing a series of resolutions call- ing for the intervention of the United States to compel Spain to withdraw her forces from Cuba, and thus permit the authorities at Washington to provide the Island with a free and independent government. The de- mand contained in the resolutions was sent to the Spanish Minister at Washington on April 20th, who at once called for his pass- ports and left for Canada. On the same date the ultimatum of our Government was sent to United States Min- ister Woodford, at Madrid, who was curtly handed his passports before he had an oppor- tunity of formally presenting the document. These transactions involved a virtual declara- tion of war, although Congress did not for- mally declare that war actually existed until April 25th, dating the time back to the 21st. The North Atlantic Squadron was imme- diately ordered to blockade the Cuban ports, and on April 22d proceeded to carry out the order. On the same date the United States gunboat *' Nashville " captured the Spanish merchantman " Buena Ventura" in the Gulf of Mexico. In this capture the first gun of the war was fired. The next day President McKinley promulgated a resolution calling for 125,000 volunteers. On the sara^ date Morro Castle, commanding the harbor of Havana, fired on the United States flagship " New York," but without doing damage. Subsequent events comprised the capture of a number of Spanish vessels by Admiral Sampson's squadron. On April 26th Hon. John Sherman, Secre- tary of State, resigned, and Hon. Wm. R. Day, of Ohio, was appointed to be his suc- cessor. Mt>vements were at once set on foot for mobilizing our army at Chickamauga, Tenn., and Tampa, Fla., for the purpose of invading Cuba and capturing Havana. Mean- while a powerful Spanish squadron had pro- ceeded to the Cape Verde Islands and was there awaiting orders. Mystery attended the movements of the fleet, and even after it sailed, its destination could only be surmised. Stirring news from our Asiatic fleet was soon received. On May 1st Admiral Dewey practically destroyed the Spanish squadron in the harbor of Manila, Philippine Islands, capturing nine vessels and inflicting a loss of 400 killed and 600 wounded. The sailing of the American fleet from Hong Kong on April 27 was pron^ptly cabled to Manila, and despite all that the authorities could do to prevent, it was soon known throughout the island. Many of the better class of residents at once hurried aboard merchant vessels with their valuables and fled. Those left behind took no courage from the confident boastings of the Spanish army and naval officers, but gave way to panic from fear of what would happen when the native insurgents made an attack on the town. It was known to the Spanish authorities that the American fleet would be almost cei- tain to arrive on the evening of Saturday, April 30th. The Spanish fleet, which at first put tc sea to meet and destroy the " cowardly Yan- kees," was recalled Saturday afternoon and lined up at Cavite, where the arsenals, dry- docks and naval warships are defended by a long line of earthworks These works had been greatly strength- ened, notably by the addition of several big modern guns. They were regarded as very formidable by old-fashioned Spanish militarj^ engineers, as were also the fort on Corregidor LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 929 Island, the battery on Cabilla Island, and the works on the mainland points to the north and south. These islands were all in readi- ness, and a chain of mines which guarded both channels was prepared to blow up each American ship as it passed. Saturday night fell with the Spaniards on sides of the vast and beautiful harbor saw the enemy in line of battle about ten miles out, directly in front of Manila. There were nine vessels in all. The " Olympia," 5800 tons, a r.wift com- merce destroyer, carrying four terrible 8-inch guns and ten deadly 5-inch quicl< fners. land and water quite ^r;^^ ;'^^-^.^.U ' ;^-^j,^-^.^^r^^^^y; ^W;^/;^;;^/^^^.^^'^ cheerful over the com- ^'^^^^ ^ " „ _ / ' r ' -' -" |^,rk ing engagement. A short time after mid- night, the darkness being intense, one of the guns in Corregi- dor suddenly boomed out, and all the other guns about the en- trance to the bay took up the cry, and the anxious people in Ma- nila poured into the '- streets. They thought the battle had begun. In reality the Ameri- can fleet was already past the entrance and was on its way up the opposite side of the bay. It was a night of terror in Manila. The women and children fled to the churches, and men rushed to and fro in the streets^ Dismay seized upon the Spanish soldiers. They had not believed that the Americans :&uld ever get past the entrance to the bat- teries and past the mines. Long before dawn the oanic became a frenzy because of reports that came from the interior of the island that nat/ves were massing for a descent upon the ctty to pillage snd massacre. When day oroke *h«i tens of thousands watching on all 59 MANILA HARBOR-SCENE OF THE GREAT BATTLE The " Baltimore," scarcely less formidable than the " Olympia," with four eight-inch guns and six six-inch rapid-firers The " Boston," smaller than the " Olympia'' and " Baltimore," but still a real and powerful floating fort, with her two eight- inch guns and her six six-inch rapid-firers The " Raleigh," similar to the " Boston," with one six-mch and ten five-inch guns. 930 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. The '• Concord," with six six-inch guns. The gunboat " Petrel/' with five six-inch guns. To the rear of these the transport ships^ with coal, ammunition and accommodations for wounded. With a bright American flag floating gayly over each ship, the decks and all visible appointments neat and trim, the fleet seemed to be out for a holiday rather than awaiting an opening for the only real demonstration of an ironclad fleet in action that the world has had. The Spaniards could hardly be- lieve their own eyes. That this formidable apparition was in the very centre of their har- bor, almost within firing distance of the capi- tal city of their last remaining Eastern pos- sessions seemed incredible, impossible. They had not long to watch and speculate, The^ sun was hardly clear of the horizon before the American fleet began to steam in slow and stately fashion straight toward the city, near which were anchored three men-of- war from three different nations, French, German and English. The decks and rigging of each of these ships were thronged with eager officers and sailors, discipline seeming to have been forgotten in an intense desire to see what the Yankees would do — these Yan- kees who in three-quarters of a century have never sent a hostile fleet into any port of a European Power. On came the American fleet until it was within about three miles of Manila, and then a Spanish gun on the battery at the end of the Mole spoke ; but the shot fell short. Then from the Spanish fleet, steaming slowly up from Cavite, came several shots at the American fleet. The two duelists were now 5ace to face. To expert eyes the Spanish fleet seemed far inferior, yet to the people watching, and, apparently, to the Spanish officers and sail- ors, the difference did not seem great. The Spanish ships were of older patterns, rathef than smaller, and were far more numerous. There were : The " Reina Cristina," of 3090 tons, with six six-inch and two three-inch guns. The " Castilla,'^ with four six-inch guns. The smaller cruisers " Velasco," " Don Juan de Austria" and "Don Antonio de Ulloa," besides ten gunboats. Then there were the batteries on shore all along the low peninsula. To get the full effect of all of these guns the Spaniards formed so that the Americans would have to face not only all the guns afloat, but also all the guns on shore at Cavite, while from the rear the strong bat- teries of Manila could, perhaps, send aiding shots. When the American manoeuverings brought their ships within range, at about 6.45, the real duel began. The Spanish fleet stood ready, flanked by the Cavite batteries on the south. ^ The American fleet began to steam lan- guidly to and fro. Suddenly there were one or two sharp cracks, and then a succession of deafening roars, and then one long, reverber- ating roar, that boomed and bellowed from shore to shore. A huge cloud of smoke lay close upon the waters, and around it was a penumbra of thick haze. Through this the American ships could be seen moving, now slowly, now more rapidly, flames shooting from their sides, and answer- ing flames leaping from the Spanish ships and land batteries, while now and then from the direction of Manila came hollow rumbles as the big guns there were discharged, more from eagerness to take part than from the hope of lending effective aid. It was impossible to see from shore the effect of many of the shots, but from the fact that the American ships were alternately advancing and retreating in the course of their manoeuverings, the Spaniards on shore LAtEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 93 f got the impression that the Yankees were being beaten. When the ships were again seen, the " Reina Cristina" was wrapped in flames. On her decks sailors, Spaniards and natives, were rushing frantically about. The "Isle De Cuba" came near, and part of the "Reina Cristina's" crew — perhaps all that were still alive — and the Spanish Admiral At this juncture the "Don Juan de Aus- tria" became a centre of interest. She liad been in the very front of battle and received, perhaps, more of the American shots than any other ship. Admiral Montojo, on the burning " Isla de Cuba," threw up his arms with a gesture of despair as a heavy roai came from the " Don Juan de Austria " and bNIloRMS OF UNITED STATES went aboard her, but hardly were they aboard when she, too, burst into flames. Confusion now reigned throughout the Spanish fleet. On every vessel the decks were slippery with blood and the air filled with the shrieks and groans of the Spaniards. The native sailors rushed about in a frenzy of rage rather than terror. The Americans were seemingly calm and cool, and still in good order they pressed their advantage. In fact, they pushed on too closely, for now the fire from the Cavite batteries became effectives. MARINLS AND ISA\AL OtIICERS part of her deck flew up in the air, taking with it scores of dead, dying and mangled. A shot had penetrated one of her magazines. She was ruined and sinking, but her crew refused to leave her. Weeping, cursmg', praying and firing madly and blindly they went down with her, and as the " Don Juan de Austria " went down the " Castilla " burst into flames. The remainder of the Spanish fleet now turned and fled down the long, narrow inlet behind Cavite. Several of the gun-boats 932 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. were run ashore, others fled up a small creek and were grounded there. The guns of Cavite kept on thundering, and the Ameri- cans, pressing their advantage no further, drew off. As they steamed away toward their waiting transports the Spaniards went wild with joy. They thought that in spite of outward ap- This second engagement was short. The last Spanish ship was soon grounded or sunk. The American guns were now trained on Cavite, and one ship after another steamed along pouring in a deadl)' fire. At 1 1.30 the batteries at Cavite ceased to answer, and the American fleet with ringing cheers from its exhausted, but triumphant crews steamed I STREET SCENE IN MANILA— PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. pearances the American fleet was crippled, and that as it would be unable to escape from the harbor it would fall into their hands. This was telegraphed up to Manila, and soon to Madrid, where it filled the Ministry with momentary delight; but before the Ministers at Madrid had read the false news, the Amer- ican fleet, with decks again cleared and with fresh supplies of ammunition, was steaming back toward Cavite. jubilantly back to the transport ships. And to the long list of splendid naval victories beginning with the Revolution was added the glorious victory of Manila. In honor of his distinguished services Commodore Dewey was raised to the rank of Admiral, and Congress passed a series of resolutions thanking him and his men for services rendered their country. On May i ith Ensign Bagley, of thetorpedff GENERAL GEORGE H. THOMAS The Hero of Chickamauga GENERAL WILLIAM T. SHERMAN 934 LATEST EVENTS OF "AMERICAN HISTORY. boat "Winslow," and five men were killed, and five others were wounded, in Cardenas harbor, on the northern coast of Cuba, in an engagement with Spanish gunboats. The Americans displayed great bravery in the face of danger, the action of the United States gunboat " Hudson " being especially notable in going to the rescue of the " Winslow," and towing her out of range of the enemy's fire. Ensign Bagley was the first to lose his life in the war. On the same date there was an engagement between United States vessels and Spanish troops at Cienfuegos, on the southern coast of Cuba. One American was killed, and six badly wounded. The object of the expedition, however, was suc- cessful in cutting the cable from that point. On May 12th General Wesley Merritt was appointed Military Governor of the Philip- pines, and orders were given for troops to be sent to Manila for the purpose of captunng the town and occupying the Island. Agree- ably to this order the cruiser " Charleston " sailed on May i8th for Manila, loaded with supplies and ammunition. On May 12th Admiral Sampson's squadron arrived off Porto Rico, and for three hours bombarded the forts of San Juan, inflicting serious damage upon them and the town. The Admiral then withdrew, stating that his object was not to capture San Juan, but to find, if possible, the Spanish fleet which had sailed some days previously from the Cape Verde Islands. Great mystery attended the movements of the Spanish squadron. On May 19th the long suspense occasioned by the difficulty of ascertaining what Admiral Cervera intended to do with his fleet was over, and it was definitely known that his ves- sels were entrapped in the harbor of Santiago. The government resolved to send troops at once to that point to aid the fleet in captur- ing the town. While it was known that the Spanish vessels were ins'idie the harbor of Santiago it was considered impossible for oui battleships to enter the harbor on account of mines which had been planted, and the for- midable attack sure to be made by batteries on shore. The entrance to the harbor of Santiago is very narrow, and vessels are compelled at one point to go through a channel not much over three hundred feet wide. Here occurred on the morning of June 3d one of the most gallant acts recorded in the annals of naval warfare. Lieutenant Hobson, naval construc- tor, on the flagship of Admiral Sampson, LIEUT. R. P. HOBSON. conceived the plan of blocking this narrow entrance by sinking the collier " Merrimac," thus "bottling up" Cervera and his fleet. The reader will be interested in a detailed account of this remarkable exploit. When the Admiral's consent for making the daring venture was obtained, Mr. Hobson became impatient of all delay, and that very night, after the moon went down, he set the time for the attempt. Volunteers were called for on all the ships of the fleet. Whole cheer- ing crews stepped forward at the summons for the extra-hazardous duty. About three hundred on board the " New York," one hundred and eighty on board the " Iowa/' LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 935 and a like proportion from the other ships volunteered, but Mr. Hobson decided to risk as few lives as possible. He picked three men from the " New York" and three from the " Merrimac." The latter were green in the service, but they knew the ship, and had pleaded hard to go, and one man stowed away on board the collier. Six other men, selected from various ships, with Ensign Powell in command, manned the launch, which was to lie at the harbor mouth and take off those who escaped. The "Merrimac" was made ready. Six torpedoes were strung along her port side, with wire connections to the bridge. Her anchors were lashed at the bow and stern. Her cargo of coal was shifted, and her cargo- ports were opened so that she would more readily fill when the time came to cut her anchor-lashings, open the seacocks, and tor- pedo her bulkheads. The work was not completed until after four o'clock in the morning; but, with the sky paling in the east, Mr. Hobson headed in on his desperate mission. On board the ships of the fleet picketed about the entrance every officer and man, with many warm heart beats for their brave comrades, awaited the issue, with eyes anxi- ously fixed on the jutting headlands that marked the entrance of the harbor. But as the " Merrimac" steamed forward Rear Ad- miral Sampson, pacing the deck of the flag- ship, looked at his watch and at the streaks in the east, and decided that the " Merrimac " could not reach the entrance before broad daylight. Consequently, the torpedo boat "Porter," which was alongside, was de- spatched to recall the daring officer. Mr. Hobson sent back a protest, with a request for permission to proceed. But the Admiral declined to allow him to take the risk, and slowly the "Mer'-imac" swung about. During the day Lieutenant Hobson went aboard the flagship. So absorbed was he in the task ahead of him that, unmindful of his appearance and of all ceremony and naval etiquette, he told the Admiral, in a tone of command, that he must not again be inter- fered v/ith. " I can carry this thing through," said he, " but there must be no more recalls. My men have been keyed up for twenty-four hours and under a tremendous strain. Iron will break at last." When Mr. Hobson left the ship and the extended hands of his ship- mates, more than one of the latter turned hastily to hide the unbidden tear. But the Lieutenant waved them adieu with a smile on his handsome face. The "Merrimac" started in shortly after three o'clock Friday morning. The full moon had disappeared behind a black cloud- bank in the west. Three thousand strained eyes strove to pierce the deep veil of night. Suddenly there were several shots from the rocky eminence on which Morro Castle 's situated. They were followed by jets and streams of fire from the batteries opposite. The " Merrimac " had reached the entrance of the harbor. She must have passed so close that a stone loosened from the frowning parapet of the Castle would have fallen on her deck. It seems a miracle that her appar- ently riddled hull could have reached the goal. After five minutes the firing ceased and all became dark again. When the curtain of the night was at last lifted the light disclosed a tiny steam launch riding the waves at the very throat of the entrance of the harbor. In an instant the guns of the shore batteries were turned upon her, and, with a last lingering, vain look for the crew of the " Merrimac," Ensign Powell headed his launch close along shore to the westward. In this lay his salvation. The guns of the batteries to the westward could not be depressed enough to hit the little I 93^ LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. launch, and the guns on Mono Castle would I Lying closer in than the warships, Powell not bear upon her. But the Spaniards, nevertheless, fired wildly, overshooting the launch, until the latter was fully two miles up the coast. Then some of the shells began to drop fairly close, and one of them threw a cloud of spray on board the small craft. In the meantime the ships of the fleet had drawn on until the " New Yorl:," " Massachusetts," " Texas" and " Marblehead" were barely three miles from Morro Castle. The fire of the great guns continued, but the £junnerv seemed had seen the firing when the " Merrimac" and her dare-devil crew, then well inside Morro Castle, were probably first discovered by the Spaniards. He also heard an explosion, which may have been caused by Hobson's torpedoes. The Ensign was not sure. He waited vainly, hoping to rescue the heroes of the " Merrimac," until he was shelled out by the forts. The work, however, was done. The big vessel had been swung across the narrow gunnery to grow worse, until the Spaniards became tired. They were not rash enough, except in two instances, to fire at the fleet, fearing prob- ably to provoke an antagonist with the strength of Admiral Sampson. Knowing of Hobson's desperate plan, the despatch boat had taken up a position opposite to the narrow harbor en- trance and just outside the line of the block- ading war ships. From here the " Merrimac" was seen enter- ing the harbor. A few minutes later the fire of the Spanish batteries was seen to be con- centrated westward close to the shore. There a tiny thread of smoke disclosed their target. It was the " New York's" launch which En- sign Powell had gallantly held close under Morro's walls until after daylight, when driven out by the fire of the big guns, he had run far up the shore, under the partial cover of the bluffs and had turned and eventually boarded the " Texas" out of range. Then he passed the " New York," broken hearted at not finding Hobson and his men. HARBOR AND FORTIFICATIONS OF SANTIAGO. The star shows where the Merrimac was sunk. entrance to the harbor, the torpedoes had been fired, the explosion had come, the great collier was sinking at just the right point; and her gallant crew, having jumped into the water to save their lives, were taken on board the flagship of the Spanish Admiral, who praised their bravery, and sent an officer under flag of truce to assure Admiral Samp- son that the heroic band was safe and would be well cared for. Spanish chivalry was forced to admiration. Within three hours, on the morning of June 6th, the American fleet silenced nearly all the fortifications at the entrance to the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. The formidable Estrella and Cavo batteries failed to reply LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 937 during the last hour of the bombardment. They were so shattered that it is doubtful whether they could be of the smallest service to the Spaniards in the future. There was a heavy fog and a steady rain during the engagement The American gun- ners, however, rose superior to the mist, and their keen eyes, supplemented by high skill, directed the shot and shell with terrific effect. Again the Spaniards proved to be miserable marksmen They managed to hit the battle- ship "Massachusetts" once. Her fighting top was struck, but that was all the damage. The other bhips did not suffer. Not one of our sailors was reported killed. The formation of the American ships was in double column. About six o'clock in the morning the war vessels stood off six miles from the beetling Morro Castle. The weather was nasty ; but no rain nor fog could depress the spirits of the sailors, who were eager for the fray. The ships moved slowly to within three thousand yards of the shore. One line, com- posed of the " Brooklyn," " Texas," " Massa- chusetts " and the " Marblehead," turned westwardly. The flagship of Commodore Schley led. In the second line were the " New York," " Oregon," " Iowa," " New Orleans " and " Yankee," The " New York " was at the head of the line. The second line moved eastwardly. Far out on the left were the " Vixen " and the " Suwanee," whose crews watched the riflemen on shore. The sailors on the " Dolphin " and the " Porter'' guarded the right flank. Admiral Sampson's column directed its attention to the new earthworks near Morro Castle Commodore Schley's vessels went opposite the Estrella and Catalina batteries, There was no firing until the American ships were in the most strategic position for fighting. The bad weather evidently had caused the Spaniards to believe that there would be no bombardment while the heavy fog and rain lasted. The movement of the ships had not been noticed, apparently, until they were close to the batteries. But the battle-ship "Iowa" waked the Spaniards from their reveries. A shot from one of her great guns hit a battery with^serious effect. Both columns of ships then poured a fu- sillade into the fortifications and earthworks on either side of the harbor entrance. The Spaniards rushed to their guns and started to blaze away wildly, What they lacked in skill they made up in passion. But fiery temperaments with poorly trained eyes and bad nerves behind guns were no match for the superior gunners of Sampson and Schley's columns. The Americans fired with great effect, but the Spaniards' shots were reckless and wide of the mark. There was a splendid chance for the enemy to display any proficiency in marksmanship, for the United States war vessels remained at their chosen stations, and did not resort to manoeuvring. In this grand battle great clouds from the guns in- creased the heavy fog. It was a magnificent spectacle, even though the conditions were opposed to a thoroughly accurate survey of what was taking place. But glimpses left a vivid idea of the terrors of bombardment by great modern war ships Admiral Sampson had issued instructions that no firing should be directed upon Morro Castle, for in it were imprisoned Lieutenant Hobson and the other seven heroes of the "Merrimac's" volunteer crew. But several shells did strike the castle on the promontory and left gaping wounds. As the bombardment proceeded the ships in Commodore Schley's column moved nearer to the shore in order to bring speedier de- struction to the shore batteries. This action resulted in the "Texas," "Massachusetts" and "Brooklyn" dealing such awful broad- 938 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. sides that the earthworks were torn up and the Spanish gunners took to their heels for a less exposed place. But these three ships were not the only vessels in Schley's column that were doing their duty. The " Vixen " and the "Suwanee" drew in close to the shore and entered the fray with startling zeal. These small ships hammered away with their rapid-fire guns and demolished a shore battery. The main interest in Schley's column was centered on the Estrella fortification. This fort offered great resistance, but when the " Texas" and the " Marblehead " trained their guns upon it at a closer range the woodwork of the fortification was set on fire and the defence was silenced. The American gunners were doing their duty in the same glorious manner in the east- ward column, from which Admiral Sampson was watching the engagement. Cavo battery was silenced by the " New York" and the " New Orleans." This required an energetic fire for quite a time, but the Spaniards were not able to endure the sustained attack. Their guns were dismounted and their de- fence was wrecked. At the close of the second hour of the engagement the vessels of the American fleet turned so that they could use the port batteries upon what was left of the enemy's defences. Part of the time the firing was not accurate, because of the location of several fortified points on shore, which were difficult to hit. But in spite of the numerous disad- vantages the American tars sent many shells into the right places. There was great rejoicing among the Am- erican gunners when they saw that the Cata- lina fort was on fire. The guns in it spoke no more and the Spaniards could not be seen. With fire added to a rain of death- dealing shells, there was no withstanding the attack. Our fleet threw shell after shell into the Spanish fortifications until ten o'clock. Then the enemy made no responses. The American war ships had completed their task with despatch and with great destruction. Rear-Admiral Sampson signalled for the ships to stop the bombardment. As the war ships steamed away some Span- ish gunners returned to the very few guns that had not been dismounted and fired sev- eral shells, which, as usual, went very wide of their mark. None of our men were killed and few were injured. Shortly after the engagement came to an end the inquiry was made whether we had lost any men. The question was answered, "Not a man." Later it was learned that one of the men on the " Suwanee " was injured. What the loss was among the Spaniards was only a matter of conjecture. If they had remained at their guns tenaciously they would have suffered terribly, but, as many did not endure the terrific fire from our ships, it is believed that the loss was not enormous. But the fortifications at the entrance to the Santi- ago harbor were in ruins. Only two small shore batteries were not dismantled. On June 7th, five American war ships ap- peared off the entrance to the Bay of Guan- tanamo just as the rising sun began to redden the horizen. With the " Marblehead " in the lead, the little squadron sailed into the bay and proceeded to a position which com- manded the cable house, under the guns of the Spanish fortifications. While the " Mar- blehead," the " St. Louis," and the " Yankee" formed in battle order before the forts and opened fire, the little gunboats darted out from the line and began to grapple for the cable. The fire from the cruisers was rapid and well directed, and was replied to with vigor by the Spanish. All the men on board the warships worked with enthusiasm, the New York Naval Reserves on board the " Yan- LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 935 kee" earning their share of laurels at the guns. The bombardment continued until the gunboats cutting the cables had concluded their labors. This was at two o'clock in the afternoon. The fleet then sailed out of the bay and took up a position about three miles from shore. The shells from the warships early began to tell on the fortifications, from which the fire became weaker and weaker. One bat- tery after another was silenced, until finally not a shaft of fire or balloon of smoke issued from the face of the forts to tell of continued resistance. As the walls of the fortifications began to tumble upon them the Spanish gunners de- serted their posts of duty and ran to the town, which was in a state of high excite- ment. With the silencing of the forts a still greater panic fell upon the residents of Caima- nera, who feared the Americans would com- plete their work by destroying the town, and there was a general movement to places of safety. After the cessation of firing from the forts, the fleet concentrated its fire upon the block-house, at which the cables of the French Cable and Telegraph Company land, and speedily demolished it. The cables which connected the block-house with Caima- nera were cut. Rear-Admiral Sampson's fleet again bom- barded the batteries at Santiago de Cuba at daylight on the morning of June i6th. For hours the ships pounded the batteries at the right and left of the entrance, only sparing El Morro, where Lieutenant Hobson and his companions of the " Merrimac " were in prison. The western batteries, against which the main assault was directed, were badly wrecked. One was utterly destroyed. In others many guns were dismounted. At first the Spaniards replied passionately and wildly, but impotently. Then most of the guns were deserted. Not a ship was struck nor a man injured on the American side. As a preliminary to the hammering given the batteries the dynamite cruiser " Vesuvius " was given a chance. Three two hundred and fifty pound charges of gun cotton were sent over the fortificatiens at the entrance. The design was to drop them in the bay, around the angle, back of the eminence on which El Morro is situated, where it was known that the Spanish torpedo-boat destroyers were lying. From where the fleet lay the entrance to the harbor looked, in the black night, like a door opening into the livid fire of a Titanic furnace. An immense crater was blown out of the side of Cayo Smith, and was clearly seen from the ships. Admiral Sampson issured orders for the bombardment the night before. Coffee was served to the men at half-past three in the morning, and with the first blush of dawn the men were called quietly to quarters. The ships steamed in five-knot speed to a three thousand yards range, when they closed up, broadside on, until a distance of three cables* length separated them. They were strung out in the form of a crescent, with the heavy fighting ships in the center, the flag-ship on the right flank and the " Massachusetts " on the left flank. The line remained stationary throughout the bombardment. The " Vixen " and " Scorpion " took up positions on oppo- site of flanks, close in shore, for the purpose of enfilading any infantry that might fire upon the ships. When the ships got in position it was still too dark for any firing. The Admiral signaled the ships not to fire until the muzzles of the. enemy's guns in the embrasures could ht seen by the gun captains. Fifteeii minutes later, at 5.25 a. m., the " New York " opened with a broadside frprp 940 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. her main battery at the works on the east of the entrance to the harbor. All the ships followed in red streaks of flame. The fleet, enveloped in smoke, pelted the hills and hurled dirt and masonry into the air. It was a magnificent spectacle from where the dis- patch boat " Dauntless " lay. Though the gun captains had been cau- tioned not to waste ammunition, but to fire with deliberation, the firing was so rapid that there was an almost continuous report. The measured crash of the big 13-inch guns of the battleships sounded above the rattle of the guns of the secondary batteries like thunder claps above the din of a hurricane. A strong land breeze off the shore carried the smoke of the ships seaward, while it let down a thick curtain in front of the Spanish gunnery. The Spanish guns responded spiritedly at first, but the frenzied, half-crazed fire could not match the cool, ever-trained eyes and skilled gunnery of the American sailors. Our fire was much more effective than in preceding bombardments. In fifteen minutes one western battery was completely wrecked. The " Massachusetts " tore a gaping hole in the emplacement with a thousand-pound projectile, and the " Texas" dropped a shell into the powder magazine. The explosion wrought terrible havoc. The frame was lifted, the sides were blown out and a shower of debris flew in every direc- tion. One timber, carried out of the side of the battery, went tumbling down the hill. The loss of life must have been great. The batteries on the east of Morro were harder to get at, but the " New Orleans " crossed the bows of the " New York " to within five hundred yards of the shore, and played a tattoo with her long 8- inch rifles, hit- ting them repeatedly, striking a gun squarely muzzle on, lifting it off its trunnions, and send- ing it in somersaults high in the air. Several times Admiral Sampson signaled the ships temporarily to cease firing, in order to allow the smoke to clear from the batteries. When the order came at 6.30 to cease firing every gun of the enemy had been silenced for ten minutes, but as the ships drew off some of the Spanish courage returned, and a half-dozen shots were fired spitefully at the "Massachusetts" and "Oregon," falling in their wakes. Throughout the bombardment the dyna mite cruiser " Vesuvius " and the " Porter," by direction of the Admiral, lay outside of the right flank. The steam launch of the flag-ship scurried among the ships carrying messages. At the close of the action a stream of multi-colored flags floated from the " New York," generally complimenting the ships, and especially commending the work of the "Texas" and "N; w Orleans." The men of the "New Orleans" raised a cheer, which was passed quickly from ship to ship, until every sailor in the fleet was shouting" himself hoarse. The destruction and death at the western batteries must have been appalling. Many of the guns had been mounted during the preceding two days. From this it was in- ferred that Admiral Cervera had given up all hope of extricating himself from the trap in which he was caught, and had removed the guns from some of his ships to strengthen the land defences. Admiral Sampson was highly gratified with the results of the bom- bardment. Vigorous preparations for landing troops in Cuba had been going on at Tampa. Under command of General Shafter about 16,000 men, including officers, sailed on June 13th and arrived at Santiago on the 20th. Itwas not long after General Shafter's army landed before the United States troops were engaged in active service and had a sharp con • COPYRIGHT, BY CLINEDENST, WASHINQIv. PRESIDENT Mckinley in his library at the white house LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 94t flict with the enemy. The initial fight of Col- onel Wood's Rough Riders and the troopers of the First and Tenth regular cavalry will be known in history as the Battle of La Quasina. That it did not end in the complete slaughter of the Americans was not due to any miscalcu- lation in the plan of the Spaniards, for as per- fect an ambuscade as was ever formed in the brain of an Apache Indian was prepared and Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt and his men walked squarely into it. For an hour and a half they held their ground under a perfect storm of bullets from the front and sides, and then Colonel Wood, at the right, and Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt at the left, led a charge which turned the tide of battle and sent the enemy flying over the hills toward Santiago. The fight was opened by the First and Tenth Cavalry, under General Young. A force of Spaniards was known to be in the vicinity of La Quasina, and early in the morning Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt's men started off up the precipitous bluff back of Siboney to attack the Spaniards on their right flank, General Young at the same time tak- ing the road at the foot of the hill. About two and one-half miles out from Siboney, some Cubans, breathless and excited, rushed into camp with the announcement that the Spaniards were but a little way in front and were strongly entrenched. Quickly the Hotchkiss guns out in the front were brought to the rear, while a strong scouting line was thrown out. Then cautiously and in silence the troops moved forward until a bend in the road dis- closed a hill where the Spaniards were located. The guns were again brought to the front and placed in position, while the men crouched down in the road, waiting im- patiently to give Roosevelt's men, who were toiling over the little trail along the crest of the ridge, time to get up. At 7.30 A. M., General Young gave the command to the men at the Hotchkiss guns to open fire. That command was the signa) for a fight that for stubbornness has seldom been equaled. The instant the Hotchkiss guns were fired, from the hillsides command- ing the road came volley after volley from the Mausers of the Spaniards. In the two hours' fighting, during which the volunteers battled against their concealed enemy, enough deeds of heroism were done to fill a volume. One of the men of Troop E, desperately wounded, was lying squarely between the lines of fire. Surgeon Church hurried to his side, and, with bullets pelting all around him, dressed the man's wound, bandaged it, and walked unconcernedly back, soon returning with two men and a litter. The wounded man was placed on the litter and brought into our lines. Another soldier of Troop L, concealing himself as best he could behind a tree, gave up his place to a wounded companion, and a moment or two later was himself wounded. Sergeant Bell stood by the side of Captain Capron when the latter was mortally hit. He had seen that he was fighting against terrible odds, but he never flinched. " Give me your gun a minute," he said to the ser- geant, and, kneeling down, he deliberately aimed and fired two shots in quick succes- on. At each a Spaniard was seen to fall. Bell in the meantime had seized a dead com- rade's gun and knelt beside his captain and fired steadily. When Captain Capron fell he gave the sergeant a parting message to his wife and father, and bade the sergeant good-bye in a cheerful voice, and was then borne away dying. Sergeant Hamilton Fish, Jr., was th« first man killed by the Spanish fire. He was near the head of the column as it turned from the woodside into the ranr^c of the 942 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. Spanish ambuscade. He shot one Spaniard who was firing from the cover of a dense patch of underbrush. When a bullet struck his breast he sank at the foot of a tree with his back against it. Captain Capron stood over him shooting and others rallied around him, covering the wounded man. The ground was thick with empty shells where Fish lay. He lived twenty minutes. He gave a small lady's hunting-case watch from his belt to a messmate as a last souvenir. . The American officers showed the utmost energy in preparing for the attack on Santi- ago; by July 1st everything was in readiness, and General Shafter ordered a forward move- ment with a view of investing and capturing the town. The advance was made in two divisions, the left storming the works at San Juan. Our forces in this assaalt were com- posed of the Rough Riders, commanded by Lieutenant- Colonel Roosevelt, and the First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth dismounted cavalry. Catching the enthusiasm and bold- ness of the Rough Riders, these men rushed against the San Juan defences with a fury that was irresistible. Their fierce assault was met by the Span- iards with a stubbornness born of desperation. Hour after hour the troops on both sides fought fiercely. In the early morning the Rough Riders met with a similar, though less costly, experience to the one they had at La Quasina just a week before. They found themselves a target for a terrific Spanish fire, to resist which for a time was the work of madmen. But the Rough Riders did not flinch. Fighting like demons, they held their ground tenaciously, now pressing forward a few feet, then falling back, under the enemy's fire, to the posttion they held a few moments before. The Spaniards were no match for the Roosevelt fighters, however, and, as had been the case at La Quasina, the Western cowboys and Eastern ' ' dandies " hammered the enemy from their path. Straight ahead they advanced, until by noon they were well along toward San Juan, the capture of which was their immediate object. There was terrible fighting about the heights during the next two hours. While the Rough Riders were playing such havoc in the enemy's lines, the First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tentii cavalry gallantly pressed forward to right and left. Before the afternoon was far gone these organizations made one grand rush all along the line, carrying the Spaniards off their feet, capturing the San Juan fortifications, and sending the enemy in mad haste ofl toward Santiago. It was but three o'clock when these troops were able to send word to General Shafter that they had taken posses- sion of the position he had given them a day to capture. In this attack the cavalrymen were sup- ported by the Sixth and Sixteenth infantry, who made a brilliant charge at the crucial moment. The advance was up a long steep slope, through a heavy underbrush. Our men were subjected to a terrific fire from the enemy's trenches, and the Rough Riders and the Sixth cavalry suffered severely. There was no artillery to support the attack. The dynamite gun, which a detach- ment of Rough Riders, under charge of Sergeant Hallett Alsop Borrowe, had hauled up from the coast with such tremendous^ effort, was jammed during the opening hours of the engagement and rendered useless for the time. On the right General Lawton's division, supported by Van Home's brigade, under command temporarily of Colonel Ludlow, of the Engineers, drove the enemy from in front of Caney, forcing them back into the village. There the Spaniards for a time were able to hold their own, but early in the LAttST EVENTS OP AMERICAN HISTORY. 94i afternoon the American troops stormed tlie village defences, driving the enemy out and taking possession of the place. Gaining the direct road into Santiago, they estabhshed their lines within three-quarters of a mile of the city at sunset. General Shafter's advance against the city of Santiago was resumed soon after daybreak on the morning of July 2d. The American troops renewed the attack on the Spanish defences with impetuous enthusiasm. They were not daunted by the heavy losses sus- tained in the first day's fighting. Inspired by the great advantages they had gained on the preceding day, the American troops were eager to make the final assault on the city itself. Their advance had been an uninter- rupted series of successes, they having forced the Spaniards to retreat from each new posi- tion as fast as it had been taken. Admiral Sampson, with his entire fleet, joined in the attack. The battles before the intrenchments around Santiago resulted in advantage to General Shafter's army. Gradually he ap- proached the city, holding every foot of ground gained. In the fighting of July 2d, the Spanish were forced back into the town, their commanding general was wounded, and the day closed with the certainty that soon our flag would float over Santiago. The fleet of Admiral Cervera had long been shut up in the harbor, and during the two days' fighting gave effective aid to the Spanish infantry by throwing shells into the ranks of the Americans. On the morning of July 3d, another great naval victory was added to the successes of the American arms, a victory no less complete and memorable than that achieved by Dewey at Manila. A.dmiral Cervera's fleet, consisting of the armored cruisers " Cristobal Colon," " Almi- rante Oquendo," " Infanta Maria Teresa," and " Vizcaya," and two torpedo-boat de- stroyers, the " Furor " and the " Pluton," which had been held in the harbor of San- tiago de Cuba for six weeks by the combined squadrons of Rear-Admiral Sampson and Commodore Schley, was sent to the bottom of the Caribbean Sea off the southern coast of Cuba. The Spanish admiral was made a prisoner of war on the auxiliary gunboat " Glouces- ter," and 1,000 to 1,500 other Spanish officers and sailors, all who escaped the frightful car- nage caused by the shells from the American warships, were also made prisoners of war by the United States navy. The American victory was complete, and the American vessels were practically un- touched, and only one man was killed, though the ships were subjected to the heavy fire of the Spaniards all the time the battle lasted. Admiral Cervera made as gallant a dash for liberty and for the preservation of the ships as has ever occurred in the history of naval warfare. In the face of overwhelming odds, with nothing before him but inevitable destruction or surrender if he remained any longer in the trap in which the American fleet held him, he made a bold dash from the harbor at the time the Americans least ex- pected him to do so, and, fighting every inch of his way, even when his ship was ablaze and sinking, he tried to escape the doom which was written on the muzzle of every American gun trained upon his vessels. The Americans saw him the moment he left the harbor and commenced their work of destruction immediately. For an hour or two they followed the flying Spaniards to the westward along the shore line, sending shot after shot into their blazing hulls, tearing great holes in their steel sides and covering their decks with the blood of the killed and wounded. At no time did the Spaniards show any in- dication that they intended to do otherwise 944 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. than fight to the last. They displayed no signals to surrender even when their ships commenced to sink and the great clouds of smoke pouring from their sides showed they were on fire. But they turned their heads toward the shore, less than a mile away, and ran them on the beach and rocks, where their destruction was soon completed. The officers and men on board then escaped to the shore as well as they could with the assistance of boats sent from the American men-of-war, and then threw them- selves upon the mercy of their captors, who not only extended to them the gracious hand of American chivalry, but sent them a guard to protect them from the murderous bands of Cuban soldiers hiding in the bushes on the hillside, eager to rush down and attack the unarmed, defeated, but valorous foe. One after another of the Spanish ships be- came the victims of the awful rain of shells which the American battleships, cruisers and gun-boats poured upon them, and two hours after the first of the fleet had started out of Santiago harbor three cruisers and two tor- pedo-boat destroyers were lying on the shore ten to fifteen miles west of Morro Cas- tle, pounding to pieces, smoke and flame pouring from every part of them and cover- ing the entire coast line with a mist which could be seen for miles. Heavy explosions of ammunition occurred every few minutes, sending curls of dense white smoke a hundred feet in the air and causing a shower of broken iron and steel to fall in the water on every side. The blufls on the coast line echoed with the roar of every explosion, and the Spanish vessels sank deeper and deeper into the sand or else the rocks ground their hulk to pieces as they rolled or pitched forward or sideways with every wave that washed upon them from the open sea. Admiral Cervera escaped to the snore ifl a boat sent by the " Gloucester " to the assist- ance of the " Infanta Maria Teresa," and as soon as he touched the beach he surrendered himself and his command to Lieutenant Morton and asked to be taken on board the " Gloucester," which was the only American vessel near him at the time, with several o{ his officers, including the captain of the llag^ ship. The Spanish admiral, who was wounded in the arm, was taken to the " Gloucester," and was received at her gangway by her commander. Lieutenant Richard Wain- wright, who grasped the hand of the gray- bearded admiral and said to him : " I congratulate you, sir, upon having made as gallant a fight as was ever witnessed on the sea." The only casualties in the American fleet were one man killed and two wounded on the " Brooklyn." A large number of the Spanish wounded were removed to the Amer- ican ships. An incident of special interest was the exchange of Lieutenant Hobson and his brave men for Spanish prisoners on July 7th Hobson and his band of heroes were escorted through the American lines by Captain Chad- wick, of the '* New York," who was awaiting them. Every step of their journey was marked by the wildest demonstrations on the part of the American soldiers, who threw aside all semblance of order, scrambled out of the entrenchments, knocked over tent guys and other camp paraphernalia in their eagerness to see the returning heroes, and sent up cheer after cheer for the men who had passed safely through the jaws of death in their desire to serve their country. General Miles arrived at Santiago on the 12th of July and took command of the army. On the 14th of July General Toral surren- dered Santiago and his entire army, numbei" ing ten or twelve thousand men. LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 94S We are able to furnish a reliable account of the preliminaries that preceded the sur- render. It appears that on Monday, July I ith, General Shafter did not again demand the unconditional surrender of Santiago, which General Toral had refused on Sun- day ; but he offered, as an alternative propo- sition, to accept the capitulation of the enemy and to transport the Spanish officers and troops to Spain, they to leave all their arms behind. He offered also to accept their parole. This proposition General Toral de- clined. It was decided next morning to hold a personal interview with General Toral. Gene- ral Miles and his staff, accompanied by Gene- ral Shafter and his staff, rode out to the front shortly before eight o'clock under a flag of truce. A request for a personal interview with the Spanish commander-in-chief was made and acceded to, and about nine o'clock General Miles, General Shafter, General Wheeler, General Gilmour, Colonel Morse, Captain Wiley and Colonel Mestre rode up, passed ove^r our entrenchments and went down into the valley beyond. They were met by General Toral and his chief of staff under a spreading mango tree, at the bottom of the valley, about half way between the lines. The interview that followed lasted almost an hour. The situation was placed frankly before General Toral, and he was offered the alter- native of being sent home with his garrison (or being attacked by the combined Ameri- can forces. The only condition imposed was that he should not destroy the existing forti- fications and should leave his arms behind. This latter condition the Spanish general,who does not speak English, explained through his interpreter, was impossible. He said the laws of Spain gave a general no discretion. He might abandon a place when he found it 60 untenable, but he could not leave his arms behind without subjecting himself to the penalty of being court-martialled and shot. His government, he said, had granted him permission to evacuate Santiago. That was all. Further than that he was powerless to go. Without saying so in words. General Miles stated that the tenor of General Toral's re- marks all betrayed his realization that he could not hold out long. When General Shafter explained that our reinforcements were coming up, that he was completely surrounded, and that new batteries were being posted, General Toral simply shrugged his shoulders. "I am but a subordinate," said he, "and I obey my government. If it is necessary we can die at our posts." General Toral appeared to be a man sixty years old, with a strong, rugged face, and fine soldierly bearing. His brave words inspired a feeling of respect and admiration in the hearts of his adversaries. Neverthe- less, the Spanish General's anxiety to avoid further sacrifice of life in his command was manifest, and he did not hesitate to ask for time to communicate the situation to Madrid, although he dubiously shook his head when he spoke of the probable response. During the course of an interview General Toral said the bombardment of Sunday and Monday had done little damage. He ad- mitted the shells from the guns of the fleet had destroyed four houses, but he asserted that only half a dozen soldiers of the garri- son had been injured. He also volunteered the information when General Miles gallantly inquired after General Linares' condition that the latter would in all probability have his left arm amputated at the shoulder. General Miles at the interview did not at- tempt to assume the direction of the nego- tiations, but, as General of the United States Army, he vouched for the conditions Genera! Shafter offered Upon the return of our com )46 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. manders to the American lines an important consultation was held at General Wheeler's headquarters. Generals Garcia and Castillo, with their staff, had ridden around from the extreme right to see General Miles. It was a notable group gathered under the protecting awning of General Wheeler's tent. General Miles, in blue fatigue uniform, with the double star on his shoulders, and his campaign hat encircled by a single strand of gold braid, sat on an empty ammunition box and formed the centre of the party. On the right of General Miles sat General Shafter, and on his left was General Garcia, in mud-spotted white uniform, with heavy riding boots and jingling spurs. The Cuban Genera) wore a large, weather-worn Panama hat, and at his side was a silver mounted machete. General Garcia has a strong, swarthy face, with a deep bullet scar in his forehead. In a general way he is not unlike a Cuban edition of General Miles. General Wheeler, with grizzled beard, small of stature, and in a brown campaign uniform, faced the three officers mentioned, while about them sat the aides-de-camp of the four Generals. Assistant Naval Constructor Hob- the hero of the " Merrimac," who had son, come to headquarters with messages from Rear Admiral Sampson, was also present. The situation was discussed with the aid of a profusion of maps, and at the conclusion of the conference luncheon was served. It consisted of beans, hard tack and coffee. After this meal. General Miles, General Shaf- ter and General Garcia, with their staffs, rode off, to inspect the position on the right flank. They all agreed thit General Toral was securely wedged in and that escape was impossible. After further communication with th Span- ish government General Toral, on July 14th, surrendered his entire command, including all the troops in East-. in Cuba, 'jui-s and ammunition. The surrender was hailed w-th joy throughout the United States, and already there was talk of peace. The formal sanction by the Madrid gov ernment of the terms of capitulation unrav- eled the tangled skeins of demands and counter-demands between the opposing con> manders which thr'^atened to end the nego- tiations and compel 1 return to arms. The agreement consisted of nine articles : The first declared thac ^.11 hostilities should cease pending the agreen e;u o" final capitu- lation. Second. That the capitulation includes all the Spanish forces and the surrender of all war material within the prescribed limits. Third. The transportation of the troops to Spain at the earliest possible moment, each force to be embarked at the nearest port. Fourth. That the Spanish officers shall retain their side arms and the enlisted men their personal property. Fifth. That after the final capitulation the Spanish forces shall assist in the removal ot all obstructions to navigation in Santiago harbor. Sixth. That after the final capitulation, the commanding officers shall furnish a complete inventory of all arms and munitions of war, and a roster of all the soldiers in the district. Seventh. That the Spanish general shall be permitted to take the military archives and records with him. Eighth. That all guerrillas and Spanish irregulars shall be permitted to remain in Cuba if they so elect. Ninth. That the Spanish forces shall be permitted to march out with all the honors of war, depositing their arms to be disposed of by the United States in the future, the American commissioners to recommend \o their government that the arms of the sol- diers be returned ^o those "who so bravely defended them." LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 94; On the evening of July 17th I he War De- partment at Washington posted the follow- ing dcsp itch from General Shafter : " I have the honor to announce that the American flag has been this instant, I2 o'clock, noon, raised over the House of the Civil Government in the city of Santiago. All immense concourse of people was pre- sent, a squadron of cavalry and a regiment of infantry presenting arms and a band playing national airs. The light battery fired a sa- lute of twenty-one guns. " Perfect order is being maintained by the municipal government. The distress is very great, but there is little sickness in the town. Scarcely any yellow fever. A small gun- boat and about two hundred seamen, left by Cervera, have surrendered to me. Obstruc- tions are being removed from the mouth of the harbor. " Upon coming into the city I discovered a perfect entanglement of defences. Fighting as the Spaniards did the first day, it would have cost five thousand lives to have taken it. Battalions of Spanish troops have been de- positing arms since daylight in the armory over which I have guard. General Toral formally surrendered the plaza and all stores at 9 A. M." Amid impressive ceremonies the Spanish troops laid down their arms between the lines of the Spanish and American forces at nine o'clock in the morning of July 17th. General Shafter and the American division and brig- ade commanders and their staffs were escorted by a troop of cavalry, and General Toral and his staff by one hundred picked men. Trum- peters on both sides saluted with flourishes. General Shafter returned to General Toral the latter's sword after it had been handed to the American commander. Our troops, lined up at the trenches, were eye-witnesses to the ceremony. General Shafter and his escort, accompanied by General Toral, rode through the city, taking formal possession. The city had been sacked, before they arrived, by the Spaniards. General McKibben was ap- pointed temporary military governor. The ceremony of hoisting the Stars and Stripes was worth all the blood and treasure it cost. A vast concourse of 10,000 people witnessed the stirring and thrilling scene, that will live forever in the minds of all the Americans present. A finer stage-setting for a dramatic episode it would be difficult to imagine. The palace, a picturesque old dwell- ing, in the Moorish style of architecture, faces the Plaza de la Reina, the principal public square. Opposite rises the imposing Catholic Cathedral. On one side is a quaint, brilliantly painted building, with broad verandas — the club of San Carlos; on the other a building of much the same description — the Cafe De La Venus. Across the plaza was drawn up the Ninth Infantr}^ headed by the Sixth Cavalry Band. In the street facing the palace stood a picked troop of the Second Cavalry, with drawn sabres, under command of Captain Brett. Massed on the stone flagging, between the band and the line of horsemen, were the brigade commanders of General Shafter's di- vision, with their staffs. On the red tiled roof of the palace stood Captain McKittrick, Lieutenant Miley and Lieutenant Wheeler; immediately above them, upon the flagstaff, the illuminated Spanish arms and the legend " Vive Alfonso XIII." All about, pressing against the ve- randa rails, crowding the windows and doors and lining the roofs, were the people of the town, principally women and non-combatants. The chimes of the old cathedral rang out the hour of twelve; the infantry and cavalry pre- sented arms. Every American uncovered, and Captain McKittrick hoisted the Stars and Stripes. As the brilliant folds unfurled in a gentle I 948 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. breeze against a fleckless sky, the cavalry band broke into the strains of " The Star Spangled Banner," making the American pulse leap and the American heart thrill with joy. At the same instant the sound of the distant booming of Captain Capron's battery, firing a salute of twenty- one guns, drifted in. When the music ceased from all directions around our line came floating across the plaza the strains of the regimental bands and the muffled, hoarse cheers of our troops. The infantry came to " order arms " a moment later, after the flag was up, and the band played " Rally Round the Flag, Boys." In- stantly General McKibben called for three cheers for General Shafter, which were given with great enthusiasm, the band playing " Stars and Stripes Forever." Since 4 o'clock in the morning a stream of refugees had been pouring into the city, some naked, and all hungry. Many had ^•^Uen by the wayside. The town of Santiago piesented a dismal sight. Most of the houses had been sacked and the stores had all been looted and nothing to eat could be had. In the streets of the city, at the intrenchments, at the breastworks and at every hundred feet or so of the barbed wire fences were the liv- ing skeletons of Spanish soldiers. Among the arrivals were the German, Japanese and Portuguese Consuls and their families, the British and French Consuls hav- ing arrived two days before. The United States military expedition under the command of Major General Nel- son A. Miles, commanding the Army of the United States, which left Guantanamo Bay during the evening of Thursday, July 21, was landed successfully at Guanica, July 25, after a skirmish with a detachment of the Span- ish troops and a crew of thirty belonging to the launch of the United States auxiliary gun- boat Gloucester. Four of the Spaniards were killed and no Americans were hurt. At noon on the 24th, General Miles called for a consultation, announcing that he was determined not to go by San Juan Cape, but by the Mona Passage instead, land there, surprise the Spaniards and deceive theii military authorities. The course was then changed and the Dixie was sent to warn General Brooke and the transports convey- ing our troops, which had been ordered to Cape San Juan. Early in the morning the Gloucester, m charge of Lieutenant Commander Wain- wright, steamed into Guanica harbor in order to reconnoitre the place. With the fleet waiting outside, the gallant little fightiuc;- yacht Gloucester braved the mines v/hich were supposed to be in this harbor and found that there were five fathoms of water close in shore. Guanica Bay is a quiet place, surrounded by cultivated lands. In the rear are high mountains, and close to the beach nestles a village of about twenty-one hous s_ The Spaniards were taken complettly b/ surprise. Almost the first they knew of tlu; approach of the army of invasion was in tlie announcement contained in the firing of .1 gun from the Gloucester, demanding that the Spaniards haul down their flag, which was floating from the flagstaff in front of a block- house standing to the east of the village. The first couple of three-pounders were fired into the hills right and left of the bay, purposely avoiding the town, lest the pro- jectiles hurt women or children. The Glou- cester then hove to within about six hundred yards of the shore and lowered a launch, having on board a Colt rapid-fire gun and thirty men, under the command of Lieutenant Huse, which was sent ashore without en- countering opposition. Quartermaster Beck thereupon told Yeo- man Lacy to haul down the Spanish flag, which was done, and they then raised on the llu/-.l.fr 'he first United States flag to float •-''-^-^^^^!^>^C.^r , 'r■-.■irh-' -■ n.-»rig--^-,g.«.-,^. L ._.< »- -■aaA<* ■«»^ At . s^tinT ^:,t8ffrder in the territories in question, shall continue to be admitted free of duty into such territories for the period of ten years, to be reckoned from the date of the exchange of the ratification of this treaty. Article XIV. Spain shall have the power to establish consular offices in the ports and places of the territories, the sover- eignty over which has been either relin- quished or ceded by the present treaty. Article XV. Th*^ Government of each country will, for the term of ten years, accord to the merchant vessels of the other country the same treatment in respect of all port charges, including entrance and clear- ance dues, light dues and tonnage duties, as it ac- cords to its own merchant vessels, not engaged in the coastwise trade. This article may at any time be terminated on six months' notice given by either Gov- ernment to the other. Article XVI. It is understood that any obligations assumed in this treaty by the United States with respect to Cuba are limited to the time of its occupancy thereof; but it will, upon the termination of such occupancy^ advise any Government established in the island to assume the same obligations. Article XVII. The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate thereof, and by Her Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain ; and the ratification shall be exchanged at Washington within six months from the date hereof, or earlier if possible. In faith whereof we, the respective Plem potentiaries, have signed this treaty and here- unto affixed our seals. Done in duplicate at Paris, the tenth day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight. EUGENIC MONTERO RIGS. B. DE ABARAZUZA. J. DE GARNICA. W. R. DE VILLI-URRUTIA. RAFAEL CERERG. The treaty of peace was signed at 8.45 on the evening of December lOth, 1898. The treaty consisted of seventeen articles, it hav- ing been found advisable to subdivide some of the articles in the draft agreed upon at the last meeting. The commissioners of the two nations wrote their signatures on two copies of the treaty, one copy being for the archives. The document was prepared by Secretary Moore in behalf of the United States commission 964 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. and by Senor Villaurutia for Spain, on ac- count of the illness of Secretary Ojeda, of the Spanish commission. Each copy contained the English and Span- ish texts of the treaty in parallel columns. The wording had been approved previously by the commissioners without a joint meet- ing, so there was no controversy on the sub- ject. Therejwas a great contest among the fami- lies and friends of the American Commis- sioners for the pens with which the signa- tures of the treaty were written Some of the Americans were provided with handsome pens purchased for the purpose. The Span- iards appeared to be unafifected by the sou- venir craze, and contented themselves with the ordinary quill pens. An Impressive Scene. Arthur Ferguson, the interpreter of the American Commission, requested Senor Montero Rios to give him his pen, saying : " Have you any desire to preserve the pen with which you will sign?" " Not the slightest," said the Spaniard, with a courtly bow. The signing of the treaty would have af- forded a subject for a great historical paint- ing. The group gathered about the table in the stately chamber of the French Foreign Office was impressive, while the fact that the sense of the importance of the issues which the act consummated was deeply felt by all the participants, gave an impressive and solemn tone to the scene. Around the great mahogany taOle sat the ten arbiters of the destinies of an old and a young nation. Ranged standing behind them were numerous attaches of the Amer- ican commission. The jets from the crystal chandeliers above the heads of those present magnified the green and scarlet upholstering, giving the whole room a brilliant appearance. There was a theatrical contrast between the black-clothed actors and the scenery. To the Americans it was a happy ending oi the drama of war ; for the Spaniards it was plainly a bitter tragedy, none the less painful because long foreseen. They sat silently, as though almost crushed, and none could with- hold sympathy from Senor Montero Rios, the President of the Spanish Commission, who, coming from his bed, was bundled in a great overcoat, though 'ogs were burning in the fireplace near by. Details of Signing the Treaty. The spirits of the two bodies were symbol- ized by the clothes worn by the members ol the commission, for the Americans were attired in evening dress for the dinner given to them after the meeting by the Due de Loubat, and the Spaniards wore black frock coats. When the seals were prepared to be af- fixed, attendants were sent to procure rib-> bons of the French tri-color with which the documents were sealed, as a compliment to the French hosts of the commissions. The seal being impressed, the commis- sioners rose, and without formality each member shook the hands of all his antago* nists and exchanged assurances of sincere personal esteem. The signing was finished at 8.54. At that time the door of the chamber opened, and Senor Villaurutia appeared and exclaimed to a group of correspondents who were waiting in the corridor, " C'est fini." [It is finished.] The other members of the Spanish commis- sion followed Senor Villaurutia and hurried silently through the vestibule to their wait- ing carriages. The American commissioners strolled out chatting complacently, and as they descended the steps the ''^ht« in the chamber were darkened Further details were soon learned as to the COPYRIGHT. 1393, BY ROCKWOOD, N. Y. THEODORE ROOSEVELT EARTHOLDI STATUE OF LIBERTY ERECTED ON BEDLOE'S ISLAND, NEW YORK HARBOR. HEIGHT FROM GROUND, 220 FEET; STONE PEDESTAL 82 FEET HIGH; FOREFINGER 8 FEET LONG; HEAD 14 FEET HIGH AND 40 PERSONS CAN STAND IN IT LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 965 wording of the treaty. The Americans are to pay for the repatriation of the Spanish troops from all the colonies. The Spaniards are to return all prisoners held by them. They are to retain possession of all military stores and munitions of war in the Philip- pines, and of such ships as have not been captured. Renewal of Commercial Relations. The commercial treaties between the two nations which the war ruptured are to be renewed at the convenience of the two nations. The United States Peace Commissioners appreciated the respite from the long strain of daily conferences and almost daily ses- sions, the intensity of which they hardly rea- lized until it was over. Warm personal friendships and mutual re- gard had arisen between the two commis- sions as the result of their extended contro- versy, and several members of both commis- sions exchanged calls. The American Commissioners unofficially informed the Spaniards that they would be glad to have the two commissions dine to- gether. The reply was that the Spariards would be most pleased, but feared it would be inadvisable, because it might be miscon- strued at Madrid, where aheady much feeling existed against the Spanish Commissioners. Americans in Paris congratulated our Com- missioners upon the successful termination of their labors. They had taken a deep niterest in the proceedings, feeling confident that the result would reflect honor upon our country. The treaty was placed in the hands of President McKinley, who immediately trans- mitted it to the Senate. As the time for voting upon it approached, public interest became intense. Not since the excitement immediately following the destruction of the battleship Maine were the people of Wash- ington so aroused as they were when the vote was to be taken. The Capitol hails and corridors were thronged from early morning with crowds who were intent upon witnessing the proceedings. The fact that our flag had been insulted and our soldiers and sailors at Manila subjected to wounds and death ac- centuated national interest in the pending treaty. Long before noon the public and private galleries of the Senate were filled and people streamed into the big marble building on Capitol Hill. But very few Senators were present before the gavel fell at noon. The Senators were in their various committee rooms, discussing the situation, and working with the supposed doubtful Senators to in- duce them to place patriotism above party and vote for the treaty. The Treaty Ratified. The treaty of peace was ratified in the executive session of the United States Sen- ate, February 6th, by a vote of 57 to 27, the supporters of the treaty mustering but a sin- gle vote more than the necessary two-thirds. There was no doubt whatever that the Span- ish Cortes would ratify the treaty and the war with Spain was therefore concluded. The long agitation in Congress and throughout the country concerning the peace treaty was over and the way was prepared for Congress to adopt such meas- ures as it might see fit for the future gov ernment of the Philippine Islands. The de- bate in the Senate had been very able and for some time the result was in doubt. Ef- forts were made to pass a resolution declar- ing that it was not the policy of the United States to acquire possession of the Islands and make them a part of the territory of the United States. The insurgent army of Aguinaldo, which ha4 resolutely maintained its position ncdtl 966 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. Manila after the town was surrendered by the Spaniards to the American soldiers and sailors, made a fierce attack on the American lines in the evening of February 4, 1899. Defeated in a desperate effort to break through the American lines and enter the city of Manila, the insurgent forces, after fourteen hours of continuous fighting, were driven from the villages of Santa Anna, Paco and Santa Mesa. They were compelled to retreat to a position quite a distance further out in the suburbs than the one they held before attacking the city. The losses of the insurgents were heavy, the American troops having gone into the engagement with great enthusiasm and de- termination. They made the streets of the city ring with their cheers when they were notified of the attack and were ordered to advance. Several of the vessels in Admiral Dewey's squadron participated in the fight, firing on the natives in Malate and Caloocan, and driving them inland from both of those places and inflicting heavy losses. How the Fight Began. This engagement was brought about by the action of three native scouts, who, ad- vancing close to the American lines near Santa Mesa, made a feint to go through. They retreated upon being challenged, but returned again in a short time. Once more they retreated. When they returned a third time and attempted to make their way past the outposts of the Nebraska troops a corpo- ral challenged them and then fired. One of the natives was killed and another wounded. This affair was followed at nine o'clock by a general attack on the American outposts. The insurgents advanced all along the line from Caloocan to Santa Mesa. Our troops lost no time in replying to the attack. Mem- bers of the North Dakota, Nebraska and Montana regiments returned the insurgent fire with great vigor and succeeded in hold- ing the natives in check until the main body of the American troops arrived on the scene. There was a lull in the fighting after the first reply of our troops, but the firing was continued for five hours with much regu- larity. During the early hours of the morn- ing it became more brisk, and at daylight the American troops made a firm advance. Insurgents again Routed. In the daylight it was found that the in- surgents had massed themselves about 3anta Mesa and Caloocan, and that they had a considerable force about Gagalangin. Our troops directed their movements primarily against the natives between the first named places, and ultimately drove them out of the two villages. Telling work was done at the same time against the insurgents about Gag- alangin, and when the fighting ceased our troops were in possession of Santa Anna, in which village the natives had congregated for weeks prior to the fight. While the American troops were doing such effective work in repelling the attack, news of the fight was received on board the vessels of the American squadron, and the monitor Monadnock, which was lying off Malate, joined with the gunboat Concord and the cruiser Charleston, lying off Mala- bon, in firing on the insurgents. Aguinaldo's forces were completely routed and were driven from six to ten miles beyond the positions they occupied v/hen the battle began. On February lOth a force of 6,000 insurgents that had gathered at Caloocan was attacked by the Americans and de- feated with heavy loss. On February nth Iloilo was captured by General Miller and the force under his com mand, aided by the warships Petrel and BaV- timore. No casualties resulted to our troops LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 967 On February 2ist the transport Newport arrived at Manila from Iloilo, having on board Senor Aranita, the President of the provisional governmentof Negros, and other representative natives of the island. They called upon the American authorities. These men visited General Miller at Iloilo and dis- cussed the situation with him. They then returned to Silay, the principal town in the northern part of Negros, and hoisted the American flag. The flag was also raised at Bacoloo, the capital of the island, and was saluted with twenty-one guns. Afterward the men returned to Iloilo in ordtr to embark for Manila to confer with General Otis. The people of Negros never sympathized with either the Tagal or Visayan insurgents, and obviously were desirous of settling down to peaceful occupations. The Island of Cebu. It was soon ascertained that the island of Cebu was ready to submit to the authority of the United States. Cebu is one of the most important of the Vasayas group of the Phil- ippines. It hoisted the American Hdg on Washington's birthday, February 22d. A battalion of the Twenty-third Infantry was sent by General Otis to uphold the authority of our government. On February 21st there was great excite- ment throughout the city of Manila. Three fires were started by the insurgents at Santa Cruz, Tondo and the Binondo Market. The latter fire worked its way toward the wharves. The natives cut the hose. One thousand na- tive houses and hundreds of business places were burned. The refugees thronged the streets with their rescued property. The houses fired were marked with red. An idea of the extent of the loss by fires in the suburbs of Manila may be obtained from the figures herewith given : — Sixty buildings of stone and 1 50 substantial wooden structures with iron roofs were destroyed. In addition 8,000 nipa houses of the natives were burned. The flying column under General Wheaton started the aggressive campaign against the insurgents on the morning of the I3tli. The line consisted of three troops of the Fourth cavalry on the extreme right, and next in their order the Twenty-second infantry, the Oregon volunteers, and the Washington vol- unteers. The latter, who were on the extreme left, were opposite Guadaloupe on the river. General Wheaton's Flying Column. A lieutenant of Scott's battery fired the signal gun at five minutes of seven o'clock, and at once the Fourth cavalry, mounted, swung forward. Then all the infantry regi- ments, formed in three lines, left their trenches and moved on the enemy. It was a beauti- ful sight, this clock-like regularity of the advance. The cavalry met a heavy fire on the right. The men dismounted and drove the enemy out of their intrenchments. General Wheaton, commanding the United States flying column, attacked and defeated a force of 3,000 Filipinos at Pasig, in the afternoon of the 15th, inflicting a heavy loss upon them. The American loss was slight. The Americans captured many Filipinos. Many bodies of rebels killed in the engage- ment were seen floating down the river. The Washington volunteers captured and burned Pateros, meeting with a sharp fire from the enemy while crossing the river. The day's fighting was like that of the pre- ceding week, the insurgents occasionally making a stand, but eventually fleeing. General Wheaton's column advanced be- yond Pasig to the shore of Laguna de Bay, sweeping everything before it. The enemy made a running fight and suffered a severe loss. The rebels' avenue of communication north 968 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. and south was closed, the American cordon stretching over a mile f om the river to the lake. The rebels were in force at Pateros and Taguig. At about eight o'clock the Twenty-second regular infantry advanced until it cncouniered a number of volleys. This fire was returned with interest. The strongly fortified village of Gaitai was cap- tured after a desperate fight by the Twentieth legular infantry. On Friday, March 17th, the Queen Regent signed the treaty of peace, which was for- warded to the French Ambassador at Wash- ington, M. Jules Cambon, for exchange with the one signed by President McKinley. The draft of the treaty was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898. The Commissioners appointed by the two Governments began their labors on the ist of October. Another Town Captured. Fighting continued near Manila, the object of the American troops being to rout the in- surgents, and by one blow end their rebellion. From detailed accounts it appears that at daybreak MacArthur dashed beyond Polo and to the north-cast, and captured Meycau- ayan. This place is two miles beyond Polo. It was not taken without a fight. The insur- gents left detachments in all the trenches to delay the advance. Meycauayan is at the base of the rough hills and the jungle. The railroad over the conquered country to the rear was repaired and fresh t'.oops were rushed forward. Malabon was burned by the insurgents, and the 5000 rebels who constituted its garrison retreated to rejoin Aguinaldo's main column of insurgents at Malolos. The town of Malinta, beyond the Tuliahan river, was taken by General Wheaton's division. The fighting was sharp all day, and the battlefield was carpeted with the insurgent dead. Our own losses were comparatively slight, though among our dead was Colonel Harry C. Egbert, a hero of two wars. The plan to cut off the 5000 insurgents in Malolos failed by reason of the roughness of the ground and the thickness of the jungle, which prevented General MacArthur from getting far enough around to the north of Polo to shut the enemy in. We had to be content with a victory consisting of our hav- ing driven the enemy from his position. The victory in this light was a sweeping one. The insurgents, though beset with cavalry, infantry and artillery, volunteers and regulars, fought desperately in their trenches. Flight of the Filipinos. The advance to Malinta was made ove the Nivaliches Rial. Hale's command in tlic fliank movement of MacArthur's division surprised the insurgents in the northern trenches. The Filipinos fled along the rail- road, burning rice mills, tearing up the tracks and obstructing all they knew how. They finally took refuge in the church at Malinta, where they made a stand. The American troops were coming on the run, however, and Malinta was taken by assault, the rebels continuing to retreat toward Polo, destroy- ing as they went. As they fell back the in- surgents broke up into comparatively small bodies, so the day's fighting was really 0. series of small battles. General MacArthur's division advanced along the torn-up railroad toward Malabon. Ahead of them could be seen the black smoke rising from the burning town. The insurgents realized that they could not hold Malabon, and alarmed at the narrow escape they had from being caught in it, as in a trap, they fled back toward Malolos as fast as they could go. The day's action was beautifully conducted. When Wheaton's brigade was wading the river the insurgent bullets v/ere churning LATKST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 969 and spattering the water in tlicir faces. Our soldiers dashed up the north bank dripping, and without stopping to shake the water from them, swept on over the ridge and into the rebel entrenchments. In the midst of it all came volley after volley from the left. And as suddenly as if it had been a battle on the stage, MacArthur's right wing appeared over the hill, cheering wildly. Their sudden appearance was too much for the insurgents. They threw down their rifles and ran. The American forces, in a great triangle, rushed after them, and the slaughter among the fleeing natives was terrific. It wa- a magnificent picture of war, with the Fourth Cavalry galloping along the crest of the farthest hills shooting as they rode. Cannon, carbine and rifles were all belching forth death, and the smoke framed it all. As if Swept by a Cyclone, TJie American army advanced at 6 o'clock on the morning of the 29th, sweeping onward three miles before 10 o'clock, and driving the insurgents beyond Bocave, to the east of Bulacan and on the railroad leading to Malo- los. Our troops met with but slight resist- ance. The Filipinos fired volleys for the pur- pose of drawing the American fire and dis- closing the locality of our positions. Two men of the Pennsylvania regiment and one man belonging to the Dakota regiment were wounded. The Americans remained silent. The country between Marilao and Manila presented a picture of desolation. Smoke curled from hundreds of ash heaps, and the remains of trees and fences torn by shrapnel were to be seen everywhere. The general appearance of the country was as if it had been swept by a cyclone. The roads were strewn with furniture and clothing dropped in flight by the Filipinos. The only persons remaining behind were a few aged persons too infirm to escape. They camped beside the ruins of their former homes and begged pas.sers by for any kind of assistance. The majority of them were living on the generos- ity of our soldiers, who gave them portions of their rations. The dogs of the Filipinos cowered in the bushes, still terrified and barking, while hundreds of pigs were to be seen busily searching for food. Bodies of dead Filipinos were stranded in the shallows of the river, or were resting in the jungle where they crawled to die, or were left in the wake of the hurriedly retreating army. These bodies gave forth a horrible odor, but there was no time to bury them. Fled in a Panic. The inhabitants who fled from Marilao and Meycauayan left in such a panic that on tables our soldiers found spread money and valuables, and in the rooms were trunks con- taining other property of value. This was the case in most of the houses deserted. They were not molested by our soldiers, but the Chinese who slipped in between the armies were looting when they could, and took pos- session of several houses, over which they raised Chinese flags, some of which were torn down. An old woman was found hid- den in a house at Meycauayan yesterday just dead, apparently from fright and hunger. Malolos, the insurgent capital, was cap- tured on the morning of March 31st by the American troops, after a hot fight. Tlie final advance began before daylight. After eating a good breakfast the troops started from their former line in the following order, extending from left to right : Third United States Artillery; Montana Volunteers; Kansas Volunteers; Tenth Penn- sylvania; South Dakota Volunteers; Ne- braska Volunteers ; Fourth United States Cavalry. Shortly before 3 o'clock the army began its cautious advance, meeting almost imme- 970 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. diHtely with a heavy fire on the right. The troops advanced regardless of the rain of bullets, driving the insurgents from their trenches into the thickets. The army then advanced two miles and discovered an in- surgent outpost strongly intrenched. The natives came forward flying a white flag and asked for mercy. They assured our troops that they were unarmed, but when they re- turned to their trenches they immediately opened a sharp fire on our lines, which was soon silenced. Our Troops in Malolos. Major General MacArthur entered Malo- los, the seat of the so-called insurgent gov- ernment, at half-past nine in the morning, the rebels burning the city and simultaneously evacuating it. The service of our troops in the Philippines was such as to cause every American heart to swell with pride. There was not one act of cowardice nor a step of retreat, and good generalship was supported by a sol- diery whose courage, patience and fighting would make the honor page of any coun- try stand more gloriously forth in its his- tory. The campaign in the East had, however, peculiar qualities which commended those engaged in it to the hearts of their country- men. It was fought chiefly by the citizen soldiers, the regiments of the National Guard, not one of whom had until within r few months seen a shot fired in battle, and they all conducted themselves with the precision of regular troops and of veterans. The regiments furnished by their respec- tive States were volunteers, the boys from the plow, the clerks from the store, and offi- cers who had only until within less than a year looked upon soldiery as a military pic- nic, a playtime period for armory drills and dunces, a matter of uniform and flirtation. But back of this existed the real soldier's spirits, the fighting capacity which belonged to the Old Guard, the armies of Marlborough, Cromwell and Frederick the Great. Being called upon to exhibit it they responded with such splendid courage that the nation which sent them forth began to realize the poten- tiality of the race and to know that it is a peo- ple of strength in war as in the other chan- nels through which it has attained gran- deur, and promoted the well-being of man- kind. The next event of importance in the Philip- pines after the downfall of Malolos was the capture of Santa Cruz, on Laguna de Bay, by General Lawton's forces on the morn- ing of April loth. This was done after a sharp engagement with the rebel defenders, who were commanded by Pac ^Vah, ~ Chinaman. Battle at Quingan. , A furious battle was fought between the Americans and Filipinos on April 23d. The scene of the battle was Quingan, five miles northeast of Malolos. Major Bell, of the Fourth United States Cavalry, was ordered to make a reconnoissance in order to develop the strength of the insurgents. He took Lieutenant Rutherford and sixty-one men of the Fourth Cavalry. At daybreak this little body of Americans reaehed the insurgent position. Major Bell and Lieutenant Ruther- ford, with five men, went ahead of the rest of the reconnoitering party. The insurgents saw them, but withheld their fire, evidently expecting that the remainder of the company would soon come within range. ' Major Bell's orders from General Mac- Arthur explicitly instructed him to ascertain the strength of the enemy. The remainder of the cavalry was advanced. As soon as the little command came within range the insur- gents opened v/ith a hot fire„ One American LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 0*f soldier was killed and five wounded by the first volley. Major Bell immediately sent for reinforce- ments. The cavalry held its ground bravely. The insurgents fought like demons. The Filipinos sent canoe loads of soldiers down the river. These landed on both the right and left sides of the American soldiers, sur- rounding them on three sides. They were forced back, but they fought hard for every inch of ground which they gave to the rebels. The Filipinos followed up their advantage. They had driven Major Bell and his men nearly three-quarters of a mile from Quingan, when Major Morford, with a battalion of the First Nebraska Volunteers, hastened up to the assistance of the retreating cavalrymen. Instead of the new troops changiog the tide of battle and causing the Filipinos to retreat, the insurgents held their ground and fought more savagely. The battle was fought in a fog, which enabled the enemy to keep close to the Americans without being seen. Shot in the Charge. Next two companies of the Iowa Regiment advanced to the fighting line, but later they were withdrawn, being on guard duty. The rest of the Nebraska Regiment next came up. General Hale arrived shortly afterward with the rest of the lowans. The Americans were ordered forward to take the positions which the insurgents were holding. Just as the forward movement began Col- onel Stotsenberg came dashing up and took his place at the head of his regiment. He had just returned to Malolos from Manila, where he had been visiting his wife. He heard of the battle, rushed to Quingan and reached his men in time to lead them in the storming of the insurgent trenches. Dur- ing this charge in the withering hail of bul- lets Colonel Stotsenberg, of the Nebraska Volunteers, was shot. An insurgent Dullct pierced his heart, and he dropped dead within a few yards of the trenches. Three guns from the Utah Artillery reached the fighting ground just as the Nebraskans were making their charge. Their advance, assisted by the shells from the artillery, broke the resi.stance of the insurgents, and after half an hour more of fighting they were driven from Quingan. The village was occupied by the Americans. A Brilliant Victory. The most brilliant exploit and the winning of the greatest American victory in the bat- tles around Manila occurred on the 27th. The taking of the bridge over the Rio Grande at Calumpit was a deed of astonishing daring. It was the most strongly defended position held by the insurgents. Located on the north shore of the Rio Grande, opposite Calumpit, it is the most valuable stragetic point in Luzon. The fact that it was guarded by the most trustworthy and best disciplined regiments of General Aguinaldo made the feat more noteworthy. Army officers said the daring displayed by the American troops was almost unparalleled in the annals of modern warfare. It was a notable day for the Twentieth Regiment of Kansas Volunteers, commanded by Colonel Funston. One hundred and twenty men belonging to that regiment crossed the river in the face of a deadly fire from 3,000 insurgent Mausers. This torrent of bullets was augmented by a fusillade of a Maxim gun, of which the insurgents had ob- tained possession. Colonel Funston, with only nine men, charged the trenches manned by thousands of insurgents, discharging their rifles as they ran up the embankments. The American artillery on the south shore of the Rio Grande poured shot and shell into the Filipino ^72 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY stronghold. The rebels were stampeded. Tiicy went north, toward Bacolor. Despite the extraordinary risks and chances taken by the Americans our troops suffered very {^\\ casualties. Only one man was killed, and the wounded did not exceed a dozen. The insurgents lost heavily, fully twenty-five were killed during the mad charge of Colonel Funston's men on the trenches. The two batteries of artillery known at Manila as the " Mormons " became famous on account of their heroic exploits. Sturdy city men from Pennsylvania, plainsmen from Nebraska, Kansas and South Dakota, and miners and cowboys from Montana and Ida- ho, have all charged under the protection of the twelve guns of the Utah artillery, and the generals have taken pride in giving credit and promotion to its brave men. Officers of the Bat'ce' y. There is special interest in the East, too, in the performances of this organization. Major Richard W. Young, the senior officer of the battalion, is a graduate of Columbia University Law School, a West Pointer, and spent many years on Governor's Island as Judge Advocate of the Department of the East under General Hancock. Major Grant, Commander of the Second battery, was a graduate of the Canadian School of Artillery, and spent many years of his life in the East. Utah prepared in 1886 for the distin'^tion that has now come to her by purchasing eight 3.2-inch modern field guns immedi- ately after she was admitted to the Union. At that time there was a large sum in the Treasury at Washington, the accumulation of many years' allowances for militia organi- zation. This, on the advice of Major Ycung, formerly an officer of the Fifth artillery, then a lawyer in Salt Lake City, was used in the purchase of the cannon, and when tne war began he was entrusted with the organization of three batteries of volunteers. Two of tiitse were taken on the transports Colon and China on the second military ex- pedition to Manila, embarking on June 15, 1898, and it was their fortune to be engaged in the first battle with the Spaniards. Four of the guns were posted to guard the ad- vanced post of the American troops in front of Malate. Barely eight hundred yards in front of them were the Spanish trenches and forts, and only the Tenth Pennsylvania was near to support them. Onslaught by the Insurgents. The handful of men at the guns had a memorable taste of war on the night of July 31st, when a tropical rain was flooding the trenches and shutting out everything from their sight. In the midst of the storm the Spaniards opened fire from their trenches, and soon a body of more than three thousana were charging on the guns and the Pennsyl- vanians. Captains Young and Grant and almost all the other officers of the batteries were with General Greene at Gamp Dewey. The guns were in charge of Lieut;;nant Orrin M. Grow, who was barely twenty-seven years old. Sup- ported by the Pennsylvanians, the men held to their position, pouring shrapnel in the di- rection of the Spanish lines, and at one time seeing the faces of their charging foes by the flash of their guns. Finally when their am- munitior was almost exhausted General Greene came up with infantry support, and Captains Young and Grant led the other eager men of the Utah batteries, who were pulling their guns through mud that reached the hubs of the carriages. Even the advance of the Americans proved a danger for the brave little band, however, for when the Californians saw the flash of the Utah guns in the darkness they opened fir/» I* *' ^^ ■e^j V. \m^- % W w .yj-'" *.< LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 973 on the two score of men in the trenches and kept it up until they reaUzed they had been shooting at friends. In the capture of Manila the post of honor was given to the Utah batteries. They opened fire early in the morning on the Spanish fort at Malate, and covered the advance of Gen- eral Greene's division, which forced its way even to the walls of the old city. Special mention was made of the artillerymen and their officers in the report of the engagement. When the alarm sounded after the insurgent attack on the night of Februnry 4th the Utah guns, now increased to twelve by the capture of cannon from the Spaniards, were in the city. But to each had been given its station, and soon the boys were rattling through the streets, dragging their guns in the midst of bullets that came from every side. At day- light they were guarding the infantiy from the beach north of Manila to the 7ct. Hon. John D. Long resigned a§ .Secretary of the Navy on -March lOth, ig03, and Rej - resentative William H. Moody, of Massa- chusetts, was appointed to the vacancy by President Roosevelt, :1 : < ' ,; t,;-]-; LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 997 On May lOth, 1902, President Roosevelt sent the following communication to Presi- dent Palma of Cuba : " To the President and Congress of the Republic of Cuba : " Sirs — On the 20th of this month the military governor of Cuba will, by my direc- tion, transfer to you the control and govern- ment of the Island of Cuba, to be thenceforth exercised under the provisions of the consti- tution adopted by your Constitutional Con- vention as on that day promulgated, and he will thereupon declare the occupation of Cuba by the United States to be at an end. " At the same time I desire to express to you the sincere friendship and good wishes of the United States and our most earnest hopes for the stability and success of your government, for the blessings of peace, justice, prosperity and ordered freedom among your people, and for enduring friend- ship between the Republic of the United States and the Republic of Cuba. " Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States. " White House, "Washington, May 10, 1902." The following was President Palma's response : " To Theodore Roosevelt, President, Wash- ington : " The government of the island having just been transferred, I, as Chief Magistrate of the Republic, faithfully interpreting the sentiments of the whole people of Cuba, have the honor to send you and the Ameri- can people testimony of our profound gratitude and the assurance of an enduring friendship, with wishes and prayers to the Almighty for the welfare and prosperity of the United States. " T. Estrada Palma. " Havana, May 20, 1902." High ."mctionarics of both the United States and Cuba assembled in the palace of Havana, May 20th. Formal greetings over. General Wood read the documents of trans- • fer prepared by the War Department, at Washington. The first formally recited the organization of the Cuban government and the fact that Cuba's constitution went into effect at noon on May 20, and continued : " Thereupon and at that time the occupa- tion of Cuba by the United States and the military government of the island will cease and determine, and the government and con- trol of the island will be transferred to the President and Congress so elected, to be held and exercised by them under the con- stitution so promulgated. Obligations Assumed. "Such transfer will be upon the under- standing and condition that the new govern- ment does thereby and by the acceptance thereof, pursuant to the provisions of the said appendix to the constitution, assume and undertake all and several the obligations assumed by the United States with respect to Cuba, by the treaty between the United States of America and Her Majesty, the Queen Regent of Spain, signed at Paris on December 10, 1898." During this reading the outside tumult had reached such a climax that the proceed- ings were scarcely audible. Thunders of saluting guns from forts and harbor drowned the voices of those in the palace, while crowds on the surrounding housetops and balconies and in the streets below increased the din with shout? of " Viva Cuba libre I" and " Viva la independencia ! " The cere- mony ended when President Palma affixed his signature on behalf of the Cuban govern- ment. EMINENT AMERICANS. COMPRISING tiiographies of Distinguished Statesmen, Inventors, Financiers, Etu THE foregoing history of the United States may appropriately close with a concise account of the most fa- mous of our celebrities. There are names that shine resplendent in the firma- ment of human achievement, and with tliem are associated triumphs and successes that can never perish from the annals of time. Not alone in the stormy period of the Revolution, ■•/ during the sanguinary struggle of the Civil War, do we gaze upon these illustrious ones. In more recent history there art those who challenge our admiration, and are an honor to our country. America is rich in her distinguished citizens, and in every walk of life, in every pursuit, we trace the footsteps of the giants who have given fame to the Republic, and whose noble deeds and achievements are among her proudest possessions. THOMAS A. EDISON. NO inventor since the world began has achieved greater distinction than Thomas A. Edison. He is noth- ing less than a phenomenon in the realm of science, more especially in that part of it which relates to electricity. His discoveries have been the wonder of the age, and have placed him in the front rank of inventors. We find him at the age of ten reading the histories of Gibbon and Hume, yet his biog- raphers assert that he went to school only two months in his boyhood. Like the vast majority of those men who have left a deep impression upon their time, he was born in poverty and obscurity, being conspicuously a self-made man. His education was under the direction of his mother, yet at best was but superficial. Mn Edison was born at Alva, Ohio, Feb- ruary iith, 1847. As soon as he was old enough to become interested in any study, he showed great fondness for chemistry. This indicated the bent of his mind, and was a prophecy that the natural sciences would be his favorite pursuit. While he was em- ployed as a newsboy on a railway train, he determined to learn telegraphy. Here was the beginning of that remarkable career, and of those discoveries which, if they have not revolutionized the telegraph system, have certainly promoted its efficiency and per- fected its instruments. While residing at Adrian, Mich., he opened a shop for repair- ing telegraph instruments and making new machinery. Subsequently, at Indianapolis, he invented his automatic repeater, which was greatly in advance of any telegraph ia- i 11 EMINENT AMERICANS. strument then in existence, except the origi- nal one invented by Professor Morse. Having lived a short time at Cincinnati, still devoting himself to electrical science, he removed to Boston, where he startled elec- tricians with his duplex telegraph. Many attempts had previously been made to invent such an instrument, yet without success. Mr. Edison was still a young man, but hav- ing shown pre-eminent abilities, he was made president of the New York Gold Indicator Company, and moved his shops to Newark, N. J. He did not, however, remain long in the latter place, but, determining to devote himself exclusively to the work of invention, he established himself permanently at Menlo Park, where he has an extensive laboratory and is occupied constantly, with a large corps of assistants, in his various researches. Mr. Edison's history is more than usually rich in incidents of an interesting character. When he was selling papers and candies on the trains of the Grand Trunk Railway, he was making a hobby of chemistry. At this time he was a mere boy. Not having any other facilities for experimenting, he con- structed an amateur laboratory in one corner of a baggage-car. When other boys would have been at play, he was amusing and in- structing himself in that corner. During his absence one day a bottle of phosphorus, by being upset, or in some way broken, set the car on fire. Grave doubts were entertained as to the propriety of having so dangerous a lad on board the train, and the baggage- master kicked his chemicals and apparatus out of the car, which did not, however, put an end to the boy's passion for chemistry. He improvised another laboratory in a differ- ent place, and continued his studies as before. Mr. Edison was also at one time an ama- teur printer, and the publisher of a paper which bore the rather high-sounding title of The Grand Trunk Herald. It came about in this way : on one of his trips to Chicago, the publisher of one of the daily papers in that city made him a present of a lot of worn-out type. Thinking that this could be used to advantage, Edison established his journal, which was filled with items of news that were of special interest to the hands employed on the railroad. During the great battle at Shiloh, he persuaded the telegraph operators to send reports of the engagement to the different stations along the road. This crea- ted an immense demand for papers, and the young newsboy reaped a handsome profit by supplying them. About this time an incident occurred which has had an important influence on his life from that day to this. He proved him- self to be a young hero one day by saving the child of a telegraph operator from being killed by a train. The father sought to re- ward him in some way, and was informed tha( the best reward, and one that would be the most acceptable, would be to teach the res- cuer of his child the art of telegraphing. This being done, the lad provided himself with wires and batteries, and soon became quite an expert in the use of telegraphic in- struments. Naturally a mind so alert was constantly seeking out new inventions. He never saw an instrument without immediately asking himself whether it could not in some way be perfected. Very often his inventive genius would instantly discover something that had been entirely overlooked by the original in- ventor. Having pursued this plan all his life, his name has become identified with a vast number of inventions of various kinds^ — all this in addition to his own original dicov- eries. Having perfected himself as a telegraph operator, and being extremely expert, he readily secured a situation where he was ex- EMINENT AMERICANS. ih pected to do night work, and was required to telegraph the word " Six " to the Superin- tendent, in order to let this man know he was at his post and wide-awake. It did not take him long to contrive a machine that did the work for him, and left him free without interruption to pursue his favorite study of :hemistry. His clever trick was, however, discovered, and by reason of it he lost his situation. It happened, while Mr. Edison was resid- ing in New York, that one day the Western Union wire to Albany gave out, and no mes- sages could be transmitted. The electricians of the company were baffled, and were una- ble to discover the trouble. After experi- menting a number of days, as a last resort, they called in Mr. Edison. He obtained communication with Albany by way of Pitts- burg. Then he requested the best operator at the other end of the line to sit at the ma- chine, with whom he experimented for a couple of hours with currents of different in- tensity. He then told the officers of the company what the difficulty was, and exactly where it was located. This achievement gave him much reputation, and proved his pre-eminent ability as an electrician. One of Mr. Edison's famous inventions is the Phonograph. The manner of its dis- covery shows the readiness with A^hich he seizes upon every new fact, even every hint developed in the study of electrical science. He was at work upon an apparatus for record- ing a telegraphic message by making, with a needle, indentations on a piece of tin foil wrapped around the cylinder. The message would thus be punctured or indented on this tin foil, then by substituting another needle — blunt — for the sharp one, and turning the cylinder, there would be a vibration as the needle entered into and passed out of the indentation. In the course of the experiments he turned the cylinder very rapidly, and instead of a succession of " clicks " a musical sound was produced. He seized the idea, and the Edison Phono- graph is the result. The perfected Phonograph of to-day con- sists of a cylinder of wax, or other plastic material, which is revolved either by hand, foot power or an electric motor. This cylin- der, called the phonogram, is used for record- ing the sound. This is done by a diaphragm such as is used in a telephone, into the centre of which is fastened a sharp needle, which rests upon and just touches the phonogram. When the words are spoken the diaphragm vibrates, moving this needle up and down, and a series of indentations are made iri a spiral line on the phonogram, which is turjv- ing around about eighty-five times a minute. To make the Phonograph speak, or repeat the words, another diaphragm, ^.a' "^ng a blunt, instead of a sharp needle, is placed at the starting point, and the phonogram is made to revolve. Of course, as the needlo passes over the indentations it vibrates th& diaphragm, and the words are reproduced as in the Telephone. Thus we can get a faith- ful reproduction of instrumental music, songs, whistling, conversation, all sorts of sounds, and the phonograms can be packed into a mailing tube, anu sent all over ^he world to be used as often as desired. This certamly is a most remarkable inven- tion. It shows what possibilities are con- nected with the science of electricity. If there are more wonders in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in our philosophy, a large proportion of them find their home in Mr. Edison's laboratory. His inventive genius is always alert and active. No new phase of electricity ever presents itself without start- ing the inquiry in his mind as to how it can be made to serve some useful and practical end. He has been so successful in devising strange things, such as were never before IV EMINENT AMERICANS. dreamed of, that he has been given the ap- propriate title of " Wizard." The idea of the Telephone has long been in existence. It was first practically applied in the construction of toys. One called the " Lover's String" was made in 1831, and is the simplest form of a Telephone. The dis- coveries and improvements of Mr. Edison have aided greatly in perfecting this instru- ment. The transmitter, constructed and im- proved by him and Blake, is combined with the Bell Telephone and makes the Telephone of general use. To such a state of perfection has the instrument been brought that over long distances, even between some of our great cities, communication can be success- fully carried on. Special mention must be made of Mr. Edison's invention for the multiplication, or printing of copies made by pen and ink and the typewriter. This is found very ser- viceable in large establishments that send out circulars, etc. Its fundamental principle is the stylus or point, the writing implement of man since the art was first invented. It is the natural tool by which the hand can trace characters, and it is this stylus or point, used in the instrument, which has created for it such a decided and permanent popularity. The sheet of paper upon which the copy is to be printed is placed upon a blotter resting on the base-board beneath the stencil sheet, and the ink roller is passed over the stencil sheet, forcing the ink through perfora- tions, thus making the impression upon the paper. This operation is repeated until the required number of copies are obtained. It is a quick and simple process of reproducing letters and circulars in quantities large or small. One of the latest and most interesting inventions of Mr. Edison is the Kinetoscope, which is nothing more nor less than the reproduction of motion. The observer looks through a glass into a small cabinet and sees what appear to be living figures. They may be men or animals, and they are in action. Thus the movements of horses, children at play, men and women walking, exercises in gymnastics, etc., are faithfully reproduced. This, it must be admitted, is a marvelous triumph of inventive genius. It is not too much to say that Mr. Edi- son's ideas have entered largely into all the electrical discoveries of recent time. He, or his assistants, prompted by his original con- ceptions, have contributed largely to all the scientific journals of the country. His inven- tions consist of improvements in the electric light and the telephone. He is also the in- ventor of the phonograph, the quadruplex and sextuplex transmitter, the microphone, the megaphone, the kinetoscope, the mimeo- graph, the electric pen, etc. No one can foresee what discoveries are yet to be made in the science of electricity. The field is as wide as it is interesting. Already the marvels are on every side of us. Especially is the thought of electricians occu- pied with the endeavor to obtain a motive power that shall supersede steam. That this will be accomplished is certainly within the bounds of possibility; but whatever the future discoveries are to be, it is safe to pre- dict that Mr. Edison will be among the fore- most of those who achieve success in this department of science. In person Mr. Edison is rather tall, some- what stocky, with smooth face and a youth- ful expression. He is capable of a great amount of work and has been known to spend sixty hours consecutively in his laboratory without sleep. He bears the title of Count, which was conferred upon him in Italy, in honor of his brilliant dis- coveries. CHAUNCEY M. DEPEW THERE are Americans who do not I need to be placed in official posi- tion, who do not need to be Gov- ernors, Senators or Presidents, to exert a commanding influence and stand in the eye of the nation. They are capable of wiining celebrity in more private walks. Some of our most distinguished citizens have never been placed to any considerable extent under political responsibility. There are those who appear to be naturally outside of office, if not altogether superior to it. Their worth lies entirely in themselves irrespective of position or surroundings. If one were asked to name the most emi- nent citizens of ourcountryChauncey Mitchell Depew would be mentioned as one of them. His fame has gone into all parts of the land, among men of business, politicians, leaders of thought, those who are especially inter- ested in moral reform— in fact, among all classes of our citizens Mr. Depew is known for his estimable qualities, his intellectual ability and his genial nature. He did, indeed, at one time hold office, but this was many years ago, and, while he has always been interested in politics, and has even been suggested as the candidate of his party for the Presidency, he does not appear to have sought distinctions of this description. Mr. Depew is a man of broad and liberal education. He was born in Peekskill, N. Y., April 23, 1834. Even in his boyhood he was a gifted declaimer, and gave prophecy then of his distinguished career as an orator. The old saying that "the boy is the father to the man" is illustrated in his case. He graduated from Yale College in 1856, having taken high rank during his course, especially in the department of rhetoric and oratory. Many were the contests he had in college, and many were the times that he emerged from them with complete success. His social disposition, his breezy manner, his happy knack of merry-making and his fund of anec- dote, rendered him a general favorite. In 1858 he began practicing law, consider- ing that this profession furnished the widest opportunities for such abilities as he could command. His public career as an orator was begun in 1856 in the Fremont campaign. At this time he identified himself with the young Republican party, of which he has since been a prominent and enthusiastic member. He became widely known through- out the eastern part of New York for his pithy and eloquent stump-speeches, and very soon found himself in favor with the older leaders of the party. His youth, his self- possession, his fluency, his grasp of the subjects he treated, his unbounded enthu- siasm, drew immediate attention and marked a coming man. In 1 86 1 he was sent to the Legislature of New York, and two years later he was elected Secretary of State, declining a re- election two years subsequently. He found it necessary to devote his time somewhat exclusively to his profession, considering that this was his legitimate calling, and to pursue it would prove of lasting benefit to him in the end. In 1866 he was chosen attorney for the New York and Harlem Railroad, and, three years later, when the railroad was consolidated with the New York Central, he became general counsel of the company. He was elected second Vice- President of the Central Railroad in 1882, and the following year President of the "Vanderbilt roads." In person Mr. Depew is above the medium height, has prominent features and a clear, penetrating voice that can be heard by the largest audiences. PHILIP D. ARMOUR. THE ancient classic nations were in the habit of speaking of the seven won- ders of the world. If we were asked to give a list of the seven wonders of America, the city of Chicago would most assuredly be one of them. It sits like a queen at the feet of the great chain of lakes which, taken together, are nothing less than an immense inland sea. Its growth has been rapid and phenomenal. Within the memory of living men, it was only a village, located on marshy ground, then giving no promise of becoming the great metropolis of the West. The explanation of this remarkable growth is something which does not especially con- cern us. That location has had niuch to do with it is doubtless true. Here is a wonder- ful centre of railroads, branching out into all parts of the West. Here are facilities ^or navigation which are unsurpassed by those of any inland waters on the face of the globe.* Lying around Chicago, and extend- ing through leagues of fertile territory, are farms and homesteads which have sprung into existence with startling rapidity. Chi- cago looks out upon a vast countrj/ that may appropriately be called the garden of America, producing grains, cattle, sheep and swine, in almost boundless affluence. Natur- ally these must all have a market, a central point for distribution to other parts of the country and the eastern world. While all these causes have combined to render Chicago a city whose growth has been extraordinary, it is no less true that much is due to the enterprise of her citizens, among whom are numbered men of broad ideas, exceptional business ability, and an integrity made of gold unmixed with dross. One of these citizens whose remarkable suc- cesses have given fame to Chicago is Mr. Philip D. Armour — a full-grown man, looked vi ^ ' from every point of view, whose business career, whose unimpeachable character and faithful endeavors in every walk of life, have made him conspicuous in the city of his resi- dence and widely known throughout the country. He was born in Stockbridge, N. Y., May i6, 1832, and received his education in the district school of his native town. Like many young men, he was under the impression that some other part of the coun- try than the one in which he was born and reared would afford a wider field for activity and success, and started out to seek his for- tune, going to California in 1851. This was only two or three years after the discovery of gold, but Mr. Armour found, even at that time, that fortunes are not picked up in a day, and he was doomed to disappointment. In 1856, he left California, convinced that he could do better elsewhere. Still, it is true that even at this time he exhibited those qualities of industry, tact and perseverance, which have since distinguished him and are really the secret of the success that has made him a millionaire, or it would be more correct to say, a multi-millionaire, for his possessions must be numbered among the millions. Mr. Armour went to Milwau- kee, Wio., where he embarked in the com- mission business, meeting with the success that might be expected from a man of his ability. He saw that there was a wide and growing field in the provision trade, that the West was destined, if not to feed the world^ yet to contribute largely toward it, and this led to the widening of his plans and the beginning of the business in which he has made his fame and fortune. In connection with John Plankington, of Milwaukee, he established a packing house, and for a number of years devoted to the business his time and energies. This was ifli EMINENT AMERICANS. 1863, and. Ill 1868 the Chicago estabHshment of P. D. Armour & Co. was founded, which has branch houses in Kansas City and New York, and extends its trade all over the world. These packing houses are immense establishments, and, except by actual obser- vation, no one would be able to get an accu- rate idea of the vast business that is carried on. To one unused to such sights, the rapidity with which live animals are converted into provisions, ready to be shipped, is something amazing. Various mechanical arrangements are in use, and inventive genius has employed itself in furnishing facilities for expediting the work. Many as are the remarkable sights of Chicago, a visit to the packing houses of P. D. Armour & Co. is one of the most interesting and one that is seldom omitted by strangers. That a business should have grown up in a few years so large as to extend itself into all parts of the world, is a high tribute to the enterprise of its controlling head, and to the resources of the great West. Mr. Armour does not believe in turning his business over to others and merely super- vising it in a general way. Like all success- ful business men, he has a rare faculty for dealing with details. The imprint of his hand is on every part of the great enterprises he carries on ; his personality is felt every- where. Among all the thousands of his employees there is probably not one who performs the daily amount of labor that he does himself. He is not a man to merely say, " Do this, or that," but is himself a worker, and is always found at his post. At the same time Mr. Armour is a very benevolent man, giving away large sums of money and doing this, not merely by spas- modic contribution, but as a daily habit. He not only gets, but he gives, and in this respect his ideas and activities are on a scale with the vast plans that enter into his busi- ness. The Armour Mission is one pf the religious institutions of Chicago, and he is not content merely to provide the ways and means, but also shows his interest in the work by his personal presence and super- vision. Thus it will be seen that Mr. Armour is something more than a man of business, con- fining his thoughts and energies entirely to his own immediate concerns. As a citizen he is interested in public affairs, although he has never sought office. He has been willing that others should occupy positions which could have been filled most satisfactorily by a man of his ability and character. Honors would have been placed upon him by his fellow-citizens if he had been willing to receive them ; but he has never sought them, and when they have sought him he has gracefully declined. While such a man would doubtless have achieved great success in any pursuit, it seems evident that Mr. Armour luckily found the one to which he was especially adapted. He has given very close attention to it, and from first to last has been a working man. He has no time to waste. With him life means unremitting labor and the furtherance of his great enterprises. It is impossible to conceive of a man possessed of his energy and business capacity contenting himself with meagre results. He does not look at obstacles and hesitate ; he masters them by the force of his will and the energy of his active nature. His honorable career is well worthy to be recorded as an example and a stimulus to others who are engaged in industrial pursuits. One of the most magnificent presents Chicago ever received was from him, and the Armour Institute, fully endowed, stands not only as one of the finest ornaments of the city, but also as a monument that will per- petuate the memory and philanthropic dig- position of the founder. THOMAS B. REED. THE history of our country shows that in every great crisis and emer- gency men have come forward who were equal to the occasion. An extraordinary demand has always developed extraordinary characters and has been fruit- ful in remarkable achievements. From the period of the Revolution down to the pre- sent time, statesmen who would compare favorably with those of any other nation, have appeared upon the scene of action. Those who established our national policy and guided the young republic through its early career, were not more conspicuous than those who, in later times, have shaped the events whose record is written upon the enduring pages of history. It is but just to say that our nation has been gifted with wise and able statesmen, nor do we need to go far back to discover their names. Stormy times always bring grand men to the front, the occasion affording opportunity for leaders of intellectual force, heroic cour- age and glowing patriotism. It has been no light task to guide American affairs during the period immediately following our great Civil War. The conflict of opinions has raged under the dome of the Capitol. This was only to be expected, for a nation like ours, covering so vast an extent of territory, the life of which is composed of interests so varied, and where there is always a strong local feeling, must find that there will be differences of opinion respecting many ques- tions of national policy. Few men have lately occupied more public attention than Thomas Brackett Reed, a man constructed on a broad plan, with abundance of material put into his original composition, and physically and intellectually the peer of the most conspicuous Americans who have gone before him. As a party leader, he has viii shown pre-eminent abilities, while at the same time he possesses the elements of personal popularity to a remarkable degree. He ap- pears to have gained his full growth, is not confined within narrow limits, and is so ample in thought, energy and deed, that he must be considered a grand outgrowth of American institutions. Mr. Reed was born in Maine, October 1 8th, 1839. After the usual common-school education, which the most of American boys are fortunate in being able to obtain, he con- tinued his studies and graduated at Bowdoin College in i860. The choice of his profes- sion was that of law, and he immediately began its study after leaving College. For a short time he was diverted from the practice of his profession, becoming acting paymaster in the Navy in 1864. Here, however, he remained only a year, and then resumed his profession. His comprehensive knowledge of current politics and his sound Republican principles made him widely known in his own locality, and he was honored with an election to the lower branch of the Maine Legislature in 1868. At the next election, he was made Senator and was transferred to the upper house. For two years he was attorney- general of the State, and city solicitor for Portland for a term of four years. During all this time his reputation was extending, his marked qualities were showing them- selves, his strong individuality was attracting observation, and it became evident that he had abundant qualifications for a sphere of the widest political action. The next step in his career was his election to Congress, in 1876. He has since been continuously re-elected, a fact in itself afford- ing sufficient evidence of his great popularitv and the unbounded confidence reposed rn EMINENT AMERICANS. IX him by his constituents. It was soon ad- mitted in Washington that a man of extra- ordinary parts had taken his seat in the House of Representatives. He did not com- mit the error of expressing his views on every little subject, on every little occasion, but when the turning-points came and mat- ters of weighty import were to be decided, Mr. Reed stood in the centre of the arena, a valiant champion of his party faith, and an op- ponent with whom few dared to measure arms. Mr. Reed showed an intricate knowledge of parliamentary law and usages, having made the conduct of public business a special study. He was quick to detect any blunder or mistake in the deliberations and modes of procedure on the floor of th-e House. Naturally he became the leader of his party, having a clear and comprehensive conception of its principles, and being able to express his views with such force and eloquence as to command attention. He assumed his position at the front without effort, without courting favor, purely upon his own merits as a statesman of broad views, generous im- pulses, magnetic force and calm judgment. He became the central figure of the Re- publican party, and in the Fifty-first Con- gress was elected Speaker of the House. It soon became evident that a man of stern will and remarkable executive ability was in the chair. Business was to go on. The country expected legislation and was to have it. The subterfuges and delays for defeating measures of public importance were to be branded as infamous. The old-time usages and rules which blocked legislative machinery were to be dragged forth and slain, as Samuel hewed Agag in pieces before the Lord in Gilgal. Of course, there was a stir among the dry tones. It had never been so seen in Wash- ington before. A new man was at the helm, a new life and vigor were infused into the deliberations and actions of the House of Representatives. Men who had resorted to the most unscrupulous methods for defeating projects which they did not favor, were respectfully but firmly told to take a back seat. Rules were adopted for " counting a quorum," and permitting public business to be transacted, a very wise and indispensable proceeding, as would be said by any man of common sense. It was justly concluded that where something was expected to be done, it was the height of idiocy and obstinacy to allow a small minority to paralyze all action, resulting in the doing of nothing. As might have been expected, a storm of criticism was awakened. In the midst of it all Mr. Reed stood like a rock, conscious that he was right and that the position he had taken was a public necessity. Americans do not like a weak man. They had found a strong one, and the entire approbation of his party sustained Mr. Reed and applauded his administration. He was unmoved by assaults, bitter criticisms, storms of vituperation. His enemies gave him the title of " Czar," berated what they called his tyranny, yet inwardly respected him and bowed before the majesty of his will. Time has justified fully the position Mr. Reed assumed, and the very rules which the minority opposed they were com- pelled to adopt when they became the majority. Mr. Reed's views upon great public ques- tions are so well known as to require little reference here. Suffice it to say, he is a thorough American, believes in a strong for- eign policy, is an advocate of reasonable pro- tection to American industries, and stands with his windows open to the light, ready for any and all measures that will promote the widest public welfare. In personal characteristics and force of character Mr. Reed is a typical American and seems abundantly able to bear the re- sponsibilities which have fallen to his lot as a public man. MELVILLE W. FULLER. LAWYERS of high reputation are found in all parts of our country, and here, more than in almost any- other profession, it is difficult to draw distinctions and say that one is superior to another. Taken as a whole, the profession of law exhibits keen intellectual ability and marked oratorical po;ver. Some member^ of the profession have been eminent as jurists, such as Chief Justice Marshall and Chief Justice Chase. Others have been eloquent pleaders, like Webster and Choate. Others have excelled in that intellectual acuteness which is especially re- quired in untangling the meshes of the law. It is true that very able jurists have been placed upon the bench of the Supreme Court. Yet these never have enjoyed a monopoly of legal talent. Others of equal ability might have been elevated to the same position, ful- filling its duties with equal efficiency. The subject of this sketch did not have a national reputation until he was nominated for Chief Justice by President Cleveland and promptly confirmed by the Senate. That such an honor is great is universally con- ceded ; it is one of the highest that can be conferred. It has been said that the Supreme Court is peculiarly the pride and glory of our country. Although this was said by a mem- ber of the Court and appears to have a touch of self-praise about it, nevertheless it must be admitted to be true. Here is the tribunal of last resort. Here questions are decided which pertain even to the Constitution and government of the country. Matters of the gravest import are constantly before the Court, vast interests hinging upon their de- cision. Beyond this tribunal there is no appeal. Its word is final and is not to be disputed. Its decisions pass into laws, into principles of action, and even become a part of our unwritten Constitution. History furnishes a record of many triba* nals, some just, some unjust, some cruel, some merciful, some pure, and many corrupt, but in all the long story of civilization from an- cient Egypt down through the Greek and Roman Empires to the present day, there can be found no judicial organization more worthy of high honor and profound respect than the Supreme Court of the United States. Intimately interwoven as its proceedings have been with the national and individual life of our people, calmly deciding, as it has, matters of the gravest import, involving vast measures of wealth, political consequences unmeasurable in mere money, and questions on the turn of which hung millions of lives, no taint of suspicion ever sullied its honor, the serious charge has seldom made, even in the heat of sectional strife and bitterness, that its decision, or the decisions of its individual members, were guided by aught save the cold, passionless mandate of the law, clothed with the significance that each one attached to its utterance. It was characterized by an eminent jurist as " The court which interprets the living voice of the Constitution." " In whatever has concerned the national welfare, this court has," he said, " always stood for the con- science of the people of the United States." The character and eminence of its mem- bers must ever be a subject of deepest inter- est to all Americans, for it is readily conceiv- able that without a Marshall, a Waite, a Storey and a Chase, as Chief Justices, our national and political development might have proceeded upon lines far different from the ones which it has followed. The position held by the Supreme Court, the importance of the cases brought to its judgment and the far-reaching effects of its decisions, require jurists of the most profound learning, the widest experience, the utmost EMINENT AMERICANS. XI patieiir.c and candor, and personal characters above reproach. That Mr, Fuller meets these requirements to a most eminent degree, is universally admitted. He was born in Au- gusta, Maine, February ii, 1833, and twenty years later graduated from Bowdoin Col- lege, an institution which has been peculiarly favored in its distinguished graduates. Hav- ing studied law at Harvard College, Mr. Fuller entered upon the practice of his pro- fession in his native city in 1855. His mind seems to have had a leaning toward journalism, and he became the editor of the Augusta Age, while at the same time he became prominent in local politics, having been made president of the Common Council during his editorship. In 1856 he was elected City Attorney. But, like many young men born and reared in New England, he was seized with the Western fever, and de- termined to go West to find a wider field for his energies. He removed to Chicago, where, for thirty-two years, he conducted a highly successful law practice, having gained imme- diately a wide reputation for legal acumen, and for honorable methods in the manage- ment of his cases. At the same time, he did not divor«-e him- self from public affairs. He was a member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in 1862, and of the Illinois House of Represen- tatives in 1863. A strong Democrat, he served as a delegate to all the national Con- ventions from 1864 to 1880 inclusive, and was always prominent in the councils of his party, where his word had the greatest influ- ence. His successful career naturally pointed to a higher position of service than he had hitherto occupied. Not only the men of his own party, but his fellow-citizens generally looked upon him as an able, honorable and upright man. When President Cleveland selected him to fill the vacancy on the Supreme Bench of the United States caused by the death of Chief Justice Waite, the choice was pronounced a wise one by those who knew Mr. Fuller best. Those who had not known him were some- what surprised at his selection, but subse- quent events have justified the wisdom of the choice. He was confirmed by the Senate July 20, 1888, and took the oath of office on the 8th of October following. In the social life of Washington, Mr. Fuller and his family are widely known, making it a point to entertain their friends and show attention to strangers. Their delightful hos- pitalities are widely extended and thoroughly enjoyed. A large family of daughters, bright and well educated, lend attraction to the home. These have been reared, not after the straight-laced fashion, but, while placed under judicious parental restraint, they have been allowed such freedom as develops individu- ality of character, and, to a considerable ex- tent, independence of action. They think for themselves, have opinions of their own, and are fully equal to all the social func- tions in which they are required to take part. Mr. Fuller has received the degree of LL.D. from Bowdoin College, and also from the Northwestern University. This is simply the recognition of those distinguished abilities which have placed him at the head of the highest judicial tribunal in the land. In person he is of medium height and build, and not at all remarkable for what we are in the habit of calling " presence." His hair is white and is worn long; his face smooth, with the exception of a somewhat heavy mustache. His features are clear cut, giving evidence of the scholar and the thinker. His decisions are marked by learning, pro- found insight into the merits of the case, and a simplicity and clearness of expression which render them capable of being compre- hended by the average mind. JOHN WANAMAKER. THE career of no business man in the United States has been more successful than that of John Wana- maker. From the poor boy to the foremost merchant of our time, is an amazing step. Others may be accounted self-made men, miracles we might call them of energy and achievement, but to no other does the term phenomenal apply with as much force as it does to the subject of this sketch. Not only is Mr. Wanamaker the greatest merchant in America, he is also one of our greatest men. By this we do not mean that he is brilliant from all points of view, that he is a profound scholar or a great orator, but in all the elements which go to form a true and noble manhood, a man successful in all his undertakings, and a private and public citizen of pre-eminent worth and influence, he may be considered unique. It has been quite customary for instruc- tors of the rising generation to point to Mr. Wanamaker as a shining example for young men. The young as well as the old learn best from object lessons. That Mr. Wana- maker should have been selected so fre- quently as a pattern for imitation is not surprising to those who know him best. Standing conspicuously as he does before the public, it is not to be wondered at that he should have his critics, perhaps even enemies. All positive characters do have them, and it is greatly to their credit that they do. What impresses one especially is, that Mr. Wanamaker has so many sides to his character, and shows so much of genius, not only in one direction, but in many. It is not too much to say that if he had been en- gaged in any other pursuit than the mercan- tile, he would instantly have come to the front. The secret of all this is simply in the man himself. Having the ability, it cannot help xii exhibiting itself under all circumstances. The man who is a natural-born leader is pretty sure to lead wherever you place him. He carries in his own strong will and iron arm successes beyond the reach of ieebler men. Such an one does not need to have greatness thrust upon him ; he is great al- ready. The world always has estimated, and always will estimate, men by their successes. Judged by this inevitable standard, Mr. Wanamaker is a Saul among the Prophets. He was born in Philadelphia, July ii, 1838 ; attended a country school until he was fourteen, and there obtained about the only education he ever received. His first place was that of messenger boy with the publish- ing house of Troutman & Hayes, at the ex- ceedingly modest salary of ;^ 1.25 a week. He lived over four miles from the store, and footed it morning and evening, eating ?t noon the plain lunch brought with him from home, put up for him by a loving mother's hands. Subsequently the family lived for a time in Kosciusko County, Indiana, but re- turned to Philadelphia in 1856, where young Wanamaker eventually obtained employment in Tower Hall, then the largest clotning house in that city. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, when he v/as twenty-three years old, he married Miss Brown, and, having obtained a very small capital, he went into the clothing business in partnership with his brother-in- law. Here the qualities of the man began to show themselves, and he became conspic- uous for that business shrewdness, push, and perseverance, enterprise, courage, and breadth of views which have distinguished him ever since. Of course, the business prospered and grew rapidly, until in time his clothing house became the largest in America. A second EMINENT AMERICANS. Xlll store was opened in the city, and afterwards several branch houses in other parts of the country. It is noticeable that from early manhood Mr. Wanamaker devoted himself enthusiastically to religious work, his activity m this respect keeping pace with that dis- played in his business. He established a mission school in what was then a poor, neglected part of the city, so infested with rough, criminal characters, that it was scarcely safe for a respectable citizen to walk through its streets after nightfall. This mission has grown to amazing pro- portions. It was the forerunner of the great Bethany Church and Sunday-schools, which have attracted attention, not merely in Phila- delphia, but in all parts of the country. It may as well be said here that in connection with Bethany, advantages Ixave been offered to young persons in humble circumstances for the study of various secular branchy a knowledge of which is intended to prepare them for business life. Moreover, arrange- ments have been made for the founding of an institute which will cost from one to two million dollars, where at a nominal rate young persons of both sexes can pursue academical studies, and have ample .opportu- nities for manual training. This is one of Mr. Wanamaker's crowning achievements. After the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, with the financial management of which he was prominently connected, he opened the great general store in Philadelphia which continues to be one of the wonders of the age. It occupies an entire square in one direction and half this space in another. The building was once a large freight depot, and when Mr. Wanamaker conceived the idea of opening a store of such gigantic dimen- sions it was freely prophesied that he would fail. Notwithstanding all reports to the con- trary, there has doubtless never been a time when Mr, Wanamaker was anywhere near the point of failing. Failure does not seem to be in the man. Mr. Wanamaker's methods of conducting business have shown his original genius. These have been quite different from those long pursued, being especially noticeable in the liberality shown to the public. They are made to feel quite at home in the great establishment, are treated with the utmost courtesy, and if, after making purchases, these are not satisfactory, they can be re- turned. The theory is, that to treat the public liberally pays. Quite naturally Mr. Wanamaker became prominent as a citizen and public man. He appeared to have no ambition for office, but for many years was fully occupied with the management of his vast concerns. His coun- sel and advice were, however, often sought, and it is probable that no preferment within the gift of his native city would have been denied him. But he was destined to hold a much higher position and one that would identify him with the affairs of the nation at large. Having many times declined public office, in 1889 he accepted the portfolio oi Postmaster-General in President Harrison's Cabinet, and introduced into the department the most approved business methods. His efficient administration did much toward perfecting and extending the postal service. Mr. Wanamaker has long been distin- guished for his liberal contributions to benevolent work, and it is certain that more than one institution, endowed by his munifi- cence, will stand as a monument to his busi- ness capacity and liberal spirit. He takes the view that a considerable part of his vast estate should be distributed dur- ing his lifetime under his own care and supervision. He is not willing merely to part with his money when compelled to by grim death, after the example of a gr<=at many. CHARLES FREDERICK CRISR M R. CRISP has been a well known figure in Congress since the period of his first election. He had gained a wide celebrity in Geor- gia, had shown himself, in various ways, to be a man suited to leadership, and his eleva- tion to the House of Representatives was only to be expected, and was a worthy tribute to the man. He seems to have been by nature marked out for political life, and it will be generally admitted that in Washington he found his appropriate sphere. Mr. Crisp was born in Sheffield, England, January 20, 1845. His parents were Ameri- cans, temporarily residing in England, and returned to this country in 1846, when the subject of the sketch was about one year old. Thus, although Mr. Crisp is not a na- tive of the United States, he comes as near it as one possibly can, being distinctively Am- erican by parentage and education. The family having settled in Georgia, the boy was placed in the common schools, where he received his education. While quick to learn and exhibiting qualities of mind much above the average, he also displayed marked traits which have been prominent through all his subsequent career. He was indepen- dent, positive, aggressive, and self-reliant. He was not in the habit of allowing any of his rights to be invaded without showing quick resentment. In time, he became a leader among the young men by whom he was surrounded, and over whom he exerted great influence. Even at this period he seemed to combine in a remarkable degree wise foresight and judgment with impetuous force. He was evidently born to be a power in whatever sphere or circumstances placed him. He shared the spirit of the South which flamed out in secession, and in this he was only like xiv the great body of young men in the Southern States. It is a well-known fact that quite largely the Confederate Army was composed of this class. They were strong in their con- victions ; they were eager for action in the field ; they were willing to take risks and make sacrifices. They did not count their lives dear to them, and history shows that tens of thousands of them fell upon the battle-field, redd'^ning its sod with their warm blood. In 1 86 1 Mr. Crisp entered the Confederate army as a lieutenant. He saw a good deal of active service in the field, showed himself to be a good soldier, and won the approbation of his superiors. He was a prisoner of war from May, 1864, until June, 1865. After his release he studied law, and practiced first at Ellaville, and afterward at Americus, Ga., which latter place became his subsequent home. He quickly took high rank in his profession, and gained rapid prominence, being well thought of by older lawyers as well as by the community in which he lived. In 1872 he was appointed solicitor-general of the South-western Judicial Court, and held that office until the middle of 1877, when he became judge of the Superior Court of the same circuit. He showed himself to be fully equipped for the exacting duties of his position, lending dignity to his office, and evincing that impartial spirit which properly belongs to the occupant of the judicial bench. He could have remained in this position if he had chosen, but whether satisfied with his successes or not, his fellow-citizens had already expressed their wishes to have him represent them at Washington. He resigned from the bench in September^ 1882, to accept the Democratic nomination for Congress. He was permanent president of the Democratic Convention which assem- EMINENT AMERICANS. XV bLa in Atlanta in April, 1883, to nominate a candidate for governor. Thus his steps all seemed to be in the natural order of things, one following the other in a kind of logical sequence. He was elected to the Forty- eighth Congress, and immediately took high rank among the members of the House, being prominent on all occasions in the deliberations of his party, and regarded as one of the wisest and most efficient leaders. When the Democratic party came into power with Mr. Cleveland's second adminis- tration, Mr. Crisp was unanimously selected to assume the responsible duties of Speaker of the House, and was chosen to that position. His knowledge of parliamentary law, his ex- perience upon the floor of Congress, his character for impartial judgment, gained when connected with the courts of his adopted State, all marked him out as pos- sessing the necessary qualifications for the Speakership. During the sessions of the Fifty-second Congress he added greatly to his reputation, and it was generally conceded that he was a worthy successor of the able presiding officers who had gone before him. Even his political opponents agreed that his rulings and decisions showed at all times careful consideration, and were unbiased by prejudice. In manner, Mr. Crisp is a type of the cul- tivated gentleman, urbane, cordial, courteous, and approachable upon all occasions. Pos- sessed of great independence and resolution, always looking at public questions from a practical point of view, firm in the mainte- nance of his opinions, and immovable as a rock when conscious that he is in the right, he affords a central point around which the sentiment of his party shapes itself In de- bate, he is incisive, fluent, forcible, and ordi- narily shows a thorough study and complete grasp of his subject. He has proved himself to be a formidable antagonist, and many are the weapons of lesser men that have been broken upon his shield, and have fallen harmless at his feet. At times his utterances are bold and almost defiant, yet his evident sincerity assures him a respectful hearing, while the honesty of his convictions is always plainly apparent. Taking him all in all, he is a typical repre*- sentative of the locality from which he comes and of the party whose ideas and principles he holds with tenacity and expounds with such marked ability. After the shifting fortunes of political par- ties had deprived Mr. Crisp of his position at the head of the House of Representatives, he resumed his place on the floor to represent again the district that had repeatedly hon- ored him. He did not seem to lose interest in national legislation, but, although acting with the minority, and knowing beforehand that measures advocated by himself and friends were not certain to be passed, he did not relax his vigilance, or in any way dimin- ish his efforts in behalf of what he deemed essential to the public welfare. By common consent he was the leader of his party, and, being so regarded, he had the chief voice in its deliberations. His en- tire history as a public man had been so free from mistakes, and so contrary to the in- trigues of the mere self-seeking partisan, that he commanded the utmost respect and confi- dence. It was sufficient to know what were his views on public questions in order to gather around him a strong and loyal band of supporters. Not that he has ever been in the habit of exercising a domineering spirit, or of show- ing any attempt to override the honest con- victions of other men. His appeal has always been to reason and common sense. Mr. Crisp's native qualities have been his success; at the same time they have been quickened by a broad culture and large experience. MARSHALL FIELD. GIVEN the man arid the opportu- nity, and the combination is com- plete. The opportunity is the great West, even the world ; the man is Marshall Field. There is no special merit in being an Eastern boy or being born even in Massa- chusetts. Yet, in numerous instances, our Eastern boys, who are the flowering and the growth of a hard-headed, industrious, thrifty ancestry, have honored their parentage, have amassed fortunes and risen to enviable posi- tions in every walk of life. It is useless to say that nothing depends upon the kind of stuff of which a young man is made. No one can sharpen a stick and make of it a razor. That enterprises should be conducted on a grand scale in Chicago and other parts of the West, is only to be expected. Man's plans appear to follow nature's, and nature's plans in America are broad and comprehensive. Our rivers are more than rivulets, our prairies are more than garden patches, our Northern lakes have a suggestion of the sea about them, and in keeping with this breadth and fulness is American enterprise. We are an ambitious, nervous, pushing, money-making people. The Eastern boy, in fact, every ^"^y, has dreams of a fortune. Marshall Field was born in Conway, Mass., in 1835. His father was a farmer, and that, too, in a locality where it is no easy matter to make two blades of grass grow where one grew before. It was not needful that the father should make fortunes and successes for the son ; the son had fortunes and successes in himself He went to Chicago in 1856 and obtained employment in the wholesale dry- goods house of Cooley, Wadsworth & Co., afterward Cooley, Farwell & Co., and subse- quently the John V. Farwell Compaay. xvi In 1 860 he obtained an interest in the cotl^ cern, but in 1865 Mr. Field and L. Z. Leiter withdrew from the house, and in connection with Potter Palmer organized the firm of Field, Palmer & Leiter. Mr. Palmer with- drew in 1867, and the firm became Field, Leiter & Co. Since the rej-irement of Mr. Leiter, in 1881, the house has been known by the name of Marshall Field & Co. To say that its business has been extended, not only throughout America, but into other parts of the world, until it is, perhaps, the most extensive of its kind of which we have any record, speaks volumes for the tact and enterprise, sound judgment and persevering energy of those who have had the manage- ment of it. While Mr. Field has been asso- ciated with men of ability and not capable of making many mistakes, his guiding thought and practical business talent have been dis- played throughout. This great mercantile establishment has branches in Paris, Manchester, Yokohama and other foreign centres, and carries on a business that amounts to many million dollars a year — just how many it would be difficult to say, for the reason that in every mercantile establishment the volume of business may vary according to times and circumstances. The amount of labor involved in starting, extending and conducting a business of such vast proportions can be known only to those by whom the burden has been borne. Let no one suppose for a moment that there has been any recklessness which rushes on without taking any thought of consequences. There has been a conservative management on the one hand, and a bold, energetic, for- ward movement on the other. There has been nothing whatever in the nature of wild speculation. There has been no jumping at chances, but in a straightforward, mathema- EMINENT AMERICANS. XVI! tical way, business has been pushed, and the results could almost be foreseen. This seems to have been the great cardinal principle on which Mr. Field has always acted. When financial depressions have come, and every morning's bulletin made startling announce- ments of failures, he has been able to meet the emergencies and conquer all threatening disaster. It is said that his rule is to never borrow, never give a note, never to speculate in stocks, and to buy for cash. He has never considered himself under any obligation to be influenced by the whims and caprices of the hour. When others have departed from sound business principles and have extended credits in order to quicken the pulses of trade, he has marked the line of danger and has pursued an opposite course „ Moreover, he has always conducted his dealings with a view to gain the confidence of the public, guaranteeing the quality of the goods sold, and absolutely refusing to sell goods of inferior character. Confidence is one of the corner-stones of sound and suc- cessful business. The man who deals hon- estly and justly, who is willing to make his word good, and who will stand by every statement made, is the one who will draw custom and reap a corresponding benefit. Honesty is not only right, but it is the best policy. All policy aside, honesty should be the rule of action because it is right. In Mr. Field's long business career, he has, of course, encountered difficulties, and has sometimes been placed in trying posi- tions. He was a sufferer from the great fire in 1 87 1, which laid a large part of Chicago in ashes. Although well insured, so many of the insurance companies failed that his losses were immense. He turned away from the smouldering ruins of his establishment, and with new energy and courage started afresh. On the corner of State and 20th Streets were some horse-car sheds that had ii been spared by the fire; these were rented, business was re-established, and in the iollow- ing year new stores were ready to be occu- pied. Other buildings have been erected since, as they were needed, equipped with all facili- ties and admirably adapted to their purpose. In 1873 came the great panic which affect- ed the business of the entire country. Few such periods of depression have ever been known, and many of the strongest concerns, some of which were almost becoming vener- able through their long careers of prosperity, were compelled to succumb. But Mr. Field's house owed nothing, had an excellent class of customers, who had paid their bills up to within two months of the time when the panic fell with such disastrous results, and it stood like a rock. Never has there been a time since it was founded when it could not promptly meet its obligations. The business continued to grow steadily until, in 1885, it was necessary to erect ano- ther building. This was constructed of granite and sandstone, and is one of the most substantial and conveniently arranged dry- goods establishments in the world. Building after building has been added to the retail store to meet the growing demands of the business. Mr. Field has never been infatuated with the idea of making money merely to hoard it up. His charities are large and without ostentation. He has been a public-spirited citizen, taking an interest in all that con- cerned the growth and welfare of Chicago. Many institutions have profited by his liberal bequests. He gave one million dollars to the Columbian Museum fund, has been a large contributor to the Chicago University, and in numberless private channels has shown his benevolent spirit. It is but simple truth to say that he is a noble specimen, not only of the merchant-prince, but of the highest type of man. JOHN SHERMAN.i OUR Civil War and the stirring times that followed it have developed some statesmen of distinguished ability, who will long be remembered and honored for the invaluable services they have rendered to the nation. There is always a large class of people prating about the " good old times," telling how superior the early statesmen were to those of more recent date, glorifying the founders of the Republic, and implying that with their death a large part of our national capacity for public affairs went out of existence, never to return. It is well to be patient with those who live in the shadow of bygone days, although we may be compelled to pity their simplicity. They show very little knowledge of current history, if they imagine that all the virtue and all the statesmanship belong to a past generation. With all due respect to the ability of that great class of heroes and patriots whose deeds have given lustre to our early American history, it must yet be re- membered that there are giants in these days, and that the next generation will outline their figures in grand proportions, as we do those of former times. The name of John Sherman has been closely associated with our national affairs for more than thirty years. During this long period few men have wrought more valiantly, have stood out more prominently in the eye of the nation, have marked their career with greater achievements or have committed fewer mistakes. An eminently wise and safe man he has been. Always strong in his party convictions, he has yet been something more than a politician. He was originally freighted with material sufficient to enable him to fill every position he has occupied, so that it has never been said of him that he xviii was unequal to the occasion. Froni c*rly manhood he has given to the public an in' pression of massive strength, great intellectual insight, close familiarity with public affairs^ unswerving integrity, and an ability, espe- cially in the matter of finances, second to that of no other man in the nation. To write Mr. Sherman's history is to write his eulogy. He was born in Lancaster, Ohio, May lO, 1823. When he was but six years old his father died, leaving a large family in reduced circumstances, and he was subsequently adopted by a relative living at Mt. Vernon, Ohio. At the age of twelve a sister took charge of him and put him in a school at Lancaster, where he acquired an education. He studied law with his brother, C. T. Sherman, at Mansfield, where he afterward practiced for ten years, and where he was married, in 1 848, to a daughter of James Stewart. He was looked upon as a rising man, and gained a distinction which was not confined to the limits of his profession. His neighbors and friends believed that he pos- sessed unusual qualifications for public life. In 1855 he was elected to the 34th Con- gress in the interest of the Free Soil party, and was re-elected to the 35th and 36th Con- gresses. He became a power on the floor and in committees, and was recognized as the foremost man in the House, particularly in matters affecting finance. He was again elected to Congress in i860, but in the fol- lowing year was chosen to the United States Senate, where he at once became a leader. After the close of the Civil War he and Thaddeus Stevens prepared the bill for the reconstruction of the Southern States, which was passed by Congress in the winter of 1866-67. In March, 1877, Senator Sherman was EMINENT AMEklCANS. Xi3c appoi'ntea by President Hayes, Secretary of the Treasury, a position which he retained until the close of Mr. Hayes' administration, in 1 88 1, when he re-entered the Senate, of which he has been a member ever since, having discharged his duties with such fidel- ity and efficiency as to insure his continual re-election. Few men have ever had such confidence placed in them, and few have ever done so little to disappoint it. Having made the subjects of Finance and Revenue a special study, he was looked upon as eminently fitted for his position in the Cabinet, and when he returned to the Sena<:e and there found grave problems confronting the coun- try, he addressed himself earnestly to the task of solving them and putting the finances of the nation upon a sound basis. It was due to his management, while at the head of the Treasury, that the resumption of .specie payments was effected in 1879, without dis- turbance to the financial or commercial inter- ests of the country. Naturally he has been brought into close relations with capital, with banks and bankers, with moneyed men of every description, who have placed great reliance on his judgment and advice. He was a prominent candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1880, and again in 1888, but if this was ever seri- ously his goal of ambition, he stopped short of gaining the prize. Lacking, probably, in some of those magnetic qualities which be- long to a great popular leader, he has never been able to command a following large enough to place him at the head of his party in a presidential campaign. His intellect is cold and keen, his manner is dignified and somewhat reserved; he means business, and that only, so constantly, that he has never drawn around him a sufficient number of influential men who were willing to make him their idol and stake everythiq^j upon his advancement Mr. Sherman would not be selected as a shining example of the brilliant statesman. He is not possessed of that peculiar magne- tism by which many other prominent men in the nation have been distinguished, but he is a fine type of those substantial, useful quali- ties by which the best results are always brought about. He has never aimed to startle the public by dash and enthusiasm. His mind is judicial, and as a jurist he would be preeminent. His ripe age, calm judgment, and devotion to his constituents on the one hand, and to his own political faith on the other, have drawn to him universal respect. His life is one that is well rounded and complete. Es- pecially has he shown himself familiar with our national finances, upon which he has long been an authority. That his service in Washington has been as useful as it has been protracted, will be denied by no one. He was, until 1893, chairman of the Committee on Foreign Re- lations, and a member of the Committee on Finance, the Committee on Organization, Conduct and Expenditures of the Executive Departments, the Select Committee on the Quadro-Centennial and the Committee on Rules. In person Mr. Sherman is very tall and somewhat spare. He has a nervous, ener- getic temperament, and is capable of great endurance and of a vast amount of work. Having risen from the poverty of boyhood to the commanding heights of personal power and influence, he affords a fine illus* tration of the ample success within the grasp of every young American possessed of abil- ity, industry and laudable ambition. He has left his imprint upon the recent history of our country, which cannot be written with- out frequent reference to the important measures conceived and fostered by his wise and eminent statesmanship. LEW WALLACE. M' OST men who have distinguished themselves as authors have been authors only, devoting their en- tire time and energies to literary- pursuits. This may be said of Washington Irving, Henry W. Longfellow, Dr. J. G. Holland, and many others whose works have been widely known and read. Occasionally some brilliant genius like Nathaniel Haw- thorne has been compelled to combine busi- ness pursuits with literary labors in order to obtain the very necessary commodities of bread and butter. There is in our country a growing class of writers who aim to devote themselves exclusively to authorship, realiz- ing that in this way only the best work can be accomplished. It must be admitted, howevti*, that some of our most popular fictions have been writ- ten amidst exacting labors, not at all con- nected with authorship; for example, Mrs. Stowe's famous story, which has been more '•xtensively read than any other similar pro- auction, and which was penned amidst oner- oi» 5 household- duties and the most absorbing cares. This, however, is no evidence against Che truth of the statement, that here as else- where, to make the most of the pursuit requires that it should be followed to the exclusion of all others. It seldom happens that any one individual shows particular aptitude for more than one calling. The merchant must be a merchant only, the teacher must be only a teacher, the clergy- man only a clergyman, the lawyer only a lawyer, the farmer a farmer only. in the person of General Lew Wallace we have the example of a man who has been successful in several directions and has ex- hibited an unusual combination of talents. He was born at Brookville, Franklin County, 'ndiana, in 1827. He was fortunate in hav- XX ing good advantages for education in his boyhood, and always showed himself to be a diligent and painstaking scholar. He began the study of law, but upon the outbreak 01 the Mexican War his patriotic ardor and spirit of adventure carried him into the army, where he became a lieutenant of Indiana volunteers. Returning from active service in the field, he practiced law at Covington and Crawfordsville in his native state. He lived a comparatively uneventful life until the outbreak of the Civil War, when he immediately came to the front, fired ap- parently with the old war spirit of earlier days. He was appointed adjutant-general of Indiana and became colonel of volunteers. At the capture of Fort Donelson, he com- manded a division, and was promoted major- general of volunteers in March, 1862. He took an active part in the battle of Shiloh, and in 1 863 prevented the capture of Cincin- nati by General Kirby Smith. His success at this time showed that he possessed mili- tary ability of no mean order. His troops were defeated by overwhelm- ing numbers at Monocacy, July 9, 1864. General Early was marching upon Wash- ington with 28,000 men, while Wallace had only 5,800; yet with this inferior force he detained Early for some days, and thus en- abled Grant's troops to reinforce Washing- ton before the Confederates could get there. Yet, by reason of incompetency, supposed or real, he was removed from his command by General Halleck, but was reinstated by Gen- eral Grant. He was mustered out of volun- teer service in 1865 ; returned to the practice of law at Crawfordsville, Indiana; was Gov- ernor of Utah from 1878 to 1 88 1, and served from 1 88 1 till 1885 as United States Minister to Turkey. He afterwards devoted himself to the EMINENT AMERICANS. xxi practice of law and to literature at his home in Crawfordsville. From the stirring public life he had led hitherto, he settled down into quiet pursuits. No one would have been likely to predict that a man of his make-up would have any idea of devoting himself to authorship, but the old Scotch saying that, " What is in the heart must come oot o* the heart," is fully illustrated in his case. Mr. Wallace was born, not merely to be a soldier and diplomat, but also a writer of unusual merit. His conceptions are bold and original ; he has the gift of imagination and the happy faculty of combining characters and circum- stances in his works, in a way that awakens the interest of his readers, and, considering the large sale of his publications, he must be considered one of the most successful authors of the day. Mr. Wallace has issued two widely-read " form him. Americans are almost omnivorous readers. They devour newspapers and periodicals by the million. There is a large and probably growing class who are cultivated in the broad sense of the term, who are students of science and philosophy, and who have a keen relish for thoughtful, substantial works, such as instruct the mind and promote scholar- ship, but the number of those who are patrons of light literature is so great that authors in this field multiply very rapidly, and may find sufficient encouragement to cause them to make authorship a pursuit. James Whitcomb Riley has been give! the title of the " Hoosier Poet of America." This is partly owing to the State in v>riich he was born and lives. He has been a coa tributor for some years to current literature, showing in his writings so much of pith and pungency, together with a healthful moral tone, that his productions have been widely read and enjoyed. He was born in Greenfield, Indiana, in 1852. In his boyhood he often accompanied his father, who was an attorney, as he went from place to place transacting his business, and thus early came into contact with the world, which has so much to do with the education and development of the young mind. At an early age he left home to fol- low the calling of a wandering sign-writer. For a time he was connected with a thea- trical troupe, and showed some aptitude for revising and adapting plays. He also began to show a talent ior song-writing and impro- vising lines on the spur of the moment, thus indicating that he had a ready wit, and not merely the kind which is studied up and manufactured for the occasion. Over the name of "Benjamin F. Jo ^ of Boone," he began, about the year 1^75, to contribute verses in the Hoosier dialect to the Indianapolis papers. These att acted considerable attention, suggesting an inter- esting field of literature, which he resolved, sooner or later, to occupy. It was evident that dialect poems were relished by the pub- lic, and as these were written upon subjects near at hand, and such as appealed to the popular heart, Mr. Riley found himself grow- ing in favor, and from that day has continued in active literary work. He is gifted in the art of imitation, which was shown by his writing a piece after the style of Edgar Allen Poe that was accepted Eminent Americans. by many critics as the work of that author. Such a feat as this required something more than ordinary talent. Poe's writings have an individuality peculiarly their own, and to be a successful imitator of them, one must possess literary ability somewhat akin to that of the gifted author of " The Raven " and "The Bells." Mr. Riley finally accepted an engagement with the Indianapolis Journal, and has also been a constant contributor to various peri- odicals. In addition to many dialect pieces, he has published poems of a more serious character, proving that he possesses ability for the graver as well as the lighter strains of thought and feeling. He has issued a number of volumes, in- cluding " The Old Swimmin' Hole," " After- whiles," "Neighborly Poems," "Pipes o' Pan," " Green Fields and Running Brooks," "Rhymes of Childhood," "The Flying Islands of the Night," and others. His works abound in pictures of Western life, and around the most commonplace objects he throws a peculiar charm. Like the ballads of Carlton, many of his songs deal with the farm, the old homestead, the old arm-chair, the boys who whistle and shout and play, and the old people whose eyes are already growing dim and whose forms are bending toward the grave. Thus it will be seen that much of his popularity is due to the subjects which he treats. These are always such as to afford a fine opportunity for sentiment and wholesome moral lessons. While his writ- ings are intended to engage the attention of the reader and furnish entertainment, they are nearly always pointed with a moral, and there is something worth storing in the memory. No one could form an accurate estimate of Mr. Riley's writings and leave out what /lay be called tlie human element that is always prominent. There is no attempt to XX reach the towering heights of the Engli poets of earlier times. No stately measur of verse appeal to the most cultivated mii and arouse the admiration always accord( to genius. There is, however, a genius le commanding and imposing. Mr. Riley d scends into the common walks of life, ar makes himself at home with ordinary pe( pie. His language is so simple, his meanir is so clearly comprehended, there is such s evident comprehension of everyday life, th; not as a stranger, but as a friend, does \ step into the home. Much of Mr. Riley's popularity is ui doubtedly due to the dialect noticeable ever3 where in his work. Often the same thougl clothed in different phraseology would h comparatively tame, but by the dialect use it takes on a different complexion, and come home to the reader with much greate force. Mr. Riley has often appeared as a publi reader of his own works. He has met wit a large degree of success, being able, gen erally, to command large and interested audi ences. It is not always that an author sue ceeds in the endeavor to interpret his owi writings before a critical audience. Dicken was able to do this, but there has never beei more than one Dickens, and it will be lonj before the world will see his like again. Mr. Riley has been much sought after fo; the platform, and has succeeded in giving ful meaning to those dialect pieces in the pro- duction of which he has exhibited so much of literary skill and ability. Whether his worl< will be lasting, or will ever add greatly tc the fame of American literature, is a question which we do not need to discuss, and one upon which there might be a difference oi opinion. His career, however, points him out as a man of mark, whose distinction has been justly gained, and who merits the suc- cess that has crowned his labor. REV. CHARLES H. PARKHURST, D.D. THE late Reverend Howard Crosby, D. D., was for many years Presi- dent of the Society for the Preven- tion of Crime, a large and influen- tial organization in the city of New York. Upon the death of Dr. Crosby, it was con- ceded that it would be difficult to find a person possessing the peculiar qualifications necessary for the position he had held with such distinguished ability and efficiency. Dr. Parkhurst had been favorably known as a member of the organization, was noted for intellectual ability and zeal in the work of reform, and the choice of the society placed him at its head. It became evident imn:ediately that a man of great courage, political insight, enthusiasm in carrying out his objects, and able to com- mand the co-operation of the most influential men in New York, was now fully identified with the great reform movements contem- plated by the society. His strong person- ality was immediately felt. For several years he has been one of the most noted figures in New York, applauded by some, and execrated by others. Dr. Parkhurst was born in Framingham, Mass., April 17, 1842. He came from a vigorous stock, containing a pretty strong infusion of old Puritan element. Thought- ful and studious in his boyhood, he marked himself out for the career of a professional man, and having become an earnest and devout adherent of the Christian faith, his family and friends naturally set him aside for the work of the ministry. Accordingly he prepared for college and graduated from Amherst in 1866. He did not consider that his education would be complete if confined within narrow limits of thought, or favored with only meagre advan- tages. He studied theology at Halle, Ger- XXX many, in 1869, and at Leipsic in 1872 and 1873, during the intervals of which studies he was principal of the High School in Amherst, and professor of Williston Semi- nary at Easthampton, Mass. Thus it seems that he was in no excessive hurry to enter upon his life-work, being occupied with laying broad and deep foundations upon which to rear a superstructure of strength and commanding proportions. From 1874 to 1880, he was pastor of the Congregational Church at Lennox, Mass., where he became widely known for his emi- nent pulpit ability. His congregation, espe- cially during the summer months, contained many persons of culture, who enjoyed his keen, intellectual discourses and looked upon him as one of the rising men in the ministry. Upon the death of Rev. Dr. Adams, who had long been the pastor of the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, New York City, and who was a man of peculiar gifts the church sought far and near for a suitabk successor. Not being very successful in the attempt, attention was turned toward Dr. Parkhurst, who was chosen as pastor in 1880. Since this period he has occupied one of the most influential positions in New York. The church has been largely attended, the aggregation of wealth is great, the culture and refinement of the congregation are con> spicuous, merchants and professional men are found there in large numbers, and, added to large benevolent contributions, is the mis- sionary work, in which many of the mem- bers take a special personal interest. In 1893 Dr. Parkhurst became prominent through his efforts to make the Society for the Prevention of Crime true to its name. He saw no reason why a society, organized for a special purpose, confessedly a good one^ EMINENT AMERICANS. XXXI should not be active and accomplish some- thing for the welfare of the city. He had no fear of those petty criticisms aimed at minis- ters who take some interest in public affairs. Dr. Parkhurst considered that his profession had not only the right to promote all true reform, but, in fact, was bound to do it. Those who were disturbed in their nefarious business were the ones who were so anxious that he should keep to what they called his legitimate work. He felt that his position would be stronger and his influence more widely felt if he could speak of the gigantic evils in New York from personal observation. He wanted the facts that did not come by hearsay. Vague insinuations, statements that could easily be doubted and opinions based upon guesses were not the ammunition with which to load his guns, trained against the enemy. He wanted facts, and such only as came within the sphere of his personal knowledge. It cannot be doubted that Dr. Parkhurst went about his work in the right way. Con- vinced himself from his own observation, he was able to convince others. In company with judicious friends he stepped into the haunts of vice, some of them almost under the shadow of his own church, and others of palatial gorgeousness located in some of the most respectable and aristocratic quarters of the city. Each new step in the investigation convinced him of the enormity of the evils on every side and of the connivance of city officials in allowing them to exist. His blood was stirred, and he came forth like a prophet of old to denounce the wickedness that cursed the city. When he began his crusade he was fully armed and equipped with the facts he had gathered. Even with these a smaller man would have made little or no impression, but embodied in him were intellectual power, commanding force of speech, a position in the pulpit second to that of none, a mighty array of influential men and ample resources for the great struggle. The downfall of the corrupt political organization that ruled the city was assured. The rotten fabric trembled to its base under the strokes of the sturdy foe, who had decreed its overthrow. It is said that in college Dr. Parkhurst's professor of rhetoric criticized his style of writing very severely, but there are few public men who can put so much into a sin- gle sentence. His thoughts are at once bold and striking, and his style is pre-eminently concise and original. He has contributed to various magazines and has published several volumes, including " The Forms of the Latin Verb, Illustrated by Sanskrit," " The Blind Man's Creed, and other Sermons," and " Pat» tern in the Mount, and other Sermons." In person Dr. Parkhurst is of medium size, compactly built and a fair specimen of muscular Christianity. His great courage, persistence and untiring energy have made him the most successful political leader of the day, and given him a wide and enviable fame. Nor has his influence been confined to New York City alone, but other cities throughout the country have pattem^jd by the movement he has inaugurated, and have taKcn active steps for the investigation of municipal evils and misrule. He addressed large audiences in a number of towns, pre-, senting the plan of reform of which he is the acknowledged chief exponent, and thus awakened public interest which resulted in organized effort. Dr. Parkhurst's career teaches especially the lesson of strong and persistent courage and endeavor in the face of opposition. The consciousness of being in the right always arms a man with aggressive weapons, and keeps him firm and patient, even though robbed for the moment of success. CLAUS SPRECKELS. NOT as a scholar, orator or statesman, h Claus Spreckels known, yet his name is familiar from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In the great chan- nels of trade and business a wonderful suc- cess has attended his efforts, and he has built up one of the largest fortunes in the world. It is, then, as a business man that he is to be considered, and as such his life affords valu- able lessons by which younger men of our generation may well profit.. Mr. Spreckels was born in Lamstedt, King- dom of Hanover, in July, 1828. His early life was spent in Germany, where his oppor- tunities for education were none of the best. Had he remained in his native land, it is not likely that he would have become a million- aire, for the chances would have been much fewer and the opportunities more limited. When twenty years old Mr. Spreckels came to America and went to Charleston, S. C, in pursuit of employment. He obtained a situation as clerk in a grocery store. He had no thought of remaining as a mere clerk, but had his eye upon the proprietorship of the place. In two years he owned the store and largely extended its trade. Going into the wholesale business, he became an im- porter, and was very soon known in com- mercial circles throughout the South. Wish- ing for a wider field of operations, he removed his business to New York City in 1855. Having a brother who was engaged in the grocery trade in San Francisco, Mr. Spreckels left the East and went to that city to reside. He soon bought out his brother and contin- ued the business. A year later he started what was known as the Albany Brewery. His shrewd business foresight was fully jus- tified by the results. The business sprang at once into prominence and promised a fortune for its founder. He soon disposed of his xxxii grocery business, devoted his time and enef- gies to the brewery, and so continued until 1863. Mr. Spreckels had long had his mind fixed upon sugar refining, and the time had now come for him to realize his ambition in this respect. He sold out his interest in the brewery, and, with others, founded the Bay Sugar Refinery. Being a practical man, and wishing to gain a more thorough knowledge of the sugar business, he went to Europe to familiarize himself with the process of manu- facturing beet-root sugar. He meant to learn the process from the beginning, and with this in view he actually entered the great refinery at Magdeburg as a workman. Few men pro- bably would have been willing to come down to such a capacity after they had already acquired what was considered an ample for- tune, but it is the practical man whose knowl- edge of his pursuit is complete who always carries off the palm. Having gained an intimate knowledge of the Sugar Refining business, Mr. vSpreckels returned to San Francisco and immediately built another and larger refinery. In i86p' he organized the great corporation of the California Sugar Refinery, of which he be- came the president and was the principal owner. The vast business carried on by this company is one of the marvels of the Pacific coast. It refines fifty million pounds of sugar every year. The whole country may be said to be a market for this immense product. The success of this great concern is almost entirely due to the enterprise and skillful management of its founder. Not merely the general oversight, but to a large extent the minor details, are constantly under his eye. Mr. Spreckels possesses a nervous temper- ament, strong features, and has a prompt and incisive manner of doing business,. POPULATION OF CITIES, TOWNS AND VILLAGES Having 5000 or more Inhabitants in 1900, Compared with the Enumeration of 1890 I^^MMMtWMMtaM* ALABAMA. 1900. 1890. Anniston 9,695 9,998 Bessemer 6,358 4,544 Birmingham 38,415 26.178 I'Moreuce 6.478 6,012 Huntsville 8,068 7,995 Mobile 38,469 31,076 Montgomery 30.346 21,883 iielma 8,713 7.622 Tuscaloosa 5,094 4.215 ALASKA. Nome City 12,486 AKIZJNA. Phoenix 5,544 3,152 Tucson 7,531 5,150 ARKANSAS. l-'ort Smith 11,587 11.311 Helena 5,550 5,189 Hot Springs 9,973 8,08b Little Kock 38 307 25 874 Fine Bluffs 11,496 9,952 CALIFORNIA. Alameda 16.464 lt,16r Berlceley 13.214 5.101 Etna 7,327 4,858 I'Yesno 12,470 10,81^ Los Angeles 102,479 50,395 Oakland 66,960 48,682 Fasaiieua 9.117 4.8S? Pomona 5,526 3,634 Kiverside 7,973 4,683 Sacramento 29,282 26.388 San Bernardino. 6,150 4,012 San Diego iT.iuu 16,i.vU San Francisco.. 342, 7'<2 298. 9'>'' San Jose 21,r,00 is.nc.o Santa Barbara.. 6,587 5,864 Santa Cruz 5.6?i'J 5.59t Santa Rosa 6,673 5,220 Stockton 17.506 14. ^-i Vallejo 7,965 e.WS Boulder 6,150 3.3.wi COLORADO. lOOO 1S90 Colorado Spr'gs. 21,085 11,140 Cripple Creek... 10,147 Denver 133,859 106.713 Pueblo 28,157 24,558 Trinidad- 5345 5,523 CONNECTICUT. Ansonia 12.681 10,342 Branford 5,706 4,460 Bridgeport 70,996 48.886 lirrstol 6,286 (•) Danbury 16,537 16,552 Derby 7,930 6.969 East Hartford.. 6.406 4.455 Creenwicli 12,172 10,131 Grotou 5.962 5,539 Hart lord 79,850 53.230 Killingly 6,835 7,027 Manchester 10,601 8.222 Meriden 24.296 21.652 Middletown 9,589 9 013 Naugatuck 10,541 6,218 New Britain.... 25.998 16,519 New Haven 108.027 81.298 New London. 17.548 13.757 Norwalk 6.125 (•) Orance 6.995 4.537 Putnam 6,667 i') I{ockvillo 7,287 7,772 Southinston 5.890 5.501 South Nortvalk.. 6,591 (') Stamford 15 997 15,700 .^toninston 8,540 7.184 Torrinjrton 8,360 4,283 Wallingford .... 9.001 6.584 Waterbury ^5,859 28,646 Wost Haven 5,247 2,697 Willimantic 8.937 8.648 Wipsted e.POt 4,846 ■"Not separately reported. DELAWARE. VViluiington ....76,503 61,431 FLORIDA. 1900. 1890. Jacksonville .... 28,429 17.201 Key West 17,114 18,080 Pensacola 17.747 11,760 Tampa 15,839 5,532 GEORGIA Americas 7,674 6.398 Athens ...« 10,245 8,639 Atlanta 89.872 65,553 Augusta 39,441 33,300 Brunswick 9,081 8,459 Columbus 17.014 17,303 Griffin 6,857 4,503 Macon 23,272 22,746 Rome 7,291 6.957 Savannah 54.244 43.189 Thomasville .... 5.322 5.514 Valdosta 5.613 2,854 Waycross 5,919 3,364 HAWAII. Honolalu 39,306 22.907 IDAHO. Boise 5,957 2,311 ILLINOIS. Alton • 14,210 10,294 Aurora 24.147 19.(88 Belleville 17.484 15.361 Belvidere 6,937 3.867 Bloomington .... 23,286 20,484 Blue Island 6,ll4 3,329 Cairo 12.566 10.324 Canton 6,564 5,604 Centralia 6.721 4,763 Chamoaign 9,098 5,839 Cnarleston 5.488 4.135 Chicago 16985751099850 Chicago Heists 6,100 Danville 16,354 11,491 Uecatnr 20.754 16,841 DeKalb 5.904 3.579 STATISTICS OP POPULATION. Dixon 7,9ir East St. Louis.. 29,65& Elgin 22,433 Evanston 19,259 l^'ieepoit 13.258 Ualena ..v. 5,005 i2,'935 23,264 Kaulcakee .... 13.595 9,02; Kewauee 8,382 4,56! LaSalle .. 10,446" 9,85E Lincoln . 8,962 6,725 Litcljtield 5,918 5,813 Macomb 5,375 4,052 Mattoon 9,622 6,833 Mollue 17,248 12,00f Monmouth 7,460 5,93( Mount Vernon... 5,216 3,23 'Murpbysboro ... 6,463 3,880 Ottawa 10,588 9,98f Panu 5,530 5,07' Paris 6,105 4,99( Pelun 8,420 6,347 Peoria 56,100 41,024 Peru 6,863 5.520 Quincy 36,252 31.49 Rorkford 31,051 23,584 Roclj Island .... 19,493 13. es^^ Spiinglield 34.159 24,96 Spring Valley .. 6,214 3,83' Sterling 6,309 5,824 Streator 14,079 11,414 Urbana 5,728 3,511 Waukegan 9,426 4,915 INDIANA. Alexandria 7.221 Anderson 20,178 Bedford 6.115 Bloomington ... 6,'460 Brazil 7,786 Columbus 8,130 Crawfordsville . 6,649 Elkliart 15,184 Elwood 12,950 Evansvllle 59,007 Fort Wayne .... 45,115 Frankfort 7,100 Goshen ... 7 810 lireensburg 5,034 Hammond 12,376 Hartford 5,912 Huntington .... 9.491 Indianapolis . ...169,164 105.'<3f Jeffersonville ... 10.774 10 %'r Kokomo 10,609 Lafayette 18,il6 Laporte ... 7.113 Logansport 16.204 Madison 7,835 Marion 17.337 Michigan City .. 14.850 Mlshawaka 5.560 Mount Vernon... 5.132 Mnncle 20.942 New Albany 20,^28 Pevn 8.463 Princeton 6,041 richmond 18,226 Scvmonr 6.445 S'^clhwllle 7.1fi9 south Bend 35.999 Tcvre H>iute 36,6"3 Vnlparaiso 6,280 Vincennes ....... 10.249 Wnhnsh 8,f!18 Washington 8.551 INDIAN TERRITORY. Ardmore 5,681 .. — IOWA. Atlantic City.... 5.046 4.351 Boone 8.880 *,B20 715 10,741 3.351 4,018 5,905 6.719 6,087 11,360 2,28' 50,75G 35,39." 5,91P 6,033 3,59'^ 5,428 2,>8 7,32" 261 16,24S 7.1?P 13.32'^ 8.9.V 8.769 10.776 3.371 4.705 11 345 21-0=^0 7,02*^ 3.0"'' 16.600 5.3-^7 5.451 21,81P 30.217 ,=^,090 8.RP3 5,lrtF> 6,064 ivvo. law. Burlington 23»201 22,565 C«dar Falls 5,319 3,459 Cedar Kapids... 25,656 18,020 Centerville 5,256 3,668 Clinton 22,698 13,61b Council Bluffs... 25.802 21,474 Creston 7,752 7,20o Davenport 35,254 26,872 Des Moines 62,139 50,093 DubuQue 36,297 30,311 Fort Dodge.....". 12.1c2 4,8 1 Fort Madison... 9.278 7,901 Iowa City 7,987 7,016 Keokuk 14,641 14,101 Marshalltown .. 11,544 8,91i Mason City ft, 746 4,007 Muscatine 14,073 11,454 Oelwein 5,142 830 Oskaloosa 9,212 6,558 Ottumwa 18.197 14,001 Sioux City 33.111 37,80t Waterloo 12,580 6,674 KANSAS. Argentine 5,878 4,732 Argonia 6,140 8,347 \tchison 15,722 13.963 Emporia 8,223 7,551 b'ort Scott 10,322 11,946 Galena 10,155 2,496 Hutchinson 9,379 8,682 lola 5,791 1,706 Kansas City 51,418 38.316 Lawrence 10,862 9,997 Leavenworth ... 20,735 19,76? Newton 6.208 5.605 Ottawa 6,934 6,248 Parsons 7,682 6,736 Pittsburg 10,112 6,697 Topeka 33.608 31,007 Wichita 24 671 23,853 Winfield 5,554 5,184 KENTUCKY. Ashland 6,800 4,195 Bellevue 6,332 3,163 Bowling Green.. 8,226 7,803 Covington 42,938 37.371 Dayton 6,104 4,264 Frankfort 9,487 7,89'' Henderson 10.272 8,83^ Ilopkinsville ... 7,280 5,833 Louisville 204,731161,129 MaysvUle 6,423 5,358 Newport 28,301 24.91' Oweasboro 13,189 9.837 Paducah 19.446 12.79" Winchester 5,964 4,519 LOUISIANA. Alexandria 5,648 2,861 Baton Roup-e .. 1].2''9 lo.47» Lake Charles... 6.080 3.442 Monroe 5.428 3.25e" New Iberia.. . .6,815 3 44- New Orleans. .287,104 242,04' MAINE. Auburn 12.9^1 1^2«'^ Aufrusta n.6S3 10,.'^27 Kangor 21850 19.10:^ Bath 10.477 8.723 Biddeford Ifi-i-f^ lij*" Brunswick 6.806 fi.Ol" Calais 7:655 7.2!!" (Jardiner ; 5,501 5.4'^i Lewiston . ... 23.761 21.701 Oldtown ... 5,763 5,312 Portland .. .r. 50.145 3«.4-" Rockland .... 8.150 8.174 Saco 6.]?2 6.07- Soiith Portland.. 6,287 Warerville ... ... 9,477 7,107 Westbrook 7.283 6,63? MARYLAND. Annapolis 8,402 7,604 „ , . 1900. 1690. Baltimore 508,957 434,439 Cambridge ...... 6,747 4,192 Cumberland 17,128 12,729 Frederick 9,296 8,193 Frostburg 5,274 3, 80-1 Hagefstown 13,591 10,114 MASSACHUSETTS. Adams 11,134 9,213 Auesbury 9,4/3 9,798 Amuerst 5,u28 4,512 Andover 6,813 6,142 Arlington 8,b03 5,629 Atuoi 7,061 6,319 Attleboro 11,335 7,577 Beverly 13,884 i0,821 Blackscone 6,721 6,138 Boston 560,892 448,4 ?7 Braintree- 5,981 4,848 Brockton .. 40,063 27,294 Brookline 19,935 12,103 Cambiidge 91,686 70,028 Chelsea 34,072 27,909 Chlcopee 19,167 14,050 Clinton 13,667 10,424 Concord 5,652 4,427 Dana 13,t.b7 10,424 Danvers , 8,542 7.454 Dedham 7,457 7,123 EasthamptOD ... 6,603 4,395 Everett 24,336 11.068 Fall River 104,863 74,398 Fitohburg 31,531 22.037 Frsimingham ...11,302 9,239 Franklin 5,017 4,831 Gardner 10,813 8,424 Gloucester 26.121 24,651 Gr't BaiTlngton. 5,854 4,612 Greenfield 7,927 5,252 Haverhill 37,175 27,412 Holyoke 45.712 35,637 Hyde Park 13,244 10,193 Lawrence 62.559 44,654 Leomister 12,392 7,269 Lowell 94.969 77.698 Lynn 68,513 55.727 Maiden 33.664 23.031 Marlboro ... 13,609 13.805 Medford 18,244 11.079 Melrose 12,962 8,519 Milford 11,376 8,789 Milton 6,578 4.278 Montague 6,150 6,296 Natick 9,488 9.118 New Bedford ... 62,442 40.733 Newburyport ... 14,478 13.947 Newton 33,587 24,397 North Adams.... 24,200 16,074 Ncuthampton ... 18.613 14 990 North Attleboro. 7.2,53 6,727 Northbridge .... 7,036 4,603 Norwood 5.4SO 3.733 Oiange 5.520 4.568 Palmer 7,801 6*520 I'l^nbodv 11.5"3 •O.l'^R Pittsfield 21.766 17,281 Plymouth 9.592 7.314 Ouincy 23.899 16.723 Revere 10.395 5.668 I'nckland 5,327 5,213 Snlf^m ... ... ... SS 9-6 30. "^"l Saugus 5.ft84 3 673 i-^nniprville 61.613 40,152 Si^rinirfield 62.0-9 44 179 Stoneham 6 l'i7 6 155 Taunton 31. '^.'^'5 2?i.448 \> a'th:im 23.4S1 18.707 Watertown 9.706 7.073 Webster 8,sn4 7.n31 Westfield 12.310 9.805 West Snrlngfleld 7.105 5.077 Wincl-endon 5,001 4.390 Whitman 6,1?5 4.441 Winchestfc.^ 7,248 4.861 STATISTICS OF POPULATION, 1900. 1S9b Benton Harbor.. 6,562 3,692 Cadillac 5,fli'J7 4,46) ObcLioygan 6,4t>9 0,23. Coiduater 6,216 5,24'. Detroit 285,704 205. 87r> .Escanaba 9,549 6,808 Flint 13,103 9,803 Grand Uapids... 87.5G5 60,27S Holland 7,790 3,945 Ionia , 5,209 4,482 iron Mountain... 9,242 8,59'.' Ironwood 9,705 7,74. Islipeming 13,255 11,19, Jaclisou 25,180 20,79t- Ivalaiuazoo 24,404 17,853 Lansing 10.485 13,10; Ludington 7,166 7,517 Manistee 14,260 12,812 Marquette 10 058 9,093 Menominee 12,818 10,630 Monroe 5,043 5,25S Mount Clemens. 6,576 4,748 Muskegon 20,818 22,702 Negauaee 6,935 6.078 Owosso 8,696 6,561 retoskey 5,285 2,872 l^OUliac 9,769 6,20' Port Huron 19,158 13.543 •Saginaw 42,345 40,322 St. Joseph 6,155 3,733 Sault Ste, Marie 10,538 6,700 Traverse 9,407 4.833 West Bay City.. 13,119 12.981 Wyandotte 5.1.S3 3.817 Ypsilauti 7,378 6,129 MIISNESOTA. Austin 5,474 3,901 Braineid 7,524 5,7u3 iCrookston 6,359 3,457 Duluth 52,969 33.115 Faribault 7,868 6,520 Fergus l-alls.... 6,072 3,772 Little Falls 5,774 2.354 Mankato ' 10,599 8,S38 Minne.ipolis 202,718 164.73 New Uln> 5,403 3,711 Owatonna 5,561 3,849 Red Wing 7,525 , 6,291 Rochester 6.843 5,32 1 at; Paul 163,065 133.156 Stillwater 12,318 11,260 Winona 19.714 18.20!^ MISSISSIPPI. Biloxi 6,467 3,234 Columbus 6, -.(44 4,559 Greenville 7,624 6,658 Jackson 7.816 5,9; Meridian 14,050 10,624 Natchez 12,210 10,101 Vicksburg 14,834 13,373 MISSOURI. Aurora 6,191 3.482 BrookliGld 6,484 4.5-17 Ciirthage 9,416 7,981 Cbillicoihe 6,905 5,717 Clinton » 5,061 4.737 Columbia 5,651 4,000 De Soto 5.611 3,9ro Hannibal 12,780 12,8:-.7 Independence ... 6.974 6.380 Joplin ...26,023 9.94r! Kansas City 163.752 132. 7ir. KlrUsville 5.966 3.510 Louisiana 6,131 5.090 21.850 5,039 5,043 3,97L 10,723 3,979 13.83-1 13,831 6.747 7,536 13.584 8,074 55,154 11, 9^ .102,555 140,452 . 26,001 8.062 13,055 19,033 7,70>! 11,424 7,264 58,3i:i 1900, 1S90. Marshall 5,086 4,789 Mexico .i 5.099 4.297 Moberly 8,012 8,251 Nevada 7,461 7,262 St. Joseph 102,979 52,324 bt. LrtJUiS 675,238 451,770 bedaiia 15,231 14,080 Springheld 23,267 i'lentou 5,396 Webb 9,201 MONTANA. Anaconda 9 453 liutte 30,740 Great Falls 14,930 Helena 10,770 NEBRASKA. Beatrice 7.875 Fremont 7.241 Grand Island 7,554 Hastings 7,188 Kearney 5,634 i^incolu 40,169 Nebraska City.. 7.380 Omaha South Omaha.. NEW JERSEY. .Atlantic City.... 27,838 liayonne 32,722 Biooinfieid 9,668 Bridge ton 13. gi^ Burlington 7,392 Camden 75,935 Dover 5,938 East Orange 21,506 13,282 Elizabeth 52,130 37,764 Englewood 6,252 Glouctster 6,840 6.564 Hackensack .... 9,443 6,004 Harrison 10,596 8,338 Hoboken 59,364 43,648 Irvinglon 5,255 lerscv City 206,433 163,003 Kearney 10,896 l^ng Branch.... 8.872 7.231 .Millville 10,583 10.002 Montclair 13,962 8,656 .Morristowu 11.267 8,156 .Newark. 246.070 181.830 .Vew Brunswick. 20.006 18,603 North Plaintield. 5.009 Orange ,.."24.141 18.841 Passaic 27,777 13.02« I'aterson 105.,171 78,347 I'erlh Amboy.... 17,699 9,512 Phil.ipsburg 10,052 8,644 Plaintield 15,369 11,267 Rahway 7,935 7,105 i'ed Bank 5.428 4,145 S;;ilem 5,811 5,516 South Amboy.... 6,349 4,33(' Summit 5,302 3,502 Trenton 73.307 57,45* [Tnl.in 15.187 10,643 West hoboken... 23, 094 11,665 V\ost New York. 6.257 West Orange.... 6.889 4,35? NEW MEXICO. Albuquerque .... 6,238 3. 785 Santa Fe 6.603 6.185 NEW YORK. Albany 9-1,151 94.923 .Amsterdam 20,929 17,336 Auburn 30,345 25,.S58 Batavia 9,180 7,221 Ulngharaton .... 39.647 35.005 Cnnandaigua ... 6,151 5.868 Catskill 5,484 4,92(- Colioes .1.^ 23.910 22.50!' Corning ll.O-i 8 5.50 Cortland- 9.014 &.590 Dunkirk 11.616- 9.416 1900. Elmira 35,872 Fulton 5,281 Geneva 10,433 Glens Falls...... 12,6i3 Gloversvllle 18,349 Haverstraw .,.. 6,9j5 hterliimer 5,555 HuosicK Falls... 6,671 HorLollsvilie ... 11,918 Huasoil .- 9,528 liiou ....:• 5,138 ituuca ': ..." 13,136 Janiestown 22,892 Jonustown 10,130 Kingiston 24,535 Lanslugburg .... 12,595 Little Falls 10,381 Lockport 16,581- Malone 5,935 Matteawan 6,807 .V-i..uletown 14,522 Mount Vernon... 20,346 Newburg 24,943 New York 343/202 1515301 Niagara Falls... 19.457 No. Tonawanda. 9.009 Norwich 6,766 Ugdensburg 12,633 Oiean 9,462 Oneida 6,364 Oneonta 7,147 Oswego 22,199 Owego 5,039 Peekskill 10,358 Plattsburg 8,434 Port Chester 7,440 Port Jervis 9.385 Poughkeepsie ... 24.029 Rensselaer 7.466 Rochester 162,608 133.896 Rome 15,343 14.991 Saratoga Sprgs.. 12,409 Schenectady 31,GS2 Seneca Falls.... 6,519 Sing Sing 7.939 Syracuse 108,374 Tonawanda 7.421 Troy 60,651 Utica 56,383 W-atertown 21,696 Watervliet 14,321 White Plains.... 7.899 Yonkers 47,931 NORTH CAROLINA. AshevIIle 14.694 10.235 Charlotte 18,091 11,557 Concord 7,910 4,339 Durham 6,679 5,48B I'hizabeth City.. 6.348, Goldsboi-o 6,877 Green.sboro 10.035 Newbern 9,090 Raleigh ."". . 13,643 Salisburv 6,277 'Wilmington ... 20.970 iWiustou 10,008 NORTH DAKOTA Fargo 9.5S9 Grand Forks... 7.652 OHIO. Akron 42.728 Alliance ' 8,974 Ashtabula '. 12.949 Bedford 9,912 Bf'llefontaine ... 6.649 Bowling Green. 5.067 Buckeve City.... 6,560 Cambridge 8,241 Can.Tl Dover.... 5.422 Can ton 30.667 iChlllicothe 12.976' 1890. 30.893 4,214 7,i)57 9,509 13.864 5,070 '■j.'o'il 10,996 9,9<0 4,057 11,097 16,038 7,768 21,201 10,550 8,7&3 16,038 4,986 4.278 11,977 10,839 23,087 4,793 5,212 11,66? 7,35& 6.083 6,272 21,842 '9.'676 7,010 5,274 9 327 22.206 7,301 11 9/5 19.902 6.116 9,3 2 88.143 7.145 60,956 44,001 14.72S 12,967 4.042 32.033 3,251 4,017 3.317 7.843 12.678 4,413 20.056 8.018 5,664 4.979 27. ("01 7-^07 8.338 9.934 4.245 2M1 5,974 4,361 3.470 26.189 11,288 STATISTICS OF POPULATION. 1900. 169U. Ciucionatl 525,902 296.908 Oirclt;Ville .. . 6,991 6,556 Cleveland 381,768 261,353 Columbus .. .125,560 88,150 Conneaut ■. .. 7,133 3,^41 CosboctOD . . 0,473 3.672 Dayloa . .. 85,333 61,220 Dctiauce . .. 7,579 7,G94 Delaware 7,940 8,224 East Liverpool 16,485 10,956 Elyria 8.791 5,611 Findlay . .. 17,613 18,553 Fostoria' •. 7.730 7,070 Fremont .. 8,439 7.141 Gallon 7,282 6,326 Gallipolis 5.432 4,498 Glenville 5.588 Greenville 5.50! -5,473 Hamilton 23.914 17,565 Ironton 11,868 10,939 Kenton ,,. 6,852 5,557 Lancaster 8,991 7,555 Lima , 21,723 15,981 Lorain 16.028 4.863 Mansfield 17,640 13.473 Marietta 13.348 8.273 Marion 11,862 8.327 Martin's Ferry.. 7.760 6,250 Massillon 11.944 10.092 Middletown ..... 9,215 7.681 Mount Vernon .. 6,633 6.027 Nelsonville 5,421 4.558 Neu'ark 18.157 14,270 Newburg 5,909 New Phila'pbia. 6,213 4,456 Niles 7,468 4,289 Norwalk 7,074 7,195 Noi-wood 6,480 Palnesville 5,024 4,755 Piqua 12,172 9.090 Portsmouth 17,870 12,394 St. Mary's.. 5.359 3,000 Salem 7,582 5,780 Sandusky 19,664 18.471 Sidney 5,688 4,850 Springfield 38,253 31,89'. Steubenville ... 14.349 13,394 TiflBn 10,989 10,801 Toledo 131,822 81,434 Troy 5,881 4,494 Urbana 6,808 6,510 Van Wert 6,422 5,512 •Warren 8,529 5,973 Wash'ton C. H.. 5,751 5,742 Wellston 8,045 4.377 West Alexandria 6,146 5,247 Woodville 6,063 5,901 Xenia 8,696 7,301 Youngstown 44,885 33,220 Zanesville 23,538 21,009 OKLAHOMA. Guthrie 10,006 5.733 Oklahoma City.. 10,037 4,151 OREGON. Astoria 8,381 6,184 Baker City 6,663 2,604 Portland 90,426 46,385 PENNSYLVANIA. Allegheny 129,896 105,287 Allentown 35.416 25,228 Altoona 38,973 30,337 Archbald • 5,396 4,032 Ashland 6,438 7,346 Beaver Falls.... 10,054 9,735 Bethlehem 7,293 6,672 Bloomsburg 6,170 4,635 Braddock 15,654 8,561 Bradford 15,e29 10,514 •Bristol 7.104 6.553 Butler, 10.853 8,734 Carboodal© 13.536 10,833 Carlisle f»,626 7,620 woo. 1S90. Carnegie 7,330' (JhamLK^rsburg .. S,^G4 7,} 1,470,495 2,147,174 1,381,625 604,406 ,1,188,014 2,805..S46 2,420.982 1,751.394 1,551.270 3,100.005 243,3-29 1,066„300 42.335 411,588 1,883.66!) 7,268.894 1,893.810 319,146 4,157.545 413,536 6,302,115 428,556 1,340.310 401,570 2,020.010. 3,048,710 276,749 343,641 1,854,184 518,103 958.800 2,069.042 92,531 17 24 22 31 2'.» 41 32 12 43 3 8 10 19 n 25 30 27 6 9 20 21 5 42 26 45 33 18 1 16 39 4 38 2 35 23 37 18 7 40 36 15 34 28 14 44 1,513.017 1,128,171 1.208.13C 412,19S 746,25[ 108,49a .391,422 i,a37,35a 84,.385 3,820,351 2,192,404 1,911,«9( 1,427,090 1.858.635 1,118,5S; 661,080 1,042,390 2,238,943 2,093,889 1,301 .82H 1.289,(100 2,679,184 1.32,159 17 25 24 35 28 37 34 13 1,262,50c 802,52.^ 804.694 194,327 022.70C 140,608 2*59,493 1,542,180 16 26 24 25' 34 33 12 996,99S 484,471 5rtO,247 39,864 537,454 125,015 187,748 1,184.109 13 25 26 '24' 32 31 11 964,201 435,45C 379,994 34,277 460.147 112,21tj 140,424 l,057,28fc 12 26 29 771,623 209 897 California 92,597 Colorado Connecticut Delaware 21 30 31 9 370,792 91,532 87,445 Florida Georgia 906 18& Idaho Illinois 4 6 10 20 8 22 27 23 7 9 26 18 5 3.077.871 1,978,301 1,624,615 990,090 1,618,690 939,940 648.930 934,943 1.783 085 1,636,937 780,773 1,131,597 2,168,380 4 6 11 29 8 21 23 20 7 13 28 18 5 2,539,891 1,680,637 1,194,020 364,399 1,321,011 726,915 626,915 780,894 1,457,351 1,184,059 439,700 827,922 1,721,295 4 6 20 33 9 17 22 19 7 16 30 14 8 1,711,951 1,350,428 .674,913 107,206 1,155,684 708.002 628,279 687,049 1,231,060 749.113 172.023 791.305 1,182,012 11 7 27 851,470 988,416 Indiana Iowa 192,214 Kansas Kentucky Louisiana 8 18 16 17 6 20 33 15 13 982,405 517,762 583,169 583,034 994,514 397,654 6,077 606,526 682,044 Maine .■ Maryland Massachusetts.... Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska 1,058,910 45,761 376,5.30 1,444,933 5,997,853 1,617,947 182,719 3.672,310 313.707 5,258,014 345,50(^ 1,151,149 328,808 1,767,518 2,235,523 207,905 332,422 1,655,980 349,.S90 762,794 1„&8C.880 00,705 30 38 31 19 1 15 452,402 62,-206 346,991 1,131,116 5,082,871 1,399,750 35 37 31 17 1 14 122,993 42,491 318,300 906,096 4,382,759 1,071,361 35 36 27 21 1 12 28,841 ■ 6.857 326.073 672,035 3.880,735 992,622 Nevada New Hampshire.. New Jersey New York 22 19 1 10 317,976 489,555 3,097,394 869,039 North Carolina... North Dakota Ohio 3 36 2 33 21 3,198,002 174,768 4,282,891 276,531 995,577 3 36 2 32 22 2,665,2o0 90,923 3,521,951 217,353 705,606 3 34 2 29 18 2,339,511 52,405 2,900,215 174,020 703,708 3 32 2 28 14 1,980,329 13,294 2,311.786 147,545 668.507 Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island. ... South Carolina... South Dakota Tennessee.... Texas 12 11 1,542,.359 1,591,749 9 19 1,258.520 818,579 10 23 1,109,801 604,215 5 25 1.002,71T 212,592 Utah Vermont Virginia. 32 14 332,286 1.512,565 30 10 330,551 1,225,103 28 5 315.098 1,596,318 23 4 314,120 L421,661 Washington West Virginia 29 16 618,457 1,315,497 27 15 442,014 1,054,670 Wisconsin Wyoming 15 775,881 24 305,391 The states 74,610,523 62,116,811 49,371.340 38,155,505 31,218,021 23,067,262 Alaska 7 6 63.592 122,931 6 5 Arizona 59,620 Ji 3 1 40,440 13.5.177 177,024 9 8 I 9,658 14,181 131,700 Dakota 6 2 4,837 75.080 "2 Digt. of Columbia Hawaii 3 .5 278.718 l.Vl,001 1 23!>,.392 •51,687 Idaho 32,010 7 Indian Territory. 2 392,060 2 8 14,999 Montana 39.159 119.565 6 2 New Mexico Oklahoma 4 1 19.5..3I0 398,;«l 91,219 3 4 1.5.3..'i"3 01,834 7 4 20,595 91,874 1 93,510 1 61,547 Persons In sorvico Of the U. S. sta- tioned abroad... Utah 143,963 75,116 20,789 ■■5' 10 80.786 23,9.55 9,118 ■5 40.273 11.594 11,380 Washington 5 9 Wyoming * . . .... ... . The territories.. 1.604.9 i3 505,439 784.443 402,860 . 225,300 . . . . 124.6U United States... 70,303,387 02,622,2.50 50,1.55,783 ....i;W,5.-)8,371 31,443,321 ... 23,191,876 Per cent of gain.. 21. 24.9 30.08 22.65 35.58 35.86 Note— The narrow column under each census year sh'ows the orcJe^ of the states and territories when arranged according to magnitude of population. POPULATION OF fUE UNITED STA'J'ES AT EACH CENSUS (1790-1910). [Frooi the reports of the superintendents of the census.] Statk oi{ Teukitohy. 1S40. 1«30. 1 IS'iO. 1810 ISOO. "a 1790. Alabama 12 25 1 590. 75G 15 97,574 27 309,52'' 30,38J 19 25 liJ7,90 14.271 :. _■ Arkansas Caliturnia Coloiaclo 1.... Connecticut Dehivvare 20 26 27 y 309.97a 78.0«S .54.477 691,392 16 24 25 10 297,675 76,74S 34.73C 516.823 14 22 275.248 9 72.749 19 261,94^ • 72,074 8 17 2.J 1,002 64,273 8 16 237.964 59,096 b'loiida (ieorgia 11 340,98£ 11 252,433 12 162,686 13 ""82,548 Idaho Illinois 14 10 28 476.18a 685, 86( 43,112 20 13 157.445 343.031 24 18 55,211 147,176 23 21 12,282 24,520 Indiana 20 5.641 Iowa . Kansas Kentucky. Louisiana 6 19 13 15 8 23 779.828 352.411 501.793 470.019 737.(.99 212,267 6 19 12 11 8 26 687.917 215.731 399.455 447,040 610.408 31.639 6 17 12 10 7 26 564,317 153.407 298,335 407,350 523.287 8,765 7 18 14 8 6 24 406,511 76,556 228,705 380,546 472,010 4,762 9 220,955 14 73,67T Maine . *. Maryland 14 7 5 151,719 341,548 422,845 11 6 4 96.540 319,728 378,787 Massachu.setts — Michigan Minnesota > • • . Mississippi 17 16 375,651 383,702 22 21 136,621 140.455 21 23 75,448 66,586 20 22 40,352 20,845 19 8,850 Missouri Montana * Nebraska ^•' Nevada ♦* New Hampshire . . New Jersey New York 22 18 1 7 234.574 373,306 2,428,921 753,419 is 14 1 5 269.328 320,823 1,918,608 737.987 15 13 1 4 244,161 277,.575 1,372,812 638,829 16 12 2 4 214,460 245,562 959,049 555,500 11 10 3 4 183,858 211,149 689,051 478,103 10 9 5 3 141,885 184,139 340,120 393,751 Nortii Carolina.. . North Dakota Ohio 3 1,519,467 4 937.903 5 581,434 13 230,760 18 45,365 Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina.. . South Dakota 2 24 11 1.724.03;S 108,830 594,398 2 23 9 1,348.233 97,199 581,185 3 20 8 1,049,458 83,059 502,741 3 17 6 810,091 76,931 415,115 3 16 6 602,365 69,122 345,591 2 J5 7 434,373 68.825 249.073 Tennessee 5 829,210 7 * 681,904 9 422,823 10 ^,7r 15 105,602 17 35.691 Texas Vermont Virginia 21 4 291,948 1,239,797 17 3 280,652 1.211,405 16 2 235,966 1.065,366 15 1 2:^,981 974,600 13 1 154,465 880,200 12 1 85.425 747.610 Washington West Virginia Wisconsin 29 30.945 Wyoming The states 17,019,641 12,820,868 9,600,783 7,215,858 6,294.390 Alaska Arizona Dakota ' * ■ * Dist. of Columbia. 1 43,712 1 39,834 1 33.039 1 24,023 1 14,093 .... Idaho Indian Territory. . ■ Montana . .,. New Mexico ■ .... Oklahoma Utah ... Washington :::;:;:;:;:::i ... Wyoming ::.l;;;;;::;::i::::i 1 The territories 43,712 39.834 33.0.39 24,023 14,093 On public ships in service of U.S... 6.100 5,318 United States 17.069.453 12,866.020 9,638.453 ... 7.239:881 5,308.483 3.929,214 Per cent of gain... 32 67 1 xi ^ ! 33.06 1 36 3S 1 Xt 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 Note— The narrow column under each census year ebows the order of the states &aT territories when arranged according to magnitude of population. GROWTH OP AMERICAN, CITIES (1790-1900). City. Albany. N. Y.., Allegheny, Pa, Atlanta, Ga — Baltimore, Md Boston, Mass.. Bridgeport. Ct, Buffalo, N. Y... Cambridge, Mass. Camden, N.J... Charleston, S.C Chicago. Ill Cincinnati, O... Cleveland, O Columbus, O Dayton, O Denver, Col Des Moines, Iowa Detroit, Mich.... Duluth, Minn.... P rie. Pa Btansville, Ind.. Fall River, Mass. Gr.Rapids, Mich. Harrisburg, Pa.. Hartfotd. Conn.. Indianapolis, Ind Jersey City, N. J. Kansas City, Kas Kansas City, Mo. Lawrence. Mass.. Los Angeles, Cal. Louisville, Ky.... Lowell, Mass Lynn, Mass Memphis, Tenn.. Milwaukee, Wis. Minneapolis Nashville, Tenn. Newark, N. J..... New Haven, Ct...[ New Orleans, La. 28i',104 New York. N.Y.* 3,437.202 1900. '1890. 1880. 1870. 1860. 1850. 1840.1830. 1820. 1810.1800.1790. 94.151. 129,800 89,872 50S.957 660,892 70,996 352,387 91.886 75,935 ,55,807 1698,575 335,902 381.768 125.560 85.333 l.S3,-859 62.139 285.704 52,969 52.733 59,00/ 104.86;i '87,565 50,167 79,850 169,164 206,43;^ 51,418 16:^752 62.559 102,479 204,731 94,969 68.513 10i,320 285.3f5 202,718 80,865 246,070 108,027 Oakland. Cal Omaha, Neb .. Paterson, N. J... . Peoria, 111 Philadelphia, Pa Pittsburg, Pa.... Portland, Me. Portland, Ore Providence, R. I. Reading, Pa Richmond, Va.. Rochester. N. Y... Salt Lake City. tf. San Antonio.Tex San Francisco.. Savannah, Ga. Scranton, Pa.. Seattle, Wash.. Springfield, Mass St. Joseph. Mo.., St. Lou'is, Mo.t.., St. Paul, Minn.., Syracuse, N. Y... Toledo, O... Trenton, N.J Troy, N. Y , Utica, N. Y Washington.D.C, Wilkesbarre. Pa, Wilmington, Del Worcester. Mass 66,P60 102.655 105.171 56,100 94,9?3 105.287 65,533 434.4;i9 448,4 48.866 255,6fU 70.U?8 68,313 54.955 1099.850 296,908 261„S53 88,150 61,220 106,713 50,093 205.876 .33,115 40,634 iO.756 74,398 60,278 09,385 5;i230 105,436 16:^003 38,316 132,716 44.654 50,395 161,129 77,696 65.727 64,495 204.468 164.738 76.168 181.830 81,298 242.039 1.515.301 .48,682 140,452 78.347 41,024 90.758 78,682 37,409 3:i2.313 69,422 53.180 21,789 267,354 27.643 155.134 52,669 41,659 49,984 503,185 255,1.39 160.146 51,617 38.678 35.629 22.408 116,.340 ' 3.483 27,737 29.280 43,961 362.839 250. .526 18.9,;9 117,714 39.634 20,045 48,956 298,977 216.2,39161,014 32.016 16.507 1,293.69711,046,964 0-T1 Lr-lu O'JQ ill '7 321,616 50,145 90,426 175,597 78,961 85.050 162,608 133,896 53,531 53,321 342,782 54,244 102.026 80,671 62 059 102,979 575.238 163.065 108,3U 131,822 73.307 60,651 66.383 278.718 51,721 76.508J 118,421 238,617 36,425 46,385 132,146 58,661 81,388 44,843 37,637 298,997 43.189 75,215 42.837 44,179 52.324 451,770 ]3;i,156 88.143 81,434 57,458 60,956 44,007 230,392 37,718 61,431 84,655 30,762" 42.015 75,056 120.722 3,200 55 785 39,151 11,183 123,758 69,475 38.274 33,592 115,53 46,887 43,350 136,508 62.882 216.0SX) 1,206.299 34.555 30,51 51,031 29,259 847,170 156..389 33,810 17,5r7 104,857 43,278 63.600 98,366 20,768 20.550 2:^.959 30,709 45.850 3,.533 83,340 32.431 350,518 41,473 61,r92 50,137 29,910 56,747 33,914 177.624 23,339 42,478 58.291 93,829 31.274 30.473 4 759 12 035 79.577 3.131 19,646 21.830 26,766 23.104 37,180 48.244 82.546 32.260 28,921 5,728 100,753 40 928 28.233 40,226 71.440 13.066 25,865 105,059 60,8.0 191,418 62.367 28,702 9,554 212,418 177,840 1,^,299 81,129 26,060 14.358 40.522 109.260 43.417 18.554 20,081 4,749 3,965 45,619 9,419 11.484 14.026 8,058 13,405 29,1.52 18.611 29,226 4.418 17,639 4,385 68.033 36.827 19.083 22,623 45,246 2,534 16,988 71,941 39,2671 50,763 21,265 2.572 169,054 136,881 7,560 42.261 15,215 9.479 42.985 29,963 115,4,S5 17X)34 17,882 10,977 502 21,019 6,S 3,235 11.524 2,686 7.834 17,966 8,091 6,856 8,282 1,610 43,194 33,:^83 14.257 8,841 20,061 33.721 10,089 102.313 93,383 3,294 18.312 8,409 3,371 29,261 4,470 46,338 6,071 6,048 6,067 24.209 2,801 9,102 3,412 6,738 6,980 9,468 2,692 3,072 21.210 20,796 9,367 80,620 61.392 2.800 8,668 6,072 30,289 24.831 1,076 2,4,S5 2,950i 12,630 62,738 43,298 1,500 2,095 3,295 10,762 46,555 2,323 24,780 Z,6i2 606 f;,222 1,465 4,158 4,312 7,074 1,712 10,165, 38,894 20,345 942,292 10..500 16,083 33,579 22,849 674,022 86,076 31.413 8,293 68.904 33,930 51.038 63,386 12,854 12.256 149,473 28 235 35,092 1,107 26,703 19,566 310,861 20,030 43,051 31,584 22,874 46,465 28,804 131.700 10,174 30,841 41.105 168.675116,375 11.344 5,095 121.376 46.601 20,815 821 41,613 15.743 27,570 36,403 813,669515,547 1,513 1,883 19.586 14,04^ 566,629 49,217 26.341 2.874 50.666 23.162 37,9)0 48,204 8,236 8,2.35 56,802 22,292 9,223 263 15,199 8,922 160,773 10401 28,119 13,768 17.228 39.235 22.529 75,080 4,235 21,258 21.960 3,488 34,776 15,312 11,766 77,860 1,112 22,271 3,829 6,461 28,785 17,565 51.68? 2.72;^ 13.979 17.049 6.929 17,290 12,960 102, 193 312,710 7,596 1,467 93,665 21,116 15,218 8,410 20,153 20,191 500 11,214 10,985 16,469 11,014 1,222 4,0;^ 19,334 12.782 33,745 1,718 8,367 7,49? 10,341 6,471 6,138 5,566 10,953 10,180 29,737 1,000 1,422 635 24,711 2.540 6,349 26,614 33,25024,737 l,r"" 2.463 18,924 3,498, 13,603 18,038 2,116 16,359 383 1,594 2,990 4,726 4,012 4.515 6,507 7,147 27,176 202, 689 123, 706 96, 373 60, 615 80,462 12.568 12,598 16.833 6.856 16.060 9.207 7,776 6.784 14,125 6,929 3.925 11.556 8,323 30,261 2,232 63.802 7,248 8,581 394 .1,296 2,287 3,9.55 81 1.472 5,347 1,337 4,08' 6,772 17,224 11,767 4,332 12,067 2,063 7,523 3,914 10,049 1,814 3,942 5,264 2.97 23.336 755 4.1371 2,962 •53,722 4,768 6,921 10.071 3.462 9,736 359 2,831 4,019 200 2,29f 33.131 41,22028,522 1,565 . 3,704 7,614 2.386 6,737 6.215 2,767 3,895 15,'47i 1,225 2,577 5,166 2.312 4,926 8,i44 835 2.411 2,233 6,380 3,761 1,574 2.095 »The population of New York city as at present constituted is estimated bv the director of the census to have been: 1790.49,401; 1800. 79,216; 1810. 119.734; 1830. 152.056; 1830, 242 278; 1840.391.- 114; 1850.696,115; 1860.1.174.779; 1870.1,478.103; 1880.1.911.698; 1890,2,507,414; 1900,3,437.202. tPrlor to census of 1880 St Louis city was an undivided part of St. Louis county and its popu- lation was not separately reported. Previous to that year the population gi^ven is th^t ot the city and county of St. Louis combined. Unotficial figures efive St. Louis proper 1.400 popuiac tlon in 1810; 4,5.98 in 1820 and 6,691 Lq 1830 Our New Possessions. THE area of Cuba is about equal to that of Pennsylvania, the length being 760 miles, and the width varying from 35 to 130 miles. The productive soil, mineral wealth and climatic conditions of the island entitle it to rank among the foremost communities of the world. The soil is a marvel of richness, and fertilizers are seldom used, unless in the case of tobacco, even though the same crops be grown on the same land for a hundred years, as has happened in some of the old sugar- cane fields. The mountains are of coral formation, while the lowlands of Eastern Cuba at least seem to be composed largely of fossils of sea matter from prehistoric times, and are extremely rich in lime and phos- phate, which accounts for the inexhaustible fertility of the soil. Products of Cuba. Although founded and settled more than fifty years before the United States, Cuba has still 13,000,000 acres of primeval forests; mahogany, cedar, logwood, redwood, ebony, lignum-vitse and caiguaran (which is more durable in the ground than iron or steel) are among the woods. If all the land suitable to the growth of sugar-cane were devoted to that industry, it is estimated that Cuba might supply the entire Western Hemisphere with sugar. The island has already produced in a single year for export 1,000,000 tons, and its capabilities have only been in the experi- mental stage. The adaptability of the soil for tobacco culture has long been known. Cuba takes great pride in the quality of her cofifpe. and until the war the plantations were flourishing. The land is not suited tc» the cultivation of cereals. The tobacco crop on an average, says the Consul General, is estimated at 560,000 bales (one bale is 1 10 pounds), 338,000 bales being exported, and the remainder used in cigar and cigarette manufacture in Havana. The cigars exported in 1896 numbered 185,914,- 000. Tobacco leaf exported in 1895, 30,466,- 000 pounds; in 1896, 16,823,000 pounds; the decrease being due to a decree of May, 1856, forbidding tobacco leaf exports except to Spain. About 80,000 of the inhabitants are ordinarily engaged in the cultivation of tobacco. Principal Cities. The several principal cities of Cuba are thus described, and the information will be especially interesting and instructive at this time, when they are under the control of the land and naval forces of the United States : Habana (Havana), the capital city of the province of that name and of the Island of Cuba, is situated on the west side of Havana Bay, on a peninsula of level land of limestone formation, and is on the narrowest part of the island. Its strategic position at the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico, has aptly given it the. name of the Key of the Gulf, and a symbolic key is emblazoned in its coat of arms. The entrance to the harbor, guarded on one .'=jide by the Morro and the frowning heights of La Cabana Fort, and on the other by the Punta and Reina batteries, is narrow, but expands into a wide and deep harbor, where a thousand ships can safely ride. OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. Havana is a strongly-fortified place, sur- rounded by imposing fortifications, such as the Cabana, Morro Castle, Castillo del Prin- cipe, Fort Atares, Punta Reina Battery and Fort No. 4. The streets are generally nar- row in the older part of the city, but outside the walls are many wide avenues. The city also contains many notable build- ings, as the Cathedral, formerly a Jesuit con- vent, now the depository of the ashes of the immortal discoverer of America ; the palace of the government, fine private residences, public parks, and statues of Columbus, Fer- nando VII., Isabel III., etc. There are many churches and convents, a commemo- rative chapel fronts the palace, close to a large ceiba tree, under which Diego Velas- quez, the founder of the city, celebrated mass in 1 5 19. There are numerous cigar and cigarette factories, tanneries, manufactories of sweetmeats, rum, candles, gas, beer, car- riages, soap, perfumery, glycerine, etc. Climate and Population. The population of Havana, from reliable official estimate, is about 220,000. Its prin- cipal exports to the United States consist of tobacco, fruit, wax and honey, sugar and molasses. All kinds of breadstuffs, lumber, coal and machinery are imported from the United States. The climate is generally warm and humid, and marked by two clearly defined seasons — the wet and dry, the former ranging from June to December ; September and October being considered the hurricane months. The trade winds blow generally with great regularity, and the heat of the day is cooled by evening breezes. Matanzas is beautifully situated on Matan- zas Bay, on the north coast of Cuba, sixty miles east of Havana. It is divided into three parts by rivers, the principal business part occupying the central portion, and ex- tending west one and one-half miles. The chief warehouses, distilleries, and sugar re- fineries are on the south of the river San Juan, easily accessible to railroads and lighters. The population is 49,384, and that of Matanzas province 271,000, according to the 1893 census. The principal industries are rum distiUing, sugar-refining, and manu- facture of guava jelly. There are railroad car and machine shops. The climate is fine, and Matanzas is considered the healthiest city on the island. With proper drainage and sanitary arrangements, yellow fever and malaria would be almost unknown. The Oldest City. Santiago de Cuba, the second city in size on the island, is probably the oldest city of any size on this hemisphere, having been founded by Velasquez in 15 14. It fronts on a beautiful bay six miles long and two miles wide, on the south-eastern coast of Cuba, 100 miles west of Cape Maysi. The popu- lation in 1895 was 59,614. The mean tem- perature in summer is 88 degrees; in winter, 82 degrees. It is regarded as very unhealthy, yellow fever being prevalent throughout the year and small-pox epidemic at certain times. These conditions are due to the lack of sani- tary and hygienic measures ; all refuse matter as well as dead dogs, cats, chickens, etc., be- ing thrown into the streets to decay and fill the air with disease germs. A railroad called the Sabanilla and Maroted, runs from the city to San Luis, twenty-five miles distant, with a branch to Alto Songo, twelve in length, It is largely owned and controlled by citi' zens of the United States. Santiago is the headquarters for thret large mining plants owned by United States citizens, viz., the Jurugua, the Spanish Amer- ican, and the Sigua, together representing the investment of about $8,000,000 ; the last named are not in operation. Santiago is the capital of this province and oriental region. OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. There are a number of tobacco factories, but the chief business is the exportation of raw materials and the importation of manufac- tured goods and provisions. Sugar, iron ore, manganese, mahogany, hides, wax, cedar and tobacco are exported to the United States. City and Harbor of Cienfuegos. Cienfuegos is on a peninsula in the Bay of lagua, six miles from the sea. The depth of water at the anchorage in the harbor is 27 feet, and at the different wharves from 14 to 16 feet. The commercial importance of the place was recognized as long ago as 1850, and has increased with the development of the sugar industry. This port is now the centre of the sugar trade for the south of the island. It is connected by rail with Havana and the principal points on the north of the island. The population in 1895 was 24,030. Sugar and tobacco are exported to the United States, and soap and ice are manu- factured. The climate from December ist to May 1st is dry and moderately warm, the temper- ature ranging from 60 degrees to 78 degrees during the day and falling several degrees at night. At this season almost constant winds prevail from the north-east or north-west, accompanied by clouds of dust. For the rest of the year the temperature ranges from 75 degrees to 93 degrees, descending a few degrees at night. During this season there are frequent and heavy rainfalls and wind- storms. The yellow fever is then epidemic. But little attention is given by the municipal authorities to hygienic or to sanitary meas- ures. Water for household purposes is in- sufficiently supplied by two small plants, the principal source being the Jicotea river, 10 miles distant. The death rate is 42.82 to 1,000. Cardenas is a seaport on the north coast of Cuba, about 135 miles east of Havana. In 1893 it had 23,517 inhabitants, fhe tem- perature is pleasant during the winter, but from a&out the middle of May to the middle of October the weather is hot and sultry, the thermometer during the day being usually 94 degrees in the shade and falling some five degrees at night. Sanitary conditions arf bad. Yellow fever, typhus, typhoid and pet% nicious fevers prevail throughout most of the year, being worse in the hot season. Cases of small pox also appear at times. Trinidad de Cuba is located on a slope of the mountain called La Vijia (Lookout), which has an elevation of about 900 feet above sea level. The port, Casilda, lies about one league to the south ; the harbor is almost landlocked, and has very little depth. Vessels drawing 10 feet 6 inches are liable to rur. aground with the least deviation from the tortuous channel. About half a mile west of Trinidad is the River Guarabo, nav- igable for small boats only. Four miles east lies Masio Bay, which will accommodate deep-draft vessels. The population numbers about 18,000. Sugar and a little honey are exported. The climate is very healthy, the death rate being 21 to 26 per 1,000, though sanitary measures are almost unknown. The town is so situated that the heavier it rains the cleaner it becomes. The town and vicinity are considered the healthiest in Cuba. The Island of Porto Rico. The island of Porto Rico has an extent of about 3668 square miles, being 37 miles broad and 108 miles long. The population is placed at 813,937; one-half are white and the bal- ance negroes and Creoles. San Juan is situ ated on a long and narrow island, separated from the main island at one end by a shallow arm of the sea, over which is a bridge con- necting it with the mainland, which runs out at this point in a long sand spit, some nine miles in length, apparently to meet the IV OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. smaller island ; at the other end the island ends in a rugged bluff or promontory some hundred feet high and three-fourths of a mile distant from the main island. This promon- tory is crowned by Morro Castle, the princi- pal fortification of the town. At this end of the island is the entrance to the harbor, with a narrow channel and rocky bottom, so close under the headland that one can almost leap ashore from a passing vessel. The water here is some thirty feet deep. To a mariner unacquainted with the local- ity, or when a norther is blowing, this en- trance is one of difficulty and danger. After rounding the bluff, one finds a broad and beautiful bay, landlocked, and with a good depth of water which is being increased by dredging. It is by far the best harbor in Porto Rico, and probably as good a one as can be found in the West Indies. However, it has its drawbacks. Sailing vessels are frequently detained by the northerly winds during the winter months, and even steamers with a draft of over twenty feet are sometimes delayed; but these occasions are rare. When they do occur, the "boca," or entrance to the harbor, is a mass of seething, foaming water, and presents an imposing spectacle. Good Specimen of a Walled Town. To see steamers of 1 6 or i8 feet draft enter in a severe norther is a sight to be remem- bered, as the great waves lift them up and seem about to hurl them forward to destruc- tion. At such times there is need of a staunch vessel, steady nerves, and a captain well acquainted with the channel, as no pilot will venture out. The island upon which the city stands is shaped much like an arm and hand; it is about two and a half miles long and averages less than one-fourth of a mile in width. The greatest width is a little over half a mile in the portion representing the hand, which also contains the major part of the city. San Juan is a perfect specimen of a walled town, with portcullis, moat, gates, and battlements. Built over two hundred and fifty years ago, it is still in good condition and repair. The walls are picturesque and represent a stupendous work and cost in themselves. Inside the walls, the city is laid off in regular squares, six parallel streets running in the direction of the length of the island and seven at right angles. The houses are closely and com- pactly built of brick, usually of two stories, stuccoed on the outside and painted in a variety of colors. The upper floors are occu- pied by the more respectable people, while the ground floors, almost without exception, are given up to negroes and the poo-er classes. Life on the Ground Floor. The population within the walls is esti- mated at 20,000, and most of it lives on the ground floor. In one small room, with a flimsy partition, a whole family will reside. The ground floor of the whole town reeks with filth and conditions are most unsanitary. In a tropical country, where disease readily prevails, the consequences of such herding may be easily inferred. There is no running watei in the town. The entire population depends upon rain water, caught upon the flat roofs of the buildings and conducted to the cistern, which occupies the greater part of the inner court yard that is an essential part of Spanish houses the world over, but that here, on account of the crowded condi- tions, is very small. There is no sewerage, except for surface water and sinks, while vaults are in every house and occupy whatever remaining space there may be in the parts not taken up by the cisterns. The risk of contaminating the water is very great, and in dry seasons the supply is entirely exhausted. Epidemics are OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. frequent, and the town is alive with vermin, flies, cockroaches, mosquitoes and dogs. The streets are wider than in the older part of Havana, and will admit two carriages abreast. The sidewalks are narrow, and in places will accommodate but one person. The pavements are of a composition manu- factured in England from slag, pleasant and even, and durable when no heavy strain is brought to bear upon them, but easily broken and unfit for heavy traffic. The streets are swept once a day by hand, and, strange to say, are kept very clean. The Sickliest Season. From its topographical situation the town should be healthy, but it is not. The soil under the city is clay, mixed with lime, so hard as to be almost like rock. It is, conse- quently, impervious to water and furnishes a good natural drainage. The trade wind blows strong and fresh, and through the har- bor runs a stream of sea water at a speed of not less than three miles an hour. With these conditions no contagious diseases, if properly taken care of, could exist; without them the place would be a veritable plague spot. A study of the orographic features of the island shows that its mountain systems are developed most extensively in its south-cen- tral region and in its northeastern division. Taking it as a whole the island is approxi- mately roof-shaped, so that the rainfall is rapidly drained off. For drainage purposes there are forty-five considerable rivers and countless rivulets, seventeen of the rivers running to the north, sixteen to the south and nine to the east coast. And it is very noticeable that there is no extensive lake nestling in the highlands of the interior. Though there are no extended climatic observations covering the whole Porto Rican territory, the Spanish series of international observations at San Juan, published by the Weather Bureai^, show the general conditions prevailing in that city and its vicinity. The most marked feature of the climate is that the summer's heat and rainfall keep up until late autumn. This constancy of tropical heat has a very relaxing effect upon the body, and is, therefore, injurious to the health of strangers, though the heat is mitigated by trade winds and stiff land and sea breezes. But in August and even later on the north coast the air is often intensely sultry, oppres- sive and almost calm, with little or no relief, so that Colonel Hinter pronounced this the sickliest time for foreigners. For this reason he advised residents of temperate climates not to visit Porto Rico until November, when the weather becomes exquisitely fine and set- ied, continuing generally good during the v\^ter and early spring. Heat, Rainfall, "Winds and Hurricanes. In this beautiful island, under new auspices, doubtless there will spring up eventually a number of inviting winter resorts and sanita- ria. For in the winter and early spring Porto Rico is less subject than even Cuba to chilling winds, blowing out from freezing anti-cyclones that move east off the American coast toward Bermuda. At San Juan the average temperature in August is nearly 8i degrees Fahrenheit; in September 80.5 degrees, and in October 79.3 degrees. The rainfall in the capital — which is a lair index of that along the northeast coast of the island generally — averages about 6.65 inches during August, 5.30 during Septem- ber, and 7.10 during October. But in some years September brings the heaviest rains. It is obvious that with such heavy rainfall the narrow roads leading from the east coast to San Juan and those skirting the north coast are liable in these months to be at VI OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. times badly washed by the heavy showers. The southern side of the island is relatively much drier than the northern, though the former is liable to excessive rains during the passage of a hurricane. The prevailing winds at San Juan from \ugust 1st to October 31st, as deduced from he fragmentary data, are southeasterly and easterly, contrary to the general idea, a rather light sprinkling of northeasterly winds, while southerly winds figure considerably. The calm days in the hottest months average not far from ten per month, and in some months exceed eighteen, and even twenty. Destructive Tornadoes. Fortunately for Porto Rico, it does not He directly in the track of West Indian cyclones. At long intervals it has been visited by a desolating hurricane. The usual track of hurricanes runs in a northwestwardly course, a little north of the island in August and a little south of it in September and October. So erratic, however, are these tremendous whirlwinds of the tropics, so liable to be deflected from their wonted paths, that it will be unsafe to assume, at least until late in autumn, that the danger has passed for Porto Rico. And commanders of all vessels on or near the coasts of the island should exercise extreme vigilance to avoid being caught in a hurricane. It cannot be said that the anchorages are the best in the world, but a few of them are excellent and most of them sufficiently deep for ordinary craft. Mayaguez Bay, on the west coast, admitting vessels of any size, is the best anchorage in the island. Guanica is the best on the south coast. The east coast is fairly indented and washed by a sea usually smooth. On the rugged north side there are no good anchorages between Are- cibo and San Juan, and the ocean current sets to southwestward. But the port of San Juan, affording good shelter, will oe an im- portant centre of merchant shipping, as well as an attractive rendezvous for yachts, whose owners are seeking health and pleasure in a winter cruise to the sunny seas of the tropics. Things go on in San Juan much as they have been going for a hundred years. Hun- dreds of officers, soldiers and policemen block the sidewalks and appear in the shops and cafes. San Juan has more policemen than any city of the same size on earth. They are not needed. A more quiet and law-abiding population could scarcely be found. Street fights and brawls, so common in American towns, are comparatively unknown. Days pass without a single arrest, and those which do occur are almost invariably for petty thievery. Yet one cannot move without bumping against a policeman armed with a revolver and a heavy short sword. Shops Closed at Midday. San Juan awakes early. By seven o'clock the shops are open, and a stirring of wide shutters in the upper stories of the houses show that even the women are about. Hun- dreds of men are having their coffee in the cafes. Probably a band is playing somewhere, which means a detachment of troops return- ing from early mass in the Cathedral. By ten o'clock this early activity has worn itself out. The sun has got well up into the sky, white and hot. It falls in the narrow, un- shaded streets, and the cobblestones begin to scorch through thin shoe soles. It is a time to seek the shade and quaff cooling dnnks. Business languishes. About eleven shop shutters begin to go up, and soon the streets are as deserted as at midnight. This is breakfast hour, and until well after noon not a shop or public building will be found open. About two or three, whether the siesta is long or short, people begin to reappear and shops reopen. Gradually traffic OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. revives. By four o'clock, when the Palais de Justice has cast its cooling shadow over half the blazing Plaza, loungers begin to ap- pear to occupy the numerous benches and blink idly at the guards about the gloomy Palais entrance. With each passing hour the city presents a livelier appearance, until at six o'clock it is fully awake and ready for dinner, the principal meal of the day. Music and Parades. In the evening is when the inhabitants of San Juan really live. These are the pleasant hours of the day. From the sea comes a breeze, cool and fresh, to whisper to the few shade trees in the plazas and revive ener- vated humanity. Twice a week one of the military bands plays in the principal plaza. Then it is worth while to go, hire a comforta- ble arm chair from a "muchacho " for ten cents in Porto Rican silver and sit and ob- serve and listen. These military bands — several are always stationed in San Juan — are equal to Sousa or Herbert on a considerably smaller scale. They play beautifully voluptuous airs of sunny Spain, the strains swelling and quick- ening until they entice an answer in the liv- ened step and unconscious swaying bodies of hundreds of promenaders; then slowly dying to a sweet, soft breath, borne to the ear from distant guitars nnd mandolins. Italian, French and German composers are not ne- glected, while occasionally there will come a spirited bit from some modern light opera; or even a snatch from a topical song of the i day. On band nights San Juan may be seen at her best. The concerts begin at eight o'clock. Prior to that hour the private soldiers are permitted the liberty of the Plaza, and hun- dreds avail themselves of the opportunity for an airing. At eight they must retire to their barracks, leaving the plaza to the officers. The music racks are set at one end of the Plaza, and the musicians stand during the two hours of the concert. By the time the second number on the programme is reached the Plaza is thronged with the wealth, beauty^ and fashion of the Porto Rican capital. A row of gas street lamps, thickly set, encircles the Plaza, while at each end rise iron towers, upon which are supported electric arc lights. All the houses surrounding the Plaza are illuminated, their bright coloring and Eastern architecture giving an Oriental effect. The balconies — every house has a balcony — are filled with gayly dressed women and officers, and through open windows glimpses of richly furnish*,d interiors can be obtained. On the street level, the Grand Central and other cafes, tha Spanish Club and a dozen brilliantly , lighted drug stores and shops help flood the i Vsa with light and lend life and gayety to th,. scene. Many Women in the Throng. And the women. They are out in fort dressed in the latest fashion of Madrid and Paris. Here and there some gentleman walks with his wife and family, but usually the women promenade alone until joined by male acquaintances. A group of girls will be ac- companied by a duenna, who keeps discreetly in the background if any men approach. Often, however, two or more senoritas will promenade entirely alone, with a freedom which would be considered unbecoming in the United States. This is one of the occasions when rigorous Spanish etiquette is somewhat relaxed, and unmarried women enjoy a fleeting glimpse of social freedom. So the crowd, constantly swelling, until progress is almost impossible, moves in a circle back and forth along the length of the Plaza. Mingling with it are scores of police, in their bright uniforms, who seem to have no business there except VUl OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. to accentuate the crush, and hundreds of civilians in their best dress. Nowadays there is a sprinkling of American navy and army officers, in quiet uniforms, and a good deal of attention they attract. And so it goes until the concert ends. The band, preceded by an escort of cavalry, marches away to a wonderfully quick quickstep, the lights fade and slowly the crowd disperses through the shadowy streets. Sights by Night. Not all San Juan, however, is to be seen in the grand plaza. Only fashionable and official life centralizes there. In other sec- tions of the city the evenings pass differently. Take a stroll from the brilliantly lighted plaza into the eastern part of town, near the barracks. There the whole lower strata will be found in the narrow, badly lighted streets, or in the plaza Cristobal Colon and the SiTijllet breathing places of the densely popu- _,^J city. Here hand organs and dirty wandering minstrels, who perform semi-bar- baric music upon cracked guitars and raspy mandolins, accompanied by the "guero" — a native instrument made of a gourd — furnish the music. Venders of " dulce " squat beside their trays of sweetmeats, dolorously crying their wares. Non-commissioned officers and pri- vates mingle with the people and chat with the women. Everybody smokes cigarettes, even children hardly able to toddle. The shops and meaner cafes are open and crowded. Further on one can wander through streets more narrow and darker than alleys to where the massive gray battlements of the ancient city walls lift their sombre, jagged towers to greet the moon. Inquisitive sentinels, with rifles in hand, walk here to turn intruders back, but by exercising discretion glimpses may be ob- tained of tiny balconies ensconced in nooks and crannies high up in the wall and over- looking the sea and the twinkling city. Per- haps a peep may be had into the odd habita- tions within, with dusky senoritas gazing out through a curtain of flowers and vines. This is a different San Juan from that which prom^ enades in the plaza, but not less interesting. The Philippine Islands. The war between Spain and the United States directed public attention to the Philip- pme Islands, and the victory of the United States naval squadron and land forces al Manila has emphasized the great resources of these islands. Under the circumstances, a general review of some of the industries of the islands will be interesting. In 1834, the port of Manila, the capital of the islands, was opened to resident foreign merchants, but before that date the Philip- pine Islands were little known in the foreign markets and commercial centres of Europe. So decided was the spirit of exclusiveness and abhorrence of foreign intercourse that the Spaniards, in 1738, preferred a war with England to the fulfillment of a contract, for freer commerce, entered into under the treaty of Utrecht. Before 1834 a Mr. Butler applied for permission to reside in and open up a trade between Manila and foreign ports, but the application was promptly rejected, though subsequently the American firm of Russell & Sturgis, having the support of the Governor- General, made a similar application, which was successful, and since then many for- eigners have settled in the open ports of the Philippine Islands for business purposes. Banks have been established and other agen- cies necessary to facilitate and promote trade are now a part of the business machinery oi the islands. During the reign of Isabella II. (1833- 1868) a Philippine coin was issued, and about the year 1868 gold coin sold for less OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. than the nominal value in silver, and as much as lo per cent, was paid to exchange an onza of gold {$i6) for silver. In 1878 gold and silver were worth their nominal relative value, and gold gradually disappeared from the islands, large quantities being exported to China. At the beginning of 1885 as much as 10 per cent, premium was paid for Philip- pine gold of the Isabella II. or any previous coinage, but at the present day gold is ob- tainable in limited quantities and about the same rate as sight drafts on Europe. Manufacturing in the Philippines. The monetary crisis, attributed by some to the depreciation of silver, was experienced in the islands, and the Spanish Government added to the embarrassment by coining half dollars and twenty-five cent pieces without the intrinsic value expressed. It was in con- sequence of such a false value that exchange fell lower, and in Spain the silver then coined was rejected by the Government officers and merchants, which still further impaired the interests of the islanders. The action of the Spanish Government was a retrograde move- ment. The coinage of a nation denoting its political condition, the deterioration of it in- dicates an age of decrepitude. The manufacturing industry of the islands is in its infancy, and the industrial arts have not been fostered. It may be said that cigars are about the only manufactured export staple, though occasionally some cordage, hides and a parcel of straw or finely split bamboo hats are shipped. In some of the provinces hats and straw mats are made, in others a rough cloth is woven from hemp fibre. These last are principally woven in the province of Yloilo, where also is made a muslin of pure pine leaf fibre, and a fabric of mixed pine-leaf and hemp filament. The province of Hocos has a reputation for its woolen and dyed cotton fabrics, and that ol Batangas produces a special make of cottoi stuffs. Pasig, on the river of that name, and Sulipan in Pampanga are locally known for their rough pottery. The centre of the white wood furniture and wood carving is Palte, the extreme east of Sagina de Bay. In Mariquina, near Manila, wooden clogs and native leather shoes are made, and the gold and silver workers are at Santa Cruz, a ward of Manila. In the more civilized provinces the native women produce pretty specimens of embroidery on European patterns, and on a small scale there are centres of manufac- ture of straw bags, alcohol, bamboo furni- ture, buffalo hide, leather, wax candles and soap. The first brewery was opened October 4, 1890, in Manila, by Don Enrique Barretto. The manufactures indicated are supported by native capital, and the traffic and con- sumption being mostly local, the addition ti» "^ AT ^^ ♦•To* 4y o •i*^.* o^ ^ *T^i>*rr« ^'[is V **^\..: '^^ ^^ *t^ 4.^ ^ct. *^ 1 » . • • . **. ^^0^ [5°^ 'oK .-to. i&\ ./.•^?SK->* *^^;V^-;-\ V'^:fito:^^i•"' v<.i-%/'