THE Young Folks' Cyclopaedia GAMES AND SPORTS BY JOHN D. CHAMPLIN LATB ASSOCIATB EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA AND ARTHUR E BOSTWICK Mttb numcroue ITllustrations SECOND EDITION, REVISED NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1899 ,C44 Copyright, 1890. HENRY HOLT & Ca DRnUHOMD, EUctrotyper and I^nter, New York. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The Young Folks' CvcLOPiEDiA of Games and Sports is a compendium of recreations of all kinds, including indoor and out- door giames and plays, athletic and rural sports and pastimes, chem- ical and mechanical experiments and amusements, and every similar thing that can interest a wide-awake boy or girl. Like the other volumes in the Young Folks' Series, it is in cyclopaedic style, a novelty in a work of this kind, rendering its articles easy of refer- ence, and combining other advantages never before united in a similar volume. Intended primarily for the family, for the use of children and youth of all ages, it will be of equal value to the adult, as it includes the official rules, given word for word, of ath- letic sports and standard games, and the official records of athletic meets and events, thus making it a work of reference for the settle- ment of disputed questions relating to such matters. To insure accuracy, such articles as require it have been revised by competent experts. Among the features of the work are a brief historical sketch of each game or sporty the description of foreign varieties of each, a full illustration of the text by accurate plans and diagrams, and a system of etymology, as in the other volumes of the series, giving the derivation of names and technical terms. While the " padding" characteristic of too many such works has been rigorously excluded, the endeavor has been to make the explanations full enough for simplicity and clearness. Unlike many other works on sports and games published in this country, which are merely reprints of Eng- lish books, this cyclopaedia has been written for American use from the American standpoint, even such a game as Cricket being treated as it is played in the United States. While the illustration is very full, no picture has been inserted for its own sake, or otherwise than as an aid to the understanding of the text or the elucidation of different periods of games and sports. !v PREFACE. A large number of works on sports and kindred subjects, in many languages, have been consulted and freely used in the prepara- tion of this book, which is believed to be more comprehensive in its scope than any other similar publication. The editors are indebted to Messrs. A. G. Spalding & Bros, for permission to print the foot- ball rules of the University Athletic Club, and the official rules of other athletic sports. In the present edition the description and rules of all such sports as baseball, football and tennis have been brought carefully down to date, the articles on cycling and golf have been greatly enlarged in view of the increased popularity of both, and other changes have been made to increase the value of the book. New York, January lo, 1899. THE YOUNG FOLKS' CYCLOPAEDIA GAMES AND SPORTS. ^^Words printed in LETTERS LIKE THESE are explained in their alphabetical places. ^"•The references C. C. T. and C. P. P., are to the " Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Common Things," and the "Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Persons and Places," companion volumes to this, which explain a great deal not coming within the plan of this book. A— B— C. A game played by any number of persons with a pack of CARDS, on each of which are a letter of the alphabet and a picture. The pack is placed face upward on the table, and each player in order names an object in the picture on the top card which begins with the letter on that card. Any one who cannot do so in less that one minute is out. No IJI^p ^|j ^B ^^ ^U H III ■Hiii ■Hkl^liilln7^flkS'Sh>i!iAH'!ii^fi'flrillBiACi:GAMMON 4t BACKGAMMON of a checker board. The board is divided into two pairs of tables by a line through the middle called the bar (which is a raised partition when the game is played inside a checker- board), and each player has a home, or inner table, and an outer table. In the cut, A is Black's home or in- ner table, and B his outer table ; and C is White's home, or inner table, and D his outer table. Each table has six points in it, of two colors placed alternately, generally black and white or black and red. The points in the inner table, beginning at the edge of the board, are some- times given French names, as the ace, deuce, trois, quatre, cinq, and C D Backgammon Board. six points, but in the United States they are more commonly called by the numbers from one to six. For convenience sake, the numbers in the illustration are continued across the board to 12. The point num- bered 7 is sometimes called the bar point. The men are set as in the illustration, part of them being, it will be noticed, in the enemy's tables. The object of each player is to get his own men around into his own in- ner table, where he can play them oH, as will be shown hereafter. In doing this, the two move in opposite directions, Black from White's inner table into White's outer table, then across into his own outer table, and finally into his own inner table, or following the course C D B A in the cut, while White moves in the direc- tion A B D C into his home or inner table. The moves are decided by throwing DICE, of which each player has two. When a player makes his throw, he calls out the number of points on the top of the dice (as 4- 2, 6-3, or double 4) and then plays any of his men a number of points on the board equal to the number thrown. He may play one man as many points as are on the two dice, or he may play each number with a different man. If he throws two like numbers (called doublets) he plays double what he throws. For instance, if he throws two 4's he has the right to play four 4's instead of two, and these moves may be made all together or separately. If the point at which any move ends is oc- cupied by two or more hostile men, that move cannot be made, and if the player cannot move at all, he must wait till his next turn. If the point has only one hostile man on it, it is called a blot, and the move can then be made (which is sometimes called hitting the blot). The man so hit, or captured, is taken from the board, or placed on the bar. Its owner can make no move till he has entered his piece again in his opponent's inner table, by playing it as if it were on a point just before the ace point. If each point on this table has two or more hostile men on it the player whose man is up cannot play at all till his opponent has moved some of them. Generally, leaving a man un- covered, that is, leaving only one man on a point, should be avoided, and when doublets are thrown, the men are usually moved in pairs for this reason ; but skillful players often make blots on purpose, either because they are willing to take, the risk in order to move their men quicker, or in order that the men, when taken up, may enter anew, and gain the enemy's rear so as to be able to cap- ture his men. When all a player's BACKGAMMON 42 BACKGAMMON men have reached his inner table, he begins to play them off the board, which is called casting off, throwing off, or bearing off. In casting off, the pieces count according to the point they are on. For instance, throwing 5 and 2 entitles a player to cast off one man from his five point and one from his two point, or one or both the numbers may be played as moves. It is an advantage to keep the points in the table covered as evenly as possible, so that every throw of the dice may be of use. If there are no men on the proper point, and no move can be made, men from a lower point may be thrown off. The player who first throws off his men wins the game. If his oppo- nent has thrown off any of his men, a victory counts as a single game, or hit ; if he has not thrown off any, it counts as a double game, or gam- mon ; and if he has a man up, or one in either of the winner's tables it counts as a triple or quadruple game (as agreed on), or backgammon. Skillful players will often make dif- ferent moves according as they wish to make a gammon or a hit. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The first move is decided by lot ; each player throws a single die, and the one that gets the highest number plays first, having the privi- lege of moving from these throws, taken together, or of throwing as usual, as he pleases. 2. If a man is taken from any point, it must be played, and when it has been placed on a point and left, the move cannot be made over again. 3. If the owner of a man that has been taken up cast off another man before entering the one taken up, all the men so cast off must be treated as if they had been taken up. 4. If a player throw and play out of turn, and his opponent has thrown, the move can be changed only by consent of both players. First Plays. The following, which are usually considered the best first moves in playing for a hit, will be understood by reference to the illustration at the beginning of the article. In all these, it will be seen that the object is, first to cover important points in the play- er's own tables, and then to get his men out of the enemy's tables. 1. If double aces are thrown (the best of all first throws), two men should be moved from the player's 6 to his 5 point, and two from his 8 to his 7 point, as it is desirable to pre- vent the enemy from gaining these points. 2. Double 6's ; two men from i to 7 in the opposite tables and two from the opposite 12 to the player's 7. 3. Double 3's ; two from 8 to 5, and two from 6 to 3, in the player's tables, thus protecting the 5 and 3 points. 4. Double 2's ; two from 6 to 4 in the player's tables, protecting the 4 point, and two from i to 2 in the opposite tables, thus advancing one step toward getting out of the ene- my's tables. 5. Double 4*s ; two from i to 5 in the opposite tables, and two from the opposite 12 to the player's 9. 6. Double 5's ; two from the op- posite 12 to the player's 8 and then to his 3. 7. 6 and ace ; one from opposite 12 to the player's 7, and one from 8 to 7, thus securing the bar point. 8. 6-2; one from the opposite 12 to the player's 5. (In this and simi- lar plays, where two moves are made at once, it must be remembered that the two are distinct, and that if one is blocked it cannot be made. But either number may be played first, and thus a block may often be avoided or a hostile man taken.) 9. 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, and 5-4 ; in each case play one from the opposite ace point as far as it can go. lo- 5-3 ; one from 6 to 3, and one from 8 to 3 in the player's tables. II. 5-2; two from the opposite 12 ; one to the player's 8, and one to his II. BACKGAMMON 43 BACKGAMMON 12. 5-1 ; one from the opposite 12 to the player's 8, and one from the opposite ace point to 2. 13. 4-3; two from the opposite 12; one to the player's 9, and the other to his 10. 14. 4-2 ; one from 8 to 4, and one from 6 to 4 in the player's tables. 15. 4-1 ; one from the opposite 12 to the player's 9, and one from the opposite ace point to 2. 16. 3-2 ; two from the opposite 12 ; one to the player's 10, the other to his II. 17. 3-1; one from 8 to 5, one from 6 to 5 in the player's tables. 18. 2-1 ; one from the opposite 12 to the player's 11, and one from the opposite ace point to 2. Russian Backgammon, or Trie- Trac, a kind of backgammon in which the men are not set on the board in the beginning, but are en- tered, as if they had been taken up. Both players enter in the same table and move in the same direction. The player may move before enter- ing all his men, but if a man be taken up, it must be entered before any other play can be made, and if this is impossible its owner loses his turn. If doublets are thrown, after playing them the numbers on the opposite sides of the dice are also played, and then the player is allowed another throw^ ; thus he can keep on playing so long as he throws doublets and can make his moves. But if he can- not make any move his play must stop. The privilege of playing the numbers on the opposite side of the dice is sometimes not given to the first throw of doublets. It is some- times extended by letting any one who throws an ace and a two play doublets of them and both of the opposite numbers (six and five), and then, after playing them, throw again. The rules are the same as for ordinary backgammon. Spanish Backgammon, or Jac- quet. In this form of the game there is no taking up, and a single man there- fore can hold a point. Each player places his men in five rows of three each in his opponent's inner table. The first man moved must be carried into the player's own inner table be- fore another is moved, but after that Abacus. the men can be moved in any order the player chooses. History. The origin of backgam- mon is unknown. It is said to have been invented about the loth century, though a similar game was played by the ancients on a board called an Abacus. It was first called Tables, Backgammon in the 13th Century. and is mentioned under this name by Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Bacon. In monkish Latin it was called Tab- tdarum Ludtts (Game of Tables). The tables were not always as they are now. In the illustration, show- ing two players of the 13th century, BAGATELLE 44 BAGATELLE the form at that time is plainly shown. There is no bar on the board and there seem to be but eight points. In the 14th century the board was divided like ours, but the points were of only one color. There were many ways of playing, in some of which three dice were used and the men all set in the opponent's inner table. Tables was one of the indoor games that James L recommended to his son Prince Henry in his book of advice called " Basilikon Dor on " (The Royal Gift). The word back- gammon is thought by some to be from the Welsh and to mean little battle. Others think it is Saxon and means back-game, from the setting back of the men when taken up ; and others still that it is Danish and means the tray game, from the shape of the board. In Germany it is called Puff (Clatter), probably from the rattling of the dice or the pieces on the board. The French Tric- Trac, which is the same in German, and was anciently called tick-tack in English, is named in the same way. In Germany, backgammon is also called Brettspiel (board-game), and so is draughts. BACK-HANDED EUCHRE. See Euchre. BADMINTON. See Lawn Ten- nis. BAGATELLE, a game played by any number of persons with cues and balls like those used in Billiards, but smaller, on a table something like a small Billiard table, cushioned only at the sides, or on a cloth cov- ered board, which can be laid on an ordinary table. Nine balls, two of which are colored, are used. At the lower end of the table are nine holes, numbered in order, and in front of the holes is a spot a on which one of the colored balls, often called the King Ball, is placed. At the upper end of the table is another spot, b, and between it and the holes a line called the string line, as in Billiards. Each player in turn plays his eight balls one by one, the colored one first, by placing each on the spot behind the string line and striking it with his cue, as in Billiards, toward the holes. The object is to place the balls, in- cluding the King Ball, in the holes, and the player scores the numbers of such holes as he can fill, the colored balls counting double. Thus the highest score would be 62, made by filling all the holes, the colored balls being in the Nine and Eight holes. Such a score is very unusual. He wins who scores most points in a number of rounds agreed up- on before the game. If any ball rebounds beyond the string line. Bagatelle Board. it must be removed from the board till the next player's turn. At the end of each turn the board is cleared, and the King Ball placed on its spot, as in the beginning. The three-ball game of Billiards may be played on a Baga- telle board, caroms counting one each, and each hole its proper number as in ordinary Bagatelle. Mississippi, a kind of Bagatelle played with a bridge or row of stalls which is placed on the board just in front of the holes. The stalls are numbered from one to nine, but no ball is allowed to hits the side of the Mississippi Board. score unless it board before entering them. BAGATELLE 45 BALANCING Tivoli, a simpler form of Bagatelle, played on a board about four feet long and eighteen inches wide, hav- ing a channel at one side up which a marble is shoved with a stick. The upper end of the board is curved, and this end is raised slightly during the game, so that the marble rolls down the board, and after bounding from the iron pins with which it is Tivoli. Studded, stops either in a hole in the board or in one of several compart- ments at the bottom. The holes and compartments are all numbered, so that the player must score some- thing. But in some forms of the game there is a channel on the other side of the board also, so that if the mar- ble is played with too much force it rolls around the rim and goes into the opposite channel, scoring noth- ing. There is often a King Ball also, which, if knocked down, increases the score. Railroad Bagatelle, a kind of Tivoli in which the balls are rolled down an inclined trough running from side to side of an upright frame by the side of the board, which is usually square, and contains numerous pins and several numbered holes or stalls, as in the common game. At the foot of the " railroad " a movable switch is sometimes placed, which delivers the ball in any desired direc- tion. A spiral tube of wire some- times takes the place of the trough or railroad. Tivoli is called in France Billard Anglais (English Billiards), and forms of it are also known as " Cockamaroo " and " German Bil- liards." The word Bagatelle is French, and means a trifle. Tivoli is the name of a place near Rome, where a stream rushes through a cave or two and is divided up so as to make many waterfalls. Possibly the eccentric course of the ball suggested the name. BALANCES. See Scales. BALANCING. In beginning to practice, balance at first a pole five to ten feet long on the end of the forefinger held horizontally, or on the outstretched palm of the hand. As the pole tips to one side, move the hand slightly to that side, so as to keep it always beneath the whole pole. The eye should be fixed on the top of the pole, where its motion is most easily seen. When the learner can balance one pole, he should try another of a different size. It will be found that the taller the pole, the more easily it is balanced. It is almost impossible, for instance, to balance a lead pencil for the reason that when the tall pole leans an inch to one side it is still almost verti- cal, while the lead pencil, in leaning an inch, inclines very perceptibly. Other objects may now be tried. In balancing an object of irregular BALANCING 46 BALANCING EXPERIMENTS 4 shape, as a chair on one of its legs, it should first be supported with the free hand and moved about till the bal- ancer finds that the center of gravity is nearly over the point of support. Objects may be balanced also on the chin, the nose, or other parts of the body, the only difficulty being that these cannot be moved so easily and quickly as the hand. Balancing is excellent train- ing for the eye and muscles. Several per- sons with the same number of poles of equal size may play a balancinggame. At a signal each balances h i s pole on his right palm, and he who keeps his pole up longest scores a point. The players then balance on the left palm, then on the right and left forefingers, suc- cessively ; the other fingers, the nose, the chin, and on any other parts of the body they may agree upon. He who scores most points is the winner. Skilled balanc- ers, who make a profession of ex- hibiting their powers, perform many wonderful feats. The Jap- anese are especially skillful. Good balancers can poise many objects one above another, or several ob- jects at the same time on differ- ent parts of the body. The illus- tration from an old manuscript shows a skilled balancer in the 14th century. Ancient Balancer. BALANCINC EXPERIMENTS AND TOYS. These all depend on the principle that if the center of gravity of a body be below its point of support it cannot be overturned. I. Stick two penknives in a lead Fig. I. pencil, one on each side (Fig. i). The pencil may then be balanced on the finger. If disturbed, it will not fall, Fig. 2. but will rock backward and forward till it is at rest again. 2. To balance a coin edgewise on the point of a needle. The needle is fastened in the cork of a bottle. The coin is firmly fixed in a slit cut in BALANCING EXPERIMENTS 47 BALANCING EXPERIMENTS another cork, in which two forks are stuck, as shown in Fig. 2. 3. Fill a quart bottle with water and Fig. 3- place on the rim of the neck a cork in which two forks are stuck, as in Fig- 3. The water may now be poured out of the bottle, the cork remaining bal- anced. 4. The Tumbler. This is a toy, consisting of the figure of a man, made of pith or some other light substance, standing on the flat side of a half bullet. This figure cannot be over- turned, but insists on standing upright. Fig- ures of soldiers called "Prussians," constructed in this way, were once sold in Paris (See Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 4). They were formed into ranks, and being made to bow down by passing a rod over them, would at once start up again. The figure of a dancing master thus mounted is called the " bowing beau." 5. The Prancing Horse. This is a figure of a horse having fixed to it a weight by a bent wire, as in Fig. 5. If the horse's hind legs be placed on the edge of a table, the weight being beneath it, he will not fall forward but prance up and down, if rocked. The toy can be made by cutting the figure from light wood. 6. The Dancing Glass. An ex- periment in balancing, performed with two bottles, two knives, and a Fig. 6. wine-glass. The corks of the bottles are sharpened at the top to an edge, and the knives and wine-glass of water are balanced on them as shown in Fig. 6, which can be done after a few trials. Any small, heavy ob- ject, such as a small key, is now tied to the end of a thread and low- ered into the water. The added weight will cause the wine-glass to descend, and, by moving the key up and down, the glass may be made to dance as it were on the blades of the knives. 7. A weight may be balanced BALL JUGGLING 48 BALL JUGGLING with the aid of a nail and key, if ar- ranged as shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7. BALL JUGGLING, tossing a ball from one hand to another in various ways, as an amusement, or a training for the eyes and muscles. The best balls for the purpose are of hollow brass, two inches in diameter. Any balls of about this size may be used, such as tennis balls, but they must all be exactly equal in size and weight. y^ By mastering each of the y^ following exercises before the next, any one who pos- sesses patience, and gives time to practice may be- come a good ball-juggler. I. Vertical Fall. (Fig. I.) This is simply throw- ing the ball up so that it will fall directly into the hand, which must not be moved sidewise. The ball must be thrown three or four feet into the air. Both hands must attain equal skill. 2. Inside Fall. (Fig, 2,) Throw the ball with the right hand so that it will curve as if the left hand were to catch it, but, instead, move the right Fig. I. hand to the left to receive it. The ball should always fall in exactly the same place, so that it can be caught with the eyes shut. Repeat with the left hand, curving the ball to the right. 3. Outside Fall. Same as the In- Fig. 2. side except that, the hand is held across the body and the ball curved to the outside, being caught with the hand in its natural position. The inside and outside falls should be practiced alternately. 4. Parallel Fall. (Fig. 3.) The Vertical Fall is performed with the hand in its natural position, then in that of the other, that is, held across the body. The falls in the two posi- tions alternate. 5. Outside and Inside Fall. (Fig. 4.) The ball is thrown in a curve from the right hand back, alternately. First, the curve is made three feet high, and then it is lowered gradu- ally till the ball moves in a straight line from one hand to the other, form- ing the Horizontal Pass (Fig. 5). 6. Double Vertical Fall. (Fig. 6.) The Vertical Fall with both hands, a ball in each. They are first thrown BALL JUGGLING 49 BALL JUGGLING up alternately so as to keep one or the other always in air, and then Fig. 4. both at once, to exactly the same height. 7. Double Inside Fall. (Fig. 7.) The Inside Fall with two balls one in Fig. 5. each hand. The tracks of the balls would naturally cross, and that they may not interfere that of the ball from the right hand is made higher than the other. 8. Triple Pass. (Fig. 8.) The same as the last, with the addition of a third ball.which simply fol- lows in the path of the others. The in- troduction of a third ball will complicate matters and require even more practice than the preceding exercises. 9. Triple Over and Under Pass. Like the last (Fig. 9), except that one of the balls from the left hand to the right is sent higher than either of the others, so Fig. 6. that one ball is always seen moving from left to right above two others. Fig. 7. which are changing hands in a lower curve. 10. Shower. (Fig. 10). The balls f,^^^\ Fig, 8. follow exactly the same path, going from one hand to the other by the Fig. 9. Inside Fall and back by the Horizon- tal Pass. Showers can be performed BALL JUGGLING 50 BALLS AND BALL GAMES with two, three, or four balls. A two- ball shower may be performed with one hand, in which case either the / "*■ — «©" "W^ Fig. 10. Inside or Outside Fall is used, and one of the balls, after being caught, is carried by the hand back to the Fig. II. throwing place, while the other is in the air. .♦— i a » r Fig. 12. II. FountaiJis, combinations of the Inside and Outside Falls. In the Single Fountain (Fig. 11), a ball is used by each hand and with each the outside fall is performed. In the Double Fountain (Fig. 12), each hand showers two balls, and the balls do not pass from one hand to the other. The natives of the South Sea Islands are said to be very skillful at ball juggling, using small round fruits, or balls made of rolled leaves, and keeping as many as five in the air at once. Sometimes, also, a sort of bat, made of a stick of wood with a short cross-piece at the end, is used to strike the ball, instead of tossing it up with the hand. BALLS AND BALL GAMES. Games in which a ball is used have been played since the most ancient times. Greek and Roman writers tell different stories about the inven- tion of such games, but probably none of these are true. The ball is such a simple toy, and so easily made, that it has doubtless been used by all nations from the earliest times, and it is not necessary to suppose that it was derived by them all from one tribe or people. It was known to the Egyptians, and the picture, from an old wall-painting, shows a game played by them, in which two of the players sat on others' backs. Homer describes in the " Odyssey " a game of ball played by a Greek princess and her companions to the sound of music. The Greeks called the ball Sphaira, from which we get the word sphere, and the Roman name for it was Pila. Both nations were very fond of playing with it, and both had many games, in most of which a small ball was thrown from one player to another. The Greeks val- ued it so highly that they had special teachers of the game in their gymna- siums ; and the Athenians erected a statue to a skillful ball-player named Aristonicus. The Emperor Augus- tus was fond of the sport, and after his time it was commonly played just before taking a bath, in a room at- tached to the bathing house, The Romans also played with a large ball J BALLS AND BALL GAMES 51 BANDILORE like a foot-ball, called Follis, but they seem to have thrown instead of kicked it. In one game, called Har- pastum (from a Greek word meaning to snatch), each player tried to get possession of the ball, as in modern FOOT-BALL. In Brittany, a game like Harpastum was played till modern times with a son of foot-ball stuffed with hay, called Soule. Two com- munes usually fought for it, each try- ing to carry it home, and men were so often maimed and wounded in the struggle that the game was sup- pressed by law. The Australian na- tives have a similar game, where a ball of opossum skin is "hunted out" as in FOOT-BALL and then strug- gled for. They call it Mam Gook. < In another class of games, played with a large ball, the players try to put it across the enemy's boundary instead Egyptian Ball. of carrying it within their own. The Greek epikoinos (common ball) was of this class, as are the modern Hurl- ing and FOOT-BALL. The former, which is an Irish sport, consists in trying to carry by hand a large ball across the opposite boundary, which Roman Ball. may be distant by several rmles. The struggle for possession of the ball is often severe and the game is very rough. No ball game played with a stick, like HOCKEY, polo, or CRO- QUET, was known in Ancient Greece or Rome, and this kind of game seems to have originated in the East. The bat and ball games, such as CRICKET, BASE BALL, and CAT, seem to be still later, like the vari- ous TENNIS games, including Racket, Fives, and hand ball, where the ball is sent against a wall. But all these forms of Ball have so many points in common that it is difficult to trace their history, and authorities generally differ as to the exact course of their development. What is known of each is told in the separate article treating of it. The illustra- tion, from a painting in the baths of Titus, shows four persons playing some kind of a ball game before en- tering the bath. BANDILORE, a toy consisting of two discs joined at the center and having a string wound between them. The player takes one end of the string and allows the bandilore to fall, revolving as the string unwinds. Just before it reaches the end of the BARBERRY BUSH 52 BAROMETER string he gives it a quick jerk up- wards, and the spin it has acquired will then wind the string in the op- posite direction, and cause the toy to ascend. It can thus be kept moving up and down as long as the player pleases. History. The origin of the Bandi- lore is not certain- ly known, though some say it was invented to amuse an East Indian princess. It was brought in 1790 from Bengal to England, where it became fashion- able under the name of the "Quiz." Thence it was taken to Normandy, where it was called "Jou- jou." Soon after- ward it became the fashion in Paris. The toys were made of all kinds of materials, from sugar to gold, and some of them were as large as dinner plates. The Duke of Orleans gave to a French lady a Bandilore set with diamonds, valued at 2400 livres. The toy is now known in France as Z'^;;^/- graiit (The Emigrant), because it was in favor with the nobility at the begin- ning of the French Revolution, when many of them were forced to emigrate to other countries. BANJO, Experiments with. See Violin. BARBERRY BUSH, a singing game played by any number of children. All join hands in a ring, and circle around, singing : Bandilore. They then stop, and rubbing their hands together to imitate the wash- ing of dishes, sing : This is the way we wash our clothes, Wash our clothes, wash our clothes, This is the way we wash our clothes, So early on Monday morning. The players then circle as before, singing the chorus with " Tuesday " substituted for Monday. So the game goes on, the successive verses being generally as follows : This is the way we iron our clothes, So early on Tuesday morning. This is the way we scrub our floor, So early on Wednesday morning. This is the way we mend our clothes. So early on Thursday morning. This is the way we sweep the house. So early on Fridaj' morning. This is the way we bake our bread. So early on Saturday morning. This is the way we go to church, So early on Sunday morning. The chorus is repeated before each verse, with the insertion of the proper day of the week. Sometimes the Mulberry bush is mentioned instead of the Barberry bush. The last line is also sung, All of a Monday morning, or All on a frosty morning. BAROMETER. The barometer and its history are told of in C. C. T. To make a mercury barometer, take a glass tube four feet long, and about a quarter of an inch in inside diame- ter, and bend it into a U shape, at about afoot from one end, so that the longer branch shall measure at least 33 inches. Make the bend gradually, allowing several inches at the turn (see directions for glass working, under chemical experiments). Here we go round the bar-bar - ry bush, the bar - ber - ry bush, the bar-ber-ry bush. S=:ff :^=il:==' :ff=ilz=si Here we go round the bar-ber • ry bush so ear - ly on Mon - day morn-ing. BASE BALL 53 BASE BALL Seal the long end air-tight by melt- ing it, and then fill that end with mercury by pouring it little by little into the short end, then turning the tube so that the mercury will run around the bend. This will re- quire much patience, as the long end of the tube is full of air which finds difficulty in bubbling past the heavy mercury in a small tube. The tube and mercury should both be warmed so as to be dry, and the mercury must be perfectly clean. When the long end of the tube and the bend are full, hold the tube upright and the mercury in the long end will fall a little way, leaving an empty space at the top. If it does not, pour a little mercury out of the short end. The distance between the level of the mercury in the short end and that in the long end will be about 30 inches. To measure the height readily, and so tell whether the barometer is ris- ing or falling, fasten the tube to a smooth board by bands of cloth, tacked at the ends, and nail to the board, between the branches of the tube, a three-foot rule. Then if the mercury in one branch stands at 4 inches, and the other at 33I inches the difference, in this case 29J inches, is the height of the barometer. BASE BALL, a game played by eighteen persons, nine on a side, on a field ijiarked with bases as in the diagram. The field and implements are fully described in the appended rules. The players on the side in the field are named the Pitcher and the Catcher (who together are often called the " battery "); the First, Sec- ond, and Third Base-keepers or Base- men ; the Short-Stop ; and the Right, Center, and Left Fielders. The three last mentioned are called the Out- field ; the others, the In-field. Be- fore the game the two leaders or cap- tains usually decide by lot which shall have the choice of innings, and the winner may choose to go to the bat or into the field. In match games the captain of the home club has choice of the innings. The players on the side that goes to the field, who are often called the "outs," take up the positions shown on the diagram. Each baseman generally stands near his base ; the other players may vary their positions con- siderably, except the Pitcher, who, while delivering the ball, must stand within certain limits, as shown in Rules 8 and 29 below. The Pitcher now throws the ball toward one of the other side, called the " Batsman," who stands at home base. If the Batsman strike at the ball without hitting it, he is said to have made a " strike. " If the ball is "good," — that is, passes over the home base not higher than the Bats- man's shoulder and not lower than his knee,— it is counted a "called strike," although he make no attempt to hit at it. A strike is also called, as a penalty, on the batsman in cer- tain other cases. (See Rule 43, be- low.) If the ball is not good and the player does not strike at it, it is said to be a " ball, " or a " called ball." All " strikes " and " balls " are called by an umpire, who stands near the Batsman and decides each point as it comes up. (Two umpires are sometimes necessary. See Rule 56, below.) If the player strike the ball and it fall within the lines in the diagram called the " foul lines," it is said to be a " fair ball," and the player becomes a " base-runner " and immediately starts toward the "first base." If the batted ball be a " ground hit " to the infield, the player getting the ball should throw it quickly to the First Baseman. Balls hit along the ground to the outfielders are seldom thrown to First Base, because the runner would reach the base long before the ball. It is oftentimes a better play to throw the ball to some other base when there are other runne^;s on base. This will be explained later. If the Batsman can touch first base before the Baseman standing BASE BALL 54 BASE BALL on the base catches and holds the ball, the former is said to have " made his base," and remains there ; otherwise he is said to have been " put out," and he does not bat again until the eight other players on his side have had their turn " at the bat." If, however, the ball. Catcher'.s Fence M Diagram of Field. when struck, instead of being fair, falls outside the foul lines it counts for nothing, unless it be caught on the " fly " by one of the other side, which puts the Striker out. The Striker cannot make his base on it. and it is neither a strike nor a ball. When a ball is just touched by the bat and flies directly back of the Batsman, it is called a " foul tip." Sometimes a foul tip is hard to tell from a simple strike. If three BASE BALL 55 BASE BALL strikes are called by the umpire, the Striker must run for his base, and the ball, after it passes the home plate, is treated just like a fair ball struck. If the Catcher catches it and holds it, or if he can get it to first base be- fore the Batsman, the latter is out. If four balls are called, the Batsman is allowed to " take his base " — that is, to run to first base without any hindrance. Sometimes the batsman soh'ts the ball that, although he is himself put out, he enables a base-runner to reach another base. He is then said to have made a " sacrifice hit." When a player either has been put out or has made his base, another Shoe Plate. one of the same side takes his place as Batsman. The striking order is decided before the game and re- mains the same throughout. When a base-runner has reached first base, his object is to pass in succession second, third, and home base, and if he succeed in reaching the last- named without being put out, he scores one run for his side. He can be put out, after he has reached first base by being touched with the ball in the hands of one of the opposite side while he is not touching a base, and in other ways as told in Rule 50; but these do not often occur. He cannot be put out while he is standing on a base ; but as two players cannot occupy the same base at the same time, he must leave the base before the base-runner follow- ing him reaches it. When a player is thus compelled to leave his base, he is said to be " forced." A base- runner usually keeps close to his base while the ball is near him, but when it is in the hands of the Pitcher or the Catcher he " leads off " a short distance toward the next base, so as to be ready to run to it should the Batsman strike a fair ball. When a foul ball is struck, all base-running after the ball leaves the bat is void, and the runners must return to the bases from which they started, re- touching the bases they have just left. Sometimes a base-runner can make his next base by leading off and then running while the ball is being thrown by the Pitcher to the Catcher, hoping to reach the base before the latter can throw the ball to the Baseman. This is called " stealing a base." If the ball is thrown to the Baseman before the runner makes his base, he may then try to return to his former base, if it has not been occupied by another player. The basemen on each side of him then usually try to put him out by throwing the ball from one to the other, while they walk toward each other, keeping the runner be- tween them till one is near enough to touch him. This is called " run- ning out between bases," but it does not happen often with skillful play- ers. Sometimes, in such a case, the runner will manage to slip past one of the basemen and make his base. In any case where there is a dispute as to whether a man has been put out or not, the umpire decides, as he does in all disputed points throughout the game. Sometimes a baseman, after putting out a man, can get the ball to another base in time to put out someone else, or a fielder, after catching a fly and thus putting the striker out, may throw out a base-runner. These and similar cases are called "double- plays." If three men are thus put BASEi BALL 5^ BASE BALL out, it is a "triple-play," but this occurs very seldorii. When the Catcher lets a ball from the Pitcher pass him (called a " passed ball "), and the back-stop is placed at ninety feet back of the home plate, the runner may take as many bases as he is able. When the back-stop is not so placed, only one base is al- lowed. Sometimes the Batsman will strike the ball so far that he can safely run to second or third base, or even around to home base. In the last case he makes a " home run," while at the same time sending in all the base-runners ahead of him, if any are on base at the time. Thus, by a skillful hit when the bases are " full," a Batsman may enable four runners to score. As soon as three players are out, the sides change places, and, if no one has reached home base, the score for that inning of the side that has just left the bat is nothing, no matter how many men may be on bases. The game goes on as before with the sides reversed, and when three men of the second side have been put out the first inning is ended. In any inning that man goes first to the bat whose name follows, in the batting order, that of the one who last com- pleted his time at the bat (not the one who was out last or the one who went to the bat last) in the previous inning. The game consists of nine such in- nings, and the side that scores the most runs is the winner. If the same number of runs has been scored by each side at the end of the ninth inning, a tenth must be played, or more, if necessary, till the game is decided. Each inning is divided into halves, during each of which a different side is at the bat. At the end of an entire inning, when the sides have been at the bat the same number of times, the innings are said to be " even" ; but when the side that struck first has been at the bat once more than the other, the innings are said to be " uneven." If the side that would go to the bat last is ahead at the middle of the ninth or any subsequent inning, the last half of that inning is omitted, as it could not affect the result of the game, but only increase the winners' score. Similarly, if the side last at bat scores the winning run before putting out its three men, the rest of the inning is omitted. If a player reaches his base, he does so either because he made so good a hit that the best fielding could not have put him out, or because one of the fielders did not do his duty. In the former case, the Batsman is said to have made a base- hit, or a two-, three-, or four-base hit, as the case may be ; in the latter case, the fielder is said to have made an " error." Likewise, a fielder that allows a base-runner to make a new base, when he might have stopped him, makes an error. A run made entirely without the aid of errors on the opposite side is called an " earned run." Errors, base-hits, and earned runs are scored, not because they count in deciding the results, but because they serve to show whether a game is won by the skill of the winners or the carelessness or bad playing of the losers ; and they also show which are the best players on a side. They are more carefully considered under Scoring. The Catcher. This player usually wears gloves, made for the purpose, to protect his hands, a cage, or mask, of strong steel wire over his face, and sometimes a padded body protector, as in Figure i. When there are no men on bases, and the batsman has less than two strikes, the Catcher usually stands back and takes the Pitcher's balls on the first bounce, or allows them to strike the high board fence at his rear without trying to catch them. When the Batsman has two strikes, the Catcher stands close to him (called playing close to,or behind, the bat), so that at the next strike he may catch the ball on the fly, and so Base ball ^1 Base ball put the striker out. When there is a man on third base, he also Catcher. — Fig. i. plays close to the bat, so as to give the base-runner no chance to reach Catcher. — Fig. 2. home. He keeps on the lookout to see that no men " steal " bases, and tries to " throw them out " if possi- ble. He tries to catch those foul balls that are struck to the Batsman's rear, and any fair balls that fall but a short distance in front of the Home-plate. When a fair ball falls between Catcher and Pitcher, or in any other case where it is doubtful which player should take a ball, the captain of the side calls out the name of the one he wishes to catch it. Besides these duties, the Catcher generally acts as Home-Baseman. Pitcher. Tke Pitcher. His chief duty is to throw his ball so that the Batsman will find difficulty in striking it. For this purpose he often throws the ball in a curve, so that the Batsman is puzzled to know just where it will cross the home-plate. This is done by giving the ball a twist as it is thrown. A swiftly moving ball pushes the air in front of it into a sort of elastic cushion, and if the ball is twisting at the same time the cushion will be a little more elastic on BASE BALL 58 BASE BALL one side than on the other, pushing the ball slightly sideways, and thus making its path a curve. By mak- Straight Delivery. ing the ball twirl in one direction or another, the skillful Pitcher can curve it to the right or to the left upward In-Curve. or downward, so that only a bats- man of equal skill can strike it at all. The illustrations show the positions of the hand and body for various curves. It requires much judgment to make a curved ball pass over the Home-plate, for when it leaves the Pitcher's hand it seems as if it were going to pass to one side. That the Catcher may not be puzzled as well as the Batsman, the Pitcher makes signals, usually by moving his hand or head, to tell the Catcher how the ball is to be curved. When he is pitching the ball, he must not step Straight Delivery. outside of the lines that determine his position, as laid down in the rules. While engaged in pitching the ball the Pitcher must also keep close watch of the base-runners, trying to put them out by throwing the ball to the bases when they are off their guard. He should also be ready to " back up" the Catcher, or stand behind him, when the ball is thrown in from the field to put a runner out at home. Sometimes he backs up the First Baseman in like manner. The Pitcher must not pre- tend to deliver the ball without does, he is said " balk," and the Batsman is allowed to go to first base. (See Rule 32.) The Baseuian. The principal duty of the Baseman is to guard his base and be ready to put out any base- runner who is try- ing to make it. The First Base- man usually does this simply by catching the ball and touching his base before the runner — the others, in most cases, put the run- ner out by touch- ing him with the ball before he reaches the base. When, however, the runner is " forced " the basemen need only touch the base before the runner In-Curve. doing so. If he to have made a Out-Curve. BASE BALL 59 BASE BALL while holding the ball. The base- men also act as fielders, and render assistance, when they can, in back- ing up other players. The Fielders. The duty of the fielders is to catch all fair and foul balls they can " on the fly," and to " field " or throw all balls as quickly as possible to the proper place. This place varies ac- cording to the state of the game and the position of the fielder. If there is no man on Third Base, and there is one on First and on Second Base, the ball goes either to Second or Third Base, ac- Drop. Fielder. cordmg to the chances for inter- cepting the runner. If there is a man on Third, the ball is usually thrown to Home Base, for it is of the first importance to prevent a man's scoring. But if the fielder sees he cannot possibly get the ball to Home Base in time, he throws Short Stop. it to one of the other bases. Or, if there are already two out, he may throw it to First Base, knowing that no matter if there is a man on Batsman. Third Base his run cannot count after the third out. It requires careful judgment in the fielder to know ex- ^ASE BALL 60 BASE BALL actly what to do in many cases, and he must decide instantly, as a sec- ond's delay might lose the game. An out-fielder may be idle during a great part of the game, but he must be ready to act at any moment, and on no account allow a ball to pass him. .The Short Stop is an in-fielder, placed where batsmen are very apt to strike their balls, as experience shows. The Batsman. The Batsman strives to strike his ball in the place where it is least expected, or where it will be hardest to reach. If he sees that the Pitcher is giving him a good ball, he usually strikes at it, for it will be counted as a strike whether he does so or not ; but a bad ball he lets pass him, unless he sees that he can make a good hit with it. As soon as the Batsman strikes a ball he runs. HARVARD. J 1 P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 p4 ^ < ^ 1 ^Mf/jlm 2 * / '* + z J III! 1 2 (OA/mMjJy If B-4 / -^ + ■h F-6 3 z 3 II Z J 3 ^j^JurL cf 0-A S-5 ~T 1 F'S + . I 1 I 4 1^/xAcA/ ss 3" ■0 ¥ ■^. z 1 II 1111.1 '"If 5 /oA^JtM/ c. / f-; # 1 ti II 6 ,/^M rf • F'K z B-A 1 7 Xt S V myive,^ „„,^-„. . -- , Time, ^J __ ^^ 1 without waiting to see whether it be foul or fair, returning to his bat if the umpire decides it to be foul. In striking, some batsmen swing the bat and others merely push it against the ball. Usually the striker steps forward just as he hits, to give more force to his stroke. The Base Runner is usually aided by the advice of a " coach," one of the men on his own side, who must stand outside the 50 foot line (see diagram.) When running for a base a good player often finishes by throw- ing himself at full length, and sHding toward it, either feet-foremost or head-foremost, thus avoiding the touch of the baseman. Skillful base runners have signals by which they inform the batsman when they are going to " steal " a base, thus en- abling him to hit to better advantage. BASE BALL 6i BASE BALL For instance, if a runner on First Base tries to steal Second Base, the Second Baseman will run to protect his base, leaving the field open, and a hit between the two bases will be a good one. Much of the success of the game depends on skillful base- running. Score. The principal duty of the Scorers, of which there are generally two, — one for each side, — is to keep record of all the runs and outs as they occur, so as to be able to tell at any time the state of the game. They usually do still more than this, keeping a complete record of the progress of the game, as will be shown below. The score is kept in a blank book prepared for the purpose, of which there are various forms. One page of one of them is represented below. It will be seen that the names YALE. ll 6 p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 p^' P o A w 1 y&Zl/m^ ss ■\r ±- F-S 3 3 /// 3 II '.Z 2 m^i 3 2, ■t t 1- M-e 1 3 fl '.X 3 ^.Jmim I B-5 S-A z' tB t^ 1 Z >tii'//i 5^ 4 iSac^My 2 B-A ~3~ B'A e-H t Cf / H/M III 5 C0y?4U/UV c / ■t i-A / / 11/11/ 6 II ■1 6 t/^^ rf S'-A a. n P-A • 1 1 /I X 7 y.^ i -;;-r-— T- 'T-— T" r -r--r- ^^-:| q ,2. 1 1 1 1 : 1 ! ! ! ! / WW 11 1 i i 1 ! II 1 / wr PIECE ' 14 I3 'Z 11 IX 'A 'B f N..5 N. 3 N.-2 _ ■evEi. N. 1 How to Plan a Boat. BOAT-BUILDING 98 BOAT-BUILDING The hull is now turned over and hollowed out with gouges, leaving the sides thick at first, and thinning them gradually. The upper half Arrangement of Masts. inch of the sides should be made very thin, for bulwarks, and a ledge should be left just below for the deck to rest upon. This is made of a thin piece of pine, cut to the proper shape. Some boats require a false keel to make them float properly. This is of lead, shaped in a mold made of three laths nailed together to form a narrow channel, which with the dimensions given above must be an inch and a half in depth and three-eighths of an inch thick. The channel is stopped at the ends with wood, so as to be exactly the length of the boat's keel. Six or eight nails are driven into the bot- tom of the mold, so that they will project from the lead keel when molded, and enable it to be fast- ened to the boat. The bottom of the mold should therefore be thin, so that it can easily be pulled away from the nails. The mold is now filled with melted lead, which is taken out when it has hardened, and may then be shaped with a plane, as if it were of wood. The lower end of the false keel, at the bow, should be rounded. Before nailing down the deck, holes must be bored in it for the mast and rudder. The hole for the mast in a boat of the size described should be half an inch in diameter, and eight inches from the bow. A similar hole must be bored part way through the bottom of the hull to fix the lower end. The mast should be half an inch in diameter, and is best made of pine. It is made in two parts, the lower of which must meas- ure, between the deck and the top- mast, just three times the greatest width of the vessel, in this case fif- teen inches. Adding four inches for the part below the deck, and two and a half for the mast-head, the total length becomes twenty-one and a half inches. The mast must be rounded with a plane, or by whit- tling, and the mast-head (the upper two and a half inches) must be whit- tled down to half its diameter, to join it to the topmast. A quarter of an inch at the top must be made still smaller. The topmast is fastened to Ribs, Keel, and Keelson. the lower mast by two "caps," seen in the illustration, the lower one rest- ing on the lower part of the reduced portion, and the upper one fitting i BOAT-BUILDING 99 BOAT-BUILDING the narrowest part. These may be made of hard wood or of brass. Be- fore fixing the mast in the place pre- pared for it, about a dozen brass rings are placed on it. A cross-tree of flattened brass wire equal in length to the width of the boat is fastened at the top of the lower cap, and, through holes drilled in the ends, cords pass from the top of the mast to the bulwarks. These are called stays. The arrangement of these and other parts of the rigging for a cutter yacht is shown in the figure. (For definitions of the various terms used, and hints on rigging different styles of boats, see the article on SAILING.) The bowsprit should have a length of about twice the beam, and a notch should be cut in the stem of the boat to receive it. Instead of having a hull hollowed out of a block of wood, the boat may be built up like a real one. The keel is first made, then the stem and stern posts are set up, and then the 1. Mast. 2. Topmast. 3. Bowsprit. 4- Ji^- ., 5. Foresail. 6. Mainsail. 7. Topsail. 8. Gaff. 9. Boom. 10. Shrouds. Topmast Shrouds. Runner. Preventer. Topmast Stay. Forestay. Bobstay. Boom Lifts. Ensign Halyards. Mainsail Halyards. Throat of Mainsail. CI. Crosstree. 22. Leech of Mainsail. 23. Mainsheet. 24. Tiller. 25. Companion. 26. Bulwarks. 27. Hull. 28. Ensign. 29. Burgee. 30. Foresheet. ribs, which are sawed out of wood with a scroll saw, in curves, which are given by the cardboard models de- scribed above. The ribs are fitted in notches in the keel, held in place by glue, and then a strip of wood called the keelson is laid along the inside and nailed down to both ribs and keel, as shown in the figure. Then flexible boards, not more than one- eighth of an inch thick, are nailed over the ribs with fine brads, to form the planking, the cracks between be- ing tilled in with putty. The rest of the construction is the same as with hollowed-out boats. Sails. Patterns should first be cut from paper and adjusted in place, and, when these have been cut to the proper shape, they should be copied in white muslin. Each sail should be hemmed around the edges. The L.ofC. BOBECHON loo BOILING luff of the mainsail is sewed to the rings on the mast, and its upper edge is fastened to the gaff by cords. The lower edge is fastened to the boom only at the corners. BOAT RACING. See Rowing. BOBECHON, a game played by any number of persons with the toy shown in the illustration, which is made as follows : Make a tight roll of flannel or cloth, about three inches high and half an inch in di- ameter, and secure it by winding thread around it. Sew this to the center of a circular piece of fur or very thick cloth, an inch and a half in diameter, so that it will stand upright on this circle as a base. This toy is called the Bobechon. It Bobechon. is placed upright in the center of an ordinary dinner plate, and a small coin is laid on the top of the flannel roll. The object is to remove both Bobechon and coin from the plate with a flexible rod or cane, like the end of a fishing rod. The coin need not keep its place on the flannel roll, so long as both it and the Bobechon fall clear of the plate. The players take turns, and he who succeeds most times, in a number previously agreed upon, is the winner. The task seems an easy one, but it is really very difficult, as will be seen on trial. If the rod be applied near the base, the Bobechon with its coin may be slid along till it reaches the sloping edge of the plate, and if it is then given a push, the coin will fall off into the plate. If, on the other hand, the rod be now applied to the upper part of the toy, it will tip over, throwing the coin outside, but itself falling on the plate. The proper way is to press the end of the rod on the farther edge of the plate so that it curves downwards, as shown in the second figure, the lower part of the curve touching the flannel roll just where it is sewed to the circle. The Bobechon is then pushed slowly along till it reaches the sloping edge, when by a peculiar twist of the rod, learned only by practice, both it and the coin can be thrown without the plate. The toy is shown in the up- per part of the cut ; the way of re- moving it in the lower. Bobechon is a French game, and is said to be much used by sharpers in that country, who, being prac- ticed, can always succeed, while their victims, who think the task very easy, always fail. BOILING, Experiments in. i. The boiling of water is described in C. C. T. in the article Steam. It is best observed by filling a test-tube (see Chemical Experiments) a quarter full of cold water, and hold- ing the lower end in the flame of an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner. Little bubbles will first form and stick to the sides of the tube. By and by these will disappear, and other little bubbles, like white specks, will form in the lower part of the liquid, and rise toward the top, but will disappear before they get there. These rapidly increase in numbers and size and go higher and higher, till finally they burst from the top, when it is seen that they consist of steam. When they vanish before reaching the top a simmering or " singing " noise is heard. After- ward the noise is the bubbling sound of boiling. The first formed bubbles, which stick to the sides, are com- posed of air, which was dissolved in the water. The others are com- posed of steam, but as fast as they BOILING loi BOILING get further away from the heat of the flame they condense back to water, making the sound of simmer- ing. By and by the water gets so hot all the way through that they can rise out of the top. 2. Buy a small chemical thermo- meter, which is simply a thermome- ter without any tin case, so that it can be put into liquids to get their temperature. The scale is marked directly on the glass tube. One can be made by taking an ordinary ther- mometer, scratching the divisions of the scale on the tube with a diamond, or a sharp file, and then removing the bulb and tube from the case. Put the thermometer into water be- fore it begins to boil, being careful that it does not touch the bottom or sides of the vessel. As the water gets hotter, the mercury will rise until it boils, when the thermometer will stand at about 212'', if it has a Fahrenheit scale, or at 100° if it is Centigrade (See Thermometer, in C. C. T.). Chemical thermometers usually have the Centigrade scale, but if the one used has been made from an ordinary thermometer it will probably be Fahrenheit. This tem- perature is called the boiling point. If you now try to make the thermo- meter rise higher by continuing to hold it in the boiling water, you will find it impossible. No matter how much the heat is increased, the mer- cury will not rise any more, but the water will simply boil away faster. The reason is, that as soon as the water begins to boil all the heat is used in turning it to steam and not in raising its temperature. 3. Boil some water for ten or fif- teen minutes ; let it cool and then heat it again with the thermometer in it. By keeping it very still, you will probably find that it can be raised several degrees above the boil- ing point, without causing it to boil. If some scraps or filings of metal be now cast into it the water will at once begin to boil, and the mercury will fall to the boiling point. The reason is that water with air dis- solved in it boils sooner than pure water, and by boiling it once the air is driven out, so that at the second heating it rises higher than 212*^. But when scraps of metal are dropped in they carry air with them, and boiling begins. 4. Find the boiling point of water with various substances — for instance salt or sugar — dissolved in it. In all cases it is higher than the boiling point of pure water. The reason is that it takes some heat to separate the water from the salt or sugar when it is turning to steam. 5. Boil water in a glass flask, and while it is boiling cork the flask tightly, and remove it at once from the flame. When it stops boihng pour cold water over the flask, and it will begin to boil again. This may be done several times. The same result will follow if the flask be plunged into cold water. The rea- son is that when a flask of boiling water is corked the space above the water is filled with steam, when thi: steam is turned to water by being cooled some of the pressure is re- moved from the surface of the water, which, accordingly, begins to boil again, since it is easier for the bub- bles of steam to get out of the water. 6. Some time when you go up on a high mountain, take with you a chemical thermometer and an alco' hoi lamp, and find the boihng point of water there. It will be lowei* than 212''. This is because not so much air is pressing on the water on the summit as in the valley below. Sometimes the height of mountains is measured by finding the boiling point of water on their summits. On a mountain 6000 feet high, water boils at about 200° Fahrenheit, in- stead of 212". 7. Find the boiling points of other fluids than water. It will be found that some are higher and some are lower, and that it is impossible to boil some of them at all — oils for instance. BOOKBINDER BOOK NOTICES 8. Pour a little ether into a test-tube and hold it in the hand. The heat of the hand will cause it to boil, its boil- ing point being only 99'^ Fahrenheit. 9. Mix together water and bisul- phide of carbon, both previously heated to 113'* Fahrenheit. The mixture will at once begin to boil. This is because, contrary to the usual rule, a mixture of these two liquids boils at a lower temperature than either of them separately. 10. Weight a piece of ice as large as the tip of the Httle finger, by tying a bit of lead to it, so that it will sink to the bottom of a test-tube of water. Incline the tube and hold it in a flame so that the upper part of the water will be heated. The water above the ice may thus be boiled while the ice remains unmelted. The reason is that the water is a poor conductor of heat. If the ice be above the place where the heat is applied, the experiment does not succeed, because hot water, being lighter than cold, ascends and melts the ice. BOOKBINDER, a game played by any number of persons, who sit in a circle, each holding a book on the back of his clenched fists. One, who has been chosen bookbinder and stands in the middle of the Manner of Holding Book. circle, goes to any player and seizing that player's book attempts to rap his knuckles, which the holder of the book tries to avoid by pulling back his hands quickly. If the book- binder succeed in this, the player whose knuckles he raps changes places with him ; otherwise, he re- places the book and tries to do the same with some one else. The book- binder may pretend to seize a book without actually doing so, and if the holder pulls away his hands so that the book fall, he must take the lead- er's place as if his knuckles had been rapped. The leader can make this game very exciting if he run quickly from one to another, pretending to take up one book and then seizing another, thus keeping the players constantly on the lookout. BOOK NOTICES. A game played by any number of persons, each of whom has a pencil and sheet of paper. The players usually sit around a table, and each begins the game by writing at the top of the paper the pretended title of a book. The papers are then folded so as to hide what has been written, and passed to the left. Each then writes, just under the hidden title, the word " or " and follows it by a pretended sub-title. After this, the following are written in like manner, the pa- pers being folded and passed, after each writing, as before. (3) The word " by," followed by a person's name (generally that of one of the players); (4) the words "author of," followed by another title; (5) the word "or" followed by another sub-title ; (6) a pretended critical notice of the book ; (7) the name of a newspaper or magazine. The number of titles and notices may be increased at the pleasure of the company. When the papers are finished they are passed to the left again, and read aloud, one by each player ; or one of the company may be chosen to read them all. An ex- ample of one of the papers thus writ- ten is as follows : " The Witch's Fate; or, A Treatise on Soap Boil- ing, by James M , author of The Heavenly Bodies ; or. What I Found in My Hat. This work, by its pro- found learning and fascinating style, can scarcely fail to place the author in the same rank with Shakespeare. London Times." BOOMERANG 103 BOOMERANG BOOMERANG, a flat curved piece of wood, used as a missile. When held by one end and thrown, it moves in a curve, and if thrown skillfully can be made to return to the place from which it started. Several boomerangs can be made, as shown in the illustration, from a pieceof hickory wood, 1, half an inch thick, by steaming- it thoroughly, and then bending it so that the sides Making Boomerang. are nearly at a right angle. The wood can be held in shape by tying it, till it is dry, and then strips about a quarter of an inch thick may be sawed from it, each of which when shaped with a knife will be a boomerang. The shape is shown at 2, and the end- wise view, when it is sawed across the middle, at 3. A single boom- erang may be cut or sawed from a flat piece of wood, but it will be apt to spHt. A small boom- erang may be cut from pasteboard, and sent by placing it on a book with one end projecting over the right edge. The book is held in the left hand and the end of the boomerang struck with a ruler or paper-cutter held in the right hand. The best pasteboard boomerangs are Sending a Paper Boomerarg. about an inch long, and can be snapped with the forefinger from the edge of a book. To throw a wooden boomerang accurately requires great skill, and can be learned only by practice. The instrument is held like a club in throwing it, the con- vex side outward. A large open Australian Throwing a Boomerang. space should be taken for the trial, since the boomerang may curve in an unexpected direction. The boomerang is used as a weapon by the natives of Australia, who throw it with great skill, making it strike an enemy in the back, while he is advancing toward them. BOSTON 164 BOSTON BOSTON, a game of cards, played by four persons with a full pack. The cards rank as in Whist. The pack is usually shuffled only at the beginning of the game. Before each succeeding deal it is cut, each player having the right to do so once, the dealer last. Shuffling is omitted that cards of the same suit may be kept together. The dealer gives each player thirteen cards, four, four, and five at a time. The eldest hand may now say " I pass," or undertake to win five or more tricks (called " bid- ding"). Each player, in turn, has the same privilege, but each must pass if he cannot bid to take more tricks than any one before him. When a player bids, the one that bid just before him may bid higher if he can, before the next one to the left has the privilege. If all the players pass, there is a new deal. Otherwise the bidding goes on around the table till all but one pass, but no one that has already passed may bid. The remaining bidder names the trump, and playing be- gins, the eldest hand leading. If the bidder wins as many tricks as he bid, or more, he scores the number of points shown in the table given be- low ; otherwise each of the other players scores that number. In- stead of bidding to take a certain number of tricks, a player may bid " Great Misery " or " Little Misery," and he may do this when he has al- ready passed. He who bids Great Misery must play his cards so as not to take a single trick. If he take one, he loses. He who bids Little Misery must discard one card, and play the other twelve without taking a trick. In either case there is no trump. A player may bid either Great or Little Misery Ouverte (French for Open), in which case he must lay his cards face upward on the table and play them in that man- ner. These bids rank differently, as is shown in the following list of bids, where they are given in their order, beginning with the lowest : 13- Slam. Five Tricks, or Boston. Six Tricks. Seven Tricks. Little Misery. Eight Tricks. Nine Tricks. 7. Great Misery. 8. Ten Tricks. Eleven Tricks. Little Misery Ouverte, Twelve Tricks. Great Misery Ouverte. Thirteen Tricks or 9. 10. II. 12. Grand When all the players pass, instead of having a fresh deal, what is called Misery Partout (Misery All) is some- times played by agreement. In this case there is no trump, and each tries to take as few tricks as he can. Each scores 10 for every trick he has less than each of the others. Thus, if A takes four tricks; B the same; C three and D two, since D has one less than C, two less than B, and two less than A, he scores 50. C scores 20, in like manner, and A and B score nothing. The following table shows the number of points to be scored by a player taking all the tricks he bid, or more : U5 -e Tricks Taken. .^ 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 5 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 6 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 20 7 iB 20 21 22 23 24 2b 8 23 24 26 28 29 31 9 32 34 36 39 41 10 42 45 48 52 II 63 68 72 12 106 114 13 166 If a player does not take as many tricks as he bid, he is said to be " put in for " the number of tricks that are wanting, and each of the other play- ers, all whom play against him, score the number of points he is " put in for." The following table shows what his opponents score in each case : BOSTON 105 BOSTON Q Tricks ' 'Put IN For." ^W I 2 3 31 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 5 II 21 41 50 t 15 24 35 45 55 66 7 19 29 40 50 60 72 82 8 23 34 46 67 78 89 no 9 33 44 57 68 80 92 103 "5 127 10 44 SO 70 82 94 107 119 132 145 157 II 67 80 95 109 123 13a 151 165 180 194 208 12 "3 130 148 165 182 200 217 234 252 270 286 304 13 177 198 222 241 262 284 30s 326 34a 3(^9 390 412 433 The bidder of Little Misery loses or wins 20 points ; of Great Misery, 40 ; of Little Misery Ouverte, 80 ; and of Great Misery Ouverte, 160. The score may be kept with count- ers, in which case they are divided equally among the players at the be- ginning. If the bidder win, each of the others gives him as many count- ers as the points he wins ; if not, he gives each of them as many as the points he loses. Boston is often played with two packs, in which case while the dealer is giving cards from one pack his partner turns up the top card of the other. The suit of the turned-np card is called " First Preference "; that of the same color, " Second Preference "; while the two remain- ing suits are called common suits. When a player bids anything but a Misery, his left-hand neighbor may say " I keep," meaning that he under- takes to win the same number of tricks by making one of the prefer- ence suits trump. This is called " playing in color." The next player may say " I keep over you," meaning that he undertakes to do the same with the turned-up suit as trump. This is called " playing in trump." A bid in color is always preferred to a common bid of the same rank, and one in trump to one in color. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. In cutting for deal, the lowest deals. 2. If there be a misdeal, or the dealer expose any of the other play- ers' cards, there must be a new deal. 3. If two packs are used, they must be used alternately for dealing. 4. If a player deal out of turn or with the wrong pack, and complete the deal unnoticed, it must stand; and the player at his left deals next. 5. No player who passes may afterward bid during the same hand, unless he bids a Misery. 6. If a card be led or played out of turn, it must be taken back into the owner's hand, unless the whole trick has been played. 7c Cards so taken back, or other- wise exposed must be played when they are called for, unless playing them would cause a revoke. 8. Only the last trick may be looked at. French Boston, or Boston de Fon- tainebleau. In bidding, the suits rank as follows, beginning with the highest : Diamonds, Hearts, Clubs, Spades. Each bidder must name with his bid the suit he purposes to make trumps (except of course in the case of a Misery, when there is no trump), and the same bid in a higher suit is given preference over it. The bids to win a certain num- ber of tricks are called Six Levees, Seven Levees, and so on, and the Grand Slam is called " Chelem," or '* Grand Boston." There are two new bids : " Picolissimo " (ranking between Seven and Eight Levees), in which the bidder discards one card as in Little Misery, but tries to win one trick, neither more nor less ; and " Grand Boston on the Table," in which the bidder exposes his hand and tries to win every trick. The highest bidder, if he has bid to take BOSTON 1 06 BOTTLE TRICK not more than ten tricks, may call for a partner or " Whister." Any player that is willing to aid him may answer •* Whist," and the two to- gether must then take three more tricks than the number that was bid. The partners share in profit and loss. If two or more players answer " Whist," that one is accepted who sits nearest the bidder's left hand. The number of points or counters won or lost by the bidder is shown in the following table: Five Levees (Boston), .... 10 Six Levees, 30 Little Misery, ....... 75 Seven Levees, 50 PicoHssimo, 100 Eight Levees, 70 Grand Misery, 150 Nine Levees, 90 Little Misery on the Table, . . 200 Ten Levees, no Grand Misery on the Table, . 250 Eleven Levees, 130 Twelve Levees, 150 Chelem, or Grand Boston, . . 400 Chelem on the Table, .... 600 The above figures are for the cases where Clubs or Spades are trumps. If Hearts are trumps 10 must be added to each number, and if Diamonds are trumps, 20 must be added to each number. For every trick taken beyond the number bid, 5 must be added. The Ace, King, Queen, and Knave of Trumps are called honors. If the successful bidder hold the majority of them, each one that he has more than his opponents counts as an extra trick. Thus, if he hold three honors to his opponents' one, he is said to be "two by honors," and scores for two extra tricks. If he hold all the honors, he is " four by honors," and scores for four extra tricks. Honors do not count as tricks bid ; for instance, if a player bid Six Levees, and take only five tricks, he loses, even if he have four honors. In all other respects, French Boston is played like the common game. The player who plays alone, without a Whister, is sometimes said to play " Independ- ence." History. Boston is said to have originated in this country. Some writers say that it was taken to France by Benjamin Franklin and named after his native city. French authors say that the terms " Misery " and " Independence " refer respec- tively to the sufferings of the Amer- icans in the Revolution and the cause for which they fought. Boiteau says: " Boston is the North American Whist ; it was born in the war of independence ; it is a political mani- festo." However this may be, Bos- ton has never been a popular game in this country, but became a great favorite in France, and was much played in Paris in the first half of this century. It is similar to other French games, and is probably of French origin, the name Boston and the terms " Independence," etc., being introduced at the time of the American Revolution. Boston is played in Germany and England also under the same name. BOTTLE LIFTED WITH A STRAW. A bottle may be Hfted with a stout straw, if it be bent and arranged within the bottle as shown in the illustration on next page. BOTTLE, to Crawl into. Lay a bottle on the floor with the neck toward an open door. Say that you propose to try to crawl into it, if the audience will keep so still as not to disturb the experiment, and talk and act any hocus-pocus you please about the difficulties and dangers of the experiment. Make a fuss about ar- ranging your dress, etc., etc. Go in- to the open room and face the audi- ence, squint hard at the bottle, alter your position once or twice, get on your hands and knees, get up and ad- just the bottle again, go out again, and after just enough fuss, but not too much, crawl in to the bottle. BOTTLE TRICK. To pick up a handkerchief from the floor by the BOTTLE TRICK 107 BOUTS-RIMES teeth while balancing a bottle on the head : Bow the head well forward. Lifting Bottle with a Straw. and place an empty claret or cham- pagne bottle on the crown. Gradu- Bottle Trick— Fig. i. ally lower the body on one leg (Fig. i), and come to a kneeling position on both knees. Bend forward with the arms in advance, and parted about two feet, until they touch the floor. Extend the legs one by one backwards, swing forward between the arms so that most of the weight is on them. Seize the handkerchief by the teeth (Fig. 2), or the tongue Bottle Trick— Fig. 2. may assist, and rise as you descended. The bottle will invariably fall a little out of the perpendicular, but with a little practice can be easily kept in balance. The handkerchief should be bunched high, and placed about four feet in front of the body when upright. BOUTS-RIMES (pronounced boo re-mdy), a game in which each player writes on a slip of paper four or more words that rhyme alternately, as boy, long, toy, strong. The slips are mixed ; each player draws one, and must then write a verse whose lines end, in order, with the words he has drawn. The number of words and the order in which they rhyme may be varied by agreement of the players at the beginning of the game, and the subject of the verses may also be given out, increasing the dif- ficulty of the task. History. This game is French in origin, as its name shows. It is said to have been originated in 1648, by the poet Dulos, who was accus- tomed to write the rhymes of his sonnets before he filled in the other words. His friends, amused at this, devised a game on the same plan, and it became very popular in French society. Bouts-Rimes means rhymed ends. The Germans call it Endreim- spiel (end-rhyme-play). The follow- ing verses are said to have been written by Horace Walpole, on BOWLING [o8 BOWLING drawing the four words, brook, why, crook, I: THE GENTLE SHEPHERD. I sits with my toes in a brook, And if any one asks me for why, I hits 'em a rap with my crook, And " 'tis sentiment kills me," says I. Machine Poetry, a kind of Bouts- Rimes where the rhymes are given by the holders of several cards. A pack of playing cards is dealt to the company in order, one at a time. One player begins by throwing out any card and calling out a word. The players who hold the correspond- ing cards in the other three suits do likewise, in order, to the left, each giving a word to rhyme with the first player's. The player of the last card must make a stanza of four lines ending with the four words in the order in which they were given. If a player hold more than one card of the same kind he may play them one after the other, or wait till the second round, as agreed by the com- pany before the same begins. In- stead of having all the rhymes in the stanza the same, two may be given alternately, or in any way the play- ers choose. Sometimes the first player makes the " poetry " instead of the last player, and the game may be varied in other ways. Instead of giving simply a word, the players may each furnish an en- tire line of the stanza. Another method is for one player to select a sonnet from the works of any poet, and then read aloud, in order, the final words of each line, waiting after each till every player has composed a line ending with that word. The players thus com- pose poems the last words of whose lines are alike, but which differ widely in other respects. BOWLING, the game of bowls, originally played on smooth turf, but now more generally on long, narrow platforms called alleys. The alleys, about 60 feet long and 4 feet wide, are usually constructed of narrow strips of yellow pine, set edgewise. and made very smooth and nearly level. At the lower end is a de- pressed space, commonly floored with tan-bark or sawdust, and padded at the back to break the force of the balls, which are returned to the players by an attendant. The pins used are about 15 inches around jij at the thickest part, and 15 or 16 !' inches high. Balls (bowls) are of different sizes, to suit the taste of the players, varying from 5 to 10 inches in diameter. Ten Pins, the game of bowls most common in the United States. The pins, ten in number, are set up on spots arranged in a triangle, as shown in the figure : 0000 000 o o o The pin at the point of the triangle, which is toward the player, is called the King Pin. The players take turns, and continue to bowl in the same order during the game, which lasts until each has had ten turns. Each player scores one point for every pin he knocks down, and is al- lowed to bowl three balls in each turn, unless he knocks down all the pins before he has used that number, in which case his play ceases. If he overturn them all with one ball (called making a " ten-strike ") he is said to have a " double spare," and whatever he makes with the first two balls in his next turn counts on the former turn as well as on the latter. Thus, if a player make 10 with his first ball, he stops playing. If, in his next turn, he make with the three balls 4, 2, and 3 respectively, he scores 16 for his first turn and 9 for his second, the 4 and 2 counting twice. If the first ball of the second turn also make a ten-strike, then the first of the third turn counts as part of each of the three turns. If the pins are down after two balls have been played, the player has a " single spare" or "spare," and reckons in the same way what he makes with BOWLING 109 BOWLING the first ball of his next turn. If a spare or double spare be made in the tenth turn, the player rolls one or two extra balls. If a player make a spare, a cross is marked opposite his score for that turn ; if he make a double spare, a double cross is used. This way of scoring, which is some- times called " counting old and new," is generally used, but the players may agree on any other ; for instance, if a player make a ten-strike, the pins may be set up again, and he may finish rolling his three balls before the next player takes his turn. The scores are usually kept with chalk on blackboards at the side of the alleys. He wins whose score is the highest at the end of the game. The players may be divided into two sides, in which case the points made by those on each side are added to determine the winning side. Where there are two alleys, the players use them alternately, and the pins are set up on one alley, while bowling is go- ing on at the other. Where there are only two players, they often bowl at the same time on different alleys, but they should change alleys at the end of each game. Rules. The following rules are substantially those of the Amateur Athletic Bowling League, which have been adopted also by the Ama- teur Athletic Union. Those relating merely to matters of discipline have been omitted : 1. The game adopted to be played by clubs belonging to this League, shall be what is known as the Amer- ican Ten Frame Game. 2. In the playing of match games there shall be a line drawn upon the alleys sixty feet from the head or front pin. 3. In the playing of match games, any wooden ball may be used that does not exceed twenty-seven inches in circumference. 4. The game shall consist of ten frames on each side, when, should the number of points be equal, the play shall be continued until a ma- jority of points upon an equal num- ber of frames shall be attained, which shall conclude the game. All strikes and spares made in the ten frame shall be completed before leaving the alley and on same alley as made. 5. In playing all match games, ten players from each Club shall con- stitute a full team. 6. Players must play in regular ro- tation, and after the first inning no changes can be made except with the consent of the Captains. 7. In match games two alleys only are to be used ; a player to roll but one frame at a time, and to change alleys every frame. 8. The umpire shall take great care that the regulations respecting the balls, alleys, and all rules of the game are strictly observed. He shall be the judge of fair and unfair play, and shall determine all disputes and differences which may occur during the game. 9. In all matches the umpire shall be selected by the Captains of the respective teams, and he shall per- form all the duties in Rule 8, except recording the game, which shall be done by two scorers, one of whom shall be appointed by each of the contending clubs. 10. Neither umpire, scorer, or player shall be changed during the match, unless with the consent of both Captains, except for reasons of illness or injury, or for a violation of these rules, and then the umpire may dismiss any such transgressors. 1 1. No person except the Captains shall be permitted to approach or speak with the Umpire, scorers, or players during the progress of the game, unless by special request of the Umpire. 13. Should either Club fail to pro- duce its players within thirty min- utes after the game is called, the Club so failing shall admit a defeat, and the game shall be considered as won, unless the delinquent Club fail to play on account of the recent death of one of its members, and BOWLING no BOWLING sufficient time has not elapsed to enable them to give their oppo- nents due notice before arriving at the place appointed for the match. 14. A player must not step on or over the line in delivering the ball, nor after it has been dehvered, until it leaves the alley. Any ball so de- livered shall be deemed " foul," and the pins (if any made on such ball) shall be placed in the same positions as they were before the ball was rolled. It is also considered a foul ball if any part of the person should touch any part of the alley beyond the line before the ball leaves the alley. All foul balls shall count as balls rolled. 15. Should any ball delivered leave the alley before reaching the pins, or any ball rebound from the back cushion, the pins, if any, made on such balls shall not count, but must be placed in same position as they were before the ball was rolled. All such balls to count as balls rolled. 16. In all match games, two per- sons to act as Judges shall be chosen, one by each Captain, who shall take their positions at the head of the alleys and see that the pins are properly set up, and that no one in- terferes with them in any way until the player is through rolling. They will immediately report to the Cap- tains any irregularities that they may notice during the game. 24. A regulation pin must be used in match playing. Each pin to be from fifteen to sixteen inches in length, fifteen inches in circumfer- ence at the thickest part, and two inches across the bottom. 26. In match games the dead wood must be removed from the alley after each ball. Should a pin fall on the removal of the dead wood, it is to be re-spotted. 27. Sufficient space shall be al- lotted to the participants in the game, to which none but members of the teams shall be admitted. Nine Pins, a bowling game in which the king pin is omitted, and the object is to leave one pin stand- ing. He who does this in three balls or less scores one, and as each has ten turns, no more than ten points can be made. Cocked Hat, a bowHng game in which only the three corner pins of the triangle are set up. The method of playing is the same in Ten Pins. The player scores a point for each pin he overturns, and " spares " are played as in Ten Pins. The game is difficult, as the three pins are so far apart that it is hard to knock more than one at a time. Four Back, a bowling game in which only four pins are set up, forming a straight line across the rear of the alley. Each pin knocked down counts one point, and Spares are scored as in Ten Pins. Parlor Ten Pins. There are sev- eral forms of Ten Pins to be played in the parlor. In one, pins about a foot high are set up at one end of the room, and bowled at from the other with balls about the size of TEN Parlor Ten Pins with Elastic Cord. Croquet balls. In another a minia- ture alley four or five feet long is used, which can be placed on a table. The pins are about three inches high and the balls the size of mar- i BOWLING III BOWLING bles. In still another, a post stands by the side of the pins with an arm projecting over them, and from the arm a ball is hung by a string. The player swings the ball against the pins so as to overturn them. In Germany this is played as a lawn game, the post being two or eight feet high and the pins ordinary ten- pins. It is called there Wurfkegel- spiel (Throw-Bowling). In another form the pins stand on a triangular frame which can be placed on a table. The ball is fastened to one of the angles of the frame by an elastic cord. The player holding the ball stretches the cord about fifteen feet and then releases it, so that the ball will strike the pins. Another kind is played on a board like a Bagatelle board, the balls being moved by a spring. In all these forms of the game the method of scoring may be the same as in regular Ten Pins, or a special method may be agreed on by the players before the game. History. — The game of bowls, still a favorite in England and Scot- land, was practiced as early as the twelfth century. It is played on a bowling-green, on which the turf is closely shaven and rolled, surrounded by a shallow trench. A small round white ball, called the Jack, is placed at one end, and the object of the players is to roll their bowls so that they shall stop near as possible to this mark. The bowls, which are of Bowling in the 13th Century. hard wood,- six or eight inches in di- ameter, are not quite round, but a little one-sided (sometimes they are loaded with lead on one side), so that a peculiar twist is needed to make them go where wanted. The players are generally divided into two sides, and each man on each side has two bowls. The side whose bowls stop nearest the Jack counts one point in the game for each bowl. The number of points to be considered the game is decided before bowling begins. The earliest form of this game is shown probably in the accompany- ing illustration, taken from an Eng- lish manuscript of the thirteenth century, in which the object rolled at is a pin pointed at the top. The French called this form of the game Carreau (paving stone), from the square stone upon which the pin was set. Bowls was a favorite with the Dutch, and the early citizens of New York (then New Amsterdam) used to play it on the ground still called Bowling Green, near the lower end of Broadway. In Paris, the game was played on the ramparts of the city, which were hence called Boule- vards (from boule, a ball), a name now given to the streets that oc- cupy their site. Bowling alleys were first built at noblemen's houses in England. Henry VIII, had sev- eral constructed at the Palace of Whitehall. They became popular and many were built in London, but BOXING 112 BOXING as they grew to be places of resort for bad characters, many laws were made against them, and finally, in 1728 they were abolished, and the statutes against them were not re- pealed till 1845. Our game of Ten Pins is derived from an old English form of bowls called Kayles, Cayles, or Keiles, a corruption of the French Quilles (cones, from the shape of the pins) still played in France under that name. The Kayle pins were set in a row and were of various numbers. Sometimes a stick was thrown at them instead of a ball. Kayle pins were afterwards called Kettle or Kit- tle pins, and then Skittle-pins, and a bowling game called Skittles is still a favorite in England. There were also other bowling games. Nine Pins» the original form of Ten Pins, Kayles. or the game as we play it, came into favor after the abolition of alleys in England. It was also known there as Long Bowling and Dutch Rub- bers. The tenth pin is said to have been added to evade a law prohibit- ing the sport because it was used for gambling. There are a few ten-pin alleys in London, but this form of the game is not played much outside of the United States. There has recently been a great revival of interest in bowling in some parts of the Eastern States. Near New York many places have regular bowling clubs, which are sometimes formed into county leagues, and play regular series of games annually for the champion- ship. BOXING, the art of fighting with the fists. The boxer's hands are usually covered with gloves padded on the back with hair two or three inches thick to prevent injury from a blow. Correct Position. The boxer usu- ally stands with his left foot advanced, and on a line with his adversary, his right being in the rear and turned Boxing Gloves. slightly outward, resting his weight chiefly on the right leg. The fists are closed, not too tightly, and the arms are held as shown in Fig. i. Advancing and Breaking Ground. In advancing the right foot is never put before the left, as in walking, but follows it, faUing nearly on the place BOXING 113 BOXING from which the left was raised. Thus in advancing and retreating the two feet keep at about the same dis- Fig. I. tance. Retreating is called " break- ing ground," and is always per- formed by first moving the right foot backward and then drawing the left back to the place just occupied by the right. V^ \ \ 0: L/ Fig. 2. Both on Guard. The boxers stand so facing each other that the left fist of one is on a level with the other's wrist and their left toes are 15 to 18 inches apart. The left hand is used for striking when the oppo- nent is just within distance, and the right when he is close. A skillful boxer makes his blows from the shoulder, and renders them more effective, when he wishes, by throw- ing the weight of his whole body forward (Fig. 2). Blows made by swinging the arms like a windmill should never be used by a beginner. The learner should take care never to hit fiercely when out of distance, as it jars the muscles. The left foot and hand should be kept well in front, and after delivering a blow the boxer should move to the right, thus keeping away from his opponent's right arm. Guards. — Blows may be met by "guarding" or "stopping." The former means receiving an adver- Fig. 3. sary's blow on the right or left arm as the occasion demands, the latter is planting a sudden blow which pre- vents the opponent's hit from reach- ing its destination. Thus, if the boxer sees that his enemy is about to deliver a body-blow with his left, he may guard with the right, or stop the intended hit by delivering a quick blow at the adversary's face before he can get his head down, which would be his natural position in de- livering the blow. In guarding the blows should be caught on the muscles of the forearm slantingly, and never, if possible, on the bone. To be a skillful boxer it is best to BOXING 114 BOXING take lessons of one who is proficient in the art, as it is difficult to teach it on paper. The four principal blows made use of in boxing, with their recognized guards, will now be described. They are 1. Left hand at the head. 2. Left hand body-blow. 3. Right hand at the head. 4. Right hand body-blow. The first is met by leading off in like manner at the opponent's head, at the same time throwing up the right or guard arm to catch his blow (Fig. 3). Care must be taken not to obstruct the sight, for the boxer must never take his eye from his opponent. Each boxer thus makes the same blow (Fig. 4), and the same guard at once. This movement, which is very common, is called the " double lead and stop." Fig. 4. In guarding the left hand body- blow, the boxer should bear in mind that it will fall on his left side and therefore must be taken on his left arm. The right arm must therefore be put up at once and the left arm dropped across the body, keeping the elbow well into the side and the fore- arm braced firmly against the ribs. As the blow is taken the boxer should " break ground " a little. For a right hand blow at the head the usual guard is to raise the left elbow quickly, pointing it nearly in the direction of the coming blow, and at the same time drop the left fist toward the body, turning the palm a little outward. Leaning forward the boxer catches the blow on the fore- arm, near the elbow, and and at the same time retires slightly. To guard the right hand body- Fig. 5. blow, the left hand is dropped almost at full length, the fist touch- ing the inner side of the left thigh, and at the same moment the shoulder is raised quickly toward the chin rounding the whole upper arm over the chest, and slightly turning the left side (Fig. 5). The heart and the whole of the left side are thus com- pletely shielded. Feinting, pretending to strike one blow when another is intended. A feint may be made by an actual movement of the hand, or simply by glancing at one place and then strik- ing at another. Ducking. A movement of the head in sparring, called "head-work " or " ducking," generally accompanies a counter (explained below), the head being bent toward the hand which delivers the counter. The rule is always to duck in the opposite di- rection from the enemy and not to raise the head till the boxer is out of BOXING BOXING his reach. There are three distinct " ducks," I. The duck to the right, allowing a blow to pass by the left ear (Fig. 6). Fig. 6. 2. To the left, letting a blow pass to the right. 3. Forward, lowering the head so that the blow passes directly over it. (Fig. 7). The boxer must be careful not to duck too soon, or his opponent will have time to change the direction of his blow. When ducking the oppor- tunity should always be taken to de- liver a blow at the same time. Counters. A " counter " is a blow given by a boxer when he sees his adversary about to strike, and is accompanied by a motion to ward off Fig. 9. the opponent's attack. In a " plain " or " straight " counter both boxers strike at once with the same hands. The blows may both take effect (Fig. 8) or both men may duck (Fig 9). In a "cross counter" as one boxer leads off the other strikes across the former's arm. The right hand cross-counter is given by BOXING Ii6 BOXING stepping in lo to 15 inches as the opponent leads at the head, ducking to the left, turning the body so as to bring the right arm well up, and striking with it over the opponent's outstretched left. The blow is natu- rally delivered upward at the jaw or chin, and the fist performs a quar- ter circle to the left (Fig. 10). To master this blow constant practice and great agility are required. Body-Blows. Though the head and face are the main points of at- tack, the boxer should never let pass an opportunity to strike his adver- sary's chest or stomach. Such op- Fig. 10. portunities will generally offer when the opponent is leading at the head with either of his hands. When he does so, instead of ducking, guard- ing or countering at his head, the boxer should aim a blow at his body, but as this necessitates stepping in closer, it should be certain that there is plenty of room behind for a retreat. A feint at the head,when a body-blow is intended, often causes the opponent to throw up his right arm, thus ex- posing himself. In giving a left hand body-blow, duck to the right (Fig. 6) ; m a right hand blow to the left, to avoid a possible counter. The right hand blow does not re- quire such a long step forward as the left. Upper Cuts. These blows should always be given when an opponent, trying to get in a body-blow, lunges forward with head in advance of his body. Drop the left fist a little and draw the arm back as far as possible ; Fig. II. then swing it up quickly between the opponent's hands so as to strike his chin or nose (Fig. 11), The blow is aided by swinging the body upward. Fig. 12. A skillful boxer often tempts his ad- versary to try an upper cut by throw- BOXING 117 BOXING ing his head forward, and then, duck- ing, gives a heavy left hand body- blow, so an upper cut should rarely be tried against a clever adversary. Side Step. This is executed by ducking smartly to the right as the opponent steps in, passing rapidly under his left arm by a movement like a run and jump combined, and facing him again by turning sharply to the left. This is an effective way of avoiding furious rushes, but must be as quick as lightning, and re- quires long practice. In Fig. 12 the boxer on the right is just getting out of reach by the side step. In-Fighting. This takes place when a boxer succeeds in getting both his arms inside his opponent's, when he can give several blows in rapid succession, striking by swing- ing the shoulders forward and not by drawing the arm back (Fig. 13). Fig. 13. Sometimes a boxer leads with two blows in succession, striking with left hand at the face, for instance, and then with the same hand, or with the right hand, at either face or body. The beginner should practice each blow and guard separately, slowly at first, and then increasing in rapidity, returning to the position of guard after each blow. The boxer should avoid getting ex- cited, should fix his eyes on his op- ponent, and should try to tell by his movements what his intentions are. He should never do the same thing twice in succession. In some boxing contests wrestling forms a part, but in others it is forbidden. In general a boxer should avoid getting to close quarters with a heavier adversary, and with a taller opponent should direct his blows at the body. Supplementary Exercise. Prac- tice with Indian clubs and dumb- bells (see Gymnastics) is good for the boxer, but his special exercise is that known as " punching the bag." Three kinds of bags are commonly used ; the first or heavy bag, weighs 10 to 20 pounds and is made of chamois skin or kid stuffed with horse-hair. It is suspended from the ceiling by a rope. The method of using it is to set it swinging and then follow it about, hitting it as it moves away from the boxer. The heavy bag should not be used by a beginner. The light or flying bag is of inflated India rubber. The object is never to let the bag get past without hitting it, and as it flies about very rapidly, this is excellent training for quick movement. The third bag is the one most generally in use. It resem- bles the flying bag, but is attached to the floor as well as to the ceiling and does not require quite as much agility to hit. Boxing is valued highly as an exercise and also because it trains the learner to use his fists in his own defence, which he may at some time or other have occasion to do. Thomas Hughes, in his story of " Tom Brown's School Days at Rugby," says : " Learn to box then, as you learn to play cricket and foot- ball. Not one of you will be the worse, but very much the better for learning to box well. Should you never have to use it in earnest, there's no exercise in the world so good for the temper, and for the muscles of the back and legs. " Boxing matches now form part of many of the indoor meetings of athletic associations. BOXING Ii8 BOXING RULES. The following are the boxing rules of the National Amateur Athletic Union : 1. In all open competitions the ring shall be roped, and of not less than 12 ft. or more than 24 ft. square. 2. Competitors to box in light boots or shoes (without spikes) or in socks. 3. Weights to be bantam, 105 lbs. and under ; light, 135 lbs, and under ; middle, 158 lbs. and under. 4. In all open competitions the result shall be decided by two judges, with a referee. A timekeeper shall be appointed. 5. In all competitions the number of rounds to be contested shall be three. The duration of the rounds in the trial bout shall be limited to three minutes each. In the " finals " the first two rounds shall be three minutes each, and the final round four minutes. The interval between each round shall be one minute. 6. In all competitions, any com- petitor failing to come up when time is called shall lose the bout. 7. Where a competitor draws a bye, such competitor shall be bound to spar such bye for the specified lime, and with such opponent as the judges of such competition may ap- prove. 8. Each competitor shall be en- titled to the assistance of one second only, and no advice or coaching shall be given to any competitor by his second, or by any other per- son, during the progress of any round. 9. The manner of judging shall be as follows : The two judges and the referee shall be stationed apart. At the end of each bout each judge shall write the name of the competi- tor who, in his opinion, has won, and shall hand the same to an official ap- pointed for the purpose. In the cases where the judges agree, such official shall announce the name of the win- ner, but in cases where the judges disagree, such official shall so inform the referee, who shall thereupon him- self decide. 10. The referee shall have power to give his casting vote when the judges disagree, to caution or dis- quahfy a competitor for infringing rules, or to stop a round in the event of either man being knocked down, provided that the stopping of either of the first two rounds shall not dis- qualify any competitor from com- peting in the final round. And he \ can order a further round, limited to j! two minutes, in the event of the ;; judges disagreeing. \ 1 1 . Tha:t the decision of the judges ' or referee, as the case may be, shall be final. 12. In all competitions the deci- sions shall be given in favor of the competitor who displays the best style and obtains the greatest num- ber of points. The points shall be : for attack, direct clean hits with the knuckles of either hand on any part of the front or sides of head, or body above the belt ; defense, guard- ing, slipping, ducking, counter- hitting, or getting away. Where points are otherwise equal, consider- ation to be given the man who does most of the leading off. 13. The referee may, after caution- ing the offender, disqualify a com- petitor who is boxing unfairly, by flicking or hitting with the open glove, by hitting with the inside or butt of the hand, the wrist or elbow, or by wrestling or roughing at the ropes. 14. In the event of any question arising not provided for in these rules, the judges and referee to have full power to decide such question or interpretation of rule. History. Boxing was said by the Greeks to have been invented by Theseus ; and Pollux, Hercules, and other Greek heroes are described as excelling in it. It was one of the important features of the Olympic games (C. P. P., article Olympia.) Instead of boxing gloves, the ancients BOXING 119 BREATH FIGURES used the cestus, an arrangement of leather strips wound around the hand and sometimes up the arm as far as the elbow. These were some- times loaded with lumps of lead and were very dangerous. In ancient boxing contests the right arm was used chiefly for striking and the left for warding off blows. The Romans liked to look at exhi- bitions of boxing, but considered it undignified to take part in them. Boxing was revived in England in Cestus. the eighteenth century, when it be- gan to be called " the noble art of self-defense." A teacher of boxing named Broughton, who is said to have invented the boxing-glove at this time, gave public exhibitions of his skill in a theater, which he built for the purpose. Boxing contests without gloves, called prize-fights, were also held, but they became so brutal that laws were passed against them, and at present boxing is prac- ticed by respectable people only as a form of athletic exercise. It is in favor principally in England and the United States. Savate. The French are not skilled in the EngHsh system of box- ing, but practice a kind called Savate, in which the head and feet, as well as the fists, are used for attack and de- fense. It is said that those skilled in the method have defeated some of Savate. the best EngHsh boxers, whose guards, though perfect against a blow from the fist, would often be no defense at all against one from the foot. The sailors of the French navy are trained every day in Savate, in which they are very expert. BREATH FIGURES, Experiments on. I. Trace a figure with the fin- ger on a pane of glass. Nothing will be seen until the plate is breathed on, when the figure becomes visible. 2. Lay a coin on a freshly polished plate of glass or metal. After sev- eral minutes remove the coin and breathe on the metal, when an image of the coin will appear. The result will be the same if the coin is polished instead of the plate on which it is laid. 3. Breathe on the surface of a pane of glass which has been in con- tact for several years with an en- graving. In many cases the lines of the engraving will become visible on the glass. Explanation. On the surface of all solids gathers a layer of gas, vapor, and fine dust, which is re- moved by polishing and altered by BREATH PORTRAITS 120 BUCK the contact of other solids. If the object be breathed upon the breath will condense more easily on some parts than others, according to the state of this layer, and any marks made on it will hence become visible. BREATH PORTRAITS. To finely powdered fluor spar add enough sulphuric acid to make the mixture of the proper thickness to be used as ink. With a quill pen, write or draw with it on the surface of plate glass. After the fluid has been on the glass five to ten minutes wash it off with water. The surface of the glass under it will be slightly eaten away, but so little that it will not be noticed unless the glass is breathed upon, when the design or writing will stand out clearly. The effect is very striking. BROTHER, I AM BOBBED, a trick, in the form of a game, m which any number of persons take part. Two persons, to act the part of "brothers," are selected, of whom one must not have played the game before. The brothers are blind- folded and kneel back to back, and the other players stand around them in a circle, each with a knotted hand- kerchief. The " brother " who does not understand the game is told that the players are to hit one of the brothers with a handkerchief from time to time, and the one hit is to cry out ** Brother, I am bobbed ! " The other must then respond, " Who bobbed you ? " and the first must guess who hit him. He is told that if the guess be correct the person who struck him will have to change places with him. When the game has begun, however, the "brother" who knows the trick removes the handkerchief that covered his eyes, and, knotting it, strikes his compan- ion. When asked, " Who bobbed you the latter of course makes a wrong guess. This is kept up till the victim suspects that he is de- ceived. The "brother" who knows the trick should occasionally cry out " Brother, I am bobbed," to keep up the illusion. In France this game is called " Frere, on ine bat" (Brother, some one strikes me). BRUNETTE AND BLONDE, a SOLITAIRE game of cards, played with two packs. The first eight cards played are laid in a row, and on each of them are placed others in descending order, but of different col- or alternately. Thus, on a red nine a black eight must be placed ; on this a red seven, and so on. Whenever the Aces appear they are placed in a row by themselves, and on them are built families in ascending order, without regard to suits, except that no card must be placed on one of the same color. The families may be built up by using cards as they come from the pack, or the top cards of the piles. All cards that cannot at once be used are laid aside to form stock, which can be shuffled and relaid twice. If the famihes can be com- pleted thus, the player wins. BUCK, a game played by two per- son, one of whom places his arms across his breast, or rests them on his knees, and bends forward, rest- ing his head against a fence, tree, or wall. This is called " giving a back." The other player sits astride the back of the first, and holding up one or more fingers, says, " Buck, Buck, how many horns do I hold up } " The first player guesses, and if his guess is correct the two change places ; but if the guess is wrong, the rider gets down, leaps on again, and holds up one or more fingers again with the same question. So the game goes on as long as the players choose. The " buck " is sometimes blindfold- ed, and a third person often acts as umpire, to see that there is fair play. History. This game is very old. Petronius Arbiter, a writer in the time of the Roman Emperor Nero, describes a man playing it with a boy. The boy " mounting as on horse- back, smote his shoulders with his open hand, and laughing said, 'Bucca, Bucca, quot sunt hie ? ' " (Bucca, Bucca, how many are here ? ) BURIED WORDS 21 BUTTON. BUTTON In another form of the game, a child hides his head in another's lap, and the latter says : " Mingledy, mingledy, clap, clap, clap, How many fingers do I hold up ? " or some similar rhyme. The game, in all its forms, is probably related to Mora. In France a game resembling this, called Les Metiers (The Trades), is played. The player who makes the back chooses a trade and the name of something connected with it, for instance, shoemaking and wax. The trade is announced, but the article kept secret. Each player in turn must then say, as he mounts the back, " A good shoemaker must have good leather," or "good pegs," or any- thing else he pleases. Whoever mentions the word chosen by the player who makes the back must take his place. BURIED WORDS, a game played by two or more persons, one of whom gives a sentence in which a word is concealed by being formed partly of one of the words in the sentence, and partly of one or more imme- diately following. Thus the word " London " is concealed or " buried " in the sentence, " Do not let the rain fall on Don Carlos," as will be seen if the proper letters be capitalized, thus, " Do not let the rain falL ON DON Carlos." The one who gives out the sentence must state that the buried word is the name of a city, per- son, flower, article of food, or what- ever it may be, and the first one who guesses it correctly scores a point. The guesser then gives out another sentence, and the game goes on for any length of time agreed on, or till some Orie has scored a certain num- ber of points. After a little practice words can thus be buried very skill- fully. The hardest ones to guess are those in which pronouncing the words gives no clew. Thus in the following, *' buried fruits," the former can be guessed by pronouncing the sentence slowly, while the latter can- not : "Some fairy OR ANGEl must have done this." " The baboon and aPE ARe both curious animals." The best plan m burying a word is first to see whether it contains an- other word within it. Thus in bury- ing the word " Orange " it is seen that the word " rang " is so contained. A sentence must now be constructed with the word " rang " in it, while the word just before must end with " O," and that just following begin with " e." Thus : " They danced a fandango, rang Edward's door bell, and behaved very wildly." It will be seen that the word is thus " buried " much more deeply than in the other example given. A somewhat similar game, played in Germany, is there called Worte Verbergen (Word-hiding). The title or first verse of some well-known song or poem is selected by one of the players, who, in answer to any question, returns a reply including its first word. To a second question he gives an answer containing the first two words in succession, and so on, till the line is guessed. Thus, sup- pose the song " A life on the ocean wave " be chosen. The following may be the questions and answers : Q. How do you do ? A. A little better, thank you. Q. Where do you spend the sum- mer.? A. In the country. I enjoy a life spent outdoors. Q. Who was your grandfather ? A. He was the celebrated Dr. Bobus, who sacrificed a life on the altar of science by visiting the North Pole. ^ ^ By this time the title will probably be guessed by the repetition of the word " life." The most difficult lines to guess are of course those contain- ing small and frequently used words at the beginning. BUTTON, BUTTON, a drawing- room game, played by any number of persons. The players sit in a circle around the leader, who stands holding a button between his hands, the palms BUTTONS \21 BUZZ of which are pressed together. The others hold their hands in the same manner, and the leader goes to each in turn, saying, " Hold fast what I give you," passing his hands between those of the player he addresses, and gives the button, while doing this, to any one of the players he chooses, but without showing to whom he has given it. When he has made the round of the circle, he says to each player in turn, " Button, But- ton, who has the button } " and each, as he is asked, must guess. Then the leader calls out, " Button, Button, arise," and the holder of the button stands up. This game is usually played by very young children, an older one acting as leader, In some parts of the United States a ring is used, and the corresponding verses are, " Biddy, Biddy, hold fast my gold ring Till I go to London and baclc again." Another form used is, " Fox, Fox, who's got the box } " BUTTONS, a game played by any number of children, each of whom has a button. The players stand in line and toss their buttons at a hole in the ground about twelve feet dis- tant. They then take turns in play- ing, beginning with the one whose button came nearest to the hole, and Method of Holding the Hand in Button. try, by striking the buttons with the thumb as they lie on the ground (see illustration), to drive them into the hole. When any one succeeds, the button he drives in becomes his prop- erty. When he misses, the next one takes his turn. The hand is held stiffly in playing, the thumb being extended, and the motion is made with the whole hand, Spans, a button game played by two persons. The buttons are thrown against a wall, and if a player's but- ton falls within a span of his oppo- nent's he may aim at it as described above. If he strike it, he wins it. A span is the distance from the end of the thumb to that of the little finger when the hand is extended. BUZZ, a game played by any number of persons. The players sit in a circle, and, beginning at any point, call out the numbers, one, two, three, etc., in order. Instead of the numbers in writing which the figure 7 is used, and also of those that are multiples of seven, the word " Buzz " must be spoken. Thus, Buzz must be substituted for 7, 14, 21,27,28, 35, 37, 42, 47, 49, and so on. For the seventies. Buzz-one, Buzz- two are used, and for JJ, Buzz-buzz. Any one that mentions such a num- ber by name, or says Buzz in the wrong place, or calls out a wrong number, must pay a forfeit, and then begin the game anew by calling out "One!" If the one whose turn it is waits longer than while any one counts five he must pay a forfeit. Buzz should not be played by seven people, for then one of them would always have to say buzz when his turn came. Buzz-Fizz, the game of Buzz, with the addition that every multiple of three is called " Fizz," of five, " Quack," and of eleven, " Cock-a- doodle-doo. " Where a number con- tains two or more of these as a fac- tor the names of all the factors are given, the smallest first. Thus, 15 would be "Fizz-Quack"; JJ, "Buzz- cock-a-doodle-doo "; and 105, " Fizz- Quack-Buzz." CALABRASELLA 123 CALABRASELLA C CACHINOLE. See Squails. CALABRASELLA, a game of cards played by three persons, with a pack from which the tens, nines, and eights are excluded. Each player is dealt twelve cards, two at a time, and the four remaining in the stock are placed face downward on the table. After the deal, the eldest hand has the choice of " passing" or " playing." If he say " I pass," the player at his left has the same op- tion, and so on. If all pass, the hand is abandoned and the deal passes to the left. The first player who says " I play," must play against the two others as partners. Before he plays he may ask for any Three he chooses, and the holder must give it to him, receiving a card in exchange. If no one has the Three asked for, he must not demand another, but if he have all the Threes in his own hand at the beginning of the game he may ask for a Two. He then dis- cards from one to four cards and selects an equal number from the stock, first announcing the number of cards he will put out. He must discard at least one card, and must show to the other players the cards he takes in. The playing then be- gins, the eldest hand having the lead. There are no trumps, and suit must be followed if possible. In playing, the cards rank as follows : Three (highest), Two, Ace, King, Queen, Knave, Seven, Six, Five, Four (lowest). The winner of the last trick takes also the discard (in- cluding any cards of the stock that are left). Each Ace taken counts the winner of the trick 3 points, and each Three, Two, King, Queen, or Knave, i point. The last trick counts 3 points. Either side scores what it has made in excess of the other side, each of the partners scoring the whole number of points made by their side. Thus, if the partners have 22 points and the single player 13, each of the formet scores 9 points. The number oi points to be played for is agreed on before the game. The eldest hand should say, " I play," if he have a fair hand. Try to win as many counting cards as possible, especially Aces, which it must be remembered may be taken in play by either Threes or Twos. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The players cut for deal, and the lowest Calabrasella card deals. 2. In case of a misdeal, the same player deals again. 3. If the Discard contain too few cards the partners may either throw up the hand or require the single player to correct the mistake ; if it contain too many, the single player loses the tricks to which he cannot play. 4. If the single player demand a Two when he has not all the Threes, the partners may throw up the hand if they choose. 5. If a card is asked for and not obtained, and it is found not to be in the stock, the single player may ask for it again and then alter his dis- card. 6. If the single player expose a card, or lead or play out of turn, there is no penalty, but 'the mistake must be corrected unless the trick has been completed. If one of the partners expose a card, the single player may call on him to play it at any time. If either of the partners lead out of turn, and the error is dis- covered before completing the trick, the single player may call on the right leader to lead a particular suit ; or, if it is his own lead, he may thus call a suit at the first opportunity. 13. If a player revoke, he must forfeit nine points. 14. No trick can be looked at after it is taken. CALIFORNIA JACK. See All Fours. CALL-BALL 124 CAMERA OBSCURA i CALISTHENICS. See Gymnas- tics. CALL-BALL, CALLIE BALL, or BALLIE-CALLIE, a game of ball played by any number of persons, with a hard rubber ball. The ball is thrown against a wall by one of the players, who at the same time calls out the name of one of the others. The player named must strike the ball as it bounds back, calling another name as he does so. If he miss it he must pick it up, and call " Stand ! " whereupon the other players, who have begun to run as soon as he makes the miss, stand still. He throws the ball at one, and if he strikes him that one must throw the ball at the wall, as before. If he miss the player at whom he throws, he must place himself against the wall while the others throw the ball at his back in turn, as in ROLY Poly. This game was common in New England many years ago, and is still played in Austria. The English poet Herrick alludes to a similar game in his lines : " I call, I call ; who doe ye call ? The maids to catch this Cowslip ball. In the Middle Ages boys and girls played a kind of call-ball where he who obtained possession of it threw it to the one he loved best. CAMERA LUCIDA, an arrange- ment to aid in drawing the outline of small objects. There are several kinds, but the simplest is made as follows : Fig. I. Sit at a table in front of the object, which should be supported on a book (Fig. i). Lay a sheet of white paper on the table between yourself and the object, and on the farther edge of the paper rest the edge of a pane of glass. Incline the glass toward you, and presently you will see in it the reflection of the object to be drawn. At the same time you will see the paper through the glass. The glass may now be rested against a book to keep it in position. Hold your pencil on the paper under the glass and see whether you can see the reflection and the pencil point plainly at the same time. If either of them looks double while you are fixing your eyes on the oth,er, it shows that the object is either too far away or too near. Move the book on which it rests backward and forward until you can see both the reflection and the pencil point plainly. Keeping the eye perfectly Fig. 2. still, the outline of the reflection can now be followed on the paper with the pencil, and thus a very exact picture can be drawn. The picture will be of the same size as the object, hence only small objects, like flowers, insects, coins, or small wood-cuts, can be used. To draw large objects or landscapes by tracing in the same way, a CAMERA OBSCURA may be used, as in PHOTOGRAPHY, but a large Camera Lucida is sometimes arranged as in Fig. 2. The words CAMERA LUCIDA are Latin for Light Chamber. CAMERA OBSCURA. To make a rough camera, take a little paste- CAMERA OBSCURA 125 CAMERA OBSCURA board box (Fig. i), like those iti which pens are sold, and make a pinhole in the middle of the cover, working the pin about A to enlarge the hole a a little. Remove one end of the cover, and in the corresponding edge of the box cut a notch just large enough to see through into the box when the cover is on. On a sunny day, hold the box with the pinhole toward any bright object and look down into the end through the notch, holding the eye close, so that no light can get in except through the pinhole. A picture will be seen on the back of the box, inside, in which the bright parts of the landscape can be eas- Fig. I. ily distinguished. The picture will grow clearer as the eye becomes accustomed to the light. By moving the box so that the pinhole turns in a different direction, the picture will change. The smaller the pinhole is, the less blurred the picture will be, but it will be also less bright. With a hole about -^^ of an inch in diameter the picture will be quite bright, but so blurred that it is hard to tell different objects from each other. The box should not be more than an inch deep, as the farther the back is from the pinhole, the less distinct the picture will be. In the evening, such a camera will give an excellent picture of a lamp or candle, and even of a person's face held very near a bright light. The way the picture is made may be understood by look- ing at Fig. 2, where the lines rep- Fig. 2. resent rays of light from different parts of an object passing through the pinhole and striking the back of the box. When the cover is taken from the box, rays from all parts of the object strike every part of the box at once and are mixed together, hence there is no picture, but only a white blur. A camera which will make the picture bright without blurring it may be made by using a glass lens (See Lenses, experiments with). These experiments show how a lens will throw a picture, and the picture can be seen to better advantage if the lens be fixed in a hole in the side of a box. The observer may work at the picture through a hole in the top of the box, or the back of the box may be made of thin white paper, so that the picture will show on the other side. There is a certain dis- tance from the lens for every object, where its image will be plainest, so it is a good plan to make the back of the box so that it can be slid in and out. Find the distance at which the lens makes the plainest picture of near objects before choosing the box, and then select one of the right depth. Remove the back, and saw off the edges so that it can be made to slip in as far as desired. Nail a stick to it to serve as a handle by which it may be pulled in and out. Hat Camera. A camera can be made also from a stiff felt or silk hat, CAMPHOR 126 CAMPING OUT if it have a ventilating hole in the top of the crown. If there are more than one of these holes, all but the central one may be stopped with paper. A piece of thin paper is then pinned over the bottom of the hat, which is held with the top toward the part of the landscape to be ob- served. A black shawl is thrown over the hat and the observer's head, but care must be taken that it does not hang over the ventilating hole. CAMPHOR. Experiments with. I. Place a piece of gum camphor on water. After a time it will begin to move about on the surface, and will continue its motion till it is dissolved. The reason is that it dissolves more rapidly at some places than at others, so that the surface of the water pulls more strongly on it in one direction than in another. The bit of cam- phor may be set on fire, and will then burn as it moves about. 2. Dust lycopodium powder over the surface of a dish of water by shaking it in a muslin bag. The water should be covered with a very faint layer of the powder. Dip into the water the end of a rod or stick of gum camphor. The lycopodium at once moves back from the cam- phor, and begins to revolve in several wheel-shaped figures. In order that this experiment may succeed the vessel and water must be quite clean, and the day should be dry and fine, so that the camphor film will evaporate soon after it forms. 3. Dissolve a bit of camphor the size of a, pea in a drachm of benzine. Keep the solution in a phial in whose cork a pin is stuck, head downward, so that it protrudes into the liquid. Fill a concave microscope slide with clear water, and touch the surface with a Httle of the benzine-camphor liquid on the head of the pin. The drop, viewed through the microscope, behaves very curiously, little drops detaching themselves from its sides and moving about in all directions. 4. Pour a thin layer of water into a flat-bottomed shallow dish. Cut a rod of gum camphor one-quarter inch square, following the grain of the gum, which can be seen on hold- ing it up to the light. Touch the bottom of the vessel with this stick, and the water around it will be thrown into waves or ripples, which will continue till the end of the stick is dissolved away. The reason is that the water is first drawn up toward the stick as it would be toward the finger or a glass rod. But, a film of camphor forming on its surface, this is altered so as to act toward the stick as mercury would toward glass, that is, the water is depressed. It recovers itself, and the action goes on very rapidly. 5. Place a piece of gum camphor in a tightly stoppered bottle, and let it stand awhile in a warm room. Then set it close to a window and the side next the window will become covered with minute camphor crys- tals. This is because the camphor evaporates, and the coolness caused by the window condenses the vapor again. It was once thought that the light influenced the crystallization, but it will take place at night in the same way. Marks on the glass, invisi- ble before, will often be shown by the arrangement of the camphor crystals, just as those on window panes often are by frost crystals. Thus, if the interior of the bottle be wiped out roughly with a moist cloth, and then allowed to dry, the crystals are apt to form along the lines made in wip- ing. (See also Breath Figures.) CAMPING OUT. One kind of camping may be in connection with a WALKING TRIP, the campers spending their nights in a tent in- stead of at a hotel or farm-house, and preparing their own meals. Each person may carry about twenty pounds of luggage in a knapsack or haversac|<, or in a roll, whose ends are joined to make a ring which is thrown over the shoulder, as shown in the illustration. Each should take a rubber blanket, a woolen blanket, a change of clothing, towel, CAMPING OUT 127 CAMPING OUT soap, comb, and toothbrush, besides his share of the general luggage, which includes the tent, cooking utensils, hatchet, and food. An easier but more expensive way is to have all the luggage carried in a wagon, leaving the walkers free. A larger tent and more implements can thus be carried, and the expense is usually not great if divided among several. It is often a good plan to buy a horse and cart for such an expedition, selling both at the end of the journey. If the camp is not to be moved, the tent may be still larger, and many useful fixtures, such as Fig. I.— The Camper— Loaded. tables, a stove, an oven, bedsteads, etc., can be set up by any one of ingenuity. Location. A camp should be on dry ground, sloping so as to give drainage, and near good drinking water. Favorite sites are on moun- tains, at the edge of woods, on the bank of a lake, or on the seashore. Expenses. These vary at the pleas- ure of the camper, and according to the number in the party. Mr. John M. Gould, in his book on " How to Camp Out," relates that three boys, including himself, once went on a twelve days' camping trip and spent but one dollar apiece during that time. They " carried coffee, sugar, pork, and beef from home, and ate potatoes three times a day." Frank E. Clark, in an account of three weeks' camping on the seashore, gives the following list of expenses for six persons : Tent for three weeks . . % 9.00 Provisions taken with us . . 22.00 Stove and cooking utensils . 15.00 Fresh provisions bought at the beach 15.00 Incidentals 20.00 Total $81.00 or $4.50 per week for each camper. In general, the expense depends almost entirely on the way in which the campers are willing to live. Girls' Camps. What has been said above applies also to campers of the other sex, or of both sexes, except that ladies must not be ex- pected to bear any hardships. A party of girls, in charge of an older woman may camp together very pleasantly in not too wild a coun- try, hiring a man to do the hard work, such as pitching the tent. When the campers are of both sexes, the ladies will naturally be allotted the cooking and other housework, while the men do the rougher work. Insects. Campers are often an- noyed by mosquitos and black flies, especially in the woods, and, where these pests exist, mosquito netting must be taken for protection at night. Many preparations for keeping in- sects away by applications to the face and hands are to be bought, but most old campers prefer to drive them away by making what is called a " smudge." A fire is built to windward of the camp and smoth- ered with wet wood and damp leaves, so as to make a dense smoke. The " smudge " is disagreeable, but is a welcome relief after insects. Rainy Days. If the rain is a cold CAMPING OUT 128 CAMPING OUT one, it is often necessary to build a fire just outside the tent, but it is difficult to keep one alive in a hard storm. If there is a stove in the camp, it may be brought inside the tent, the pipe projecting through the door, but unless this is on the leeward side the smoke w^ill be blown back into the tent. An- other way is to build a fire in a hole just outside the tent and conduct the smoke through a trench under the tent, covered with flat stones, the crevices being cemented with clay. It is difficult to make this smoke- tight, but when it is so, it warms the tent well. Each one of the campers should have his special duties assigned him. This may be done on trial at first, till it is seen for what work each is best fitted. Thus, in a camp of three, one may do the cooking, and another the dishwashing, while the third has general charge of the tent and its surroundings. Tents. The material is usually heavy drilling or duck for large tents. The simplest kind is a Shelter-tent, which consists merely of pieces of cloth with buttons and buttonholes at the edges, by which several can be fastened together. The button- holes are near the edge, and the buttons several inches nearer the center. The pieces carried by the soldiers of the United States army in the Civil War were about five feet square. They can be fastened to- Fig. 2.— Shelter Tent. gether, and put up in various ways ; for instance, by throwing two over a ridge pole supported on two forked uprights, and fastening them at the bottom, by driving pegs through the buttonholes, or through loops of rope sewed there for the purpose. If two more pieces be buttoned across the ends, the tent is entirely inclosed. The tent poles and pegs are not car- ried, but cut at the spot where the tent is pitched. A shelter-tent (Fig. 2) is the best to use where the campers walk from place to place and carry all their own baggage. An end piece may be made to fit the end exactly, and sewed to one of the side pieces instead of buttoning it, if desired. The tent should usually be pitched with a right angle at the roof, but the angle must be sharper in rainy weather. Shelter-tents may be made also of rubber, which are perfectly waterproof, but heavy to carry. An A tent, or Wedge-tent (Fig. 4) is pitched over a ridge pole like a shelter- tent, but is made all in one piece. A common size is about seven feet high, seven feet long, and eight feet wide. One end is usually closed, while the other has an opening in the middle, closed by a flap hanging on the inside. Around the bottom of the tent is sometimes hung a strip of cloth called a sod-cloth, to keep out draughts and prevent the edge of the tent from touching the ground and rotting. Fig- 3' Around the edge are also "^^^^ ^^°* sewed loops of rope called "beck- ets," through which wooden pins (Fig. 3) are driven into the ground, when the tent is pitched. The best tent for a permanent camp, or one where the heavy lug- gage is carried from place to place on a wagon, is the Wall-tent (Fig. 5). This is shaped like a house, with side walls about four feet high, and ridge pole about nine feet from the ground. At the corners of the eaves and at every seam along their sides loops of rope are fastened, and CAMPING OUT 129 CAMPING OUT through each of these is passed a rope called a "guy," about ten feet long, knotted at one end so that it will not slip through the loop. The other end is passed around a peg driven into the ground at such a dis- tance that the guy will have the same slope as the roof, and so keep the roof stretched. That the guys may be tightened easily, pieces of wood called " fiddles " are used, about five inches long, two inches wide, and an inch thick, having two holes bored through them three inches apart, just large enough to admit the rope. The end of the guy is passed through one of these holes and back through the other, and then knotted. The loop thus made is passed around the peg, and the guy is then tightened by pulling up the fiddle as high as it will go. Around the bottom of the tent, which also has a sod-cloth, are beck- Fig. 4.— " A " Tent, or Wedge-tent. ets, through which pegs are driven. A second roof called a " fly " is used with a wall-tent to keep out the rain, since the roof is not sharp enough to shed rain by itself. It passes close over the ridge pole, but is lifted seve- ral inches above the inner roof at the eaves, and projects about a foot beyond it. It is kept stretched by guys whose pegs are driven into the ground some distance beyond those of the roof. The end poles of an A or wall-tent should have iron pins at the top, which fit into holes in the ridge pole, and the latter should have ferrules on the ends to prevent splitting. The end poles should be made too high for the tent at first, as it stretches with use. At first, the poles can be sunk in the ground a little way to make them short enough. Tent pins should be of tough wood, and have a notch near the top to hold the rope. CAMPING OUT 130 CAMPING OUT A shallow trench must be dug completely around the tent, after it is pitched, to carry off the water in case of rain. If the tent is on a hill- side, no trench need be dug at the lower side. In a permanent camp, a board floor may be laid in the tent. Shelters. In the woods, shelters of poles and boughs are often used instead of tents. The simplest is made by placing a ridge pole across two forked uprights and then leaning poles and boughs against it from one or both sides. A rustic cottage (Fig. 6) may be made by trimming the branches from four trees standing as nearly as possible at the corners of a square, leaving part projecting as a rest for cross poles, thus forming a framework. These cross poles are tied to the uprights with willow withes, and then branches are woven in by passing them inside one pole, outside the next, and so on. A roof Fig:. 5.— Wall-tent slanting in one direction is made in the same way and thatched with grass so as to shed water. If four trees cannot be found in the proper position, upright posts set in the ground may be substituted for one or more of them. Sleeping. The simplest way to sleep in camp is on the ground, laying on it first a rubber blanket and then a woolen one. Evergreen boughs or dried leaves may be placed underneath the rubber blanket to make a bed, and the whole may be raised above the ground byabedstead of poles sup- ported on forked sticks. One of the best camp beds is a light folding cot (Fig. 7), covered with canvas, which may be bought at a furniture store. In a permanent camp a double mattress may be laid on the floor of the tent, over a rubber blanket, making room for several sleepers. Each camper must have one rubber blanket and CAMPING OUT 131 CAMPING OUT one woolen one, A pillow adds greatly to comfort, but must be dis- pensed with if each carries his own luggage. In any case, beds and bed- ding must be carried out of the tent and thoroughly aired every morning. Unless a mattress is used, the camp- er's bones will be apt to ache for one Fig. 6. — Framework of Rustic Cottage. or two nights, but he will soon get accustomed to his hard bed. The camper may also sleep in a hammock when the weather admits of sleeping in the open air. There is usually hardly room for one inside the tent. Cooking. The simplest way to cook is over a wood-fire in the open air. A kettle may be hung over the fire from a cross bar resting on two forked uprights, and any food that requires boiling can thus be pre- Fig. 7. — Camp Cot. pared. Broiling can be done by holding the food in small pieces over the coals with sharp sticks if a grid- iron has not been brought. For frying, the fire is built over a smooth stone, and scraped away from it when the stone is sufficiently heated. The stone is then carefully wiped, and is CAMPING OUT 132 CANDLE usually hot enough to fry several iish, or the flat stone may be placed on the top of a fireplace made of stones, and used for cooking while the fire is under it. An oven for bak- ing can be built of stones. Where Fig. 8.— Stone Stove. there is clay, one can be made by covering with it a cask or barrel em- bedded in a bank. A fire is built in the barrel, which both burns it away and bakes the clay hard, making the oven. Such an oven is used by first building a fire in it and then scraping the fire away, and putting in the food to be baked. In every permanent camp, an ice box should be provided for provisions. This may be made by sinking an ordinary dry goods box or barrel in the ground, and if the box is sunk deep enough, ice may be dispensed with. A hole should also be dug at some distance from the tent where all kinds of swill and refuse may be thrown and cov- ered with earth every few days. The supply of food to be taken to camp depends largely on how much the campers expect to provide for them- selves by hunting or fishing. Eggs and milk can often be obtained from a neighboring farm house. The necessaries for most campers are bread or crackers, coffee or tea, sugar and salt. Where the campers walk from place to place carrying their own luggage, food must generally be bought from day to day wher- ever it can be obtained. Where the camp is permanent, the stock of pro- visions is limited in size and variety only by the purses of the campers and the ability of the one who does the cooking. A small stove is often necessary in a large camp, and many different kinds of camp stoves are now to be bought. A kerosene stove is always useful in making a cup of tea or coffee at short notice, or in cooking on a rainy day. CANDLE-MAKING. Very good tapers can be made with old candle- ends, a little tin pan, such as are used for baking muffins, a lead-pen- cil, some tin-foil and some string. Make a mold by shaping tin-foil around the pencil. Melt some of the candle-ends in the pan by hold- ing it over a lighted candle-end, and then pour the wax into the mold, into which a piece of string has been put for a wick. Hold the mold upright till the wax has set and then lay it aside for a few moments, after which the tin-foil can be unwound, leaving a little wax taper. Larger ones can be made by using something larger to shape the mold, an old chair-rung for in- stance. A mold may be made also of a rolled sheet of note-paper tied with string, and stopped at one end with a cork. The wick should be fast- . ened at one end to the cork with a tack, and at the other to a match or bit of wood, laid across the roll. If the mold be made thus, of paper, the tallow must be allowed to thicken a little before it is poured in, or it may soak through. If a large candle is to be made, the tallow is most easily obtained by melting beef or mutton fat cut into bits, and skimming out the pieces of thin skin and tissue from it. If desired, wax may be melted and used in the same way. CANDLE, Experiments with. The candle flame is described in the article FiRE (C. C. T.), and a few experiments with it are given there. Others will now be told about. A tallow candle about an inch and a quarter in diameter is the CANDLE 133 CANNONADE best for these experiments, though an ordinary one will answer. Such a tallow candle may be made accord- ing to the directions in the article on Candle-Making. Experiment i. Take a piece of wire gauze like that used for strainers or window screens, and press it down on the candle flame. The flame will not pass through the gauze, but will flatten out beneath it, so that one can look down into the center of it. The space inside, where there is no fire, will thus be seen plainly. The reason that the flame cannot pass through the gauze is that the wires conduct the heat away very rapidly, cooUng the flame so much as to put it out before it can get through. Experiment 2. Let the candle burn till the wick in the flame is quite long and then blow it out with a quick puff. If the air is still, a stream of smoke will rise from the wick. Touch a lighted match to this smoke half an inch or so from the candle, and the flame will run down to the wick, lighting the candle again. Sometimes the smoke can be lighted an inch or more from the wick. The reason why this smoke burns, is that it is the gas which forms the candle flame, and which continues to rise from the wick for a few seconds after the flame is put out. Experiment 3. Blow out the can- dle as in Experiment 2, and hold the gauze so that the stream of smoke will rise through it. Light it above the gauze, and it will run down to the gauze, but will not pass through it. (See also Carbonic Acid, Exp. II.) Experiment 4. Bring a plate quickly down on the candle flame and raise it at once without moving it sidewise. The flame will leave a ring of soot on the plate. This is because the empty space in the mid- dle of the flame deposits no soot. Experi7nent 5. Place a lighted candle-end on the table and put a glass dish or goblet over it. It will burn dim and finally go out. This is because it has used up all the oxygen in the air under the dish. Experiment 6, Stick a lighted candle-end on a bit of wood, so that it will float upright in a pail of water. Then press a glass tumbler down over It, pushing it to the bottom of the pail. The candle will burn under water as long as it has oxygen enough. The air under the tumbler prevents the water from entering and putting out the candle. Try the same experiment, using, instead of a tumbler, a lamp-chimney with the hand held tightly over the top. After pushing it down to the bottom of the pail, remove the hand so that the water can push the air out at the top. The water will rise inside the chimney, carrying the candle with it. Experijuent 7. Thrust the head of a match very quickly into the dark center of a candle flame. It will melt but not burn. This is because there is no air in the inside of the flame. CANNONADE, a game played on a circular board with marbles and a TEETOTUM, which Can be spun Hke a humming TOP. Around the edge of the board are six little wooden towers called castles, protected by wires on all sides except toward the middle of the board, where about 1 5 marbles are placed. One of the players is chosen as Gunner, and each of the others selects a castle. Each one begins the game with an equal number of counters, and each castle-owner bets as many as he pleases on his castle. The Gunner then spins the teetotum in the midst of the marbles, and the teetotum and marbles dash about the board knocking down some of the castles. A wire screen around the edge of the board prevents their leaving it. When the teetotum has stopped, the owner of each fallen castle pays to the Gunner his stake, multiplied by the figure which came uppermost on the teetotum, or twice as much if all the castles were knocked down. CANOEING 134 CANOEING The owner of each castle that re- mains standing receives twice his stake from the Gunner. Each player acts as Gunner in turn. If Cannonade Board. there are fewer players than castles, each in succession takes two or more. Instead of the method of scoring described above, any other may be agreed on by the players, be- fore the game. A simple method is for the Gunner to score one for each fallen castle, and for each owner of a castle left standing to score two. The only skill shown is in making the teetotum spin as long as pos- sible. In another form of the game, pins, like Ten-pins, are placed on the board, among which the top spins, knocking down some of them. CANOEING. Canoes are light boats sharp at both ends, and pro- pelled by a paddle, the boatsman looking toward the bow. Pleasure canoes, in general, are of two kinds : paddling canoes and sailing canoes. Canoes may be built of bark, skins, canvas, paper, wood, or metal. The length of open canoes varies from 10 to 17 feet, the breadth from 2 to 3 feet, and the depth is 8 or 9 inches. The paddler kneels on a cushion on the bottom of the canoe. The decked canoe usually has a keel and ribs of oak, and bulkheads near either end. It has a board floor, a seat for the paddler, and movable back and foot boards. The double bladed paddle is of pine or spruce, from six to twelve feet long, and jointed in the center for con- venience of stowage and to aid in feath- ering. To enter a canoe without upsetting re- quires caution. It is best to place one foot on the bottom, then one hand on either gunwale, then both feet on the bot- tom, and sit down as soon as possible, bearing most of the weight on the hands until seated. The paddle is held in both hands, and the boatman dips the Canoe : Side View, Top View, and Cross Section. blade so as nearly to cover it, as far forward as he can reach on one side O ^ Canoe Paddles. of the boat, and then draws it steadily back, thus propelling the boat. With CANOEING 135 CANOEING a single paddle all the strokes are on the same side of the boat till the pad- dler changes for rest, and the boat is steered by giv- ing the paddle a twist at the end of the stroke. With the double paddle the strokes are made on alternate sides, thus keep- ing the course straight. The unused blade will be in position to make the second stroke when the first is finished. The blades of a double paddle are usually set at right angles so that the one not in the water will always cut edge- wise through the air, and the wrist must therefore be turned slightly just before putting the blade to swim. In canoe races, "upset races" are often included, where Method of Holding Double-bladed Paddle. Canoeist Using Double-bladed Paddle. each contestant is required, at a given signal, in the course of the race, to overturn his canoe, scramble in from the water, and go on to the finish. The sailing canoe has either a keel or a center board, which is now often made to fold up like a fan, when not in use. The sail may be either the lug, leg-of-mutton, or lateen (see Sailing). Two or three battens (thin strips of wood) are sometimes fastened across the lower part of the sail. A canoeist has estimated that the use of these bat- tens enables a canoe to carry more sail, in the ratio of 7 to 5. Battens make the sail set flatter. The masts into the water. Short paddles must be held almost perpendicularly in the water. The paddle can be managed bet- ter by sitting high, but there is more danger of upsetting. In racing, the seat is generally placed near- ly on a level with the deck. In-order to be prepared for an upset, the canoeist should practice fall- ing out and getting into his place again from the water. He must dress 1 are very light, and can be taken down lightly, and should not attempt to in a moment. The yard and boom paddle a canoe without knowing how | are generally of some light wood. Sailing Canoe. CANOEING 136 CANOEING The rigging is as simple as possible, and so arranged that the canoeist need not leave his seat to work it. There is usually a rudder, managed with foot steering gear when the canoeist sits or lies in the bottom, as formerly in England ; but in this country usually by a tiller fastened to a yoke near the hatch, where it is close at hand. The English have now generally adopted the American plan. The rudder should be hung so that it will extend below the keel and keep its hold on the water, even when the canoe lifts her stern clear at every wave. In England canoeists generally lie down in the bottom of the canoe, while in this country they sit on deck except when sailing before the wind. Canoe sailing differs in some respects from ordinary boat sailing. (See Sailing.) If the canoeist can- not hold his boat upright by his own weight he should " luff " so as to ease her a little, and if that does not answer he should slack the main sheet. If it blows very hard he should take in sail altogether. Many canoes have sliding seats, made in two pieces, the upper shp- ping sidewise over the lower to either side so that the crew can sit away out to windward and balance the boat in a far heavier wind than would otherwise be possible. In tacking, the canoeist throws his weight forward and to leeward, shifting it as the canoe passes the wind's eye. Jibing is more danger- ous in a canoe than in a sailboat, the canoeist being obliged to shift his weight suddenly to avoid over- Camp-stove for Wood. turning. More than one hundred pounds of ballast may be carried in a sailing canoe in bags of about 25 pounds each. As much as 175 pounds was formerly carried, but at present the most expert canoeists rarely carry ballast when racing. Unless a canoe is very well bal- lasted, sail should never be kept on it when the sea is high enough to Fig. I. — Frame of Canoe Tent. break on board. The canoe should never be allowed to get broadside to the wind, except when it is abso- lutely necessary, as in turning. In heavy water, the course should be zig-zag, and heavy seas must be dodged. If it is necessary to take a wave, it must be done with the end of the canoe toward it, and the canoe should be allowed to slide sidewise down the back of the wave. In run- ning before the wind, the canoeist removes the back board, and, when it is necessary, stops the canoe's CANOEING 137 CAPACITY FOR HEAT headway by back strokes of the pad- dle. If the bows run under water, the halyards must be let go at once. The paddle should always be ready for use, and it is well to have a cork belt at hand. If the canoe should capsize, the canoeist must climb over it, let go the main halyard, haul on the down-haul, and get the main- sail on deck, before trying to right the craft. In beaching a canoe, the sail must first be taken in, the rud- der triced up and the hatch taken off. The canoeist then leaps out in- to shallow water with the painter, and hauls the boat on shore. Some special forms of tents for use by canoeists on their excursions are Fig. 2. — Canoe Tent shown in the following illustrations, of which Fig i shows the frame of a canoe tent. Fig. 2 a canoe tent with its canvas cover, and Fig. 3 a tent for use on shore. History. Canoes were used by the natives of all parts of North America before its discovery by Eu- ropeans. The Indians made their canoes either of birch bark or of hollow logs, and paddled them with great speed. In British America on the Pacific coast the natives use canoes of cedar logs with extended prows, and with curious figures painted on the sides. Some of them are very large ; one in the National Museum at Washington being 59 Fig. 3. — Shore Canoe Tent. feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet 8 inches deep. In Canada canoe clubs for recreation have existed since the days of New France. About 1854 the improved civilized canoe was introduced into England by John Macgregor, Esq., of London. Then it was imported to this country by W. L. Alden, who founded the New York Canoe Club in 1871, and since that time the popularity of the sport has increased rapidly all over the Northern United States and Canada. CAPACITY FOR HEAT, Experi- ments on. I. In a bullet-mold make bullets of lead, zinc, tin, sulphur, and antimony. Prepare a cake of wax or paraffine, about half an inch thick. CAPPING VERSES 138 CARBON by melting it and pouring it into a pan, and then lay the cake across the top of a tumbler. Put the bul- lets into boiling water for a few min- utes and then place them all at once on the cake of wax. They will melt it and some will fall through, but some much more quickly than others. Still others will get only half-way or quarter-way through the wax. This is because they contained different quantities of heat, although they were all at the temperature of boiling water. 2. Weigh out the same amount of lead, sulphur, and copper scraps, and put them all into boiling water, or into hot oil, so that they will have the same temperature. Fill three glasses with water at the same tem- perature, and put the lead into one, the sulphur into another, and the copper into the third. Stir the water in each continually, and test from time to time with a chemical ther- mometer. The water containing the sulphur will be hottest, and that with the copper next, while that into which the zinc was put will be the least hot. The reason is the same as that given for experiment i. CAPPING VEISES, a game where one player quotes a line of poetry, and the next a line in the same metre rhyming with it, which will make sense. In this way an en- tire poem is made of separate quota- tions by the company. This game can be played in this form only by those who are very familiar with poe- try, but almost any one with pencil and paper may cap verses, if allowed to consult all the volumes he desires. The paper may be passed from one player to another, each adding a line, or each may make an entire poem. CARBON, Experiments with. (Read Chemical Experiments.) Carbon is described in C. C. T. To obtain it, the gases must be driven off by heat from some substance con- taining carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen. Such things are called hydro carbons, and include most vegetable substances. 1. Arrange the apparatus as if to make oxygen, and half fill the igni- tion tube with powdered bituminous coal. On heating it a gas will be collected over water which is ordi- nary illuminating gas, but impure. It may be lighted in the jar in which it is collected, but the jar must not stand an instant mouth upward, or the gas will escape, being lighter than air. What remains after all the gas is driven off is a form of carbon called coke. 2. If the tube is filled with shav- ings of wood instead of coal, what remains after the gas is driven off is the form of carbon called charcoal. 3. Put spirits of turpentine into an alcohol lamp, light the wick, and cover it with a wide-mouthed jar, just raising one edge of the jar above the table by placing a bit of wood under it. The lamp will give off black smoke in volumes, which will collect on the inside of the jar. This is the form of carbon called lampblack. 4. Hold a piece of charcoal under water. It will rise to the surface if allowed to do so, and if held down will give bubbles of air. Heat an- other piece red-hot for some time and then put it quickly under water. Few bubbles will rise and the char- coal will remain under of itself. The reason is that charcoal is very porous and contains much air, unless this is driven off by heat. 5. Fill an inverted glass test tube with AMMONIA and hold it over a saucer of mercury, the mouth of the tube in the mercury. Heat a , I I piece of charcoal red- I ImI hot, and hold it under I ro| the mercury till it is I Hi ^°°^* '^^^^ P^^ ^^ "P I ^1 ^^^^ ^^^ ^"^^' ^^ ^^^^ I BH absorb the ammonia, {■■III ^B and the pressure of the air outside will then force the mercury up into the tube to take its place. 6. Put some powdered charcoal into a bottle filled with SULPHUR- CARBONIC ACID 139 CARBONIC ACID ETTED HYDROGEN and shake it about. The bad odor of the gas will disappear. 7. Put two pieces of raw meat about an inch square side by side on the ground, covering one with powdered charcoal. Place a heavy- box over the two, so that no animal can get at them. If the weather be not cold, the uncovered piece will spoil in a few days, while the one covered with charcoal will give off no bad odor. 8. Arrange apparatus as if to make OXYGEN, but put into the ignition tube about a teaspoonful of red oxide of mercury and charcoal, mixed together. Heat, and collect over water, the gas which is formed. On the sides of the tube will be found little drops of mercury. The reason is that the charcoal has taken away oxygen from the oxide of mercury and left the mercury behind. The charcoal and oxygen form carbonic acid gas, which is the gas that was collected over water. CARBONIC ACID, Experiments with. (Read Chemical Experi- ments). Carbonic acid gas is de- scribed inC.C.T. It can be made by burning charcoal or wood, but is then mixed with nitrogen from the air. (See C. C. T.) It may be made pure as shown in Ex- periment 8, under carbon, but a better way is to arrange apparatus as for making HYDROGEN, putting in, instead of zinc, a handful of small lumps of marble, as big as peas. Either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid may be used, but the latter is better. Instead of marble, old mortar, pieces of oyster shells, or limestone will answer, though not so well. The carbonic acid comes from the marble, which is carbonate of lime. I. Place the delivery tube in a glass of lime water so that the gas will bubble up through it. The lime water will soon become milky. This is caused by the formation of car- bonate of lime in minute particles. If the current be continued long enough the water will become clear, but if it is boiled it will grow milky again. 2. Blow into a glass of lime water through a glass tube or the stem of a clay pipe. The lime water will become milky from the cause ex- plained above, because we breathe out carbonic acid gas from the lungs. A stream of air blown into lime water from a bellows will not make it milky, unless the room is very close and a good many people have been breathing in it. 3. Carbonic acid is so much heavier than air that it will remain in an uncovered jar. Into a jar of it dip a lighted match, bit of burning paper, or lighted candle. Each will be put out, as if by water. 4. Place a lighted candle in an empty glass and put it out by pour- ing a glass of carbonic acid over it. 5. Pour carbonic acid into a wide mouthed jar or deep preserve dish, nearly filling it. Blow a soap bubble, throw it into the jar or dish and it will float on the gas. 6. Fasten to a wire a piece of MAGNESIUM ribbon about six inches long, light it, and put it into a jar of carbonic acid. It will not be put out but will burn, leaving a quantity of white and black flakes in the jar. The white are magnesium oxide. The black are carbon from the car- bonic acid. 7. Arrange a wire stand for sev- eral candles, one above the other. Light them and cover them with a tall jar. The candles will burn dim and then go out, the top one first, and then the others, one by one. Carbonic acid is formed by their burning, but it is so hot that instead of being heavier than air as when cold, it is lighter, and rising to the top puts out the upper candles first. 8. Collect the breath over water by blowing through a tube, into a jar, arranged as described under Chemical Experiments. Place a piece of glass over the mouth of the jar and then, turning it right side CARBONIC ACID 14C) CARDS, AND CARD-GAMES up, set it on a table. A taper may now be extinguished by lowering it into the jar, or any of the experi- ments performed with gas made from marble and sulphuric acid may be repeated. 9. Pour into a flask or large bottle a strong solution of caustic soda, filling about one quarter of it. On this carefully pour pure water, letting it run down the inside of the flask, so that it will float in a thin layer on the soda. Instead of water one may use kerosene oil, which does not re- quire care in pouring, as it cannot help floating. Make carbonic acid gas, as described above, and fill the rest of the bottle with it. Have ready a cork, pierced by a tube having an empty toy balloon attached to the lower end. When the bottle is full of the carbonic acid, insert the cork so that the balloon is within the flask. Then shake the flask, so as to disturb the layer of water or oil and bring the gas into contact with the soda. The balloon will at once become distended and may even burst, if the bottle is large enough. The reason is that caustic soda ab- sorbs carbonic acid very readily, and the outside air rushes into the bal- loon to fill the place of the absorbed gas. 10. Make a solution of carbonic acid gas, by passing it into water, and put some freshly gathered leaves into a flask of it. Stand the flask upside down, in a shallow dish of water, and set it in bright sunlight. Little bubbles will be seen to form on the leaves and rise from them gradually until they collect in the upper part of the flask. After a day or so, place a piece of glass under the mouth of the flask and turn it right side up. The gas collected is oxygen, as will be seen by lighting a splinter, blow- ing it out so as to leave a glowing coal, and then dipping it into the mouth of the flask. The oxygen came from the leaves, which take in carbonic acid and breathe out oxy- gen, just as we take in oxygen and breathe out carbonic acid. (See Plants in C, C. T,) II. On some bits of marble in the bottom of a glass jar, pour sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. Carbonic acid will be made which will rise and fill the jar, driving out the air and over- flowing gently like water. The room should be very still. Lower a candle which has been lighted for some time into the jar. If this is done carefully the vapor from the wick will continue to burn for a few seconds above the surface of the heavy gas, though the flame on the wick itself is put out. By quickly raising the candle it can be lighted again. CARDINAL'S HAT, THE. A game played by any number of per- sons, who take the names of Red- cap, Blue-cap, Yellow-cap, etc. A player who takes the part of the Car- dinal accuses one of them of stealing his cap, when the following dialogue ensues : Player. "Not I, sir." Cardi7ial. " Yes, you, sir." Player. " Not I, sir." Cardinal. " Who then, sir } " Player. " Yellow-cap, sir," giving the assumed name of any player he chooses, who is then in turn accused by the Cardinal. If any one name a color not chosen by any player he must pay a forfeit. Some- times a piece of wood, representing the hat, is actually hidden, and the Cardinal tries to find where it is by rapping the fingers of each player with his cane. A similar game to this, called " The Abbot of St. Gall has lost his nightcap," is played by children in Switzerland, and an old English game called " The Parson has lost his fuddling cap " was also probably like it. CARDS AND CARD-GAMES. Cards used in playing card-games are printed on sheets of cardboard, which are afterward cut apart. Their manufacture is described in the Cyclo- paedia of Common Things. They CARD-GAMES 141 CARD-GAMES are usually made rectangular, though sometimes with rounded corners, and are generally 3|- inches long, by 2^ inches wide. They are put up in collections of fifty-two cards each, which, taken together, are commonly called a pack {ItaMsmpacco, a packet) of cards. In some parts of the southern United States, however, a pack is still called a deck of cards, the term used in England two or three centuries ago, which had its origin probably from the fact that the cards are piled regularly one over another (the word deck being from the Anglo-Saxon decan, to cover). Shakespeare uses the word in King Henry VI. (Part iii.. Act v., sc. i), where he says, " The king was slyly finger'd from the deck." While a full pack of cards al- ways consists, in America and in England, of fifty-two cards, smaller packs, for playing special games, are sometimes put up. Thus, a Euchre, Ecarte, Piquet, Bezique or Pinocle pack contains only thirty- two cards, the twos, threes, fours, fives, and sixes of each suit being left out. In the United States an extra card, sometimes blank and sometimes printed with a suitable device, called the Joker or Imperial The Sun. 2. Time. Cards of Charles VI. 3. Tower Struck by Lightning. 4. Last Judgment. Trump, is generally put into each Euchre pack, making thirty-three. It is frequently added also to each full pack, making fifty-three in all ; but as this card is used only occa- sionally, it is not considered as be- longing to a pack, and in this book a pack of cards is always understood to mean fifty-two cards. The cards in every pack are divided into four groups of thirteen, called suits (because in each they follow in regular order), each of which is dis- tinguished by a special mark or sym- bol. Two of these suit-marks, or symbols, called Hearts and Dia- monds, are red ; and two, Clubs and Spades, are black. The origin of their names will be explained under the history of cards. In each suit, three cards — the King, the Queen, and the Knave, or Jack — are picture cards, called face, figure, or court cards, and sometimes also honors. The other ten are numeral cards, called pip, point, or spot cards, be- cause they are marked by pips, or spots, numbering from one up to ten. The card with one spot or pip is called the Ace, and the Two-spot and the Three-spot are sometimes called respectively the Deuce and the Tray ; but ordinarily the cards are named as in the following table : CARD-GAMES 142 CARD-GAMES RED SUITS. BLACK SUITS. Hearts. Diamonds. Clubs. Spades. Seven Four- Three Two - - - The Ace of Spades has generally] on it the name and address of the] manufacturer, and in England, where the government taxes cards, a stamp, showing that the tax has been paid, is also put upon it. In some I countries the Ace of Diamonds is the stamp card. If the value of thej cards followed their natural order,} the King would be the highest card,j and the Ace the lowest ; but ii Whist the Ace is lowest only in cut- ting, and outranks the King in play- ing, and in other games it has differ- ent values. In Cribbage only, is the Ace the lowest card in playing. In some games the Tray is the best card, and in others, the Five-spot, the Ten-spot, etc. These variations in the value of cards have much to do with the differences in games. CUSTOMS AND TERMS. In almost all card games, certain customs and terms are common. These are described here to avoid repetition, and are not explained in the article on any particular game, unless they differ, in that game, from the ordinary rule. Shuffling, the mixing of the cards before playing a game. This is usu- ally done by the dealer, who holds part of the pack loosely in one hand, and slides in the rest of the cards with the other, so as to mix them thoroughly. Expert players have other ways of shuffling, which may be learned by practice. Each player has a right to shuffle, if he chooses, before the dealer, but it is generally done by the dealer only. The cards should be shuffled before each deal. Cutting, the dividing of the pack by one of the opposite players, so as to insure a fair deal. After shuffling, the dealer lays the pack near his right-hand neighbor, who lifts off part of the cards, and places them on the table beside the rest of the pack. The dealer then puts the re- mainder upon the part lifted off, and takes up again all the cards,, I CARD-GAMES 143 CARD-GAMES which are then ready for dealing. In cutting, at least as many cards as there are players must be lifted, and at least that number must be left in the pack. The dealer has no right to shuffle again after the cards have been cut. As cutting was originally an attempt to prevent cheating, it may be omitted in many games, though any of the players has a right to demand it. Sometimes the person to whom the pack is offered for cutting, taps it with his finger, meaning that he is willing to omit the cut. Dealing. The distribution of the cards to the players is called dealing ; and he who distributes them is called the dealer. The dealer must be selected before either shuffling or cutting. This is usually done by cutting for deal ; that is, each player lifts part of the pack, showing the bottom card of what he has lifted, and he whose card wins has the right to deal. In some games the lowest and in others the highest card cut determines the deal, and in some the value of the cards in cutting differs from that in playing. In- stead of cutting for deal a card may be given to each player, face upward ; he that has the winning card be- coming the dealer. In some games the cards are dealt one by one till some particular one appears, and the player to whom that card falls is dealer. Any one of these methods % QLEMPEREVR, a rvg^ J^yt^^^S ^^^r t ^^ p^ y ^"^MijSi^r^ C* ^-— jWlIi/ 1 d LIMPERATRISE '- \ 5. Emperor. 6. Empress. 7. Pope Hermit. Naibis. may be adopted in any game, by agreement. When the cards have been shuffled and cut, the dealer takes the pack in his left hand, and with his right gives one or more at a time (accord- ing to the game) to each player in regular order, beginning with the one at his left. In some games all the cards are dealt, in others part of the pack is left. The deal is an ad- vantage in games where the trump card is part of the dealer's hand, as will be explained below, and in some other games for special reasons. The cards are usually dealt several times in the course of a game, and each player deals in turn, the deal around the table to the passmg left. Misdeal, a mistake made in deal- ing. In most games the cards are divided equally, so that the dealer gives the last one to himself. If the last card falls to any one else, he has made a misdeal. When any player discovers that he has not the proper number of cards, or when any of his cards are dealt to him face upward, he may demand a fresh deal. In games where the deal is an advan- tage the dealer is usually punished for his mistake by giving it to his left-hand neighbor, but in other games the same player usually deals after a misdeal. CARD-GAMES 144 CARD-GAMES Hand. The cards that are dealt to each player are called his hand, and those that are left, if any, are named the stock, or talon. Where the hands are large it is better for each player to arrange his cards by suits, but this should be done so as to avoid giving his opponents any information. When each has played all his cards, a hand is said to have been played, and there is a new deal. Trump. In most card games, after the deal, the dealer turns face upward a card, which is called the trump-card, or trump. Sometimes this is the last card dealt, in which case it forms part of the dealer's hand, and may be taken up with his other cards, after one round has been played. Sometimes it is the top card of the stock, or is taken from the middle of the stock, and in some games one of the players, usually the dealer, is allowed to exchange one of his cards for the trump card. Cards of the same suit as the trump are called trumps, and usually rank above those of other suits. Thus, the lowest trump is a higher card than an Ace or King of any other suit. When the Joker is used, it is always a trump, and is the highest card in 9. Seven of Cups. 10. Seven of Swords. 11. Seven of Money. Italian Cards. 12. Seven of Clubs. the pack. In some games, one or more cards of other suits are re- garded as belonging to the trump suit, as is explained in the articles on those games. All but the trump suit are called lay suits, and a card of any such suit a lay card. Playing. After the trump has been turned and each player has arranged his cards, the one on the dealer's left, who is called the eldest hand, plays one of his cards face upward, and each player follows in order, to the left, until all have played. The cards so played are called a trick, and the one who plays the first card in the trick is said to have the lead, and is called the leader. In most games each must play, if he can, a card of the same suit as the leader ; this is called follow- ing suit. If he cannot follow suit he may play what he pleases, which is often called renouncing, and if he then chooses to play a trump, it is called trumping or rufifing. If he renounce when he is able to follow suit, it is called revoking. The player making a revoke may be pun- ished for his offense in various ways. I CARD-GAMES 145 CARD-GAMES In some games a player is allowed to trump even if he can follow suit. The trick is the property of the one playing the highest card of the suit led, unless one or more players trump, in which case the highest trump played takes the trick. The player taking the trick then has the lead for the next one. Each keeps his tricks in a pile near him, face downward. Discarding. In some games a player is required or allowed to re- move one or more cards from his hand. This is called discarding. The discarded cards are usually placed either in or under the stock, or by themselves, face downward. Score. Each player must keep count of the number of points he has made, which is called keeping score. The points are determined differently in different games. Some- times they are so few and so easily remembered that each can keep score mentally, but pencil and paper are usually required. In some games score is kept with two cards, by placing one partly over the other, so as to show a number of pips cor- responding to the points won. Score cards of several different kinds can 13. Seven of Cups. 14. Seven of Swords. 15. Seven of Money. Spanish Cards. 16. Seven of Clul be bought, some of which are for use in one particular game, and others in various games. In some games score is kept by means of counters or "chips," which are usu- ally round fiat pieces of ivory, bone, or celluloid. Four counters, or chips, are some- times used for scoring up to ten points, being arranged as shown below. It will be noted that a single counter placed at the top always counts three, but at the bottom five. o o o 0000 o o o o 00 For the numbers from 9 10 o o o o o o o o o o o ten to twenty an oblong counter is some- times laid above the others, thus: 12 13 and so on. Partners. In many card games each player wins or loses by himself, but in many others, where there are four players, two play against two, and in a few this is the only way of playing. Those who play together are called partners, and sit opposite each other. Only one score is kept for the two, and their tricks are placed in the same pile, for they win or lose together. Partners are sometimes decided on by cutting, the two who cut CARD-GAMES 146 CARD-GAMES the highest cards playing together against the other two. HISTORY OF CARDS. Playing cards were probably first made in Italy in the 14th century. The Chinese say that they were invented in the reign of their em- peror, Se-un-ho, in 11 20, and some European writers have tried to prove that they were first brought into Europe from India by the Gipsies, while others have asserted that they were introduced into Spain by the Moors, but there is no positive evidence to support any of these theories. The common story that they were invented in 1392 for the amusement of the French king, Charles VI., grew out of a record, found among the royal accounts, of a payment made to a painter for " three packs of cards in gold and various colors, and ornamented with several devices, to carry before the lord our king for his amusement." But this shows that cards were then well known, rather than that they were then first made, and that these were special ones painted finer than usual for the personal use of the king. Some cards, said to be part of one of these packs, are preserved in the Paris Library (see i, 2, 3, 4), but the best authorities consider them Vene- tian cards of the 1 5th century. 17. Seven of Hearts. 18. Seven of Leaves. 19. Seven of Bells. German Cards. 20. Seven of Acoms. It is now generally conceded by the latest writers on the subject, that cards originated in Italy (probably in Venice) about 1350. The first packs were probably wholly of figure or picture cards, containing no numeral or pip-cards, and were purely em- blematic — that is, representing some person or symbol. These cards, called Naibis (a term supposed by some to be derived from the Arabs, and still preserved in the Spanish name for cards, naypes), had noth- ing to do with games of chance, but were intended for instructive amuse- ment, like the game of Authors and many similar games played by young folks to-day. Some of the writers of that century prohibit the playing by children of Dice and other games of hazard, but recommend Naibis. These Naibis, or emblematic cards, differed somewhat, according to time and country, but generally were partly of full-length figures, illustra- tive of some condition of life, such as an Emperor, an Empress, a Pope, a Hermit (5, 6, 7, 8),) and partly of symbolic designs, such as the World, the Sun, the Moon, a Tower struck by Lightning, the Last Judgment, etc, as in those of Charles VI. Each one had at the top a number in Ro- man numerals, and at the bottom, below the design, its name, generally in French. Exactly how many Nai- CARD-GAMES 147 CARD-GAMES bis were in a pack originally is not known, but the number probably differed at different times. Toward the end of the 14th cen- tury it is supposed that these instruc- tive cards were adapted, by certain changes, to the use of older persons, in the hope of restraining them from playing Dice and other games of haz- ard. Part of the original Naibis be- ing selected, certain other cards, in- tended to teach a moral lesson, such as Death, Temperance, the Devil, and the Last Judgment, were added, making the whole number of such cards 22. To these were added 56 other cards, divided into four suits of fourteen cards each, each suit made up of four picture or coat-cards (corrupted into court-cards), repre- senting a King, a Queen, a Cavalier, and a Valet, or man-servant, and of ten numeral, or pip-cards, numbered from one to ten. These additions made the full pack consist of y8 cards, divided into five suits, the 22 Naibis forming a suit by themselves, superior to the other four suits. For this reason they were sometimes called also atutti (French atouts, above all), and trionfi (French tri- omphes, triumphs), from which comes our word trumps. The pack of cards thus made was called by the Italians Tarocchi, because used to play the game of that name, and by the French Tarots. The use of cards spread rapidly throughout Europe, but different peo- ple soon began to alter the mode of combining them and their sym- bols, according to their own notions. In Florence, the number of emblem- atic cards was increased to 41, mak- ing 97 in all. In Bologna, the pack was reduced to 62, and finally the first of the five suits, the emblematic cards, was thrown out altogether and I one coat-card, or honor, was dropped \ from each of the remaining suits, \ making the pack 52, the number now generally in use. The coat-card generally omitted was the Cavalier, | but the Spaniards, who would not I allow the figure of a lady on their cards, dropped the Queen, and the Germans sometimes kept an upper and a lower Knave in place of the Queen and Knave. The Spaniards also threw out the four Ten-spots, making the pack to consist of but 48 cards. In the early cards, the figures on the honors bore some resemblance to the persons they were intended to represent, but about the reign of Henry VII. of England, they began to take the grotesque forms which have since been most popular. Most English and American cards still show the costumes of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., though the full length figures have mostly given place to busts, printed double, and in reverse, on each honor, that the card may be the more easily known, whichever way it may be thrown on the table. Attempts to produce a better type of figures on cards have generally met with failure, as most card players prefer the ancient style. Toward the latter part of the 15th century, the French began to name the Kings, Queens, and Knaves on their cards, giving them historic or legendary titles, such as La Pucelle, (The Maid, that is — Joan of Arc), the Dukes of Burgundy and Nor- mandy, etc., and Helen, Venus, La Sybille, etc. About the time of Henri IV., the Kings were generally called David, Alexander, Caesar, and Charlemagne ; the Queens, Rachel, Argine, Pallas, and Judith ; and the Knaves, Hector, Lancelot, Roland, and Hogier ; and these names were afterward generally employed until the custom ceased. At the time of the French Revolution, when royalty was discarded, the signs of royalty were removed from the French cards ; the Kings were replaced by sages and philosophers, the Queens by emblematic figures of virtues and liberties, and the Knaves by warriors or Roman heroes. Napoleon had these changed for artistic designs by the painter David, but after the Emperor's downfall the people pre- CARD-GAMES 148 CARD-GAMES ferred to go back to the old style. Other attempts, in later times, to make cards vehicles of information, to teach arithmetic, grammar, geog- raphy, history, mythology, etc., have also failed. The signs or marks of the four suits of cards have varied in different countries. The earliest used in Italy were coppe (cups, 9), spade (swords, 10), denari (money, 11), and bastoiii {Q\M\:iS, 12). These were called by the Spaniards copas (cups, 13), espadas (swords, 14), oros or dineros (money, 15), and bastos (clubs, 16). The Germans early employed other marks ; herzen or roth (hearts, 17), laub or griin (leaves, 18), sc he lien (bells, 19), and eicheln 'lacorns, 20). The French, Gamel. Hindoo Cards. 24. Horse. during the second quarter of the 15th century, adopted the signs of coeurs (hearts), carreaux (dia- monds), trdfies (trefoils), and piques (pikes). The trefles wem taken probably from the German eicheln or acorns, which they somewhat resemble ; 2iX\A piques from the Ger- man griin, or leaves, though they got their names from a fancied re- semblance to a pike head. These marks have since been generally adopted by all other nations, except- ing the Spaniards, who still use the old Italian marks. Other symbols have, however, been in vogue at different times, the Germans, about the beginning of the 15th century, I CARD-GAMES 149 CARD-GAMES using animals, flowers, fruit, etc. One old German set has for suit marks dogs, falcons, stags, and ducks ; another, rabbits, parroquets, pinks, and columbines ; and a third, lions, monkeys, parrots, and pea- cocks. In 1862, during the Civil War in the United States, cards were printed in New York with eagles, shields, flags, and stars for suit marks, and a colonel, the God- dess of Liberty, and a major, for King, Queen, and Knave. The English seem to have adopted all the French suit marks together with the French names for the two red suits, but to have taken the Italian or Spanish names for the two black suits, calling trejies clubs, a transla- tion of the Italian bastoni or the Spanish bastos ; and piques spades, which is derived from spade or es- padas, the Italian and Spanish words for swords. Cards were at first made much larger than now, some of the early German ones being seven by four inches. They were, too, sometimes made square, and sometimes circu- lar. Hindoo and Persian cards are often circular, about 2^ inches in di- ameter, though those used in Tehe- ran are generally of the European size and shape. Hindoo cards are sometimes of eight suits of twelve each and sometimes of ten suits of twelve each. The suit marks are birds, swords, suns, moons, etc. (21, 22, 23, 34). Persian cards have generally 96 in the pack, with suns, moons, harps, sabres, etc., for suit marks. Chinese cards are long and narrow, from 2| to 2 inches long by I to i^ wide (25, 26). They are printed with black ink on thin white cardboard, and the backs are black, red, or plain white. Japanese cards are much like the Chinese, differing only in their marks. The earliest card game played is supposed to have been Tarocchi, in- vented at Venice, played with 'jZ cards, called from it Tarocchi cards, or, in French, Tarots. This was followed by the Florentine game of Minchiata, played with 97 cards ; by the Bolognese game of Taroc- chino, with 62 cards, and by the Venetian game of Trappola, with 40 cards. Frusso (Flush), Bassetta, and Fri?niera, were also other early Italian games. Primiera, called in Spain and England Primero, and in France Prime and A?nbigu, was the ancestor of our Brag and Poker. In Germany, one of the earliest games played was Landskfiechtspiel (Foot- soldiers'-game), called in French Lansquenet. The oldest Spanish game is probably Ombre {H ombre, man), called Omber in England, where, as well as in France, it was 25. Court Card. 26. Pip Card. Chinese Cards. once much played. There were many modifications of it, among them Quadrille and Solitaire, Eng- land has no national game of cards, unless Whist may be so considered, the games played there being de- rived from Italy, Spain, or France. Primero, one of the earliest, was fashionable from the reign of Henry VIII. to that of James I. It was suc- ceeded by a game called Mauve ; then came Gleek, Omber, Quadrille, Reversis, and Bassett ; and finally Ruff, and Honors, which, about 1650, led to Whist. The card games CASINO 150 CASINO usually played now are described in special articles in this book. CASINO, or Cassino, a game of CARDS played best by four persons, but sometimes by two, three, five, six, or even more. The players may be divided into two sides, or play each for himself. The dealer deals from a full pack four cards, one at a time, to each player and lays four more face upward on the table, either as he deals or all at once. When the players' cards are gone, four more are dealt to each one until the pack is used up, but none are put on the table except at the first deal. The leader (or elder hand) can take not only all cards of the same value, among those on the table, but also any cards the number of whose spots, added together, equals his. Thus a Nine will take not only all other Nines on the table, but at the same time a Five and a Four ; a Six and a Three ; a Seven and a Two : an Eight and an Ace ; a Four, a Three, and a Two ; or any other cards which will make nine when their spots are added. Face cards can take only corresponding face cards. If the leader has no card that will take anything, he must lay some card on the table, but if he has left in his hand a card that will take the card laid down, in connection with others on the table, he can make a pile of the cards he is able to take, at the same time announcing to the other players with what card he means to take them at a subsequent time, though not necessarily his next turn. If the cards so piled form a single group it is called " building," if several groups, it is "calling," or duplicating. Thus if a player com- bine a Six from his hand with a Two and an Ace on the table, and say " Nine," it is only a " build," but if he include in the pile a Nine-spot on the table or another group the sum of whose spots is nine, he must say " Nines " (using the plural) and it is a "call." The cards of neither a build nor a call can be taken separ- ately by pairing, but an adversary may raise a build in amount by the addition of another card, while a call cannot be raised. A call must be taken by the card it represents, either alone or with other similar piles. The second player may likewise take what he can with his card, or build, or call, remembering in either case that a build can always be treated like a single card, while a call can- not. If he can do none of these things he must lay down a card with the others. The players in turn have the same choice till the pack is ex- hausted. When the pack has been played, he who takes the last trick takes also the rest of the cards on the table. Each player then counts his points according to the table given below : Big Casino (the Ten of Diamonds) counts 2 Little Casino (the Two of Spades) i Each Ace .1 The greatest number of Cards . 3 The greatest number of Spades . i Besides this, when a player has taken all the cards on the board at once (except at the end of the game) it is called a sweep, and counts i. A sweep is generally marked by facing or turning over one of the cards in the pile of tricks belonging to the player who makes it, so that, when the points are counted at the end of the hand, there is no trouble in remembering it. The person or side first making ten points usually wins the game; but when only two persons or sides are playing, the count is sometimes made by giving to him who makes the greatest number of points in a hand only the difference between his points and those of his opponent, while the latter scores nothing ; thus, if A has 8 and B has 5, A scores 3 and B nothing; while if they are equal, neither scores. If three play in this way, the two lowest add their points and subtract their sum from the highest, and no one scores when i CAT 151 CAT this sum equals or exceeds the highest. The game is made longer by counting thus, but it can hardly be done when more than three are playing separately, as usually no one could score. In playing Casino, when no card on the table can be taken it is best to lay down face cards. These are of the least use in one's own hand and the hardest to take on the table, since no combinations can be made with them. Care should be taken in laying down an ace, for in taking it with another ace your opponent wins two points for the final count at once, and it is also the easiest card to combine. It would be better even to lay down Big Casino, for that can be taken only by a ten. After the learner has played the game once or twice other suggestions will soon offer themselves. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The tricks must not be examined nor counted before all the cards are played. 2. If the dealer show a card before any of the four in the middle are dealt, or if he dealt too many or too few cards to any one, he must deal again. History. The word casino is Italian and means little house. Club houses where people meet for amuse- ment are often called casinos, and this game may have been so named because it was a favorite at such places. Kapak, or Russian Casino. In this form of the game the Knave counts II, the Queen 12 and the King 13. There is no "building." Sweeps are called " Kapaks," and Big Casino and Little Casino are called respectively the " Good Ten " and " Good Two." Clubs count instead of Spades, as in ordinary Casino, and the " Good Two " (Little Casino) is the Two of Clubs. In all other respects Kapak is played like ordinary Casino. CAT, a game played by any num- ber of persons with a piece of wood called a Cat. The Cat is a piece of wood about six inches long and i^ or 2 inches thick, sharpened at both ends. If it is laid either on level ground or with one end projecting over a hole, and the end be struck down quickly with a bat, it will rise in the air, twirling, and may then be struck away The Cat. with the bat. The game may be played in various ways. In the simplest, a large ring is made and one player, standing within it, strikes the cat as described above. If it fall within the ring, he is out and another player takes his place. If it fall out- side he guesses how many lengths of the stick it is from the center of the ring. The distance is then measured, and if it is less than his guess, he is out ; but if not, he scores that number of points and has another turn. After as many rounds as have been agreed upon, the player scoring the most points wins. Another way of playing is to make as many holes in the ground as there are players on a side ; the holes are made as nearly as possible in a circle and at equal distances. A player, with a bat, stands at each hole, and all the players on the other side stand ouside the circle. One of the bats- men strikes the Cat, and then all run around the circle. Every time they reach new holes the side scores one run. The next player in order then strikes the Cat, and so on. But if a player on the other side can throw the Cat between any two holes be- fore the player who has left one of them reaches tlie other, the runner is out, and when one or more play- ers are out (whichever has been agreed) the sides change places. When each side has been at the bat the number of times previously agreed upon, the game is ended, and the side that has made most runs wins. This game is very old. It was known to the Venetians in the i6th century. It is a common sport also (SAT'S CRADLte l^i CAt*S CRAt)LE in Hindostan, where it is called Gulli Danda. It may have been taken to India by Venetian traders, CAT'S CRADLE, a game played by two persons with a string, four or five feet long, whose ends are tied together. The string, which is held on the hands of one of the players, is removed by the other, and so on al- ternately ; it assuming a different form each time. Some of the variations, of which there are many, are shown m the illustrations. The player who begins holds his hands in front of him with the palms toward each other, and the string passing around the backs. He then takes a turn around the fig- 3- string with each hand so that it also passes across each palm. He then passes the middle finger of his right hand under the part that crosses the opposite palm, and pulls it back as represented in Fig. i. After he has done the same thing with the left middle linger, the string appears as Fig. 4. in Fig. 2. The second player now seizes the upper strings, with the fin- ger and thumb of each hand, as shown in Fig. 3, pulls them over the outside string, and pushing them up inside, takes the strings off in the shape shown in Fig 4. Other varia- tions are shown in the illustrations which follow. Each is made from some previous arrangement by one 1- ig. 6. player's taking the string from the hands of the other. The proper way of doing this may be studied out by the learner, who may also CAtCH I'HE TEN 1^^ CAVfil^Mfi invent many of new figures to suit himself. The different arrangements are often called by special names. In Germany some of them are " The Single Cross." " The Double Cross." " The Water " and " The Violin." History. This game, which is probably of great antiquity, is found in nearly all parts of the world. The Dyaks, or natives of Borneo, are very skillful at it, making many kinds of puzzling figures, and the Maoris of New Zealand are also fond of it. The latter call it Mam, the name of their national hero, by whom they say it was invented. Its various pat- terns represent incidents in Mani's life, and other events, forming a kind of pictorial history of the country. CATCH THE TEN, or Scotch Whist, a game of CARDS played by two to eight persons with a pack from which the Twos, Threes, Fours, and Fives are omitted. If it is nec- essary, one or more of the Sixes may also be left out, that the cards may be equally divided. The cards rank as in Whist, except in the trump suit, where the Knave is higher than the Ace. When two persons play, three hands of six cards are dealt to each, which must be kept separate and played in the order in which they are dealt. When three play, two hands are dealt to each in like manner. When more than this num- ber play, each is dealt one hand, the cards being divided evenly. In all cases the last card is turned for trump. Six persons may play in two partnerships of three each or three of two each ; and eight may form two sides of four each or four of two each. The players must sit so that no two on the same side are together. The cards are played as in whist. Each card above the party's share in the tricks taken scores one toward game. Thus, if three are playing each one's share of cards is 12, and if one of them takes 5 tricks (i 5 cards) he scores three points. In like man- ner, if four are playing, two against two, and one side take 6 tricks (24 cards) they score 6, the share of the party being 18. In addition, the five highest trumps count for those who take them as follows : Knave, 11 Ace, ....... 4 King, 3 Queen, 2 Ten, ....... 10 It will thus be seen that the prin- cipal object of the game, aside from making tricks, is to take the one con- taining the Ten of Trumps, for the Knave, being the highest card, can- not be taken from its owner. Hence the name " Catch the Ten." He who has the Ten should try to save it by playing it on a trick already taken by his partner, or by trumping with it. If a player have the two highest trumps, he should lead them, in hope of catching the Ten, or of enabling his partner to save it. In other respects the rules for playing are similar to those of Whist. If a player revoke, his side loses the game. CAYENNE, a game of cards, played by four persons, two against two, with a full pack. The cards are dealt as in whist, and the dealer, after turning the last as trump, de- cides which of four games shall be played. These are called respec- tively, " In Suits," "Grandissimo," " Cayenne," and " Nullissimo." The THE CENTAUR 154 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE game In Suits is like whist except that the dealer turns down the trump card and makes a new trump, and every trick more than six counts 2 points. In the Cayenne game the turned trump is retained and the odd tricks count 4 each. In the Grand- issimo game there is no trump, and the odd tricks count 6 each. Nullissimo is like Grandissimo ex- cept that the object is not to take tricks, and the odd tricks count 4 apiece to the opposite side. The Ace, King, Queen, Knave, and Ten are called Honors. Three Honors count 2, Four Honors 4, and Two Honors 6. It will be seen that the more difficult the game the more valuable are the tricks. If the dealer has a long suit and knows he can get the lead, he will probably choose to play Grandissimo. If he has a very poor hand he will choose Nul- lissimo. CENTAUR, THE, a diversion in which two boys or men personate a Centaur, a creature of Greek mythol- Fig. I. — The Centaur. ogy, half man and half horse. One player stands erect, and the other, behind him, bends his body so that his back is horizontal, and holds the first player's hips with his hands, as in Fig. i. A table-cover or shawl is thrown over the second player and pinned around the waist of the first, and a tail, like a horse's, is made of strips of cloth or paper and pinned to the shawl in the rear. The Cen- taur should hold a bow and arrow in his hand, and have a cloak thrown loosely over his shoulder and over one arm, while the other is bare (See Fig. 2). Two Centaurs may engage Fig. 2. — The Centaur. in a combat, but this requires some practice. There should be signals arranged between the front and rear performer, so that the latter will know what to do, and the two should also practise the ordinary paces of the horse, such as walking, trotting, and galloping. Imitation hoofs of . pasteboard may be made and fast- ened over the shoes. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, Experi- ments on. I. Tie a stone or any other heavy object to the end of an elastic cord and swing it around in a circle by the other end of the cord. The cord will be stretched. The reason is that the stone strives to move in a straight Hne ; the cord confines it to a circle, hence the stone stretches the cord in its effort to get away. This outward pull exerted by the stone is generally called cen- trifugal force (Latin centrum, centre, 2Si^fugo, to fly). Let go the cord and the stone will fly off as if it had been thrown in the direction in which it was moving when it was released. CHARACTERS 155 CHARACTERS 2. Half fill a quart pail with water, tie a cord about two feet long to the handle, and swing the pail in a circle. The water will not fall out, even when the pail is upside down. The reason is that its centrifugal force makes it press against the bottom of the pail. 3. Take the same pail, and after twisting the string tightly, allow it to untwist, spinning the pail horizon- tally, or use a twirler to make it spin. The water will heap itself up against the sides of the pail, leaving a hollow in the centre. The faster the pail spins, the higher the water will be at the edge, and as it stops spinning the water surface will grow level again. 4. Put into the pail equal quantities of water and some kind of oil that will float on it. Spin as before, and the water will seek the edge of the pail, leaving the oil within. It is on this principle that machines are made to separate the cream from milk in a few minutes. 5. Suspend a small fish-globe by tying a string around the top, which should have a groove. Spin it as before, and then pour into it about a tumblerful of water. The water will leave the bottom entirely, and form a ring around the middle of the globe. 6. Wet a TOP and then spin it. The water will be thrown off in spray from all sides. CHARACTERS. The name of two different games. I. A game played by any number of persons, one of whom leaves the room while the others agree on some historical char- acter he is to represent. He is then called back and each player asks him a question or makes a remark to him as if he were the character agreed upon. From these questions he must try to guess what character he is supposed to represent, and if he succeeds, the person whose ques- tion enabled him to do so must represent the next character. The questions are usually put so as to puzzle the guesser as much as possi- ble. For instance, if Washington be the character agreed upon, one player may ask, " Do rifle balls bound from you as if you were made of rubber? " (referring to his remarkable escape in the French and Indian war) ; another, " Do you think mid-winter the best time for crossing rivers ? " (referring to the passage of the Dela- ware) ; and another, " Have you outgrown your early fondness for destroying fruit trees ? " Instead of historical characters, persons well known to all the company are some- times selected, which often makes the game more amusing. II. A game in which each player is given one letterof the name of an his- torical character, the players seating themselves in the order in which the letters occur in the name. Each one then selects another character whose name begins with the particular let- ter assigned to him, and the player sent out, being re-called, tries to guess each of these by questioning the others one by one, in any order he pleases. He is not to be told whether or not he has guessed aright, but when he thinks he has found out several he may guess the name of the character agreed on by the company and must be told whether this guess is correct. If it is not, he must find out more initial letters and try again. The player whose letter enables him to guess correctly must take his place as guesser for the next game. If the name selected has more let- ters than the number of players, several of them may take two or more, and if there are more players than letters, part or all of the name may be repeated ; but the guesser must be told, in the first case, which players have more than one letter, and the order of those letters, and, in the second case, which player has the last letter of the name. Century Court, a kind of Charac- ters, in which the person who leaves the room is given the name of a whole century instead of a single ACTING CHARADE 156 CHECKERS character. On his return he is charged with all the crimes of the century and praised for all its good men or events. As in the game just described, this goes on till the person guesses the century he is supposed to represent. ACTING CHARADE, a play, the scenes of which represent respect- ively the syllables of some word and the whole of that word. Thus, the word may be carpet, when there would be three scenes, representing the words Car, Pet, and Carpet. The different scenes may be parts of the same play, or each may be complete in itself. Acting charades may be learned from printed books, like other plays, but usually the performers merely agree on the plot and fill in the dialogue to suit themselves, as the play goes on. For an evening's amusement, the company may be divided into two parties, each with a leader. One of the parties acts a charade while the other forms the audience and tries to guess the word represented, and then the parties change places. A word or syllable may be acted by being actually represented, or by being mentioned frequently. Thus, the syllable "car," in the above exam- ple may be acted by representing the interior of a car, with passengers and conductor, though the word itself is not once spoken, or any other scene may be given in which a car is a subject of conversation. Of these two methods, the former is the best where it is possible. Charades are most enjoyable when there has been least preparation. Scenery and cos- tumes should be made from the materials nearest at hand. The leader should act as stage manager and the other players should obey him exactly. He should tell each what to do, taking advice and sug- gestions from the others, but always deciding himself on the course to be followed. It is better merely to in- dicate the general plot, leaving the players to use what words occur to them at the moment. Two persons can thus often make a very comical dialogue without any previous re- hearsals, and, as all are equally with- out preparation, a failure is not dis- graceful. CHECKERED GAME OF LIFE, a game played by two persons on a checkered board, with counters and a TEETOTUM. The squares bear numbers and also pictures descrip- tive of different events in a man's life, beginning with his birth and ending in various ways, some success- ful, others not, the object being to reach the Temple of Fame at the top of the board. The players each enter in turn a counter in the first square, and their course of play is determined entirely by twirling the teetotum, there being no skill in the game. He who first reaches the Temple of Fame wins. This is the type of a great number of games, all probably derived from Backgammon or Patchesi, and many having for an object the combination of instruction with amusement. The oldest of such games was probably the Game of Goose, which was play- ed as long ago as 1800. This was called in Yx2.xizt Jeu de VOie (Game of Goose), and in an old French col- lection many similar games are de- scribed, among them those of " His- tory," " The Revolution," " The Atlas," "The Navy," and "The Monuments of Paris." CHECKERS (called Draughts in England), a game played by two persons, each of whom has 12 pieces or men, on a checkered board divided into 64 squares of two colors, gener- ally black and white. It may be played either on the black squares, as it usually is in America, or on the white squares, as it always is in England, but on whichever color it is played, the board must be so placed that a square of the same color shall be in the lower left-hand corner. In the accompanying diagrams, for con- venience of illustration, the game is supposed to be played on the white CHECKERS 157 CHECKERS squares. The checkers, or men, which are also of two colors, and are all equal, are arranged at the beginning of the game in three lines on each side, as shown in Fig. i : The players take turns in moving, and each has but one move at a time. The men are moved diagon- ally (corner-wise), one square at a time, either to the right or to the left, but always forward. If, however, a man reaches the last line of squares on the opposite side of the board, it becomes a King, is covered by having another one put upon top of it (or sometimes by turning it over, if it is made with a crown on the under side), and it may then move either backward or forward, but still only one square at a time. When two hostile men meet each other, the one having the move can capture the other, if there is a vacant square next beyond it, by jumping over it into that square. The man thus jumped is removed from the board. If several men are exposed with a va- cant square behind each, they may all be jumped at once and all removed from the board, the capturing man being left on the last square occupied. If a man be in a position to be taken, the player having the move must capture it. If he neglect to capture it and make some other move, the opponent may let the move stand and remove from the board the man which ought to have made the capture. The man thus forfeited is said to be huffed, or " blowed," sometimes accom- panied with the gesture, and the player who thus huffs has then the right to make his own move, for the act of huffing does not count as a move. If, however, the player having the right to huff prefers not to do so, he may insist on his opponent's capturing the piece, and then the man improperly moved must first be replaced on the square from which he was moved. As two or three men may sometimes be captured at once, the player neglecting to take all of them may be huffed by his opponent. This often happens to young players, who do not readily see all the men which may be jumped. The object of the game is to capture all the men of the opposite player, or to block them so that they cannot move. If, towards the close of a game the two players are so evenly balanced that neither can win — as, for example, when each has Checker Board. Fig. I. — Arrangement of Men. one king — the game is said to be drawn. The Move. The player who occu- pies such a position on the board that in the ordinary course of play he can force his opponent's men into a con- fined position is said to " have the move." There are several ways of finding out who has the move, which will be learned easiest by playing with some one who under- stands the game, or by playing through the games given below. When one has not the move, one can CHECKERS 158 CHECKERS often win it by skillful playing. Hav- ing the move does not mean having the first move, for the first player has no advantage over his oppo- nent. The second player really has the move, but it is of no advantage to him so early in the game. Dur- ing the game the move is sometimes with one and sometimes with the other side, but the skillful player will generally keep it at the close of the game. It is customary to number the squares of the board in the way shown in Fig. 2, as the moves of the game are always given by num- bers, as in the columns be- low. By playing through these games, the beginner will easily learn what are the best moves on each side. Openings. There are a great many ways of begin- ning the game of Checkers. These, which are called " openings," have generally received special names. Some of them are given below : The Ayrshire Lassie : II — 15 24 — 20 8 — II 28 — 24 The Bristol : II — 16 24 — 20 16 — 19 Sometimes any game begun by the move 11 — 16 is called Bristol. The Cross : The Laird and Lady : II— 15 23—19 8 — II 22 — 17 9—13 The Maid of the Mill : II — 15 22 — 17 8— II 17—13 15—18 II— 15 The Defiance : 23- -18 II— 15 9—14 The Dyke : II— 15 23- 27- 22- -19 -23 -17 15- The Fife -19 II— 15 9—14 5—9 The Glasgow : II— 15 8— II 23- 22- 23- 22- -19 -17 -19 -17 II- -16 Checker Board. Fig. 2. — Method of Numbering. The Old Fourteenth : II— 15 23—19 4-8 22 — 17 The Invincible : II— 15 24- The Single Corner : -19 22—18 23—19 22 — 17 23—19 22 — 17 II— 15 The Souter : II— 15 9—14 6-9 The Whilter : II— 15 9—14 7— II The Will o' the Wisp : II — 15 23 — 19 9—13 The " Bristol " was so named by the player Anderson in compHment to ' the checker players of Bristol, England. The " Defiance " is so CHECKERS 159 CHECKERS named because it prevents the formation of the " Fife " game. The " Dyke " is so called because in many of its positions the men are formed in lines. The " Fife " was named in 1847 after Wylie, a player from Fifeshire, Scotland. The " Glasgow " was named in like man- ner from Sinclair of that city in 1828. The " Laird and Lady," " Maid of the Mill," and " Souter " (shoemaker) were named from people whose favor- ite openings they were. The " Old Fourteenth " was the fourteenth game in Sturges's work on checkers. The " Whilter " (a Scotch word, meaning a confusing change), and the " Will o' the Wisp " are named from the unexpected plays they often introduce. Sample Gaines, In these games Black is supposed to be at the top and White at the bottom of the board. Care should be taken to crown each man that reaches the king-row, -row. GAME I. BLACK. WHITE. II to 15 22 to 18 15 " 22 25 " 18 8 " II 29 " 25 4" 8 25 " 22 12 " 16 24 " 20 10 " 15 27 " 24 16 " 19 23 " 16 15 " 19 24 " 15 9 " H 18 " 9 II " 25 32 " 27 5 " 14 27 " 23 6 " 10 16 " 12 8 " II 28 " 24 25 " 29 30 " 25 29 " 22 26 " 17 II " 15 20 " 16 15 " 18 24 " 20 18 " 27 31 " 24 14 " 18 16 " II 7 " 16 20 " II 18 " 23 II " 8 23 " 27 8 " 4 27 " 31 4" 8 31 " 27 24 " 20 27 " 23 8 " II 23 " 18 II " 8 18 " 15 Black wins. GAMI : II. BLACK. WHITE. 9 to 14 22 to 18 II " 15 18 " 9 5 " 14 25 " 22 15 " 19 23 " 16 12 " 19 24 " 15 10 " 19 22 " 17 6 " 10 27 " 24 16 " 15 17 " 10 7 " 14 29 - 25 8 " II 25 " 22 14 " 18 22 " 17 18 " 22 17 " 14 22 " 25 21 " 17 25 " 29 17 " 13 4 " 8 32 " 27 3 " 7 24 " 20 15 " 18 14 " 9 19 " 23 26 " 19 18 " 22 27 " 24 White wins. GAME in. WHITE. BLACK. 22 to 18 II to 16 25 " 22 10 " 14 24 " 20 16 " 19 23 " 16 12 " 19 18 " 15 7 - 10 20 " 16 14 " 18 29 " 25 9 " 14 27 " 24 5 " 9 24 " 20 8 " 12 31 " 27 I " 5 15 " II 10 " 15 22 " 17 18 " 22 17 " I 22 " 31 II " 8 4 " II 16 " 7 3 " 10 I " 6 31 " 24 6 " 13 5 " 9 13 " 6 2 " 9 30 " 26 9 " 14 26 " 22 14 " 18 22 " 17 19 " 23 28 " 19 15 " 24 17 " 14 Drawn. RULES OF THE GAME. I. The choice of men and the first move in the first game must be de- cided by lot ; the most common way is for one of the players to hold one of the men in his hand, and let the CHECKERS 1 60 CHECKERS other guess whether it is black or white. The winner of the choice has the right either to play first or to call upon his opponent to do so. After the first game, the men should be changed each game, so that each player shall use the black and the white by turns, and not become so accustomed to either as to be unable to use the other, and the first move is to be taken by turns, whether the game be won or drawn. 2. Neither player must touch the squares of the board nor point at the board with his finger, and never touch a piece unless he means to move it. 3. If the men get out of place, a player may first tell his opponent that he intends to replace them and then do so ; but if, after they are set right, a player touches a piece, it being his turn to play, he must move it, if possible. 4. When a man is in a position to be taken, the player having the move must capture it ; and the opposite player may insist on his do- ing so, or may huff the man having the right to capture, as he chooses. After huff- ing, the player may then make his own move. 5. No matter how long a man has been liable to cap- ture, it may at any time be huffed, or the opponent may at any time be obliged to capture it. 6. When two or more men are liable to capture, the player having the move may take whichever he chooses ; for example, if one can be captured in one way and two in another way, he may take either the one or the two. 7. If a player delays moving more than three minutes, his opponent may request him to play ; and if he does not move within five minutes after being requested to, he loses the game. 8. When, near the close of the game, only a few men are left, the player having the stronger force may be compelled at the pleasure of the referee to finish within a certain num- ber of moves ; and, if he cannot do this, the game is declared drawn. [For example, if two kings remain against one king, the referee might require the former to win in twenty moves — that is, twenty on each side.j Give-Away, or the Losing Game, a game having the same moves and rules as checkers, in which the player who first gets rid of all his men wins. The object of each player is to force his opponent to capture as many men as possible, and, by opening his own ■ I'B 2 P 3 H 4 Mm « 8 ^ ^°H 11 W 13 ^« ■ ® ■ ^^ ■ m\ ■ "H 19 B m ^^ ^P ^^ ^m ® ^m. «■ ^^P mm. ^® ^P 27 'm. uu ■ 1 W^ W^A ««B^i ^ 31 1 fi 3S 1 M Fig. 3.— Polish Checkers. game freely, especially the squares in his king-row, to compel him to make kings. It is thus the opposite of checkers. Although not so difficult to play as the latter, it requires con- siderable skill and attention to play well. Great care is necessary to keep the move, for the player who has it ought to win. Polish Checkers. The board and the men are arranged as in common checkers and the moves of the men are the same — that is, always for- ward diagonally, and one square a' a time ; but in capturing, the mei CHECKERS i6i CHECKERS have the privilege of jumping either forward or backward. When a man reaches the opposite King-row, it is crowned a king as in the other game, but it has far greater powers, similar to those of a bishop in chess. It may move not only one square at a time, backward or forward, but it has also the privilege of passing over several squares, and even the whole length of the diagonal, when the passage is free, at one move. The method of capture, both of the men and of the kings, may be explained easiest by Fig. 3, the game being supposed to be played on the white squares, as it generally is in Europe. If White has a man at 20, and Black has unsupported men at 16, 7, 6, 14, 23, and 24, White, having the move, may capture them all and finish at square 20 again. In this long jump or succes- sion of jumps. White, it will be noticed, enters the oppo- site King-row at 2, but does not stay there, for he is obliged to keep on jumping until he has captured all the men which can be taken ; and he does not thus win the right to be made a king, as that can be only when the man remains in the King- row. Good players will take advantage of this, when they cannot keep their opponent from getting into their King- row, and by putting a man or two in the way of capture, lead him out of it again into the middle of the board. It is sometimes good play to throw away even three men, espec- ially toward the end of a game, to keep the enemy from getting a King. The men jumped must not be re- moved from the board until the cap- turing man has finished and is at rest, because the latter cannot pass twice over any square with a man on it, but must stop behind that man which, but for this rule, it might jump. But a vacant square may be passed or repassed several times in the course of one move, provided that no man is leaped a second time. The king has even more power than the bishop in chess, for in moving he may not only pass from one end of the board to the other, but in capturing he may also make angles. For instance (Fig. 4), if a king stand at 18, he may move to any square on the hne from 4 to 29, or from 5 to 32. Again, if a White king stands at 31 and Black men or kings are at 22, 6, 16, and 24, the former captures them all by jumping to the squares 13, 2, 20, and 27, where he rests. From this it will be seen that Fig. 4. — Polish Checkers. though the common man can jump a piece only when there is a vacant space next beyond it, the king can pass to any empty square on the diagonal. The king having so great power can keep out of his opponent's way much more easily than in com- mon checkers, and with skillful players many games are drawn. If, at the end of a game, White has only one king while Black has three. White can draw the game if he can get on the central line between 4 and 29, and know how to play properly. If he cannot get on the central line, CHECKERS 162 CHECKERS Black may win in several ways, but the game is drawn if he does not do it in fifteen moves. When a player who has only one king, while his oppo- nent has a king and two men, offers to crown the two men so as to oblige him to win in fifteen moves, the opponent must accept the offer or the game is drawn. When at the end of a game, one party has a king and a man against three kings, it is best to sacrifice the man as soon as possible, as the game is more easily defended by a king alone. When two men of one color are so situated that an opponent can move between Fig. 5.— Pyramid. them, and thus be in a position to leap either way, it is called a lunette. This situation happens much oftener in the Polish than in the common game, and it is frequently a snare laid by good players to catch the unskillful ; for by moving into the lunette in hope of catching one of his opponent's men the poor player often finds himself entrapped and forced to lose several of his own. With these few exceptions the rules of Polish checkers are the same as those for common checkers. This game is usually played on the continent of Europe on a board with 100 squares. each player having 20 men arranged in four rows ; but in Germany it is often played as in America — on a common checker-board of 64 squares, with the usual number of men. Pyramid, a game in which the men are arranged in the form of a pyra- mid, as in Fig. 5. The moves are always diagonally forward, and hos- tile men must be jumped as in check- ers, but the man jumped is not removed from the board. The player's object is to form his men in the same pyramid that was occupied at first by his enemy, and he who does this soonest wins. This is the simplest game that is played on a checker-board, though considerable skill may be shown in moving the men and getting them in position. Halma, or Hoppity, a kind of PYRAMID played on a checker-board of 256 squares by two or four persons with men shaped like the Pawns in CHESS, though common checkers may be used, as shown in Fig. 6. In the two handed game each player has 19 men which are placed closely together in opposite corners of the board, as in Fig. 6, occupying both dark and light squares. The play- er's object, as in Pyramid, is to move his own men into the places of their opponents, but either friends or enemies can be jumped, and in any of the possible eight directions, which increases the interest. The simple move can also be made in any direction. In play- ing, an arrangement of the pieces in a row with an empty space between each two, into which a man may jump, is called a ladder, because a piece can sometimes go from one end to the other in a single move, by a series of leaps. Ladders should be arranged as much as possible where they will aid the player's own men, and avoided where they will help his opponent. The game may CHECKERS 163 CHECKERS be divided into three parts, the first part called the Gambit, which con- sists in getting all the men outside the squares originally occupied ; the second or Melee, when the opposing men are mingled ; and the third or Packing, getting the pieces into order on the opposite side. When four persons play, each has but 13 men, arranged in the same kind of a figure as in the two-handed game. Each may play for himself, or the opposite players may be partners, in which case each tries to help the other as much as possible, instead of hindering him. Fig. 6. — Halma. Japanese Checkers. This is played on a board like the one in the figure made from one of 100 squares by joining alternate pairs, forming oblong figures, which are the only ones used in playing (See Fig. 7.) Each of the players, who sit oppo- site, has 9 men like Pawns in chess, though ordinary checkers may be used, as in the illustration, and also a Mikado, and a Daimio. The Mi- kados and Daimios are like the men in shape, but of different size, the former being the larger. Each player places five men in the row nearest him, and four men with the Mikado in the second row, the Mikado being in the middle, as at M in the diagram. No man can jump the Mikado, but for the CHECKERS 164 CHECKERS first one that reaches the King-row a Daimio is substituted, who is al- lowed to jump the Mikado. In all Japanese Checkers. Other respects the game is precisely like ordinary checkers. History. The game of checkers is supposed to be older than chess. A game somewhat like it was known in Egypt more than four thousand years ago, and pictures representing King Rameses II, called Sesostris by the Greeks, who lived about 1400 B.C., playing it with some of the women of his household are still to be seen on the walls of his palace at Thebes. One of these is shown in the accompanying illustration, in which only the edge of the board is seen, but the checkers are like little ten-pins. Other forms of Egyptian checkers are shown in the following, taken from pictures on temples or from real pieces found in the tombs. Some of these are made of ivory and some are earthenware ; and some of them have heads of cats, dogs, and other animals. How the Egyptians played the game is not known, but the modern Egyptians play it just as we do. It was not known in Europe until about the sixteenth century, when it is sup- posed to have been brought from the East. The word checkers is derived from the squares of the board. Draughts means simply moves. In Italy the game is called dama, and in Germany Da- men, both. oi^Nh\ch mean ladies; and in France it is called Le jeu de dames, the Ladies' Game. In all these countries, wh ere the PoHsh game is mostly played, the king is called the queen. The prin- cipal draught-games played by the ancients were the Ludus Latrun- culorujn (Soldiers' Game) of the Romans, and the Plinthio7i or Polts Rameses II. playing Checkers. (TToAff) of the Greeks. In both of these a man could be captured only by placing an opponent's man on CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 165 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS each side of him. The Greeks called the men Dogs. The donkey boys in Cairo, Egypt, play a game like this, and some think Alexander the Great carried it to Egypt. The Chi- nese have a Checker game called Wei-Chi (Game of Circumvention), in which a man is taken by being surrounded with four hostile men. Captain Cook found the Sandwich Islanders playing a Checker game with black and white pebbles on a board of 14 by 17 squares. Some writers think that our Checkers is Egyptian Checkers. not derived directly from any of the ancient games, but is a lower form of CHESS, which in its turn was de- veloped from an old Hindoo Draught game. CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. These should be tried if possible in a room used for nothing else, in the attic, the cellar, or an outbuilding. Old clothes must be worn, or, better still, an apron with sleeves, made to cover the whole body. A plentiful supply of water should be at hand. An old table or a large packing box may be used to try the experiments on. The different experiments are told about in separate articles, but processes used in all or several of them are described here to avoid repetition. Heating. This may be done by an ordinary alcohol lamp, or, where there is gas, with a Bunsen burner (Fig. i), Fig. I. — Bunsen Burner. to be bought at a chemical ware- house, which gives a hot flame with- out much light. An ordinary lamp or gas flame would deposit soot on the vessel heated. A home-made Bunsen burner can be ob- tained by inverting a glass funnel over a gas jet as shown in Fig. 2. The gas mixes with air and burns without smoke. When gas is used the burner is connected with an ordinary gas burner by rubber tubing. When a glass vessel is to be heated it should be placed on a piece of wire gauze, shaped to receive the bot- tom. The gauze is laid on an iron ring with three legs by which it is held over the lamp. These rings, called tripod stands, (Fig. 3) can be bought, but four pieces of strong wire laid cross- wise, their ends resting on blocks of wood, will do. To heat the contents of a vessel slightly, it is placed over a water bath, which can be made of Fig. 2. — Home-made Bunsen Burner. Fig. 3. — Tripod Stand. a tin patty-pan with a cover of tin in which a hole has been cut with strong scissors. The hole must be the same size as the bottom of the CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS i66 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS flask or bottle to be heated. Partly fill the pan with water, put the flask in the hole, and then boil the water. Glass working. To bend glass- tubing hold it in the tip of the lamp flame as shown in the picture, turn- Fig. 4. — Bending Glass Tube. ing it slowly around and moving it forward and backward to heat a con- siderable length of it. The sense of feeling will tell when it can be bent. Bend it slowly and carefully, remov- ing it from the flame, and putting it back when it needs to be softened more. Practice will enable any one to make a good bend. Do not bend at a right angle but make a succession of gradual bends, carrying the tube around in a curve. To make a glass jet, heat as before, draw the ends of the tube straight apart till the heated part is about as large as the lead in a pencil. When cool, scratch this neck with a file, when it will easily break. Two pieces of glass tubing may be united by melting the ends and press- ing them together, but a better way is to use a piece of rubber tubing, which makes a flexible joint. Ordi- nary tubing can be broken squarely off by first making a scratch with a three-cornered file, and then break- ing it. If the glass and the working tool be kept wet with spirits of turpen- tine, tubes can be filed completely apart or a hole can be bored through a sheet of glass with a rat-tail file. Collecting Gases under Water. Fill a pan with water deep enough to cover entirely the jar in which the gas is to be collected, when laid on its side. Lay the jar on its side till it is full of water, and then turn it mouth down- ward, the opening being kept under water. The water will not run out of the jar. If there is the least bubble of air in it the filling must be done over again. Support the jar on two strips of wood, so that its mouth will still be under water, or stand it on a tin saucer, turned upside down, having a hole cut in its side and one in its bottom, as shown in Fig. 5. Fasten to the end of the glass tube leading from the bottle in which the gas is made, a piece of rubber tubing about two feet long. Push the end under the saucer through the hole in the rim, and up in into the jar through the hole in the top. As the gas is made, it will bubble through the wa- ter to the top of the jar, where it collects, pushing the water gradually out at the bottom. Filtering. To separate a powder from a liquid it is necessary to use filter paper which may be bought in small circular pieces. Fold one of the pieces, A, as shown in Fig. 6 at B, expand it as at C, and placing it in a glass funnel, as at D, pour upon it the mixed liquid and powder. The Fig. 5.— Collecting Gases under Water. liquid will slowly pass through the paper, leaving the powder behind. Gas-holder. Where gases are to be kept in any considerable quan- tity, a gas-holder is needed. It may be bought of a dealer in chemist's CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 167 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS materials, or made as follows. Take two tin pails, one about two inches less in diameter than the other, and several inches shorter. Remove the handles of both, and have a tinman cut a hole in the bottom of the smaller pail, soldering- to it a tube about an inch long, and just large enough to fit tightly the size of rubber tubing you wish to use. Fill the larger pail with water, and press the other down into it, letting the air escape through the tube. When all the air is replaced with water, slip a piece of rubber tubing over the tin tube and connect it with the bottle Fig. 6. — Filtering. where the gas is making. As the gas enters the upper pail, the pail will rise in the water. When enough has been collected, close the rubber tube with a pinch cock, to prevent the gas from escaping till it is wanted. When gas is wanted, remove the pinch cock and place a slight weight on the upper pail. Another kind of gas-holder which can be bought, is made of rubber, like a bag. Corks. Choose corks that are cut across the grain rather than with it, as they are tighter. Corks may also be made tighter by dipping them in melted paraffine. To fit a glass tube in a cork, bore a hole in the cork a little smaller than the tube, using a sharp knife or, better, a cork-borer (see list below). Moisten the tube, and work it through the hole. Rub- ber stoppers with one or more holes may be bought, and the holes not in use may be plugged with pieces of glass rod. When they get hard they may be softened by soaking them in turpentine. Ordinary corks may be softened and made easier to bore by rolling them under foot. The chief things needed to perform the experiments described in this book, besides those mentioned above, are given below in an alphabetical list, with the prices for which they can usually be obtained, though these vary a good deal. ARTICLES FOR CHEMICAL EXPERI- MENTS. Alcohol. Price, about 60 cents a quart. Alcohol Lamp. Price, 30 to 50 cents. A7nino7iia Water. Strong. Price about 40 cents a quart. Anthnony . Price, 20 cents a pound. Balance. Useful for weighing, but not necessary, as the druggist will weigh substances in the desired amounts when they are bought. Bisjnuth. Ask for metallic bis- muth. Price, about 20 cents an ounce. Bisulphide of Carbon. Be care- ful not to bring it near a flame, as its vapor is very inflammable. Price, 20 cents a pound. Bituminous Coal. This can be obtained of a blacksmith, if no dealer is near. Blue Vitriol or Copper Sulphate, Price, 8 cents a pound. Caustic Soda. Price, 15 cents a pound. Chalk. Ask for carpenter's chalk, Blackboard crayons are not made of real chalk. Price 3 cents a pound. Chlorate of Potash. Price, 25 cents a pound. Copper. Scraps can be obtained of a plumber. Old cartridge shells CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS i68 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS may be used. Price of clippings at a chemist's, 40 cents a pound. Cork Borers. In sets of 6 ; price, about %\. Defiagration or Combustion Spoon. Price, 15 cents. One can be made by attaching to a wire a piece of chalk with a hollow scooped in it. Drying Bottle, a bottle to dry gases. The stopper must have in it two tubes. The one by which the gas enters reaches nearly to ^^ the bottom, the other by X^ which it leaves is short. p. Fill the bottle with lumps ^J"* ^' of unslaked lime, or with ^tion'^^' pumice stone soaked in Spoon, strong sulphuric acid. Dutch Leaf. In "books"; price, 15 cents. Files. About 6 inches long; price, 30 cents. Filter Paper. Price, from 8 cents to 82 cents per hundred sheets, according to size. Fish Globe. Price, about %\. Flasks. Half-pint size, 15 cents apiece. The flasks in which olive oil sometimes is sold can ^_ , be used. Fluor Spar. Price, .\o cents a pound. Funnels. Price, about 10 cents apiece. Glass Tubing and rods (ask for soft glass). Price, 35 cents a pound. t\ inch inside diameter is about the size needed for tubes, but if rubber stoppers are used the tubes Sfiould be bought to fit the holes in the stoppers. Gold Leaf . In "books"; price, 40 cents. Graduated Tube or "graduate." Price, about 50 cents. One good enough for the experiments in this book can be made by scratching lines on a test tube a quarter of an inch apart. c.c. 62' F. 100^0 90-^10 80-B-20 /£: A Fig. 8. Graduate. Hydrochloric Acid (ask for it "chemically pure"). 20 cents a pound. Ignition Tubes, for making oxy- gen. Price, 20 cents. Iodine. Price, 35 cents an ounce. Iron Sulphide. Price, 15 cents a pound. Jars, or wide-mouthed bottles. Fruit jars or pickle bottles can be used. " Bell jars " or receivers cost from 45 cents to $5, according to size. Jets of glass ; directions for mak- ing given above. La?np Black ; directions for mak- ing in article CARBON. Lead, Sugar of, or Acetate of Lead. Deadly poison. Price, chemi- cally pure, 10 cents an ounce. Lime, unslacked (caustic lime). Price, 5 cents a pound. Lime Water. Made by dissolv- ing a little unslacked lime in water and letting it stand till clear. Lime, Chloride of, or " bleach- ing powder." Price, 10 cents a pound. Litmus. Price, 10 cents an ounce. Magnesium Ribbon. Price, 75 cents an ounce. Manganese Dioxide, or black ox- ide. Price, 15 cents an ounce. Marble, lumps of, can be obtained at a marble cutter's for lit- tle or nothing. Mercury. Price, 60 cents a pound. Mercury, Red Ox- ide of. Price, 10 cents an ounce. Nitric Acid, chem- ically pure. Price, 17 cents a pound. Phosphorus. Price, 15 cents an ounce. Keep in a bot- tle of water, and never touch with the naked hand. Pinch Cock, for closing rubber tubing. Price, 30 cents. Potassium. Price, 50 cents a drachm. Pinch ock. CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 169 CHESS Rubber Stoppers, Price, $2,25 per pound. Get them to fit the flasks and bottles you intend to use. Sal Ammoniac. Price, 10 cents a pound. Sugar of Lead. See Lead. Sulphur. Price, 5 cents a pound. Comes in two forms : roll or stick sulphur, called also brimstone, and flowers of sulphur, or powdered sulphur. Test Tubes. Size 5 X f inches. Price, 35 cents a dozen. Old medi- cine phials will sometimes serve the purpose. Fig. 10.— Test Tube and Holder. Thistle Tube. Price, about 16 cents. Test Tube Holders. (A folded strip of paper, passed around the tube, is a good substitute). Tin. Pure tin-foil. Price, 10 cents an ounce. Common tin-foil often has lead in it. Wire. All kinds to be bought at. a hardware store. Wire Gauze. Price, a few cents a foot. Fig. II.— Thistle Tube. Tripod. Small size. Price, 20 cents. Tur7neric Paper. Price, 80 cents a quire. A few cents worth is all that is needed. Turpentine, Spirits of. Price, 20 cents per pint. U-shaped Tubes. Price, about 10 cents each. Universal Support (see Fig. 12.) Price, $2. Watch Spring, old, to be obtained of any watchmaker. Wax, yellow. Price, 45 cents a pound. Fig. 12. — Universal Support. Yeast. Small yeast cake, costs 2 cents at a grocery. Zinc, granulated, for making hy- drogen. Price, 30 cents a pound. Clippings of old zinc will do. CHESS, a game played by two persons on a board containing 64 squares, of two colors arranged al- ternately, generally black and white or red and white. Each player has 16 chess-men, of a different color, each consisting of eight " Pieces " and eight " Pawns." The Pieces are King, Queen, two Rooks or Castles, two Bishops, and two Knights, and each of these has a Pawn, or soldier. The men are generally carved figures, but sometimes round, flat pieces, with the figures of the men on the top. At the beginning of the game the board should be so placed as to have a white square at each player's right. The lines of squares running up and down the board are usually called " files," those from right to left " ranks " or lines, and those cornerwise " diagonals. " By a simple system, each square on the board has a name taken from the piece commanding it at the beginning of the game. This is most easily shown in the following diagram, Fig. i : CHESS 170 CHESS It will be seen that the square on which the King stands at the begin- ning of the game is named the King's square, the one in front the King's 2d, next the King's 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th. These count the same from the other side of the board, so that one player's King's 8th square is the other player's King's square. The Queen's squares are named in the same way; and the Bishops, Knights, and Rooks are named King's Bishop, Knight, or Rook, or Queen's Bishop, Knight, or Rook, according as they stand on the King's or the Queen's side. The Pawns are named after the pieces in front of which they stand, thus : King's Pawn, Queen's Pawn, King's Bish- op's Pawn, Queen's Rook's Pawn, etc. •bSH'b Q.R.8. •bS-^Hb Q.Kt.8. •bs-a-b Q.B.S. •bsb Q.8. •bS->I K.8. •bS'a'H K.B.8. •bS'lH'H K.Kt.8. •bS'H'H K.R.8. Q.R.7. Q.Kt.7. •ea-5 Q.B.7. .b Q.7. •z-H K.7. ■z-a-H K.B.7. •z-:VH-H K.Kt.7. •ZH-H K.R.7. •E-Hb Q.R.6. •ElHb Q.Kt.6. •BaC) Q.B.6. •Eb Q.6. •E-H K.6. •E-a^H K.B.6. •E-IH-H K.Kt.6. •E-H-H K.R.6. Q.R.5. Q.Kt.5. •fr-ab Q.B.5. •fr-b Q.5. K.5. •fr-a^H K.B.5. K.Kt.5. K.R.5. •S-Hb Q.R.4. Q.Kt.4. •Sat) Q.B.4. •Sb Q.4. •S-H K.4. •Sa-H K.B.4. •£-:iH-H K.Kt.4. •S-H^H K.R.4. •9Hb Q.R.3. •9'lHb Q.Kt.3. •gab Q.B.S. •9b Q.3. •9-H K.3. •ga'H K.B.3. •g^iH-H K.Kt.3. •9-H^H K.R.3. Q.R.2. Q.Kt.2. •^•ab Q.B.2. Q.2. •^•H K.2. •^•a->i K.B.2. •^•^H'H K.Kt.2. •^•H^H K.R.2. •8-H& Q.R.Sq. •85Hb Q.Kt.Sq. •gab Q.B.Sq. •8b Q.Sq. •8-yL K.Sq. •8a'H K.B.Sq. K.Kt.Sq. •8*H'3[ K.R.Sq. Fig. I. — Method of Notation. The following are the abbrevia- tions used : K King Q ----- Queen B Bishop Kt. Knight R Rook P Pawn Sq. ----- Square Ch. or 4-, - - - Check Dis. Ch. - - Discovered Che«k J - - - Checkmate X - - - - takes A move is described by giving the name of the piece and the square to which it is moved. Thus, Q to K.B. 4, or simply Q— K.B. 4, means that the Queen is moved to King's Bishop's fourth square. CHESS 171 CHESS In the diagrams in this article the pieces will be designated thus : King, . Queen, . Bishop, . Knight, . J. Rook, . . Pawn, At the beginning of a game the men are set as in Fig. 2. By means of this simple notation games not only can be completely described on paper in a brief space, but they can be played by telegraph or post, the contestants be- ing hundreds or thousands of miles apart. Very skillful players are also thus enabled to play games bhndfolded, the moves being described to them as they are made. Paul Morphy, a celebrated Ameri- can player, could carry on eight games at once in this way, without seeing any of the boards. The first move being de- cided, the players take turns, each moving one man at a time. The men are moved each in a different way, as described below, but no piece except the Knight can pass over another man in mov- ing. When a man can be moved to a square occupied by a hostile man, the move can be made, and the hostile man, which is said to be taken, or captured, is removed from the board. A man is said to " com- mand " any square to which it can move, and a man that can be cap- tured is said to be " en prise " (French for " in position to be taken "). Each player's object is to " checkmate " his opponent's King, and to effect this he endeavors to weaken his enemy's force by captur- ing as many of his men as possible. How the King is checkmated will be described below. MOVEMENTS OF THE MEN. King. The King can move but one square at a time (except in cast- ling), but this move may be forward, backward, sidewise, or diagonally in either direction. Unless he is on the edge of the board he thus commands eight squares. The King is the only piece that cannot be taken. When the square on which he stands is commanded by an enemy's piece he is said to be " in check." He is not allowed to move into check, even to take a man, and a square on which he would be in check is there- fore said to be " guarded." When m Wy. mm ''WM ''WB ^W" Fig. 2. — Method of Setting the Men. either player moves any of his men so as to put his opponent's King in check he must cry " check ! " as a warning, and the King is then said to be " attacked." If a player checks by moving out of the way a piece that was between the King and the CHESS 172 CHESS checking piece, it is called a " dis- covered check." If, at the same time, the moved piece also gives check, it is called a " double check." The player whose King is in check must either move him out of check, move a man between him and the checking piece, or capture the latter. When none of these things is possi- ble, the King is checkmated, and his side has lost the game. As stated above, the object of each player is to checkmate his opponent, and all the moves are made with this end in view. When the King, though not in check, cannot move without going Fig. 3. — Moves of the Knight. into check, and his owner can move no other man, there is said to be a " stalemate," and the game is consid- ered drawn. Once only, in the game, the King has the privilege of making, with one of the Rooks, under certain condi- tions, a double move called " castling." Castling may be performed on either the King's or the Queen's side of the board. If on the King's side, it is done by moving the King to K.Kt's square and then placing the King's Rook on K.B's square ; if on the Queen's side, by moving the King to Q.B's square, and then placing the Queen's Rook on Queen's square. This move has a double object : to remove the King from danger and to bring the Rook into play. The condi- tions under which the move may be made are as follows : The King must not have moved ; must not be in check ; and must not pass, in making the move, over or on to any square attacked by any man of the enemy ; the Rook must not have moved ; and there must be no piece between the King and the Rook with which he castles. Queen. The Queen, the most powerful of the pieces, can move in a straight line in any direc- tion, forward, backward, side- wise or diagonally over as many squares as are unoccu- pied. Thus, if she is in the middle of the board, and the way is clear, she commands 27 squares, as will be seen by trial. J^oo^. The Rook, or Castle, which is next in power to the Queen, can move backward, forward, or sideways, but not diagonally, as many squares as the way is clear. He thus commands 14 squares, and is the only piece whose range is not lessened by being placed on a corner square. Bishop. The Bishop can move diagonally forward or backward, but only on squares of the same color on which he stood when the game began. One of a player's Bishops is therefore always on white squares, and the other al- ways on black squares. Knight. The Knight can move one square either backward, forward, or sidewise, and then one diagonally. Thus the Knight in the middle of the diagram (Fig. 3), can move to any of the squares marked with a Knight. It is possible for the Knight to move thus in succession to every square of the board, occu- pying each square only once. This is called the Knight's Tour. One CHESS 173 CHESS way of performing it is shown in Fig. 4. The Knight can move whether the squares he passes over are clear or not, and he is the only piece which can thus leap over another man when moving. When a Knight gives check therefore, it is useless for his oppo- nent to move another piece between him and the King. The Knight is too the only piece which can be moved at the opening of the game, as it can leap over the Pawns which close the whole of the second rank. Unless the Knight can be captured, his check always forces the attacked King to move, as the Knight can leap over any blocking man. Fig. 4.— Knight's Tour. Pawn. The Pawn moves straight forward in the file on which it stands ; its first move may be either one or two squares, but after that it moves only one square at a time. When a Pawn while being moved two squares passes over a square commanded by a hostile Pawn, the latter is not de- prived of its privilege of capture and may take it just the same as if the Pawn had remained in the attacked square. This is called taking e7i passant (Fr., in passing). In cap- turing, the Pawn takes one step diagonally, to the right or the left, to the square occupied by the man taken, and after that continues on that file until it makes another cap- ture. When a Pawn reaches the last square of the file on which it is mov- ing, it is said to be " Queened," and receives the power and name of a Queen or of any other piece the owner chooses, except the King. The player must at once notify his opponent as to whether the Pawn has become a Queen, Knight, Bishop, or Rook, as it sometimes happens that the making of a Knight would win a game which a Queen would only lose or draw. A player may, therefore, toward the end of a game, have two or more Queens, two Bishops on the same color, etc. A second Queen is often indicated by replacing the Queened Pawn by a Rook turned bottom upwards When two of the player's Pawns are on the same file, they are said to be " doubled," and when one stands alone, and unprotected by other Pawns, it is called an " Isolated Pawn." A Pawn which is obstructed by no hostile Pawn, either on the same file or on those to the right and left, is said to be a " Passed Pawn." The Exchange. When a player by taking an opponent's piece exposes one of his own to capture, he is said to " make the exchange." In mak- ing exchanges the relative value of the pieces and Pawns must be care- fully considered. Aside from the added values which certain positions give to the men as the game advan- ces, the following rule gives the average value of each class of men : The Queen is equal in value to two Rooks; to two Bishops and a Knight; to two Knights and a Bishop; or, nearly to eight Pawns. A Rook is equal to a Bishop and one or two Pawns, or to a Knight and one or two Pawns. Bishops and Knights are of nearly equal value ; each is equal in value to three Pawns. The relative value of Bishops and Knights depends greatly on the more or less crowded condition of the board. When the lines are open the long stride of the Bishop gives him an advantage, but CHESS 174 in a close position, the leap of the Knight, together with the greater difficulty of calculating on his move- ments, increases his value beyond that of the Bishop. The value of the Pawns is greatly increased as they approach the Queen row. Drawn Games. It has already been explained that a stalemate is a drawn game. Other ways in which the game may be drawn will now be described. I. When a player with an infe- rior force finds an opportunity to ej Fig* 5" — White to play and mate in two moves, give such a check that his opponent, either upon moving his King or in- terposing a piece, subjects himself to a continued series of checks, it is called "perpetual check." 2. Where there is not force enough to effect a mate, 3. Where one player has force enough to mate, but is not skillful enough to do so in the required fifty moves (see Rule 21). 4. Where both players continue to repeat the same series of moves through fear of each other. The moves and general character of the game have now been told, but it can be learned only by actual play. It is advisable to castle early in the game, and on that side upon which the King can be best protected from attack. The King's side is usually adopted for the reason that there are fewer pieces on that side to get out of the way. General Observations, The King becomes specially valuable when the other principal pieces have been taken. It is good play to check early in the game if by so doing castling is prevented, but it is bad play ever to check without an object. When a player's King is checked, he should interpose, if possible, some piece that at- tacks the checking piece, but never one of greater value. The Queen being the most valuable of the pieces, care must be taken that she is not placed on an open file or di- agonal in line with the King, permitting the enemy to pin her with a Bishop or Rook. The Queen not being able to move from the line, since the King would be left in check, has to exchange. This is called " losing the exchange." The same term is used also when a Rook is exchanged for a Bishop or Knight. The Rook can do Httle at the opening of the game, but later, especially after the Queens have been exchanged, it is a very important piece. The Bishop is of especial value in attacking a Knight or Rook. The King's Bishop being of special value by reason of his power of attacking the opposing King at the beginning of the game, should, if possible, be retained, whilst it would be well to endeavor to exchange a Queen's Bishop for the opponent's King's Bishop. The Knight should not be allowed to get to the side of the board, as his power is much lessened there. Tho CHESS 175 CHESS Knight often opens the game, and a skillful player can make him a very powerful piece. In playing the Pawns the player should try to obstruct the way of the enemy and keep his own clear. The Pawns united have great power, but separated very httle. The player who has Pawns at the end of a game, while his enemy has none, generally wins. The most important parts of a game are the beginning and ending, and a few special cases of these will be described. The following are illustrations of the use of the names and ab- breviations, and also of the check and checkmate : First : Suppose the men to be as in Fig. 5. If it be White's turn to play he can mate in two moves, as follows : shown in Fig. 6, called the Tread- mill : WHITE. BLACK. 1. Kt. to B. 3 + P. takes Kt. (forced). 2. B. to B. 5 dis. + K. to K. 4. 3. R. fr Q. sq. takes 6.+ R. takes R. 4. R.— K. 6 + K.— Q. 5. 5. R.-K. 4 + K.-B. 4. 6. R.— B. 4 + K.— Q. 3. 7. R.-B. 6 + K.— K. 4. 8. R.— K. 6 etc. and draws by Perpetual Check, the Rook going round like a wheel, while the King steps from one rung of the ladder to the other. GAME FOR PRACTICE. The beginner who has no experi- WHITE. ).— K.R. sq. ).XR. mate. Q.— K.R. sq. R.XR. mate. BLACK. Either R.XR. R. moves else- where. White plays for his best move — I, Q. — K.R.sq. Now, if Black with one of his Rooks takes one of the white Rooks, White plays 2, Q.XR., and can now say " check," for his Queen commands the square on which the black King is, and would take him, were he any other piece. The black King having now no piece which can be interposed, and two of the three adjacent squares being occupied by his own pieces and the third being likewise attacked by the hostile Queen, the King is check- mated. If, instead of moving a Rook to the end of square. Black plays one of his Rooks but one, two, or even five squares, then one of the white Rooks captures it and mate is given in the same manner. It is evident that the black Pawn cannot be moved, because the King would then be in check of the white Queen. An example of Perpetual Check is Fig. 6. WHITE. -The Treadmill. enced player for a teacher will learn much about the moves and the dif- ferent situations by playing, on the board, the following practice game, making each move slowly and care- fully, and trying thoroughly to under- stand the reasons given for it. The game, with the comments on the different moves, is from the trea- tise on Chess by Howard Staunton. WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. toK. 4. I. P. toK. 4. 2. B. to Q.B. 4. 2. B. to Q.B. 4. This constitutes the King's Bish- op's opening (see following). CHESS 176 CHESS 3.Q.toK.R. 5. This threatens to checkmate Black by taking the K.B. Pawn with the Queen, and also threatens K.'s Pawn, but it is rarely right to play the Queen so soon. Black easily protects himself by the following move : 3. Q. to Q. 2. 4. Kt. to K.B. 3. 4. P. to Q. 3. Here, White attacks Black's K. Pawn again, but Black again defends it by bringing up another man. 5. Kt. to K.Kt. 5. This brings three pieces to attack Black's K.B. P., which is defended by only two. 5. Kt. to K.R. 3. Black here defends by bringing up a third piece. A skillful player would probably make instead an attack in another place, for instance by threat- ening White's Queen with Kt. to K. B. 3. 6. Kt. to Q.B. 3. This move threatens to attack the Queen at Q. 5. 6. P. to Q.B. 3. Black guards against the attack. 7. Castles. 7. Castles. (Moving the K. (In the same way.) to K.Kt.'s sq. and the R. to K.B.'s sq.) As a rule, beginners should castle early in the game. 8. P. toQ.'s3. 8. Kt. toQ. 2. Black acts wisely here in not at- tacking the Oueen at once by playing Q.B. to K.Kt". 5. 9. K. to K.R. sq. The object of this move is to strengthen White's attack on the opposite King. He wishes to throw forward his K.B, Pawn, but while the King stands on Kt.'s sq. moving the Pawn would expose the King to check from the opposing Bishop. Therefore, he moves his King as above. 9. Kt. to K.B. 3. This forces White to move his Queen, and makes Black's King secure, for a time. 10. Q. to K.R. 4. 10. P. to Q. 4. Very well played, for if White does not take this Pawn with Pawn his Bishop is driven back ; while, if he does take it, he gives Black a chance to attack the white Queen with K.Kt. II. P. takes Q. P. II. Kt. to K.B. 4. This forces White to move his Queen, and there is but one square to which he can move her, all the others being attacked. 12. Q. to K.R. 3. 12. Kt.toK.6. Black thus attacks at the same time White's Q. with his B., and R. with his Kt. 13. Q. to K.R. 4. Instead of this he might have moved his foremost Pawn to Q.'s 6th, threatening the black Queen, but the Queen might then have re- treated to her own square, where she would be safe. 13. Kt. takes R. 14. Q.Kt. to K.'s 4. Black exposes his Kt. to capture (see move 17), and White therefore simply exchanges his Rook for his enemy's Knight. This is called " the exchange." White loses the ex- change in this instance because a Rook ranks above a Knight. But in return for this loss he is enabled to attack the black King again. 14. P. to K.R. 3. If Black had taken Kt. with Kt., White would have checkmated by taking K.R.P. with Q. If he had taken Q.P. with P., White would have checkmated in two moves by taking Kt. with Kt., checking, and then K.R.P. with Q., checkmating. 15. P. to Q. 6. White defends himself by keeping up the attack. This is better than to move back the threatened Knight. 15. B. takes P. at Q. 6. If Black had taken the Knight with Pawn instead, he would have lost the game. White would have taken P. with his Q.'s B., and check- mate would follow, as the learner can discover in a few minutes' study. 16. Kt. to K.B. 3. 16. Kt. takes Kt. 17. Q. takes Kt. 17. K. to R.'ssq. 18. K. to Kt.'s sq. CHESS 177 CHESS White loses time here. His ob- ject is to take the Knight, but the Knight cannot escape and it would have been better to try to prevent the advance of Black's K.B. Pawn. 18. P. to K.B. 4. 19. Q. to K. 2. It would have been better to play Q. to K.R. 4, for now Black is likely either to release his Knight, or gain another piece in return for him. 19. P. to K. 5. 20. Kt. to K.Kt.'s 5. If Black should now try to take the Knight, he would lose the game. 20. Kt. takes K.R.P. Black has now contrived to free the Knight. 21. P. takes P. 21. P. takes P. 22. Q.to K.R. 5. Having lost a Rook, White can- not afford to take the Pawn with his Queen and exchange Queens. He prefers to try and gain a Rook for his Knight. 22. Kt.toK.Kt.5. Black does not attempt to prevent him. 23. Q. to K.Kt. 6. White had better have checked with his Kt. at K.B, 7, as he in- tended. 23. B. to K.B. 4. Black might safely have taken the Kt. with his K.R.P. 24. Q. to K. R. 5. White could have gained the Rook for his Knight by giving check with the Knight, but then he would have had to exchange Queens, and a Queen would be a greater loss to him than to Black, since White's force is smaller. 24. P. to K.Kt. 3. This prevents White from ex- changing the Knight for the Rook, and he retires. 25. Q. to K.R. 4. 25. B. to Q.B. 4. The Black threatens to take White's Q. by first taking K.B. P., and to prevent it White must move his Queen or interpose his Q. Bishop. 26. B. to K. 3. This costs White two pieces for one (see next three moves), but the other course would have been as bad. 26. B. takes B. 27. P. takes B. 27. Q. takes Kt. White can now be beaten by any experienced chess player. 28. Q. toK.'ssq. 28. Kt. takes P. 29. Q. toQ.B. 3(ch.) 29. K. to R. 2. 30. Q. to Q. 2. 30. Q.R. to Q.'s sq. 31. Q. toK. 2. 31. B. to K.Kt. 5. 32. Q. to K.'s sq. 32, Kt. takes K.Kt.'s P. 33. K. takes Kt. 33. B. to K.R. 6. Black thus gives a double check. 34. K. takes B. 34. R. to B. 6 (ch.) 35. K. to R. 2. 35. Q. to R. 4. (ch.) 36. K. to Kt. 2. 36. Q. to Kt. 5 (ch.) 37. K. to R. 2. 37. R. to R. 6. Checkmate. Black thus wins the game in 37 moves. OPENINGS OF GAMES. Some of the different ways of beginning the game have received special names, and a few of these will now be given. It will be noted that in most of them the King's Pawn is moved first. This is because it clears the way not only for the King, but for the Queen and the King's Bishop. The KnigMs Opening. WHITE. BLACK. 1. P. to K. 4 P. to K. 4. 2. Kt. to K.B. 3. The King' s Bishop's Opening. 1. P.toK. 4. P. toK. 4. 2. B. to Q.B. 4. The Queen's Bishop's Pawn's Opening. 1. P. to K. 4. P. to K. 4 2. P. to Q.B.3 The King's Gambit. 1. P. to K. 4. P. to K. 4. 2. P. to K.B. 4. P. takes P. The word Gambit is derived from an Italian term used in wrestling, meaning a tripping up. In the above opening, and similar ones, a Pawn is placed where it may be taken, so that the player losing the Pawn will, by reason of the loss of time caused to his opponent, be able to bring his strong pieces into position and will regain the Pawn, perhaps with in- terest, at a later stage of the game. CHESS 178 CHESS If the opponent take the offered Pawn, that constitutes the Gambit, but he often refuses so to do. There are many Gambits, known generally by the names of the players who devised them. The King's Gambit, given above, is considered one of the safest openings for beginners. There are numerous variations of all these different openings, and numerous methods of defense. For instance, in the Knight's opening. Black may make any of the following for his than 20 moves. With a King, Bishop, and Knight only against a King the game can be won also, but it requires some skill to do it, and the checkmate can be given only in a corner of the color on which the Bishop is running. With a King and one or two Knights only, or with a King and one Bishop only, checkmate cannot be given, and the game is drawn. The method in each case is to drive the opposing King to the edge of the board. With a King and two Bishops against a King this is much harder to do, but it can be done in about 30 moves. He who desires to become a skill- ful player should study the different cases that occur at the end of a game, examples of which can be found in any handbook or treatise on Chess. Fig. 7. — White to play and mate in four moves. second move. Each has been favored by skilled players. Q.Kt. to Q.B. 3. P. to Q. 3. K.Kt. to B. 3. or Q.Kt. to B. 3. If this last move is followed by WHITE. BLACK. 3. B. to Q.B. 4. 3. B. to Q.B. 4. the opening is called the Ghwco Piano (Italian for Plain Game). ENDINGS OF GAMES. A game may end in various ways. If a player have a Queen and King against a King, he should win easily. With a Rook and King against a King, he should win in not more PL A YING WITH ODDS. In a game between a skilled player and a beginner, the former often gives the latter odds, that is, does, or agrees to do, something to his own disadvantage so that the con- test may be more nearly even. Sometimes he plays with a " Ringed Pawn," that is, he marks one of his Pawns by putting a ring over it, or in some other way, and agrees to checkmate with that particular Pawn. If he cannot do so, he loses the game. Sometimes the experi- enced player " gives the Pawn and move," that is, he takes his King's Bishop's Pawn from the board, and allows his opponent to move first. In like manner he sometimes gives Pawn and two moves, two Pawns and a move, a piece and one or more moves, or any of these without the move (see Rule 5). CHESS PROBLEMS. Chess Problems consist of certain arrangements of pieces, with which it is required to checkmate in a given number of moves. The study CHESS 179 CHESS of these problems is a great aid to the Chess player, and books have been published which contain noth- ing else. To show what they are like three problems are given below. The learner should try hard to solve them before looking at the answers. First Problem (Fig. 7). I. White. K. to Q.B. 5. It will be seen by a little study that the only piece Black can move is his King, and the only move the King can make without go- ing into check is K. to K. 5. 2. White now moves B. to K.Kt. 2 (check). Black's only move is K. to K. 4 (retiring to his former post). 3. R. to Q.B. 2. P. takes R. (Black's only move.) 4. White moves Queen's Pawn two squares (as he is allowed to do, since it has not yet moved), and check- mates. Seco7id Proble?n (Fig. 8). White. Q. — Q.B. 8. Now if Black moves his Queen or the Knight at Q.R. 4, to Q.B. 5, White plays his Knight to Queen's sq., checkmating, because the black piece just played blocks the square previously Fig. I guarded by the Knight. If Black move the Knight at K. 4 anywhere, he leaves the Pawn at Q. 6 unguarded and White plays 2, R. takes P., mate. If Black move his Queen in any other way than to Q. B. 5, or if he move his Bishop anywhere, then White plays the Kt. at B. 7 to Q. 5., or Q.Kt, 5, giving check- mate, as the Kt. cannot be taken on account of discovering a check from the Queen. Third Problem (Fig. 9). The following ingenious position, by the great chess master Petroff, aptly il- lustrates the moves of the Knight in a crowded board. The disastrous re- treat of Napoleon (the Black King) from Moscow, in 1812, the harass- ing of his troops by the Cossack cavalry (the white Knights), the crossing of the river Berezina (the white diagonal running from K.R. sq. to Q.R. 8), and the final blow de- livered by the Russian emperor in person, are graphically depicted. The White K.R.'s sq., K.R. 8 sq., and Q.R. sq., represent St. Peters- burg, Paris, and Moscow respect- ively. WHITE. , — White to play and mate in two moves. SOLUTION. WHITE. ^ _ BLACK. 1 Kt. to Q. 2, giving double check and forcing the Black K. to go to his Rook's 4. 2 Kt. to B. 3 + K. to R. 6. 3 Kt. from Q. 2 to Kt. sq. -f- K. to Kt. 5. 4 Kt. to R. 2 -t- K. to Kt. 4. 5 Kt. to R. 3 4- K. to R. 3. 6 Kt. to Kt. 4 + K. to R. 2. 7 Kt. to Kt. 5 4- K. to Kt. sq. 8 Kt. to R. 6 + K. to B. sq. 9 Kt. to R, 7 -)- K. to Q. 2. 10 Kt. to Kt. 8 + K. to K. 2, 11 Kt. to B. 8 + K. to B. sq. 12 Kt. to Q. 7 4- K. to Kt. sq. 13 Kt. to K. 7 4- . K. to R. sq. 14 K.Kt. 3, discovering check and mate. RULES OF THE GAME. The following rules, in substance, are used by all Chess players in the United States, being condensed from those adopted by the Fifth American Chess Congress. CHESS 1 80 CHESS 1. The Chess board must be so placed that each player has a white corner square nearest his right hand. 2. A deficiency in number, or a misplacement of the men, at the be- ginning of the game, when discov- ered, annuls the game. 3. If a player, undertaking to give odds of a Piece or Pawn, neglect to remove it from the board, his adver- sary, after four moves, has the choice of going on with the game, or begin- ning it again. 4. When no odds are given, the players must take the first move of WHITE. Fig. 9.— Retreat of Napoleon. each game alternately, drawing lots to see who shall begin the first game. 5. The player who gives the odds has the right to move first, unless otherwise agreed. Whenever a Pawn is given it must be the King's Bishop's Pawn. 6. A Piece or Pawn touched must be played, unless, a man not being in proper position, the player, before touching it, gives notice of his inten- tion to arrange it by uttering dis- tinctly the words " J'adoube " (I re- place). But a Piece or Pawn over- turned or displaced accidentally may always be touched to put it back. When the player's hand has once quitted the piece moved, the move must stand. 7. While a player holds the Piece or Pawn he has touched, he may play it to any square to which it may legally move. 8. Should a player touch one of his opponent's men without giving notice that he is only arranging it, he must take it, if he can, and if not, he must move his King ; but if he can do neither, then there is no penalty. 9. If a player touch more than one of his own men, he must move either one that his op- ponent may name. 10. If a player take one of his adversary's men by mak- ing a false move, his opponent may compel him to take it with a man which can legally take it ; or, to move his King. 11. Should a player take one of his own men with another, his adversary may compel him to move either. 12. If a man be played to a square to which it cannot legally be moved, the player's adversary may require him to move the man legally, or to move his King. 13. If a player make two moves in succession, the ad- versary may take his choice as to which one shall stand. 14. Penalties can be enforced only at the time an offense is committed, and before any move is made there- after. 15. A player cannot castle — (i) if the King or Rook have been moved, (2) if the King be in check, (3) if there be any piece between the King and the Rook, (4) if the King pass over any square attacked by the ad- versary. For attempting to castle illegally, the player doing so must move either the King or Rook, as his adversary may dictate. 16. If a player touch a Piece or Pawn that cannot be moved without CHESS i8i CHESS leaving the King in check, he must replace the Piece or Pawn and move his King, but if the King cannot be moved, no penalty can be inflicted. 17. No penalty can be enforced for any offense committed against these rules in consequence of a false announcement of " check," nor in consequence of the omission of such announcement, when legal " check " be given, 18. If the King has been in check for several moves, and it cannot be found how it happened, the player whose King is in check must take back his last move, and free the King from check ; but if the moves made after the check are known they must all be taken back. 19. A willful displacement or over- turning of the men forfeits the game. 20. Every Pawn which has reached the last line of squares must be im- mediately exchanged for a Queen, or any other piece the owner may choose, except a King, even though all the pieces remain on the board. 21. If a player remain at the end of the game with a Rook and Bishop against a Rook, with both Bishops only or with the Knight and Bishop only, or if it be doubted near the end of a game, whether it will be a win or draw, or a win be possible, but the skill to force the game question- able, then either player may demand that the fifty following moves be counted. If, at the end of these fifty moves on each side, no check- mate has been given, the game is drawn. 22. If a player agree to checkmate with a particular Piece or Pawn, or on a particular square, or engage to force his adversary to stalemate or checkmate him, he is not restricted to any number of moves. Give-away Chess. A form of the game which has recently come into use. Not requiring so much deep thought, and being full of sudden and unlooked-for surprises, it offers a quiet relaxation after the tiring headwork of a game of regular Chess. The Give-away game differs from the ordinary one in this, that a play- er must invariably take a man when offered. When two or more men can be taken, the player has a choice, except when the King is in check; in such case the checking piece must be taken, and in any event the King must be gotten out of check. The game is won in two ways. When a player is unable to force his antagon- ist to mate him, or gives him " sui- mate," as it is called. Secondly, when he forces his antagonist to capture all his men, leaving his King alone on the board. A good player strives to get rid of his Pawns as rapidly as possible. Fifteen or twenty moves may be easily calculated ahead in this game on account of the large number of forced moves. It differs greatly from the Give- away game in CHECKERS, because in the latter game he who has, at the end of the game, the superiority of force can win, whereas in thq corresponding Chess game it is not possible to say whether it is best to hold a lesser or greater number of pieces than your antagonist. Four-handed Chess. This game is now played in all the principal clubs on both sides of the Atlantic. It is played on a board which may be described as an ordinary Chess board taken for a center, to which is added four other boards, placed one on each side. These added boards are but three squares deep, that is, they have each 24 squares. The whole has, therefore, 160 squares. A player sits at each of the sides of the board, the two players facing each other playing as partners, and the move changes from the player who has just moved, to his opponent on the left. Two sets of men are used, the one black and white and the other red and blue, the red and black being used by one pair of partners, and the blue and white by the other pair. The men are set in CHESS 182 CHESS the same manner as in the two- handed game, with the exception that the Kings are placed upon the right of the Queens, and the men are moved as in the ordinary game. No international code has, as yet, been adopted for this variety of the game, although several books upon the sub- ject have been published in England and Germany. The rules here given are those in use in New York, and differ but slightly from those of Europe. RULES OF THE GAME. I. Before beginning a game an agreement must be arrived at as to WHITE. Four-handed Chess Board. whether the games shall be consulta- tion ones or not. If not, then perfect silence regarding the play must be maintained between the partners under penalty of the loss of the game. 2. The men are placed in the two first rows of the four wings of the board in the same manner as in ordinary Chess, except that the Kings must all be placed on the right of Queens ; the Kings, therefore, do not face each other as in the regu- lar game. 3. The three rows of the wings form the territories of the four Kings, and the 64 squares of the main CHESS 183 CHESS board forms the neutral or fighting ground. 4. The Pawns may be moved one or two squares on the first move of each, afterwards but one. A Pawn having reached the other side of the board, remains blocked. [In Europe the rule is that the Pawn changes direction upon reaching the four- teenth rank. The question, however, is of very little importance, since the chance of a Pawn in the four-handed game reaching the other side of the board is not one in a thousand,] 4. A Pawn having pushed against another Pawn or piece, no matter to whom it belongs, cannot move until the obstacle is removed, or a man should be, or come upon, the con- tiguous diagonal so that it may be taken by it. 5. Pawns are Queened only upon the King row of one of the enemies' territories. These squares can only be reached by the Pawns moving diagonally when capturing the ene- my's men. As soon as a Pawn reaches one of the three ranks of the enemy's territory, it changes its direction of motion and moves to- ward the King row of the territory just reached. At the same time it receives a great increase in power, for it can capture a man on any of the four contiguous diagonals. If, how- ever, by reason of taking a man it returns to its own territory, or to the neutral ground, then it loses its added force and takes up its original direc- tion. This change of the force and direction of the Pawn causes no con- fusion, as its position proclaims its power. 6. The game is won only when both the opposing Kings are check- mated. 7. When one of the Kings has been checkmated, his pieces are dead for the time being, and none of them can be captured or the squares upon which they stand be occupied by a man, either friend or foe. 8. A King is not officially in check until his turn comes to move. 9. A King is not mated until his turn comes to move, when, if in check and unable to get out of it, he is checkmated. 10. A partner is not required to cover a check to his partner's King, nor is he prevented (interdicted) from moving one of his pieces and thereby uncovering a check upon his partner. 11. A checkmate having been re- leased by one partner removing a piece, or otherwise, the other part- ner having to move also before the checkmated King, cannot take one of the latter's pieces, as the check- mate is not officially annulled until the mated King's turn comes to move. 12. Castling is permitted in this game, but cannot be made use of until the game is far advanced. 13. When one of your antagonists is checkmated, his men being dead, your King may move to and remain upon any square commanded by the dead pieces. The moment, how- ever, the mate is released, your King comes into check and must be got- ten out when your turn comes to move. This rule does not apply to Kings, which cannot be brought into close proximity at any time. Method of Play. If great care be not taken in the opening, mate will be given on the third or fourth move. The opening move generally adopted is Pawn to Q.B. 3 for the first three players, and P. to K. 3 by the fourth player. This move of P. to Q.B, 3 is made in preference to the old move of I, P. to K. 3, because it is at once defensive and attacking. The fourth player is compelled to play i, P. to K. 3, to prevent getting into trouble. A check in this game is much more to be feared than in an ordinary game, for the reason that the partner of the man who gives the check seizes the opportunity to inflict all the damage he can upon the one who is in trouble. The great aim, therefore, of a player of this CHESS 184 CHESS game, is to endeavor to have a check threatened against one or both of his opponents' Kings and keep his own King so covered up that his oppo- nents cannot give him check. Un- like the ordinary two-handed game, the Queens are brought out in the early part of the game because their power of giving check is very great. Before making a move, the partner's position must be carefully examined as well as the player's own, and if he see that the former is in greater straits than himself he is called upon to sacrifice himself and aid his friend. Ability and promptness in doing this is considered one of the great virtues in Four-handed Chess. The King's Rook's Pawn moved two squares is a strong defensive move and is frequently made as a second or third move. A double check by each of the opponents must be carefully avoided, as the result is often a mate. The order of succession of the moves must be carefully considered, as a failure to observe which of the opponents will first move will spoil a player's calculations and result in disaster. History. The origin of Chess has been claimed by many nations and ascribed to various persons. Some writers say that it was invented by Japhet, the son of Noah ; others by King Solomon, the Greek Palamedes, Han-sing, a Chinese Mandarin, Shat- reuscha, a Persian astronomer, etc. But these stories are purely imag- inary. Thanks to the recent researches of Dr. Forbes, all doubts have been set at rest, and the best modern writers concur in the belief that the game is of Hindoo origin. Dr. Forbes has discovered in Hindoo literature documents dating back to 3000 years B.C., describing a game which certainly represents, in a primitive form, the modern game of Chess. It was called Chaturanga, which means Four Parts, because it was played by four persons. The board had 64 squares, as now, but all of the same color. Each player had four Pawns and four Pieces — King, Elephant, Horse, and Ship, corresponding to our King, Bishop, Knight, and Rook. The moves were at first determined by throwing DICE, but afterward the player moved which he pleased. The King, Horse, Ship, and Pawns moved like our King, Knight, Rook, and Pawns, but the Elephant (our Bishop), could advance only two squares at a time. The Hindoos took the game One of Charlemagne's Chessmen. to Persia, where the name was cor- rupted to Shatranj, and from that country it spread to Arabia, and thence to Europe, being probably taken first to Spain by the Moors. But before the game left India the number of players was reduced to two, each with a double set of men as at present. Instead of having two Kings, however, one of them was re- duced to a mere counselor or general (our Queen), who was allowed to move only one square diagonally. During the Middle Ages, but at what times is not known, the powers of the Bishop and Queen were increased. CHESS 185 CHESS the Pawns were allowed to jump two squares at the first move, and cast- ling was introduced. The names of the Chessmen vary- in different countries, though the principal piece is everywhere called Ancient Chess Kings. the King, and the second, Queen or f was originally a minister or general. Lady. The latter, as has been said, | called in Persian Farz or FirZy Modern Chessmen. which in Europe became Farzta or | this was corrupted into Vterge Fercia. Some say that in France [ (Virgin), and thus the piece came to CHESS 1 86 CHESS be called Dame (Lady). The Per- sian Pil (Elephant) became in Ara- bic Al-Fi'l, and in Spanish Alferez. The French Fou (fool) is corrupted from the same word. The German Ancient Chessmen. name is Laufer (runner), and the pieces are called Bishops in no lan- guage but Enghsh. The Hindoo Roka (ship) becomes our Rook and the Italian Rocca. The latter word means a rock or fortress, so the piece is called also Castle in English, Tour (tower) in French, and Thurm (tower) in German, and is made to look like a Tower. The Cavalry- piece, which was a Horse in India, has become a Knight in English and Cavalier in French, though it is still made hke a Horse's head. The Ger- mans call it Springer (leaper). The Pawn was first called Foot Soldier, m French Pion, whence our Pawn. The Germans call the Pawns Bauern (peasants). The game itself is called in French ^^^^^^^mS^^^^^^^^^^^^m^ ^^^^/^^l^^ ^A^^^^^ Game of Chess with Living Chessmen. (See page i88.) Echecs, and in German Schach, which, with our word Chess, are probably all from the Persian Shah, King, though some say they are from the old Hindoo name of the game, Chaturanga. The word checkmate is probably from the Persian Shah- mat (the King is dead). From its earliest history Chess has been a favorite game with great men. Timur or Tamerlane, the Tartar con- queror, invented what he called the " Great Game," on a board of i lo squares, and invited the principal men to play with him in every town he entered, sending them away with presents, whether he lost or won. The Caliph Haroun Al Raschid, sent to Charlemagne a fine set of Chess- men, one of which is shown in the illustration. The game was a fav- orite also with Voltaire, Napoleon, Frederick the Great, and many other celebrated persons. Chess is said to be the only game now considered harmless by all relig- ious sects, but in the Middle Ages it was often condemned with other games by the rulers of the church. In the countries most remote from CHESS 187 CHESS European influence it is still played in the old way, with the original Hindoo or Persian moves ; but in most parts of the world it is played The Automaton Chess Player. (See page 188.) as with us. A great many books have been written about it, one of the first of which was by Abul Abbas, a physician of Bagdad, in the year 899. The first to bring Chess into public notice in this country was Benjamin Franklin, who also wrote an essay on "The Morals of Chess." The game was little played here, how- ever, before 1825. In 1858 Paul Morphy, an American, was Chess champion of the world, and he is considered by some the finest player that ever lived. The forms of Chessmen have varied from time to time. The Persians and Arabs, and other Mohammedan peoples, being forbidden by their religion to have images of any kind, usually made their pieces in rude shapes, though sometimes with an approach to a figure. In Christian Europe, they assumed many shapes, some of which are shown in the pic- Circular Chess Board. tures. The last figures on page 185 show examples of modern Chessmen. CHIVALRY l88 CHLORATE OF POTASH In the Middle Ages the game was sometimes played by monarchs with living Chessmen in a court yard paved to represent a Chess board, as shown on page i86. A circular chess-board was sometimes used in old times. The numbers in the illustration cor- respond to the following names : i, King ; 2, Queen ; 3, Rock (Rook) ; 4, Alfin (Bishop) ; 5, Knight ; 6, Pawn. A so-called Automaton Chess Player was first exhibited in Vienna, in 1769, by Wolfgang von Kempe- len, an Austrian mechanician, and it was bought about 1805 by John Maelzl, who brought it to this country. It consisted of a figure of a Turk seated behind a box which, when opened, appeared to be nearly full of machinery that was supposed to move the figure, but it was after- ward discovered that a man ingeni- ously concealed in the box was the real player. The man could tell what pieces were moved by means of little magnets under the board, which rose or fell as the squares were occupied or not, the Chessmen containing pieces of iron. In 1842 the automa- ton was bought by a gentleman in Philadelphia, and in 1854 it was de- stroyed by fire in that city, but sev- eral imitations of it have since been exhibited, in which the figure was called by various names, such as " Mephisto " and " Ajeeb." It is of course impossible to make a mere machine which will play a game like Chess. CHIVALRY, a game played by two persons on a board like that in the figure. The squares are alter- nately light and dark, and the letters, spots, and stars are gilt. Each player has twelve pieces like Pawns in Chess and eight others, slightly different, called Knights. Each places his common pieces on the two rows of spots nearest him, and his Knights on the squares marked K., and the players take turns in mov- ing, the object being to occupy the two opposite gold stars with any two pieces. Both Knights and men have three kinds of moves, 1. The common move, by which the piece advances one square in any direction, Hke the King in Chess. 2. The canter, by which a piece leaps a friendly piece to the next space beyond in any direction, pro- vided that space is vacant. The leaped piece remains on the board. The same piece can make as many canters as it wishes in one move, but is not obliged to canter at all. 3. The jump, by which a piece leaps an enemy's piece in any direc- tion, provided there is a vacant space just beyond. The jumped piece is removed from the board. The jump; lir ^ 1 Ck) (R) • • • • • • ® ® ® ® • • • • • • ® ® ® ® • • • • • • ® (k) ® ® • • • • • • ® (k) . 1 Tir ^ 1 Chivalry Board. must be made, if there is a chance and as many as possible must bi made by the same piece in one move The plain pieces can move, canter, or jump, but can never combine tw( of these methods in one play. Th( Knights can combine the canter an( jump, provided that all canters pre cede all jumps, but cannot combini a simple move with either of th( others. The game differs fro CHECKERS in allowing a piece t( pass over one on the same side. I is entirely a game of skill. CHLORATE OF POTASH, Ex periment with. Melt a teaspoonfu! of chlorate of potash in a test-tube CHLORINE 189 CHOOSING SIDES and when it begins to boil drop into it a bit of charcoal the size of a pea. The charcoal will take fire and jump about in the tube. The reason is that heating the chlorate of potash sets free the oxygen in it, and it is this that causes the charcoal to burn so vividly. CHLORINE, Experiments with. Chlorine gas is described in C. C. T. The easiest way to make it is to put a few teaspoonfuls of chloride of lime in the bottom of a glass jar, and pour on it just enough dilute sul- phuric acid to cover it. Chlorine will at once begin to be formed, and owing to its weight will remain in the jar if a piece of paper be placed over the mouth to prevent draughts. The experimenter must avoid breath- ing the gas, as it is very irritating to the lungs. If it be desired to keep the jar clean, the chloride of lime maybe put into a small wide-mouthed bottle, like a vaseline bottle, which is lowered into the jar by a string tied around the neck, and the sulphuric acid is then poured into the small bottle by means of a funnel. When enough gas has been made to fill the jar, the little bottle is withdrawn by means of the string. The chlo- rine, made in this way, comes from the chloride of lime. Chlorine may be prepared in several other ways, but the one just given is the simplest. In making and experimenting with this gas, it is best to stand in a draught, so that what escapes may be carried away from the experi- menter. EXPERIMENTS. I. One-third fill a small jar of chlorine with water ; then place the hand tightly over the mouth of the jar and shake the contents a few minutes. It will be found that the hand sticks to the jar, as if the air had been partially pumped out by an air pump (C. C. T.). The reason of this is that water dissolves chlorine easily and thus makes the pressure in the jar less than that of the air without. Note. Owing to the attraction of chlorine for water it often gets laden with moisture, and to insure the success of some of the following ex- periments, the gas may have to be dried. This may be done by shaking in the jar several bits of pumice stone wet with strong sulphuric acid. 2. It will be found impossible to burn a jet of chlorine in the air, but it may be burned in hydrogen, using the apparatus described in the arti- cle Oxygen, for burning oxygen in hydrogen. 3. Lower a burning candle, or a lighted wood-splinter, into a jar of chlorine. It will continue to burn, but will give off a dense black smoke, The reason is that chlorine likes hydrogen but not carbon (see C. C. T.). Candles and wood contain both these elements, so the chlorine unites with the hydrogen and throws off the carbon in a cloud of black particles. 4. Dip in oil of turpentine a bit of cotton fastened to the end of a piece of wire. Heat it by holding it over a stove for a moment, and then plunge it into a jar of chlorine. If it has been warmed enough it will take fire, burning with a dense black smoke. 5. To bleach with chlorine. Hang in a jar of chlorine a bit of colored cloth, or a flower, and the color will be taken out. Ink spots can be re- moved from cloth or paper in the same way. It is necessary that either the chlorine or the article to be bleached be slightly moist, as dry chlorine will not bleach. A solu- tion of the gas, called chlorine water, may be prepared as in experiment i, and can be used for bleaching or as a disinfectant. Pour some on any ill-smelling or colored substance, and in most cases the bad odor, or the color, will disappear. 6. Into a jar of chlorine sprinkle powdered antimony. It will take fire as it enters the gas. CHOOSING SIDES, or Choos- ing Up. In many games where the players are divided into two CHOOSING SIDES 190 CHRISTMAS SPORTS opposite parties, some way of choos- ing sides is necessary. In most cases two captains are first agreed upon. The captains decide which shall have first choice, and then, in turn, choose the other players, one by one. As soon as a player is chosen he stands near his captain. The first choice is determined by lot, and there are many ways of deciding it, some of which are given below. I. By drawing cuts. One captain holds in his hand a long and a short piece of paper or wood, of which he shows only the ends. The other draws one of them, and the player holding the short piece has first choice. II. By throwing up a coin. One captain throws a coin into the air while the other cries either " head " or " tail." If the side of the coin which he mentions comes uppermost, he has first choice ; otherwise, the tosser has it. The side with the date on is always considered the head ; the other the tail. III. In games played with a racket, the racket is used as the coin is above, except that the cries are " rough " and " smooth," correspond- ing to the rough and smooth sides of the racket. IV. In games played with a bat or Fig. I. — Choosing Sides. stick of any kind, like baseball or hockey, the first choice is often de- cided thus : One of the captains. A, holds the bat upright, and throws it to the other B, who catches it in one hand, also holding it upright. A then grasps the bat in one hand above where B is holding it and as Icose to B's hand as possible. B then lets go and grasps the bat above A's hand in like manner. Thus they go on in turn, and the one who holds the bat nearest its end (as in Fig. i, without letting his hand reach be- yond it), has first choice. A hand is judged to be below the end of the bat when a stick laid across that end. Fig. 2.— Choosing Sides. as in Fig. 2, does not touch the hand. V. A number of playing cards equal to that of the players, half red and half black, may be shuffled and then dealt one to each. The holders of black cards play on one side, and those of red cards on the other. VI. One of the captains shuts his eyes or turns his back on the other, who holds up as many fingers as he chooses and says " Odd or even ? " If the first named captain answer correctly, he has the first choice ; if not, the other has it. CHRISTMAS SPORTS. Christ- mas Day, the 25th of December, is celebrated throughout the Christian world by the giving of presents in different ways, which will be de- scribed separately. Christmas Trees. The present are hung on an evergreen tree, which J CHRISTMAS SPORTS 191 CHRISTMAS SPORTS is decorated and lighted with candles. The best Christmas trees are of spruce, but hemlock, cedar, or any evergreen may be used. A symmet- rical and graceful tree should be selected, one whose limbs incline up- ward but little, and stout enough to bend but slightly when laden with presents. Stands to keep the tree upright may be bought in cities, but one can easily be made from an old packing box by nailing strips of wood across to hold it in place, as shown in the il- lustration. If the tree is tall, the box should be weighted by fiUing with stones, or sand, after it is put in its place. A sheet or rug should be spread on the floor to catch candle Manner of Fastening Tree. drippings, and another one over the box and close around the tree. Decoration. Many beautiful or- naments of glass or metal are to be bought at toy-shops for tree decora- tion ; others may be made at home. Almost anything bright colored or shining looks well on a Christmas tree. Pasteboard cut into odd shapes and covered with gilt or colored paper, bits of new tin or looking glass, or small fruits, may be used with effect. Pop corn strung on thread and intertwined among the branches looks well. Fruit or nuts may be painted with gold paint, or covered with gilt paper, and hung to the tree with colored ribbon. Lighting. Trees are usually lighted with colored tapers, about three inches long, fastened to the branches with holders. The best holders are fitted to a wire, which Candle Holders. in most cases, be lighted and has at the lower end a colored ball the weight of which keeps the candle upright. Others are fastened to the branch with sharp ends but have the disadvantage that a motion of the branch tips them. Both kinds are shown in the cut. The candles should be distributed as evenly as possible. A row of candles along only one branch looks bad Each candle should allowed to burn a few seconds before putting it in place. In placing the candles, it should be seen that all loose things above them are trimmed off, so that there is no danger of fire. One or two extra candles should be provided to light the tapers with, and a sponge or rag saturated with water to extinguish any that appear likely to set fire to the tree. It should be the sole busi- ness of one person, while the tree re- mains lighted, to take charge of the sponge, and each candle, as it burns down into the socket, should be put out. A tree may be lighted with gas by having a gas-fitter run pipes up the back of the trunk and along the branches, but nothing equals the effect of tapers. There should be plenty of them : a small tree six feet high should have not less than 50, and larger sizes in proportion. A CHRISTMAS SPORTS 192 CHRISTMAS SPORTS tree twelve feet high would need about 400 candles. Presents. The presents may be hung on the tree, or placed on the box and floor beneath. Presents on the tree are fastened to the branches by strings or ribbons, which are to be cut by the one who removes them. Each present should be marked plainly with the name of giver and receiver, which should be read aloud when they are taken down. Instead of a Christmas tree, the presents are sometimes hung on a ladder, on the rounds of which tapers are fastened, the presents and decorations being hung to it just as to a tree. The ladder should be wound with a green wreath before decorating. A Christ- mas ladder is much more easily pre- pared than a tree, and looks very well. Christmas Ship. Presents may be hung also on a toy ship instead of on a tree. The ship may be bought at a toy shop, and the pres- ents should be placed inside and hung on the masts and rigging, which are wound with greens and decorated with tapers. Or the model of a floating ship may be made, water being represented by green cloth, beneath which, under the ship, is a box, where the presents are stowed, and from which they can be taken out through the hatchways. Bran Pie. Presents are some- times given in a large imitation pie, which is placed on the table Christ- mas morning. The presents, wrapped in paper, are put into a large pan and the spaces between them filled with bran or sawdust. The top is covered with pie crust, which is browned in the oven, provided none of the presents can be injured by heat. Another way is to make the top of the pie of thick brown paper. When set on the table, part of the crust is removed and the presents are taken, one by one, out of the bran. Stockings. Small Christmas pres- ents are often put into stockings. hung by the fireplace on Christmas eve, larger ones being laid on chairs near by. Sometimes a large stock- ing, several feet long, made especially for the purpose, is hung up to receive all the presents. Santa Claus. Santa Claus may be personated by a boy or man dressed in a thick fur coat, cap, and gloves, and stuffed out with pillows so as to look very fat. His face should be so muffled that only eyes and nose are visible, and his nose and cheeks should be colored red with carmine. There are several effective ways of having Santa Claus enter the room. One way is for him to rattle a string of sleighbells just outside, first very softly, and then louder and louder as if his sleigh were approaching ; finally he cries " Whoa ! " and then enters the house — through a window if it can be arranged ; otherwise through the door. He may carry the presents on his back in a pack, or they may be already arranged on a tree for him to distribute. Another way is to place a wooden mantel in front of a door, and cover the upper part of the doorway with cloth, so that the whole looks like a chimney-piece. Santa Claus can thus enter the room through the fireplace under the mantel, as if he had come down the chimney. A chair should be placed at one side of the doorway, behind it, and Santa Claus should step down from it, so that to those on the other side he will appear to be descending from the roof. He may carry all his presents at once, or, if there are too many, leave them in the "chimney," and return now and then for a fresh supply. Large stockings may be hung on either side of the imitation chimney-piece, into which he may cram the presents, which are then taken out by some one else and dis- tributed. The one who takes the part of Santa Claus should talk in a gruff voice as he gives the presents, mak- ing remarks appropriate to each one. CHRISTMAS SPORTS 193 CHRISTMAS SPORTS History. The celebration of a day as the birthday of Christ was begun very early. By some it is said to have been instituted by Pope Teles- phorus, v^ho lived early in the second century. At first different days v^ere kept in different parts of the world, the Eastern churches observing gen- erally some day in April or May. In the fourth century learned men were ordered to determine the exact birth- day of Christ, and they settled on the 25th of December, which has since been adopted by all Christians, though it is probable that that was not the day after all. It is said that this date was originally celebrated at Rome because a heathen festival called the Saturnalia had been held at that time, and so the common people would not have to change their time of revelry. During the middle ages Christmas was cele- brated by the performance of re- ligious plays called " mysteries " or " moralities," where different people took the parts of the Virgin Mary, Joseph, King Herod, etc. These plays are acted even now in some parts of Germany, and the illustra- The Star-bearer, Mary and Joseph, and the Angel. tions show the costumes of some of the characters. The festival was also the time for singing, dancing, and all kinds of revels. " Feasts of Fools and Asses," as they were called, were held, in which every- thing serious was burlesqued. These were sometimes called " December liberties." In Germany and the North of Europe the season became especially devoted to children. In England the Christmas festivities in every large house were in charge of a " Lord of Misrule," or " Abbot of Unreason." and they continued till Candlemas Day, February 2. In every house was built a great fire of logs, the largest of which, called the '•' Yule log " (Yule being the ancient Saxon name for Christmas), was brought into the house with great ceremony. Among the favorite Christmas games were giving rid- dles, Hot Cockles, Snap Dragon (See Halloween), Forfeits, and dancing. The Christmas dish was a boar's head, which was brought in on a silver platter with much cere- mony. The custom of decorating houses and churches with greens is CHRISTMAS SPORTS 194 CHRISTMAS SPORTS said to have been derived from the ancient Druids, who thought that if a green branch was suspended in the house the good spirits of the Satan. woods would take refuge in it dur- ing the cold of winter. The Puri- tans disapproved of Christmas rev- elry, and put a stop to it largely when they came into power. The last " Lord of Misrule " in England is said to have been appointed in 1627. In many parts of Europe it is cus- tomary for a man with a mask over his face, dressed in outlandish fash- ion, to go the rounds of the houses in a village, pretending that he is going to punish bad children. This char- acter is called Ruprecht in Germany, Krampus in lower Austria, Hans Trapp in Alsace, and has other names in other places. Sometimes he ac- companies a man dressed as St. Nicholas or Santa Claus, or a girl dressed as the Christ-child, who brings presents. The Christmas tree is supposed to be derived from the old German leg- end that the world was a great tree whose top was in Paradise. It was first decorated in honor of the god- dess of spring while the Germans were still pagans. At the time of the Reformation, the Protestants, who wished to break away from all Roman Catholic customs, adopted this tree for their Christmas festivities instead of the Presipio, or manger, which is still used largely in Roman Catholic countries. Some Presipios cost large sums of money and rep- resent the Holy Family gathered around the infant Jesus, while angels sing in the clouds above. Presipios are used in churches and in private houses, just as we have Christmas trees for Sunday-schools and at home. In Poland, Christmas gifts are hidden in various places thoughout the house, and the members of the family search for them. In Sweden and Denmark presents are wrapped up in all sorts of queer ways, some- times in bundles of hay or wool, and thrown in at doors or windows at unexpected times. The packages are called Jueklapps (Christmas boxes). Each one is labeled with the name of the person for whom it The Three Kings. is intended, and sometimes a vers( or quotation is added. Settlers from different countriei brought their various customs witl them to this country, so our cele- bration of Christmas is made up of CIRCULAR SAW 195 CLAP IN AND CLAP OUT those of several nations. The Eng- hsh brought theirs to Virginia, the Dutch to New York, and the Swedes to Delaware. In New England, owing to the opposition of the Puri- tans to the celebration of the day, it was not observed at all in old times. The Christmas tree is taken from The Pharisees. Germany, and the legend of Santa Claus (St. Nicholas) was brought by the Dutch to New York. In the South the day is made the occasion for setting off fire-crackers and fire- works, which makes it seem much like Fourth of July in the North. CHROMOTROPE. See Fourth OF July. CIRCULAR SAW, a toy consist- ing of a disk of tin, through which are bored two holes from an inch to an inch and a half apart, and equi- distant from the center. A string two or three feet long is passed through each of these holes, and the ends tied. Holding one end in each hand so that the disk is in the mid- dle, the player twirls the disk till the string is well twisted, and then pull- ing his hands apart, forces the string to untwist and spin the disk. At the moment when all the twist is out of the string the hands are brought slowly together again, and the disk goes on twirling, twisting the string in the opposite direction. By pull- ing the hands apart again, the disk will spin in the opposite direction, and it can thus be kept on spinning as long as the player chooses. Teeth can be cut on the edge of the disk to imitate a circular saw. The edges of the holes in a tin saw cut the string, so similar toys are sometimes made of stiff pasteboard, but these are not so durable. The saws are sometimes called water cutters, be- cause, when the edge is made to touch the surface of the water in a basin, a shower of spray is sent out. The toy may be made of any con- venient size, but it is usually from three to six inches in diameter. CLAP IN AND CLAP OUT, a game played by any number of boys and girls. The boys stand each be- hind a chair, and the girls go into another room. One of the players, who acts as keeper of the door be- tween the two rooms, asks one of the boys to choose a girl. The door- keeper then opens the door and calls the girl thus chosen, who must sit Circular Saw. down in one of the chairs. If she sit in front of the boy who chose her, he kisses her and she keeps her seat, but if not, all the boys clap their hands as a sign that she is wrong, and she must leave the room again. The door-keeper asks another boy to choose, and the game goes on till all the chairs are filled. The boys then leave the room, the girls CLIPPED SQUARES 196 COASTING stand behind the chairs, and the game is repeated. The play is often varied by calling in three or four at a time. CLIPPED SQUARES, a game played by any number of persons, with paper and scissors. Each player cuts a square, and then clips it into four pieces by two straight cuts of the scissors. He then mixes the pieces and passes them to the player on his left. All the players now try to arrange the bits so as to make the original square, and at the expiration of five minutes, or any other period agreed on beforehand, those who have been successful score one point. Each one now passes his pieces to the left again, and so on till each has had before him all the clipped squares, in regular order. He who has scored most points is the winner. The time limit must be arranged according to the skill of the players. If no one has solved his puzzle at the expiration of the time it should be longer ; if almost all have succeeded, it should be made shorter. The task of putting the pieces to- gether seems very simple at first, but in reality it is difficult. The four pieces can be put together in no less than 256 different ways, only one of which forms a square. The game can be played as a SOLITAIRE by simply clipping a square and then trying to put it to- gether again, which will be found almost as difficult as though the clipping had been done by another person. CLUB SWINGING. See Gymnas- tics. CLUMPS, a guessing game played by any number of persons. Two of the players, who act as captains, choose sides, and then each captain sends one of his men out of the room. The two thus sent agree on the name of any person or object, real or fictitious, to be guessed by the rest of the company. Each of the two then sits down among the players of the opposing side, who try to guess the object that has been selected, by asking him questions, to which he is permitted to reply only "yes," "no," or "I do not know." The players on the side that succeeds first in guessing announce the fact by clapping their hands, and the winning captain can then choose a man from the defeated side. Two men are then sent out again, and the game may go on till all but one of the players on one side have been chosen, when it must cease, because two on a side at least, are necessary, one to ask questions, and one for the enemy's side to question. As this generally takes a long time, an hour may be agreed on beforehand, when the players are to be counted, and the side with the greater number wins. The sides are often called Clumps. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The two Clumps must sit in separate rooms or, if this is impossi- ble, at opposite ends of the same room. 2. The questioning shall begin at exactly the same time on each side, by any signal that may be agreed on. 3. To avoid confusion, the captain on each side shall put the questions for his Clump, which may be sug- gested to him by members of the Clump in any order. 4. If any question is put in such a form that it cannot be answered by "yes," "no," or "I do not know," no answer at all shall be made. 5. As soon as the subject is guessed each of the questioned players shall return to his own Clump, unless he be the one chosen by the winning side. 6. Neither of the captains shall be chosen. COASTING. (See C.C.T., Sleigh). There are three principal ways of riding on a sled ; sitting, lying, or kneeling on one knee, each of which positions has its advantages. In sitting, if the rider runs against any- thing his feet bear the shock, but he COASTING 197 COASTING cannot easily take a run in starting. In lying flat, the coaster starts by holding his sled upright in both hands, taking a short run, then stooping and throwing himself face downward on the sled. Besides the advantages gained by such a start it is easier to steer in this position, but he is more apt to be hurt in a col- lision, since his head is foremost. Many coasters prefer the third position, kneeling on one knee, or fitting sidewise on the rear of the gled, and steering with one leg, which is trailed behind. This is the best plan when more persons than one are on the same sled. All sit upright but the hindmost one, who does the steering. The steersman should keep a sharp lookout ahead for curves and obstacles of all kinds. On a hill crowded with coasters, it is the duty of those who are walk- ing up to keep out of the way of the sliders. A coaster should never descend a hill on which there is a vehicle going either way, and if there is much passing, ihere should be no coasting there at all. In many places coasting on such hills is for- bidden by law, but in some towns certain streets are set apart specially for the use of coasters. The two chief kinds of sleds are the high and the low, the former sometimes called cutters, and the latter in some pkces " pickerel " or " pig-stickers." The former have runners of open framework, shod with iron ; the latter have solid wood runners shod with bars of steel, fastened only at the ends. The run- ners of the high sleds curve upward sharply in front, while those of the low ones curve but slightly and end in a sharp point. The low sleds are best suited for a coaster lying flat, and for smoothly worn hills, while the others are fitted for tracks on which the loose snow is an inch or so deep. The sleds called " bobs " or " double rippers " are formed by joining two ordinary sleds of the same height by a plank ten to twenty feet long. This plank is fastened firmly to the rear sled, and pivoted to the forward one so that it will turn freely. The steering is usually done with the forward sled ; if it projects beyond the plank, the steersman lies at full length and holds the curved ends of the runners one in each hand, thus being able to turn the rudder-sled in whichever direction the bob is to be steered. i Sometimes the pivot on which the sled turns is brought up through the I plank and fitted with a lever, so that I the helmsman may sit upright as he I steers. A short bob may have both i sleds fixed, and be steered behind, like an ordinary sled, and sometimes the guiding is done with an extra runner, something like the rudder of an ice-boat. In any case, the last passenger on the bob starts it by I running and pushing, and jumps into j his seat just as the proper speed is attained. Some bobs are expensively made of fine wood, beautifully polished and fitted with cushions for the pas- sengers. There is usually a hand- rail on each, by which the coasters may hold on. Accidents in coasting, as in other sports, occur usually through heed- lessness or neglect. With a single sled, the coaster is responsible only for his own safety, but in " bobbing " a load of from four to ten passengers are at the mercy of the steersman, and they should be careful to ride with no one who is not clear-headed and prudent. If the hill is a proper one and the bob or sled is well steered, coasting is as safe as any other sport. Coasting has undoubtedly been fol- lowed as a sport in cold countries from the most ancient times in some rude form or other. Even animals practise it, the otter being very fond of sliding down slippery banks either of mud or snow, on his belly. The sport was probably first reduced to a system in Russia. (See the history of TOBOGANNING.) COBALT CHLORIDE 198 COINS COBALT CHLORIDE, Experi- ments with. I. Write on a piece of paper with an ink made of cobalt chloride dissolved in water. The marks will be nearly invisible till heated, when they will turn greenish blue. 2. Draw a landscape in ordinary ink, afterward filling in the leaves and grass with cobalt chloride. The picture will represent winter or sum- mer according as it is damp or dried. COHESION FIGURES. Figures formed by dropping oil on water. Let a drop of pure sperm oil fall into Oleographs of Tallow and Lard. a basin or plate full of water. The drop will quickly enlarge into a cir- cular film of oil, which breaks at the edges into ragged holes. Finally the center becomes filled with little holes, forming curious figures. The film continues to change for about half an hour. Castor oil gives smaller figures, and in general every kind of oil gives figures of a different shape. These figures can be preserved by laying a piece of glazed paper carefully on the surface of the water after the film has assumed the desired shape. The paper is then laid on an inked plate, or an inked roller is passed over it. The ink sticks to the paper except where the oil has made it greasy, hence the cohesion figures appear in white on a black ground. These are sometimes called oleo- graphs. The illustrations show oleo- graphs of tallow and lard. COINS, Tricks with. i. Head or Tail. To tell blindfold whether a spun coin falls head or tail upward. The coin used must be prepared by cutting on the edge of one face a minute notch causing a little point of metal to project. When the coin is spun, if it goes down with the notched side underneath, this point will catch on the table causing the coin to fall suddenly, instead of gradually as it otherwise would. With a little prac- tice the two sounds may be easily dis- tinguished. 2. To rub One Coin into Two. Previously stick a coin with wax underneath a table, close to the edge. Borrow a similar coin and rub it violently with the ball of the thumb against the edge of the table. The fingers will thus naturally be beneath the table, and the waxed coin can easily be removed at any time and added to the one that is being rubbed. 3. The Wandering Coin. Have ready two coins each slightly waxed on one side. Borrow a similar coin and secretly exchange it for one of the waxed ones, which is then laid on the table, waxed side upper- most. Draw two cards from a pack, and take them in the same hand with the other waxed coin, which will thus stick to the under- COINS 199 COINS most. Lay this card on the table near the coin which is already there and cover that coin with the other card, pressing lightly on it so that it will stick. A coin may now be made to appear under whichever card the performer wishes, for if he bends the card slightly upward in lifting the coin will not stick to it ; otherwise it will. To the audience it will appear as if there were but one coin, which the performer caused at will to pass from one card to the other. 4. The Animated Coin. Have ready a long piece of black thread, to one end of which is fastened a bit of wax. The waxed end lies on the table in front of the performer ; the other is held by an assistant in an adjoining room. On the table stands an ordinary goblet. The performer borrows a coin, and contriving to stick the wax to it throws it into the goblet, calling on the spectators to ask it questions which it will answer by jingling in the glass. It may be agreed that one clink shall mean " yes " and two " no," The assistant must be near enough to hear the questions, and answers them, ac- cording to his fancy, by pulling the thread, making the coin jump up and down in the glass. 5. Coin and Card. Balance a card on the tip of your forefinger. On Coin and Card. top of it balance a coin about the size of a nickel five cent piece. Hit the edge of the card a smart horizontal blow with some object like a pencil, or snap it with your finger, if you can do it directly forward without tend- ing to drive the card up or down, and the card will fly away, leaving the coin balanced on your finger. 6. Coin and Goblet. Support a Coin and Goblet. glass goblet upside down on two coins, as shown in the picture, on a table covered with a cloth. Place a third coin within, and ask the com- pany to remove it without touching or removing the glass. This may be done by scratching on the cloth near the glass. 7. Coins in Water. Fill a glass Coins in Water. goblet brimful of water, and then ask the company how many coins COIN COPYING 200 COMMERCE can be dropped in without spilling it over. The guesses will all be too «mall, for a surprising number can be put in if it be done carefully. COIN COPYING. To obtain an 'ixact copy, in copper, of a coin or medal, first make a mold of wax or Dlaster of Paris. A wax mold is nade by pressing the coin down on I piece of warm wax, brushed over vith sweet oil to prevent sticking. , \ plaster of Paris mold is made by ' itting a little paper rim around the 'toin and pouring into it a mixture of plaster of Paris and water, which will f »oon become hard. In this case the «!oin should be brushed over with fiweet oil for the same reason as l)efore. The mold must then be covered thickly with finely powdered graphite, which can be obtained by crushing either graphite stove black- ing or pencil leads. When the mold is well covered with a thin layer of this, it is attached to the negative wire of a battery and hung in a solu- tion of copper sulphate (blue vitriol). The positive wire of the battery is attached to a copper coin suspended in the same vessel. The electric current will decompose the copper sulphate depositing copper on the mold. After a time the layer of copper may be pulled off the mold, and its lower surface will be an exact copy of the coin from which the mold was made. The process is ex- actly like that of ELECTROPLATING. COIN WINDIVIILL. A coin can be made into a toy windmill with the aid of two pins. Lay the coin flat on a table or on the knee and press the points of the pins against opposite edges, keeping the pins exactly in the same straight line. The coin may now be lifted by the pins, but if it hangs vertically this shows that it is not perfectly balanced, and another trial must be made. When it is properly balanced it will keep hori- zontal as it is lifted. By blowing on one side, the coin may now be made to spin very rapidly between the pins. COLLISION BALLS, Experiments with. Take half a dozen large glass marbles and paste a little strip of leather to each so that it may be sus- pended by a thread. The paste should be slightly moistened gum tragacanth, which, though it does not hold the leather to the glass when wet, sticks strongly after it dries. In- sert a broom straw between theleather and glass before the paste is dry, and afterwards, when it is removed, a hole will be left for the thread. These glass balls must be hung side by side on a frame or to the edge of a table or shelf. They should just touch each other, without pressing against each other at all. EXPERIMENTS. 1. Draw aside the end ball and let it fall against the next. All the balls will remain at rest save the one at the other end which will fly off. As it falls back against its neighbor the first one will fly aside again, and so the end balls will con- tinue to move alternately. Soon the middle balls will begin to move a little and at the end the whole half- dozen balls will sway to and fro slightly. If the balls were perfectly elastic the middle balls would never move, but always remain still as at first. The first ball struck is squeezed together a little, and ex- panding, squeezes its neighbor, and so on till the last ball is reached, which, having no neighbor, flies aside. 2. Draw aside the two. end balls and let them fall together. The two balls at the opposite end will fly off together. COIVIiVIERCIE, a game played by any number of persons, with one or more full packs of cards, according to the size of the company. The dealer gives each player five cards, two and three at a time, and then deals five others face upward on the table. The latter are sometimes called the " widow." The player at the dealer's left may exchange any or all of his cards for an equal number COMMERCE 20I COMPASS in the widow, placing those he dis- cards face upward on the table with those he leaves, or he may "pass," that is, decline to exchange. The next player in order has the same privilege, and so on till each has had two chances, but any player who passes on the first round must do the same on the second. The hands are then shown, and he who has the lowest retires from the game. The value of the hands is the same as in Draw Poker. At the close of the next hand another player retires, and so on till only one is left, who is the winner. Sometimes, if the company is large, two or three players retire each time instead of one. In this case, if more than one player is left at the end, he who has the highest hand wins. There are many varie- ties of this game ; some of the most common of which will be described. A retired player is sometimes allowed to enter the game again if he can induce an active player to speak to him. In this case the player who so speaks must retire from the game. Sometimes a player does not retire until he has twice held the lowest hand. The game is of- ten played with- out any widow. Each player in turn must either trade, barter, or stand. In trad- ing, the player ex- changes one of his cards for the top card of the remain- ing pack, the re- jected card being placed under the pack ; in bartering, he exchanges a card with his left-hand neighbor ; if he is satisfied with his hand as it is, he says "I stand." No player's left-hand neighbor may refuse to barter, unless he intends to stand. In bartering, each may select the card he wishes to exchange, but may not see the other player's card till the change is made. When any player stands, trade and barter cease, and the hands are shown at once. When parties are given at which this game is played, it is customary for the hostess to give one or more prizes to the winners. Sometimes a boy's prize and a girl's prize are offered, in which case the boy and girl holding the lowest hands respec- tively retire at the end of each round. Three-Card Commerce. Each player is dealt three cards, and the hands are as follows in the order of their value, beginning with the high- est : 1. Tricon, three cards of a kind. 2. Sequence, three cards in succes- sion. 3. Flush, three cards of the same suit. 4. A Pair, two cards of a kind. 5. Point, the greatest number of pips on the cards held, counting the Ace as eleven, and face cards ten each. COMPASS. A simple mariner's compass may be constructed as fol- lows. Magnetize an ordinary knit- Home-made Compass. ting needle, E (see MAGNETS), and pass it through a small cork, F, from side to side, so that the cork is exactly in the middle of the needle. Thrust a pin lengthwise through the same cork, and then stick in it two sharp- ened matches, C, so that they project downward diagonally. On the ends of the matches fix balls of wax. The COMPLIMENTS 202 COMPRESSED MAN whole arrangement can now be balanced on a thimble, D, by resting the point of the pin in one of the little holes on the top. If the knit- ting needle is not horizontal, pull it through the cork to one side or the other, or alter one of the wax balls. The whole is placed in a common earthenware pudding dish, T, and covered with a pane of glass. A disk of paper. A, with the points of the compass marked on it, may be fixed under the needle, when the whole arrangement will appear like the illustration. For experiments with the compass see MAGNETS. COMPLIMENTS, a game played by any number of persons, who sit in a circle. One of the players begins by wishing that he were some animal, bird, or other object, living or not, as he may choose. He asks his right- hand neighbor to give a reason for this choice and the answer must not be complimentary. He then asks the same question of his left-hand neighbor, who must return a com- plimentary reply. Each player makes a similar wish in turn and asks the same questions of his neighbors. Should any one's answer be compli- mentary, instead of uncompliment- ary, or the reverse, the offender must pay a forfeit. For example, suppose the player wishes to become a dog. His right- hand neighbor may give as a reason, " That you may indulge your pro- pensity for making hideous noises "; and his left-hand neighbor may say, " Because of the faithfulness, intelli- gence, and noble character of the animal." COMPRESSED MAN, THE, a trick performed by two boys. One asks the other if he is willing to be compressed to half his height, and the two then retire from the room. One stands in front of the other and two poles are placed on their shoulders to imitate the poles of a bier or stretcher. A small pillow is placed across the poles behind the rear boy, who leans his head back upon it and rests his arms at full length along the poles, which must be long enough to allow his hands nearly to reach the back of the forward boy. Boots are placed on his hands, and then his arms are covered with a blanket. Compressed Man. This arrangement causes him to look as if he were carried by two men on a stretcher, reduced to a heighthof about three feet. The spectators will not notice at first that Compressed Man. the rear bearer's head is invisible, or they will think that it is underneath the stretcher, concealed by the blanket. Fig. I shows the arrangement CONDUCTION OF HEAT 203 THE CONFESSOR before the blanket is put on ; Fig. 2, the appearance afterward. An " ex- tended man " can be made in a sim- ilar manner by placing the boots on sticks held in the hands of the rear performer, but the effect is not so striking. While the performers are absent from the room one of them should saw a piece of wood, while the other should groan, and a little sulphur may be burned to excite the interest of the spectators. CONDUCTION OF HEAT, Expen- merits on. i. Take a copper wire, an iron wire, and a glass rod, and dip them in melted wax, so as to form a coating on each. Lay them on a table with the ends projecting about two inches over the edge and crossing each other. Hold an alco- hol lamp under the place where they cross so as to heat them all equally. The conduction of the heat along the rods can be traced by the melt- ing of the wax, which will take place fastest on the best conductor of heat. Beyond a certain point on each rod the wax will not melt. This is be- cause the heat escapes from the air on all sides of the rod, so that there is not enough left to melt the wax beyond that point. The wax, how- ever, will be melted much farther on a good conductor than on a poor one. 2. To the lower surface of an iron rod stick at intervals, by means of wax, balls of wood or bullets. Heat one end of the bar in an alcohol flame and the balls will drop off one by one as the wax is melted, begin- ning with the one nearest the flame. If bars of different substances be used, it will be seen that some of them conduct the heat of the flame faster than others. 3. Hold a scrap of paper beneath a wooden penholder so that half is in contact with the wooden handle and half with the metal part that holds the pen. Hold the penholder and paper over the flame of an alco- hol lamp, and the part touching the wood will be charred, while that un- der the metal is yet white. This is because the metal conducts the heat more quickly than the wood does. 4. Place one within another two tin pails, of such sizes that when to- gether there will be a space about two inches wide between them. Fill this space, including that at the bot- tom, with old newspaper crumpled into balls and packed in very tightly. Fill the inside pail with water at 100^ Fahrenheit, put on the cover, pack the space above it with paper, and then put on the outer cover. This arrangement makes a vessel which conducts heat very slightly. If the water is tested after several hours its temperature will be only a degree or two lower, whereas water in an ordinary pail will cool to the temperature of the room in the same time. 5. Water may be boiled in a paper box, as shown in the illustration, ow- ing to the fact that the heat is all Boiling Water in a Paper Box. required to boil the water, so that the paper is kept below the charring point. THE CONFESSOR, agame played by any number of persons, one of CONSEQUENCES 204 CONTUMACY whom is chosen as confessor and the others personate penitents. Each of the players is given a pencil and a slip of paper. The confessor writes on his slip what he wishes to con- sider the capital sin, and then, ad- dressing the player at his left desires him to confess his sins, at the same time handing him a tetotum. The penitent spins the tetotum on a table, and the number that it turns up shows how many sins he must confess. He writes them on his paper and hands it to the confessor, who reads the sins aloud, and then pro- ceeds to the next player on the right. Any player who confesses the capital sin, or any one of the sins that have already been confessed, must pay a forfeit. The name of the capital sin is not told to the company till all have confessed. Then, if desired, another confessor is chosen and the game goes on, entirely new sins still being required, on penalty of a forfeit. The game is made more amusing if the confessor and the penitents act out their parts. If it is so agreed before the game, any- one who laughs may be made to pay a forfeit. CONSEQUENCES, a game played by any number of persons, each with pencil and paper. The players usually sit around a table and the first writes at the top of his paper an ad- jective describing a man, then folds the paper over the word so as to hide it, and passes it to his left-hand neighbor. Each then writes, just under the hidden word, the name of a man, either a historical character or some acquaintance, and folding the paper, passes it as before. After this the following things are written in like manner, the paper being folded and passed after each. (3) An adjective describing a woman. (4) A woman's name. (5) Where the man and woman met. (6) What he said. (7) What she replied. (8) What the consequences were. (9) What the world said. When all these have been written, the papers are mixed in the middle of the table, and each player draws one which he must read aloud ; or, all the papers may be read by one player, chosen for the purpose. The reader fills in the words necessary to make a con- nected story. The names of the players are often used with amusing effect. For instance, one of the papers may read, " The gentlemanly Henry VHI. and the slovenly Mary B , met in the Metropolitan Museum. He said, ' Do you like apples } ' and she replied, * Not on Sundays.' The consequence was a tremendous ex- plosion, and the world said, ' What else could you expect } " The words and sentences written may be varied as agreed on at the beginning of the game. For in- stance, " What he gave her " and " What she gave him " are often put in. In its simplest form the game consisted of writing merely a man's name, a woman's name, where they met, and the consequences. A different way of playing the game is for the players to write each of their words or sentences on a separate card or slip of paper, num- bering them as above. The slips are then gathered in piles, each pile containing those of one number, and each player draws one from each pile, arranges them in order, and reads the story that results. Or, if there are just as many players as piles, each may be given one, and then each, in the order of the num- bers, may read one of his cards. The game may be played many times with the same cards if each pile is shuffled after every read- ing. Sometimes words or sentences printed on cards of different colors are sold at the toy shops, to be used in playing this game or similar ones. CONTUMACY, a game of cards played by three persons with a EUCHRE pack. The players cut for deal, and he who cuts the lowest card gives three cards to each player. COPENHAGEN 205 CORN AND BEANS Beginning with the eldest hand, each may then discard his hand, if not satisfied with it, and call for a new one. No one can discard part of a hand, and when any player has said he is satisfied he must keep his hand. Each of the other players may thus draw two new hands, and the dealer may draw three. The dealer then leads from any suit he pleases, and names another. The other players are expected to play in the named suit, taking just as if they were fol- lowing suit. Thus, if the dealer lead the Five of Clubs and says " Hearts," the Six of Hearts will take the trick, but the Six of Clubs will not. If either player wish to play a suit which has neither been named nor played, he can do so, but to take the trick his card must be the second one above the card which would otherwise take it. He may play thus from choice or because he cannot do otherwise. In either case he is said to be " contumacious." It will be seen that the first contumacious player in any round has two suits to choose from, but one at third hand, where the second hand has already been contumacious, has but one. Thus, if the dealer lead the Four of Spades, and say " Hearts," and the second player (choosing to be con- tumacious) play the Six of Clubs, the third, if he also is contumacious, must play a Diamond higher than the Seven to take the trick. But in the named suit (Hearts), a Seven would take it. The dealer continues to lead till the hands have been played. He must not name the same suit twice in succession, nor must he name the suit he leads. The cards rank as in ecarte, the Ace being between the Ten and Knave. The Ace of Spades is a special card, and is not allowed to win a trick in contumacy. When played in the named suit it has its ordinary value, but when led it must always take the trick. COPENHAGEN, a game played by any number of persons, who stand in a circle holding a rope whose ends are tied together. One of the play- ers stands in the middle of the ring, and tries to slap the hands that hold the rope, using only one of his own hands at a time. The players must always hold the rope with at least one hand, and can try to escape being slapped only by changing hands rapidly, taking hold first with one and then with another. If any one's hand is slapped or he lets the rope go altogether, he must take the place of the one in the ring. As the game is often played, a girl tries to slap only boys' hands and a boy only girls' hands, and when a hand is slapped the players kiss as they change places. CORK, Experiment with a. Place in the neck of a wide-mouthed bottle a cork considerably too small for it, and try to blow it into the bottle. Instead of going in, it will generally fly out. The reason is that the blowing compresses the air within the bottle and this, recoiling like a spring, drives the cork out. To suc- ceed, the experiment must be tried with bottle and cork perfectly dry so that one will not stick to the other. CORK, The, a game in which the players try to knock a cork from the top of a bottle. The bottle is placed on a table and the cork set loosely on the neck so that it can easily be knocked off. Each player in turn, standing on the opposite side of the room, holds his arm directly before him, with forefinger extended. He must then walk slowly toward the bottle and with a single movement of the arm knock off the cork without disturbing the bottle. The player wins who succeeds in doing this the greatest number of times in a num- ber of turns previously agreed upon. The task, though seemingly easy, is really difficult. Most players will strike above the cork, the reason being that he has an involuntary fear of hitting the bottle. CORN AND BEANS, a game played by any number of persons, COTTON 206 COUNTING OUT one of whom, called the Professor, reads questions from a card, while the others hold cards bearing the answers. The Professor's card bears any number of questions, usually forty, on historical or other subjects, and there are the same number of other cards each con- taining the answer to one of the questions. After a Professor has been chosen, the answer-cards are distributed equally among the others. A quantity of corn and beans, for use as counters, is also distributed equally. The Professor begins by reading any question he chooses. The holder of the answer must cry " Corn ! " and all the oth- ers must cry " Beans ! " If the holder cry first, he reads the answer and hands the card to the Professor. If one or more cry " Beans " first, he must give each of them a corn or bean and hold the answer-card till the question is asked again. If any one cry either " Corn " or " Beans " wrongly, he must give a corn or bean to each of the others. If the Profes- sor ask a question which has already been answered, the first one to dis- cover it cries " Corn and Beans," and changes places with the Professor, who becomes an ordinary pupil. The game lasts until the Professor has all the answer-cards. Should any one pay out all his corn and beans, he must borrow of a neighbor. The first one to dispose of his answer cards is called the " Model Scholar "; the first one out of corn and beans, the " Bankrupt," and the player hav- ing most corn and beans at the end of the game, the " Millionaire." COTTON, Experiment with. Take a glass nearly full of alcohol, and as much loose cotton wool as can be held in an ordinary stiff hat. Put the cotton into the alcohol, a little at a time, pushing it down with a glass rod slowly, so that the alcohol will have time to soak it thoroughly. It will be possible to put all the cot- ton into the glass without making the alcohol run over. The reason is that the cotton really takes up very little room, as would be seen if it were squeezed or pressed together very tightly. COUNTING OUT, deciding who shall be leader of a game, or take some special part in it. In this country the one who takes such a part is called " It." In England he is sometimes called " He," in France Le (It), and in Germany he is said to be daran (in). Sometimes to be It is a desirable thing, and sometimes not. When it is desirable, the players often shout " I choose to be It," or some similar form of words, and he who shouts first is given the post. When it is undesirable, it is often agreed that all shall run to some tree or gate, and that he who gets there last shall be It. The question is often decided by lot in some of the various ways described undqr CHOOSING Sides. Sometimes one of the players numbers the others, counting from one to seven and then begining again. Each seventh player drops out, till finally only one is left, who must be It. But the most common method is by " counting out rhymes," of which there are a great number. The players stand in a row, and one recit- ing the rhyme, points to them in order, indicating one at each word. He to whom the last word falls, drops out of the line, and the rhyme is thus repeated till only one is left, who must be It. The counter-out of course points to himself in the proper order. Most counting out rhymes have a whole word for each beat or accent, but, some have more than one, and in this case some counters-out point once for each word, and others once for each ac- cent. Thus in the lines, — Little boy driving cattle. Don't you hear his money rattle, some persons point only for the accented words in the second line, while others point for each word. Several of the most common count- CRAMBO 207 CRAMBO ing-out rhymes are given below. Most of them have almost countless variations. Overy, uvery, ickory, Ann, Fillisy, follasy, Nicholas John, Queevy, quavy, Irish Mary, Stingalum, stangalum, Buck. Eeny, meeny, mona, my, Barcelona, bona, stry, Kay bell, broken well, We, wo, wack. Intery, mintery, cutery, corn, Apple seed, briar thorn. Wire, briar, limber lock. Three geese in a flock ; One flew east, one flew west. One flew over the cuckoo's nest, O-u-t, out ! One, two, three, four, Lily at the kitchen door. Eating grapes off the plate, Five, six, seven, eight. Monkey, monkey, bottle of beer. How many monkeys are there here ? One, two, three. Out goes he (or she). Stick, stock, stone dead, Set him up, set him down, Set him in the old man's crown. Onery, twoery, dickery, davery, Hallibone, crackabone, tenery, lavery. Discontent, American pine, Humble-ey, bumble-ey, twenty-nine. One-i-zol, two-i-zol, zig-i-zol, zan. Bobtail, vinegar, tickle, and tan, Harum-scarum, Virgin Marum, We, wo, wack. COURT TENNIS. See Tennis. COVENTRY, The Earl of. See Earl of Coventry. CRAMBO, a game played by any number of persons, who try to guess a word by means of another which rhymes with it. One of the players thinks of a word, and then tells the others what it rhymes with. The players who guess do not speak the words that occur to them, but tell their meaning. Thus, one chooses the word pin, and says, " I think of a word that rhymes with tin." An- other asks, " Is it a part of the face ? " and the answer is, " No, it is not chin." " Is it a loud noise .'^ " "No, it is not din," and so the game goes on till the word is guessed. Those guessing often try to make the meanings they give hard to under- stand, so that most of the guessing is on the other side. If the one who thinks of the word cannot understand his questioners he may ask them to repeat the question dif- ferently. The guesses need not be made by the players in order. Acting Crambo, or Dumb Crambo, a kind of Crambo in which, instead of telling the meaning of the words that are guessed, the players act them in dumb-show. Two of the company generally choose sides, and one side leaves the room, returning to act its guesses after being told what the chosen word rhymes with. The acting may be done by one per- son and be simply a movement of the hand or body; as, for instance, in guessing the words " shake " or " bend," or the whole side may act a long CHARADE, Sometimes a game played in this way will last a whole evening. The game of Ques- tions AND Answers is also some- times called Crambo, but it is quite different. History. The name Crambo was given in old times to several rhyming games. The Spectator speaks of " those who play at Crambo or cap verses." The word means a rhyme, and is said to be from the Latin cra77tbe (repetition). This word meant cabbage in Greek, and came to signify a tiresome repetition through the proverb, " a cabbage twice boiled is death." The natives of the Samoan Islands in the Pacific Ocean play a kind of Crambo. A traveler there says: "One party would choose the names of CRIBBAGE 208 CRIBBAGE trees, and another the names of men. Those who sided with the trees would say, ' There is the Tan tree ; tell us a name which will rhyme to it.' " CRIBBACE, a game of cards played by two, three, or four persons, with a full pack. Two-handed six- card Cribbage, the common game in this country, will be described first : Points. The following is a list of the points that can be made in Crib- bage. A pair (two of a kind, as two Queens or two Eights) counts 2. A pair royal (three of a kind) counts 6. A double pair royal (four of a kind) counts 12. A sequence (three or more cards in succession, of the same suit or not), counts as many points as there are cards in it. In a sequence the Ace counts below the Two, and not above the King. Any number of cards the sum of whose spots is 15 (counting face cards as 10), counts 2. A Knave of the same suit as the trump card counts i (called " one for his nob"). Turning up a Knave as trump counts the dealer 2 (called " two for his heels "). A flush (four or five cards of the same suit), counts 4 or 5 as the case may be. The deal is determined by cutting (see Cards ), and six cards are dealt one by one to each player. Each now takes out two cards from his hand to form what is called the Crib. This is the property of the dealer, but he must not look at it till the hand is played ; the four cards that form it are placed by themselves, face down, on the table. The non- dealer now cuts the pack, and the dealer turns up the top card of the lower pile as trump. Beginning with the non-dealer, the players in turn then lay down their cards, one by one, face upward, each making a pile of his own. As each card is put down, its owner calls out the sum of the spots on all the cards which have been played (face cards count- ing 10) ; thus, A may put down a Six and say "six," B a Seven and say "thirteen" and A a Queen and say "twenty-three." When thirty-one is reached the counting begins over again. If either one makes exactly thirty- one he scores two points, and if neither can do so he who come: nearest it scores one, which is called a " go." Thus, taking up the play of A and B where we left it, sup pose B plays a Five and calls out " twenty-eight." If A has nothing lower than Four he must say "Go meaning that B can score one for a Go, as he has come nearest 31. If B can play again, he must do so before scoring, and if he can make 31 he scores two instead of his Go. He who plays the last card in the hand also scores one. In playing, if any of the groups in the above list are formed, except a flush» he who plays the last card in the group scores for it but the cards must be played in succession. The cards of sequence may be put down in any order ; thus, 2, 5, 3, 4, would be counted by the one playing the last card as a sequence of four (2, 3, 4, 5) ; and if the next player should then play an Ace, he would count a se- quence of five (i, 2, 3, 4, 5). The same cards can be counted again to make a higher group : thus, if A plays an Eight, and B another Eight making a pair and scoring two. A may play a third Eight, making with the other two a pair-royal, and scor ing six. But when thirty-one is reached, all making of groups must begin anew. Fifteen counts only at the beginning of play; thus if A plays a Six, B a Ten, and A a Five, A cannot call the Ten and the Five fifteen. Making points during play is called, from the mode of counting " pegging." When play is over, each gathers up his hand and reck ons up the points in it. The non- dealer counts his first, and is said to " have first show." This is an ad- vantage, especially at the end of a close game, when he who has first Cribbage 209 CRIBBAGE show often wins. The cards must be spread on the table face upward, so that both players may see. In reckoning, the trump card counts as part of each hand. All the cards in one group cannot be counted as part of a larger group as in playing, but any number less than the whole can be so counted. Thus, if a player have three Queens he can count them only as a pair royal and not as separate pairs also ; and if he have for instance. Nine, Ten, Knave, Queen, he can count only a sequence of four and not the separate sequences of three. But if he have Nine, Ten, and two Knaves, or Nine, two Tens, and a Knave, he can count two sequences of three, only two cards being the same in both groups. This is called a double sequence of three, and evi- dently scores eight, counting the pair. A double sequence of four would in the same way count ten. So, too, with one Five and three face cards, three fifteens can be formed, and with two Fives and two face cards four fifteens. The dealer counts his Hand before looking at his Crib, and the Hand and Crib are reckoned separately. The trump card is counted with the Crib also, and the Crib is reckoned like the Hand, ex- cept that a flush of four does not count in it. In counting fifteens the score is added to the word fifteen ; thus, if a player has three of them he says he has fifteen-six, and if five of them, fifteen-ten. Experienced players reckon their hands very fast, and this part of the game is excellent training in addition. After the reckoning, the players deal alter- nately, until one has made 61 points, which wins the game. The score may be kept simply with pencil and paper, but it is usual to mark it with pegs on a Cribbage board like that in the illustration. In marking, each player uses one side of the board, his peg traveling the outside row of holes, returning by the inside row, and finishing in the end hole. Each player usually has two pegs, and the points are marked with them alternately, so that the number of ; '■ a ' ': \ \ \ N \ \ \ \ \ \ \ - : : • ": ; Cribbage Board. holes between them always shows the last score that was made. The game will be made clearer by carefully playing through the follow- ing sample hand. Suppose the cards to be dealt and that they are dis- tributed as follows, A being the dealer. A puts in the Crib a pair of Eights, because they form a group with nothing else in his hand, and because the Crib is his own. If it had been B's Crib he would have hesitated before giving his opponent a pair. B should put in his Seven and Queen, leaving himself a flush. The cards in brackets thus form the Crib. B cuts, and A turns up the Five of Clubs. B leads with his Four of Clubs, say- ing " four." A plays his Four of Spades, saying " eight" (and scoring two for a pair). B (having no Seven to make 15) CRIBBAGE CRIBBAGE plays his Six of Clubs, saying " four- teen." A plays his Five of Hearts, saying " nineteen " (and scores three for the sequence 4, 5, 6). B his Nine, saying " twenty-eight." A (having no card that w^ill make with this 31, or less), says " Go " (and B scores one). A plays his King, saying " ten." B his Knave, saying "twenty." A his Six, saying " twenty-six " (and scores one for the last card). The score in pegging thus stands 6 for A to I for B. B, having first show, spreads out his hand. The n (- 4. 4. 4. 4^ 4. 4. 4. 4. ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ 4. 4- 4. 4. 4. 4, ^^^ ^^^ :^/ Slow Round-arm. Low Underhand (Lobs). Break in from Leg. Screw Ball. Different Kinds of Bowling. the Batsman, trying to give him those hardest for him to play. He should hold the ball with his fingers, not in the hollow of the hand, take a short run before delivering the ball, and " pitch " it as near to the Bats- man as the latter's style of hitting will allow. If the Bowler send the ball outside the limits of the opposite Bowling Crease, it is a " wide ball " ; if he does not follow the rules in delivering it, it is " no ball," and in CRICKET 215 CRICKET either of these cases, when the um- pire so calls it, at least one run is scored for the opposite side (see Rule 13). After an "over" has been bowled by one player another Bowler takes his turn. Sometimes The Bowler. the same player acts as Bowler and Wicket Keeper alternately. If an " over " is bowled without a run being made, it is called a " maiden over " or " maiden." Besides deliver- ing the ball, it is also the Bowler's place to watch for chances to put the Batsman out at the wicket near which he stands. The Batter. The Batter wears leg pads and gloves, both of which should fit easily. He should select a bat to suit his size, and should practice with the same one with which he intends to play in a match. Heavy bats send the ball farther than light ones, when given the same speed, but as it requires greater strength to give them that speed, the Batter, when in doubt as to weight, should choose the lighter of two bats. The Batsman should stand easily, with his two heels not more than a few inches apart. Before the Bowler delivers the ball the Bat- ter should "take guard," as in the illustration. The stump nearest the Batter is called the "leg stump," the other outside one the " off stump," and the third the " middle stump." If the Batter hold his bat directly before the middle stump, he is said to "take middle," if in front of both the middle and leg stumps, to " take middle and leg" for guard. The bat should be held about three inches inside the popping crease. The right or " pivot " foot should be placed as near as possible to the wicket with- out being in the way of any part of it. The object of thus taking guard is to find out where to place the feet so as best to guard the wicket with the bat. As the Bowler begins to run be- fore delivering the ball, the Batter straightens himself, raising his bat slightly, and when the ball is de- livered he draws the bat back to the bails of the wicket, where he holds it till he is ready to strike. If he lean slightly toward the wicket, in strik- ing, he is said to " play back," while if he lean toward the ball he " plays forward." In general the former is better, especially for learners, as it gives a longer time to see the ball. The skillful Batter plays forward or Taking Guard. back according to the way in which the Bowler gives him the ball, and the beginner can best learn by ex- perience which to do in any case. In general, he should so bend his CfelCltEt 216 CRICKET body that the bat strikes the ball about one-fourth the length of the blade from its end ; that is, in the thickest part. When the Batsman " has command of the pitch," that is, can nearly reach with his bat (held straight) the spot where the Preparing for Action. ball bounds, he should play forward, always holding the bat close to the ground, so that the ball will not go underneath as it rises from the bound. The reason for playing such balls forward is that any twist the Bowler may have given the ball, that it may bound in an unexpected direc- tion, has not time to act. The hits which a Batter may make are given dif- ferent names, ac- cording to the di- rection and manner of striking the ball. If it is hit toward " Point," " Cover Point," or into the " Slips," it is a " cut "; if it is hit forward o n t h e " half volley " it is a "drive"; if it is hit to the "on side " back of the wickets, it is a "leg hit," and if it is sent in this direction by allowing the ball to hit the bat, it is a " draw." The Batter at the opposite wicket should be ready to run, but must be careful not to do so till the ball is out of the Bowler's hand. He may get a start by beginning to run as soon as the ball is delivered, but should not go so far that he cannot return in time to save his wicket if no hit is made. Neither need run unless he wishes, but if one runs the other must, otherwise a wicket would be left unguarded. It is best for the Batter to decide whether to run, when the ball is hit in front of the wicket, and for his partner to decide when the hit is behind the wicket. The Wicket Keeper. This player always wears leg pads and gloves. He stands in a stooping po- sition behind the wicket, varying his distance from it according to the swiftness of the bowling, but he must not stand over it, or with hand or foot in front of it, till the ball has passed the wicket or been struck. After that he may stand where he chooses, but if the Batsmen are running he should Playing Forward. SO stand that the ball will be thrown in to him over the wicket, which he will thus be able to put down with- out turning around. He should also be on the watch for a chance to put down the wicket when the Batter is not on his ground (called " stumping out"). As soon as he receives the CRiClCEt ^i7 CRiCiCET ball from the Bowler he should re- turn it easily. If the Wicket Keeper allow a ball that has not hit the bat to pass him, and so give the Bats- man a chance to make a run, such a run is called a " bye." If the ball hit the Batsman's person (not his bat or hand) and he make a run, it is a" leg bye." As the Wicket Keeper has a bet- ter view of the field and the ball than any other player, he is generally the captain of the team, and directs, or communicates with the other Fielders and the Bowler, by a sys- tem of signs previously agreed upon. Point is the most im- portant of the remaining fielders, as he has more chances for catches than the others. In case of a hit he often " backs up " the Wicket Keeper, or, if it is a long one, runs out toward the fielder nearest the ball, in case there should be a short throw. The duty of the Long Stop is principally to prevent byes. When other chance of putting it down quickly. Of late years owing to the increasing skill of Wicket Keepers, the custom of playing a man in this position has been almost entirely given up, the extra man thus gained being used elsewhere. The posi- The Cut. the Batsmen are not running he re- turns the ball to the Wicket Keeper, but in case of a run he sometimes throws to the Bowler in hope of put- ting a man out at the opposite wicket. Sometimes he throws directly at the nearest wicket, where there is no Playing Back. tions of all the fielders are varied by the captain in many ways to suit different styles of bowling and strik- ing, so that the field looks quite differently at one time and another. Only the Bowler, Wicket Keeper, and Long Stop keep about the same places. These changes of position are directed by signs from the cap- tain. Scoring. A sample score card is given on pages 220-221. The runs are kept by making opposite the player's name marks which are summed up in the " Total " column after he is out. Abbreviations often used in the " Out " column and elsewhere in the score are : b. c. St. l.b.w. h.w. w. n.b. B. l.b. The runs Wides, No bowled caught stumped leg before wicket hit wicket wides no balls byes leg byes made or allowed Balls, Byes, and for Leg Byes are kept separately at the CRICKET 218 CRICKET bottom of the score, and added to the Grand Total for the innings. In the Out column the name of the person who put the Batsman out is always mentioned, and if he was caught out, the Bowler's name is also Leg Hit. put down, since his bowling con- tributed to the result. The right half of the score card consists of a Bowling Analysis, which is made as follows : opposite the name of each Bowler a record is kept of each of his balls. If it results in neither a run nor in putting down a wicket it is re- corded by a dot ; If runs are made from a ball, the number of such runs appear in place of the dot. If a wicket is put down, the letter W is put in place of a dot. " Wides " and " No balls " are kept record of by themselves and all are footed up at the close of each inning. Thus a " Maiden Over" appears thus — ::: or (:.: if only five balls are allowed). An Over where two runs were made from the second ball and none from the third would be ; ^ ; on the record. If the last ball put down the wicket, it would be shown by the mark * [ w Sometimes, in case of a Maiden Over, the letter M is made by joining the dots, so that Maidens can be counted up more quickly in running the eye over the record. The following are the rules of Cricket as adopted by the Marylebone Cricket Club of London, they contain the latest revisions and the famous altera- tions of 1889. The M. C. C. rules govern the play of all matches in England and Australia. In the United States they are generally followed except that six balls instead of five are bowled to the Over. The Cricketers' Association of the United States has adopted cer- tain modifications of the M. C. C. rules, but in no case are the changes of much importance. I. A match is played between two sides of eleven players each, unless otherwise agreed to ; each side has two innings, taken alter- nately, except in the case pro- vided for in Law 53. The choice of innings shall be de- cided by tossing. 2. The score shall be reckoned by runs. A run is scored : — i. So often as the Batsmen after a hit, or at any time while the ball is in play, shall have crossed, and made good their Wicket Keeper. ground, from end to end. 2. Foi penalties under Laws 16, 34, 41, anc allowances under 44. Any run or runs so scored shall be duly recordec' by scorers appointed for the purpose. The side which scores the greatest CRICKET 219 CRICKET number of runs wins the match. No match is won unless played out or given up except in the case provided in Law 45. 3. Before the commencement of the match two umpires shall be ap- pointed, one for each end. 4. The ball shall weigh not less than five ounces and a half nor more than five ounces and three-quarters. It shall measure not less than nine inches nor more than nine inches and one quarter in circumference. At the beginning of each innings either side may demand a new ball. 5. The bat shall not exceed four inches and one-quarter in the widest part ; it shall not be more than thirty-eight inches in length. 6. The Wickets shall be pitched opposite and parallel to each other at a distance of twenty-two yards. Each Wicket shall be eight inches in width and consist of three stumps, with two bails upon the top. The stumps shall be of equal and suffic- ient size to prevent the ball from passing through, twenty-seven inches Dut of the ground. The bails shall be each four inches in length, and when in position on the top of the stumps shall not project more than half an inch above them. The Wickets shall not be changed dur- ing a match, unless the ground be- tween them become unfit for play, and then only by the consent of both sides. 7. The Bowhng Crease shall be in a line with the stumps ; six feet eight inches in length ; the stumps in the center ; with a return crease at each end, at right angles behind the Wicket. 8. The Popping Crease shall be marked four feet from the Wicket, parallel to it, and be deemed unlim- ited in length. 9. The ground shall not be rolled, watered, covered, mown, or beaten during a match, except before the commencement of each inning and of each day's play, when, unless the in-side object, the ground shall be swept and rolled for not more than ten minutes. This shall not prevent the batsman from beating the ground with his bat nor the batsman nor bowler from using sawdust in order to obtain a proper foothold. 10. The ball must be bowled; if thrown or jerked the umpire shall call " No ball." 11. The bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground be- hind the Bowling Crease, and within the Return Crease, otherwise the um- pire shall call " No ball." 12. If the bowler shall bowl the ball so high over or so wide of the Wicket that in the opinion of the umpire it is not within reach of the striker, the umpire shall call " Wild ball." 13. The ball shall be bowled in Overs of five balls from each Wicket alternately. When five balls have been bowled, and the ball is finally settled in the bowler's or wicket- keeper's hands, the umpire shall call " Over." Neither a " No ball " nor a " Wide ball " shall be reckoned as one of the " Over." 14. The bowler shall be allowed to change ends as often as he pleases, provided only that he does not bowl two Overs consecutively in one in- ning. 15. The bowler may require the batsman at the Wicket from which he is bowling to stand on that side of it which he may direct. 16. The striker may hit a "No ball " and whatever runs may result shall be added to his score ; but he shall not be out from a " No ball " un- less he be run out or break Laws 26, 27, 29, 30. All runs from a " No ball " otherwise than from the bat shall be scored " No balls," and if no run be made, one run shall be added to that score. From a " Wide ball " as many runs as are run shall be added to the score as " Wide balls," and if no run be otherwise obtained one run shall be so added. 17. If the ball not having been called " Wide " or " No ball " pass the CRICKET 220 CRICKET striker without touching his bat or person, and any runs be obtained, the umpire shall call " Bye " ; but if the ball touch any part of the strik- ers person (hand excepted), and any run be obtained, the umpire shall call " Leg bye," such runs to be scored " Byes " and " Leg byes " re- spectively. 18. At the beginning of the match and of each innings the umpire at the bowler's Wicket shall call " Play "; from that time no trial ball shall be allowed to any bowler on the ground between the Wickets, and when one of the batsmen is out, the use of the bat shall not be allowed to any per- son until the next batsman shall come in. 19. A Batsman shall be held to be " out of his ground " unless his bat in hand or some part of his person SCORE Bowlers. Wides No balls Overs, with runs.&c. from eachTaaU. i. M •?, . , M - 1 ■ 1 • 1 M ■ /■ • 1 ' • •■Hf' i • 3 • • V ;^,:Ml::: • •/ , .-/ M - -2 .cnjoAiA/ / M ;;; i. ■} 1 • 1 ',", / • m A. ». •' . / . Z' • .2;. M 'K/ ./ • M M U ^ ••7t / JlLlL, M 'i- yhrtrc& M . .i« • -J • 1 . 0/-/ inff, ^V^ Innings of (^■£a^^/J,J..,^ fi.f!. Bowlers. BalbT 3owled MaideD overs Wis obfc Notches against B. Averi Average Notches per w. Bowlers. BalU Bowie MaidepSw'ts Notches against B.ATor ^SfJ Rons Wid. Nob, rotal d overs oUM Ran 9 Wid Nob Total ^r^tlfet (f>tr s J jy ? 3i /7. jBoAia/ f^t /> ¥ v-^ / V7 ,,^ (( s f 0' g i 6 0.^^?2UU/ z^- / ' / ^ i >k.rdi. 2^ / 6 z ^ Total I 03 /3 9 irr 6 i /fj- n'' Total TImp!r« j:..(?A^ojkrJA^ ^.yj '>r-£/&A,^AJf^ff^,a.r..,^.E,r?l%.-fn^7n^.^Aa.. .'.i.^£..- Marks for Bowling Analysis "^^f — -m N.n J/iu, £., Ji^a^../-.f ,^,. ^ A Wid, _ ^1 For t(uh I It i. al.o « lint thu. JV >te. Byt *,md Mam iNo ^alUa to not x//ecf Maid, mOve r«. 111 put a broad be grounded within the line of the Popping Crease. 20. The Wicket shall be held to be " down " when either of the bails is struck off, or if both bails be off when a stump is struck out of the ground. The Striker is out — 21. If the Wicket be bowled down, even if the ball first touch the striker's bat or person : " Bowled." 22. Or if the ball from a stroke of the hand or bat, but not the wrist, be held before it touch the grounc although it be hugged to the body of the catcher: " Caught." 23. Or if in playing at the ball, provided it be not touched by th( bat or hand, the striker be out of his ground and the Wicket be put dowr by the Wicket keeper with the ball 01 with hand or arm with ball in hand; " Stumped." CRICKET 221 CRICKET 24. Or if with any part of his person he stop the ball, which in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's Wicket shall have been pitched in a straight line from it to the striker's Wicket and would have hit it : "Leg before Wicket." 25. Or if in playing at the ball he hit down his Wicket with his bat or any part of his person or dress: " Hit Wicket." CARD. 26. Or if under pretense of run- ning or otherwise either of the batsmen willfully prevent a ball from being caught : " Obstructing the field." 27. Or if the ball be struck or be stopped by any part of his person and he willfully strike it again, ex- cept it be done for the purpose of guarding his Wicket, which he may do with his bat, or any part of his batting Order ISiS JfU^. YliytLtrOo ^i.Ji ^^n/JA/ s^-,%;d/, Runs as scored. Howand.whei^e put oubi. 7 }h //^Ar '>nuL-wijM/ Z//iU2. fYf, '/Zyji^/ }(f^y*ty(U^^ J± A V/iZ^ASL iCyy^ %c/&t/ Zd_ 3o ^sK^ ^<<^ iQiMcit iJM. th,M../.~ ?'.^^.^g^^^_ Total frQm.thfi 1 ByeS- Leg Byes iSss^ ILQjballs. won by. ■yurfi, qT J^rPTy TotaLExtras- by- Total of ^-In nings. Rnnii at the fall of each wicket Order of coming out (by numbers) Al. Total for the Match T\me of/rlnning3.HSi An. ■?«T nning9 i^ Ifote. JS.vg» uMainOi ■S-Offc or Ei® Mm bulla, calm OS Mmi» m-n> ba(l» OCA scored at WicUi t. united into one. Each form has its advocates. Many so-called " unpuncturable " tires are made ; but, in general, if a tire is elastic and easy-riding, it is easily punctured ; if tough and hard, it is non-elastic and hard to ride. Every rider should learn how to re- pair slight punctures, and should will go as far in one turn of the pedals. It is found by multiplying the diameter of the wheel (generally 28 inches) by the ratio of the number of teeth on the front to those on the rear sprocket. Thus, if the front sprocket has 20 teeth and the rear one 8, the gear is 28 x ^, or 70 ; that is, the wheel corresponds to an old " ordinary " with a front wheel 5 feet 10 inches in diameter. The higher the gear the slower it is necessary to move the feet, but the greater the pressure that has to be put on the pedals. High gears make hill climbing more diffi- cult. Most gears are be- tween 60 and 76, and the lower ones are better for the general rider, though each one must de- cide by experience which will suit him best. Bicycle Racing. Races on bicycles are now in- cluded among the events of almost every outdoor athletic meeting. See Athletics. Great speed Fig. 12.— Lamp and Luggage Carrier. has been attained on these machines. A bicycle can carry with him one of the numerous. not only go faster than a horse outfits sold for that purpose. for a short distance, but it can keep Gear. With the old-fashioned ! up with one for a long distance. " ordinary " wheel the relation be- tween the revolution of the pedals and the speed of the wheel depended wholly on the diameter of the front wheel. The larger the wheel the further the machine would travel for one turn of the cranks. Hence the speed was limited by the size of the wheel. With the modern form, as the cranks are not fastened to the axle of the wheel, this relation depends on the relative sizes of the front and rear sprockets, and is not so limited. The larger the front sprocket is in proportion to the rear one, the higher the possible speed. What is called the " gear " of a wheel is a distance equal to the diameter of the old " ordinary," that The League of American Wheelmen, which is the only national associa- tion of bicyclists in this country, though there are numerous local clubs, has now more than 100,000 members. It was formed in 1880 to secure the rights of riders in the courts, and, having done this, is now turning its attention to the improve- ment of highways. It has a division in nearly every State, the chief officer of which is called a Consul. It pub- lishes a weekly paper called the " L. A. W. Bulletin," which is sent toeach member for twenty-five cents. The following rules are condensed from those of the League governing bicycle racing, which have been adopted also by the National CYCLING 250 CYCLING Amateur Athletic Union, are as follows : RULES FOR BICYCLE RACING. Records. The standard table of recognized records shall be 1-4, 1-3, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, I mile, and all even miles upward ; no intermediate dis- tances. Records against time may be made at an open meeting, or in private, and with or without pace- makers. The Board will consider flying- start only in records against time ; standing-start only in competition records. A competition record must be made in a race between men. Records made with the assistance of other than recognized cycling machines, propelled by man power, will be recorded separately. In unpaced events, or during un- paced record trials, there shall be no pacing devices, and only the rider making the trial shall be on the track. Tracks. Tracks shall be meas- ured on a line drawn eighteen inches out from a well-defined, fixed and continuous inner curb or pole ; no record shall be allowed on a track otherwise measured. Machines Excluded. The Board reserves the right to exclude from the racing path any and all machines which, in its judgment, do not come within the commonly accepted meaning of the term " bicycle," cither by peculiarity of construction or by undoubted mechanical advan- tages which they may possess. Road Racing. The League of American Wheelmen regards racing on the public highways as an unlaw- ful practice, and refuses to recognize and legislate for such form of the sport except to forbid the competing together therein or pacemaking one for the other, of amateurs and pro- fessionals. Should any part of a road race be run upon the track, such part immediately becomes subject to track rules. TRACK RULES. Officials; their Powers and Duties, The officers of all race meetings and cycling events shall be a referee, who must be an amateur wheelman, three judges at the finish, three time- keepers, one starter, one scorer, one clerk of the course, with assistants if necessary, and one umpire for each turn of the track, or more, at option of the referee. The referee, judges, and clerk of the course shall consti- tute the Executive Board. The referee shall have general supervision of the race meeting. He shall give judgment on protests received by him, shall decide all questions or objections respecting foul riding or offenses which he may be personally cognizant of, or which may be brought to his attention by an umpire or other officer. The judges shall decide the posi- tions of the men at the finish. In case of disagreement the majority shall decide. The timekeepers shall compare watches before the races are started, and shall note any variance ; they shall each time every event, and in case of disagreement the intermedi- ate time of the three watches shall be the official time. Time shall be taken from the flash of a pistol. In case two watches of the three mark the same time, that shall be the official time. The scorer shall record the laps made by each competitor, the order of the men at the finish as given him by the judges, and the time as given him by the timekeepers. He should indicate the commencement of the last lap by ringing a bell as the riders pass over the tape for the final lap, but the riders must keep count of the laps for themselves. It shall be the duty of the starter, when it has been reported to him by the clerk of the course that all the competitors are ready, to see that CYCLING 2S« CYCLING the timekeepers are warned, and, before starting the men, to say, " Mount " ; in a few seconds after to say, " Are the timers ready ? Are the starters ready?" and, if no reply to the contrary be given, to effect a start by a report of a pistol. Should the pistol miss fire, the start may be made by the word " Go." The starter shall announce to the competitors the distance which they are to ride. The smarter may, at his Fig. 13.— Tool Bag. discretion, put back for a distance any competitor starting before the signal is given. In case of a false start, the competitors shall be called back by the starter by the ringing of a bell or pistol fire and restarted. In case of a fall or accident within thirty feet of the scratch line, the contestants shall be recalled by the starter by the ringing of a bell or pistol fire, and the race started over again. The clerk of the course shall call competitors in ample time for each event, and see that they are provided with numbers properly worn. He shall report the contestants to the scorers, see that they are on their appointed marks, and call the num- bers for the scorers as they cross the line at the end of each lap. It shall be the duty of the umpire to stand at such part of the field as the referee may direct, to watch closely the riding, and immediately after each race to report to the referee any unfair riding he may see. Positions. Tiie drawing for posi- tions in each event shall be done by the promoters of the meeting, and the positions of the men shall appear on the programme. When it be- comes necessary to draw for posi- tions on the grounds, the work shall be done by the clerk and starter in conjunction. In heat races the winner of a heat shall take the pole (or inside position) the succeeding heat, and the other riders shall take their positions in the order assigned them in judging the last preceding heat. When two or more riders make a dead heat, they shall start for the succeeding heat in the same positions with reference to the pole that they occupied at the finish of the dead heat. When races are run in heats and a final, the winner of the fastest heat shall take the pole in the final, the winner of the second fastest heat the next position, and so on. If more than one qualifies for the final from each heat, the second man in fastest heat shall be next outside the winner of slowest heat, and so on. Only the winners of positions in the trial heats, as stipulated by the terms of the race, shall compete in the final. No one shall be allowed in a final because of a foul or an accident in a trial heat. Should two or more riders make a dead heat of any qualifying place in a trial heat, they shall both be allowed to enter the final heat, ex- cept in the National Championship. Should two or more riders make a dead heat of any final, or a dead heat for second or any lower place for which there is a prize, they may decide by lot who shall take the prize, or may again ride the distance to decide the race, at the discretion of the referee. Starts. All starts shall be from the inside of the track, and, except in a flying-start event, shall be from a standstill, with the left hand toward the curb, and the machines shall be held in position by an attendant (the front wheel touching the starting line) until the signal is given by starter. Attendants, when CYCLING 252 CYCLING pushing off competitors, must keep behind the mark from which the competitors actually start. Should any part of the attendant touch the track in front of the mark, the com- petitor may be disqualified. Unless excused by the referee, every rider who enters in a handicap race must start in same. Finish. The finish of all races shall be judged by the first part of the front wheel which touches the tape fastened flat on the ground at the winning post, and no rider shall be allowed a finishing posi- tion who abandons the track and afterward returns and crosses the tape. Riding. Riders shall pass on the outside (unless the man passed be dismounted), and must be at least a clear length of the cycle in front before taking the inside, but on entering the homestretch in the last lap of a race, the foremost rider or riders must keep to that part of the track first selected ; and the hind- most rider or riders, when there is sufficient room to pass on the inside or anywhere on the homestretch without interfering with others, shall be allowed to do so. A rider shall not change from the inner to the outside of the track during any part of a race when another rider is so near that in altering his position he interferes with or impedes the prog- ress of the rider. No rider shall touch another. No rider during a race shall turn his head to look backward, remove his hands from the handle-bars, or otherwise ride in a careless or un- skillful manner, thereby imperiling the safety of other riders. Competitors may dismount dur- ing a race at their pleasure, and may run with their cycles if they wish to, but they must keep to the extreme outside of the path whenever dis- mounted. If a rider be dismounted by accident, or to change his machine, an attendant may hold his machine while he mounts it, and he shall so mount at the extreme out- side of the path. Ti7ne Liinits. The referee may place a time limit on any race except handicap, team, and lap races. The time limit shall not be announced to the contestants until their arrival at the tape, preparatory to the start of the race. If the competitors finish within the limit, they shall receive the prizes. If they fail to so finish, and the referee is convinced by their riding and the time that they endeavored to reach the limit, he may award the prizes. Pace7naking. A general pace- maker may be put in any race by the race promoter, having previously notified the referee of the fact. He shall assist no single rider, but shall act to increase the speed of the race in general. He shall, if a single rider only, be entitled to any place or prize he may win, if he starts from the scratch, or may be re- warded by a special prize, within the limits of the class. Tandems, or pacing machines carrying more than two riders, itiay be put in to pace competitions only by written consent of the member of the Racing Board in charge of the district. Track Privileges and Decorum. No person whosoever shall be allowed inside the track except the officials of the meet. The handi- cappers of the meet shall at all times, however, have track privi- leges. Authorized persons shall wear a badge. Competitors or pacemakers not engaged in a race actually taking place shall not be allowed inside or on the track. No one shall be allowed to " coach " competitors on the track. No shouting or remarks by trainers or attendants to encourage certain] riders or disconcert others shall be permitted. Choice of Machi7ies and Costumes. Choice or change of machine and choice of costume shall not be limited except that shirt shall not CYCLING 253 CYCLING bare shoulders, and breeches must reach to the knees. In races distinctly stated on the programme of events to be for a particular class of machine, this rule shall not apply so far as choice and change of machine are concerned. Safety bicycle races shall be limited to machines whose driving wheel does not exceed thirty-six inches in diameter. Competitors to Wear Numbers. Every competitor shall receive in the dressing-room a number corre- sponding with his number on the programme, which must be worn on his back or right shoulder dur- ing the race. He shall inform him- self of the times at which he must compete, and wait the call of the clerk in the dressing-room. Definition of Races. A novice race is open only to those who have never won a prize in a track race, and shall be the tirst race of the meet. A novice race is a class race. A class race is only open to those who, up to date of the closing of the entries, have not won the first posi- tion in a track race or trial heat in the same or better time than the class under consideration. In all class races the time limit shall be the time of the class. If the com- petitors fail to finish within the limit, and it is a good day, good track, and there are pacemakers, the referee shall declare it no race. If they fail to finish in the time limit, and there are no pacemakers, or it is not (in the judgment of the referee) a good day, or it is not a good track, and the referee is convinced by their rid- ing that they endeavored to reach the limit, and were not able to do so because of the absence of any one or all three conditions, he may award the prizes. In a lap race the position of the first three men shall be taken at the finish of every lap. The first man shall" score three points, the second man shall score two points, and the third man shall score one point, and no others shall score. The contest- ant who crosses the line first at the finish shall, for that lap, score four points. The competitor who scores the greatest number of points shall be declared the winner, but any con- testant, in order to secure a prize, must ride the entire distance and be within 150 yards of the finish when the first man crosses the tape at the end of the last lap. The 150-yard mark must be marked by a flag. In a team race the positions of all the riders starting shall be taken at the end of the race. The first man shall count a num- ber of points equal to the number of men starting, the second one less, and so on. The team scoring the greatest number of points shall be declared the winner. A team shall be limited to three riders, each of whom shall have been a member of the club entering the team for at least three months pre- vious to date of event. Each team member must also have resided within five miles of the city or town where the club has its headquarters for at least six months previous to the date of contest. In a heat race the position of each rider must be taken at the finish of each heat. The first man shall count a number equal to that of the contestants in the first heat, the second man shall count one less, the third two less, and on on. The competitor who scores the greatest number of points shall be declared the winner. Or, as an alternative, which must be stated on the programme as rule or alternative, in running a heat race, such event may be conducted under the rule outlined below : When the race is best two out of three heats, the winner is not reached until one rider has won two heats, either through virtue of finish- ing first or by the disqualification of a competitor or competitors who may finish in front and lose such CYCLING 254 CYCLING position or positions through ruhng or rulings of the referee. The second and other prizes shall be dis- tributed according to the standing of the rider in the summary, heat winners to be placed before all those who have occupied lesser positions, and in case two riders are tied by finishing an equal number of times in the same position, the one occupy- ing the best position in the conclud- ing heat shall be awarded the prize. In every heat a rider must finish within 1 50 yards of the winner or be adjudged distanced. In case a rider fails to win one heat in three, he will Fig. 14. — English Cycle Post. be disqualified from any subsequent heats that may be necessary to de- cide the prizes. Entries in a consolation race shall be limited to those who have not won a prize in any event of the meeting; provided, however, if only a single prize is given in the team race, members of the winning team shall not be considered to have won a prize and shall be eligible to the consolation race. In a pursuit race the conditions must be printed on the programme or announced to the spectators. In a handicap race the marks must be printed on the programme, and the men must start from the marks, assigned by the handicapper in trial heats and finals. In middle-distance races (10 to 100 miles) the terms and conditions must be printed on the programme. Ignorance of Rules No Excuse. Ignorance of any of the foregoing rules will not be considered a valid excuse for violation. History. The early history of the bicycle and the tricycle is given in the article Velocipede, in C. C. T. CYCLING 255 DANCING IMP Since the introduction of the bicycle proper (about 1876), so many im- provements have been made in it that it is now a very impor- tant machine and has found many uses which were once scarcely thought of. One of the greatest differences be- tween the modern bicycle and the old velocipede is in the construction of the wheels. They were formerly made like those of a carriage, with stout wooden spokes, the weight resting on each spoke in turn as it came underneath the hub. Now the spokes are of steel wire, and the weight is supported by the spokes above the hub, which is hung, as it were, from the rim of thewheel. Thisplan, which is called the " suspension principle," by enabling the builders to make light wheels, has done much toward perfecting the modern bicycle. Many grown people use cycles now for health as well as recreation ; many travel long distances on them ; they are used in delivering letters and parcels, and in England and Military Cycle. Germany soldiers are trained to ride the military cycle. Cycling has be- come a very popular pastime, and has grown to be something beyond mere boy's sport. Bicycles were first made in the United States in 1878, and hundreds of bicycle manufactories are now situated in this country. D Dancing Imp. the surface as DANCIN C IMP. Join tight- ly with sealing wax the halves of a walnut shell from which the kernel has been removed. Fast- en a little wooden doll, three or four inches long, by threads to the nut, weighting the doll with shot or otherwise, so that the nut will float in water with as little of its shell above possible. Make a hole with an awl in the lower side of the nut and float it in a jar of water, filled within an inch or two of the top. Tie a piece of India-rubber cloth tightly over the top of the jar. If the India-rubber be now pressed with the finger the doll will sink, and when the pressure is removed it will rise again. This is because the pres- sure forces some water into the nut through the hole in the bottom, and the additional weight is just enough to sink it. This toy is called also Ludion or Bottle Imp, and small ones were sold on the streets of New York in 1889 under the name of " McGinty," being supposed to il- lustrate the popular song " Down went McGinty to the Bottom of the Sea." DICE 256 DICE DEVIL ON TWO STICKS. See Flying Cone. DIBS. See Jack Stones. DICE (plural of die), small white cubes of ivory, bone, or celluloid, used in gaming. Each of the six faces or sides of a die is marked by a different number of black spots or dots, from i to 6. The dots are so arranged that the sum of the dots on opposite sides is always seven ; that is, the One and Six, the Two and Five, and the Three and Four are opposite each other. As in cards, the one, two, and three-spots are often called respectively, the Ace, Deuce, and Tray. In playing, one or more of the dice are shaken and thrown from a dice-box upon a table. This is called a throw, and the num- bers on the uppermost faces of the dice are said to have been thrown. The throw is unfair if a die rolls on the floor ; if any one touches it while it is rolling on the table ; if it is tilted on edge against some obstacle ; or if one die rests on the top of another. Dice are used to determine the moves in games like Backgammon and Parchesi, but several games may be played with them alone. Raffling or Raffles, a game of dice, played by any number of per- sons with three dice. Each in turn throws till he throws two numbers alike, called a Pair. When all have thrown, he who made the highest throw wins. Pairs rank according to the number of spots on the paired dice, and a triplet, or three of a kind ranks higher than any Pair. Thus, a pair of Fives is higher than a pair of Fours, but three Twos is still higher. Centennial, a game of Dice played by two or more persons, each for himself, or by partners, two or three on a side. The players use three dice at a time, and not only the numbers thrown, but the sum of any two or of all of them counts toward the score. The object is to score the numbers from i to I2 in order, and then the numbers in reverse order back to I. Each player may throw until he fails to score, when the turn passes to the left. Each player keeps his score by writing the num- bers on paper as he makes them, and then crossing them out in re- verse order. He whose numbers are crossed out first wins the game. Several numbers may be scored in one throw : thus i, 2, and 3 score all the numbers up to 6. Part- ners have only one score between them, and the numbers thrown by each count toward it. Help Your Neighbor, a game of dice played by any number of per- sons, with one die. Each player marks the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on paper. The one who begins the game then throws the die and marks out of his figures the number he throws ; and he continues throwing as long as he can mark off the number thrown. When he throws a number that he has already marked off, the player on his left crosses it off his own score, and then takes his turn. Each player does likewise, and he whose score is all crossed off first wins. If, in the course of the game, neither a player nor his left-hand neighbor have the number that is thrown, the nearest player on the left who has it marks it off. Draw Poker. The players use five dice, which are first thrown at one cast, and then any or all of them may be thrown again ; just as in the card game each player may draw new cards. The " hands " are the same as in ordinary Draw Poker, save that there is no Flush and that there can be five of a kind, which ranks above four of a kind, and is the highest possible hand^ The highest hand wins the pool As every one sees the hands of al the other players, there is no " beU ting." Multiplication. Three dice ar thrown by each player, who, leavin| the highest on the table, throws th| other two again, and then the \o\ DICE 257 DICTIONARY est of these is thrown a third time. The sum of the first two is multipHed by the third, and the player whose result is the highest wins the game, Vingt-et-Un. Two dice are used, and each player throws as many times as he wishes. He, the sum of whose throws is nearest 21, is the winner. But if any one throw more than 21 he loses. Vingt-et-Un is French for Twenty-one. Dice with Eight Sides. Dice formed of four-sided pyramids, fas- tened base to base, have recently been invented in France. Each die has thus eight sides, on which are marked numbers from two to nine. The value of a throw is the product of the numbers thrown ; thus, with two dice it may be anywhere from four to eighty-one. These dice are intended to be used by children, to make them familiar with the multi- plication table. They are called also octahedral dice, from the Greek okto, eight, and hedro7i, side. History. Dice have been known since the earliest times. The Greeks said that they were invented by Palamedes at the siege of Troy. Plutarch says they were devised by the Egyptians ; and bone or ivory dice have been found in Thebes, Egypt, similar to those now in use. They are mentioned by Homer in the Odyssey, in the Rig Veda (one of the sacred books of the Hindoos), and in other ancient writings. The Greeks and Romans gave to the various throws the names of heroes and gods, the best being called Venus, after the goddess of love. The game was very popular in Rome, where rich men, in the later days of the empire, sometimes staked their fortunes on a single throw. The Romans used two kinds of dice ; tali, made of the huckle bones from the legs of sheep and goats, or to imitate them, and tesserce, cubical like our dice. The ends of the tali were left blank because they were so narrow, and the four other sides were numbered i, 3, 4 and 6, With- out the numbers the tali were played like our JACK STONES. Dice con- tinued to be played so widely in Europe that in the Middle Ages there were in France academies where dice games were taught, and the makers of dice formed a separate company. They were many times forbidden, because used for gamb- ling, and it is said that CARDS were originally devised to turn people's attention from them. A curious dice box once in use in England is shown in the illustration. The dice used in it had no spots at all, and the value of the throw depended on where they fell when put into the funnel-shaped tube at the top. Dice made of huckle bones, or to imitate them, are still used in Eastern countries, where the different throws are given names, as among the ancients. Thus the Arabs call the Ace " Thief," the Three " Lamb," and the Six '' King "; and the Turks call the Three " Peasant '* and the Four " Knight." The origin of the word die is not certainly known, though in some form it appears in every language in Europe. The late Latin form was dadus, which some think is from datus (a thing given or thrown forth) and some from the Arabic dadd, a die. DICTIONARY or VERBARIUM, a game played with pencil and paper, by any number of persons, who try to see which can make the largest number of words from the letters composing a larger word, called the Head-word, The word to be used, DICTIONARY 258 DISTILLATION which should contain as many vowels and as few double letters as possi- ble, is first agreed upon, and each player writes it plainly at the head of his sheet of paper. Each then writes all the words he can think of, that can be made from letters in the Head-word. Those beginning with its initial letter are taken first, and a given time (usually from two to five minutes) is allowed in which to write them. At the end of that time the players count their words, and he who has made the longest list reads it. Any word that is on all the lists counts nothing, but other words count each as many points as the number of players who have omitted it. Afterwards each of the other players reads any words on his list that have not been marked. All words are crossed out as they are read. After this, words beginning with the second letter of the Head- word are written, and so on till the last letter has been reached. The player who scores the greatest number of points wins. The game may often be made more interesting by choosing sides, but the sides should contain the same number of players, otherwise an omission would add more to the score of one side than to that of the other. The game is excellent train- ing for rapidity of thought. The player's ability to write long lists of words quickly, increases greatly with practice, so that a beginner is almost always defeated. RULES OF THE GAME. I. At the beginning the players must agree as to what classes of words are allowable. One of the standard dictionaries maybe selected, and any word allowed that can be found in it ; or, no word may be allowed that the writer cannot de- fine correctly. This prevents put- ting down groups of letters that sound like words, in hope that they may be in the dictionary. It must also be settled whether plurals in s and different moods and tenses of the same verb are to count as separate words or not. 2. No letter may be repeated in any of the words, unless it is also re- peated in the Head-word. 3. A time-keeper shall be selected who shall keep his watch open before him. No one shall write before the time-keeper says " begin," nor after he says " stop." The word Verbarium is Latin and means a place where w^ords abound. The game is sometimes called in New England " Androscoggin." DIFFRACTION GRATING, Ex- periment with a. Paint one side of a square of glass with India ink or liquid blacking, so that light cannot shine through it, and then, with the point of a needle, rule parallel lines on it about one-tenth of an inch apart, scratching quite through the layer of black. Look through this glass at a candle flame, or the edge of any bright object, standing about twenty feet from it. Move the glass toward the eye and from it till it is at the proper distance, when one or more rainbow colored spots will be seen on each side of the flame. These spots can often be seen by half clos- ing the eyes, and looking at the flame through the eyelashes, which thus take the place of the grating. The colors are produced by the interfer- ence of the light passing through the various scratches in a way which can- not be explained here, for want of room. DISTILLATION. The process of distillation is described in C. C. T. under ALCOHOL. To make a sim- ple still to distill water (See Chemi- cal Experiments) fit a flask or test-tube with a stopper and de- livery tube connecting with a flask or bottle (Fig. I). The first flask or tube is partially filled with water and supported or held over an alcohol lamp, and the second stands in a basin of cold water. The water should come up much farther around the bottle than shown in the illustra- tion. When the water in the first flask DISTILLATION 259 DISTILLATION begins to boil, the steam passes over to the second flastc, where it con- denses. The cold water in the basin must be replaced as fast as it begins to get warm. A better way is to keep the cold water continually changing so that it will never grow warm. This can be arranged as follows. Fasten to- gether two or three argand lamp- chimneys with putty or plaster of Paris, so as to form a long tube as shown in Fig. 2, Close each end with two-holed rubber stopper or cork. Simple Still. Through one of the holes in each pass a glass tube so that it runs through the lamp chimneys with- out touching the sides. Support this arrangement about six inches from the table by placing it on two blocks of wood. Connect one end of the glass tube with a kettle in which the water is to be boiled, and under the other place a cup to receive the distilled water. The tube should incline a little toward Fig. 2. — Home-made Still. this cup. In the other hole of each stopper put a short glass tube, connecting the lower one with a cold water faucet and the other with a sink. The lamp chimneys will thus be kept full of cold water, constantly chang- ing. A bath tub is a good place in which to set up the still, for then the escaping cold water cannot possibly harm anything. For method of distilling alcohol, See Alcohol, experiments with. DOLLS 260 DOMINOES DOLLS. The manufacture of dolls is described in C. C. T. Many games can be played with dolls, some of which will be described. Doll Show. Several children meet in one place, each bringing her dolls. Prizes should be offered for the prettiest doll, the most neatly dressed doll, the doll who has trav- eled farthest, and so on, at the pleasure of the exhibitors. All present should vote on the award, and the doll receiving the greatest number of votes is given the prize. Paper Dolls. The paper dolls sold at toy shops are merely colored pictures printed on thick paper, which are to be cut out with scis- sors. Any picture can be cut out and used as a paper doll, but if it is not on stiff paper it must have another thickness fastened to it to stiffen it. Paper soldiers, bought at the stores in sheets, may be cut out and stiffened in the same way. Paper dolls and soldiers may be made to stand up by fastening them with glue or brads to the side of a small block of wood. Wooden button-molds make the best stands : stick a thin sliver of wood into the hole and then glue the paper doll to it. Paper furniture also may be bought at toy shops. After it is cut out it must be bent into shape and fastened by pasting down flaps which are cut out with it. Simple articles of furniture can be made by drawing them on thick paper, Bristol board, or card-board, and then cut- ting them out. The places for bend- ing are cut half through with a sharp knife. The cut must be made in each case on what is to be the out- side of the corner. Vegetable Dolls. Dolls can be made of corn husks by putting a number of them together and tying thread around the neck and waist. The arms are formed of a separate piece of twisted husk drawn through the body crosswise, and both arms and legs are wound with thread to make them stiff. Another kind of doll may be made with an ear of corn for a body, a small green apple for a head, hair of corn silk, and bonnet and dress of husks. Still other kinds are formed with mverted flowers for dresses and seed vessels for heads, fastened together with thread. In all these cases, the eyes, nose, and mouth must be marked with ink. DOMINOES, flat pieces of ivory or bone, generally backed with ebony, used in playing various games. They are usually about two inches long, one inch wide, and a quarter of an inch thick. The face, which is commonly white, is divided by a line into two squares, each of which either is blank or has on it from one to six round spots or pips, grouped like those on dice. A domino having the same number of spots in each of its squares is called a doublet. Others are named from the number of spots in both squares : thus, the Four-six has four spots in one square and six in the other. A single spot is often called Ace, and two and three spots are called Deuce and Tray, as in cards. Twenty-eight Dominoes are used in playing games, the spots being arranged as follows : Double-blank, Blank-ace, Blank-two, Blank-three, Blank-four, Blank-five, Blank-six ; Double-Ace, Ace-two, Ace-three, Ace-four, Ace-five, Ace-six ; Double- Two, Two-three, Two-four, Two five, Two-six ; Double Three, Three- four, Three-five, Three-six ; Double- Four, Four-five, Four-six ; Double- Five, Five-six ; Double-six. The picture shows them all but the blanks. In the ordinary game of Dominoes, which can be played by from two to four persons, the Dominoes are first mixed as they lie on the table backs upward, and then each player draws seven. If any are left, they form what is called the "pool," Each usually stands his Dominoes on their sides in front of him on the table, placing them in a curved line, spots DOMINOES 261 DOMINOES inward, so that the other players can- not see them. The player having the highest doublet leads by placing any Domino he pleases on the table, face upward. The player on his left must then play a Domino one of whose squares matches one of its squares. The two are placed in line, with the matched ends touch- ing, and then each player in order to the left must match in like manner one of the ends of the line thus formed, as in the illustration. If a doublet is played, it is often placed crosswise instead of endwise in the line. If any one cannot play, and any Domi- noes remain in the pool, he must draw them, one by one, before his neigh- bor's turn, till he can play or till the pool is gone. The player who first IHIIIIIIII llllllllll Dominoes. gets rid of all his pieces cries " Domi- no -" and scores the sum of the spots on his opponents' remaining Domi- noes. If it happens that no one can play, while each has Dominoes left, the game is said to be blocked, and he who has the smallest number of spots on his remaining Dominoes scores as before. When " Domino " is announced, or the game is blocked, the Dominoes are mixed again, each draws seven, as before, and the game goes on. He whose score firs^ reaches 100 usually wins the game, but the necessary number may be made greater or less by agreement. Sometimes the game is varied by allowing no drawing after each has taken his seven Dominoes. Muggins, a game of Dominoes p naasBM • • :: • •1.- e •••I*e*)»«|»»| ?_?; • |o:| UiJ Domino Game. in which each player draws five at the beginning. If any one plays so that the sum of the spots on the end squares of the line is 5, 10, 15, or 20, he scores that number of points. If the leader play a Domino, the sum of whose spots is five or ten, he scores in like manner. Thus if a Four is at one end and a Two at the other he who can match the Two with a Two- six scores 10, since the sum of the end spots will equal that number after his play. So also if a Double- four is at one end and any one plays a Double-six on the other he scores 20. In other respects like the ordinary game. Bergen Game, a game of Domi- noes in which each player draws six at the beginning. When a player DOMINOES 262 DOMINOES makes both ends of the line ahke, he is said to make a Double Header, and scores two. When he plays so that there is a doublet on one end, and the other end is of the same value he is said to make a Triple Header, and scores three. He who announces " Domino," scores one. If the game is blocked, the player with the smallest number of spots on his remaining Dominoes scores one, but the holder of a doublet cannot score, even if he have less spots than the others, unless all have doublets, when he who has the smallest number of doublets scores. If all have the same number of doublets, he scores that has the lowest. The number of points in this game is small, usually 10 or 15. Matadore, a game of Dominoes in which the pieces, instead of being matched, are placed so that the sum of the spots on touching ends of two Dominoes is always seven. Thus a Five must join a Two, a Six an Ace, and so on. The Double-blank, and the three Dominoes with seven spots (the Six-ace, Five-two, and Four- three) are called Matadores, and can be played at any time. It will be noted that only a Matadore can be played to a blank. Each player draws three Dominoes at the begin- ning of the game, and he who has the highest doublet, or the highest piece, if there are no doublets, leads. If any one cannot play, he must draw Domi- noes one by one in succession from the pool till he can play, or till the pool is gone. He must play if he can. But when only two persons play the game, three Dominoes must be left in the pool, so that neither player may know exactly what the other has. The scoring is the same as in the ordinary game. In Matadore the player with the smallest number of Dominoes usually tries to block the game by playing blanks. His oppo- nents can prevent him by playing only Dominoes that match blanks already on the table. TidleyWink, a game cf Domi- noes, played by four, six, or eight per- sons. Each draws three Dominoes to begin with, and the one with the highest double leads it. The other players follow, in order, each match- ing the Domino played just before him, as in the ordinary game. Any one who cannot play must wait till his turn comes again. Any one who plays a Double is allowed to play another Domino to it, if he can, be- fore the next player takes his turn. He who first gets rid of his three Dominoes calls out " Tidley-Wink," and wins the game. Poker. Each player is given five Dominoes and the game proceeds as in Draw Poker with cards, save that there is no drawing. The hands, in the order of their value, be- ginning with the highest, are 1. An Invincible. — Five Doubles, or Four Doubles and a Six. 2. A Straight Six.— A sequence of sixes, as Six-Two, Six-Three, Six- Four, Six-Five. 3. Four Doubles. 4. A Straight Five. 5. A Full.— Three Doubles and two of a suit. 6. A Straight Four. 7. Three Doubles. 8. A Flush. — Five of a suit not in sequence. 9. A Pair. — Two Doubles. 10. The highest Domino in a hand that is none of the above. A Double always ranks above any other. Card-games with Dominoes. Sev- eral games commonly played with cards may also be played with Domi- noes. In this case the larger num- ber on each Domino shows the suit, and the other number the rank in the suit. Thus, a doublet stands at the head of each suit, and the suits do not contain the same number of Dominoes. The Five-suit consists of Double-five, Five-four, Five-three, Five-two, Five-ace, Five-blank, and the Two-suit contains only Double- two, Two-ace, Two-blank. But the trump-suit contains all the Dominoes that bear the number of that suit, DOMINOES 263 DOMINOES whether the other number be smaller or larger ; thus, if the Three-suit is trumps the cards in it rank as follows : Double-three, Three-six, Three-five, Three-four, Three-two, Three-ace, Three-blank. Of course those trump-cards that would ordi- narily be counted in other suits must be omitted from these suits ; thus, in the case just given, the card next be- low the Six-four is the Six-two, be- cause the Six-three (or Three-six) is a trump. Domino Euchre. The doublet of the trump suit is Right Bower ; the next lower doublet is Left Bower; but when Blank is trump the Double-Six is Left Bower. The player who draws the lowest Domino is termed the dealer. After the drawing for deal the Dominoes are mixed agam and each player in turn, beginning at the dealer's left, draws five. The dealer then turns face up- ward one of the Dominoes that re- main, and its larger number shows the trump-suit. He that orders up, takes up, assists, or makes the trump, always leads, but in other respects the game is played as it is with cards. Domino Rounce. This can be played by not more than four per- sons. When two or three play, the Dominoes in the pool are often divided in more than one Dummy or Dumby (that is— extra hand), so that each has the privilege of taking one, even if the player before him has already done so. When four play, there is only one Dummy, but it con- sists of seven pieces. The dealer is chosen, the trump turned, and the Dominoes drawn as in Domino Euchre ; in other respects the game is played as it is with cards. Bingo, the game of SiXTY-Six played with Dominoes by two per- sons. Each player draws seven Dominoes at first, and one more after each trick, as in the card-game. The blanks count as seven spots ; and the Double-blank, which is called Bingo, is the highest Domino, taking even the Double of trumps. The game consists of seven points. He who first makes 70, scores one toward game. If he make 70 before his opponent make 30, he scores 2, and if he make 70 before his oppo- nent has won a trick, he scores 3. If a player capture the Double of trumps with Bingo he scores one. In reckoning the 70 points, the Double of trumps counts 28, and all other doubles and trumps according to the total number of the spots, but the remaining Dominoes have no value. The winner of a trick may announce or declare certain combi- nations as in the card game. These, with the points they count toward 70, are as follows : Two Doubles, 20 Three " 40 Four " 50 Five " 60 Six " 70 If Bingo be among the doubles, the group counts 10 more. In other respects the game is played like Sixty-Six. History. Dominoes are said by- different writers to have been in- vented by the Hebrews, Greeks, or Chinese. They were introduced into France from Italy about 1750, and into England some years later. A domino was a black cloak or hood worn by monks, and some think the name of the game is derived from the fact that one side of the Domino is usually black. Other writers sug- gest that the ^'^me: was allowed in convents, because it was so simple, and that the monks, on playing their last piece, said in Latin " Benedzca- imis Domino " (bless the Lord), which was afterward shortened into Domino. A story is told also of a monk who played the game against the commands of his superior, and for punishment was obliged to re- peat a Latin psalm, and from the word Do7nino in it, he afterwards named the game ; but all these deri- vations seem rather fanciful. Domino Whist. See Sevens AND Eights. DONKfiV 264 DOUBLE PENDULUM DONKEY, a game played by any number of people, who try, blind- fold, to fasten a tail on the picture of a tailless donkey. The picture, which is about four feet square, is pinned on the wall at one end of a room, and each player in turn, stand- ing at the other end, is blindfolded and given a cloth tail and a pin with which to fasten it to the picture. He who first fastens the tail in the right place wins. This is a difficult feat, and the sight of the donkey covered with tails, some pinned to his head and others to his legs, creates a great deal of amusement. Donkey Parties are sometimes given, at which this game is the principal enter- tainment. The player is some- times informed by the laughter of the company as to whether he is at the right place or not and hence may be guided to the proper spot, so sometimes the game is made more difficult by requiring him to pin the tail j to the part of the donkey he touches first. DOUBLE JUMP, a soli- taire game of CARDS, played with one full pack. The cards are laid down in one long row. Whenever the player sees two cards of the same suit, or of the same value, separated by two other cards, he may take up the one toward the left, and place it on the other. This is called a double jump, since the two cards between are passed over. A jump brings new cards next one another and may give at once an opportunity for another jump. When the top card of a pile thus corresponds with another, two cards distant, the whole pile goes with the top card in its jump. The object is thus to bring all the cards into one pile. When but three piles are left, only one need be jumped, and when but two, one can be placed on the other if the top cards corre- spond in suit or value. DOUBLE PENDULUM, Experi- ments with the. Suspend a small glass funnel by setting it in a hole in a board or flat cork about three inches in diameter, hung by strings as in the picture. These strings are united above the funnel at r. The whole arrangement is suspended from the ceiling or from a frame, by two strings, tied to hooks about four feet apart, and united below at the funnel. The funnel should hang as Double Pendulum. closely to the table as possible at its center. Tie the two supporting strings together firmly at one fourth their length from the funnel. Fill the funnel with sand, and then hold it at one corner of the table, stopping up the tube with one finger. Let it go and it will swing off in a curve, which will be marked on the table by the sand. Tie the strings in a different place and the curve will be different. By careful trial, many DOUBLETS 265 DOUBLETS curious curves can thus be traced. These curves are called Lissajous's curves, after the Frenchman who dis- covered them. They are the same that are produced in the experiment of Vibrating Rods. DOUBLETS, a writing game played by any number of persons. Two words of the same number of letters are first agreed upon, and each of the players endeavors to connect them by a column of other words called "links," each of which shall differ from the one before it by only a single letter. Thus " Cat " and "Dog "may be connected in many ways, of which two examples fol- low : Cat Cat Cot Pat Cog Put Dog Pug Dug Dog The object of the game is to make as few links as possible. There are several methods of scoring. Thus, the player who makes the greatest number of links may score nothing and each of the others one point for each link less than this ; or, the one who has the least number of links may score a number previously agreed on, and each of the others as many points less as he has less links. The best plan in joining the doublets is to write them side by side and then work downward from each. Thus, suppose the words agreed on are Hand and Legs. When these are written side by side, it is seen that the H in Hand must be turned into an L, which is done by writing " Land." The G in Legs must become an N, so " Lens " is written underneath. »The word " Lend " now completes the chain, which reads Hand Land Lend Lens Legs In this case, as in the first example given, each link forms a step to- ward the desired end, every change being from one of the letters of the first doublet to the corresponding one of the second ; but sometimes this is impossible. Thus if Chin and Head are the Doublets only one of the letters of either can be substi- tuted at once for the corresponding one of the other. This is the N in Chin, which can be changed to D, so that the words stand : Chin Head Chid Looking now at the word Head, it is seen that the letter E must be turned into H. The first letter of a word whose second is H, is likely to be S or T. Take the word Shed and it can be connected with Head as follows : Head Heed Seed Shed After trying in vain to connect chid and shed the former link is rejected, and a new road tried. The first letter of chin is turned to S mak- ing Shin, and the connection is soon made as follows : Chin Shin Ship Shop Shod Shed Seed Heed Head The game of Doublets makes also an interesting SOLITAIRE game. The easiest doublets to connect are those in which the vowels in one corre- spond in position to vowels in the other, and consonants to consonants. The difficulty increases also with the length of the words. Doublets was invented and named by the author of " Alice in Wonder- land," whose assumed name was " Lewis Carroll." He wrote a book on the subject, giving many interest- ing examples of doublets connected DRAUGHTS OF AIR 266 DRAUGHTS OF AIR by links. It is said, however, that a similar game was played in this country before the appearance of this book. DRAMATICS. See Private Theatricals. DRAUGHTS. See Checkers. DRAUGHTS OF AIR, Experi- ments on. I. Open on a crack the door between a cold room and a warm one, and hold a lighted candle at various heights, close to the crack. No windows must be open in either room. At the top of the door the flame will be blown toward the cold room, and at the bottom toward the warm room. About half-way up there will be a place where the flame is blown very little, or not at all. The reason is that cold air, being heavier than warm air, flows into the warm room along the floor, and forces the warm air out at the ceiling. Instead of a candle flame, smoke from what is called " touch paper " may be used to show the direction of the currents. Touch paper is made by dipping un- glazed paper in a solution of salt- petre. When dry, it burns with smoke but not with flame. 2. Cut in the top of a tight shal- low pasteboard box two holes, each about an inch in diameter, and place over each an argand lamp chimney. Experiment 2. In one hole stand a candle cut to such a length that it will project about half an inch above the top. Light the candle, and then hold burning touch paper over the other lamp-chimney. The smoke, instead of rising, will go down one chimney, and after it has filled the box will rise through the other. The reason is that the burning candle makes a draught up its chimney and if the box is tight so that no air can get in through cracks, to supply the place of what is going out, air must come down the other chimney. 3. Hold the hand tightly over the chimney where the draught is down- ward. The candle in the other chimney will begin to burn feebly Experiment 3. and smoke, and will go out if there are no cracks for air to get in. The reason air does not get to it down its own chimney is that the upward draught there is too strong. 4. Another way of trying Experi- ments 2 and 3, is to hang in an ordi- nary lamp chimney a partition cut out of tin, shaped as in the picture. The candle is set a little to one side of the chimney, and there is then an upward draught on one side of the partition, and a downward draught on the other. The candle may be put out as in Experiment 3. 5. Bore several holes through a board, and enlarge some of them at one end so that they will be conical in form. Suspend a square of paper, by a string, two or three inches from the board, and from the other side DRAUGHTS OF AIR 267 DRAW POKER blow through the holes at it. On blowing through a straight hole, the paper will be carried back, but on the board when blown at through a conical hole. The reason is, that the breath is kept together in a stream by the straight hole, whereas it disperses to all sides in the conical hole, and carries with it some of the air on the other side of the board so that a slight return current is caused. This principle is used in ventilating rooms where it is desirable to avoid a direct draught. 6. Cut out a spiral Hke the one de- scribed in the article Fourth op July, and suspend it over a lamp blowing throUj^h a conicil hole from tic sm Ul en 1 the pipei wdl harg Experiment 6, perfectly still. If a lighted candle be used instead of the paper, the flame will even be directed toward Expeument 7 is shown m the illustration The up rush of hot air will cause it to twirl. 7. A wheel cut out of paper in the shape shown above will also twirl in a draught of hot air, or when fanned as shown in the illustration. DRAW POKER, a game of cards, played by from two to six persons, with a full pack. Five cards are dealt to each, one at a time, and then each in turn, beginning at the deal- er's left, may discard any or all of these, and call for as many new ones as he discards, which the dealer must give him from the top of the DRAW POKER 268 DRAW POKER stock. This is called drawing. The player who holds in his hand the highest group of cards, after draw- ing, is the winner. The groups are as follows, begin- ning with the lowest : *^>.4 I. A Pair. Two cards of the same rank (accompanied, of course, by three other cards, as each player holds five). 2. Two Pairs (accompanied by one other card). O O o A 4i 4» 4. 4. 4. 4. 9? 9 O 3. Three of a Kind, or a Triplet. Three cards of the same rank (with two other cards). *** 4.^4. 0^0 4. A Straight. Five cards in regu- lar order, not all of the same suit. In counting straights, the ace ranks either below the Two or above the King, but must stand at the end. Queen, King, Ace, Two, Three is, therefore, not a straight. O 0^0 OoO o o 5. A Flush. Five cards of the same suit, not in regular order. 9 9 O O 0% 4. A 4. 4. 4.^4. 6. A Full House, Full Hand, or Full. Triplets and a Pair together. 9? ^ 4. 4. 4. '^4. 4. 4. 0^0 o o 7. 7^^«r ^ <3; Kind. 4. 4. 4. '^4. 4.*4. 8. ^ Straight Flush. A Straight, with cards all of the same suit. When Straights are not counted, as is very rarely the case, a Straight Flush ranks as a common Flush, and is beaten by a Full and by Fours. Of two groups of the same kind, 4. 4. 4.*4. 9 ^ 9 ^ ♦ ♦ ♦ BEATS 4* 1 4. * 4. 4. 4. ^ that containing the highest card is the higher, If the two highest cards are the same, then the next to the highest decide the rank, and so on. If the groups be exactly the same, the other cards of the hand deter- mine which shall win. When there is no group, the hand having the 1 ^ BEATS 1 4 ♦ 4. 4" highest card wins, if the two highest are the same ; then two next highest, etc. The score in Poker is kept with counters, or "chips," usually round, fiat pieces of ivory or bone. There DRAW POKER 269 DRAW POKER are several methods, but the follow- ing is the simplest : At the beginning of the game, the counters are divided equally among the players. Each, before looking at his hand, must put in the middle of the table a number of counters, agreed OoO BEATS > 4- *** *** 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4- ♦ 4- 4* 4- 4. on beforehand, and which is the same for each hand during the game. This is called the " ante " (Latin anfe, before), and the antes together form the pool. When the drawing is finished, the eldest hand may either say, " I stay out," in which case he takes no further part in the hand, or he may place any number of counters, up to a limit agreed on before the game commences, in the pool ; more or less according to the strength of his hand. This is called his " bet." The player at his left may stay out, or he may place in the pool the same number of chips as his neighbor (which is called " see- BEATS ♦a^ ^*f ^4^ ^*^ <^^^ ^ '^ ^^^ ^^^ A pair of Kings. A pair of Tens. ing"), or he may put in more (which is called " raising " or " going bet- ter "). The third player may stay out, see, or raise the second player, and zo on, with each in turn, one or more times around, either till all but one of the players stay out, when that one takes the pool without show- ing his hand, or till all the players in the game have "seen" the one that raised last. In the latter case, they are said to " call " the player that made the last raise (or the eldest hand, if no raise was made), who must then show his hand. If none of the others has a better hand, they let him take the pool without show- ing their hands ; otherwise the higher hands are shown and the winner takes the pool. The game may be played a certain length of time, and when it is over he wins that has most counters. Sometimes they who wish cards in the beginning of the game are re- quired to add to their antes. Some- times the players also make bets before they have drawn. Sometimes the ante is large or small, as the eldest hand chooses. A common method is to require each to ante twice as much as the eldest hand, who makes good the rest of the ante at his next turn, unless he stays out. A player often bets high on a weak hand, in hope that the others, thinking he has a strong one, will prefer to stay out. This is called "bluffing." It is often possible to detect a bluff by watching a player's expression, unless he be very skillful at concealing his thoughts. The only part of Poker in which skill can be shown is in discarding. If a pair is dealt to a player, he should gener- ally discard the other three cards, hoping to draw another of the same kind. If he hold four of a suit, he should often discard the fifth, hoping for a Flush. By noticing how many cards a player calls for, some idea may often be gained of the strength of his hand. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. If any player be given more or less than five cards there must be a new deal, provided the mistake is noticed before that player looks at his hand ; otherwise, the deal is good, and the player whose hand is wrong must stay out. 2. All the players must discard before cards are given to any one. 3. Discarded cards must be piled face downward in front of the next dealer, and must not be touched. 4. If any player be given more DRIVING 270 DRIVING cards than he asked for, the dealer must draw one of them and return it to the stock ; but if the player look at his hand before noticing the mis- take, he must stay out. History. Poker is derived from Primero or Prime, one of the oldest card games, which was a favorite as early as 1 500. It was played in vari- ous ways, but generally four cards were dealt to each player, and the principal groups were Flush, Prime, and Point. Flush was the same as in Poker, Prime was one card of each suit, and Point was reckoned as in Piquet, but with different values for the cards. When a player "raised the ante" he was said to "vye." Shakespeare represents King Henry VIII. as playing Primero with the Duke of Suffolk. Primero was elaborated in France, in the 17th cen- tury, into Ambigu, in which the Straight, the Straight Flush, Four of a kind, and Three of a kind, were in- troduced. About this time a game called Post and Pair, derived from Primero, was played in the west of England, and from this came Brag, on which Hoyle wrote a treatise in 175 1. In the game of Brag each player said " I brag," as he raised another player. Our Poker is simply the English Brag with variations. DRIVING. The beginner should practice with a single horse. The driver in America sits on the right side of the vehicle, and if entering from the left should get in before his companion to avoid passing over or under the reins, which should always be in some one's hands unless an at- tendant be at the horse's head. The horse should always be re- strained from moving off until the driver gives him an indication to start. Many horses acquire the habit of starting when they hear any one get into the vehicle, from being struck with the whip by the driver as soon as he starts. The horse, expecting the lash, starts up to avoid it. To drive in the English style the driver should hold the reins in his left hand, leaving the right free to hold the whip or to assist in turning or guiding the horse, or when a strong pull is necessary. The right rein, D, should be held be- tween the first and second, or second and third fingers, and the left, N, be- tween the forefinger and thumb, the ends passing through the palm of the hand under the fingers. (See Fig. i.) The knuckles of the hand should be turned to the left. The horse is guided by pulling the rein on the side toward which he is to turn, v^hich may be done by twisting the hand up or down, or by pulling the re- quired rein with the right hand. The reins should be held short enough to enable the driver to check the horse quickly without leaning Fig. I. far back or taking a fresh hold, but not so short that he is obliged to lean too far forward or extend his arm awkwardly. The left elbow should be held well back and low down and the arm allowed to play lightly from the shoulder. The right hand is used to hold the whip and to steady and guide the horse. It is best for the driver to sit high, for this enables him to give a steady pull on the reins when necessary. To make the horse go faster, he should be encouraged with the voice, the whip being used only when neces- . sary. The use of the whip dependsm a great deal on the horse ; some ani- i mals will not bear it at all, while others can scarcely be made to go without it. Some horses will go bestj with a tight rein, and some with loose one : but the driver should] DRIVING 271 DRIVING' always "feel" the horse's mouth. To stop a horse the word " whoa ! " is generally used, the driver at the same time pulling steadily on the reins. All sudden starts and stops should be avoided, as the result is to give those in the vehicle an un- pleasant jerk. Driving a Pair. The horse on the right is called the off horse and the one to the left the near horse. These terms arose from the custom of the driver's walking on the left hand side of his team, whence the left horse was near him and the right one farther off. Most of what has been said above applies also to driv- ing a pair, but in addition the driver must see that each horse does his share of the work, as some horses have a habit of shirking. The driver should watch the traces, and, if he sees that one of the team keeps his side loose, while the other's are tight, the offender should be touched with the whip. Driving Tandem. Two or more horses are sometimes driven one in front of the other. The forward horse in this case is called the leader, and the one next the carriage the wheeler. A horse, to make a good leader, must be specially trained, otherwise he is apt to step over the traces or to turn around and face the wheel-horse. Tandem driving is the most difficult kind and should not be attempted by a beginner. Four-in-Hand. Fig. 2 shows the method of holding the reins in driv- ing four-in-hand. N L is the near leader's rein, O L is the off leader's, N W the near wheeler's, and O W the off wheeler's. Directions for driving four-in-hand cannot easily be given in print, but showing the method of holding the reins may be worth while. The guiding and steadying is done with the right hand as in pair horse driving. Rule of the Road. When two vehicles meet, each turns to the right. In England the rule is to turn to the left, thus giving the driver who sits on the right a full view of the vehicle he passes, so as to avoid collision. It may be that the opposite rule was adopted in America because when the country was newly settled, the roads were narrow and poor, so that it was more necessary for the driver to see to his outer wheels than his inner. It is always better for a beginner to turn too soon rather than to wait, for sometimes the vehicles are approaching each other faster than he thinks. If one of the drivers sees that the spot where the vehicles are likely to meet is bad for passing, he should stop at the right side of the road, and the other should then drive quickly past him, so that he will have to wait as short a time as possible. Care must be taken in turning corners, or in passing a cross- road, lest there be a collision. When a vehicle is overtaken, it should be passed to the left, unless it is a heavily laden wagon on the left of the road, and no other vehicle is ap- proaching, when it may be passed on the right. If a vehicle overtake another in a narrow road, the for- ward one should either keep ahead, or, if the driver does not wish to do so, he should turn to the right and Fig. 2. let the other pass. If he does neither, the one in the rear should call to him and ask him politely to do one or the other. Accidents. Collisions will usually be avoided if the above directions are followed. The other common acci- dents are runaways, and the giving way of some part of the harness. I DRIVING 272 DROP THE HANDKERCHIEF The reader is referred to what is said of runaways in the article on riding. When a horse runs it is usually safer to remain in the vehicle than to jump out; many more people have been injured by the latter than by the former course. If a horse acts un- easy or stops without apparent rea- Fig. 3- son, it is very likely that something is the matter with the harness. In such a case the driver should alight at once and see what the matter is. If the Fig. 4. harness breaks, it may usually be fastened with twine, so that it will hold till he can drive home, or if not to be had the check rein may be taken off and utilized, or the throat lash even may be useful. Figs. 3 and 4 show two curiosi- ties of driving, the first a proposed vehicle where the horse is beneath the cart ; the second a proposed chaise to be run by a spring or other motor attached to the rear wheels. DROP THE HANDKERCHIEF, a game played by any number of chil- dren, who stand in a ring, facing inward. One of the boys, chosen for the purpose, walks or runs around the outside of the ring, holding a handkerchief in his hand, which he drops behind some girl. As soon as she sees it, she must pick it up and run after him. If she catches him, they kiss, and she returns the hand- kerchief for him to drop again ; but DUCHESS OF LUYNES 273 DUCK AND DRAKE if he can make the circuit of the ring and stand in the space she left, she must take his place. She then drops the handkerchief behind some boy, who runs after her, and the game goes on as before, a girl always drop- ping the handkerchief behind a boy, and a boy behmd a girl. The player who drops the handkerchief may run around the circle in either way, and the one behind whom it is dropped must always follow in the same direction. Sometimes a player does not see that the handkerchief is lying behind him, in which case the drop- per simply runs around the circle, picks up the handkerchief, and hand- ing it to him, takes his place. No player may tell another, by word or sign, that the handkerchief is lying behind him. The player who drops the handkerchief sometimes says, as he runs around the circle, " I dropped my handkerchief yester- day, I found it to-day, I list it, I lost it, I threw it away." DUCHESS OF LUYNES, a soli- taire game of CARDS, played with two packs. The first four cards dealt from the pack are placed in a row, face upward, and the fifth and sixth are laid aside to form Stock. Four more are laid on the first four, and two more in the Stock, and so on till the pack is used. The player's object is to form eight piles of fami- lies, downward from four Kings, and upward from four Aces, following suit. For this purpose the top card of any pile may be used in course of play, or the top card of the Stock. But when the top card of a pile is used, its place is not supplied from the pack, the next card being placed where it would have been if the pre- ceding had not been used. When the pack is exhausted, the Stock can twice be shuffled and relaid, and then Stock and piles can be shuffled and relaid in four piles, omitting the Stock. DUCK, or DUCK ON THE ROCK, a game played by any number of persons, each with a stone, about the size of a man's two fists, called a Duck. One of the players, chosen by lot, places his Duck on a stone with a smooth top, and stands near it, while the others take their position behind a line eight or ten yards dis- tant, and try to knock it off with their Ducks, each in turn. As soon as each has thrown his Duck, he runs up to it and watches his chance to carry it back to the line. If the one whose Duck is on the rock can touch any of the others while carry- ing back his Duck, before he reaches the Hne, the one so caught must take the catcher's place, putting his own Duck on the rock. But if the Duck is knocked from the rock, its owner must replace it before he can touch any one. In playing this game, if the owner of the Duck on the rock is skillful, he can often keep three or four of the other players out of the game by preventing them from picking up their Ducks. In this case the only means of relief is for some one to strike the Duck from the rock, for then its owner is helpless till he has put it back. Emperor, a kind of Duck, in which a wooden figure called the Emperor is placed on the top of a post about 18 inches high. A player called the Prime Minister stands near it. The other players have each a wooden ball like a croquet ball. The game is played exactly like Duck, the play- ers trying to knock the Emperor off his post by throwing or pitching balls at him. The game can be continued for a specified time, at the end of which he who has been Prime Min- ister the least number of times, or has hit the Emperor the greatest number of times, is victor. DUCK AND DRAKE, or Skipping Stones, a game played by any num- ber of persons, each of whom throws a flat stone into the water so that it I will rebound. He whose stone skips I the greatest number of times is the ! winner. The stone should be held DWARF 274 EARL OF' COVENTRY between thumb and forefinger and given a slight whirHng motion so that it will strike the water with its flat side and not edgewise. The Greek boys played this game with flat shells or pieces of tile, and called it epostrakismos (Tile Skipping). In English, "to play at ducks and drakes," has come to mean spend- ing one's money extravagantly. DUMBBELLS. See Gymnastics. DUMB CRAMBO. See Crambo. DWARF, THE, an amusement in which two persons take part. One of them stands behind a table and places his hands on it, while the other stands behind the first and passes his arms around him as in Fig. I. The head and body of the second person and the legs of the first are hidden by curtains, which is easily managed if the table be placed in a doorway. Shoes are Fig. I. then placed on the hands of the first player, and a child's trousers, or kilt skirt over his arms. A jacket is put on over his shoulders and the arms of the hidden player, and an excellent imitation of a dwarf is thus formed. (Fig 2,) The face should be disguised as much as pos- Fig-. 2. sible, and the dwarf may be dressed fantastically to represent a Turk or Moor. A third person should act the part of exhibitor, giving a comic account of the dwarf's history. The dwarf may deliver a speech, appro- priate gestures being made by the player who furnishes the arms. The gestures are apt to be ludicrous, as the second player usually has trouble in fitting his action to the words of the first. The dwarf can dance and perform many remarkable feats, such as rubbing his head with his toe, or putting both feet in his mouth at once. E EARL OF COVENTRY, THE, a game of cards, played with a full pack. All the cards are dealt. The eldest hand leads any card he chooses, saying "There's a good King," or " There's a good five" (or whatever card it may be). The next player to the left who has a EARS 275 EASTER EGGS card of the same rank plays it saying " There's another good as he." The third and fourth are then played in like manner, with the words : •'There's the best of all the three," and " There's the Earl of Coventry." The player of the fourth card leads, and so the game goes on, the player who first gets rid of all his cards being the winner. EARS, Experiments with the. i. Let one person be bhndfolded and sit in a chair, folding his arms. Let another hold two coins between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and put the left forefinger be- tween them so that they will click together when the finger is suddenly pulled out. Let him thus make a click in various places near the blindfolded person, while the latter guesses the direction from which the sound comes. It will be found that he can tell easily so long as the sound is nearer one ear than the other, but whenever it is made in any spot equally distant from both, he cannot tell where it is. 2. Tie about three feet of twine at the middle to the knob of a poker. Twirl the ends of the twine around the forefingers, and stop up the ears with these fingers. If the swinging poker be knocked against the wall, or struck with anything, the person holding it will hear deep tones like those of a bell. If a silver table spoon be used instead of a poker, the sound of a higher-toned bell will be imitated. 3. Have a tinman solder two pieces of iron wire to two disks of tin, a, b, each large enough to cover the ear, in the shape shown in the pic- ture. When the disks are pressed to the ears and the point c, where the wires join, is ap- plied to any sound- ing body, the sound will be much magnified. Experiment 3, 4. Let one person hold to his ears the ends of a piece of waxed thread six or eight feet long. Let a second person hold the thread stretched by its middle point and taking the two parts of the thread together between his thumb and forefinger, near the others' face, rub them along, keep- ing the thread taut. The result will be a sound like thunder in the ears of the first-named person. If the rubbing be with jerks, and some- times done with the finger-nail, the sound of short, cracking thunder will be imitated. EASTER ECQS, colored and or- namented eggs, used as presents or playthings at Easter. The eggs, called also pasque, pace, or paas eggs, are usually colored by being boiled in dye, of which various colors may be bought at any druggist's. An &gg may be colored also in a pretty pattern by sewing it up tightly and smoothly in a piece of common calico, and then boiUng it. If the calico be not of fast colors, the pattern will be reproduced on the Qgg shell. Eggs too may be gilded by painting them over with gum or varnish and then laying on gold leaf. The " gold paint " sold by druggists will produce a similar effect though not so brilliant. Colored eggs may be ornamented by drawing designs on them with tallow, or any greasy substance, before boiling. The dye will not color the parts touched by the grease, and the design will there- fore appear in white. More delicate designs may be drawn by scratching with the point of a needle, or the blade of a penknife, after the e^gg has been dyed. If the eggs are boiled hard, they may be kept any length of time. If preferred, the eggs may be " blown " before they are dyed. This is done by making a small hole in each end, applying the mouth to one of them, and blow- ing the contents of the tgg out of the other. The tallow design should be drawn before blowing, that the shell may not be broken, and care must EASTER EGGS 276 EASTER EGGS be taken not to crush it in dyeing. Egg shells may be engraved by drawing designs on them with melted wax, or varnish, and then dipping them in strong vinegar. The vinegar will eat away the shell except where it is protected by the wax, and when the wax or varnish is removed, the design will be in relief. Wax can be removed by scraping ; varnish by washing with alcohol. If the egg be dyed before removing the wax, the design will be in raised white lines on a low colored ground. In this case the vinegar must be washed off be- fore dyeing. The eggs may also be decorated by pasting little pictures, such as may be bought at toy stores, over the shells, and the eggs, when fin- ished, may be placed in little nests of moss and twigs. They are some- times served in a tin pan filled with sand, in which the eggs are buried. This is often called an " ostrich nest." Blown eggs may be strung on ribbons and hung up for orna- ments. One way of playing with the Quaint Easter Eggs. eggs is for some one to hide them in different parts of the house on the evening before Easter, and for the rest of the family to look for them. They become the property of those who find them. In some parts of England and Holland, and in many places in this country, especially the parts settled by the Dutch, the cracking of pasque eggs is a common sport on Easter Monday. One person holds his egg, the small end upward, in his hand, and lets another try to break it by striking his downward upon it. Af- ter several taps, one generally breaks ; the cracked one belongs to the victor, who keeps on trying other eggs until his own is broken. A small, sharp- pointed egg is generally best for this sport, and sometimes one egg will ; break a dozen others before giving^ way itself. In Washington, in the] White House grounds, children playl games with their Easter eggs by I rolling them down hill. Two rollj their eggs together, and he whose! egg is unbroken takes the other, if it] is cracked. Sometimes several thou- sand children play thus at one time. EASTER EGGS 277 ECARTE Egg-rolling on Easter is also com- mon in Germany, where tracks of sticks, laid side by side, are made for the eggs. The sport begins at mid- night on Easter-even, and lasts till about three o'clock in the morn- ing. Not only eggs, but apples also, and little cakes, are used. In Bohe- mia, children roll many eggs in a row, letting them start all at once, to see which will reach the bottom of the hill soonest. In the north of England, Easter eggs are also played with like balls, by tossing them up in the air. In Germany a number of eggs are placed in a basket and one person tosses them, one by one, into another basket filled with soft shavings, while another runs to a spot agreed on, and back again. He who does his task the sooner wins the eggs. In Ireland, the game we call " Go Bang " is played by sticking eggs in the sand. It is there called " Bunch- ing Eggs." Easter eggs are sometimes dressed as dolls, faces being marked or painted on them. They may be made also into other quaint shapes, (see illustration). Artificial Easter eggs, some of them large and filled with candies, may be bought at con- fectioners. History. The custom of Easter eggs is very old, and is thought by some writers to be derived from the ancient Egyptians, who regarded eggs as a sacred emblem of the re- newal of mankind after the Del- uge. The early Christians seem to have regarded eggs as symbols of the resurrection of the dead, since the chicken escapes from the shell as from a tomb. In old times as many as twenty dozen richly decorated eggs were piled on one dish and kept on the table during Easter week. Every one who came to the house was invited to eat an Easter ^%Z with the host, and it was con- sidered impolite to refuse. In Spain and Italy .public sports with eggs formed part of the Easter festivities. In Russia, people call on their friends on Easter, as we do on New Year's Day, and exchange eggs with them. In Persia, a festival of eggs is cele- brated on New Year's Day. ECARTE (a-car-tay), a game of CARDS played by two persons, with a EUCHRE pack. The cards rank as usual, except that the Ace comes be- tween the Knave and the Ten, in- stead of above the King. Five cards are dealt to each player, three and two, or two and three at a time, and the top card of the stock is turned up as trump. Should it be a King the dealer scores one. If the non-dealer is satisfied with his hand, he leads at once ; if not, he says, " I propose," or sometimes, '' Cards," meaning that he wishes to exchange part or all of his hand. The dealer may say " I refuse," in which case play begins, or he may say " I ac- cept," and then each lays aside as many cards, face downward, as he wishes to exchange. Putting aside the trump, the dealer first gives his opponent as many cards from the stock as he has discarded, and then does the same to himself. If the non-dealer is still dissatisfied, he may propose again and again, until he gets a hand that suits him or until the dealer refuses. Before play begins, if either player holds the king of trumps, he says " King " and scores one point. The non-dealer now leads, and the cards are played, suit being followed if possible. The second player in a trick must always win it if he can, and, if he can do so in no other way, he must trump. The player who wins either three or four tricks is said to gain the pomt, and scores one. If he win all five, he gains the vole and scores two. If the elder hand play without proposing and fail to gain his point his opponent scores two, whether he make point or vole. In like manner, if the dealer refuse, and fail to gain his point, his opponent scores two. This applies only to the first pro- ^CARTE 278 £CART]&, posal and refusal of a hand. After one discard there is no penalty for playing without further proposal or for refusing a second proposal. He who first makes five points wins the game. The hands which should be played without proposal are called Jeux de Regie (regulation plays), and are learned by heart by skillful players. They are as follows : 1. All hands with three trumps. 2. Hands with two trumps, that contain also three cards of a suit, or any three cards whose average value is high. 3. Hands with one trump which contain also King, Queen, and Knave of a suit ; four of a suit, one being King; three of a suit, one being King or Queen, and the fifth card being a Queen. 4. Hands with no trump, which contain four face cards or three Queens. ^ Good players rarely lead trumps in Ecarte unless they have three or more, and the Jeux de Regie are therefore based on the number of trumps and not on their value, since a low trump is as good as a high one for trumping in. It will be seen that aside from the number of trumps, the Jeux de Regie depend first on the value of the other cards in the hand, and, secondly, on whether they are all of one suit or not. Similar reasons should decide the dealer to refuse a proposal. But a player with the King of trumps in his hand, with other cards that make him certain of winning his point, should propose for one card ; for there is a chance of the opponent refusing, and then he would gain two points instead of one. Usually, good players discard at least three cards at first, when they propose, and throw out all except trumps and Kings. Since the trick must be won, if possible, it is usually good play to lead the highest of the strongest suit, that the opponent may be forced to trump. A skillful player changes his method of play accord- ing as he wishes to make only a point or the vole, or sees that he can- not make the point and wishes tO' prevent his adversary from making the vole. In the last case he tries to make one trick, rather than risk anything for the chance of taking more. More may be risked when the dealer is within one of going out, since it then makes no difference whether he make one point or two. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. If there be a misdeal or any Of the non-dealer's cards be exposed, he may call for a new deal. 2. If a player omit to announce the King of trumps before playing his first card, he loses the right to an- nounce it. 3. A proposal or refusal cannot be taken back, nor can more cards be taken than the number first an- nounced. 4. Discards must be placed face- downward on the table and cannot be looked at afterwards. 5. If either player take more or less cards than he discards, or if the dealer give more or less than were asked for, his opponent may demand a new deal. If he choose, he may correct the number by drawing a card from the hand if it is too large, or by adding to it from the stock, if it is too small. 6. If the dealer accept when there are not enough cards in the stock to give each as many as he wishes, the non-dealer is entitled to all he has asked for ; or, if there are not enough, to as many as there are left. 7. The dealer may accept on con- dition that there are enough cards for both. 8. If a card be led in turn, or be played to, it cannot be taken back. 9. If a player revoke, or fail to win the trick when he is able, his oppo- nent may require the hands to be played again. 10. An omission in the score must ECHO 279 EGGS be corrected before the next trump is turned. History. Ecarte is a French game, and gets its name from the verb ^carter, to discard, from the privilege given to the players of discarding •cards from their hands. It is said to be a modification of Triomphe, which gave rise also to Whist. Some say- that the game, taken to Louisiana by the French, was the origin of the American game of Euchre. ECHO, a game played by any number of persons, one of whom is chosen to tell a story, and the others take the names of various characters or objects that are to be mentioned in it. When the story teller men- tions the assumed name of a player once, that player must repeat it twice, and if it is mentioned twice in succes- sion, it must be repeated once. Any player who does not echo his name, or who repeats it the wrong number of times, must pay a forfeit. The object of the story teller is to make his story so entertaining that the players will forget to echo. If the story is to be about a fight with a wolf, for instance, the names as- sumed by the players might be hun- ter, gun, powder, bullet, knife, cave, rock, tree, etc.; or if a shipwreck is the subject, the names might be ship, captain, mate, riiast, sail, tiller, keel, passenger, wave, wind, etc. This :game differs little from that of Stage Coach, where the players rise and turn around when their names are mentioned, instead of echoing them. ECHOES, Experiments on. Ech- oes are caused by the reflection of sound from some object, as the side of a house, a rock, or a hill. I. To measure the distance of the object which produces the echo. With his watch in hand, let a person shout a single short syllable, as "Ha ! " or " Oh ! " and count the number of seconds before it returns. As sound travels about 1125 feet a second, the number of seconds multiplied by 1125 gives the distance traveled by the voice in going to the object and back, and half of this is the distance of the object causing the echo. If the echo is returned by an object only a few hundred feet away, so that the time is only a fraction of a second, the following method should be employed. Call out " Ha ! " and repeat the word just as you hear the echo, being careful to pronounce the syllable just with the echo and not after it. This will be possible with a httle practice. Do this ten or twelve times, observing the number of seconds between the first call and the last echo. Suppose that this was seven seconds and that the syllable were called ten times. Then each echo took seven-tenths of a second, and the distance, found as before, is about 394 feet. EGCS, Experiments with. i. Take two eggs of the same size, one raw and the other hard-boiled. Sus- pend them to nails or gas-fixtures by fixing an elastic band around each, lengthwise, and fastening a string to the band at one end of the ^%%. The bands should be broad enough to clasp the ^g% firmly. Twist the strings to the same degree, and then allow them to untwist at the same time, so as to cause both eggs to spin around. The hard-boiled one will continue to do so for some time, but the raw ^gg will soon stop. The reason is that the contents of the latter are liquid and not connected with the shell. Only the shell is set twirling by the untwisting string, and the friction of the mass inside soon stops it. 2. Spin on a plate the same eggs used in Experiment i. The hard- boiled t.gg will spin easily and is easily stopped. The raw one is hard to set spinning, but after it has once begun, if the ^gg be stopped by plac- ing the palm of the hand on it, it will start spinning again as soon as the hand is removed. The reason is that, though the shell is stopped, the liquid interior of the ^gg keeps up its motion and starts the shell again as soon as it is released. The ^gg EGGS 2§o ELECTRIC BATTERIES will sometimes begin thus to spin again after it has been held several seconds. 3. Make a strong brine of salt and water and it will be found that an egg will float on it. Try to float the egg in pure water, and it will sink to the bottom. Now, pour brine through a glass funnel to the bottom of the vessel, and the water and egg will both rise, floating on the brine. When the vessel is full, the egg will be suspended just between the brine and the water, half of it in each. 4. Shake an egg till the mem- brane inclosing the yelk is broken. The yelk will sink below the white, making the lower end heavier, and the egg will then stand on end with- out aid. Columbus is said to have puzzled some wise men for a long time by telling them an egg could be stood on end. After they had tried to do it in vain, he showed them how, by breaking the shell a little by tapping the end on the floor. But if he had known this experi- Experiment 5, ment, he could have done it without even breaking the shell. 5. Remove the shell from a hard- boiled egg, and select a wide- mouthed water-bottle, with a neck a little smaller than the egg. Thrust into the bottle a burning piece of paper, and a moment later place the Experiment 6. egg, end down, in the mouth of the bottle. It will be forced into the bot- tle by the pressure of the outside air, that within having been rarified by the heat of the burning paper. 6. Take two egg-cups of the size intended for holding the egg to be eaten from the shell. Stand one on a table in front of you, and the other just beyond it. Blow suddenly and smartly where the egg and cup touch, directly in front of you. With luck, your breath, added to the air under the egg, will lift the egg and tumble it over into the second cup. ELECTRIC BATTERIES, Experi- ments with. Some electric batteries are described in the article Elec- tricity, in C. C. T. The most com- mon kinds can be bought, ready made, of dealers in telegraph sup- plies. The following experiments will aid in understanding their work- ing : I. Fill a glass three-quarters full ELECTRIC BATTERIES 2^1 ELECTRIC BATTERIES of water, and mix with water the about two tablespoonfuls of sulphu- ric acid. Put into the glass a strip of copper and a strip of zinc, each about three or four inches long and an inch wide. Bubbles of hydro- gen begin to rise from the zinc, as in the experiment in making that gas. No such bubbles rise from the copper, because the acid does not act on it. Now touch together the tops of the two strips. Immediately most of the bubbles rise from the copper instead of the zinc, because an electric circuit has been com- pleted ; a current flows through the acid from the zinc to the copper, and the bubbles are attracted to the lat- ter in a way that cannot be explained here. They are still caused by the acid acting on the zinc, not on the copper ; for if the strips are left in the liquid long enough the zinc, not the copper, will be eaten away. 2. Take the zinc from the liquid, or dip a fresh piece into the liquid for a few seconds, to clean the surface, and then rub a little mercury over it, making it look bright and silvery. Repeat Experiment i, and no bub- bles at all will rise from the zinc, whether it touches the copper or not. If it does not touch the copper, neither will be eaten away by the acid ; but if the two touch, the zinc will be eaten away as before. Zinc thus prepared is said to be amal- gamated. 3. Instead of touching the zinc and copper together, touch one end of a wire to one of them, and the other end to the other, No matter how long the wire is, as soon as they are connected by it, bubbles will begin to rise from the copper. In this case the wire forms part of the electric circuit. Take two wires, each twenty feet long or so, and touch one end to each metal. Let another person go into an adjoining room, and there touch together the other ends of the wires. When he does so, bubbles will rise from the copper. It is pos- sible, by arranging signals, to make thus a sort of telegraph. 4. If the two ends of the wires be attached to a galvanometer (arranged for use with a strong cur- rent), the turning of the needle will show that electricity is passing through it. If a nail be wrapped in a piece of paper, and the wire wound about it a dozen times, the nail will be found to be a MAGNET while the current is passing. 5. Keep the wire connected with the galvanometer and it will be seen that the needle is turned less and less, until finally it almost comes back to its north and south position, showing that the current is growing weaker. If this does not happen before one piece of zinc is eaten away, replace the first with another piece. There are two reasons why the current grows weaker. First, the acid is used up ; and secondly, the copper gets covered with bubbles of hydrogen, which stick to it. 6. In like manner try strips of various metals first in one liquid and then in another. It will be found, by using the galvanometer, that almost any two metals, immersed in any acid or salt liquid, give an elec- tric current, which is generally more powerful if one of the metals is strongly acted on by the liquid and the other not. Gravity Battery. This is the easiest effective battery to make. Gravity Battery. Take a glass preserve-jar, and bend ELECTRIC BATTERIES 282 ELECTRIC BATTERIES a strip of zinc into a cylinder half as high as the jar, and just small enough to slip into the mouth. The zinc must be amalgamated either before or after the cylinder is made. With a pair of pliers bend the zinc outward in various places around the top of the cylinder so that it will catch on the edge of the jar and hang in it. Then take a sheet of copper small enough to lie flat in the bottom of the jar, and a piece of cop- per wire about a foot long, covered with India rubber, or some substance resembling it. This can be bought of a dealer in telegraph supplies, but if none is at hand coat the wire by dipping it in melted wax three or four times. Wire insulated with silk will not do. Scrape away about two inches of the coating, make a hole in the edge of the copper, and insert the wire, bending it over and hammering it down to make a good connection. Put into the jar crystals of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), broken into pieces as large as hazel nuts, making a layer about half an inch thick. Lay the copper plate flat on this layer and then put in about two inches more of the sul- phate. Put the zinc cylinder in place and bring the coated wire from the copper through its inside. Fasten another wire to the upper part of the zinc. This wire need not be insu- lated. The wire attached to the copper is called the positive wire of the battery, and the other the negative wire. When the battery is to be used, the jar is filled with water, and a little sulphuric acid or common salt is put in to start the action. This battery will work steadily for months, only requiring to be filled up with water as fast as it evaporates, but it must be kept still and not shaken. It can be bought ready- made in various forms, one of which, used by the Western Union tele- graph company, is shown in the illustration. Another form of this battery is made by laying the copper plate on top of the sulphate of copper and covering it with a layer of clean sand or sawdust about an inch and a half thick. The gravity battery does not be- come weaker and weaker, because as fast as the sulphate of copper in the water is used up more of it is dissolved from the layer in the bottom. Instead of bubbles of hy- drogen, a thin layer of copper is deposited on the copper plate, which of course does not hinder the work- ing of the battery. Sulphate of zinc is produced by the eating away of the zinc, but it dissolves in the water, floats on the heavier solution of sulphate of copper and does not interfere with it. For this reason the name " Gravity " is given to the battery, because in it the two liquids are separated by their weight. In the second form described, the sand aids in keeping them apart. Grenet Battery. This is made of plates of zinc and gas carbon in a mixture of sulphuric acid and bichro- Grenet Battery. mate of potash. The cells are usu- ally made like bottles with wide necks, and hence it is often called ELECTRIC BATTERIES 283 ELECTRIC BATTERIES the " bottle battery." The zinc is so made that it can be pulled up out of the liquid with a rod, when not in use. The liquid, which is used in some other batteries also and is often called " battery fluid," is made as fol- lows : Dissolve two pounds and a quarter of bichromate of potash in one gallon of warm water and when it has cooled add a pint of sulphuric acid. It requires renewing from time to time. The Grenet battery is very strong when the fluid is fresh. It weakens somewhat soon after- wards, and then keeps steady for many weeks, provided it is not used continuously. Leclanche Battery. These cells are generally sold as square glass bottles G having in the middle a rod C of carbon packed in a mixture M of various substances, and in one corner a rod of zinc Z. The carbon rod has fastened to its top a copper Leclanche Battery. cap L to make the connections more easily. The bottle is filled with a strong solution of sal-ammoniac in water. This battery lasts many months without attention, but can be used only for a few seconds at a time. It weakens rapidly, but recovers just as rapidly when not in use. Bunsen Battery. A rod of carbon is contained in a porous earthenware cup filled with nitric acid, and this, in turn, is placed in a glass jar of Bunsen Battery. sulphuric acid diluted with about four times its volume of water. A zinc cylinder surrounds the porous cup. The nitric acid gives off disagree- able fumes, so this battery is not pleasant to use, though one of the strongest known. The fumes may be lessened by putting nitrate of ammonium into the acid, or, for the acid the " battery fluid " used in the Grenet cell may be substituted. The Grove battery differs from the Bun- sen only in having a platinum plate instead of the carbon rod. Uses of Different Batteries. The Gravity battery can be used for al- most any purpose. The Grenet gives a good current for a short time, the Leclanche is used where the current passes for only a few seconds at a time» as in electric bells, and the Bunsen where a very powerful con- tinous current is wanted, as in elec- tro-plating. It is not necessary to use insulated wire in making connections about the batteries, but it is better to do so, because otherwise, when two wires happen to touch, they will make a connection which is not wanted. Ordinary copper wire can be cut with a strong pair of scissors. Wire is sold in numbered sizes, whose di- ELECTRIC BATTERIES 284 ELECTRIC BATTERIES ameter is shown by the accompany- ing picture of a wire gauge. There are various ways of fastening wires to the battery-plates and to each other. The simplest is to make a hole in the plate with an awl, insert Wire Gauge. the wire, bend it over, and hammer it down tight. To fasten one wire to another simply twist each around the other and hammer or pinch them together with pliers. Wires and plates should be scraped bright with a knife wherever connections are made. Brass " binding screws " for making connections are sold by deal- ers in telegraphic supplies and are very convenient. They should be screwed up tightly. Much de- pends on making good, tight, clean connections, and too much care cannot be taken with them. Whenever zinc plates are used they should be amalga- mated frequently. To see whether the task has been properly done, immerse the plate for a minute in the acid, and if any bubble arise from it, the amalgamation, in the spot where it appears, is not perfect. When a battery is quite strong it may be tested, to see if it is in working order, by holding one wire against a common file, and drawing the other quickly over the rough surface. A stream of sparks will fly from the file if the current be good. Connections. One jar with its plates of metal and liquid is generally called a cell or element. The power Binding Posts and Screw. of a battery is different according to the way in which its cells are con- nected. They may be connected "abreast," or "tandem," or in a combination of the two. What this at the diagrams. In Fig. i, where the cells are connected " tandem," every copper plate of one cell is joined to the zinc of the next, leaving one zinc unconnected at one end and one means will be understood by looking copper at the other, between which f ELECTRIC CLOCK ALARM 285 ELECTRIC CLOCK ALARM is the telegraph wire or whatever the current is to pass through. In Fig. 2, where the cells are " abreast," all the zincs are connected together, and all the coppers. In Fig. 3 the cells are in two sets, the three cells in each set being abreast and the two sets tandem. In Fig. 4 the cells in each Fig. I. set are tandem and the two sets abreast. In each of the figures the zinc is marked Z and the copper C, and the direction of the current is shown by arrows. Which of Fig. 2. these arrangements gives the strong- est current depends on the resistance it has to overcome. Where this is very great, as in electroplating, or in the electric light, the tandem arrange- ment is best ; but when it is small, the other is best. The exact arrangement can always be calculated by expert electricians, but for a beginner the best plan is to find it out by trying various ways. ELECTRIC CLOCK ALARM. Any clock may be simply fitted with an alarm which will ring by electricity. The alarm is an ordinary elec- tric bell, which may be bought of a dealer in electric supplies. The battery to operate it may also be bought or may be made (see Electric Batteries). In a block of wood fix an upright piece of thick iron wire, so that it will stand as high as the top of the clock face. Around this wind one of the wires from the battery so that the end will project three or four inches horizontally. Bend about an inch at the end, at right angles. By setting the block of wood in front of the clock face, and sliding the wire spiral up or down the iron wire, the end may be brought opposite any desired figure, and the bent part may be so arranged that the minute hand will pass over it while the hour hand will strike it. The other battery wire is connected with one of the wires of the bell, and the other bell wire with any of the metal parts of the clock. When the hour hand reaches the desired hour it touches the bent wire, and the current, pass- ing, rings the electric bell. The ELECTRIC INDUCTION 286 ELECTRICITY bent wire must then be removed, so Electric Clock Alarm. that it will not obstruct the hour hand. ELECTRIC INDUCTION, Experi- ments on. I. Wind insulated wire in five or six layers around a large spool, or around a roll of pasteboard half an inch in diameter, and wind a similar coil on a roll large enough to slip over the first. Connect the ends of the first to the wires of a GALVAN- OMETER, and those of the second to an electric battery. Suddenly slip the larger wire over the smaller and the galvanometer needle will move to one side but will quickly come to rest again. Pull the coil away suddenly and the needle will move to the other side. The reason is that when a wire through which a current is pas- sing is moved nearer another wire or is pulled away from it, a current, called an induction current, passes in the second wire while the first is mov- ing; the induction current varies in direction according as the wires ap- proach or recede ; and this is why the needle moves in opposite direc- tions in the two cases. 2. Place the larger coil around the smaller one while the circuit in the former is broken, and then close the circuit. The needle will move in the same direction as when the coil was approached. Open the circuit again. The needle will move as if the coil were taken away. To open and close the circuit quickly a " key " may be used made as described under Telegraph. 3. Connect the large coil with the galvanometer and the small one with the battery and repeat all the fore- going experiments. The results will be the same, 4. Instead of the coil attached to the battery, use a strong bar magnet. When it is thrust into the coil the needle will move one way, and when it is removed it will swing the other way. If the opposite pole be used, the direction of these swings will be reversed. Some think the reason the magnet behaves exactly like a coil of wire with a current passing through it, in this and other cases, is that oach particle of iron in the magnet has a little electric current running around it. In this last experiment a little dynamo-electric machine was made, on exactl) the same principle as those which furnish the currents for the electric lights in our streets. In the large dynamos electro-magnets are used, and the coil moves instead of the magnet. ELECTRICITY, FRICTIONAL, Ei.peD'imentc with. Frictional elec- tricity, or electricity produced by rubbing, is described in C. C. T. under Electricity. The experi- ments which follow should be tried in a perfectly dry I'oom. Moisture in the air always lessens the effects and often entirely prevents them. Experiments. — i. Warm a rubber comb and then rub it briskly for a few seconds with a silk handkerchief or woolen cloth. It will then attract small, light objects, such as bits of paper, feathers, or wool. The best plan is to tear paper into bits about a quarter the size of the little fin- ger nail, and hold the comb over a ELECTRICITY 287 ELECTRICITY pile of them, bringing- it gradually nearer until the paper flies up to it. After each bit has clung to the comb for some time it will drop away. Try the same experiment with a glass rod and a stick of sealing wax. Cut little figures out of tissue paper and place them beneath a sheet of glass held by books as shown in the illus- tration. By rubbing the top of the Experiment i. — Electric Dancers. glass with flannel they may be made to jump up and down. 2. Make two balls, the size of a pea, of pith or paper, and hang them with sewing silk to pins on the edge of a shelf. Present the comb or glass rod to one of these. It will first be attracted, and after clinging to the rod for a while will fly away. Soon after it will be attracted again, and so on. The reason for this is that the comb has on it only positive electricity. It therefore attracts the negative electricity in the pith ball, but when the ball has clung to the comb a short time its negative elec- tricity unites with some of the posi- tive electricity on the comb, leaving only positive, which is repelled by that on the comb. 3. Try the same experiment with the glass rod. 4. Rub the glass rod with silk, and when it has driven the ball away, present to the ball the comb rubbed with flannel. It will attract the ball. The reason is that glass rubbed with silk has on it positive electricity, while the comb rubbed with flannel has negative electricity. 5. When the pith ball is repelled, present to it the flannel with which the comb was rubbed and it will be attracted. This is because the rub- bing cloth always has on it the kind of electricity opposite to the sub- stance rubbed. 6. Rub the glass rod with flannel and then with silk, and it can be seen by using the pith bail, as above, that its electricity is different in these two cases. 7. Hang the glass rod in a sling or stirrup of v^^ire, suspended by strong sewing silk. Rub it with silk and then present the silk to one end. It will be attracted by the silk, for the reason given in Experiment 5. Present to it another glass rod rubbed with silk. It will be re- pelled. 8. Take a large, strong sheet of drawing paper, heat it thoroughly, and lay it on a wooden table. Rub it with a piece of woolen cloth till it sticks to the table, and then place a bunch of keys in the middle of the paper. Raise the paper by two corners and let some one present his finger to the keys, when a bright spark will pass from one to the other. In dry weather, with careful heating and handling of the paper, the spark may be nearly an inch long. 9. Electrify a toy rubber balloon by striking it with a piece of flannel, or a catskin. When so electrified, it can be made to stick to the wall or ceiling. Two electrified balloons sus- pended from the same point will re- pel each other and hang at an angle. 10. Seal a platinum wire in one end of a glass tube by holding the wire in the tube and turning it about ELECTRIC LIGHT 288 ELECTRIC MACHINE in the flame of a spirit lamp. Touch tne end of the wire to an electro- scope, and pour warm mercury into the tube drop by drop. The bits of gold leaf in the electroscope will fly apart, showing that the friction of the mercury on the glass has devel- oped electricity. The article Electric Machine tells how to produce larger amounts of frictional electricity, and the article Leyden Jar tells how to collect it in quantity. ELECTRIC LIGHT. The sim- plest arrangement for producing the arc light is as follows : Procure two rods of gas carbon, such as are used for street electric lights (see figure). These may be bought of a dealer in electric supplies. Around the middle of each wind five or six times a piece of copper wire several inches long, so as to leave free about three inches at each end of the wire. File one end of the wire to a point and fix it firmly in the board which is to form the base of the light. Insert the other end in a bind- ing post screwed in the same board. The rod is thus sup- ported horizontally about two inches above the board. Fix the other rod in the same way, with its end just touch- ing that of the first rod. On the other end of each rod slip a piece of rubber tubing two inches long so that the rods can be handled when the cur- rent is passing. The spiral of wire around each rod should I be tight enough to hold them I lightly together, but loose W enough so that the rod can be moved backward and for- ward with a twisting or screw- ing motion. The end wires of an electric battery are now connected to the binding posts. The more powerful the battery the stronger will be the light, but at least from 20 to 40 Bunsen cells Car- bon Rod. must be used. As soon as the current passes through the rods of carbon they will fly apart a little way and the electric light will appear between them. After a little time they burn away, so that it is necessary to push them nearer, by taking hold of the part protected by the rubber tubing. To produce the incandescent light, pass the current of an electric bat- tery through a fine platinum wire an inch long. It will be heated and give off light. This shows the prin- ciple of the incandescent light. The lights commonly in use have a slen- der charred thread instead of wire, and are surrounded by a globe from which the air has been removed, so that the thread cannot burn away. ELECTRIC MACHINE, a machine for the production of frictional ELECTRICITY. A simple one may be made as follows. Bore a hole in the bottom of a smooth glass jar, by using a broken rat-tail file kept wet with turpentine. Fit a cork or wooden stopper in the mouth of the jar, bore a hole in the middle, and through this and the hole in the bot- tom of the jar fit tightly a wooden axle. Both holes must be exactly in the middle, so that the jar will re- volve evenly when the axle is turned. Nail an upright piece to each end of a board a little longer than the jar, and in each bore a hole large enough for the axle to turn easily. Support the jar between these uprights, and fix a crank-handle to one end of the axle, so that the jar may be revolved. If a piece of flannel be now pressed against the jar while it is turned, electricity will be developed. To collect the electricity, saw off a piece of broom handle a little shorter than the jar, round off the ends, and stick in it a straight row of pins, about a quarter of an inch apart. Cut off the heads with a stout pair of scis- sors and file the ends to a point. Then cover the whole piece of wood smoothly with tin-foil. Support this arrangement so that the points of all \ ELECTRIC MACHINE 289 ELECTRIC MACHINE the pins nearly touch the jar. The wood must be supported on glass, so that none of the electricity may escape to the ground. This may be done by boring a hole in the middle, and fitting into it the neck of a bottle, previously filled with sand or shot to make it stand steady. If, now, the flannel be pressed on the glass jar, on the side opposite the points, and the handle turned, the electricity will be gathered by the points and col- lected on the piece of wood covered with tin-foil, which is often called the "prime conductor." When the hand is presented to the prime conductor, a spark will fly between them. To save the trouble of pressing the flan- nel against the glass by hand, a " rubber," made of leather stuffed with curled hair, may be fastened to an upright, so as to press continually against the jar. The rubber should be as long as the jar, and about an inch wide. To hold it against the glass, drive a nail under the jar and pass an elastic rubber band around this and the upright piece on which the cushion is supported. A piece of silk, oiled on the outside, is often Simple Electric Machine. fastened to the cushion and drawn over the top of the jar nearly as far as the collecting points. This pre- vents the electricity on the glass from escaping into the air before it reaches the collecting points. In case the cushion rubber is used, it should be smeared with an amalgam made by melting together equal parts of zinc and tin and then adding two parts of mercury. The mixture is pow- dered in a mortar before it is quite cold, and then made into a paste with lard. The picture shows a simple ma- chine made with a little more care, but easily put together with any one who can use tools. A is the base, B the supporter of the rubber, D the glass cylinder, E the axle, F the crank, G the prime conductor, and H its support. The electricity collected by the points will be positive electricity. Negative electricity collects on the rubber, and may be gathered if the rubber has a wooden back coated with tin-foil. In this case the col- lecting points must be joined to the earth by a chain or wire. The whole machine must be kept very warm and dry or it will not work at ELECTRIC MACHINE 290 ELECTRIC MACHINE all. This is because moist air is a good conductor of electricity, which therefore escapes on all sides as soon as produced, instead of collecting on the prime conductor. Experiments with the Electric Ma- chine. I. Make an insulating stool by placing a board on four inverted tumblers of thick glass. Let a person stand on this stool, and touch the prime conductor, while the machine is working. He thus becomes charged with electricity. If he is lightly charged, his hair will begin to stand on end. If another person, standing on the ground, now presents his hand to the charged person, a spark will pass between them. This ex- periment may be varied in many amusing ways ; for instance, one may try to shake hands with the person on the stool, when a spark will pass between their fingers, or he may touch the tip of the other's nose or his ear. Electric Breeze. 2. Fasten a pin, or other point, on one end of the prime conductor with a bit of wax, taking care that no wax gets between the pin and the conductor. When the machine is working, a little breeze will blow from the point of the pin. This may be felt by hold- ing the face or hand in front of the point, or seen by holding a candle flame there (Fig. i). The breeze is Electric Breeze— Fig. i. caused by the repulsion of electrified particles of air from the point. It will be found impossible to draw a spark from the point, because its electricity is thus carried away by the air so fast that enough does not collect to make a spark. This is the reason that it is necessary to have all parts of the prime conductor smooth and round except the collect- ing points. If there are any rough- nesses on it, the electricity will pass off quietly from them and no spark can be obtained. 3. Stand a lighted candle on the prime conductor and point a pin at it ; it will show that there is also a Fig. 2. breeze from the pin when held in the hand (Fig. 2). 4. Let a small jet of water flow through a tube of brass or other metal. Connect the tube with the electric machine, and the water will spirt out in all directions, the elec- trified drops repelling one another. 5. Paste parallel strips of tin foil on a pane of glass, and connect them alternately on the two sides so as to make one continuous conductor, pass- ing backward and forward, from side to side. With a sharp pointed knife or a knitting-needle draw a figure or design on the glass by scraping through the tinfoil. Connect the strip of tinfoil with the prime con- ductor at the top and the ground at the bottom, and work the machine. The electricity will pass along the strip, making a spark every time it has to jump one of the places where the foil was scraped away, and thus the design will appear in lines of light. An arrangement of this kind. ELEC. DECOMPOSITION 291 ELEC. DECOMPOSITION mounted on a stand, is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3. ELECTRICAL DECOMPO- SITION, Experiments on. i. De- composition of Water. Connect the end wires of an electric battery, by means of platinum wire, to bits of platinum foil about an inch long by quarter of an inch wide. A hole should be punched in one end of the foil, the wire inserted, bent over, and hammered down so as to hold the foil tight. The wire is then bent so that it holds the foil up straight, and placed in a glass finger bowl or broad dish of some kind. The dish is filled with water mixed with a little sulphuric acid to help it conduct the electric current. The water must cover the foils and no kind of wire other than platinum must touch the water, lest the acid ^ should act on it. Fill two test- ^ tubes with the acidulated water, and invert them over the foils, the mouths beneath the water, taking care that no air enters. When one tube has been inverted, one per- son should hold it while the other is being prepared. The tubes may be held in place, if desired, by pinning strips of paper tightly around them and hanging them by string to the edge of a shelf, or by a clamp stand, which can be bought of a chemical dealer. Such dealers generally have for sale the complete apparatus de- scribed above (see illustration), but it is quite easy to make it. When the electric current fiows, bubbles of gas begin to rise from the platinum foil, which are caught in the test tubes. The amount of gas collected over the foil connected with the neg- ative pole of the battery is about twice as great as that collected over the other. When sufficient has been obtained, place the thumb under each tube, lift it out and turn it mouth upward. The gas which col- lected fastest will burn with a blue flame when a lighted match is ap- plied to it. It is HYDROGEN. The other will cause a spark on the end of a wood splinter to burst into flame. It is OXYGEN. The electric current broke up or decomposed the water into these two gases. If the bubbles do not rise at first it is prob- able that all the connections are not good, or else the battery is not strong enough. It is best to use several cells, connected tandem (see ELEC- TRIC BATTERIES). Hydrochloric Acid. The appara- Decomposition of Water. tus described above cannot be usev. for this because CHLORINE is one of the gases produced, and it would eat away the platmum ; so pieces of gas carbon are used instead. This can be obtained of dealers in electrical ELECTRICAL TOUCHSTONE 292 ELECTROPHORUS supplies. A glass tube, bent into U shape, is filled with the acid, to which some common salt is added to pre- vent the chlorine from being dis- solved as soon as it appears. A Decomposition of Hydrochloric Acid. piece of carbon is hung in each branch of the tube and each is con- nected with one pole of the battery. When the current passes, chlorine appears at the pole A and hydrogen at B. Salts. Almost all salts (see C. C. T.) can be decomposed by electricity into an acid and a base. The salt used is dissolved in water and decom- posed in a U tube, as described above. The production of an acid in one tube and an alkali or base in the other can be shown by means of TEST PAPERS. Salts which have a metal for one of their components deposit that metal on one of the poles. Experiments in the decom- position of such salts are described under Electro-plating. ELECTRICAL TOUCHSTONE, an electrical toy. Powder finely part of a stick of red sealing wax and some stick sulphur, and mix the two until the mixture has a yellowish pink color. Then tie up the powder in a muslin bag, so that when the bag is shaken a cloud of the sulphur and wax dust may be produced. Next, mark on a sheet of vulcanized rubber with bits of various metals. The marks will of course be invisi- ble, but by dusting the sulphur and wax over the rubber they at once become visible, the wax gathering along the lines made by the some of the metals, and the sulphur along those made by the others, so that some appear traced in red and the rest in yellow. The metals whose lines appear in red are zinc, iron, mag- nesium, and cadmium ; those whose marks attract the yellow powder are tin, nickel, silver, antimony, bismuth, platinum, copper, and gold. The reason of all this is that when the powders are mixed the particles are electrified, the sulphur negatively and the wax positively. The part of the rubber over which the metal passes is also electrified, positively by some metals and negatively by others, and, as the rubber is a non-conductor, the electricity remains along the lines. When the powder is dusted on the plate, then the wax is at- tracted to the negative lines and the sulphur to the positive. Other powders than those given above may be used ; a mixture of red lead and sulphur being often em- ployed. The experiment succeeds still better if the vulcanized rubber rests on a sheet of tin foil of the same size. Instead of using metals the lines may be traced with the knob of a charged leyden jar. The name Electrical Touchstone was given the device by its inventor, Prof. Guthrie, from the stone called the touchstone, used by jewelers to test the purity of the precious metals. ELECTROPHORUS, an arrange- ment for obtaining larger quantities of FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY than can be got simply by rubbing. It consists of a plate of metal resting on some non-conductor. The sim- plest way to make one is to cut out a circular piece of tin and fit a non- conducting handle to it by melting the end of a roll of sealing wax and sticking it in the middle of the tin. Warm a pane of ordinary window glass and rub it briskly with silk, so as to electrify it. Then press the tin down on it, touch the finger to the ELECTROPHORUS 293 ELECTROPHORUS upper surface of the tin, remove the finger and Hft the tin, as shown in the figures. On presenting the finger to the tin an electric spark can now be drawn from it. It is better to lay the glass on some metal surface, for instance, the top of a stove, or a piece of looking-glass may be used, since that has metal on the under side. A better electrophorus can be made as follows. Have a smooth piece of board, about a quarter of an inch thick, sawed into the shape of a Simple Electrophorus. circle, a foot in diameter, and then round off the sharp edges with a knife, finishing with sand-paper so that there shall be no rough places or angles about it. Bore a hole in the center, in which fit a glass rod or piece of tubing for a handle. Glue tin foil to this wooden disk, com- pletely covering it, being careful to smooth it down so that there is not the least roughness. The lower part may be of glass, as before, of vulcan- ized sheet rubber, or of resin melted and molded in a flat cake. The mode of working is the same. The electrophorus can be used for charg- ing a Leyden jar as well as an ELEC- TRIC MACHINE. The working of the apparatus is as follows. The electricity in the glass plate pulls apart the two kinds of electricity in the tin, attracting one to the under surface, and repelling the other to the upper surface. If the tin were now simply lifted off the plate the two kinds would unite again, but by touching the upper surface with the finger, before lifting, the kind on that surface is drawn off, leaving the tin charged with only one kind of elec- tricity. If the finger remains on the tin after it is lifted, the electricity drawn off goes back again, and the tin shows no electrification. A sim- ple electrophorus can also be made thus. Take a lacquered tea-tray about a foot long, and cut out a sheet of thick wrapping paper, large enough to cover the level part of the tray. Gum strips for handles at each end of the paper. Place the tea-tray on Tea Tray Electrophorus. two tumblers, and after heating the paper as hot as possible without charring it, lay it on a table and vio- lently rub it with a dry clothes brush. Then place the paper on the tray, touch the tray, lift the paper, and on presenting the finger again to the ELECTRO-PLATING 294 ELECTROSCOPE tray a spark may be drawn from it. This may be repeated several times without rubbing- the paper again, ELECTRO-PLATING. To plate with silver, dissolve equal quantities of nitrate of silver and cyanide of potassium m water, separately, and mix the two solutions. (Great care must be taken with the cyanide of potassium, as it is very poisonous.) The liquid will become turbid owing to the formation of a precipitate. Add more of the cyanide solution till this precipitate almost, but not quite, disappears. The solution now con- tains cyanide of silver. Place in the solution a piece of silver (such as a coin), and the article to be plated, connecting the coin with the positive pole of an ELECTRIC battery, and the article with the negative pole. The article to be plated must first be thoroughly cleaned with ammonia, to remove grease. The electric cur- rent will decompose the cyanide of Electro-plating. silver, depositing the silver on the article to be plated. The silver thus deposited has its place taken by part of the coin, which is slowly dissolved. The plating will be done faster the more powerful the battery. If sev- eral cells are used, they should be connected tandem (see ELECTRIC Batteries). When the coat of sil- ver is as thick as desired, the article is removed and polished with whit- ing. The best metals to plate are brass or copper, or the alloys called German silver and Britannia metal, of which plated forks and spoons are commonly made. Most other metals have to be coated with copper before they can be silver plated. Iron can be covered with copper by simply putting it in a solution of BLUE vitriol. Gold-Plating. The process is the same as that just described, except that chloride of gold is used instead of nitrate of silver, and a gold coin is attached to the positive pole of the battery. Nickel-plating. The same proc- ess is used, except that the solution is formed of salts of nickel, dissolved in water. A piece of nickel may be suspended from the positive pole, but it is sufficient to add salts of nickel to the solution as fast as it becomes weakened. The figure shows the arrangement of apparatus for any kind of plating, a, a, a, are bits of the metal used, B, B, B, the articles to be plated, d and e two nnetal rods, and D the bat- tery. ELECTROSCOPE, an instrument for showing whether or not a body is charged with electricity, and, if so, whether it is positive or negative. A simple one can be made as fol- lows. Take a flask or bottle, clean and dry it, and insert in the cork a piece of glass tubing about an inch, long. Cut a disk of tin or zinc, about an inch and a half in diameter, and drill two holes in it, one at the center and the other near the edge. Have one end of a brass or copper wire soldered in the central hole. Fill the glass tube with shellac, softened by warming, and before it is hard run the wire through it so that the disk is an inch or so above the tube. The lower end of the wire is cut off and bent at right angles so that it will be about in the middle of the bottle when the cork is in place. Now gum to the sides of the hook made by thus bending the wire, two leaves of " Dutch Metal " (which can be bought of a sign-painter), each half an inch broad and long enough to reach within an inch of the bottom of the bottle. The cork, with its wire, is now inserted in the bottle. ELECTROSCOPE 295 ELEPHANT To ascertain whether a body be electrified, bring it near the disk without touching. If it be elec- trified, the leaves of Dutch metal will fly apart, for the charged body draws near itself one kind of elec- tricity and repels the other to the leaves. The leaves, being both thus charged with the same kind of elec- tricity, repel each other. But this does not tell us what kind of elec- tricity the body possesses. To find out this, the electroscope must be charged by touching the disk with a body whose kind of electricity is known. For instance, we know that wax rubbed with flannel is electrified negatively. By touching the disk with a piece of wax so rubbed, we cause the leaves to diverge, and on removing the wax they should re- main apart for some time, if the in- strument has been well made. By now bringing the body to be tested near the disk, without touching it, the leaves will either collapse or fly farther apart. If the former, the body is positive ; if the latter, nega- tive. Instead of this the electroscope may be charged by touching it with the body to be tested, and then a body whose electricity is known may be brought near it. If the body is Electroscope. large it may be connected with the electroscope by a wire, one end of which is fastened to the disk by hooking it in the hole in the edge. The electrical pendulum, or sus- pended pith ball, may also be used as an electroscope, as described in the article on Frictional Elec- tricity. ELEPHANT, THE, a diversion in which two persons imitate an ele- phant. One stands behind the other, as in Fig. i, both bending their bodies so that their backs are hori- zontal, and the rear one rests his head and his hands on the one in front of him, as shown in the illus- tration. The first one holds a black cane with a curved handle to rep- resent the elephant's trunk, and the second has in each hand a roll of white paper for tusks. The tusks must be long enough to project in front of the trunk. A gray shawl is now thrown over both boys, two pieces of gray cloth are pinned in the proper places for ears, and round bits of white paper, with black spots in the middle, are fas- tened on for eyes (see Fig. 2). As ELEPHANT 296 ELEPHANT Fig. I. Fig. 2. the animal walks, the trunk should be swayed slowly to and fro. A show- man, gaudily dressed in colored shawls, with a white turban, should accompany the elephant, and ex- hibit him to the company. It adds to the amusement if the showman pretends to speak in the Hindoo lan- guage, and what he says is explained to the audience by an interpreter. He can also lie down and let the elephant walk over him and perform other tricks usually shown in menageries. Sports Hke this were common in England in old times, as is shown Man Dressed as a Deer. ELLS OF CLOTH 297 EUCHRE by the illustration, taken from an old manuscript. One man is seen dressed as a deer, while another beats a drum for him to dance. ELLS OF CLOTH, a children's game played by any number of boys or girls, two of whom represent a weaver and a merchant, while the others are called ells of cloth. The ells stand in a row, holding hands, and stretching apart as widely as possible. The cloth is then said to be unfolded. After making a bar- gain with the weaver, the merchant " measures " the cloth by taking hold of each ell by his hands. He then goes away, as if to get his money, whereupon each of the other players turns to one side, and clasps the one in front of him tightly around the waist, the weaver taking his place at the head of the line. On the mer- chant's return he is told that his cloth is folded and that he must un- fold it. He then tries to make one of the players loosen his hold, by seizing the weaver's hands and pulling him about. As soon as any one lets go, he must stand on one side, and the game begins again. It may be con- tinued till only one ell of cloth is left, or for any time the players choose. Sometimes those who let go are re- quired to pay a forfeit. ENGLISH AND AMERICANS. See Tug of War. ETCHING. The preparation, by etching, of plates from which pictures are printed, is described in C.C.T., under engraving. Directions for etching an autograph or design deeply on brass or copper are given in this book in the article NITRIC ACID. To etch on glass, cover it with a thin layer of wax, as directed in that article, and scratch the design to be etched, as in the case of the metal. In an old saucer mix a tea- spoonful of powdered fluor-spar with enough sulphuric acid to make a paste. Place the glass, waxed side down, over the saucer and then heat the mixture gently for two or three hours. The heat must not be great enough to melt the wax, and the saucer must be placed so that the fumes arising from the paste will not be breathed by any one, as they are poisonous. A good place is on the hearth of an open fireplace, or at the back of a range provided with a hood for the escape of the odors of cooking. When the glass is re- moved, the wax must be cleaned off with turpentine, and the design will be seen etched in the glass. The etching is done by the fumes of hydro-fluoric acid, which rise from the saucer and eat into the glass where it has been exposed by scrap- ing away the wax. EUCHRE (yoo'-ker), a game of CARDS, played by two, three, or four persons, with a pack from which all cards lower than the Seven are ex- cluded. In the lay suits, the cards rank as in WHIST, but in the trump suit the Knave, which is called the Right Bower, is the highest card. The other Knave of the same color is called the Left Bower, and ranks next, both the Bowers being higher than the Ace. Thus, if Clubs are turned as trumps, the Knave of Clubs is the highest card, the Knave of Spades next, the Ace of Clubs next, and then the other clubs follow in the usual order. The Left Bower is also regarded as a trump in fol- lowing suit. In the two-handed game, which will be described first, the dealer gives each player five cards, two and three at a time. He may give the two cards or the three cards first, but he must not give, for instance, two to his opponent and then three to himself. After dealing, he turns the top card of the stock face upward as trump. The non- dealer looks at his hand, and, if he thinks he can take three tricks, says "I order it up." The dealer then takes the trump into his own hand, and discards his weakest card, placing it under the stock. If he is not strong enough to order it up, he says " I pass." The dealer may then EUCHRE EUCHRE either take up the trump as if it had been ordered up, saying, " I take it up," or he may pass, turning the trump card face downward, and saying, " I turn it down." If the dealer pass, his opponent can now name any suit he chooses as trumps except the one turned down, saying, for instance, " I make it Spades," or, " I make it Hearts." If he does not choose to make the trump, he may pass again and the dealer is given a chance to do so. If the dealer does not make the trump there must be a new deal. As soon as the trump is ordered up or taken up, or a new trump is made, play begins. Suit must be fol- lowed, but when this cannot be done anything may be played. If the player that orders up, takes up, or makes a trump, win three tricks, he scores a point. If he fail to win three tricks he is euchred and his opponent scores two points. If either player take all five tricks, he is said to make a " march," and scores two points. Four tricks count no more than three tricks. Each player usually keeps score by means of two of the small cards that were thrown out of the pack, either a two and a three, or a three and a four, placing one on the other so as to show as many pips as he wishes. Three-Handed Euchre. Each player in turn has the option of passing or ordering up, beginning at the dealer's left, and if each passes and the dealer turns it down, each has a chance to make the trump, as in two-handed euchre. If a player order up, take up, or make the trump, his two adversaries gen- erally play together against him, and if they euchre him, each scores two points. Because two often play thus against one, the three-handed game is often called "cutthroat euchre." In the three-handed game a march usually counts three. The play varies according to the score. Thus, when A, B, and C are playing, if A takes up the trump, and C has already three points, so that two more would put him out, it is for B's advantage to let A make a point rather than join with C to euchre him. Four-Handed Euchre. This is al- ways played in partnership, two against two. Each player has a chance to adopt or make the trump, as before, but the dealer's partner must say " I assist," instead of " I order it up," if he wishes his partner to take the trump card into his hand. If a player thinks, before playing has begun, that he has a strong enough hand to do without his part- ner's aid he says, " I play it alone," and his partner takes no further part in the hand. If he makes all five tricks alone, he scores four points; if he makes less than three tricks, he is euchred, and the adversary scores two points. In playing the game the beginner should remember that to order up the trump requires a stronger hand than to take it up, since in the latter case the trump card is taken into his own hand ; in the former, into that of an opponent. In making a trump, other things being equal, make it the other suit of the same color as the one turned down (called " making it next in suit "), if opposed to the dealer, otherwise make it one of the other suits (called "crossing the suit"). The reason for this is that as the dealer and his partner both passed, it is likely that neither of them had one of the bowers, and the same cards will be bowers if the trump is made "next in suit." The lead depends largely on what the actions of the other players show their hands to be. Thus, if the dealer has taken up the trump, the eldest hand should not lead trumps, but when (in playing the four handed game) the eldest hand's part- ner has ordered up or made the trump, the eldest hand should lead his best trump. A skillful player will vary his play according to the state of the score. EUCHRE 299 EUCHRE Thus, if the dealer and his partner are four to their opponent's one (called a " bridge ") the eldest hand often orders up upon a weak hand, thus preventing one of the other side from playing alone, gaining four points, and thus winning the game. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. Players must cut for deal, and the lowest deals, the Ace ranking below the two. 2. If the dealer give any one too many or too few cards, there must be a fresh deal, unless the misdeal was caused by an interruption from his opponent. 3. If a card is exposed during the deal, there must be a new deal un- less one of the players has looked at his hand, but the deal is not forfeited. 4. If a player deal out of turn, his deal is good if the mistake is not dis- covered before the first lead. 5. The dealer has not discarded till he has placed his rejected card under the stock. Before he has done so he may change his discard, but afterwards he may not touch it. 6. If a card be led by mistake before the discard, it cannot be taken back. 7. A player making the trump cannot change it after naming it. 8. A player may play alone only when he orders up, takes up, or makes a trump, or when his partner assists, orders up, or makes a trump. 9. He may not play alone after passing a trump or the making of a trump, nor when his opponents adopt or make the trump. 10. A player cannot announce, after the lead has been made, that he will play alone. 11. The partner of one who plays alone must place his cards face downward on the table and let them so remain during the hand. 12. After the trump card has been taken up, the dealer must tell its suit to any one who asks, but he need not tell what card it is. 13. Any card that is exposed, or played out of turn and taken back, must be played whenever its holder is called upon to do so by his opponent, unless such a play would be a revoke. But if a trick has been completed from such a lead it must stand. 14. If a player revoke or refuse to play an exposed card on call, his op- ponents may score two points and the offender may score nothing that he has made in that hand ; but if a revoke is discovered before the of- fender plays again, the only penalty shall be to treat the wrongly played card as exposed. Railroad Euchre. A Joker is ad- ded to the pack, ranking always as the highest trump. If a player de- cides to play alone, he may call for his partner's best card, and discard one from his own hand. Either of the opponents is then allowed to play alone on the same conditions, and if a euchre is made under these circumstances, the score is four points. If the Joker is turned as trump, the next card also must be turned to decide the trump suit, but the Joker may be taken in hand, in- stead of the trump card, if the trump is taken up or ordered up. Set-back Euchre. This may be played by two or more persons, each for himself. At the opening of the game each player's score is credited with five points. When he makes a point it is subtracted from the score, and when he is euchred he is set back two points, which are added to his score. He whose score is first reduced to nothing, wins. Six-Handed Euchre. Three per- sons play in partnership against three others. The players sit so that no two partners shall be together. No trump is turned, but each of the players in order, begin- ning at the dealer's left, has the option of passing or bidding for the privilege of naming the trump, stating as his bid the number of tricks he thinks he and his partners can take, and the suit he wishes for trumps. Thus, he may say " I bid three on Spades," meaning that with EUCHRE 300 EVERLASTING spades for trumps he undertakes to win three tricks. If a player cannot raise a previous bid he must pass. The suit of the highest bidder be- comes the trump, and he also leads. If the players on his side win the number of tricks that he bid, they score that number of points ; if they fail, the opposite side score the same number. No more than the bid can be scored, though more tricks be taken. The game is usually 25 points. Sometimes these are credit- ed to each side at the outset and the score kept as in Set-back Euchre. Sometimes two sevens are thrown out of the pack before the game, so that all the cards are dealt, but often they are retained, and, after dealing, the two cards that are left (or three, if a Joker is used) are placed, face downward, on the table. These cards, called the Widow, are the pro- perty of the highest bidder, and he may exchange any or all of them for an equal number of his own cards. The method of scoring, and the use of the Widow and Joker must be settled by agreement at the begin- ning of the game. Some players admit the playing of lone hands, in which case the score is counted as in Napoleon, ten points being won or lost. He who plays a lone hand must announce it before looking at the Widow. Napoleon, a kind of Euchre played by from two to seven persons. The players bid for the privilege of making the trump, as in Six-handed Euchre, but no one tells what suit he bids on but the highest bidder, who an- nounces the trump just before lead- ing. Each one plays for himself. The score is usually kept with counters, which are divided equally among the players before the game begins. If the highest bidder win the number of tricks he bid to make, each of the others gives him that number of counters ; if he fail, he gives that number to each of them. If he bid to take all five tricks, he must say " Napoleon," in which case the number of counters won or lost is ten, or double the bid. If the highest bidder lead again after win- ning the number of tricks he bid to make, he must play all five tricks out, and if he do not take them all, he loses. The number won or lost in this case is but five, since he did not bid Napoleon. Instead of using counters, the score may be kept as in Six-handed Euchre. When seven play this game, the four six spots must be added to the pack; when four or less play, the sevens, or the sevens and eights, may be rejected. When the game is played by four people in partnerships of two, it is called French Euchre. In this case the game is fifteen points, which are scored as in Six- handed Euchre. Back-Handed Euchre. The play- ers hold their cards with the faces toward the table, so that each sees all the hands but his own. Each one plays at random, and of course following suit is impossible. The game can be made very amusing, a player sometimes making a trump, when all but himself can see plainly that he has not a single card of that suit. But there is also more chance for skill than might be supposed, for by looking carefully at the other hands, a player may gain some idea of his own. History. Some writers say that Euchre was first played by French settlers in Louisiana, and that both the game and its name are corrup- tions of the French Ecarte. Others think it was first played in Pennsylvania, and still others that it had its origin in Germany. It seems certain that the Bowers were so called from the word Bauer (peasant), a name sometimes applied in Germany to the Knaves. Where- ever it originated it is now played more in the United States than in any other land. EVERLASTING, a game of cards played by any number of persons with one or more full packs. All EVERLASTING 301 EXCELSIOR the cards are dealt one by one, and each player, without looking at those given him, places them, face down- ward, in a pile in front of him. The one at the left of the dealer then plays his cards, in the middle of the table, one by one, as they come, till he throws out a face card or an Ace. If it is an Ace, it is said to " call for " four cards from the next player ; if a King, three ; if a Queen, two ; and if a Knave, one ; that is, that player must begin to throw out the proper number of cards one by one, but if he throws out an Ace or face card before completing the number he must stop and let his left hand neigh- bor play to that card. If any one plays all the cards called for, without putting down a face card or Ace, all the cards on the table become the property of the player next before him. Thus, suppose A plays an Ace, which calls for four cards as explained above ; if B plays those four cards without putting down an Ace or face card A takes the trick, but if B's second card, for instance, is a Queen, he must stop and let C play to that Queen. The lower face cards take most tricks, since they call for fewer cards, and the chance of the next player's turning up a face card is therefore less. But as no one may look at his cards, but is obliged to play them as they come, skill does not enter into the game at all. When any player takes a trick, he places it face downwards, under his pile, and the game thus goes on till some one has taken all the cards, thus becoming the winner. This j rarely happens in a short time, and I it is best to agree beforehand on an hour when the game is to cease. The one that has the largest pile -is then the winner. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. No one may change the order of cards in his pile or in the middle l>f the table. 2. When all a player's cards are gone, he is out of the game. EXCELSIOR, a solitaire game of CARDS, played with a full pack. The cards are dealt one by one, to form a figure like that below. They are placed on the numbered spaces, in order, except when an Ace or King appears. The Aces must be laid on one of the spaces marked A, beginning at the top, and Kings in like manner are put in the spaces marked K. When the last numbered space is filled, the player puts his next card on the first space again, and so goes on piling cards over and over again on the numbered spaces, till all the cards are dealt. The Aces and Kings, placed separately as Q 0000 0000 0000 0000 Excelsior. explained above, are called Foun- dation cards, and the player's object is to build piles on them, by suits, in regular order, upward from the Aces, and downward from the Kings. In dealing, if any card fall on one of the four corner piles that can be used at once in building, it may be so used. But if such a card fall on one of the side piles, it can only be used when that side pile adjoins the Foundation card on which it belongs. In either case, when a card is so taken, another is at once dealt in its place. EYES 302 EYES After all the cards have been dealt, any top card can be used in building. The top card on any corner or side pile may be placed on any other of those piles whose top card is just above or just below it in rank, and of the same suit. The cards may be examined at any time. The cards in the side and corner piles may be twice redealt. If, after they have been played the third time, the piles on the Foundation cards can be completed, the player has won ; otherwise, he has been defeated. EYES, Experiments with the. The eyes are described in C.C.T, 1. Hold up the forefinger about a foot from the face, and look at an object beyond it, a tree for instance. The forefinger will appear double. Then look at the forefinger, and the tree will appear double. The reason is that when the two eyes are looking at the forefinger the right eye sees the tree on the right side of the finger, and the left eye sees it on the left side. When they are both looking straight at the tree, each sees the forefinger in a different place. If one eye be cov- ered it is impossible to see either forefinger or tree double. 2. Place two bits of white paper on a table, about two feet apart. Cover the left eye, and with the right look steadily at the left piece of paper, at the same time walking slowly back- ward. A snot will be found where the rignt nand bit ot paper will dis- appear. By looking with the left eye at the right hand bit, the left hand bit can be made to vanish in like manner. By moving the head ever so little forward or backward the bit of paper will be made to appear again. The nearer the pieces are together the nearer the eye has to be placed to them to make one disappear. If, instead of bits of paper on a table, pencil dots two inches apart on a sheet of paper be tried in the same way, one will van- ish when the paper is held about six inches from the eye. In each case the reason is that the retina of every person's eye has a blind spot in it, and when the image of the paper or pencil dot falls directly on that spot, it cannot be seen. 3. Hold the eye two or three inches from the perpendicular edge of some object seen against a bright background, part of a window sash, for instance, or, if it be night, a ruler leaning against the shade of alighted lamp. Shut one eye, and holding the edge of a sheet of paper close to the other move the paper to and fro. The edge of the object will seem to move out to meet it. Repeat the same thing, standing about twenty feet away from the window sash or ruler, and the edge will appear to shrink away from the paper. 4. Let one person hold a candle, lamp, or some other bright object in front of another's eye. He will see in the eye three reflections. One is from the outside of the eyeball, another from one surface of the lens inside the eye, and the third from the other surface of the lens. 5. Cut out of black paper two ex- actly similar figures, crosses for in- stance, and place them side by side, almost touching, on a sheet of white paper. Hold them about three inches in front of the eyes, and three figures will be seen instead of two. The middle one consists of two, the image of the right hand figure, as seen by the right eye, being added to that of the left hand figure as seen by the left eye. 6. To see stereoscope pictures without a stereoscope. The stereo- scope is described in C. C. T. Hold a stereoscope picture before the eyes and by fixing them as if to look at a distant object make the picture ap- pear double, as in Experiment i. With practice, the eyes can be so controlled that the two pictures nearest each other can be made to overlap and melt into one, in which objects will stand out just as when seen through the stereoscope. 7. Place a scrap of colored paper 1 EYES 303 EYES or cloth on a gray ground, and look steadily at it for about a minute. Snatch the scrap away and in its place will be seen a spot of exactly the same shape but a different color. If the scrap is green, the spot will be red, which is the complementary or opposite color to green ; if yellow the spot will be violet. If, instead of Fig-. -Experiment 7. pulling the paper away, the eye be directed to the ceiling, the spot will be seen there. These spots, which are often called "ghosts," are caused by the action of light on the retina. The accompanying figure (Fig. i) is a good one to experiment on. Look at it steadily for some time and then look at the ceiling, where it will short- ly appear in black on a white ground. 8. Light a splinter of wood, and whirl it about in a dark room. It will seem like a circle of fire. This is because the image of the lighted end remains in the eye while it is being twirled around. For other experi- ments, showing that images remain in the eye for a fraction of a second, SeeTHAUMATROPE, ZOETROPE, and Chameleon TOP. 9. In a room in which there is no other light, hold a candle before one eye, closing the other. The candle must be moved up and down a little on one side of the eye and two or three inches from it. Presently there will appear black shadows on a red- dish ground, looking somewhat like leafless trees. These are the shadows of the blood-vessels on the retina. 10. Hold a pin so near the eye that it appears quite blurred. Look at it in the same position through a pinhole in a piece of paper, and it will be seen distinctly. In this way a pinhole in paper may be used to look at other small objects. It does not magnify them, but enables us to hold them much closer to the eye than we otherwise could. 11. Roll up a sheet of paper and look through it with one eye, keep- ing the other open. Hold up the left hand in front of the other eye, close to the farther end of the roll, and you will seem to be looking through a hole in your hand. 12. Divide a white pasteboard disk into an even _ number of sec- tions and black- en every other one, as shown in Fig. 2. Spin the disk rapidly by means of a TWIRLER and by looking at it Fig. 2.- steadily it will Experiment 12. appear tinted, the color changi^ig with the speed of rotation. The disk generally ap- pears greenish first, and then pinkish. Another way of performing the ex- periment is to cut away sectors from a black disk and then rotate it be- tween the eye and a cloudy sky. The sky will gradually assume different tints which vary -with the speed of the disk. None of these colors are real, but caused by the ex- citement of the optic nerve by a rapid succession of darkness and light. 13. Cut in a piece of cardboard two square holes, each about half an inch square and a quarter of an inch apart. Procure a number of bits of glass of various colors, about an inch square, and fasten two behind the holes in the cardboard by means of EYES 304 EYES elastic bands. Buy of an optician what is called a double-refracting prism, a piece of Iceland-spar or calc-spar which makes objects seen through it appear double. Hold the card up to a wmdow or lamp and look through a prism at it. Each colored hole will appear double, and by holding the prism at the proper distance, one color can be made to overlap the other, so that the eye sees a mixture of the two. Note what this is. Now unfasten the bits of glass and look through both to- gether at the light. The mixed color is entirely different from that obtained before. The reason is that in the first case one color really added its effect to the other, whereas in the second case the color seen is merely that remaining after each glass has strained certain colors out of the sunlight. Thus-, suppose blue and yellow glass be tried. A mixture of pure blue and yellow light makes white, so the color seen through the prism will be whitish gray. But, when looked through together the glasses will appear green, because the rays of light are the only ones which will pass through both yellow and blue glass. In the same way red and green appear orange by the first meth- od and dark green by the second ; red and blue seem first violet and then deep red ; and yellow and red appear first orange-yellow, then orange-red. 14. Darken the room and admit a little daylight (not direct sunlight) through an opening. With this throw the shadow of a rod or other object on a white wall or screen, and light a candle, so as to throw a second shadow. Alter the size of the open- ing through which daylight is ad- mitted, so as to make the two shadows as nearly as possible of the same intensity. The shadow thrown by the candle is really white, since it is the only part of the wall on which pure daylight shines alone, yet by contrast it appears blue. If it be looked at through a roll of black cardboard or paper the part of the wall about it will continue to appear blue, even when the candle is put out, but on removing the roll from the eye, it seems white again, and cannot be made to look blue except by lighting the candle a second time. 15. With a pair of compasses draw six or eight concentric circles, as near one another as possible. Make four dots, dividing the outer- most circle into equal parts, and then join these dots by straight lines, drawn with the aid of a ruler. (Fig. 3.) These lines will appear to be curved inward. This is because they cross the circles at different angles. Fig. 3. — Experiment 15. and the judgment of the observer cannot help attributing this, in part, to the curvature of the line. 16. Hold horizontally, a little be- low the eyes, a rod about a foot long, with its near end six or eight inches from the face and its opposite end pointing directly away. Look at the near end, and the two images of the rod will appear like a V, with the point toward the face. Fix the eyes on the farther end, and the V will have its point away from the face. 17. Press the closed eye with the finger tip close to the nose. A dark spot with a light border will be seen on the other side of the eye. If the eyeball be pressed on the outside the spot will be seen on the inside. EYES 305 EYES 1 8. Rub or press the closed eyes for some time, and designs and spots of various shapes and colors will be seen changing of themselves or accord- ing to the varying pressure. These spots are all caused by the excitement of the optic nerve by pressure. 19. Draw a number of lines con- verging to a pomt toward either the right or the left, and then draw sev- eral upright lines of the same length across these as in Fig. 4. If any one Fig. 4. — Experiment 19. who does not know, be asked which is the largest of the upright lines, he will be apt to point out the one crossed by the greatest number of the converging lines. 20. After reading for some time with one side toward a window, close the eyes alternately, and it will be seen that the paper of the book has a greenish tinge when seen by that eye alone which was next to the window. This effect is stronger if the light be very bright. The reason is that the light, shin- ing through the blood-vessels in the eyehd, tries that part of the eye that appreciates red, and so a white page appears to it slightly tinted with the complementary or opposite color, green. 21. Observe the letter S in a book, for instance the one just given. The bottom and top seem to be of about the same size. Turn the book up- side down and look at the same letter. What is now the bottom appears much the smaller part. The reason is that the eye tends to magnify the upper part of a figure. For this reason the lower half of the S's are usually made a little larger than the upper, to balance this ten- dency, but when the letter is inverted the larger half is now at the top and so looks larger still. 22. Cut out two pieces of paper of exactly the same size, shaped as in Fig. 5. — Experiment 22. Fig. 5, and place them as there shown. The eye will usually judge, at first sight, that the lower is the longer. If the pieces be made of different colors, to distinguish them, and their places be changed, one will seem to have decreased and the other to have increased. 23. Make a pinhole in a card and hold it three or four inches before the eye. Hold a pin-head as close to the eye as possible and it will be seen, upside down, in the pinhole. This is because, though the pin is much too near the eye to form an image on the retina, the ray of light through the pinhole causes it to cast a shadow there. This shadow is upright, whereas the images of ob- jects are inverted, so, as they appear right side up, the shadow appears up- side down. If several pinholes be made instead of one, the pin-head will be seen in each one of them, be- cause each ray of light throws a separate shadow of the pin-head on EYES 306 EYES a different part of the retina. Any object of similar size may be used in- stead of the pin, and if it be moved in any direction the shadow will be seen to move in the contrary direc- tion. If the eyelashes be allowed to fall over the eye, their shadows will be seen to move upward in the pinholes. 24. Look at Fig. 6. The horizon- tal lines appear to be nearer to- gether at the middle than at the ends, but this is not so. They are quite straight and parallel. The appearance is due entirely to the diagonal lines above and below them. 25. Look at anything having a regular pattern, such as a piece of figured cloth or calico, or better still a piece of wire netting or the seat of a cane-bottomed chair. By relaxing the eyes so that they will be fixed on a point beyond the object, the two images of the figured surface may be made to appear to slide one over the other, and by practice may be Fig. 6. — Experiment 24. made to stop where the observer pleases. If he thus causes the im- age of each figure to coincide with the one next to it, the surface will seem farther from his eye and the figures larger. If he causes the images to overlap still more, so that each falls on the second one from it, the effect will be increased, and so on. If he fixes his eye on a point nearer him than the surface, the latter will appear nearer, and the figures smaller. If the observer cannot direct his eyes to one point while noticing another he should hold his finger either in front of the sur- face or behind it, and look directly at it, trying at the same time to watch the figures on the surface. This experiment requires consid- erable practice, and some people find it more difficult than others. When properly done the effect is striking. FAMOUS NUMBERS 307 FANORONA 26. Darken the room and cover one window with cloth or paper having- the figure of a cross cut through it. Look steadfastly at this for a few seconds and then look at the wall of the room. The " after image " of the cross will be seen. If the eye be now directed, with- out movmg the head, to one of the corners of the room the arms of the cross will appear twisted so that the cross will look thus *f^ or thus Jc. This is because the eyeball is twisted a little in turning it toward the corner of the room, so that the image on the retina is dis- torted. 27. View a straight line, a, through Fig. 7. — Expefiment 27. a pinhole, 0, in a card, as shown in Fig. 7. It will appear to broaden as it nears the eye. F FABA-BAGA. See Bean Bags. FAGGOTS. See Fox and Geese, II. FAMOUS NUMBERS, a game played by any number of persons, each of whom writes a number on a slip of paper. The slips are mixed in a hat, and each player draws one. Each in order must then explain for what the number he drew is famous, or pay a forfeit. For instance, the number three may be said to be celebrated on account of the Three Graces. Two for Shakespere's "Two Gentlemen of Verona." Ten for the Council of Ten, and so on. FANORONA, a game played by two persons, with 22 white and 22 black pieces or men, arranged on a <> • • • ■ • D m % Fanorona Board, board like that shown in the diagram. The players sit opposite each other, and take turns in moving. A piece may be moved to any adjacent un- occupied angle, forward, backward, diagonally, or to either side. If, when any move is made, a piece is face to face with one of the enemy's, no vacant space being between, all of the enemy's pieces extending in unbroken line in the direction of attack are captured and removed from the board. If the line is interrupted by a vacant space, or hostile piece, the men are captured only as far as such space or piece. He who suc- ceeds first in capturing all his oppo- nents' pieces wins the game. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The first player is allowed only one move. 2. After the opening of the game, each player is allowed to move, using any piece he pleases, so long as he continues to capture. When he ceases to capture, his opponent be- gins his turn. 3. A player must not return at once to a point he has just left. 4. A player must not capture in any direction immediately after mak- ing a capture in the opposite direc- tion. Fanorona is the national game of the natives of Madagascar, who have reduced it to a science. In Mada- gascar a defeated player is not al- FARM YARD 308 FEELING lowed to play his second game on the same footing as the first, but must play a new form of it, called Vela. In this form the defeated player plays first, and the other ex- poses to capture such pieces as he chooses, till seventeen have been taken, but these can be taken only one at a time. Until the entire num- ber are captured, the owner of them can make no captures. The game then goes on as in the ordinary way. A defeated player is allowed to play only the Vela game, till he has won a victory. FARM YARD, THE, a trick in the form of a game. One of the com- pany, chosen as leader, tells the others that they must sit in a circle, and each personates some animal. He says that he will first whisper in the ear of each what noise he is to make, and that all must rise and make their noises at a given signal. He then whispers to each, directing them all to remain quiet, except one, whom he tells to bray like a donkey. When the signal is given, the victim of the trick rises and brays, while the others sit still. FARRAGO. See Synthesis. FAST RUNNERS, a running game played by any odd number of per- sons. All but one are arranged in a column by pairs, all facing toward the same end of the column. The remaining player stands alone at the head of the column, and at a signal from him the two at the foot divide and run on the outside of the lines past the head, after which they take different directions. If the one at the head can catch either before they meet again and join hands, that one must take his place, and he becomes the partner of the other, standing close to the head of the Hne. If the couple join hands before either is caught, they stand close to the head, and the unsuccessful runner is at the head again. At the signal the couple now left at the foot begin to run in like manner, and so on till the play- ers are tired. Neither of the runners can be touched until he has passed the head of the column. In Germany this game is called Fang Schoti (Begin now), and in Russia "It Burns," from the cries of the runners. In Belgium it is called " Bride and Bridegroom," and in Suabia Brautlauf (The Bride Chase). These last names seem to show that it is derived from the old custom of requiring the bridegroom to carry off the bride by force, or pretend to do so. FEELING, Experiments on. i. Cross the forefinger and middle fin- ger of one hand, and with the tips feel a marble or small pebble held in the palm of the other. It will feel as if there were two marbles. The reason is that the marble is felt at the same time by the two sides of the fingers which are usually farthest from each other, and the mind can- not help concluding that there are two marbles. The best way of per- forming the experiment is to let some one else cross his fingers, shut his eyes, and guess how many marbles he feels. If more than one held in the hand, guessing becomes still more difficult. 2. Prick a person's hand with two pins held very close together. It will be found that he cannot tell when you use two points and when only one, provided the points touch him exactly at the same time. On some parts of the body the pins may be held about half an inch apart be- fore the two separate pricks can be feels. The reason is that the nerves of the skin form a network which is much closer in some places than in others. Where the meshes are very large the nerves cannot distinguish two sensations which are very near together. If blunter points be used than those of pins, the effect is more striking. 3. Take a long hair, and with the thumb and forefinger of one hand pull it through those of the other, first in one direction and then in the other. It will be found that it slips easily one way and will scarcely slip FEMME SOLE 309 FEMME SOLE at all in the other. The reason is that each hair is covered with a kind of scales which grow in one direc- tion, and it is therefore easier to rub the hand over it one way than the other, though the scales cannot be seen with the naked eye. The direc- tion in which it is easiest to stroke hair is always down, or from the root, hence it is always possible to tell by feeling which end of a hair grew nearest the root. 4. Fill one glass with water almost as warm as the hand can bear, another with cold water, and a third with lukewarm water. Hold one hand in the warm water and the other in the cold water for about 15 or 20 seconds, and then put them into the lukewarm water. It will feel warm to the hand which has been in the cold water, and cold to the other. The reason is that we cannot really tell the temperature of objects by the touch, but only whether they are warmer or colder than ourselves. 5. Put a piece of iron and a piece of wood into the ice box of a re- frigerator, and let them remain sev- eral hours, long enough for both to get ice cold. Then take them in the hand, and the iron will feel colder than the wood. Put them in a moderately warm oven for half an hour, ancl feel them again. This time the iron will be the warmer. The iron may be even too hot to hold, while the wood can be taken up easily. The reason is that iron is a better conductor of heat than wood. Heat therefore goes from the iron to the hand, when it is hot, faster than it does from the wood, and iron takes heat away from the hand faster when it is cold. FEMME SOLE, a game of CARDS, played by three persons with a full pack. The deal is determined by cutting, the lowest card indicating the dealer. He separates a euchre pack from the full pack, and deals eleven cards, one by one, to each of the other players and ten to himself. He then takes the remaining cards of the full pack, called the Stock, shuffles them, and gives them to the player on his right to cut. The card cut determines the trump suit, and the dealer then takes the Deuce of that suit from the stock, to complete his own hand. There is thus in play, besides the regular Euchre pack, one Deuce, which, as the trump changes, is sometimes of the .trump suit and sometimes not. It always ranks as the highest card in the pack, except when played in its own suit, where it is lowest, as in Whist. The high- est trump is the Queen, called Femme Sole (a French term used in law to mean an unmarried woman). The eldest hand now leads any card ex- cept the Deuce. Suit must be fol- lowed, if possible (except that the Deuce may be played out of suit), and the trick must be taken, if possi- ble. The winner scores one for the trick, which he takes into his own hand, making the hands equal again by giving to each of the other players one of his cards, according to the following plan : 1. If one of the others holds Femme Sole, and the other the Deuce, he gives to the holder of each card a card in its suit. 2. If the two should be in the same hand he gives a card in the Deuce suit to that hand, and placing the Deuce in the stock, substitutes for it any other Deuce he pleases, telling what it is, as he does so. This is called " clearing the Deuce." To the third player he gives any card he chooses. 3. If the Deuce and Femme, or either of them, are in his own hand, he gives a trump to the player with the highest trump, and any card to the other player. 4. Should he not be able to do as he should, he may give out any card he pleases, but then is not allowed to score for the trick. The winner shuffles and cuts the stock for a new trump after each trick, but there is no fresh deal till FENCING 310 FENCING the close of the game, which is won by the first player who makes eleven points. The general rules for playing are as in WHIST. It is best to lead from a long suit, and in giving out after each trick, low cards should be cho- sen. Deuce is least valuable when it is unsupported by other cards of the same suit, for then, by leading that suit, an opponent may force the holder to play it, when it will be taken, being low in its own suit. When a player gets the privilege of " clearing the Deuce," therefore, he should select, as the new Deuce, one of whose suit the holder of the Deuce has very few. FENCINC, exercising with foils. Fencing foils are tipped with metal or gutta percha buttons, so that no injury can result from a touch, but both contestants usually wear leather jackets to protect them in case a button should break off, and each resting under the wrist. The foil should be held lightly, but so that the fingers will take an instantaneous grip, (see Fig. 2.) The various move- ments in fencing, which are chiefly called by French names, will now be described. By carefully learning their names, and practicing them, Fig. I. — Fencing Mask. has over his face a mask of wire gauze (see Fig. i) and a padded glove on his right hand. The foil should be held with the hilt (or handle) flat in the hand, the thumb being stretched along the upper side, and the pommel, or end, Fig. 2. — Holding Foil. beginners will soon be ready to apply them and vary them in actual con- tests, when parrying or thrusting. The principal kinds are the Engage, the Guard, the Thrust, and the Parade. The Engage is a position where the adversaries' foils touch each other ; the Guard is a position of the foil intended to protect its holder; the Thrust is a forward mo- tion of the foil toward the opponent in an endeavor to touch him ; and the Parade is a movement of the foil to parry, or turn aside, a thrust. Any of these positions or movements may be in Prime, Seconde, Tierce, Carte (or Quart). Quinte, Sixte, Half Circle or Octave (words derived from the French numerals from i to 8), according to the way in which the foil is pointed and held, as will now be explained. What are called the fines of defense are illustrated by Fig. 3, which is supposed to show the body of the fencer's opponent divided into quarters by two lines, a horizontal and a vertical. The space on the right is called the outside, and that on the left the inside, and the quarters, called the " lines of de- fense," are thus the Inside high. Outside high. Inside low, and Out- side low. Each of these quarters may be defended by two different positions of the foil. In each the sword-hand is supposed to be oppo- site the center and the foil extending into the quarter to be defended. Before engaging in a regular con- FENCING 311 FENCING test, the fencers must practice some of the most common positions and movements. Each fencer first as- sumes what is called the first posi- tion, by placing the right heel in the hollow of the left foot, and holding the foil just below the hilt, between the thumb and fingers of the left hand, so that it hangs at the left side (Fig. 4). The right arm hangs down easily and the right side is turned toward the opponent. The fencer then takes " second position " (Fig. Fig. 3. — Lines of Defense. 5), by bending his right arm across his body, and taking the foil by the hilt, and "third position" (Fig. 6), by raising both hands above the head, sliding the foil through the left thumb and fingers till they hold it near the button. Both knees are now slightly bent till they are directly above the toes, and the fencer steps out about two feet with his right foot, the knees being kept bent. The foil is now released with the left hand and brought down so that the point appears to cover the oppo- nent's left eye. The right arm, which holds the foil, is bent, the el- bow drawn in, and the hand on a level with the chest. To balance the right arm and foil, the left arm is still held up in a curve, the palm to- ward the right, and about as high as the top of the head. The body is upright and supported 'on both legs. The fencer is now " on guard in carte" (see Fig. 7). The guard " in tierce " differs from this only in reversing the hand, so that the nails are half-turned down- ward, and in stretching the arm a little outward, to cover the outside of the body. When two fencers en- gage in carte (see Fig. 8), each has his foil on the right of his adver- sary's, that is on his adversary's inside, so the guard of carte is called an " inside guard." In the engage of tierce the foils touch on the other side, it being an " outside guard." When a fencer shifts his foil from carte to tierce, ox vice versa, he is said to " disengage." This is done in carte or tierce by lowering the foil just enough to clear the ad- versary's, and raising it on the other side. In engaging, the foils are crossed at a point about nine inches from the point. The most common guards, besides those already de- scribed, are those of half-circle and octave. The half-circle guard is an inside low guard, usually to protect against a thrust in second or low carte (see below). To take it, the hand is raised to the left shoul- der, the elbow turned in, and the point of the foil is held on a level with the adversary's waist. The octave is a low outside guard, gener- ally used against the thrust of octave (see Fig. 9). The hand is raised to the chest, with the point of the foil on a level with the lower part of the adversary's chest. In disengaging from the guards of half-circle and octavC; the foil is slipped over that FENCING 312 FENCING of the opponent, not under, as in tierce. Thrusts. The usual thrusts are made by means of the half longe (or lunge) and the longe. To make the half-longe, the fencer stands on First Position. Fig. 5. — Second Position. Fig. 6. — Third Position. guard and first straightens the right arm, bringing the hand up as high as his face, and additional impetus is gained by throwing the left hand down, palm outward, so that the arm is parallel with the leg ; simultane- Fig. 7. — On Guard in Carte. ously, the left knee is straightened and the weight of the body thrown on the right leg, without moving either foot from the ground. The' full longe is made in like manner, but by also stepping forward with FENCING 313 FENCING the right foot as the weight is thrown on it (see Fig. 10). Reversing these movements so as to bringthe fenceron guard again, is called " recovering. " When the fencer, being on guard, wishes to advance, he moves the right foot forward about a foot, and in- stantly, almost at the same time, fol- Fig. 8. — Engaged in Carte. lows with the left, "so that the dis- tance between his feet remains the same. In retiring, the left foot makes the first movement. The thrusts usually take their name from the position of the fencer when he makes the longe. Thus the straight thrust in carte is made Fig. 9. — Guard of Octave. from the engage in carte. Whenever the fencer sees that his opponent is not " covering " or protecting him- self, there is said to be an " open- ing." In like manner, the semi- circle thrust (also called low carte) is made from the semicircle guard, and the octave thrust in like manner. FENCING 314 FENCING The thrust in carte over the adver- sarj^'s arm is made from the guard in tierce and differs from the thrust in tierce only having the nails turned upward. The thrust in second is made from the engage of tierce by dropping the point of the foil under the adversary's wrist. The fencer sometimes recovers from a thrust to the same guard as before, and sometimes to a different one. What is called the Time-thrust is made when an adversary is dilatory or not well covered. It is. made by opposing the adversary's foil strongly, and then longing quickly. Parades. The simplest parades are those of carte and tierce, which are called upper parades. That of carte is made from guard in carte by throwing the hand about six inches inward making an upward turn with the wrist, and at the same time drawing the foil back slightly, thus throwing off the opponent's foil. The point of the foil, the body, and the legs should be kept in the same plane while executing the movement. The parade in tierce is likewise made from the guard in tierce by stretch- ing the arm obliquely downward to the right about six inches. The parades of octave and half-circle are performed by bringing the foil into the positions of the octave and half- circle guards, and there turning aside Fig. 10. — The Longe. the opponent's foil. The parade of prime is made from the engage of tierce by bending the arm and wrist, raising the hand to the chin, draw- ing the arm inward at the same time, and pointing the foil toward the lower part of the opponent's chest. Counters, or Round Parades. These are performed by following the foil of the adversary in a small circle. For instance, being engaged in carte, if the fencer's opponent dis- engage he follows the latter's blade closely with his own by moving the wrist only, so as to join him again in carte. The parade of counter tierce is made in Hke manner, only in the reverse direction. The half- circle, octave, and other counters are made similarly. Fei7tts, movements intended to deceive an adversary and force him to uncover himself. The feint of One, Two (sometimes called by the French name Une, Deux) is per- formed by two disengagements. For instance, when disengaging from carte to tierce, if the opponent takes the guard of tierce, the fencer may quickly disengage back to carte and FENCING 315 FENCING longe. The same feint in reverse order can be performed when en- gaged in tierce. The feint of One, Two, Three (or Une, Deux, Trois) is performed in like manner by three disengagements, the last accom- panied by a longe. Cut over the Point, a movement executed by a fencer when his oppo- nent holds his hand low and the point of his foil high. Being engaged in carte, it is performed by raising the wrist so as to pass the foil over that of the adversary without expos- ing the body by moving the arm. At the same moment the thrust of carte over the arm is given. This is called the cut over the point from carte to tierce (see Fig. 11); that from tierce to carte is performed in like manner. Appels, Beats, and Glizades. These are movements intended to confuse an adversary. An appel is performed by beating on the floor with the right foot ; a beat, or beat on the blade, is executed by sharply striking the adversary's foil ; and a glisade by gliding the foil along that of the opponent, at the same time extending the arm. The Salute. Previous to a fencing contest it is customary for the fencers to go through certain movements as Cut over Point. a form of courtesy (see Fig. 12). These movements are also useful as exercises for the learner. The first three positions having been taken as already described, the fencers take guard in tierce, each with his foil out of the line of his opponent's body, and then each beats twice with his right foot. One then asks the other other to thrust first, whereupon the latter longes in carte, but without touching the body, by this means measuring his distance. After the one who thrust has recovered, each brings his right foot up to the hollow of the left, drops his left hand, and brings his right hand under his chin, with the foil raised vertically. He then performs the parades of carte and tierce, bringing his hand under his chin again, at the close of each ; then by a circular movement of both hands passes quickly to the guard of carte. The one who first thrust, now makes six disengages. At each disengage from carte to tierce, his opponent parries in tierce, at the same time turning the hand, nails FENCING 316 FENCING downward, and dropping the point of his foil. When the thruster takes guard in tierce the opponent en- gages, at the same time making an appel. Each disengage back to carte is similarly met, the foil being turned in a half circle, nails up, af- ter the parry. After making the six disengages thus, the fencer feints One, Two, without thrusting, re- covers in tierce, brings his right foot into the hollow of his left, and drops his left hand to his side. He then asks his opponent to thrust, and the whole salute is performed again, the movements being interchanged. Skilled fencers do not put on the mask till after finishing the salute. The Assault. A regular fencing contest in which each fencer tries to touch the other by using any of the movements described, in any order. In the assault each fencer should look steadily in his opponent's eyes, so as not to betray the movements he intends to make. It is well to act at first on the defensive to discover what are the favorite thrusts or feints of an adversary. At the same time the latter should use all the different movements, as much as possible, in order not to give such Fig. 12.— The Salute. information. A good fencer must not only be able to longe, recover, advance, and retreat quickly, but must also have what is called a good opposition ; that is, he must always stand with his right side toward his adversary, and cover himself well with his foil. He must be able, by the pressure of his adversary's foil on his own, to tell what the latter intends to do, and must be able and ready to take advantage of all open- ings his adversary gives, w^ithout giving any himself. The following examples serve to show how some of the movements already described are used, and would be good for beginners to practice. Ex. I. The fencers engage in carte. A drops his point and thrusts in low carte. B thrusts straight. A parries B's thrust in carte, and thrusts again in low carte. B parries, disengages to tierce, and thrusts carte over the arm. A parries, and having disengaged returns a thrust in carte. FENCING 317 FENCING B parries in carte, then drops his point and thrusts in low carte. Ex. 2. Engaged in carte. A retreats. B advances, keeping on guard in carte. A retreats again. B advances, disengaging to tierce. [B should advance at the same moment that his adversary retreats, and when the latter advances he should retreat.] Being engaged in carte again, A thrusts in carte. B forms the parade in carte and delivers its straight thrust. A thrusts in carte again. B throws it off as before, and, dis- engaging to tierce, thrusts carte over the arm. A disengages and thrusts carte. B parries in carte, disengages, thrusts carte over the arm. A parries, and thrusts in tierce. B makes the parade in tierce, and delivers a straight thrust. Ex. 3. Engaged in carte. B holds guard low and point high. A cuts over the point and thrusts carte over the arm. Engaged in tierce. B disengages and thrusts carte. A parries with octave. B disengages over A's arm as he recovers, and thrusts in low carte. Engaged in carte. A feints One, Two, and thrusts. B forms counter-parade in carte, and gives a quick return thrust in low carte. A makes an appel, at the same time beating on B's blade, and then thrusts straight carte. B parries, and disengages. A counters, performs a glizade, drops his point, and thrusts in octave. It is good practice for one of the fencers to make all his thrusts, feints, etc., while the other simply remains on guard, using the proper parades as he needs them. The second fencer should then thrust and the first parry. In fencing matches, the contes- tants fence for a stated time, and he that makes the greatest number of hits in that time is declared the win- ner. The hits are sometimes re- quired to be within certain lines, which are chalked on the breast. If one fencer hit the body and the other the mask at the same time, only the hit on the body is counted. If one of the fencers drop his foil, any hit made by his adversary, after seeing the foil drop, is not counted, but a hit is good if made before see- ing it drop. RULES. The following rules for fencing matches are those of the Amateur Athletic Union, and were adapted from the rules of Adolph Ruze of Paris. 1. Jury. The jury is formed of at least three members, who judge without appeal. 2. Position. The jury must place themselves on both sides of the fencers, looking toward their chests, so as to judge as well of the value of the touch as of its artistic quality. 3. Director of the Competition. A director shall be chosen from among the members of the jury, who shall always give the signal to begin the assault. 4. Stopping the Assault. When any member of the jury shall call " Halt ! " the contestants must take the first position and lower the points of their foils. ^. Formation of the Bouts. Com- petitors to fence according to draw- ing. The committee in drawing lots for the preliminary bouts will endeavor to arrange them so that members of the same club shall not be drawn against each other. In the finals, however, the order of bouts will be No. i to fence with No. 2, and so on through the list. 6. Odd Nu7nber of Contestants. Rule to be " miss and out " — i.e. the beaten contestant retires entirely from the contest. If the number of the contestants is odd, one of the defeated will be drawn to fence the FENCING 318 FENCING odd man ; if beaten, the odd man retires also. 7. Witmer of Bout. The con- testant making the first five touches to win his bout. 8. The Question of Artistic Merit. The jury in deciding the bout can add one point to the losing contestant if they think his general form in fencing superior to his oppo- nent. Should the score, by addition of this one point be made equal, they shall fence for three more points. This method of judging is based upon the idea that the contest is intended as an exhibition of skill rather than the mere securing of points. 9. Value of a Touch. Touches to count only when made upon the body within the limits defined by a cord sewed on the fencing jacket, under supervision of the committee. Any contestant, however, who shall turn his back on his adversary, during a bout, shall forfeit one point for each offense. 10. The Avoided Touch. When- ever there is a clear intention on the part of the one touched to avoid the point, either by a movement of arm or body, his adversary shall score one point. 11. Slap and Touch. A touch is of no value when the point is twisted on the body after the slap of the foil. 12. Foul Toiiches. A touch, whether fair or foul, stops the riposte (the return thrust). 13. Simultaneous Attack. Double-touches, occasioned by both contestants lunging at the same time, are considered bad form, and in case of second offense, one point shall be deducted from each contestant. This punishment consists in increasing the fatigue, imposing upon both con- testants the obligation of regaining the point taken away. 14. Validity of the Attack in the Double-touch. From the point of view of skill, the party attacking with the hand high and in opposition is always in the right, and his blade should be parried by the party at- tacked, in order to avoid the double- touch. The stop touch is allowed when the attack is in the low line and not in opposition. Double-touches are in general an- nulled. 15. Renewal or Delay of the Attack. The touch scored in the renewal or in the delay of the attack is valuable if the parry made to the first attack has not been followed by a riposte, or when the riposte has been slow. 16. Corps-a-Corps. The jury stop a corps-a-corps as soon as made, since it may serve to cover irregularities. 17. Of Contestants at Close Quar- ters. When one of the contestants shall be driven into a corner, the director shall halt and replace them so as to leave ample space behind each, and so that the precept " to retreat is not to flee " may be ap- plied. 18. Disarmament. A disarma- ment shall not count a touch, but a touch scored immediately following upon a disarmament shall count. 19. Changing Fencing Hand. Each contestant must fence through- out the contest with the hand he begins with. | 20. Costume. Each competitor shall wear a dark fencing jacket and dark trousers, so that the white chalk marks can be easily seen. Each competitor shall also wear in the foil contest a fencing belt not exceeding four inches in width. 21. Space. Space allowed con- testants to fence in shall be thirty feet in length. 22. Conclusion. See that the meetings do not relapse into a hand- to-hand struggle, that it be an exact representation of the art and beauty of fencing. History. Fencing was practiced in ancient times as a means of attack and defense with swords, and exhibitions of it were given in the FENCING 319 FENCING Roman arenas by gladiators. It afterwards fell into disuse when the custom arose of protecting the body by heavy armor, but when armor was abandoned it came again into fashion. The continual brawls and contests between factions in Italy made it a necessary part of every one's education there, and Italians became very expert fencers. It was imported thence into Spain, France, and England. The sword used by the Italians was the rapier, which was long and flexible, with a sharp point, but no cutting edge, and modern fencers always use foils shaped like the rapier unless some other shape is specially mentioned. Fencing may be practiced with a broadsword, bayonet, or stick, but the method in these cases differs somewhat from that described above. In the old Italian school of fencing there were eight kinds of parries, called priino, secondo, tirzo, etc. (first, second, third, etc.), and from these the French terms now used are derived. The early Italians and Spanish aided the management of the sword with the dagger and cloak, and allowed the -fencer to shift his position to the right and left in making his defense ; but when fencers became more expert, and attacked with greater velocity, the dagger and cloak became an incum- Fig. 13. — Fencing about 1600. brance rather than an aid. The rapier became a favorite sword for duels, since it was the fairest to both sides, as it depended least on mere brute force. Before its introduc- tion into England in Elizabeth's reign, duels were fought without re- gard to equality of arms, and any advantage, fair or unfair, was seized upon at once. Though dueling is wrong, fair fighting is to be preferred to unfair, so the introduction of fencing with the rapier did much for civilization. Now that duels are not fought, there is no use for the rapier as a weapon, since soldiers do not wear it, but fencing with the foils is still a favorite exercise, and fenc- ing with the heavy swords used by soldiers is, of course, taught them. Fig. 13, taken from an old German book, published in the 17th century, shows two fencers of that date. Authorities say there is no single exercise which combines so many advantages, as fencing, since it brings into play the muscles of every part of the body, expands the chest, dis- tributes the circulation equally, and gives delicacy of touch, while render- ing the hand steady and light. In 1536 a book on the art of fencing was published by a Venetian named Marozzo, and since his time many works on the subject have appeared, one of the best of which is the little handbook in the " All England " series (1889). FIFTEEN IN A ROW 320 FIFTEEN PUZZLE FIFTEEN IN A ROW, a soli- taire game of CARDS, played with two full packs. At the beginning of the game all the cards are laid on the table, faces upward, in rows of 1 5 each, the last row containing but 14. The cards of each lower row lie partly on those of the next row above. The player's object is to build up the cards in families, by suits, upward from four Aces (one of each suit) and downward from the four corresponding Kings. For this purpose one can begin with any in- dependent card, that is, any card that has no other resting on it. Any independent card may also be placed on any other independent card of the same suit, just above or just below it in rank. At the beginning of the game only the cards in the lowest row are independent, and if there are no Kings or Aces there, and none can be freed, they may be taken from the next higher row and their places filled by pushing up the cards just below, until one King and one Ace have been obtained to begin building up the families. When all the cards have been removed from any line it is called a Street, and any indepen- dent card may then be placed in it. If the families can be completed the player wins. FIFTEEN PUZZLE, a solitaire game played with fifteen numbered Fifteen Puzzle. blocks of wood in a shallow box, arranged as in the figure. The object is, having first arranged the blocks in any order desired, to bring them into the order represented above simply by sliding them past one another, without taking any from the box. We learn by the rule of permutations in arithmetic that 15 numbers can be arranged in no less than 1, 307, 674,368,000 different ways. In half of these arrangements the game can be won, and in half it can- not. To find whether any given arrangement can be solved or not, write the figures on the blocks in a straight line, as they occur in the box, and then bring them back to order by changing the places of two adjoining ones at a time, as illus- trated below. If it requires an even number of changes, the game can be won from the arrangement; if an odd number, not. Thus suppose the ar- rangement is as follows : Write the numbers thus, 12375 4 6 8 9 14 15 12 13 10 II. Find the number of changes, two by two, necessary to correct the order. To bring the Four into place it must change places, first with the Five and then with the Seven, that is, two changes are required. In like man- ner, the number of changes required to bring each of the numbers, in order, into its proper order will be found to be : To bring the 4 into place 2 7 10 II 12 13 Total, 16 an even number. The game can therefore be won by this arrangement. The player must remember that each number must be changed only with an adjoining one ; thus, it would not give a correct result to exchange the Four and Seven at once, and call that one change. The best plan is to write the numbers on bits of paper, so that they can be shifted about easily. Trial will show that although the necessary number of changes varies FILBERTS 321 FISHING with different ways of changing, it will always remain even or odd, as the case may be. The reason that the arrangements with an even num- ber of changes are the only soluble ones is that the blocks can be moved about only in such a way as to give an even number of changes. The learner can convince himself of this by trial, remembering always to ar- range the blocks so that the right hand lower corner is vacant, before counting the changes. As any even number of changes can be made, any odd arrangement can be brought down to that in which there is only one more change necessary ; but one being still an odd number, that change can never be made. Thus, if the last hne reads 13, 15, 14, while the rest of the blocks are in order, it is impossible to win the game. The Fifteen game was invented in this country, and became very celebrated about 1880. Before its properties were studied many people wasted a great deal of time in trying to win it from impossible arrange- ments. FILBERTS, Experiments with. Minute dents are often seen in the ends of filberts. These dents are the ends of very small channels which lead completely through the nut. If one of them be pricked with a pin and the end of a hair inserted, it is possible, with great care and patience, to push the hair quite through the nut. Necklaces of fil- berts, strung on hairs in this way, have been made, but the experiment succeeds only after many trials and with great patience. FIRE-DRAWINGS. Make a solu- tion of saltpetre in water and with a splinter of wood draw designs, figures, or letters on a piece of un- glazed paper. When dry, the paper will appear as if nothing were on it. If a glowing coal be now touched to part of the design it will take fire, burning with a good deal of smoke, but no flame, and the fire will trace out the design marked on the paper, not burning any part untouched by the saltpetre. The design, of course, should not be interrupted, but must Fire Drawing. be in continuous lines. The illus- tration represents the drawing of an elephant thus made. FISH, FLESH AND FOWL. See Three Elements. FISHING. Fishing with hook and line is called angling, from angle, the old name for a hook. Hooks are of various shapes and are generally known by the name of the place where they were originally made, as the Limerick or Aberdeen hooks ; by the name of the maker, as the Kirby or O'Shaughnessy ; or by the fish they are intended to catch, as Bass, Salmon, or Trout hooks. Among the hooks shown on the next page are the New York trout and bass hooks (Figs. 1 1 and 1 2), the Kirby bowed (Fig. 4). the Carlisle (Fig. 13), the Aberdeen (Fig. 7), the Kinsey (Fig. 2). and the Sneck (Fig. 9). Hooks may be either hollow-pointed, like the Limerick (Fig. 3), or bowed, like the Kirby (Fig. 4), but Kirby hooks are also made hollow pointed. As a rule a straight hook is the best ; that is, one whose point is in line with the shaft and not kirbed or bent to one side, for it more surely hooks the fish. Most kinds of hooks are now made with ringed ends, flatted ends, knobbed ends, or plain ends. Lime- rick hooks formerly always had plain ends, but are now made also with Fie. I. Gang-hooks. Fig. 2. Kinsey hook. Fig. 3. Limerick hook. Fig. 4. Kirby hook Fig. s. Barbless hook. Fig. 6. Snap-hook, open. Fig. 7. Aberdeen hook. Fig. 8. Snap hook, shut. Fig. 9. Sneck hook. Fig. 10. Treble hook. Fig. 11. New York trout iiook. Fig. 12. New York bass hook. Fig. 13. Carhsle hook. Fig Sizes of hooks, i to 16. 14. 32: FISHING 323 FISHING ringed ends, as shown in Fig. 15. The Barbless hook (Fig. S) has, instead of a barb, a sharp piece of wire extending across the opening of the hook, making it ahnost impossi- oie for a fish to escape after he has once hooked himself, but such hooks Fig. 15. — Sizes of Hooks. are little used. The snap-hook (Fig. 8) has two hooks, which are set to- gether like a trap, and which spring apart (Fig. 6) after they are in the fish's mouth, thus holding him securely. The treble hook (Fig. 10) consists of three hooks fastened to- gether. Several treble hooks are often placed one below the other in what are called " gangs " (Fig. i). Figs. 14 and 15 show the sizes of hooks and the numbers denoting them. Some kinds of hooks are in- tended to be used without bait. The spoon-hook, of which two kinds are shown in Fig, 16, has on it a Fig. 16. — Spoon-hooks. Fig. 17. — Squid. piece of polished metal shaped some- thing like the bowl of a spoon. When it is drawn rapidly through the water the spoon twirls, and as it flashes along attracts the fish, which snaps at it and is caught by the hook. This kind of fishing is called trolling and is successful with blue fish, lake trout, pickerel, and other fish. For pickerel fishing several hooks and artificial flies are often fastened to the spoon. The line is fastened to a spoon-hook by a little swivel so that when the hook twirls it does not twist the line. The hook used in blue-fishing has its shank covered with a cigar-shaped piece of white metal called a squid (Fig. 17), which is sometimes cov- ered with eel-skin, with the silvery FISHING 324 FISHING side outward. The squid, which is often shaped like a Httlefish, glistens when drawn through the water, and attracts the lish just as the spoon- hook does. Snells. The end of the hook is generally attached to a piece of fine silkworm gut called a snell, which, being hard to see under water, pre- vents the fish from discovering that a line is fastened to the hook. Kooks may be bought already at- tached to snells, which are either single or double. Instead of snells, some hooks are fastened to gimp (a kind of coarse thread), and hooks for catching very large fish are at- tached to wire. Lines. Fish-Hnes are made of linen, hemp, silk, or hair, and cheap Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20. ones of cotton. For small lake or pond fish, linen or hemp is gen- erally used, and for salmon or trout, braided silk or silk and hair. In fishing from a boat, in a lake or on salt water, the line is generally held in the hand, but in fishing from shore it is usually attached to a rod. Sinkers and Floats. The sim- plest sinkers are little pieces of sheet lead fastened to the line by pounding them around it, or bullets cut in half. and the simplest floats are ordinary bottle corks tied to the line, but one can buy both floats and sinkers. Most floats are made of cork and quill, and are intended to be fast- ened to the line at both ends. Fig. 18 is called an "egg-shape" float, and Fig. 19 a "barrel shape." Fig. 21 shows adjustable floats, with the manner of placing them on the line. Figs. 22-24 show different shapes of sinkers. FISHING 325 FISHING Rods are made of any tough and elastic wood. For fly-fishing, split bamboo is best : for other kinds of fishing, lancewood, ash, or hickory Figs. 22, 23, 24. — Sinkers. may be used. A good bamboo rod weighs from 4 to 12 ounces and is from 8 to 13 feet long. What are called double-handed rods, for catch- Fig. 25. Ring Guide. Fig. 26. Tie Guide. ing large salmon, maybe 20 feet long and weigh two or three pounds. Rods are usually made in sections or joints, which can be taken apart and carried easily. In the simplest kind of still-fishing, the line is fastened directly to the end of the rod, but it is better to wind it on a reel, fixed on the rod where the angler can reach it, running the line through little guides on the rod, till it reaches the tip. The length of the line can thus be varied at will by winding up the reel. The guides through which the line passes are either "ring guides " (Fig. 25), being fastened to the rod by rings around it ; or " tie guides " (Fig. 26), which are tied to the rod. Reels are of many kinds. Most of them are operated by turning a Fig. 27. — Automatic Reel. handle, but there are " automatic " reels containing a spring A, which winds the line when the angler presses a lever C (see Fig. 27). Fij;. 28. — Home-made Reel. The line passes through the guide B, and the reel is fastened to the FISHING 326 FISHING pole at D. A home-made reel (Fig. 28,) can be constructed by fastening an ordinary spool between the prongs of a forked stick which are tied together at the top with string or wire. The spool is fitted with a crank made of wire. Bait. The bait may be some- thing on which the fish naturally feeds, or anything resembling it. The bait used for each kind of fish is described below. The most com- mon baits for fishing near shore are the ordinary earth-worm (called angle-worm because it is so often used in angling), live minnows, the grubs or larvee of insects, grass- hoppers, and artificial flies. In some places, especially in Europe, what are called " pastes " are used for bait. There are many kinds, some of the most common being made of wheat boiled in milk, or bread and bran softened with water and made into balls. In salt water fishing, sand-worms, pieces of raw fish, clam, lobster, and the little crabs called " fiddlers," are also commonly used. For most fishes the bait should be put on so as to conceal the hook as much as possible, but some are so greedy that they will bite even at a hook without bait. In baiting with worms, the hook should be run through the worm lengthwise until it is hidden, leaving a little hanging Fig-. 29. — Fly-book. from the point. Small fish are usually placed on the hook by pass- ing the hook through the body at the mouth and out at the tail. Artificial flies are also permanently attached to hooks, and are used for catching fish that will jump from the water at insects. The flies of which Anglers usually keep a variety, in cases called fly-books (Fig. 29), can be bought, or made at home, the materials being feathers, fur, hair, silk-worm gut, silk, and tinsel. The beginner may learn to tie his own flies from some ex- perienced fly-fisher, but flies may be bought so cheaply that most anglers prefer to buy them ready-made at the fishing-tackle stores. They are not always made to imitate natural ones exactly, though anglers differ as to whether fish bite better at imitations or not. Sometimes trout will rise at almost anything. Fly fishing is de- scribed more fully below. Nets. The only net used by sportsmen is the landing net, to take a fish out of the water when it has been brought to the surface by means of the hook and line. It is merely a small net stretched over a hoop of wood or metal, and provided with a wooden handle. A small net, called a scoop-net, much like a landing net, is frequently used to catch little fish in brooks, by boys for amusement and by older fishermen to obtain bait. A good scoop-net can be made by binding FISHING 327 FISHING Fig. 30. Head of Fish Spear. together the ends of the prongs of a forked sapling to form a hoop, leav- ing the main stem for the handle, and then sewing around the hoop a bag of mos- quito-netting. Spears. Eels, p ic kerel, and many other fish are sometimes taken with spears (Fig. 30), especially in winter, through holes in the ice, in the manner described below. The spear gener- ally used is shown in Fig. 30. Spearing fish is thought by many to be good sport, but anglers gener- ally condemn it, and in some States the law prohibits taking certain kinds of fish in this way. Fly Fishing. Before fishing with the artificial fly, the angler must first learn how to "cast" or throw the lines so that the fly will settle on the water just where he wishes, in imita- tion of a real fly. Skillful fly-casters can throw out more than ninety feet of line with accuracy, but in practice thirty feet is generally all that is wanted, and the beginner should use but nine or ten feet. Fly-casting can be learned on any level spot of ground, as well as near the water. To begin with, a small piece of wood, about an inch square, should be tied to the end of the line instead of bait. Holding the rod in the right hand, the reel on the under side, the learner draws out about eight feet of line with his left hand and then, holding the piece of wood in his left hand, raises the rod with his right till the line is taut. He then releases the wood and the elasticity of the rod, aided by a slight upward motion, throws the line over the angler's head where it straightens out behind his back. This is called the " back cast." Before it touches the ground — bet- ter before the end is lower than his head — the rod is moved forward, casting the line straight out in front. The forward motion is made chiefly by the wrist. For the second back cast the line is raised directly from the ground, without taking hold of the piece of wood again. The line should be lengthened gradually, till twenty or thirty feet can be cast, and the learner should also practice cast- ing at a mark, which may be any small object on the ground. In fish- ing from the bank of a stream it is important to know how to make the back cast without letting the fine drop below the head, for otherwise it is likely to catch in bushes or shrubs. The beginner should, if possible, seek instruction from an angler when learning to cast the fly ; once seeing it done is worth many pages of printed instructions. In actual fishing, the angler casts his fly time after time till a fish rises to the surface and seizes it. Some- times the fish will not bite unless the fly is dropped directly over their heads. As soon as the fly is taken, the angler must " strike," that is raise the pole with a sudden jerk, to drive the hook into the fish's jaws, otherwise the fish may release the fly without hooking himself. When the fish is hooked it will try to get free, and here the skill of the angler shows itself. After allowing the fish to tire itself by lashing to and fro, and letting it unwind plenty of line from the reel, the fisherman draws it in by turning the reel crank, whenever the fish is tired enough to permit. But with a strong fish, he must sometimes let the line run out to prevent its being broken. This alternate pulling in and releasing is called "playing." Sometimes it is kept up for hours, until the fish is near enough to be taken from the water with a landing net, or, if it be a very large fish, with a big hook FISHING 328 FISHING on the end of a rod, called a gaff. " Playing" a fish is the angler's great sport. A fish may escape, after be- ing hooked, by tearing itself from the hook, by breaking the line, or by cutting it against sharp rocks, and the angler should take care that the fish is not allowed to give a sharp and sudden pull. Fish Spearing through Ice. A board shelter or cabin, of convenient size, which can be moved about from place to place on the ice, is some- times built. It may be just large enough for the fisherman to sit in, say four feet high, and four feet square at the bottom, sloping to two feet square at the top, and usually has no floor (see Fig. 31). It must Fig, 31. — Frame of Spearman's Cabin. be quite dark, so that the only light comes up through the ice, thus enab- ling the fish to be seen clearly. The fisherman sits on a box or block of wood, holding in his hand the spear, which has barbed tines. The handle, of spruce or light pine, and 9 to 12 feet long, projects through a hole in the top of the shelter, the light being shut out by a loose piece of cloth, tacked to the edge of the hole, and fitting closely around the spear handle. The cloth should be large enough to allow the spear to move from side to side of the hole, by wrinkling. In the middle of the cabin a hole about a foot in diameter is cut through the ice. Through this the fisherman lowers a line, hav- ing on its end a decoy fish. This may be easily made of a piece of pine, painted white, with the back dark gray, fitted with tin fins, and weighted with lead. The line is fastened to its back by a bent pin, and by experiment the fins can be so arranged that when the Una is pulled up the fish will move ahead, as if it were swimming. The fisher- man continues to move this decoy about in the water until he sees that it has attracted a fish. The decoy is now gradually lifted with the left hand and the spear is slowly lowered with the right till it is about a foot above the fish's back, when it should be given a sudden thrust. The line may be thrown over the knee and the spear managed with both hands. If the fish is caught, it should be put outside the door of the shelter. A cabin like the one described is com- fortably warm, even when the ther- mometer is very low outside. Some fishermen build cabins having floors, seats, and a small charcoal or oil stove, so that a whole day can be passed in them. The best times for fish-spearing through ice are just before and just after sunset, during a snow-storm, or when the day is partly cloudy. > Snaring. Fish can be snared through the ice from a shelter like that used for spearing. The pro- cedure is exactly the same, save that instead of a spear the fisherman uses a slip-noose made of fine copper or brass wire attached to the end of a line. The line must not be jerked with too much force, or the wire snare may cut the fish in two. Trout can be snared in like manner with horsehair nooses. In most of the States it is forbidden to snare or spear trout, bass, and other food fish ; and anglers generally regard with dis- favor any method of capture except] with hook and line. A mode of fishing sometimes pra- : ticed in the Southern States is called; FISHING 329 FISHING " jugging." Five or six empty jugs are tightly corked, and floated in the water. To the handle of each is fastened a line about five feet long, fitted with a sinker and a baited hook. As the jugs float with the cur- rent, they are followed and watched by the fisherman. When a fish is hooked, the jug to which the line is fastened begins to bob up and down and darts about in all directions. Such a jug is at once pursued and the fish hauled in. A device used by fishermen, in tending several set lines on the ice, is called a tip-up. In its simplest form, a stick is laid across the ice hole, and to it is fastened at right angles an- other stick a foot or two long, having the line fastened to one end, and on the other a small red flag. The flag rests on the ice till a fish is hooked and then it is waved up and down by the struggles of the fish, at- tracting the notice of the fisherman. The following is a list of the principal game-fish of the United States, with a few words about each. The appearance of most of them is described in C. C. T., in separate articles. FRESH-WA TER FISH. Dace. Among the first fish usually caught by boys in fresh water are the various minnows sometimes called shiners and chubs, the most common of which is the dace or roach. The dace is found in most of the brooks and ponds in New England and the Middle States, and is caught with a light rod, and worms or artificial flies as bait. Sun fish, also called " Sunny," " Pumpkin seed," Pond Perch, Roach, and Bream. It is found in brooks over a large area in the United States (sometimes in salt tidal rivers), and is good eating. It is caught with small hooks and tackle, and worms as bait, and will also take the arti- ficial fly. The blue sunfish, blue bream, or copper nosed bream is fished for in the Southern States with artificial flies and affords good sport. The common bream of Southern waters is sometimes caught with a bait made of brown bread and honey. Yellow Perch. This favorite of young fishermen is common in most parts of the Eastern States, and furnishes sport most of the year round, being taken in summer with worm or minnow bait. In winter it is fished for through holes cut in the ice, the bait then used being the white grub found in decayed wood. In the spring the perch will rise to the fly. In weight the perch rarely exceeds two pounds, though speci- mens have been caught of twice that weight. Pike-Perch. This fish sometimes called the Glass Eye, Wall-eyed Pike, Ohio Pike, or Ohio Salmon, though it is neither pike nor salmon, is found in the Southern States, the great lakes, Western New York, and Canada. In Canada it is called the Doree, and another Canadian fish of the same species is called the Sandre. The pike-perch is bold and greedy and is readily taken with the hook, with almost any small fish for bait. In Lake Champlain it is sometimes caught by trolling. The weight of the pike-perch is from one to five pounds. Its flesh, which is white, is highly esteemed in the West. Pickerel. The Pike or Pickerel family includes the Muskallonge or Maskallonge (sometimes called the 'Longe),andthe Northern Pickerel, of the great lakes ; the Common Pickerel, found in all the ponds and streams of the Northern and Middle States ; the White Pickerel of the Ohio and other western rivers ; and the Black Pickerel of Pennsylvania. They are all distinguished by length of body. The muskallonge, which, though of the pike family, is not a gigantic pike, as some think, attains sometimes a weight of 50 and even 80 pounds. The pike seldom grows to be more than three feet long, but the muskal- longe has been known to attain seven feet, especially in the Michigan lakes and in the upper waters of the Mis- FISHING 330 FISHING sissippi River, The finest muskal- longe are caught in Rice Lake, Canada, and good-sized ones, though not the largest, in the St. Lawrence River. They are generally caught by trolling w^ith a spoon. The common pickerel or pond pike is perhaps the commonest of all game fishes in the United States. It weighs, on an average, about five pounds. All the pickerel are voracious, and destruc- tive not only to small fish but to frogs and water rats. There are many modes of catching them, and they will take almost any kind of bait, but they are caught best by trolling with a gorge hook, or fishing with a snap hook. Cat-fish, Bull-head, Bull Pout, or Horned Pout. These, which are nearly related, are found in all North American waters. Cat-fish are found in the great lakes and in the West as well as in salt water, and bull- heads in most all fresh water. They have no scales, the skin being either naked or protected by large plates. The largest cat-fish weigh 150 pounds. The flesh of the smaller kinds is rich, and in some places is considered a great delicacy. All the cat-fish are greedy biters, and will take almost any kind of bait. The ordinary bull-heads of the Eastern States are caught on muddy bottoms with worms as bait ; they bite best at night. The kind called " channel cat," found in the West and South, is very gamy and caught with heavy tackle and minnow bait. In the Southern States " jugging," described above, is a favorite method with the negroes of catching cat-fish. Black Bass is found in many lakes and streams east of the Rocky Mountains, and is much prized as a game fish. It is often caught with minnows, frogs, or grasshoppers, or by trolling with a Spoon hook, but rises readily at an artificial fly. The rods used are about 10 feet long and stiffer than those used for trout. In weight the black bass runs from two to four pounds for full grown fish, in Northern waters. Specimens have been taken weighing seven pounds and more. In the South, the fish are much larger. Florida bass have been caught exceeding twenty pounds. The colors of the black bass vary in different waters ; they have received many local names. They are called Trout in most parts of the South, Chubb in Virginia, and Welshmen in the Carolinas. Eels bite freely at worms, or bits of meat, and are also taken by spearing and by " bobbing." Eel bobs are made by stringing angle- worms in a bunch on a piece of stout thread at the end of an ordinary fish line. The eels bite at the bunch, and, their teeth becoming entangled in the thread, they are drawn ashore. Eels bite best at night and frequent muddy bottoms. Salt water eels are often captured in a sort of trap called an eel-pot. The Sucker is very commonly found in fresh waters in the North- ern States and is well know to country boys. It bites readily at angle-worm bait, and is often caught through the ice in winter. A favorite mode of capturing suckers is by means of a slip-noose of horsehair or copper wire, and they are also speared. Carp was imported from Europe about 1855, and is now found in many Eastern waters, and also in California and Oregon. It frequents muddy waters, and is not readily captured by angling, though it will sometimes take worms, artificial flies, and a bait of flour paste. Chub, Honey-head, or River Chub. This fish is widely distributed in fresh waters. It takes the hook readily, and is caught with worms or min- nows, the tackle used being the same as for black bass. Grayling. This fish is found along the Northern border of the United States, and catching it is con- sidered fine sport. It is best caught with a fly, but bites also at worms and insects. Salmon. The true salmon is FISHING 331 FISHING caught chiefly in Canadian rivers, and in the Penobscot River of Maine, from about the middle of May to the end of July, while on the way up from its annual visit to the sea, to deposit its spawn or eggs in fresh water. The fish deposit their eggs in the gravelly bed of the upper parts of the rivers in the autumn and then return to the sea. The young fish, when first hatched, are called Pinks or Paer, in their second year Smolts, and in their third Grilse. In fishing for salmon, artificial flies of various kinds are used. Trout. The Speckled, Brook, or Mountain Trout, which ranks second only to the salmon as a game fish, also migrates, or visits the sea, when it is possible for it do so. It is found in clear, cold streams and lakes ; and is caught with angle-worms, artific- ial flies, and minnows. In meadow brooks and mountain streams the fish caught do not average more than a pound in weight ; but, in the rivers and lakes of Maine and Canada, speckled trout of four to six pounds are not uncommon, while speci- mens have been caught weighing ten pounds. The lake trout is found in the great lakes, where it is often called the Mackinaw trout, and in the lakes of Northern New York, New England, and Canada. In the great lakes it sometimes reaches a weight of forty pounds; but in the other localities named it is much smaller. The lake trout is taken by trolling with minnow or spoon bait, and also by still-fishing near the bottom in deep water. White Fish, found in the great lakes, is much prized for food. It is caught usually in nets called " pound nets," from 500 to 1000 feet long. The net is stretched on poles, and ends in a pocket or trap, into which the fish swim and are caught by thousands. SA L T- WA TER FISH. The Cunner, also called the Salt- water Perch, Chogset, Burgall, Nib- bler, and Blue Perch, is found in great numbers along the coast of the United States. It is usually one of the first salt water fish caught by boys, and will bite readily at almost any bait. Clams' heads are often used. Light tackle is employed. Cunners often annoy fishermen very much by nibbling off their bait, when they wish to catch larger fish. Flat Fish are more gamy than the cunner, and excellent eating. They have flat bodies and large mouths. The tackle and bait are like those used for cunners. Flounder. This fish is taken all along the Atlantic coast, and bites best in spring and autumn. It is caught either with light tackle and clam or lobster bait, or in set-nets, and sometimes by spearing at night. Striped Bass, or Rock Fish. Though a sea fish, it enters tidal riv- ers to spawn, and often runs up fresh water streams in search of food. Next to the members of the salmon family it is considered the best game fish in the United States. It attains sometimes seventy or eighty pounds, but those weighing about eight pounds have the best flavor. It bites at nearly every kind of bait, and even at a white rag or bit of cotton, and it can also be caught with the artificial fly. A line baited with small fish is often cast directly into the surf, as in fly-casting. In troll- ing for it, the best bait is the min- now. Great care is necessary in landing the fish after it is hooked, for it is very strong, makes long and rapid runs, and is not easily tired. The Sea Bass, also called Black-fish, is caught on the coast of the Northern States in May, June, and July. It is sometimes caught from the shore, but generally from boats at some distance from land. It bites best at the turn of the tide, and is caught with black-fish tackle, and clams or shrimp for bait. Sea Chub. This fish is common in the South and occasionally appears as far north as New York. It was found there in abundance during the visit FISHING 332 FISHING of Gen. Lafayette to this country in 1836, and hence is often called the Lafayette. It is prized as a delicacy. Weak Fish. It is found on al- most all the coasts of the United States between June and December. In the South it is often miscalled Trout, which fish it much resembles in flavor. Its weight is generally from a few ounces up to seven or eight pounds, and it is asserted that sometimes weighs 25 to 30 pounds. It is caught during flood tide, usu- ally with clam bait. A large hook of fine steel is used on account of the fish's large mouth and soft jaws. The same tackle is used as for black bass. Weak Fish must be eaten within three or four hours after it is caught, as its flesh soon gets soft. Some say that the name " Weak," was given because the mouth is easily torn by the hook ; some that it is a corruption of " Wheat Fish," since it is caught when wheat is ripe ; and others assert that it is corrupted from the original Indian name, Squeteague. Sheepshead. This is naturally a Southern fish, but is taken along the coasts of the Northern States from June till October. It generally weighs seven or eight pounds, but sometimes as much as seventeen. It has a head sloping abruptly to the snout and large oblong scales ; is of a dull silver color with coppery gleams, and has five dark arched bands across the back and tail. Its head and forehead are black and the chin is marked with patches, which, with its peculiar profile and prominent teeth, give it a fancied resemblance to the head of a sheep. It a wary and hard fish to hook and to land. Sheepshead is delicious eating and highly prized by epicures. Special hooks are made for sheepshead fishing ; clam, crab, or fiddler bait is the best. Sheeps- head are found about wrecks, sunken timbers, the piles of wharves, or on a rock bottom, and hand-line fishing is commonly practiced, though the use of rod and reel affords better sport. Scup, or Scuppog. It is called also the Porgie, Forgy, or Paugie, and is found all along the Atlantic coast. It is caught generally from arowboat with a hand line, a medium sized hook, and a sinker heavy enough to carry it to the bottom. Clam bait is commonly used, though the fish bite well at shrimp. Blue-fish. It is called also the Skipjack, and sometimes the Horse Mackerel, or the Snapper, is found on the American coast from Brazil to Massachusetts, and is common also in Europe. Full-grown Blue-fish are one to three feet long, and weigh fourto ten pounds. They are usually caught with a squid, as described above, trolled from a sailboat, or thrown out and drawn in from shore. They often run in "schools," through which the fishermen sail to and fro, trolling their lines, and taking the fish with great rapidity. They swim near the surface, and leap at any living thing they see. When fresh from the water they are delicious eat- ing, but their delicate flavor is lost if they are kept more than a few hours. Small blue-fish are caught from the shore in New England, during the early autumn, with light tackle baited with clams or minnows, at which they bite greedily. Mackerel are commonly taken in seines, but may be caught in much the same way as blue-fish, though the squids used are smaller. They will bite also at hooks baited with small bits of mackerel skin, or even with bits of white or red cloth. Smelts. These fish are taken along the coast north of New Jersey in large seines, but will bite also at hooks. They run up the rivers to spawn like salmon, and in Maine and the British provinces they sometimes pass their lives wholly in fresh water. Smelts are caught in Maine, through the ice, with what is called the "um- brella tackle," consisting of an ar- rangement made like an umbrella frame without the handle. To the end of each rib hangs a short line FISHING 333 FISHING with a hook, and the whole is sus- pended from a fish-pole by a single line, fastened at the place where the top of an ordinary umbrella handle comes through. Herring. This fish, which runs into the mouths of all the northern and northeastern rivers of America, is greatly sought for food. It is usu- ally caught with a net, but may be angled for with an artificial fly in the spring. It is colored blue above and silvery white below. The shad, which is of the same family as the herring, is likewise generally taken with a net, but can sometimes be caught with the fly, affording excellent sport. The shad is a dusky blue above, with brown and green tints. His sides are silvery white, with a tinge of cop- per color. It is considered by many the most delicious of all table fish, Tautog, or Black-fish, It is found from South Carolina to Massa- chusetts Bay, and is usually caught best near rocks, sunken wrecks, or deserted docks. The grounds it frequents are often " baited " by throwing crabs or clams into the water, in hopes of enticing it to come there to feed. Black-fish usually weigh two to ten pounds. The ordinary bait is soft clams, fiddler crabs, or bits of lobster. Two hooks are generally used, with snells of twisted gut, one twelve, and one fifteen inches long. Either hand- lines or rods are used. Fish caught in deep salt water, such as the Cod. Haddock, Whiting, and Halibut, are not usually classed as game fish, being caught chiefly for a livelihood. They are some- times taken for sport, but this con- sists merely in the frequency of the biting, for they offer little resistance, and are hauled in by mere strength. They are all found everywhere north of New York, and pleasure parties are sometimes formed to catch them. Cod and haddock are caught off Block Island, on the Rhode Island coast, salted clams or pieces of fish being used for bait. The line is a heavy cotton one from 400 to 600 feet long, with a sinker weighing twelve ounces or more, and very large hooks. FISH LA ws. Most of the States have laws regulating the fishing for food and game fish. Thus, it is forbidden to capture trout, bass, and other fish by netting or spearing, or in any way except with hook and line. Fishing is permitted only during cer- tain months, which are called the "open season." The State,county,and town laws are frequently changed, and,therefore,the table which follows is probably not quite exact. Some States forbid taking fish under a cer- tain size or weight. In general, the purpose of the law is to forbid fishing methods that will destroy the supply. Heavy fines, and even imprisonments, are the penalties for violating the fish laws ; but anglers consider it a point of honor to obey the laws and to influence others to obey them. The laws apply to fishing in private waters as well as in those that are public. The following table shows when fish are in season in States where the catching of such fish is regulated by law. To find what fish are in season in any particular month, the reader must look down the column under the name of the month. The fish, opposite whose names there is a black line in that column, are then in season. The shorter black lines mean first half of the month, when printed toward the left ; and last half when toward the right. By beginning with the fish's name and following the line toward the right, it can be seen, in like manner, during what time it can be legally taken. For instance, the table shows that the trout season in Illinois begins on February 15, and ends on June 15, These times are only approximately correct, as legislatures are constantly changing them. The sportsman to be abso- lutely safe should therefore make special inquiry in each case. FISHING 334 FISHING J2 t < ^ S i 3 1— » 1—. 3 < i CO o i z i Trout. Palifnrnia and Orefon TllinoiQ Maine (bv citizens). . . . 1 " > a G 1—, >— > 3 <: C/3 o Perch. Maine New Hampshire Herring. District of Columbia Smelt. Maine (except by hook and line) Massachusetts — ^^ — " — - — Trespassing. If the bottom of a stream is owned by any one, as it is in some cases, the owner alone has the right to fish in it, even if it is deep enough to float a boat. If it is not deep enough for boats, then the right belongs to the owner of the land on the nearest bank, no matter how wide the stream might be. In tide water, the right to fish belongs to the State, and it is usually free to all; but in some cases the State grants it to particular persons. When a per- son fishes in water without the per- mission of the one who owns the right to do so, he is a trespasser. What has been said on this subject, under Hunting, applies to fishing also. Some States have made special laws on this subject, but in general the law is as it has been given above. History. The earliest tribes of men caught fish with what are F^ig" 32. — Ancient Bronze and Stone Gorges. called gorges (see Fig. 32), pieces of pointed stone about an inch long, and having a groove in the middle for the line. The bait was put on so as to cover the gorge, which turned, after it was swallowed, across the fish's gullet and held it fast. One of these gorges, dug up in France, was used in what is called the Stone Age, before man understood the use of metals, and is estimated to be eight or nine thousand years old. Later, in the Bronze Age, gorges of bronze were used, and then hooks of bone and of bronze (see Figs. 33- Fig. 33. — Ancient Bone Hooks, 34). The Indians of California used hooks made of shell (Fig, 35), On the coast of France hooks are some- times made of thorns, and the Piute Indians use the spine of a cactus. The Bible shows us that the use of hook and line was known, very early, to the Jews. The question in the book of Job, "Canst thou draw out Leviathan with a hook } " is supposed to refer to it. The prophet Isaiah says, " The fishers also shall mourn, and all they that cast angle in the brooks." Among the ancient Greeks and Romans angling was much practiced, and Antony and Cleopatra and the Emperor Trajan were fond of it. The sport has always been a favorite with many great men, among them Lord Nelson, Sir Walter Scott, and Sir Humphrey FISHING 336 FLAT-BOATING Davy. More than a thousand books on angling have been v^ritten in Fig. 34.- -Ancient Double and Single Bronze Hooks. English alone, the first of which, by Juliana Berners, was published in Fig. 35.— Shell Hook. 1496. One of the most celebrated is " The Compleat Angler," by Isaac Walton, a noted angler, which first appeared in 1653 and has been repub- lished many times. The fifth edition (1676) was accompanied by a second part, giving instructions for fly fish- ing, by his adopted son Charles Cotton, and the two are now always printed together. FISH POND. See Angling. FIVES. See Rackets. FLAT-BOATING. Broad, flat-bot- tomed boats, called flatboats, bear- ing a wooden cabin, are used on shallow rivers and inlets by sports- men. A flatboat is easily built by any one with a taste for carpentry The hull should be about 14 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 18 inches deep, of two-inch pine planks, with a bottom of half-inch boards nailed on lengthwise. The whole should be calked with oakum and painted with coal-tar. The cabin is a framework covered with thin plank, and is about five feet high, and six feet square. In front of the cabin two oar-locks are fastened, which may be made of notched boards, and near the bow a small mast is set up. Another oar- lock, for the steering oar, is placed at the stern. The boat is propelled by rowing, and sometimes also by a square sail. It is slow, but its object is simply to furnish shelter to the sportsman, and enable him to move about from place to place in search of fish or game. It can float in water too shallow for a rowboat. A simpler kind of flatboat, which has been named a Crusoe-raft, is a raft of logs, joined together by cross strips, fastened by wooden pegs driven through auger holes. On the raft is a sort of tent made of bent saplings, covered with cloth, like the top of an old-fashioned emigrant wagon. For oars, long poles, with flat boards at the ends, may be used, and the tent should be floored with small sticks and partially filled with hay or straw. Such a raft may be built in the woods, floated down a river, and then abandoned, the boat- ing party returning by rail. A flat- FLOUR 337 FLYAWAY boat journey is a kind of CAMPING OUT on tiie water and the outfit should be much the same as for a camp on land. An oven of stones may be built on the boat, so that cooking may be done on board. FLOUR, an Explosion with. Any fine flour can be used in this experi- ment, but the best is ordinary corn starch. Nail together two boards, each about eighteen inches square, in the shape of a V, so that they make an angle of about 60 degrees. Lay the V on its side and at the top of the angle, fasten a candle by a wire, so that it projects into the space within the boards about an inch. Place within the V about a handful of corn starch, and, having lighted the candle, blow the starch toward the angle vigor- ously with an ordinary bellows. A dense cloud of flour will rise at the angle, and as it passes the candle it will take fire with a sudden puff, making a mass of flame. If the cloud does not catch tire at first it is probably because it is not thick enough. This can be remedied by using more corn starch, or blowing it more vigorously. To blow the side out of a box with an explosion of this kind, remove one side of a wooden box about eight or ten inches square, and replace it with thick brown wrapping paper, gummed on tightly. Bore a hole in one of the lower corners to admit the bellows nozzle, and another in the top for ventilation. Put in a handful of corn starch through the hole in the top, and lower a lighted candle through the same hole with a wire, bending the wire so that the candle will hang within the box. Blow with the bellows through the lower hole, and after a few trials an explosion can be produced which will blow out the paper side of the box. The reason why flour explodes thus, when it is in the form of a cloud, is that then each particle is surrounded by oxygen enough to burn it (see Fire, in C. C. T.), and yet the particles are near enough for the fire to pass from one to the other so that they flame up all at once. FLOWERS, Changes of Color in. Pour some common ether into a wane-glass, and to it add about one- tenth its bulk of strong ammonia v;^ater. This mixture has the prop- erty of changing the colors of many flowers when they are dipped into it. Some whose colors are red or violet, such as the red geranium, the violet, the periwinkle, the lilac, the rose, and the heliotrope, are turned bright green. The upper petal of the violet sweet pea becomes dark blue and the lower petal green. The streaked carnation becomes brown and bright green. White flowers generally turn yellow or orange, but yellow ones are not changed. The action of the liquid is so quick that flowers can be spotted simply by sprinkling it over them. Similar changes can be produced by using ammonia alone, through not so quick- ly. The ammonia may be poured on a glass plate and covered with an in- verted dish, containing the flowers. Asters acquire an aromatic odor when thus treated. The colors of flowers which have been turned green in either of these ways may be somewhat restored by placing them in a vessel over hydrochloric acid. (See also Sulphur.) FLUORESCENCE, Experiments on. See Quinine. FLY AWAY, a game played by any number of persons, with marbles, and an upright frame, seven inches high, on which are hung live small weights by elastic cords. The cords are kept stretched by fastening the weights to a cross bar near the ground, but, if one of the weights is struck by a rolling marble, it is un- fastened and the elastic pulls it up quickly, so that it seems to fly away. The players take turns in rolling one or more marbles at the frame, and when a weight is struck the player scores whatever number is written above it. In another form, the weights are replaced by little boards FLYING CONE 338 FOOT BALL which, on being struck with the marbles, turn over, showing a comi- cal picture on the other side. FLYING CONE, or Devil on Two Sticks, a toy consisting of two cones joined at their points (see A, in illus- tration), and made to spin in the air RIGHT HAND Flying Cone. by means of a string a yard long, fastened by two sticks, each about two feet long. The toy is first laid on a table with the string under it, the player holding one of the sticks in each hand. The cone being near the right-hand stick, the player lifts that steadily so as to make the cone revolve. By tossing it up a little way the string can be brought back to the same point, and by repeating the process the cone is made to spin very rapidly. The skillful player can then toss it high into the air, and catching it, make it dance on the tightened string, cause it to roll up one of the sticks to his arm, and perform many other feats. History. This toy had its origin in China, where peddlers use it to announce their approach by its hum- ming. The Chinese form is much larger than ours, and consists of two cylinders of metal or bamboo united by a thin stem. The string makes a running knot around the stem, and no sticks are used in spinning it. On its introduction into Europe, early in this century, it assumed its present form. In France, where it it called Le diable (The Devil), it was at one time so popular that, says a French writer, the toys " were made of the most valuable woods and even of glass. They were played with in parlors and on roofs, in public places and promenades ; the sport was not con- fined to children, but ladies and even persons of emi- nence strove to ex- cel in it, often to the great risk of the glass and por- celain in parlors, and often, too, with danger to the heads of the passers by, when the Devil was sent from afar by an inexpert player." The English scientist. Maxwell, a professor in the University of Cambridge, devoted much time to studying the move- ments of the Double Cone in the air, and succeeded in completely explaining it mathematically. FLYINQ TOP. See Tops. FLY THE GARTER. See Leap Frog. FOLLOW MY LEADER, a game played by any number of persons, one of whom is chosen as leader, while the others follow him and do whatever he does. The players form in line behind the leader, who generally begins the same by doing some simple thing like leaping, hop- ping, or shouting. If any of the play- ers fail to perform any of the leader's feats, that player must fall behind all those who were able to do so. The game may be made exciting by a good leader, but he should be care- ful not to lead his followers into danger. FOOT AND A HALF. See Leap Frog. FOOT BALL, a game played by 22 persons, 1 1 on each side, with a FOOT BALL 339 FOOT BALL large oval ball, usually of inflated rubber with a leather cover, on a field 330 feet long and 160 feet wide. At each end is a goal made of two posts i8i feet apart, with a crossbar 10 feet from the ground. The In Goal. 'Foo ui qonox Goal Line. Goal Line. (18% feet.) •poo m qonox ( Goal. ) 160 feet. 4 •jno->[Ox;H jo iiraiq smi-pivA Sz 1 w -s • .a >-t w i- 25 yard-line Limit of Kick-out. •;99J09I ( 'Foo ) (•;39j K81) •aujq I'BOQ 'auiq iboq Touch in Goal. Touch in Goal. •poo UI Diagram of Field. posts project several feet above the j space beyond these lines, on either crossbar. The end boundaries of ! end and between the extended side the field are called goal lines. The 1 lines, is called a Goal. The space FOOT BALL 340 FOOT BALL outside the side lines and between tiie extended goal lines is called Touch, and the space at the corners of the field, between the extended goal and side lines, is called Touch- in-Goal, as shown in the figure. Usually the field is marked also with cross-lines every five yards, to aid the referee in determining how far the ball has advanced. These lines give the foot-ball field the look that has led to its popular name of " the gridiron." Two of them, the fifth from each goal respectively, are called the " 25-yard lines." All the lines are marked with lime. Each party or " team " consists of eleven persons, namely, seven Rushers or Forwards, a Quarter Back, two Half Backs, and one Full Back or Goal Tend. The opposing players face each other, and each side tries to carry or kick the ball toward the opposite goal, and either to touch the ball to the ground behind the goal (called " making a Touch- down ") or to kick it over the cross- bar between the goal posts (called " kicking a Goal "). In general, the Rushers try to carry the ball for- ward and also to protect the Half Backs and Full Back, who do all the kicking. The Center Rusher or " Snapper- back," should be a large, powerful man. but it is not necessary that he should run fast. His neighbors on either side are called " Guards," those next to these the " Tackleis," and the farthest ones the " End Rushers," who must be good gen- eral players and fine runners. The Quarter Back's position is the most responsible on the field, as it rests with him to determine the direction of the playing, and at critical mo- ments he may even change the cap- tain's policy. When the ball is held by the enemy the Quarter Back plays as a Rusher or Half Back. The best players in this position have usually been rather small men. The Half Backs should possess coolness and pluck, and must run, kick, and tackle well. The Full Back must be a long kicker and fine tackier, so that it will be almost impossible for a hostile man to pass him. The captains usually direct the play of their men by secret signals pre- viously agreed upon. The leaders of the sides toss up before the game, and the winner takes either the " kick-off " or the choice of goals. The players on each side now stand with their backs toward their own goal — the seven Rushers in a line, the Quarter Back just behind, then the Half Backs a few yards away, and finally the Full Back a dozen yards or so to the rear. The side having the " kick-off " places the ball in the center of the field, and one of that side kicks it toward the opposite goal. As soon as it is kicked it is said to be " in play." Before that, all on the kicking-off side stand behind the kicker, and all on the opposite side must stand at least 10 yards before the ball. The player who next gets possession of the ball has the choice of kicking it, of run- ning with it, or of throwing it to some other player on his own side, but he must throw it sideways or back, never straight or diagonally forward. If he run with it, the opposed players may try to stop him by seizing or " tackling " him any- where above the knees. He may try to keep them off by pushing with his open hand, but not with his closed fist. It requires skill as well as strength to stop a good runner. Sometimes four or five men will be unable to hold him, while at others a small player will stop a large one almost instantly. If he be tackled, and the ball fairly held, he must say " Down," and a player on his side, usually the Snapper-back, then puts the ball on the ground for a " scrim- mage." The opposing rushers form in two lines, facing each other, each on their own side of the place where the ball was down. The Snapper- p3.ck takes the ball and " snaps " it FOOT BALL 341 FOOT BALL (see note under Rule 6) back to the Quarter Back, who passes it cO an- other player on his own side. That player may then try to carry it through the opposing rush line or kick it, but if in three successive " downs " by the same side the ball is not advanced 5 yards, or taken back 20 yards, it must then be kicked, or surrendered to the oppo- nents on the next failure to advance. When a ball is kicked, anyone on the opposite side who catches it fairly, without stepping from his place, at the same time making a mark with his heel on the ground, may have a " free kick." The op- ponents may then come up to that mark, but must not pass it till, after retiring as far as he wishes, the one who made the catch kicks it. He may take a " drop-kick," or a " punt," or hold the ball for a " place- kick " (all of which are described in Rule 2, below), but if he takes a place-kick the opponents may advance, or " charge," as soon as the ball touches the ground. When in the course of the game a player succeeds in getting the ball near enough to his opponents' goal, he may try to kick a goal, which he may do in any way except by a punt, or he may touch the ball down in Goal, which is called making a Touchdown. His side must then make a " Try at Goal," either by a place-kick or a punt-out as described in Rules 24 and 25. When a side has the ball, but is hard pressed, near its own goal, it may gain a temporary advan- tage by taking the ball back across the goal line and making a Safety touchdown, or " Safety," as described in Rule 4 (d). The ball can then be carried straight out, not more than 25 yards from the goal line, and kicked. Till it is so kicked the op- posing side must not come nearer the goal line than 25 yards. A " Safety " counts against the side making it, but if the ball is kicked or carried across the goal line by one of the opposite side and then comes into possession of the owners of the goal, who touch it down, it is called a Touchback, and does not count against them. If the ball crosses the side lines, or " goes in touch," it is put in play again, as described in Rule 22. During the game every player is either " off-side " or "on-side " and only those " on-side " can take active part in the game. Rule 10 tells when a player is off-side and how he is put on-side again. The ball must be either " in play " or " dead," and while it is " dead " no play may Drop Kick. be made. For instance, when a Safety has been made, the ball is dead till it is put in play, according to rule, by a kick-out. Till it is so put in play, the player holding it may not run with it, kick it, nor throw it, and the opposing players must make no effort to get pos- session of it. Rule II gives all the cases where a ball is dead. All disputed points during a match game are decided by a referee, an umpire, and a linesman, as described in Rule 29. In a practice game one person often does duty for all three. A game consists of two halves, each 35 minutes long, with a ten- nn'nute intermission ; and the side scoring the greatest number of FOOT BALL 342 FOOT BALL points wins. The points are deter- mined by the Goals, Touchdowns, and Safeties as explained in Rule 26. The details of the game will be better understood by studying the rules given below. The balls used for playing are of various kinds. The Rugby, once used in all foot-ball games in this country, is oval, and consists of an India-rubber bladder with a leather case. The English Association ball has also a bladder and case, but is Foot Balls. round. These different kinds of ball are made in various sizes, from 20 to 33 inches in circumference. Foot- ball players now usually wear canvas jackets lacing in front, and trousers of fustian or some other stout ma- terial, padded over the knees and thighs. Long woolen stockings are worn, and sometimes the Forwards use shin-guards. Shoes are of leather or canvas, with leather-strips or spikes on the sole. The Quarter Back, Center Rush, and Full Back often wear simply knit jerseys. Foot-ball Rules. Substantially as adopted in 1898 by the UniveVsity Athletic Club : * EQUIPMENT, OFFICALS, ETC. Rule I.— («) The game shall be played upon a rectangular field, of dimensions described in the preced- ing article. (J)) The game shall be played by two teams of eleven men each. (6-) The officials shall be a referee, an umpire, and a linesman. {d) The foot ball used shall be of leather, enclosing an inflated rubber * In the same year associations of Western and Southern colleges adopted rules of their own which differ slightly from these. bladder. The ball shall have the shape of a prolate spheroid. DEFINITION OF TERMS. Rule 2.— {a) A Drop-Kick is made by letting the ball drop from the hands and kicking it the instant it rises from the ground. (b) A Place-Kick is made by kicking the ball after it has been placed on the ground. {c) A Punt is made by letting the ball drop from the hands and kick- ing it before it touches the ground. {d) A Kick-Off is a place-kick from the center of the field of play, and cannot score a goal. (Rule 8.) {e) A Kick-Out is a drop-kick, place-kick, or punt made by a player of the side which has made a safety or a touchback. (/") A Free Kick is a teim used to designate any kick when the op- ponents are restrained by rule from advancing beyond a certain point. Rule 3.— (^) The ball is Out of Bounds when it or any part of the player who holds the ball touches the ground on or outside the side line or side line extended. (b) If the ball is kicked so that it goes out of bounds before crossing the opponents' goal line, it shall be- long to the opponents. If, however, it strikes any player who is on-side, and then goes out of bounds, it shall belong to the player who first ob- tains possession of it. Rule 4. — {d) A Touchdown is made when the ball in possession of a player is declared dead by the Referee, any part of it being on, over, or behind the opponents' goal line. {b) The point where the touch- down is marked, however, is not where the ball is carried across the line, but where the ball is fairly held or called " down." {c) A Touchback is made when the ball in possession of a player guarding his own goal is declared dead by the Referee, any part of it being on, over, or behind the goal line, provided the impetus which FOOT BALL 343 FOOT BALL sent it to or across the line was given by an opponent. {d) A Safety is made when the ball in the possession of a player guarding his own goal is declared dead by the Referee, any part of it being on, over, or behind the goal line, provided the impetus which caused it to pass from outside the goal to or behind the goal line was given by the defending side. Rule 5. — A Punt-Out is a punt made by a player of the side which has made a touchdown to another of his own side for a fair catch. Rule 6. — {a) A Scrimmage takes place when the holder of the ball places it upon the ground and puts it in play by kicking it forward or snapping* it back. ib) If, after the snapper-back has taken his position, he should volun- tarily move the ball as if to snap it, the scrimmage has begun. (c) When snapping the ball back, the player so doing must be on-side, the hand or foot used in snapping the ball excepted. (Rule lo.) Rule 7.— (a) A Fair Catch con- sists in catching the ball after it has been kicked by one of the opponents and before it touches the ground, or in similarly catching a punt-out by another of the catcher's own side, provided the player, while making the catch, makes a mark with his heel. It is not a fair catch if the ball, after the kick, was touched by another of his side before the catch. Opponents who are off-side shall not interfere in any way with a player attempting to make a fair catch, nor shall he be thrown to the ground after such catch is made unless he has advanced beyond his mark. {b) If a side obtains a fair catch, the ball must be put in play by a punt, drop-kick, or place-kick, and the opponents cannot come within ten yards of the line on which the fair catch was made ; the ball must * Snapping the ball means putling it back by hand or foot with one quick and continuous motion from its position on the ground. be kicked from some point directly behind the spot where the catch was made, on a line parallel to the side line. Rule 8. — A Goal is made by kick- ing the ball in any way, except by a punt, from the field of play over the crossbar directly over one of the up- rights of the opponents' goal. Rule 9. — Charging is rushing forward to seize or block the ball or to tackle a player. Rule 10. — \d) In a scrimmage no part of any player shall be ahead of the ball when it is put in play. (Exception under Rule 6, c.) {b) A player is put off-side if the ball in play has last been touched by one of his own side behind him. No player, when off-side, shall touch the ball except on a fumble or a muff, nor shall he interrupt or obstruct an opponent with his hands or arms until again on-side. No player can, however, be called off- side behind his own goal line. if) A player being off-side is put on-side when the ball has touched an opponent, or when one of his own side has run in front of him, either with the ball, or having been the last player to touch it when behind him. {d) If the ball, when not in pos- session of either side, is touched when inside the opponents' ten-yard line by a player who is off-side, it shall go as a touchback to the de- fenders of that goal. Rule ii.— The ball is Dead : (a) Whenever the Referee or Umpire blows his whistle or declares a down. (b) When the Referee has declared that a down, touchdown, touchback, safety, or goal has been made. (c) When a fair catch has been heeled. (d) When it has been downed after going out of bounds. Rule 12.— (a) The length of the game shall be 70 minutes, divided into two halves of 35 minutes each, exclusive of time taken out. There FOOT BALL 344 FOOT BALL shall be ten minutes' intermission between the two halves. {b) The game shall be decided by the score at the end of the two halves. {c) Time shall not be called for the end of a half until the ball is dead, and in case of a touchdown, the try-at-goal shall be allowed. {d) Time shall be taken out whenever the game is unnecessarily delayed or while the ball is being brought out for a try-at-goal, kick- out, or kick-off, or when play is for any reason suspended by the Referee or Umpire. Time shall be- gin again when the ball is actually put in play. {e) No delay shall continue more than two minutes. Rule 13. — {a) The captains shall "toss up " before the beginning of the game, and the winner of the toss shall have his choice of goal or kick- off. The ball shall be kicked off at the beginning of each half. When- ever a goal, following a touchdown, has been tried or a goal from the field has been kicked, the side de- fending that goal shall kick off. The teams shall change goals at the beginning of the second half. The same side shall not kick off at the be- ginning of two successive halves. {b) At kick-off, if the ball goes out of bounds before it is touched by an opponent, it shall be brought back and kicked off again. If it is kicked out of bounds a second time it shall go as a kick-off to the opponents. If either side thus forfeits the ball twice, it shall go to the opponents, who shall put it in play by a scrim- mage at the center of the field. (c) At kick-off, if the ball is kicked across the goal line and is there declared dead when in the posses- sion of one of the defending side, it is a touchback. If it is declared dead thus in possession of the attacking side, it is a touchdown. {d) At kick-off and on a kick from a fair catch, the opposite side must stand at least ten yards in front of the ball until it is kicked. On a kick-out, the opposite side cannot stand nearer the goal than the 25- yard line, except on a kick-out made after a drop-kick upon the first down inside the 25-yard line, when the 15-yard line is the restraining mark. (See Rule 23, exception.) Rule 14.— (a) The side which has a free kick must be behind the ball when it is kicked. {b) In the case of a kick-off, kick- out, or kick from a fair catch, the ball must be kicked a distance of at least ten yards towards the oppo- nents' goal from the line restraining the player making the kick, unless it is stopped by an opponent ; other- wise the ball is not in play. Rule 15. — {a) Charging is law- ful, in case of a punt-out or kick-off, as soon as the ball is kicked ; and the opponents must not charge until the ball is kicked. {b) In case of any other free kick, charging is lawful: (i) When the player of the side having the free kick advances beyond his restraining line or mark with the ball in his pos- session ; (2) When he has allowed the ball to touch the ground by accident or otherwise. ((f) If such lawful charging takes place, and if the side having the free kick fails to kick the ball, then the opponents may line up five yards ahead of the line which restrained them before charging. In that case, the side having the free kick must kick the ball from some point directly behind its mark, if the free kick resulted from a fair catch, and in other cases from behind the new restraining line. Rule 16. — {d) The snapper-back is entitled to full and undisturbed possession of the ball. The op- ponents must neither interfere with the snapper-back nor touch the ball until it is actually put in play. {b) In snapping the ball back, if the player so doing is off-side, the ball must be snapped again, and if this occurs again on the same down the ball goes to the opponents. FOOT BALL 345 FOOT BALL (r) The man who snaps back and the man opposite him in the scrim- mage cannot afterward touch the ball until it has touched some player other than these two. {d) If the man who puts the ball in play in a scrimmage kicks it for- ward, no player of his side can touch it until it has gone ten yards into the opponents' territory, unless it be touched by an opponent. {e) The man who first receives the ball when it is snapped back shall not carry the ball forward beyond the line of scrimmage unless he has regained it after it has been passed to and has touched another player. Rule 17. — {a) Before the ball is put in play no player shall lay his hands upon, or by the use of his hands or arms interfere with, an op- ponent in such a way as to delay putting the ball in play. {b) After the ball is put in play, the players of the side that has the ball may obstruct the opponents with the body only, except the player run- ning with the ball, who may use his hands and arms. {c) The players of the side not hav- ing the ball may use their hands and arms, but only to get their opponents out of the way in order to reach the ball or stop the player carrying it. Rule 18. — {a) Before the ball is put in play in a scrimmage, if any player of the side which has tlie ball takes more than one step in any direction, he must come to a full stop before the ball is put in play. When the ball is put in play by a scrimmage : {b) At least five players of the side having the ball must be on the line of scrimmage. {c) If five players, not including the quarter back, are behind the line of scrimmage and inside of the posi- tions occupied by the players at the ends of said line, then two of these players must be at least five yards back of this line, but all of these players may be nearer than five yards to the line of scrimmage if two of them are outside the positions occupied by the players at the ends of said line. Rule 19. — A player may throw, pass, or bat the ball in any direction except toward his opponents' goal. Rule 20. — {a) If a player having the ball is tackled, and the move- ment of the ball stopped, or if the player cries " down," the Referee shall blow his whistle, and the side holding the ball shall put it down for a scrimmage. {b) As soon as a runner attempt- ing to go through is tackled and goes down, being held by an oppo- nent, or whenever a runner having the ball in his possession cries " Down," or if he goes out of bounds, the Referee shall blow his whistle, and the ball shall be considered down at that spot. {c) There shall be no piling up on the player after the Referee has declared the ball dead. Rule 21. — {a) If, in three con- secutive downs (unless the ball crosses the goal line), a team has neither advanced the ball five yards nor taken it back twenty yards, it shall go to the opponents on the spot of the fourth down. {b) When a distance penalty is given, the ensuing down shall be counted the first down. Rule 22.— If the ball goes out of bounds, whether it bounds back or not, a player of the side which secures it must bring it to the spot where the line was crossed, and there either {a) Touch it in with both hands at right angles to the side line and then kick it ; or {b) Walk out with it at right angles to the side line, any distance not less than five nor more than fifteen yards, and there put it down for a scrimmage, first declaring how far he intends walking. Rule 23. — A side which has made a touchback or a safety must l>-- Fig. 3. — Chinese Fox and Geese. French Military Game. This re sembles Chinese Fox and Geese. FOX AND GEESE 363 FOX AND GEESE black piece, called an Army Corps, corresponds to the Fox, and the three pieces of a different color called Brigades of Cavalry, to the Geese. The object of the Cavalry, as in the other forms of the game, is to pen up the Army Corps so that it cannot move. The Army Corps is allowed to move in any direction along a line, but each Brigade of Cavalry can move backward only once during the game, all other moves being forward or sidewise. The Army Corps is given the first move. This game is said to have been devised by Louis Dyen, a French army officer, in 1886. It has been shown in a French scientific paper that, as in other forms of the game where there is one Fox, the Geese (in this case the Bri- gades of Cavalry) must win, if played properly. II. A game played by any number of persons, one of whom takes the part of the Fox and the others stand in a double circle, facing inward. At one place in the circle there are three players instead of two as shown in Fig, 4. The object of the Fox is to o o ^ o o o^ o o o o Fig. 4. — Fox and Geese, or Tierce. touch the outside one of three, who tries to escape by running into the circle and standing inside two of the others, thus exposing the outside player to the Fox. If any one is caught he must take the Fox's place. When the number of players is large there may be two or more groups of three. The Fox may not enter the circle, and there should be plenty of room left between the groups of players, so that the Geese may run in easily. In England this game is some- times called Round Tag and Tierce. Its ancient name was The Faggots, the pairs of players, one in front of the other, being called Faggots, and the Fox and Goose the Hound and Hare. A similar game was played there in ancient times, called Trick the Rabbit. In France it is called Deux c'est assez, trots cest trop (Two is Com- pany, Three is a Crowd), and in Germany, Den Dritten Jagen (Hunt the Third). III. An outdoor game played by any number of persons on a figure marked on the ground or in the snow, like that in Fig. 5, There may be any Fig. 5.— Fox and Geese. number of circles and lines accord- ing to the number of players and the size of the ground. One of the players is selected as Fox, and the others represent Geese. The Geese may run on any of the paths, but the Fox must keep on the straight ones. If he touch any one of the Geese, that one must take his place as Fox. In some parts of New Eng- land this game is called Pickadill. FRENCH AND ENGLISH. See Tug of War. FRENCH SOLITAIRE 3^4 FUSIBLE METALS FRENCH BLIND MAN'S BUFF, See Blind man's buff. FRENCH SOLITAIRE, a SOLI- TAIRE game of cards, played with one full pack. The four Aces are placed in a row, as they appear, and the other cards on these, in order, without following suit. Cards that cannot be so placed must be ar- ranged in four piles beneath the others, without regard to suit or rank. The top card of a lower pile must be placed on one of the upper piles whenever possible. It requires skill so to place the cards in the lower piles that they will be available in making the upper piles. No cards in any of the lower piles must be looked at, except the top card. This is one of the simplest Soli- taire card-games. It is made more difficult by requiring the upper piles to be made in suits, and still easier by permitting the player to examine the lower piles. FUN ALIVE, a game played by any number of persons with 8 large cards called " Game Cards," and 40 smaller " Forfeit Cards." The Game Cards are all blank except one, called the " Catch Card," on which the words " Fun Alive " are printed in large letters. On each of the For- feit Cards a FORFEIT is printed. The Forfeit Cards are spread, face downward, in the middle of the table, and the same is begun by one player's taking the Game Cards, shuffling them, and presenting them to his left-hand neighbor, who draws one. If it be the Catch Card, he must at once draw a Forfeit Card, and do as it directs. Then the player who draws, shuffles the Game Cards and presents them to his left-hand neigh- bor, and so on. When a player draws a blank card he takes no For- feit Card, and the next one draws at once. The game continues thus as long as the players choose. FUNGO, a game of ball played by any number of persons with a base-ball and bat. One player takes the bat, and tossing the ball into the air strikes it before it falls. The other players, who stand from 50 to 200 feet from the batter, try to catch the ball. The batter usually holds the bat in his right hand, tosses the ball into the air with his left, at the same time raising the bat, and then, seizing the bat with both hands, strikes the ball before it falls. Fungo is generally played to give the fielders in base-ball prac- tice in " fly-catching " or catching the batted ball before it bounds, but it is often played merely for amuse- ment. In the latter case it may be agreed that when a catch is made, the catcher shall take the batter's place. FUSIBLE METALS, To make. Fusible metals are alloys (see C. C. T.) which will melt at a very low temperature. Many of them are made of bismuth, lead, and tin. The fusible metal called Rose's Metal is made by melting in an iron spoon some bismuth with half its weight of lead and half its weight of tin. The resulting alloy will melt in boiling water. If the melted metal be poured into a test tube it will expand on cooling, and break the tube. These fusible metals are made use of in many ways. For instance, many factories are now fitted with water pipes running over the ceil- ings of all the rooms. These are fitted at intervals with nozzles closed with plugs of fusible metal. If a fire should start in any room the heat would melt out the plugs near it at once, and the water, rushing through the nozzle, would put it out. Common solder is another example of a fusible metal, though this must melt at a higher heat, so that it^ will bear that of a ordinary cool stove. GALLANTY SHOW 365 GALLANTY SHOW G GALLANTY SHOW, a kind of shadow pantomime, in which the characters are represented by figures cut from cardboard. A frame about three feet high by four wide is fixed in a doorway, and covered with white cloth tightly stretched, tacked on the side toward the spectators. The rest of the doorway is screened by curtains, and the exhibitor stands on the opposite side. A piece of tape, stretched close to the frame along its bottom, holds the figures by means of cardboard continuations of their legs. The exhibitor, by means of these continuations, which project below the tape, can slide the figures along, make them rock backward and forward, or cause them suddenly to disappear by pull- ing them downward. Scenery of various kinds may be fastened to the sides or top of the frame, and if a scene is desired which will fill the whole frame, the cloth may be re- placed by a sheet of paper on which such a scene, cut out of thin paper, is pasted. A forest or the interior of a building may thus be repre- sented. With some practice, scen- ery can be built up of different thick- nesses of paper, so as to show any number of degrees of light and shade, after the manner of the porce- lain transparencies often hung in windows. The " high lights " of the scene have no paper pasted on them at all. The deep shadows should have several thicknesses, and the shades between these extremes more or less according to the de- sired tone. For the stained glass windows of a church, colored tissue paper may be used, and the sun, moon, or flowers may also be repre- sented in color in the same way. If desired, the arms or heads of the figures may be made to work on pivots, and moved by thread so fine that its shadow is not noticed by the spectators. The performance may be a pantomime, or the exhibitor may talk for the various characters. The figures not used should be placed on a chair or shelf within easy reach of the exhibitor, or held by an assist- ant. A procession can be repre- sented by gluing figures upright on a piece of tape stretched around two wooden wheels, or large spools. One of these is fitted with a crank, by turning which the tape is moved Gallanty Show. Steadily. Only the upper part of the tape must be thrown on the screen, as the figures on the lower half are heads downward. The shadows must pass out of sight be- fore they begin to turn downward, and must not come into view again till they have ceased to rise. A continual procession thus passes GALVANIC TASTE 366 GALVANOMETER across the screen as long as the crank is turned. A great many curious effects can be produced, as in SHADOW PLAYS. Thus, a man can be shown climbing out of a chimney or jumping into a croco- dile's mouth. These effects are even more simple in a gallanty show, for the figures and scenery are both smaller and easier to manage. Care should be taken to make all the movements as naturally as possible. History. A gallanty show is called in France Les Ombres Chinoises (Chinese Shadows). This form of entertainment is said to have orig- inated in China ; at any rate, it has long been a favorite there. It was brought thence to Germany, and in 1770 a theatre specially devoted to it was established in Versailles, France, by Seraphin, who conduct- ed it for many years and was suc- ceeded in its management by his nephew of the same name. GALVANIC TASTE, Experi- ment on. Place a piece of zinc above the tongue and a silver coin below it, or vice versa, and after leaving them there a few seconds, to get used to the taste of the metals, touch the edges over the tip of the tongue. A singular taste, or sensation, will be at once felt in the tongue. The reason of this is that the metals, with the tongue be- tween them, form a little Electric Battery, and when the circuit is closed, by touching the metals a very slight current flows through the tongue. The taste is slightly different, ac- cording to which metal is above and which below, being slightly acid in one case and alkaline in another. Some people think this is because the salt fluids in the tongue are decomposed by the current into an acid and an alkali (see Electrical Decomposition). A similar experiment may be per- formed with a strip of zinc and a silver spoon, by putting one as far as possible between the lower lip and gum, and the other between the upper lip and gum, and then touching the ends. Just as they touch, a flash of light will appear to pass before the eyes. GALVANOMETER, an instrument for showing the direction and force of electric currents. Some kind of galvanometer is needed for many of the electric experiments described in this book. The simplest kind consists merely of a magnetized sewing-needle, hung horizontally by a thread ; or a pocket compass may be used. The following experi- ments may be tried with such a galvanometer. : 1. Allow the needle to come toi rest, when it will point north and south. Hold a wire, whose ends are connected with an Electric Battery, over it lengthwise. The needle will turn, and if the current in the wire is strong enough, will come to rest nearly at right angles to the wire. 2. Reverse the current in the wire by exchanging the ends which are connected with the battery. The needle will turn in the opposite direction. 3. Hold the wire just under, in- stead of just over, the needle. It will turn in the opposite direction. 4. Make a loop of the wire so that the current will flow in one direc- tion above the needle and in the opposite direction below it. The needle will turn farther than before. These experiments, which were discovered by Oersted, a Danish physicist, first showed scientists that there was a connection between elec- tricity and magnetism, and they were therefore the beginning of the tele- graph, the dynamo, and many of the wonderful inventions of our day. To detect very slight currents it is necessary to surround the needle with many coils of wire. Thus very expensive and delicate galvanom- eters are constructed, but a simple one can be made by any one, as fol- lows : GALVANOMETER 367 GENTEEL LADY Make a wooden frame, A, about four inches square and about an inch thick, either glued together or fastened with brass or wooden pins. No iron or steel must be used. Wind on it about 60 turns of insu- lated number 16 wire, in three layers, leaving a space in the centre, as shown in tlie nict'ire. Insert the H K Home-made Galvanometer. ends of the wire in the brass bind- ing-screws H and K. Fix an arch of copper wire, D, in the frame, on which is a cork, E. From the cork is suspended a narrow strip of paper- G, by a silk fibre or a hair, F. No twisted thread must be used. The hair is best fastened to the paper by wax. Through the lower part of the paper thrust a magnetized sew- ing-needle, H, and through the up- per part a copper wire, I, about 2^ inches long, for a pointer. The paper must be so suspended that the needle will turn freely between the upper and lower windings of wire, and the pointer above the wire, where it will be easily seen. If desired, a dial or' disk of paper, M, may be laid over the wire just under the pointer. A hole must be cut in the centre, to allow the suspended strip of paper to turn. This gal- vanometer must be kept out of the least draught of wind, and it is best to cover it with a glass globe, or with a box, N, having a glass top, O. When it is to be used with weak currents, it must be turned so that the coils of wire are parallel with the needle, that is, north and so-uth. When the instrument is used with stronger currents it must be placed at first so that the coils will point across the needle. When the current passes turn the instrument back slow- ly till the coils are north and south. A strong current must not be passed through it when the coils are parallel with the needle, or the needle will spin around, twisting the hair and making it necessary to hang it over again. GAS BURNED THROUGH A HAND- KERCHIEF. Tie an or- dinary handkerchief tightly over a gas-burner with metal tip, as shown in the illustration on next page. Unless the tip be metal, the experi- ment will not succeed. Turn on the gas and light it, and it will burn with- out even scorching the handkerchief, which may be removed uninjured when the gas has been turned off. The reason the handkerchief is not burned is that there is not great heat in the lower part of a gas- flame, and what there is, is con- ducted away rapidly by the metal tip of the burner. If the tip be not metallic the heat will not be conducted away, and the handker- chief will be scorched. GENTEEL LADY, a game played by any number of persons. The leader of the game says to the player on his right," Good morning, genteel GENTEEL LADY 368 GEOGRAPHY lady,always genteel; I, a genteel lady, always genteel, come from yonder Gas burned through a Handkerchief. (See page 367.) genteel lady, always genteel, to tell you that she has an eagle with a golden beak." This sentence is re- peated by each in turn to his right- hand neighbor, and then goes the rounds again as many times as the leader chooses, each time with an addition to the description of the eagle. Thus, in the second round, it may be "with a golden beak and silver feathers ;" in the third, " with a golden beak, and silver feathers, and steel claws," and so on. Every time that any player makes a mis- take, a piece of paper is twisted in his hair to resemble a horn, and he is then called "one-horned," "two- horned," etc.. as the case may be, instead of "genteel." Thus, if a player have no horns, while his left-hand neighbor has two, and his right-hand neighbor one, he should address the latter with the words, "Good morning, one-horned lady, always one-horned ; I, a genteel lady, always genteel, come from yonder two-horned lady, always two-horned, to tell you," etc. An extra horn is given for every mis- take, and the number generally in- creases rapidly. The game lasts as long as the players desire, or it may cease when one of them has a number of horns that is agreed upon beforehand. Sometimes, at the close of the game, each player pays as many forfeits as he has " horns" on his head. In beginning the game, the leader may substitute anything he chooses for the " eagle;" thus, he may speak of a house with a gold chimney, diamond windows, and iron roof; or a locomotive with a paper smoke-stack and India-rub- ber wheels. Sometimes the first player in- forms the second that his " ship has just come from China, laden with apricots" (or anything beginning with A). The next adds an article beginning with B. and so on through the alphabet. The " horns " are sometimes lighted paper lamp- lighters, but their use is dangerous. This game had its origm in France, where it is called " Le Chevalier Gentil" (The Gentle Knight). GEOGRAPHY, the name of sev- eral games, all of which require a knowledge of geography. I. The players choose sides, and the leader of one side commences by calling out the name of a city or town beginning with A, and then count- ing ten distinctly. Before he fin- ishes counting the leader of the other side must call out the name of another city beginning with A, and then count in like man- ner. This goes on till the leader of one side is able to count ten before his opponent can think of a city that has not been named. The winner chooses as his follower one of the opposite side, and then begins the game anew, this time using names of towns that begin with B. The leader can be chosen only when he is left alone on his side. When either side has chosen all the players on the other, it wins, and the game GEOGRAPHY 369 GEOGRAPHY ends; but if all the letters of the alphabet have been used, and players remain on each side, the larger party is declared the winner. No one but the leader may call out the names, but the other players on his side think of new ones and whisper them to him one by one as he needs them. At first the names usually follow one another as quickly as they can be spoken, but when the memory of the players is almost exhausted, they come slowly. A longer time for thought may be given by count- ing 25, or even 50, instead of ten, and the game may also be varied by using names of rivers or mountains, or those of historical characters. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. No city may be named more than once, but different places of the same name may be used, if their situation is clearly defined, either by giving the State or country where they are, or in any other way; as, " Stratford, Connecticut," and " Stratford-on-Avon," or " Phila- delphia, where one of the seven churches was situated." In such a case only the name, not the ex planation, must be spoken before the word " ten." 2. In case an unfamiliar place is named, the side that used it may be required to tell where it is. If they cannot do so, or do so incor- rectly, the opposite side may choose one of their players and proceed to the next letter. II. The leader on one side calls out any letter, and says, " Sea," '* Bay," " Mountain," " City," or some other division of water or land. The leader on the other side names one beginning with the letter mentioned, and is followed bv all on his side in regular order. If any one pause, the leader of the first side counts ten, and says, " Next !" and the pausing player takes his seat unless he can answer while the leader is counting. The leader of the second side now calls out a letter and a division of land or water, which the players on the first side must give in like manner, and the sides continue to alternate thus. If any one make a mistake, such as giving to a river the name of a mountain, or using the wrong initial letter, it must be corrected by some one on the same side before the opposite leader says " Miss," other- wise the opposite side scores 2, and the turn comes to an end. If no one on a side makes a mistake or is obliged to take his seat, that side scores 3. A side wins when it has scored 10, or when all on the other side have taken their seats. III. Another game of geography is played with pencils and paper, every one writing all the geographi- cal names he can think of, begin- ning first with A, then with B, and so on through the alphabet, a minute or more being allotted to each let- ter. If all have the same name on their lists, it scores nothing, but others score as many points as the number of players who have omitted it, as in the game of Dictionary. IV. Another geographical game is played with a board on which is a map, having holes in place of spots to represent cities. Each hole has its corresponding peg with the name of the city on it, and the object of the game is to place the pegs aright. The game may be played in various ways. A single player may treat it as a game of Patience, placing all the pegs and then com- paring an ordinary map with the board, to see whether he has suc- ceeded or not. When there are several players the pegs may be dis- tributed equally, and then each in turn places one of them in a hole. After each play the other players examine the peg, and in turn have a chance to say whether or not they think it is rightly placed. If all agree that it is right, the player scores one point ; if one or more think it is wrong, a map is consulted, and if the objectors are right they GIVE-AWAY 370 GOLF each score one, while if they are wrong one point is subtracted from the score of each. The number of points necessary to win should be agreed upon beforehand. A board for playing the game can be made by pasting an ordinary map on a smooth piece of wood, and bor- ing gimlet holes through the dots representing the cities. The name of each city must be carefully erased with pen and ink, and then little wooden pegs must be provided, which may be made of matches. The names may be written on the side of the pegs, on a place shaved flat with a knife, or on bits of paper glued to the top of the pegs. GIVE-AWAY. See Checkers. GLASS OF WATER, Experiment with. See Coins, Experiment 7. GO'BANG, a game played by two to five persons, each of whom has usually 50 pieces or men, on a board divided into 256 squares colored al- ternately dark and light. The pieces are of different colors, and each player has one color, that one set may be distinguished from the others. The players take turns, each in order placing on the board one of his pieces, on any unoccupied squares, dark or light. The object is to get five in a row, either diagonally or from side to side of the board, and he who succeeds in doing this wins the game. When the players have put all their pieces on the board, they may move them one at a time to any unoccupied adjacent square, in any direction. Go-Bang may be played on an ordinary checker-board, each player having twelve pieces. Sometimes the total number of pieces is made equal to the number of squares, in which case there can be no moving of pieces, and the game ends when all are placed on the board, if no one has made a row of five before that time. Go-Bang is a Japanese game, and means in the Japanese language "Five-Board." "Go" (Five) is the Japanese name of the game. It is said to have been played in China (where it is called Kee) 2000 years before Christ, and to have been car- ried about the 8th century A.D. to Japan, where it is a great favorite. The Japanese have schools for the study of the game, and a periodical is published in their country devoted entirely to it, just as we have papers devoted to Chess, The Japanese play it on a board of more than 300 squares= GOLF, a game played by any number of persons with sticks or clubs like Shinny sticks, and small balls about an inch and a half in diameter. The ball, formerly of leather stuffed with feathers, is now usually made of gutta-percha, " nicked " or cut in crossed lines on the surface, to roughen it. The course, usually circular and properly between three and five miles long, is marked out on a piece of open ground, and at intervals on it are cut holes four inches in di- ameter and from 100 to 500 yards apart. The golf grounds are usually called " links," because the sandy stretches by the seashore, known in Scotland by this name, are there re- garded as best adapted to it. The I links should contain " hazards " — a I general term for obstacles of any j sort (see Rule 15, below). Two j players, starting from the first hole, I take turns in striking their balls into the next, and he who does so in the ' fewest strokes scores a point or " a hole," as it is called. They then play for the next hole in like manner, and so on till they have gone around the course (usually eighteen holes). If they make any hole in the same number of strokes, that hole is scored by neither. He who scores the greatest number of holes with the fewest strokes wins. The reckoning of the strokes is made technically thus: If a player's opponent has played one more stroke than he, the player's next stroke is called " the like "; if two more, " the one ofi GOLF 371 GOLF two," if three more, " the one off three," etc. Each player has his own ball, and clubs of various shapes and sizes. He selects the one he needs at any particular time, according to the nature of the ground, and the others are carried by an attendant called a " caddie." Each club has its peculiar name. All have v^^ooden handles, but are called " wood- clubs" or "irons," according to the material of the head. A wood club shod or soled with brass is called a " brassie." The following is a com- plete list of golf clubs : Wood Clubs — Drivers, Long Spoons, Mid Spoons, Short Spoons, Baffy, Bras- sie NibHcks, Bulger Drivers, Bulger Brassies, Brassies, Putters, h'oiis — Cleeks, Iron Niblicks, Putting Cleeks, Driving Cleeks, Lofting Irons, Driv- ing Irons, Mashies, Gun Metal Put- ters, Medium Irons. The Driver or Play Club is generally used if the distance from the hole is too great to be covered in a single stroke ; the Putter for striking the ball into a hole ; the Spoon (now generally superseded by the iron clubs) for getting the ball out of a depres- sion in the turf, called a "cup"; the Sand Iron for driving the ball out of a sand-pit or " bunker." Should the ball lie deep in the sand, or beside a stone, the Cleek or the Niblick may be used. Some golfers use the iron-headed clubs as " Putters," Besides these there are the Driving Iron (not so long a driver as the Cleek, but able to pitch the ball higher); the Lofting Iron, for lifting the ball very high ; and the Mashie, a compromise between Loft- ing Iron and Niblick, used for short approaches. A set of six clubs is considered enough for an expert, and the beginner can get along with two or three. In striking the ball, the club must be held with both hands as close together as possible, the left being about two inches from the end. The club, grasped firmly with the left and guided with the right, is lifted over the shoulder, and brought down sharply on the ball, letting the lower end just scrape the ground. Driving. The club should follow the ball in the stroke. The distance to which the ball can be sent depends more Putting. on the manner of hitting than the actual strength used. The exact manner of standing, called the GOLF 372 GOLF " stance," is a matter about which there is a great difference of opinion among good golf players. The ob- ject is to stand so and at such a dis- tance that the ball will be struck squarely behind and exactly in the middle of the club-head. If it strikes too near the end of the head (called the " toe ") or too near the bend (called the " heel ") it is said to he " toed " or " heeled " and will swerve to one side or the other. The majority of players place the right foot a little in advance. When thus standing, ready to strike, the player is said to " address " the ball. Before striking the ball it is custom- ary to sway the club gently over it to measure its position. This move- ment is called the " waggle "and is done with the wrists only. The last stroke between any two holes, by which the player tries to place the ball in the hole, is called putting (pronounced to rhyme with cutting), and is the most difficult part of the game, the preliminary strokes, called driving, being much more simple. The ground for some distance around each hole is usually covered with smooth turf and called the " putting green " (see Rule 30, below). In putting, the nature and condition of the ground, the position of the playing ball, and that of his adversary's must all be taken into consideration, as well as the state of the score, on which it sometimes de- pends whether the player will risk a difficult " put " or not. The stroke that drives the ball on the putting green is called the " approach shot." In putting, a rapid straight stroke is called a " gobble," and a successful long stroke a "steal." When the opponent's ball lies directly between the player's and his hole it is called a " stimy," and when the player sends his ball over the obstacles he is said to " loft over the stimy." When the player strikes the ground as well as the ball, he is said to " baff," and when his club razes the grass slightly he is said to " scruff." When a hole has been gained the player lifts his ball and places it on a little heap of sand called a " tee," from which he plays it toward the next hole. When a ball is thus placed it is said to be " teed." RULES OF THE GAME. The following rules are substanti- ally those of the St. Andrew's Royal and Ancient Golf Club, as modified in 1897 by the United States Golf Association : 1. The game of golf is played by two or more sides, each playing its own ball. Two sides of single play- ers constitute a match called a " sin- gle." Two sides of two players each constitute a " Foursome." 2. The game consists in each side playing a ball from a tee into a hole by successive strokes, and the hole is won by the side holing its ball in the fewest strokes, except as otherwise provided in the Rules. If two sides hole out in the same number of strokes, the hole is halved. " Match Play," in which the player has an opponent, is decided by the number of holes won. " Medal Play," in which all the players are called "competitors," is decided by the aggregate number of strokes. Unless otherwise agreed, a match shall consist of the play of the game over eighteen holes of the links. 3. The teeing ground shall be in- dicated by two marks placed in a line at right angles to the course, and the players shall not tee in front of, nor on either side of these marks, nor more than two club lengths be- hind them. A ball played from out- side the limits of the teeing ground, as thus defined, may be recalled by the opposite side. The option of recalling a ball is in all cases forfeited unless exercised at once before another stroke has been played. The hole shall be four and one- quarter inches in diameter, and at least four inches deep. GOLF 373 GOLF 4. The ball must be fairly struck at and not pushed, scraped, nor spooned, under penalty of the loss of the hole. Any movement of the club in- tended to strike the ball is a stroke. 5. The game commences by each side playing a ball from the first tee- ing ground. In a match with two or more on a side, the partners shall strike off alternately from the tees, and shall strike off alternately during the play of the hole. The players who are to strike against each other shall be named at starting, and shall continue in the same order during the match. The player who shall play first on each side shall be named by his own side. 6. If a player shall play when his partner should have done so, his side shall lose the hole, except in case of the tee shot, when the stroke shall be recalled at the option of the opponents. 7. The side winning a hole shall lead in starting for the next hole, and may recall the opponent's stroke should he play out of order. This privilege is called the " honor." 8. One round of the links, gener- ally eighteen holes, is a match, unless otherwise agreed upon. The match is won by the side which gets more holes ahead than there remain holes to be played, or by the side winning the last hole when the match was all even at the second last hole. 9. After the balls are struck from the tee, the ball furthest from the hole to which the parties are playing shall be played first, except as other- wise provided for in the Rules. 10. Unless with the opponent's consent, a ball struck from the tee shall not be changed, touched, nor moved before the hole is played out, except as otherwise provided for in the Rules. 11. In playing through the green, all loose impediments within a club length of a ball, which is not lying in or touching a hazard, may be re- moved. Ice, snow, and hail within a club length of the ball through the green may be removed ; but on the putting green it may only be removed as provided in Rule 34. 12. Before striking at the ball the player shall not move, bend, nor break anything fixed or growing near the ball, except in the act of placing his feet on the ground and in soling his club. 13. A ball stuck fast in wet ground or sand may be taken out and re- placed loosely in the hole which it has made. 14. When a ball lies in or touches a hazard, the club shall not touch the ground, nor shall anything be touched or moved before the player strikes at the ball. The club shall not be soled, nor the surface of the ground be touched within a radius of a club length from the ball. When a ball lies on turf in a hazard or surrounded by a hazard, it shall be considered as being on the fair green ; z. bib i s Deer. Alabama, all counties — — — — — — = " sorr)^ rniipti?S Arkansas (doe and fawn) California — " Siskiyou and Nevada Counties Colorado — Dakota Florida Idaho Illinois .. ......... Indiana and Iowa Kentucky (female deer) — Maine . . . Massachusetts (Tuesdays, Wednes- days, Thursdays and Fridays). . . . " lower peninsula Minnesota ... . ... . Missouri Nebraska New Hampshire New Mexico New York Ohio Oregon (male deer) Pennsylvania ......... Tennessee Some counties Texas — Utah Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin Wild Turkey. Alabama, all counties " some counties Arkansas Georgia Indiana — Kentucky Louisiana — Michigan Mississippi Missouri New Mexico North Carolina ^ Pennsylvania. Ohio South Carolina Tennessee, all counties " some counties Texas Virginia, West of Blue Ridge " elsewhere West Virginia — Quail. " some counties ■ Arkansas and California ■ Colorado — HUNTING 427 HUNTING Connecticut Dakota Delaware District of Columbia. Florida Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Louisiana :.. Maine Maryland Massachusetts New Hampshire New Jersey New York — North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania / Rhode Island f Tennessee, all counties . . . " some counties. Texas Utah Vermont Virginia ) West Virginia ) Wisconsin Wyoming Grouse. (Including Pinnated Grouse and Ruffed ) or "'Prairie Chicken,' Grouse or " Pheasant Arkansas (Pinnated). . - Cal if ornia " Siskiyou County Colorado Dakota Idaho (Ada County) Illinois (Pinnated) (Ruffed) Indiana Iowa (Pinnated) " (Ruffed) Kansas Maine (Pinnated) (Ruffed) Michigan (Pinnated) (Ruffed) Minnesota (Pinnated, white-breasted, and sharptaiJed) Minnesota (Ruffed) Mississippi (Ruffed) Missouri (Pinnated and Ruffed) Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire (Ruffed) New Jersey (Ruffed) New York (Ruffed and Pinnated) " '• Queens and Suffolk Coun- ties (Ruffed) Ohio (Pinnated) " (Ruffed) Oregon (Pinnated) Pennsylvania (Ruffed and Pinnated). Pike County (Ruffed). . . Rhode Island " (Ruffed) Tennessee, all counties '* some counties HUNTING 428 HUNTING i •— > J3 1 3 "3 1—. bio 3 < a 1 > A Texas (Pinnated) _ .i_ .i._ _»_ ___ __ _ Utah vaaBa mBV ••• ^B^ ^o^ aB^_ ^^^ r—^ Washington ^^ ^^ ___ ,.^__ ___ West Virginia (RufEed and Pinnated). ._ ^_i ^— _ .■.i. Wisconsin (Ruffed, Pinnated, and Sharptailed) ■IB Ba^_ ^._ ^m^ aa_^ Wyoming (Pinnated, Sharptail, and Sage Grouse) — ■■^~ —■ "- Wild Water Fowl. Alabama (Wild Duck) -^ •— i —^ — — ^_i — . Arkansas, " " ,„„,^ ■ ,^^^ _^_ California, " " all counties.. . i^_i _ _ ___ ^__ ii__ '* " some counties. _^ _^_ mmt ^ __^ ^^ _„ _i_l Connecticut (Wild Duck, Geese, Brant) District of Columbia (Wild Duck, Geese, Brant) _ ^_ ^_ „__ _^ Georgia (Wild Duck) generally ^_ _^ _ ...._ __ _ Idaho (Wila Duck and Goose) — — i -^ ._ mm ^__ 1— _ _ ._ Indiana (Wild Duck) >~~ i_ ^^ _i _^__ ii^_ i»_i .,_ Iowa (Wild Duck, Geese, Brant) •i... __ ,^_ _ ^^ _«_« _^ ^■i_ Kentucky (Wild Geese, Woodduck, Teal, or other Duck) ,aa_i ^^^ ^^_ ^ „„,_ „^,^ Maine (Wood Duck, Black Duck, or other Sea Ducks) ^^ _i_ i_ __ — i ^_ «i_ _ Maryland (Wild Fowl), all counties.. i^— i^— — ^ ^____ —— •' " " some counties. >aB^ ^_aa ^^_a ^^^ ^^i_i ^^^ B^^ Massachusetts (Wood or Summer Duck, Black Duck, Teal) _i. ^^ .__ ^_ mmmm _ _ Michigan (Water Fowl) — _i__ —— __i ^^ ^_ __ ^^m Minnesota (Aquatic Fowls) — ^m.m •— _»i _ ^^ -~— — . — « Montana (Wild Geese and Ducks) . . — — — — — — — «" — 10— — — — — — — Nevada " " " .. ■■■■^ laaiiB ■i^^ BBiiiiB ^^-B ^"^ New Hampshire (Duck) ^^„^ ^^^ ,„„^ ^^^ „^^ New Jersey, Barnegat Bay, and trib- utaries (Ducks, Geese, Brant) mm^ aio^ ^_aB ■BBB ^ ^^^ a^BI New York (Wild Duck, Brant) — '^'"" ^—i — — — ^— ■^— — ■ " " in Long Island waters. .. •iB^— _^BB ■amiB ^^^ MBi North Carolina Cunibuck County, (Wild Fowl) BaSBB O^BBi ^10 10— Oi^^ Ohio (Wild Fowl) _— — ^_ mmmm. _ — — Oregon (Swan and Duck) — — — •— — — — — "-^ Pennsylvania (Wild Fowl) ^— __• >ii^ —^ •— ■»i~ ■— •^^ — Pike County (Wood or Summer Duck) , ^^^ •^^B Rhode Island (Wood, Black, or Gray Duck) ■"■" ""■" ^^^ •^■Bi Rhode Island (Dusky Duck, Summer Duck, Blue or Green Winged Teal) __ .i_i_ — — — ^ !■■ ■ Tennessee, Montgomery and Cheat- ham Cos , (Duck) _a^ ^^^ ^^••m Bi^^ — ^ ^iia>a ^■■BB ^^^ Vermont (Wood Duck) ,__^^ __^ ^^^ ,^^„ " (Wild Geese and Ducks),... —.i^ 1^— — -i— . Virginia (Wild Water Fowl, except Wood Duck and Sora) —1^ -— — — >— ^— — — Washington ^Wild Ducks) .^^ >— > — ■ ^ ^mm. — ^ — _ — > West Virginia (Wild Ducks, Geese, and Brant) .... ""^ ~~" •■■"■ Wisconsin (Wood, Mallard, and Teal Ducks) - ~~" — ■~~ ^^^ Wyoming (Wild Fowl) Rail. California 12- — — ,_, Connecticut .. __' Delaware ^^^ ZI ' ^iOM District of Columbia. ........ ....... , Massachusetts _^ New Hampshire -^ ^^^ — — ^^Mi New Jersey New York (Queens and Suffolk Coun- ties) _ aaiBai •■» ■ ^ Pennsylvania — — — ^ HUNTING A^g HUNTING Woodcock. Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Georgia, Morgan County Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Maine Maryland, all counties some counties Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Nevada New Jersey New York North Carolina, New Hanover Co. . , Ohio and Pennsylvania Rhode Island Tennessee (generally) Vermont Virginia Wisconsin Doves and Pigeons. Alabama, some counties " all counties California Georgia, some counties " Bibo County Kentucky Massachusetts Mississippi Missouri North Carolina Rhode Island (when netted or trapped) South Carolina Wisconsin Hares and Rabbits. Alabama, Lawrence County Delaware, some counties " all counties Kentucky, some counties Maryland, all counties " some counties Massachusetts New Hampshire New Jersey Pennsylvania and New York Rhode Island Snipe. Dakota District of Columbia Michigan Nevada New Jersey New York, Queens and Suffolk Coun- ties North Carolina, New Hanover Co. . . Tennessee (generally) Wyoming Squirrels. Connecticut (gray) Kentucky, some counties (black, gray, or fox squirrels) Massachusetts (gray) New Hampshire (gray) New Jersey (gray and red) New York (gray and black) —25 Absolutely protected within 3 miles of nesting-place. HUNTING 430 HUNTING Pennsylvania (gray and black) Pike County Elsewhere Rhode Island (gray) Water Animals. Iowa (.Beaver, Mink, Otter, Muskrat) Maine (same, with Sable and Fisher), Montana (Beaver, Otter, Fisher) .... Nebraska (Mink and Muskrat) New Hampshire (Mink, Beaver, Sable, Otter, Fisher) Ohio (Muskrat, Mink, Otter) Utah (Beaver, Otter) Vermont (Mink, Beaver, Otter, Fisher) Wisconsin (Otter, Mink, Martin, Muskrat, Fisher) Plover. Dakota District of Columbia Maine Massachusetts Missouri Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York, Queens and SufiEolk Coun- ties Pennsylvania Rhode Island Tennessee, Montgomery and Cheat ham Counties Rice Bird. Connecticut Reed Bird. See Rail. Elk, Moose, Antelope, Buffalo. See Deer. Robin, Lark, Bobolink. Connecticut Gull, Tern, Sea Swallow. Massachusetts Starling. Mississippi Mountain Sheep. California, Siskiyou County (Elsewhere prohibited.) Colorado. Hunting prohibited till 1895. Oregon Washington Elsewhere, where found, included with Deer. Hunting has always been a more favorite sport with the northern than with the southern nations of Europe. The early inhabitants of Britain are said to have kept good hunting-dogs, and under the Saxon kings the sport was reduced to a system. Alfred the Great was an expert huntsman when a boy of twelve. The love for the sport was carried to such an extent that laws had to be made prohibiting hunting on Sunday, and forbidding monks to hunt in the woods with dogs. People were also forbidden to inter- fere with the king's hunting, but any man could hunt where he chose. When the Normans conquered England, they brought with them much finer horses and hounds than those the Saxons had used, but they made hunting a privilege of the nobles alone, and passed cruel laws forbidding the common people to indulge in it. These laws, called] HUNT THE RING 4.'^T HYDROCHLORIC ACID Forest Laws, drove many of the Saxons into rebellion, and some, like the famous Robin Hood (see C. P. P.), became outlaws. These laws, little by little, were removed; yet even at the present day, the law in England is very severe against hunting on land belonging to another person. Such hunting is called poaching, and the game- keepers who have charge of the game on large estates are obliged to keep constantly on the watch for poachers, who are generally pun- ished severely. In this country the owners of enclosed ground usually allow people to hunt there, but they have always the right to forbid it, as explained above. HUNT THE RING. See Hunt THE Slipper. HUNT THE SLIPPER, a game played by any number of persons, with an ordinary slipper. The play- ers sit on the floor in a circle, except- ing one, who stands in the middle. Those in the circle pass the slipper quickly around the ring either be- hind their backs or beneath their bent knees, and the one in the middle tries to find out who has it at every moment. If he can call the name of the person in whose hands it is, that person must take his place. It is usual for the players to pretend to pass the slipper when it is not in their hands, and to try in many ways to mislead the one look- ing for it. Instead of a slipper a ring is often used, strung on a long cord, on which it is slid along from one player to another. If the players keep their hands moving along the cord, it is very difficult to tell where the ring is In this form the game is called Hunt the Ring. In France Hunt the Ring is called Le Furet (The Ferret), and the player within the circle is named the Hunter. During the game the players sing a song, beginning : " II court, il court, le Furet, Le Furet du bois. mesdames; II court, il court, le Furet, Le Furet du bois joli." In English this is " He runs, he runs, the Ferret, The Ferret of the woods, ladies; He runs, he runs, the Ferret, The pretty Ferret of the woods, HUTCHINSON FAMILY, a game, or trick, played by any number of persons. Those who know the game retire to an adjoining room and are supposed to personate the Hutchinson family, to whom the others are brought in one by one to be introduced. The " family," who all stand in a row, imitate, as ex- actly as possible, whatever the guest says or does, until he sits down, when he joins the family, and another person is brought in. Sometimes, when the guest under- stands the joke, he can turn it on the members of the " family," by doing something difficult to imi- tate. HYDROCHLORIC ACID, Experi- ments with. Hydrochloric acid is a gas made up of hydrogen and chlorine (see C. C. T.) ' It is called also muriatic acid. It is sold in drug-stores in liquid form, the gas being dissolved in water. If this liquid be heated it will give off the gas again. The liquid may be held over an alcohol lamp, in a bottle or flask from which a delivery-tube leads to the bottom of a jar. The gas, being heavier than air, will stay in the jar till it is full. The gas may be made also by gently heat- ing common salt and sulphuric acid in a flask. Pieces of rock salt the size of a pea should be used, fur with ordinary pulverized salt the action is too quick, causing the mixture to froth. The gas is col- lected as before. It is transparent, so the only way to tell when the jar is full is to hold a strip of blue litmus paper near the top. (See Test Papers.) experiments. I. The Fountain. This is made in the same way as the Ammonia fountain, except that the water must be colored with blue litmus, and HYDROGEN 432 HYDROGEN will turn red as it enters the upper bottle. The result is explained in the same way, hydrochloric acid gas having a great liking for water. 2. Fill a long test-tube with the dry gas, and invert it over a saucer of mercury, letting the mouth of the tube dip below the mercury. Put a bit of ice into the tube by pushing it under the mercury. The ice and gas will both disappear, and the mercury will rise in the tube. This is because the gas likes water so well that it forces the ice to melt, and is then dissolved by the water which is made. The pressure of the outside air then forces the mercury up into the tube to take the place of the dissolved gas. See also Experiment 3 under Am- monia. HYDROGEN, Experiments with. Processes and things merely al- luded to in this article are freely explained in that on Chemistry, Experiments in. H3^drogen gas is described in C. C. T. To make it, bore two holes in the cork of a wide-mouthed bottle, like those in which pickles and jam are sold, making sure that the cork is sound and tight. Through one of the holes put a " thistle-tube," and through the other a delivery-tube, the end of which is bent to collect the gas over water. The thistle-tube must reach nearly to the bottom of the bottle, but the deli very- tube must end near the top. Into the bottle put about a dozen small pieces of zinc. Scraps of zinc can be bought at a plumber's, and cut up with a pair of shears. Each piece should be bent or twisted a little, so that it will not lie flat on the bottom of the bottle. Instead of zinc, nails or scrap-iron may be used. The cork with its two tubes must now be put in place. Be sure that it is tight (hydrogen being quite explosive); blow into the delivery tube till the water rises into the funnel of the thistle tube, and then stop up the end of the delivery-tube with the tongue. If the water stays at the same height in the other tube the bottle is tight, if not, the cork must be covered with sealing-wax. When all is tight, half fill the bottle with water, by pouring it through the thistle-tube. Then pour in sulphuric or hydrochloric acid slowly, half a tea-spoonful or so at a time, until bubbles be- gin to rise pretty briskly from the zinc. Gas will soon bubble up into the receiver. If it does not, pour in more sulphuric acid, and if it still refuses to appear it is proba- ble that the cork is not tight, and that the gas is escaping into the air. The first jarful of hydrogen made must be thrown away, for it is mixed with the air which was in the bottle to begin with, and a mix- ture of hydrogen and common air is very explosive. When one or more jars of pure hydrogen have been collected, the experiments de- Making Hydrogen. scribed below may be tried with it, or a large quantity may be made and stored in a gas holder for future use. The hydrogen made in this way comes from the acid used (see Acid in C. C. T.) The other sub- stances in the acid prefer the zinc or iron to the hydrogen, and so let it go and unite with the metal in- stead. The substance so formed is sulphate of zinc or iron, if sulphuric acid be used, and chloride of zinc or iron, if the acid is hydrochloric. Any of these dissolves in water un- HYDROGEN 433 HYGROSCOPE less there is too much acid in it, when it sticks to the metal and stops the action. For this reason it is not well to put in too much acid. EXPERIMENTS. 1. Holding a jar, in which hy- drogen has been collected, mouth downward, touch a lighted match to it. If the gas is pure, it will burn quietly. Repeat the experi- ment, holding the mouth of the jar upward, the gas will burn quick- ly with a high flame. This is be- cause hydrogen is lighter than air and so escapes and mixes with it when the opening of the jar is up- permost. 2. A jarful of hydrogen may be poured up into an empty jar. That the gas has really been poured into the empty jar may be proved by touching a match to it. 3. Remove the end of the delivery- tube and substitute a glass jet. If the hydrogen is pure it may be lighted at this jet, and will burn with a very pale blue flame. This experi- ment must not be tried till several jars of gas have been collected, for if the gas in the bottle is impure it will explode. It is a good plan to wrap a cloth around the bottle, so that if there be an accident broken glass will not be thrown about. A jet of hydrogen burning thus is called the *' Philosopher's Candle." 4. Hold a glass tube twelve or fif- teen inches long and about one and a half inches wide over the flame of the Philosopher's Candle, and move it up and down. A position will be found where the tube will give out a musical sound. If it does not, the size of the jet and tube are not fitted to each other, and one or the other should be made larger or smaller. The sound is caused by a great number of little explosions, so close together that they form a musical sound. (See Sound, C. C. T.) 5. Blow soap-bubbles with the gas, as described in the article Soap- BuBBLES. The gas must be drawn from a gas-holder for this purpose. If the bubbles be blown with a mix- ture of hydrogen and air, or hydro- gen and Oxygen, each will explode with a loud report, instead of burn- ing, when touched with a lighted match. HYDROSTATIC BELLOWS. A scientific toy, made as follows : Cut out two pieces of board of the same size and shape, either square or round, and about two feet in diam- eter. Connect them by nailing leather to their edges, so that when it is stretched they will be about six inches apart. The apparatus must be water-tight. Bore an auger-hole in one piece of board, and fit in it tightly the end of a piece of lead- pipe five or six feet long. Place the bellows on the ground with a heavy weight on it, so that the boards will be pressed together. Support the pipe upright and pour water into it through a tin funnel. The upper board of the bellows will rise, raising the weight. If the experimenter stand on the bellows, he can raise his own weight by pouring water into the tube. The reason is, that in fluids pressure is carried equally in all directions. If the pipe is one square inch in section, then every square inch of the bellows-boards is pressed on by a weight equal to the water in the pipe ; and if the bellows be large, the entire pressure may thus amount to several hundred pounds. HYGROSCOPE, an instrument to show whether the air is moist or dry. One of the simplest is made by taking a hair or piece of cat-gut a foot or two in length, and hang- ing it by one end to a nail in the wall, tying to the other end a small weight, just sufficient to stretch the hair tight. Hair or cat-gut will lengthen by absorbing moisture from the air, so the hair becomes longer in moist than in dry weather. To show a slight change in the length of the hair, a splinter of wood is fastened at one end to the HYGROSCOPE 434 HYGROSCOPE hair near the weight, and is pivoted on a pin very near that end. A slight movement of the end fastened to the hair, will thus cause a greater one in the other end. The illustration shows one a little more carefully made. Fas- tened to the upper part, ^, of the frame is a screw a b to tighten the hair, c is the hair, and p the weight. To re- lieve it of the ten- sion caused by the weight, the hair is passed over a pul- ley, to which the pointer is attached. A little thermom- eter is fastened to the side of the frame. Hair Hygroscope. This kind of hy- groscope can be made also of twisted cat-gut, which untwists by absorbing moisture. The little houses with figures of a man and woman, one of whom appears in moist and the other in dry weather, are made in this way. Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer. This form of hygroscope consists of two thermometers hung side by side. Around the bulb of one is tied a piece of soft cloth, the end of which dips into a cup of water. The cloth soaks up the water, and keeps the bulb continually wet. The evapora- tion of the water on the bulb keeps it cooler than the other, so it always stands lower. On very dry days the water evaporates fast, and the wet bulb thermometer stands much lower than the other, while on s Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers. damp days the water does not evap- orate so quickly, and so it stands only a little lower. Hence the in- strument is used to tell whether the air is dry or damp. Phial Barometer. This is really a kind of hygroscope, because it does not measure the pressure of the air, but shows only whether it is dry or moist. Cut off about half of the neck of a common glass phial (see Chemical Experiments, direc- tions for glass-working) and nearly fill it with water, which may be col- ored if desired. Place the finger over the mouth of the phial and in- vert it; the water will not run out even when the finger is removed. Suspend the phial, neck downward, by a string. In dry weather the un- der surface of the water is either level or concave, but in damp weather a drop appears at the mouth of the phial, and keeps enlarging till it falls. This is caused by the deposition of moisture from the air. ICE 435 ICE-BOATS ICE, Exper i me nts with. In a room below the freezing point place a lump of ice, whose ends rest on two chairs, tables, or boxes, and hang a weight of several pounds over the ice by an iron wire. The wire will cut gradually through the ice, but the block will freeze together again above it, so that in time the weight will fall to the floor, the wire having cut completely through the block, which nevertheless remains sound and whole. ICE-BOATS. The present ice- boats, or yachts, as they are some- times called, are made on the plan shown in Figs, i and 2, of two beams crossed, and braced with iron stays. Fig. I. The runners, three in number, are at the ends of the cross-beam (called the " runner plank ") and at the rear of that running lengthwise (called " centre timber"). On the forward end of the centre timber is bolted the bowsprit. The rear runner serves as a rudder. The for- ward runners are fastened by a bolt on which they can rock forward and backward. There is one mast, which is placed slightly in advance of the cross-plank. An oval box, holding two persons, is fastened just above the rudder; except for this the boat is merely a frame. The larg- est ice-boats are 50 to 60 feet long, and 25 or 26 feet wide. They are rigged as sloops, cat- boats (see Fig. 3), or with a lateen sail (see Sail- ing). Ice-boats may sail faster than the wind, as shown by Fig. 4 : Suppose the wind to be blowing in the direction of the arrow at the rate of twenty miles an hour ; then, if A B is a mile, the boat cannot sail that distance directly before the wind in less than three minutes; but the friction of the runners on the ice is so slight, that it will sail along A C in almost the same time. As AC is about two miles, the boat would be going twice as fast as the wind. Ice- boats thus attain wonderful speed. On February 12, 1879, the " Lucille " sailed from Poughkeepsie to New Hamburg, on the Hudson River, nine miles, in seven minutes and ten seconds. At another time the " Snow Flake " is said to have made the same distance in seven minutes, and in 1882 the "Haze" did the same, making at one time two miles in one minute. Many similar in- stances of great speed are related, but it is hard to get an official rec- ord, for ice-boats go fastest when least expected, and the time made in regular races, as shown below, is far slower than that just given, though still very great. The sails of the boat are set near- ly fore and aft, and the boat is man- aged almost entirely by the rudder, the speed being so great that the helmsman has no opportunity to ICE-BOATS 436 ICE-BOATS change the position of the sail. If the sail must be reefed, the boat is Fig. 2. brought into the wind and the crew disembark to reef it. The boat is stopped usually by bringing her with thrust down to act as a drag. The boat is anchored by bringing her into the wind, loosening the jib- sheets, and turning the rudder crosswise. The ice boat obeys her rudder very easily, and the steers- man must be always on his guard, for if he turn it too suddenly the boat will spin around, throwing the crew out. To cross a crack, some sailors first head the boat so Fig- 3. her head to the wind, and then slackening the sheet. Many ice- boats have a brake which can be Fig. 4. as to " spill" (or lose) the wind and then run over the crack so that both forward runners cross it at the same time ; and some disembark and help the boat over. Others would sim- ply slack both sheets and let the boat's momentum carry her over. The wind often forces the boat over so that the weather-runner is lifted clear of the ice, leaving only the lee- runner and the rudder. The boat is then said to " rear," and must be eased by bringing her into the wind, if the boat is beating to windward. One or two men often stand on the windward runner, to keep it down. The greatest speed, running free, is made by steer- ing across the wind till a maximum velocity is reached, and then steer- ing down the wind without slacking the sheet. The momentum will carry the boat faster than the wind for some distance, when she must again be brought up and headway regained. The yachtsman often wears coverings of wire gauze over his eyes and mouth to keep out fly- ing snow. The strain on the timbers of an ice-yacht makes it necessary that they shall be perfect in grain and well seasoned. The runners are ICE-BOATS 437 ICE-BOATS Ice-boats on the Hudson made of iron or steel. Iron runners wear at first, but by use acquire Crossing a Crack. what is called a " water polish," the surface becoming very hard. Many boats have two sets of runners, sharp ones for smooth ice and strong winds, and duller ones for rough or soft ice. A Tom Thumb ice-boat holds only one person, and can be made by nailing boards together as in the diagram. The runners are made of skates. The rear one, or rudder, is screwed to the end of a stout wood- en upright which passes tli rough a hole at the rear of the main plank. To this upright a horizontal handle is fastened, forming the tiller. The steersman sits just forward of the tiller with his feet on the cross- plank. The rudder may be omitted, the rear skate being fixed, like the others; but in this case the steers- man must have on skates and steer with his feet. Any simple sail may be used. The chief ice boat clubs in the United States are on the Hudson River and the Shrewsbury River in New Jersey. A silk challenge pen- ICE-BOATS 438 ICE-BOATS nant, thirty feet long, is raced for every year. The winner can be challenged in the following year by Tom Thumb Ice-boat. any organized club in this country or Europe. A list of winners of the pennant, with their times, is given in the appendix. The following are the chief sail- ing rules of the Hudson River Ice Yacht Club: Rule I. — The following sailing rules and regulations shall govern and control all the regattas and all the races of this Club, and all con- tests sailed under its auspices, un- less otherwise specified between parties makins: a match. Rule II. — Classification. Yachts shall be divided by sail area into four classes as follows : First class. measuring 600 square feet of sail area and over ; Second class, meas- uring 450 and under 600 square feet; Third class, measuring 300 square feet and under 450 ; Fourth class, measuring less than 300. Rule III. — Objections. If any objection be made with regard to the starting of any ice-yacht in a race, such objection must be made in writing to the Regatta Commit- tee at least one hour before a regatta. Rule \Y.— Entry of the Yachts. Unmeasured or unrecorded yachts, or yachts in arrears to this CluU cannot be entered for any race. Rule V. — Touching Buoys, etc. An ice-yacht touching any mark, boat, or buoy, used to mark out the course, shall forfeit all claim to the prize, except as in cases specified in Rules VII, IX, X. Rule VI. — Rule of the Road. When two yachts have to cross each other on the opposite tacks, the one on the starboard must invariably keep her course, and the one on the port tack must keep away and pass to leeward, or tack short, when the smallest doubt exists as to her being able to weather the other. All expenses of damages incurred by yachts on op- posite tacks running on board each other, fall upon the one on the port tack, unless the one on the star- board tack has kept away with the intention of passing to leeward, in which case the expense of damage falls upon the yacht on the star- board tack, because, by her keeping away, she may have prevented the other passing to leeward. Should a vessel on the port tack attempt to weather one on the starboard tack when it does not seem possible to do so, the latter, rather than keep away, should put her helm down. Nothing should induce a vessel on I the starboard tack to keep away. Rule VII. — Courses. Any ice- yacht purposely bearing away or altering her course to leeward, and thereby compelling another ice- yacht to bear away to avoid a col- lision, shall forfeit all claim to the prize, and pay all damages that may ensue — unless, when two ice-yachts are approaching the windward shore, a buoy or stake boat, together with a free wind, and so close together that the weathermost cannot bear away clear of the leewardmost, and by standing further on would be in danger of running on shore, or touching a buoy or stake boat ; then j such leewardmost ice-yacht, on being ] requested to bear away, is imme- ICE-BOATS 439 IDENTIFICATION diately to comply, and will forfeit all claim to the prize by not doing so. The vveathermost ice-yacht must, however, bear away as soon as the one she hails, if she can do so with- out coming into contact. Rule VIII. — Rounding Buoys, etc. When rounding a mark, boat, or buoy, the ice-yacht nearest thereto is to be considered the headmost ice-yacht ; and should any other ice-yacht in the race com- pel the ice-yacht which is nearest to any mark, boat or buoy; to touch said mark, boat, or buoy, the ice- yacht so compelling her shall forfeit all claim to the prize ; her owner shall pay for all damages that may occur; and the ice-yacht so com- pelled to touch a mark, boat, or buoy, shall not suffer any penalty for such contact. Rule IX. — Courses. Ice-yachts going free must invariably give way for those by the wind on either tack. Rule y^.— Courses. When two ice-yachts (by the wind) are ap- proaching the shore, a mark, boat, or buoy, together, and so close to each other that the leewardmost cannot tack clear of the weather- most, and by standing further on would be in danger of running on shore, or touching a mark, boat, or buoy; such weathermost ice-yacht, on being requested to put about, is immediately to comply, and will forfeit all claim to a prize by not doing so. The leewardmost ice- yacht must, hov/ever, tack at the same time as the one she hails, if she can do so without coming into contact. Rule X I. — Pushing. Unfair pushing is strictly forbidden in any race for a prize ; any ice-yacht in- fringing upon this Rule, in the opinion of the Regatta Committee, shall forfeit all claim to the prize. Rule XII. — Ballast. No ice- yacht shall increase or diminish ballast during a race. Rule XIII. — Time of Perform- ance. Section i. In case the distance assigned for the race shall not have been performed in the time specified by the Regatta Com- mittee, the race shall be repeated at such time as the Regatta Com- mittee may appoint. Sec. 2. If any ice-yacht, however, shall perform the distance in time specified for her class, it shall be deemed a race for that class. History. Ice-boats have been used in the north of Europe for several centuries, but they have never been brought to such perfec- tion there as in the United States. In Holland and Russia they are hardly more than sleds with sails, and sometimes they are sail-boats mounted on runners. The princi- pal improvements in ice-boat build- ing have been made by the clubs on the Hudson River, the first of which was formed in Poughkeepsie, N. Y., in 1 86 1, but the sport is practised on harbors, lakes, and streams through- out the northern United States and in Canada. IDENTIFICATION, GAMES OF, games in which part of the players try to guess the names of the others from the appearance of their eyes, ears, noses, or fingers. The players are divided into two parties, and stand in adjoining rooms, in the doorway; between the posts of which is stretched a sheet of cloth or paper with a hole in the middle. Each of one party now puts a finger through the hole, and each of the other party guesses who its owner is. As the guesses are made, they are re- corded, and when all have guessed, he who has made the most correct guesses is declared the winner. The parties then change places. Instead of fingers, noses, ears, or hands may be put through the hole, or each may apply one eye to it. There may be only one guesser, and as soon as he makes a correct guess the person guessed may take his place. In another game those whose ILLUSTRATED BALLADS 446 1 LOVE MY LOVE in a row, and their heads and faces are covered with long paper funnels, each having two holes for the eyes. To the bottoms of the funnels is pinned a sheet, which hangs to the ground, concealing their bodies. Each one of the guessers now takes a lighted candle, and looking at the eyes through the holes in the paper funnels, guesses who each one is. When all have guessed, the paper funnels are removed. Another method of identification is by the voice. French Blind Man's Buff is a game of this kind. ILLUSTRATED BALLADS, ballads illustrated by Pantomime or Tab- leaux. The ballad is read or sung by a concealed person. If it be illustrated by pantomime, the ac- tion should accompany the ballad from beginning to end; but if by tab- leaux, they may be shown at inter- vals, when required. Any ballad telling a simple story may be thus illustrated. Instead of a ballad, a narrative poem may be taken, such as Longfellow's " Evangeline," or " Miles Standish." - I LOVE MY LOVE, a game played by any number of persons, who usually sit in a circle. The one who begins says, for instance, "I love my love with an A, because she is ainiable; I hate her with an A, because she is avaricious. I took her to the sign of the Antelope, and treated her to apples and ale* Her name is Anna, and she lives in Andover." The words in italics may be varied as the speaker chooses, but must always begin with A, and if the player is a girl, she must of course speak of her love as a boy. When the first play- er has finished, the one on his left repeats the sentence, and so on till all have done so, but the words in italics must be entirely new in each case. When a player mentions any one of them a second time, or can- not think of a suitable word, he must pay a forfeit. When all the players have used the letter A, the sentence is repeated again by all in turn, using words that begin with B, and so on through the alphabet, except that X, Y, and Z, and some- times U, V, and W, are omitted. When a large number play the game, it is often difficult for those whose turns come last to think of words that have not been used, and the turns should therefore be taken alternately in different directions; that is, to the right for A, to the INDIAN CLUBS 441 IODINE left for B, and so on. The sentence given above is very commonly used in the game, but it may be varied at the pleasure of the company. History. Thegameof I Love my Love was formerly very simple, and consisted in saying " I love my love with an A, because he is agreeable, amiable, attentive," and soon, using all possible adjectives beginning with an A, while the next player took up B in the same way. The game is called in France "Lejeu de I'al- phabet" (The Alphabet Game). It is sometimes called " Alphabetical Compliments." The game can be varied in many ways. For instance, each player may represent a mer- chant, the first saying " My name is Atreus, I come from Attica, I deal in Antiquities, and am going to u^tna;" the second, "My name is Byron, I come from Barbary, I deal in Bananas, and am going to Bos- ton ; " and so on through the alpha- bet. Games of this kind are called in Germany Spielen mit gegebenen Anfangsbuchstaben (Games with Given Initials). INDIAN CLUBS. See Gymnas- tics. INITIALS, a game played by any number of persons. The leader be- gins by addressing to any player a remark whose words begin with the initials of that player's name in their proper order, or some epithet beginning with those initials. The others, one by one, address the same player in like manner. When- ever the player so addressed can answer one of the others with a sentence or epithet beginning with the latter's initials, before the next player can speak, the players must all address the one so answered, and so the game goes on. For instance, if the player's initials are A. E. B., he may be addressed with " An ex- quisite beau !" " Are eggs break- able ?" "Apples excite boils." "An early bird," etc. A similar game is known in Ger- many as Na7nenspiel (The Name Game). In it the names or epithets are given one by one by each player to his neighbor, who must guess to whom they refer. They may apply to some one in the company or to some well-known person or histori- cal character. INK, Experiment with. Dissolve one half teaspoonful of salt in a tumblerful of water. Dip a pen in ink, filling it not too full, and touch with it the surface of the water. The ink will descend into the tumbler in curiously shaped drops. INTELLECTUAL SALAD, a guess- ing game played by any number of persons. Any number of cards are first prepared, on each of which is written a quotation, with its au- thor's name. The cards are decor- ated with green leaves of tissue paper, and placed in a salad bowl. One of the company takes them out one by one and reads the quotations, while the others guess the authors' names. The first one who guesses correctly, in each case, is given the card to keep as a memento. IODIDE OF MERCURY, Experi- ment with. Mix together solutions of iodide of potassium and corrosive sublimate (the latter should be used with care, as it is very poisonous). A bright scarlet powder will be formed, which may be separated by filtering (see Chemical Experi- ments). This powder is iodide of mercury. When rubbed on paper it leaves a beautiful scarlet stain, but on heating the paper over an alcohol lamp, the stain turns yellow. If the stain be rubbed over with the fingers it will turn scarlet again. The change takes place gradually if the yellow stain be scratched with a pin. The reason is that iodide of mercury crystallizes in two forms, one of which is red and the other yellow. The red form is changed to the yellow by heat, and the yellow crystals are broken up into red ones again by rubbing, IODINE, Experiments with. The iodine used in these experiments IRON BURNED IN A CANDLE 442 I SUSPECT is a bluish black solid. The liquid iodine used in medicine is really iodine dissolved in alcohol. 1. Take a piece of iodine and heat it in a bottle. It will not melt, but give off a beautiful purple vapor. 2. Powder some iodine fine, and put a very little of it (about as much as will lie on quarter of an inch of the small blade of a knife) into a small saucer. Pour in enough strong ammonia water to cover it, and let it stand for about 20 minutes. Then either stir the powder up, and filter it (see Chem- ical Experiments) or pour off most of the ammonia, and then pour the powder on a piece of blotting-paper. { Place the filter-paper or blotting- paper where it will dry in the sun. When it is perfectly dry, rub a stick on the powder, or even brush a feather over it, and it will explode with a crackling noise. Though it has not changed in looks, the iodine has been made by the ammonia into a very explosive substance called Nitrogen Iodide. The reason why so little iodine was used, is that otherwise the explosion might be dangerous. IRON BURNED IN A CANDLE. Take any piece of iron, as a bit of wire, or a nail, and scrape it with a knife above the flame of a candle. Very small bits of the iron are scraped off which, although they cannot be seen with the naked eye, take fire as they fall into the flame, and burn with beautiful sparks. I SPY, an out-door hiding game played by any number of persons. One of the players, who is usually chosen by counting out, remains near the goal (which may be a tree, stone, or other object) and, shutting his eyes, counts a number previously agreed upon, generally one hun- dred. Meanwhile, the others hide, each where he pleases, and when the player at the goal has finished counting, he goes out in search of them. When he sees one he names him, saying, " I spy James Smith," or whoever it may be. Both now run for the goal. If the hider touch it first, without being touched himself, he is safe. If the seeker can not catch any of the players he spies, nor touch the goal before them after he spies them, he must close his eyes again while they all hide as before ; but if he has caught or touched the goal before one or more players, the first one of them must take the seeker's place in the second game. The hiding players need not wait to be spied, but may run in and touch the goal whenever they think they can do so safely. This game is sometimes played in England by dividing into two par- ties, one of which hides and the other seeks. If the seeking party spy two of the hiders before two others reach goal, they hide in the next game, otherwise the same party hide again. Hide and Whoop or Hide and Seek, a kind of I Spy played by little chil- dren. Those who hide call out " Whoop !" when they are ready, and the seeker then looks for them. In the simplest form of the game there is no goal, and the one that is found first becomes seeker in the next game. Another game some- times called Hide and Seek, is called in this book Hide the Handker- chief. The Greeks played a game of Hide and Seek called Apodidras- kinda (The Shunning Game), where one sat down and closed his eyes, while the others hid. He who was found first took the seeker's place. IMPERIAL, See Piquet. ! SUSPECT, a game of cards played by any number of persons with one or more full packs. The cards are dealt one by one, so as to be as evenly distributed as possible. The eldest hand leads a card, face downward, calling out at the same time the name of a card, which may be the one he laid down or some other. The next player to the left now plays in like manner* I SUSPECT 443 JACK-STONES and must call the name of the card next higher than the one named by the eldest hand. The others in turn do the same. Thus if A leads, calling " Six," the others in turn, as they play, say "Seven," "Eight," " Nine," *' Ten,'' " Knave," etc. When King is reached the next player begins at " One " again. This goes on till some one suspects that the card played is not the same as the card called, when he must say " I suspect. " The suspected person then shows the card he played. If the suspicion is correct, the offender must take into his hand all the cards on the table; if it was unfounded, the accuser receives the cards. He who first gets rid of all his cards is the winnei. A just accusation may always be avoided by playing the proper cards in order, but this is impossible with a small hand, hence it is always safe to suspect the holder of a few cards. The last card should always be sus- pected, since there is only one chance in thirteen of its being right. If a player can get all four cards of the same name into his hand, he is of course, certain to suspect rightly any one whose turn it is to play one of those cards. A skilful player rarely plays the right card unless he thinks some one is watching him, and saves as many kinds of cards as he can, getting rid of duplicates. When his hand is small, he tries to hide the fact by diverting the atten- tion of the company to some one else. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. No player can be suspected after the next in order has played his card. 2. A player may conceal his hand as he pleases, to hide the fact that it is small, but he must always show it on demand of any one of the company. 3. The game may be continued after one player's cards are gone, till all the cards are in one hand. In this case any one out of the game may suspect, and if he suspect wrongly he must enter the game again. This game is called also "I Doubt it," and " You Lie." JACK'S ALIVE. See Robin's Alive. JACK-STONES, a game played by one or more per- sons with five small pebbles, or little pieces of iron shaped as in the illustration. These are thrown up and caught in various Jack-stone. ways, and if more than one plays, he wins who first succeeds in going through in order with a certain number of exer- cises. These exercises differ in kind and number in different places; but some of them are given below. 1 . The five Jack-stones are thrown into the air and caught all together on the back of the hand. 2. One of the Stones is tossed up and caught in the hand and on its back alternately. At the successive catches the player calls out " Five !" " Ten ! " " Fifteen ! " " Twenty! " and so on by fives up to One Hundred. 3. Ones, The Jack-stones are held in the hand, and one, called the " Jack," is thrown into the air, while the four others are laid on the floor or table in time to catch the Jack as he comes down. These are then picked up, one by one, each one while the Jack is thrown into the air. When all have been taken into the hand they must be laid down JACK-STONES 444 JACK-STONES as before, ready for Twos. Only one hand must be used. 4. Twos, Threes, 2iV\di Fours. The same as ones, except that the Stones are picked up first two at a time ; then three and one at a time ; and then all four at a time. 5. The Stones are all taken in the hand and laid down, first one at a time, then two at a time, and so on, always while the Jack is in the air. Each time after all are laid down, they are picked up all at once. 6. Riding the Elephant. The four Stones are placed in a line, and with the Jack on the back of his hand the player traces a curved line in and out among them with his forefinger. At the end he tosses up the Jack, and picks up all the Stones before catching it, all with one hand. 7. Set the Table. Four Stones are placed in a heap, and one by one are set at the corners of a square, while the Jack is in the air. "Peas in the Pod." 8. Peas in the Pod. The left hand fs laid on the table with the ends of the thumb and forefinger joined. Into the circle thus formed the Stones are pushed, one by one, while the Jack is in the air. The hand is then removed and all are picked up together. 9. Horses in the Stable. Similar to the above, save that the fingers of the hand are outstretched and one Stone pushed into each opening. All these exercises, of which there are very many, require the player to do something with the Jack-stones while the Jack is thrown into the air, and they all require " Horses in the Stable." practice. Some of them can be mastered only after hours or even days of hard work. A game of Jack-stones between two or more persons is thus only a trial to see which is most perfect in the exer- cises. History. Jack-stones is mentioned by the Greek poet, Aristophanes, as a girl's game more than two thou- sand years ago, and it has been a| common amusement from that tim( to this. The illustration shows Greek girl playing. The ancients Greek Girl Playing Jack-stones, played it with the knuckle-bones of j sheep, and it is still so played inj Europe, but in this country pebbles] JACK-STRAWS 445 JUSTICE IS BLIND or iron Jack-stones are commonly used. In England it is called "Dibs." ' "Cockall" wasan old name for it, and the French call it Osselets (little bones). Sometimes, also, it is played with marbles, and the jack is often of a different size or color from the rest. The name " Jack-stones " is probably a cor- ruption for " Chuck Stones." In Scotland small pebbles are called " chuckz'e-stanes." In Germany it is called Handtopsen or Knochelchen, and the Jack receives in various parts of that country different names,such as Hecker, Dopser, and Hopper. Oti-dama, or Japanese Jack-stones, the game of Jack-stones played with little bags about an inch and a half square, partially filled with rice. Some of the figures of Oti- dama differ from those of ordinary Jack-stones. Seven bags are often used, and the Jack is sometimes made of a different shape. The name is in Japanese 0-tddama, from O te tama (The Hand-balls). The game is common in Japan, and pebbles also are used in playing it there, as with us. JACK-STRAWS, a game played by any number of persons with little sticks of ivory or wood of equal length, generally between four and six inches. Some of these sticks, called Jack-straws, and usually twenty to one hundred in number, are plain, and some carved to look like various objects, as weapons, tools, garden implements, and the like. The players sit around a table, and the one who begins takes up the Jack-straws in one hand, in a bundle, and then holding them up- right and touching the table, sud- denly lets go, so that they fall out- ward in all directions. Each in turn then tries to pull from the pile with a little hook, made for the purpose, as many of the straws as he can, one at a time, without shaking any of the others. If he shakes any Jack-straw ever so little, he must stop, and the turn passes to the next. When the pile is gone, he who has the most Straws wins. Sometimes the Straws are marked with different numbers, and then at the close of the game each adds his numbers, and he who has the high- est wins. The game is sometimes called Jerk-straws, and perhaps the common title is a corruption of this. The English often call it Spillikins, and the Germans Feder Spiel (the Pen Game). The French call Jack- straws lonchets, or Honchets (from Joncher, to strew), and name partic- ular pieces the King, the Queen, and the Knight. These are of different shapes from the others, and being more difficult to extract from the pile, count more than the common straws, the King being valued at 20 points, the Queen at 10, and the Knight at 5. JACOBY, a game of cards played by three persons with a full pack. Four hands are dealt, as in Whist, with a Dummy. The cards in Dummy's hand are sorted in se- quences, the highest first, begin- ning with Clubs, followed in order by Hearts, Spades, and Diamonds. The cards are played as in Whist, except that each player is for him- self. Dummy follows suit when he can, always playing his highest card, and when he cannot follow suit he plays the first card in his hand, arranged in the order de- scribed. He is never allowed to take a trick, and therefore never leads. If he play a card that would ordinarily take the trick, it goes to the next highest card played. The object is to get rid of the Jacks. Each trick counts one, but for each Jack taken a number must be de- ducted from the score. Thus, for the Jack of Clubs, 4 is deducted ; for the Jack of Hearts, 3 ; for the Jack of Spades, 2 ; and for the Jack of Diamonds, i. He who first makes ten points wins the game. JUSTICE IS BLIND, a game played by any number of persons, one of whom, representing Justice, is blind- KALEIDOSCOPE 446 KALEIDOSCOPE folded. Justice is given a seat in the middle of the room, and then a second player leads up the players, one by one, and asks Justice's opin- ion of each. Whenever the opinion is correct, as decided by a majority of the company, Justice changes places with the person judged. K KALEIDOSCOPE. The ordinary toy kaleidoscope is described in C. C. T. A large one, to furnish amusement at an evening party, may be made thus : The lid of a piano is opened and rested on piles of books, so that it forms an angle of 60 degrees with the top, and the whole is then covered with the piano-cloth, or with a large table cover. The polished top and lid of the piano take the place of the glass mirrors in the small kaleido- scope, and when objects are held or moved at one end they will appear in beautiful and complicated designs to any one looking in at the other. The cover should hang down over the end at which the observer stands, so that he may put his head under it. The objects at the other end, which may be anything bright or colored, must be shaken about and changed rapidly. Thus the exhibitor may first twirl a bouquet of artificial flowers m front of the kaleidoscope, then shake his fingers there, then dangle two or three silver spoons at the end of a string, then look in and make a face, and so on. The objects should be brightly lighted, but the lamp or gas fixture should be placed so that it does not show in the kaleido- scope. The reason why the reflec- tions appear in a regular design in a kaleidoscope will be understood by looking at the figure, which, if looked at from the left, may repre- sent a section of the piano-lid and top, M and M'. The top M will be reflected in the lid M', appearing as the dotted line just beyond, and this reflection behaves like a real mirror, so the lid is reflected in it, appearing as the next dotted line. In the same way the reflections shown by the other dotted lines appear. Therefore the observer sees eight polished surfaces radi- ating from the middle point, and if any object A is held between the lid and top, it will appear also between every pair of these reflected Principle of Kaleidoscope. surfaces. Thus eight objects, a, b, a', b' , etc., are seen arranged in a regular design, of which only one is real, the others being reflections The centre of the design is always the angle between the piano top and lid. By varying this angle, the number of reflections, and therefore the shape of the design, will be changed, there being more images as the top and lid are brought near- er together. A kaleidoscope for use with the Magic Lantern can be made by placing two mirrors against the screen, at an angle, and throwing between them the image of a slide made of two pieces of glass having heads or fragments of glass between them. The image can be varied, as in the ordinary kaleidoscope, by shaking the slide KENO 447 KING'S CASTLE The audience must sit on the op- posite side of the screen from the lantern. Diffraction Kaleidoscope, a toy depending on the principles ex- plained under Diffraction Grat- ings. It has one of these gratings, ruled with a diamond-point on glass, for an eye-piece, and for ob- jects disks of pasteboard with nee- dle holes in various patterns. These can be arranged to suit the fancy of the observer. The light passing through these holes, when viewed through the grating, produces va- rious beautiful colored patterns. Tube Kaleidoscope. Paint a glass tube (for instance the straight part of an Argand lamp chimney) black on the outside. Look through this at a pin-hole in a piece of paper, and several circles of light will be seen, one within another. Any design or figure looked at will in like manner be reflected in cir- cles, making a curious effect. The tube may be closed at one end by two pieces of glass, between which are placed beads or other small colored objects, as in an ordinary kaleidoscope. KENO. See LOTO. KEY OF THE KING'S GARDEN. See Repeating Games. KING AND QUEEN, a game or trick in which any number of per- sons may take part. All who have never played the game before are sent out of ths room. A boy and girl are then selected as King and Queen and seated on a throne made of two chairs, placed about two feet apart and covered with a shawl or rug. The covering is stretched while the King and Queen take their seats, and their weight keeps it smooth, so that the throne looks like a solid bench, covered with a shawl. The other players are then asked to come in one by one. As each appears, one who is chosen for the purpose introduces him to the King and Queen and says that they wish him to sit between them. Just as he is about to take his seat the King and Queen rise and allow him to fall between the chairs. He then takes his place among the other spectators, and witnesses the recep- tion of his companions. The King and Queen must rise exactly at the right moment. If they do so too soon, the victim will have time to save himself ; if they wait until he has rested his weight on the shawl, he will discover the trick and get up quickly. KING ARTHUR WAS KING WIL- LIAM'S SON, a singing game played by boys and girls. A row of hats is placed on the floor, and the leader of the game, putting the first one on his head, marches about and sings to the tune of " Maryland, My Mary- land" : " King Arthur was King William's son, And when the battle he had won, Upon his breast he wore a star, And it was called the sign of war." He then picks up the next hat and puts it on the head of any one he chooses, who must then follow him while they sing the same verse. This goes on till all the company are in line. Sometimes the first line is " King William was King James's (or King George's) son." A kissing game is played by adding to this stanza, or a similiar one, the lines, " Star of the East, Star of the West, Star of the one you love the best, Down on the carpet you must kneel, As the grass grows on the field, Salute your bride and kiss her sweet, And rise again upon your feet." This game is played in this and other ways in Ireland, and is com- mon in the Middle and Southern United States. KING C/ESAR. See Peelaway. KING'S CASTLE, a game in which several players try to dislodge one from some position he has chosen. It is called in France Le Roi De- t7'oni (The Dethroned King). The Kmg selects for his castle a hillock or mound, and the other players try to dethrone him by pushing or pulling him down. Sometimes KING'S LAND 448 KITE-FLYING only pushing is allowed. During the civil war in England between the Parliament and Charles L, the Puri- tans besieged Hume Castle, and the commander, when ordered to sur- render, replied, " I, William of the Wastle, Am now in my castle, And a' the dogs in the town Winna gae me gang down." This rhyme is supposed to have been quoted from a boy's game of the time, probably the same as that just described. In Pennsylvania the de- fender of the castle says : •' Hally, hally, hastle, Come into my new castle." In a variation of the game all the players act as defenders except one, who tries to gain entrance, saying : " Hally, hally, hastle, Get off my new castle." KING'S LAND, See Tag. KITE-FLYING. The article Kite in C. C. T. describes several forms of Japanese Kite. Kites, and tells some interesting things about them. A Japanese form is shown in the illustration, easily made from the thin slips of bamboo in a Japanese fan, and covered with tissue-paper. The points in which skill is especially shown in making a kite are the arrangement of the string and the tail. Two or more short strings are fastened to the kite frame and these are joined in a knot, to which the kite string is afterward tied. The kite (without its tail), if lifted by this knot, should hang with its sides perfectly even and the point wiiere the tail is to be attached a little lower than the top. If, in flying, the kite plunges sidewise, it is prob- ably because this knot is too high; if it whirls around, the knot is too low. The tail should never be less than twelve times, and may be even twenty times, the length of the kite. It may be made of string with stuff " bobs " of folded paper three inches long placed at intervals of three inches, or it may be of strips of cloth tied together, in which case it should be somewhat shorter. To fly a kite, one person must hold it in the air as high as he can, while ! the other stands about fifty feet dis- tant in the direction from which the wind is blowing, with the string in his hand. At a signal from the latter, the former releases the kite, while the latter runs towards the wind till the kite has mounted a little way. He then lets out string till the kite is as high as he wants it to go. The running is for the purpose of increasmg the force of the air striking the kite, as near the ground the wind is apt to be light. In a strong wind it is often unnecessary to run at all. When a kite has reached such a height that the weight of string attached to it is all it can carry, it will go no higher by itself, but the end of the string may be attached to a second kite which may be sent up in the usual manner. One kite after another may thus be sent up till their combined pull is all that the flyer can hold. Two kites sent up in this way can be made to pull a car- riage, the main kite being pre- KITE-FLYING 449 KNAVE'S DIAL ceded about loo feet by a smaller one, called a pilot kite, which can be turned to one side or the other by strings, and the carriage can thus be guided somewhat. Benja- min Franklin once allowed himself to be drawn across a river by a kite, when he was bathing. While the kite is in the air, if little pieces of paper with holes in the middle be strung on the string, the force of the wind will carry them up to the kite. These are called " mes- sengers." Messengers made like a toy paper windmill will twirl around as they rise. Kite-fighting, a contest between two kite- flyers to see which can capture or disable the other's kite. With ordinary kites this is done by entangling the tail of one in the string of the other. The kite whose tail is thus entangled is said to be captured. To capture a hostile kite, the flyer must make his own kite pass under the string of the other and then let out twine; when his kite has fallen behind that of the enemy he pulls it in rapid- ly. Kites with broken glass or knife blades fastened to the tail are some- times used in these contests, the object in this case being to cut the op- ponent's string by sweeping the tail across it. They should be six-sided. The pieces of glass for the tail are obtained by chipping them from a thick glass bottle. Pieces with one edge sharp and the other thick and blunt are selected, and three are Kite-cutter. fastened to the string at one point with wax, so that they all point outward. Strips of wood are now bound to the string length- wise between the knives to keep them in place. Kite-fighting origi- nated in China, where it is a favor- ite sport. History. Kites appear to have been brought into Europe from China or Japan, where they were first used. The English name is from a supposed resemblance to the bird called a Kite. The French call the kite cerf volant (flying stag), the Scotch name it Dragon, and the Germans call it Z>r^^^^ which means the same thing. KNAVE'S DIAL, a Solitaire game of Cards, played with one or two full packs. All cards of the suit of the first one played are placed, as they appear, in a circle to represent the numbers on a clock dial, the Queen countingas 1 1 andtheKingas Knave's Dial. 12. The Knave is placed in the cen- tre. On this dial is placed another of a differently colored suit, and so on till all the cards are used. Cards that cannot at once be put in place are laid aside to form stock, and the stock can be shuffled and relaid twice. If the four cjials can thus KNIGHT OF THE WHISTLE 450 KNITTING-NEEDLE be formed, one above another, the player wins. KNIGHT OF THE WHISTLE, a trick, which the victim supposes to be a game. The person who is to be duped is told that the game con- sists in passing a whistle around a circle of players, while one, standing in the middle, is required to find it by its sound, as it is blown from time to time. Whoever "counts out " for the game must arrange that the player in the middle is some one who does not know the trick, which will now be explained : The whistle is fastened to one end of a string about two feet long, at the other end of which is a bent pin. The pin is hooked into the clothes of the player in the middle of the ring, so that the whistle always hangs behind him. It is blown by some one, and the seeker turns quickly to find it, thus carrying it in front of some one else, who blows it again. The victim of the trick is thus kept turning from side to side till he dis- covers the deception. The pin can be hooked into his clothes without his noticing it by making him kneel down and close his eyes, and then, after going through a mock cere- mony, declaring him a " Knight of the Whistle," and striking him on the back. While this is going on, the whistle can be attached to him unobserved. The players should pretend to pass the whistle from one to the other so as to increase the deception. KNIGHTS OF SPAIN, a game played by three boys, representing Spanish knights, and any number of girls, representing a mother and her daughters. The mother and daugh- ters sit in a row, and the knights ad- vance to ask the hand of one of the latter in marriage. A dialogue is carried on in verse, of which there are many varieties. The following is one common form : KNIGHTS. " Here come three lords out of Spain, A courting of your daughter Jane." MOTHER. " My daughter Jane is yet too young To be ruled by your nattering tongue." KNIGHTS. " Be she young or be she old, 'Tis for the price she may be sold, " So fare you well, my lady gay, We must turn another way." MOTHER. " Turn back, turn back, you Spanish Knight, And scour your boots and spurs so bright." ONE OF THE KNIGHTS. " My boots and spurs they cost you nought, For in this land they were not bought." MOTHER. " Turn back, turn back, you Spanish Knight, And choose the fairest in your sight." ONE OF THE KNIGHTS. " I'll not take one nor two nor three, But pray Miss (Mary) walk with me," The knight then takes the hand of the girl named and walks around the room with her. On his return he says : " Here comes your daughter safe and sound, In her pocket a thousand pound. " On her finger a gay gold ring, — I bring your daughter home again." Sometimes the girl runs away and is pursued by her mother or the knight. History. This game is played in many different forms throughout Europe. The English and Scotch versions are similar to ours, but in Spain the " knights " represent an embassy from the Moorish king. The verse probably dates from the middle ages. In the last century the game was very popular in the United States, and it is still played somewhat. Another version of the game begins " Here comes a duke a-roving," sometimes corrupted into "We are three ducks a-roving." KNITTING NEEDLE, Experiment with a. Heat a knitting-needlej to redness in an alcohol flame,! holding it by a cork on one end so that the fingers may not bei burned. Dip the red hot needle] into cold water, and then hold it| again in the flame. It will change KNURR AND SPELL 45^ KNURR AND SPELL color curiously, turning first yellow, then orange, crimson, violet, blue, and finally gray. The reason is, that a film of rust forms on the needle, which alters its color as it grows thicker. In tempering steel (see Knife in C. C. T) these colors are carefully watched, for the kind of steel depends on the time when it is taken from the fire and cooled. If the knitting-needle be cooled when it is yellow, for instance, it will be much harder than if cooled when it is blue. KNURR AND SPELL, corrupted into " Northern Spell," a game of ball played by any number of persons, with trap, bat, and ball. The trap is like that used in Trap Ball. The bat, represented in the illustration, is of wood with a han- dle of cane, four or five feet long. Knurr and Spell. The ball is of wood or white porce- lain, about an inch and a half in di- ameter. The players take turns at the bat, and, sending the ball into the air from the trap, as in Trap Ball, try to knock it with the bat as far away as possible. The dis- tance of the spot where the ball strikes from the trap is measured in yards, and after each player has had a certain number of turns, the distances made by each are added together. He whose sum is largest is the winner. In striking the ball, the bat is held in both hands by the end of the handle, and whirled around the player's head. The dis- tance to which the ball can be driv- en depends less on force than on skill, which can be gained only by practice. This game is played chiefly in the north of England. The bat used is called the Knurr (a knot or knob), and the trap the Spell. LACROSSE 452 LACROSSE LA C R O S S E, an out-door game played by 24 persons, 12 on a side, each of whom has a stick, or crosse, like that shown in the illustrations, and fully described in Rule I. below. At each end of the playing-field, which is as near 125 yards long as possible, is a goal consisting of two posts, six feet high and the same distance apart. Each side faces one of these and tries to carry or throw toward it with the crosse a solid rubber ball, somewhat smaller than a base-ball. The side that suc- ceeds in propelling the ball through their opponents' goal, either by throwing or striking it with the crosse, or by kicking it, scores a goal, and the side that gains the greatest number of goals in the allotted time (see Rule IX., Sec. 8), wins the game. The titles of the players and their positions at the beginning of the game are given below, those defend- ing the lower goal being in italics. (Goal) Goal-keeper Point Inside Home Cover Point Outside Home First Defence FirstAttack Second Defence Second Attack Third Defence Third Attack Centre Field Centre Field Third Attack Third Defence Second Attack Second Defence First Attack First Defence Outside Home Cover Point Inside Home Point Goal-keeper (Goal) The players generally remain near these positions throughout the game. In the Defence half of the field, the players, as a rule, try to throw the ball as nearly as they can the full length of the field, and at the same time land it at about Cover Point at the other end ; while the Attack half usually run toward their opponents' goal until " checked," or stopped, when they " pass" the ball to another of their team, who, in Facing. turn, does the same, each player re- turning to his original position up- on surrendering the ball. Thus, if the Attack are well trained and play well together, one of them will eventually have a good opportunity to "shoot for goal." At the open- ing of the game, the ball is " faced" in the centre of the field ; that is, placed on the ground there between the crossed sticks of the two op- posing players whose positions are each Centre (see list of positions), and who must each have one knee on the ground. When " Play" is called, each Centre has one of three methods of play to adopt : either he can use some trick to obtain the ball himself (and this is the most frequently used), or else he can draw his stick rapidly away, trying to force the ball behind him, where one of his team is always ready to receive it, should the Centre be successful. In the third and last method, which the Princeton College Lacrosse Team invented, he may, by jumping up on his feet and keeping his body between the ball and his opponent, give a player on his side a chance to run up and ob- tain the ball, The ball must not be LACROSSE 453 LACROSSE touched with the hand, however, at any time, by any player, except the Goal-keeper. He who succeeds in getting it after the " face" may strike it with his crosse, run with it in his crosse, or throw it by means of his crosse. The opposing team try to get the ball from him, either by striking his crosse with their crosses, or by " body-checking" him, that is to say, running into him bodily. Care must be taken, however, not to run against an op- ponent's back, and not to use one's hands, arms, or legs in " body- checking." A line drawn six feet in front of each goal is called the " Goal-crease," and no attacking player is allowed inside it until the ball has passed Cover Point. The Goal-keeper, while defending the goal, stands inside the "Goal-crease," and is al- lowed privileges that are denied to the other players. (See Rule XII.) Picking up and Carrying. A player, when running, always picks up the ball by pushing his crosse under it; when standing, however, he hooks the ball towards him with his crosse and then pushes it under, the ball rolling on by its own im- petus. In pushing the crosse, the player leans down so that it will not make too great an angle with the ground. When the ball is already running toward the player he has merely to let it roll up on his crosse, but the crosse must be held at a greater angle the faster the ball is coming. If the ball is rolling very fast and the crosse is held so as to offer too gentle an incline, the ball is likely to bound up into the player's face. If the ball comes on a swift bound, the player should be able, by not standing directly in front of it, to catch it in his net without any difficulty, the old idea of "blocking" or knocking it straight downward and catching it when it rises, being entirely given up, nowa- days, as in doing that too much valuable time is lost. When it comes on the fly it is received on the net, the crosse being drawn back slightly as the ball strikes it. A "liner" is caught by a player's moving to one side, holding his crosse in a horizontal position, and allowing it to " give " a little when the ball strikes it. All these move- ments (and many more could easily be described) require a great deal of practice to render them successful. Running and Dodging. As a rule, each team has its own method of play, but good critics consider it poor play to keep the men running until " checked ;" it being far better to save their strength by teaching the Defence to throw as far and as accuratelyas possible, and the Attack to " pass " among themselves as quickly and accurately as possible. In running, the ball is held on the crosse, which is inclined slightly downward in front of the player, the inclination increasing with the speed. The ball is kept in place partly by the resistance of the air, and rests against the stick of the crosse, which is turned slightly to one side for the purpose. When the runner meets an opponent, he must take care to prevent the latter from striking his crosse, and at the same time prevent "body-checking." Sometimes he changes the crosse from one hand to another, or even turns his back, which makes it diffi- cult for the enemy to get at his crosse. Sometimes, with a quick wrist-movement, he throws the ball over his opponent's head, or to one side, running on and catching it again before his antagonist has time to turn. On the other hand, the player who is trying to get the ball strives to knock it out of the run- ner's stick, or else, which is far more customary nowadays, he tries to upset him by "body-checking" One method of knocking a ball out of a runner's stick is to strike the crosse down, not hitting the ball, which may then be caught in the air. LACROSSE 454 LACROSSE Throwing. This is the term applied nowadays strictly to the Defence who "throw" the full length of the field. The act of sending the ball from one Attack man to another is now termed either " tipping," or " passing," and that of attempting to send the ball between the posts a " shoot for goal." When an Attack player with the ball finds that he can run no farther and that dodging is useless, he passes the ball to another player on his own side, either one who is farther forward, or who has a clear field before him. There are many kinds of throws, of which only a few will be described here. Of Defence throws, the best is to turn the back in the direction in which the ball is to be thrown and raise the crosse straight up, so as to throw over the head. Skilful Throwing backward. players throw thus with great accu- racy of aim, and the plan has the advantage that, as the thrower's back is toward the checking player, it is hard for the latter to interfere. The crosse must be turned side- wise a little to prevent the ball's falling off, as the player turns, and the throw is made chiefly from the elbow, the crosse being stopped suddenly just before the hands touch the face. Perhaps the most universal, and certainly the best Attack throw is made by bringing the crosse around to the right side, then raising it, and throwing from the shoulder. Tipping may be done in two ways : either by a single players' tossing the ball a foot or so and catching it again, repeating this performance as he runs, or else by two players running along together, and as each is compelled by opponents " check- ing" them to do so, tossing or pass- ing the ball a few feet from one to the other. (See Rule XIL) Other details of the game are given in the following playing rules of the New England Amateur Lacrosse Associa- tion. Those of the rules relating to the discipline of the association and having nothing to do with the game, are omitted. Rule L — The Crosse. Sec. i. The crosse may be of any length to suit the player ; woven with cat- gut, which must not be bagged. (" Cat-gut " is intended to mean raw-hide, gut, or clock-strings ; not cord or soft leather.) The netting must be fiat when the ball is not on Goal Tend, widest part the it. In its shall not exceed one foot crosse A string LACROSSE 455 LACROSSE must be brought through a hole at the side of the tip of the turn (to prevent the point of the stick catch- ing an opponent's crosse). A lead- ing string resting upon the top of the stick may be used, but must not be fastened, so as to form a pocket, lower down the stick than the end of the length strings. The length strings must be woven to within two inches of their termination, so that the ball cannot catch in the meshes. Sec. 2. Players may change their crosse during a match. Rule II.— The Ball. Sec. i. The ball must be of sponge rubber, manufactured by the New York Rubber Co. In each match a new ball must be used, furnished by the home team. It shall become the property of the winning team. Sec. 2. The ball shall be of the size of the ball marked No. 40, regu- lation by the New York RulDber Co. Rule III. — The Goals. Sec. i. The goals must be at least 125 yards from each other, and in any position agreeable to the captains of both sides. The top of the flag- poles must be six feet above the ground, including any top orna- ment, and six feet apart. In matches they must be furnished by the chal- lenged party. Rule IV. — The Goal Crease. Sec. I. No attacking player must be within six feet of either of the flag poles, unless the ball has passed Cover-point's position on the field. Ru-L^Y.— Referee. Sec. i. The Referee shall be selected by the captains. Sec. 2. Before the match begins, the referee shall see that properly qualified Umpires are selected, as provided for in Rule VI. All dis- puted points and matters of appeal that may arise during his continu- ance in office shall be left to his de- cision, which, in all cases, must be final, without appeal. Sec. 3. Before the match begins, he shall draw the players up in lines. and see that the regulations respect- ing the ball, crosses, spiked soles, etc., are complied with. He shall also see that the regulations respect- ing the goals are adhered to. He shall know before the commence- ment of a match the number of games to be played, the time for stopping, and any other arrange- ments that may have been made by the captains. He shall have the power to suspend, at any time during the match, any player infringing these laws — the game to go on dur- ing suspension. Sec. 4. When " foul " has been called by either captain, the referee shall immediately cry " time," after which the ball must not be touched by either party, nor must the players move from the positions in which they happen to be at the mo- ment, until the referee has called '"play." If a player should be in possession of the ball when "time" is called, he must drop it on the ground. If the ball enters goal after " time " has been called, it shall not count. Sec. 5. The jurisdiction of the referee shall not extend beyond the match for which he is appointed ; and he shall not decide in any matter involving the continuance of a match beyond the day on which it is played. The referee must be on the ground at the commence- ment of and during the match. At the commencement of each game, aid after " fouls " and " balls out of bounds," he shall see that the ball is properly faced, and, when both sides are ready, shall call "play." He shall not express an opinion until he has taken the evidence on both sides. After taking the evidence, his decision in all cases must be final. Any side rejecting his decision, by refusing to continue the match, shall be declared losers. Sec. 6. When game is claimed and disallowed, the referee shall order the ball to be faced for, from where it is picked up ; but in no LACROSSE 4S6 LACROSSE case must it be closer to the goals than ten yards in any direction. Rule VI. — Umpires. Sec. i. There shall be one Umpire at each goal. They shall not be members of either club engaged in a match, nor shall they be changed during its progress without the consent of both captains. Sec. 2. Their jurisdiction shall last during the match for which they are appointed. They shall not change goals during a match. Sec. 3. No person shall be al- lowed to speak to an umpire, or in any way distract his attention, when the ball is near or nearing his goal. Sec. 4. They shall stand behind the flags when the ball is near or nearing their goal. In the event of game being claimed, the umpire at that goal shall at once decide whether or not the ball has fairly passed through the flags, his de- cision simply being "game " or " no game," without comment of any kind. He shall not be allowed to express an opinion, and his decision shall in all cases be final, without appeal. Sec. 5. In the event of the field captains failing to agree upon the umpires, after three nominations (in accordance with this rule) have been made by each party, it shall be the duty of the referee to appoint one or more umpires, as may be re- quired, who shall not be one of the persons objected to, who must be duly qualified, as required by this rule. Sec. 6. Only the captain of either side and one other player by him ap- pointed shall have the right to call " foul," and the referee shall not stop the game when " foul " is called by any one else. In cham- pionship matches they shall be ap- pointed the day previous. Rule VII. — Captaiiis. Captains to superintend the play shall be appointed by each side previous to the commencement of a match. They shall be members of the club by whom they are appointed, and no other. They may or may not be players in the match ; if not, they shall not carry a crosse, nor shall they be dressed in lacrosse uniform. They shall select umpires and referees, as laid down in these rules, toss for choice of goals, and the cap- tain and one player appointed by him shall be entitled to call " foul " during a match. They shall report any infringement of the laws during a match to the referee. Rule NWl.—Natnes of Players. The players on each side shall be designated as follows : " Goal-keep- er," who defends the goal ; " Point," first man out from goal ; " Cover- point," in front of Point; " Centre," who faces ; " Home," nearest op- ponent's goal; others shall be termed " Fielders.' THE GAME. Rule YK.— Miscellaneous. Sec. 3. The game must be started by the referee facing the ball in the centre of the field between a player on each side. The ball shall be laid upon the ground between the sticks of the players facing, and when both sides are ready the referee shall call " play." The players facing shall have their left side toward the goal they are attacking, and shall not be allowed to use a left-handed crosse. Sec. 4. A match shall be decided by the winning of most goals in every match, unless otherwise agreed upon. Games must in all cases be won by putting the ball through thej goal from the front side. Sec. 5. Captains shall arrange, previous to a match, whether it is to be played out in one day, postponed at a stated hour in the event of! rain, darkness, etc., or to be con- sidered a draw under certain circum- stances, and if postponed, if it is toi be resumed where left off. Sec. 6. If postponed and re- sumed where left ofT, there shall be no change of players on cithers side. LACROSSE 457 LACROSSE Sec. 7. Either side may claim at least five minutes' rest, and not more than ten, between each game. Sec. 8. The time of game shall be two half hours, with ten minutes rest between. Sec. 9. No change of players must be made after a match has commenced, except for reasons of accident or injury during the game. Sec. 10. Should any player be injured during a match, and com- pelled to leave the field, the oppo- site side shall drop a man to equalize the teams. In the event of any dispute between the field captains as to the injured player's fitness to continue the game, the matter shall at once be decided by the referee. Rule '^.—Spiked Soles. No player must wear spiked soles or boots, and any player attempting to evade this law shall be ruled out of the match. Rule XI. — Touching Ball with the Hand. The ball must not be touched with the hand, save in cases of Rules XII and XIII. Rule XII. — Goal-Keeper. The goal-keeper while defending goal within the goal-crease, may pat away with his hand, or block the ball in any manner with his crosse or body. Rule XIII. — Ball in an Inacces- sible Place. Should the ball lodge in any place inacessible to the crosse, it may be taken out with the hand, and the party picking it up must " face " with his nearest opponent. Rule XIV. — Ball out of Bounds. Balls thrown out of bounds must be " faced " for at the nearest spot within the bounds, and all the play- ers shall remain in their places until the ball is faced. The referee shall see that this is properly done, and when both sides are ready shall call play. The "bounds" must be dis- tinctly settled by the captains before the commencement of the match. Rule XV. — Accidental Games. Should the ball be accidentally put through a goal by one of the players defending it, it is game for the side attacking that goal. Should it be put through the goal by any one not actually a player, it shall not count. Rule ^Vl.— Ball Catching Net- ting. Should the ball catch in the netting, the crosse must be struck on the ground to dislodge it. Rule l^Wl.— Fouls, and Penal- ties for Same. The following shall constitute fouls, and be punished as such by the referee : Sec. I. No player shall grasp an opponent's crosse with his hands, hold it with his arms or between his legs, nor shall any player more than six feet from the ball hold his opponent's crosse with his crosse, run in front of him, or interfere in any way to keep him from the ball until another player reaches it. Sec. 2. No player with his crosse or otherwise shall hold, de- liberately strike or trip another, nor push with the hand, nor wrestle with the legs so as to throw an opponent. Sec. 3. No player shall hold the ball in his crosse with his hand or person, or lay or sit on it. Sec. 4. No player shall charge into another after he has thrown the ball. Sec. 5. The crosse or square check which consists of one player charging into another with both hands on the crosse, so as to make the crosse strike the body of his opponent, is strictly forbidden. Sec. 6. No player shall interfere in any way with another, who is in pursuit of an opponent in posses- sion of the ball. Sec. 7. "Shouldering" is al- lowed only when the players are within six feet of the ball, and then from the side only. No player must under any circumstances run into or shoulder an opponent from behind. Sec. 8. The referee shall be the judge of fouls, and shall call time to decide them only at the request LACROSSE 458 LADY OF THE MANOR of the captains or the men ap- pointed by them. Sec. 9. When a foul is allowed by the referee, the player fouled shall have the option of a free " run " or "throw" from the place where the foul occurred. For this purpose all players within ten feet of said player shall move away to that distance, all others retaining their positions. But if a foul is allowed within twenty yards of the goal, the man fouled shall move away that distance from goal before taking the run or throw allowed him. Sec. 10. If a foul is claimed and time called, and the foul then not allowed, the player accused of fouling shall be granted a free " run " or " throw " under the con- ditions above mentioned (Sec. 9). Sec. II. No player shall throw his crosse at a player or at the ball, under any circumstances : and such action will be considered a "foul." Should a player lose his crosse during a game, he shall consider himself " out of play," and shall not be allowed to touch the ball in any way until he again recovers it. Kicking the ball is absolutely pro- hibited to players without a crosse. Sec. 12. Any player considering himself purposely injured during play, must report to his captain, who must report to the referee, who shall warn or suspend the player complained of. Sec. 13. For deliberate fouls which occasion injury to opponents or affect the result of the game, for the first offence, the referee shall have power to suspend the player committing it for the rest of the game (not match) ; for a second offence, the referee may remove the offending player and compel his side to finish the match short- handed. Sec. 14. Any player deliberately striking another, or raising his hand to strike, shall be immediately ruled out of the match. Rule XNlll.Seitlement of Dis- putes. In the settlement of any dispute, whether by the umpires or referee, it must be distinctly under- stood that the captains, with one player each to be selected by them, have the right to speak on behalf of their respective clubs ; and any proposition or facts that any player may wish brought before the referee must come through the captains or the players selected by them. Rule XIX. — Flag-pole Down. In the event of a flag-pole being knocked down during a match, and the ball put through what would be the goal if the flag-pole were standing, it shall count game for the attacking side. History. Lacrosse, in one form or another, is said to have been played by the North American Indians from a very early time, to teach their young men strength and endurance. The game is described by early French missionaries to Canada, and the Jesuits named it La Crosse, from the stick with which it was played, which resem- bled the French Crosse or hockey- stick. The original meaning of the word is a bishop's staff, or crozier, shaped something like a hockey- stick. The Chippewa name was Baggatinaway. On June 4, 1763, the fort at Michilimackinack (now Mackinaw, Mich.) was surprised and taken from the English by a party of Indians who pretended to be playing a game of Lacrosse. The game is still a favorite with the Canadian Indians, among whom are to be found its finest players. It is, widely played by Canadians, and| has been called their national game.j holding the same place with them that Base-ball does in this country. It has lately been introduced into the United States, where it finds some favor, and numerous clubs] have been orsfanized to play it. LADY OF THE MANOR, a SOLl-j taire oanie of cards, played with! two full packs. Four piles ofl LAMP-LIGHTER 459 LAWN BILLIARDS twelve cards each are placed in a row, one pile at a time. The rest of the cards are now divided into thirteen piles, which are placed in a semicircle above this row. Each of the thirteen piles contains only- cards of the same value, and they are arranged in regular order, from Ace to King. The player's object is now to form families, without following suit, by placing the eight Aces in a row below, and building upwards from them. Cards may be taken for this purpose from the top of any of the four original piles, or from these in the semicircle. If the families can be completed, the player wins. The semicircle should be resorted to only in case of neces- sity. LAMP - LIGHTER, Experiments with. Lamp-lighters were formerly used instead of matches for lighting lamps, being lighted at a fire. They are made by rolling up strips of newspaper about eighteen inches long and one and a half inches wide, beginning at one corner. The large end is folded over to prevent un- winding. In performing the follow- ing experiments keep away from draughts. 1. Light the lower end, hold the lamp-lighter slantingly, and as the fliame moves towards the upper end, a tongue of flame still burns at the charred lower end. Blow this out, allowing the other to burn, and its place will be taken by a stream of smoke. This smoke may be lighted like gas. 2. Leave the large end of a lamp- lighter open, and holding it at that end, to prevent unwinding, and light the lower end. There is now no second flame, but the smoke pours from the upper end, and may be lighted as before. 3. Repeat Experiment 2, holding the charred end over the mouth of a jar or wide-mouthed bottle. Pinch the upper end after the smoke has begun to stream out, and it will pour out of the lower end, without burn- ing, into the bottle, which it will fill. Light the smoke in the bottle and it will take fire with a sudden flash. 4. Fill the bottle with the smoke, but allow it to subside. Repeat six or eight times, and several drops of a yellow liquid will be collected. Heat these in a tin spice-box over a flame, and smoke will again be pro- duced, which may be burned as before. LAWN BILLIARDS, a lawn game played by from two to ten persons, with balls like CROQUET balls, which they try to drive through a ring. The implements are shown in Fig. i. The ring, which is of metal, is just large enough to allow a ball to pass through it, and is set loosely in a wooden or metal peg, driven into O Fig. I. the ground, as in Fig. 2, so that it can revolve easily. The balls are propelled with a cue, consisting of a wooden handle three or four feet long, with a small ring fixed in the end at an angle. Each player may have one of these, or each may use the same one in succession. The object of each is to drive his ball through the ring, which scores one point. If a ball bounds through from another ball, it counts two Fig. 2. points. No ball must be pushed or thrown through the ring. Each player has only one turn, whether he is successful or not. Instead of trying for the ring, any one may en- deavor to knock another's ball out of position, or to strike the side of LAWN TENNIS 460 LEAF PRINTS the ring, and so turn it edgewise to another ball. Skilful players can sometimes send their balls through the ring when it is turned almost edgewise, by striking it on one side, causing it to turn around and catch the ball. The ground may be surrounded by a wooden border, one side of which is seen in Fig. 2. LAWN TENNIS. See Tennis. LAWYER, a game played by any number of persons, who usually sit in two rows of chairs, facing one another, excepting one who stands between the rows. The player who stands, called the lawyer, asks a question of any of the others, and the one who sits opposite must answer it. If the player addressed answers, or if the one opposite him does not begin to do so before the lawyer counts ten, the one making the mis- take must pay a forfeit and take the lawyer's place. If both make mis- takes, the lawyer may decide which is to take his place. The one who answers must do so as if he had been spoken to directly ; thus, if the question is " Are you fond of row- ing.^" the opposite one must not answer, for instance, " Yes, he enjoys it very much," but "/enjoy it very much." The players may sit in a circle instead of in two rows. In this case the one opposite may answer, as before, or the right or left hand neighbor of the person questioned, as is agreed upon be- forehand. Though the questioner is now usually called the lawyer, the game is probably named from the fact that the questioned player has some one to answer for him, just as a lawyer sometimes acts for his client. LEAD, Experiments with. i. With a sharp knife cut away part of two leaden bullets so as to make a fiat surface on each. Press these sur- faces together with a slight screwing motion, and they will adhere so tightly that it is difficult to pull them apart. In this way several bullets may be made to stick together. 2. Melt some lead in an iron spoon. A gray scum will form on the top. Still holding the spoon in the fire, stir the lead with a piece of iron, and in time it will all turn to the gray substance that formed the scum. If the lead be weighed be- fore it is melted, and again after it has turned to the gray substance, it will be found to have gained in weight. This is because the gray substance has in it not only the lead but also some oxygen from the air, which united with the lead to make lead oxide, or litharge. 3. Put a teaspoonful of litharge in a quarter of a glass of strong vinegar. The vinegar will dissolve it, forming lead acetate or SUGAR OF LEAD, with which may be per- formed the experiments described under that title. It is very poison- ous, so must be used carefully. 4. Pour a few drops of sulphuric acid into the vinegar in which the litharge was dissolved, and a white powder will at once appear. This is sulphate of lead. The lead, hav- ing a greater liking for sulphuric acid than for vinegar, left the latter and united with the former. LEAD TREE, a curious formation made by the action of zinc on a salt of lead. Make a strong solu- tion of lead nitrate or lead acetate, suspend in it a strip of zinc, and set it in a quiet place. Beautiful lead crystals will form in the liquid, re- sembling the growth of a plant. The cause is chemical action. The acid in the lead salt (see salts in C. C. T.) prefers zinc to lead, and so takes it up instead. The lead as it is thus slowly displaced forms the crystals seen. LEAF PRINTS. Prints of leaves resembling lithographs may be made by the following method. The im- plements required are a small ink- roller, such as is used by printers ink type (one three inches long ma) be bought for forty cents), quartt LEAF SKELETONS 461 LEAP-FROG of a pound of dark green printers* ink, which is sold in tubes, and some unglazed paper. The ink must be thinned by adding two or three drops of balsam copaiba to a salt-spoonful of ink. The thinned ink is spread evenly on a pane of glass with the roller, which is then passed over the leaf it is desired to print. If the leaf stick to the roller, it is a sign that the ink needs more thinning. The leaf is then pressed down on the paper and leaves a perfect impression. The paper should be slightly dampened, which is best done by keeping it in the cellar. If the leaf is very large, it should be inked a little at a time. If it is finely veined, the under sur- face may be used to print from : otherwise the upper surface gives the best results, If the leaf be soft, it should be covered with a few thicknesses of newspaper before printing, and if it is irregular in thickness, the thinner parts may be covered with paper. The best way to apply the pressure is with an ordinary copying press ; but it may be done in any other way, as for in- stance with books, or merely by rubbing the thumb over the leaf. With practice excellent leaf-pictures mav thus be made. LEAF SKELETONS, the bleached framework of leaves, from which all the skin and pulp have been re- moved. They can be used in vari- ous ways for decoration. The best time to prepare them is early in the summer, when the leaves are tender. Dissolve four ounces of washing- soda in a quart of boiling water and add two ounces of slaked lime. Boil this liquid a quarter of an hour, and then, after it has cooled, pour off the clear fluid. Boil the leaves in this till the skin and pulp are so tender that they can easily be re- moved from the skeleton by rub- bing between the fingers. Rub them thus carefully in cold water, and then bleach them by soaking fifteen minutes in a quart of water to which has been added one tea- spoonful of chloride of lime. Dry the skeletons by rubbing them gently on blotting paper. LEAP-FROG, a game played by any number of persons, each of whom in turn leaps over the others, one by one. The players stand in a row, about fifteen feet apart, each resting his hands on his thighs and bending his head for- ward. This is called " making a back." The player at one end of the line takes a short run, and leaps over each of the others, placing his hands on their backs and letting his legs pass one on one side and one on the other. The player who is leaped assists the leaper by rising slightly and then stooping. The players may stand side by side, in which case the leaper goes over them sidewise, or they stand in file, in which case he leaps from their backs over their heads. When he has thus gone over the whole line, he " makes a back " at the proper distance, and the player who is thus left in the rear becomes the leaper. Foot and a Half, a leap-frog game where the person to be jumped over moves by degrees farther and farther from the point where the jump begins. A line is drawn (sometimes called the " gar- ter ") to mark the beginning of the jump, and whoever steps on it must take the place of the player leaped over. After the players in turn have leaped, the last cries " Foot and a Half !" and the player who is making the back thereupon places his right heel in the hollow of his left foot, advances the latter so that its hollow covers his right toe, and then brings up his right foot to its original position. The players then leap again, always beginning at the "garter," after which the back ad- vances again in like manner, and the game goes on till some one treads on the "garter, "or fails in leaping. The unsuccessful one then LEGITIMIST, 462 LENSES makes a back and another game begins. This game is called also " Fly the Garter " and " Foot it." Sometimes it is varied by allowing the last player in the first round to make a back at the spot he reaches in his jump. The back thus changes at each round, and as the position is moved forward such a distance each time, the players are often allowed one jump, or a hop, skip, and jump, between the garter and the back. • In France Leap-frog is called Le Saut deMouton (The Sheep's Leap). Besides the varieties described above, French boys play one called Saut de Mouton avec Mouchoirs (Sheep's Leap with Handkerchiefs), in which each leaper is required, in his first turn, to lay his handerchief on the back of the player he leaps, and at his second turn to pick off his own handkerchief, leaving the others. Another variety is called " Sheep's Leap with Crowns." Each leaper places on his head a crown made of a twisted handkerchief, and at the moment of leaping takes it off and throws it on the ground before him. At his second turn he must pick up his own crown without moving his feet from the place where he alighted, though he may bend in any direction or even throw himself at full length. If his crown touch any of the others, or if he touch any of them in picking it up, he must make a back in his turn. The boy who makes the back is called in French Le Patient (The Patient). LEGITIMIST, THE, a solitaire game of cards, played with two full packs. A King is placed at the player's left, and then in order, as they appear, a Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, Seven, and Six. On each of these a card next below it in rank is placed, and so on, till, when the piles are completed, the top cards will be Ace, King, Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, and Seven. The cards that cannot be used at once are placed aside to form stock, which can twice be taken up, shuffled, and relaid. The player must take care to notice when his piles are completed. As each ends with a different card, an inattentive player is apt to build some of them too far. LENSES, Experiments with. Lenses are described in C. C. T. Very fine ones can be bought of an optician, but the experiments de- scribed here can be performed with simple ones. A burning glass is a double convex lens, and, so are some spectacle glasses. 1. Photographic Lens. Let one person hold up a handkerchief, or ai blank sheet of writing-paper, ten or twelve feet in front of a window, and let the other hold a lens between the; paper and the window. By moving^ it, now nearer the paper and now* nearer the window, a place will be; found where a picture of the window, upside down, will be seen on thei paper. The picture will be plainer if the other windows in the roomr be closed, and still plainer if the< lens be surrounded with a piece of' pasteboard, so that no light cam shine on the paper except that which passes through the lens. The picture is called an image. In likei manner an image of any things bright can be made. This is the way an image is thrown on the plate in Photography. 2. Microscopic Lens. Hold a lens very close to some small thing, and move it about a little. A place will^ be found where, by looking through the lens, the small object will appear larger. This is the way a lens \^ used in The MICROSCOPE. 3. Telescopic Lens. Let one per- son hold a lens, as in Experiment i, and then let the other, dropping th<| handkerchief or sheet of paper, looli| through a second lens, placed close behind it, at the window. Move il forward and backward a little till '< clear view of objects outside th«i window is obtained. This is the wa] LEYDEN JAR 463 LEYDEN JAR lenses are used in the most common kind of Telescope. 4. Burning Glass. On a sunny day, hold a lens so as to make a bright image of the sun on a board. The board will soon begin to smoke because of the heat of the image. 5. Caustic Curve. Instead of hold- ing the board squarely in front of the lens, tip it so that the rays will strike it slantingly. A curve of light, called a caustic, will be seen on the board. This is because most lenses do not turn the rays accurately to one spot. 6. Prismatic Lens. Look through a lens at a line of light such as the edge of a white house on which the sun is shining. It will probably appear colored, since the lens acts like a Prism. 7. Water Lens. A good lens is made by placing a drop of water on a pin-hole in a piece of card-board. This magnifies small objects very well. 8. Bottle Lens. A glass bottle filled with water may be used as a lens, as shows in the illustration. Bottle Lens. LEYDEN JAR, a device for ob- taining large charges of electricity. A simple one can be made by filling a glass tumbler about two thirds full of shot and inserting a silver teaspoon (see Fig. i). The tum- bler must be held in one hand, while the teaspoon is presented to an Electric Machine, or an Elec- TROPHORUS. If the latter is used, it must be lifted and discharged several times, a spark passing each time to the teaspoon. If now the experimenter presents his other hand to the teaspoon, the jar will be dis- Fig. I. charged and he will get a shock equal to the sum of all the little sparks that have passed to the jar. The jar should receive very few sparks before its first discharge, to avoid giving the experimenter a severe shock ; but afterwards the number of sparks received may be increased till the shock of discharge is too great to be borne. A better jar, capable of storing large quantities of electricity, may be made as follows (see Fig. 2.): Coat a glass bottle or jar inside and out with tin-foil, or, if the mouth of the bot- tle is too small for reaching the inside easily, pour in shot. The foil or shot must reach the same height on both sides of the bottle, and must not come within two or three inches of the top. Insert in the cork a thick iron or copper wire, which projects into the shot, or, in case foil is used, has a brass chain fast- ened to the end, which lies on the LEYDEN JAR 464 LEYDEN J A] bottom and gives contact with the inside coating. The upper end of the wire should terminate in a metal ball. A leaden bullet may be soldered to it, or a wooden ball coated with tin-foil may be used. This jar may be charged and used exactly like the one already de- scribed, but it is not necessary to take it in the hand at all. All that is required is that the outside have some connection with the ground while the knob is receiving shocks. This can be effected by winding around it, as it stands on the table, one end of a metal chain, and let- ting the other hang on the floor. Such chain can be bought at any hardware store. To discharge the jar when the charge is too great to be taken through the body, a discharger is necessary, which may be made thus (see Fig. 3): Take a bottle, small Fig. 3. Fig. 4. enough to be held conveniently in one hand, and through the cork at right angles to the bottle, pass a piece of copper wire twelve or fifteen inches long. Bend the wire into a semicircle curving outward from the bottle, and fix balls on the ends like that on the jar. By hold- ing the bottle in the hand and touching one ball to the knob of the jar and the other to the outside coating, as in Fig. 4, the jar may be discharged without injury, the elec- tricity passing through the copper wire. Fulminating Pane, a kind of Ley- den jar made of a flat pane of glass having tin-foil pasted on both sides. The edge of the glass should be left uncovered at least an inch all aroun( the foil. The pane is charged anc discharged just like the jar ; that is it is charged by placing one coating in contact with an electrical ma chine, and the other in connectioi with the ground, and discharged b) joining the two coatings with som( conductor of electricity. The explanation of the way ir which the jar or pane acts is this One coating, being charged with one kind of electricity, positive for in- stance, attracts the negative electric- ity on the other coating, and repels its positive to the ground. The twc kinds of electricity in the jar are prevented from uniting by the glass, but when the coatings are joinec they rush together. Jars of thii glass will hold larger charges, be- cause the nearer the coatings are the stronger the attraction is; but on the other hand, the glass must not be too thin or it may be broken. EXPERIMENTS. 1. Make a Leyden jar whose coat- ings can be removed while it is charged. This can be done by using a smooth glass tumbler as the jar, and making the coatings of several thicknesses of foil, so that they will keep their shape when removed. The coatings are not pasted to the glass, and the rod and knob of the ordinary jar are omitted. Fasten a bit of sewing silk to the inside coat- ing. After charging the jar, first lift out the inside coating, and then lift the glass from the outer coating. If the two coatings are now joined there will be no discharge ; but after they are replaced the jar can be dis- charged. The reason of this is that the charge is not contained in the coatings, but in the substance of the glass. 2. Make a jar whose coatings are of mercury, by setting a small tum- bler in a larger one, and pouring mercury between them and into thej smaller one. Charge this jar as be- fore, and then, lifting the small glassj LEYDEN JAR 465 LEYDEN JAR out, pour its contents into the large glass, and mix the two coatings to- gether. Set the jar up as before, and the jar can then be discharged, though its coatings have been min- gled. The reason is the one already- given in Experiment i. 3. Charge a jar, and after letting it stand several minutes discharge it. Let it stand a minute longer when it may be discharged again without charging. In this way several sparks may often be obtained from one charge, each more feeble than the preceding. The reason is that the electricity penetrates the glass, and does not come out all at once. 4. Take two call-bells ; place them on glass dishes and connect one to the knob of the jar and the other to the outside coating by means of chains or wires. Suspend a bit of wood coated with tin-foil, the size of a small pea, by a silk thread just midway between the two bells. The jar being charged, the copper will swing backward and forward from one bell to the other, ringing each as it strikes. After a time this will discharge the jar, the electricity being carried in small quantities from one coating to the other by the copper. If the experiment does not succeed, it may be because the bells are too far apart, because the bit of copper is too heavy, or because the jar is not charged enough. 5. Make a Leyden jar whose outer coating consists of varnish sprinkled while yet soft with metallic powder, for instance the bronze powder used in painting. Tin-foil is pasted over the bottom, and there is also a band of foil about an inch wide around the jar at the top of the outer coat- ing. The wire connecting with the inside coating is bent over on the outside till the knob is about three quarters of an inch from this band of tin-foil. The jar is then hung by the wire to the knob of an electrical machine (see Fig. 5). When the machine is worked, brilliant sparks pass between the knob to the outer coating, lighting up the jar. 6. Leyden Battery. A battery is made up of several jars, all the outer coatings and all the inner coatings being joined. This can be effected by placing the jars in a wooden box Fig. 5. lined on the bottom with tin-foil, and joining the knobs with copper wire. A strip of tin-foil leads from the bottom of the box to the edge, and when this strip is connected with one of the knobs by a dis- charger, the battery is discharged. The battery gives a powerful spark, and the experiments which follow can be performed better with it than with a single jar. 7. Through the corks of two glass bottles pass crosswise thick copper wires or rods, having at one end balls like that on the jar, and bent at the other into hooks. Glue a piece of glass an inch or two square fiat on the top o^ the cork of a third LEYDEN JAR 466 LEYDEN JAR bottle, somewhat lower than the other two. Place the taller bottles so that the knobbed ends of the wires will touch the glass plate, and be about an inch apart. Connect the hooked end of one of the wires by a wire or chain to one coating of a Leyden jar or battery, and that of the other wire to the other coating by a discharger (see Fig. 6). A spark will pass directly across the glass, and through any substance placed on it. By this means the effect of the electric spark on all kinds of substances can be observed. By placing pieces of different kinds of metal close to the knobs so that the spark will pass between them, its color can be varied. This is be- cause the heat turns a little of the Fig, metal to vapor, which colors the spark. The color can also be varied by passing it through different gases (see Hydrogen and Carbonic Acid). If the charge is passed through a small wire it will heat it red hot, or perhaps will melt it. If gunpowder be placed on the glass plate, the discharge will scat- ter it without setting it off; but if a wet string be placed in the circuit, the spark will light the powder. The reason is that an ordinary spark is too sudden to set the powder off, but the wet string makes it a little slower. If the spark be passed through a lump of sugar, one or more eggs, or fruit, they will be lighted up and shine (if the experiment be tried in the dark) for a little while after the spark has passed. If the spark be passed through a sheet of gold leaf pressed between two pieces of silk or glass, the gold will be turned to a violet powder. If the spark be passed through a bit of unglazed paper, wet with a solution of iodide of potassium, brown spots will appear on the pa- per. This is because the iodide is separated into iodine and potash, and the former makes the brown spots. 8. Place a steel wire inside a glass tube, and wind around it insulated copper wire. Discharge a Leyden battery through this wire, and the steel wire will become a magnet. 9. Spin by means of a twirler a disk on which are lines, figures, or pictures. If the disk spin rapidly none of the figures will be visible ; but if-the room be darkened, and a Leyden jar be discharged, the disk will seem to stand still, so that everything on it can be seen plainly. This is because the spark lasts a very short time, so that while it lights the room the disk changes position very little, and seems to the eye to be perfectly still. LIGHT MEASURING 467 LIGHT MEASURING 10. Twist together two thickly in- sulated pieces of copper wire four or five feet in length. (Insulated wire may be bought of a dealer in telegraph supplies.) Hold the ends of one piece in the hands, and dis- charge a Leyden jar. A shock will be felt, although the two wires are not connected. The electric current which passes through the hands in this case is said to be an " induction current." 11. Place a fulminating pane on a table, the lower surface being con- nected with the earth. Lay a coin on the upper surface, and then charge the pane. If any one now try to remove the coin he will re- ceive a shock. The coin may safely be offered to any one who will pick it up at the first trial. LIGHT MEASURING, or PHO TOMETRY. The intensity of light is measured in "candle-power;" so to measure the brightness of a lamp it is necessary to find how much brighter or dimmer it is than a candle. Two of the simplest ways are given below : I. About six inches in front of a white wall stand a bottle with a stick fixed in its mouth (Fig. i). Fig. I. Place the candle b about two feet distant, and the lamp a by its side. Each will throw a shadow of the Fip:. stick on the wall; that thrown by the lamp is marked a\ and that of the candle b' . By moving either lamp or candle sidewise, the edges of the shadows maybe made just to touch. It will be seen that one is not as dark as the other. Now move the lamp slowly back, keeping the edges of the shadows close to- gether, until they are of the same shade. Then measure the distance of the lamp and candle from the wall, and find out how many times farther the lamp is than the candle. The square of the number thus ob- tained will be the candle-power of LIVES 468 LITTLE LOTS the lamp. Thus, suppose the can- dle is two feet from the wall, and the lamp six feet. It is three times as far as the candle, and its candle-power is three squared, or three times three, that is, nine. The standard candle is one weighing one sixth of a pound, and burning 120 grains an hour. A " number six " sperm candle with the wick kept trimmed to about half an inch will be nearly right. Fig. 2 shows the same kind of comparison made be- tween a lamp, C, and a candle B. The screen is a sheet of paper held between two books, and the object that throws the shadow is an un- lighted candle, A. The shadows are shown at E and F. 2. On apiece of smooth, unglazed paper make a grease-spot the size of a quarter-dollar, so that light will shine through it evenly and clearly. Pin the paper to two books set up on each side of it, and place the candle on one side and the lamp on the other, at equal distances. From the candle side the spot will now appear light on a dark ground, and from the lamp side it will look dark on a light ground. The rea- son of this is that the grease-spot lets through the light, hence it looks brighter on the side opposite the brighter light. Now move the lamp slowly away, or bring the candle nearer, till the spot appears of the same shade as the surrounding paper. Measure the distances of lamp and candle, and find the can- dle-power as before. EXPERIMENTS. 1. Find the candle-power of a lamp and then put a piece of glass in front of it, and find the candle-power again. It will be much less, as only part of the light gets through the glass. 2. Find the candle-power of a lamp with the flame turned broad- side and then edgewise. It will be greater in the former case. LIVES, a game of cards, played by any number of persons with a full pack. The dealer gives each player, in order, one card. Each player in turn, beginning at the dealer's left, now has the right to exchange his card for that of his left-hand neighbor. If he does not choose to do so, he says, " I stand." If he does choose, the neighbor is obliged to exchange with him, un- less he holds a King. The dealer, instead of exchanging, cuts the pack, if he wishes, and takes a card from the middle. As the object is to avoid holding the lowest card, the players who have high cards should " stand," and those with low ones should exchange. Ace counts as the lowest card. If a player ex- change an Ace, Two, or Three, he must announce it aloud and those who have higher cards will of course stand. Any player who gives to his right-hand neighbor a worse card in exchange will also stand. The holder of the lowest card, when all have either stood or exchanged, is said to " lose a life," If the dealer, in drawing from the pack, get a King, he loses a life. Any player losing three lives must re- tire from the game, which is con- tinued till only one player is left, who is declared the winner. This game is called in England " Ranter-go-Round." It resembles Commerce, and may be the original form of that game. A former way of scoring was with counters on a board resembling a Nine Men's Morris board, the players' counter being pushed nearer and nearer to the centre as his " lives " were suc- cessively lost. When the counter reached the centre, its owner went out of the game. LETTERS. See Logomachy. LITTLE LOTS, a solitaire game of CARDS, played with a Euchre pack. The cards are dealt in eight piles of four each, only the last or top card of each pile being turned face upward. Any two top cards that match must be laid aside, and LIVING STATUARY 469 LOGOMACHY the next cards turned up in their places. This is repeated as long as possible, and if all the cards can be thus matched the game is won. Should any pile remain, containing only two cards, the player may look at them, and if they match they are laid aside like the others. This game is said to be a favorite in Switzerland. LIVING STATUARY, tableaux in which the performers are dressed to represent statues, either singly or in groups. The statues are draped entirely in white cloth, wear canton flannel skull-caps to which cotton wicking is sewed for hair, white stockings, white slippers or sandals, and white cotton gloves, to which are sewed sleeves made of white cotton stockings. The face is whitened with fine chalk, mag- nesia, or bismuth. If the drapery is arranged skilfully and the stat- ues can remain perfectly motion- less, the effect Is fine. Celebrated statues or groups may thus be imi- tated, or entirely original ones may be arranged. Pedestals may be made of tables and boxes covered with cotton sheeting. The statues show best against a black or dark background in a pale blue light, which may be produced by putting light blue glass in front of the lamps. All the " properties " that appear in the groups must either be covered with white cloth or painted white. Living statuary is sometimes used in connection with ordinary tab- leaux, to adorn a royal palace or garden. LOGOMACHY, a game played by any number of persons with small squares of cardboard, on each of which is printed a letter of the al- phabet. It is sometimes called "Let- ters, "and "Word-making and Word- taking." The players sit around a table, in the middle of which the cardboard letters are heaped, blank side upward. They are thoroughly mixed and then each player draws a letter to see which shall open the game. He who draws a letter nearest to the beginning of the alphabet is the first player. After the letters thus drawn have been returned to the pile, which is mixed again, the first player draws a letter and places it, face upward, by itself on the table to begin what is called the pool. The player on his left does likewise, and so on, in order, till some one draws a letter which forms a word with others in the pool. He then places those letters in front of him so that they spell the word. The next player may take his word from him by combining with it his drawn letter, or any letters in the pool, or both, so as to form a different word or he may combine his drawn letter with others in the pool to form an- other word. If he can do neither, he places his drawn letter in the pool like the others. So the game goes on, each player having the chance of taking a word from any other player, making a new word of his own, or adding his letter to one of his own words. He wins who first gets a number of words agreed upon beforehand (usually ten) and holds them while a round is played. Thus, A may get ten words, but he has not won till B, C, D, and the others have each a chance to take one or more from him. If they cannot, A is the win- ner; but if one of his words is taken from him, the game goes on as be- fore. In this game, the practised player knows by heart the words that can be taken away, and what letters can take them, so he plays quickly; but the beginner must study each word carefully. If he can take no word, he should add his letter to one of his own words, if possible, to pre- vent its being taken by another player. Some words, especially the small ones are almost sure to change hands at once. Thus, " pat " can be taken by B, are always kept equal. All parts of the pantograph should be supported at the same distance from the table, so that the motion may be even. The best way is to form the hinges at G, H, and B by screwing in ordinary screw-eyes from below, and to put in a fourth close by the pencil A, or a sharpened screw with two nuts, as L, may be used. The tracer C may be a steel nail of such a length as just to clear the table when the machine rests on the screw-eyes, and the end F turns on a steel nail in a small block of wood screwed to the table. The heads of these screws must be sunk in the block so that they do not pre- vent the stick from turning, or the block may be of the shape shown at K, with the fastening screws at the sides. If the pieces of wood be marked off m inches and fractions of an inch, it will be easy to vary the size of the drawmg. This can be done by bearing in mind that the line drawn by the point A is always as much larger than that drawn by C, as the Ime A B is larger than C H. Hence if the drawmg at A is to be made four times as large as that at C, the hinge must be moved half way up to C. Since the opposite sides of the diamond must be kept equal, G must also be moved half way down to B. A simpler pantograph than this, though it is not nearly so exact, can be made as follows : Take an elas- tic band from one eighth to one quarter of an inch wide and cut it open, so as to make a single straight piece. Stick a pin through each end, and drive one of these pins into the table. Between the pins tie the elastic band tightly around a lead- pencil, as near the point as possible. If the free pin be now moved over the lines of any figure with the right hand, the pencil will trace the same figure on a reduced scale. The elastic m.ust always be straight from pin to pin. It will be necessary to press lightly on the pencil with the left hand, to make it mark distinct- ly, but care must be taken that it is allowed to follow its own course. The drawing is always reduced, never enlarged, by this kind of pan- tograph. The scale depends on the position of the pencil ; if it is half- way between the pins, the drawing will be reduced to one half the orig- inal size ; if it is at one fourth the distance from the fixed to the free pin, the drawing will be one fourth the original size, and so on. PANTOMIME, acting without speech. An entire play may be given m pantomime, or charades may be acted in it. Inany case, the plot must be simple and the incidents such as to be easily understood by the specta- tors without the aid of words. Pan- tomimes generally depend for their efifect largely on stage machinery, by whose aid strange or comical transformations take place. Many of these can be arranged only on a large stage, but others are more sim- ple. For instance, objects can be made to disappear suddenly from the stage by fastening thread to themand jerking them to one side; and a ta- ble is easily provided with one or more holes in the top through which PAPER BANDS 516 PAPER BANDS an unseen performer takes away ar- ticles or supplies their places with others. Similar devices of many kinds may be arranged, and any one practised in sleight-of-hand tricks can introduce many variations. In acting a pantomime, certain gestures and expressions are almost always used to express the same passions or feelings ; thus, Anger is represented by scowling fiercely and clenching the fists ; Hate, by turning away the head and making a motion as if pushing some one away with the palm ; Love, by press- ing the hands over the heart, with or without kneeling; Sorrow, by weeping or wringing the hands, and so on. Pointing with the finger is a gesture often used, and a ques- tion is denoted by raising the eye- brows. In comic pantomime, boards, or pieces of pasteboard, with words printed on them in large letters, are sometimes displayed where an idea cannot be conveyed by signs. Noises are often introduced, such as the barking of dogs, whistling, or crowing. The custom of " mummers " or maskers, persons dressed in odd costumes parad ing about the streets, which is still kept up in some places in this country on Fourth of July or New Year's Day, and in Europe at the Carnival, was a sort of pan- tomime. The illustration shows some ancient English maskers. PAPER BANDS, Experiments with. Take three strips of paper, each about an inch wide and six inches long, and make them into bands by pasting the ends together. Paper Bands. In pasting the first bring the ends together squarely to make an ordi- nary ring, as at i in the illustration; with the second, give one end a English Maskers. twist before pasting it to the other, 1 two twists, as at 3. Cut each band as at 2 ; and with the third, give it I in two lengthwise along the dotted PARLOR RACE 517 PATCH ESI line. From the first will be obtained two separate rings as at i'; from the second, a single ring of half the width and twice the diameter, as at 2' ; and from the third, two rings linked together, as at 3'. PARALLELS. See Proverbs. PARLOR RACE, a, game played by four to eight persons, with 52 cards, each bearing the name of a race-horse. Each name is on four cards, so that there are thirteen horses in all. The horses are num- bered from I to 13. There are three ways of playing the game, called respectively the Flat Race, the Hurdle Race and the Scrub Race. Flat Race, Enough of the cards numbered 13 are thrown out to make each player's number the same, and the remainder are then divided equally. Each names his favorite racer, which should be the one of which he has most in his hand. The eldest hand leads a card, calling out its number, and the next player puts down any card he pleases, adding its number to that of the previous card, and calling out the sum. Each in turn does the same, until some one plays a card which makes the sum 31. This card is called the winner of the heat, and its holder leads for the next heat. Every player must win if he can. If a player have no card that will make the sum 31 or less, he must say " I pass," and the next in order must play. If all the play- ers pass, it is a " dead heat." When the cards are out, they are dealt again, and the game goes on till some racer has won four heats. The player who named it as his favorite wins the game. It makes no difference whether a player's favor- ite wins in his own hand or in that of some one else. Often a player is obliged to win a heat with an- other's favorite. By watching the cards as they fall, it is possible for a player to guess in whose hands his favorites are, and to play in such a manner that they will be obliged to win. Hurdle Race. The sum of the cards played may be as large as 33, but no card w^hich makes it either 29 or 30 must be played. The number 31 is called the Hurdle, and a racer making the sum 31 is said to "stumble on the Hurdle," and is not allowed to win the heat. When the sum is 28 or less, any racer making it either 32 or 33 *' leaps the Hurdle" and wins the heat. When a horse stumbles, the next player counts from the number from which the stumbler started. No player is allowed to pass to avoid stumbling. In other respects the Hurdle Race is like the Flat Race. Scrub Race. All the cards are dealt. The leader lays down a card, and those like it must be played at once. If any player has more of them than any other player, he takes the trick but if each have one, or if two have two a piece, the trick belongs to no one. This is entirely a game of chance. PATCHESI, or PARCHESI. A game played on a board like the one in the illustration, by two, three, or four persons, each with four PATCHESI 518 PATCHWORK STORY pieces, or men, and one die. The players sit around the board, and each places his men in the circle at his right. Thus, the player who sits at A places his men in B, and so with the others. In the beginning The players throw their dice, with- out taking turns, until some one has thrown a five. That player enters one of his men on the colored space at the left of his circle ; for in- stance, if it be A, he enters his man at C. The players then take turns in throwing, beginning at his left hand. Each makes one throw at a time, but no one can play till he throws a five, when he enters one man, like the first player. When his next turn comes, he moves his man forward a number of spaces equal to the number he throws with his die. If he throw another five, he may enter another man, or move the one on the board for- ward five spaces, as he pleases. Each player moves his men around the board, going from right to left, till they reach the red path directly in front of him (called his gravel path), and then up this path into Home. (A's gravel path is indicated by the letter G). RULES OF THE GAME. I. If a player throw a six, he plays twelve, and must throw again. A second six gives him the same privi- lege ; but if he throw six a third time in the same turn, he must place his foremost man in his circle to be entered again as at the begin- ning of the game. II. If a player can move any of his men into a space already occu- pied by a single man belonging to an enemy, he may do so, and take that man up, placing him in the circle where he began the game, where he must be entered as before. III. No man can be taken up when he is on a colored space (called a safety point) ; and as only one man at a time can occupy such a point, a player loses his turn if the only moves he can make bring him into occupied safety points. [As the space on which a player enters his men is a safety point, he cannot enter if it is occupied either by an enemy's man or one of his own.] IV. Two of the same player's men in one space form a blockade, which neither he nor any one else may pass, and neither of the men in a blockade can be taken up. V. More than two men cannot be placed on the same space. VI. When a player is on his gravel-path he cannot move if he throw a number larger than is nec- essary just to take him home. [For instance, if he is on the fifth space from the end, he cannot play a six, and if he is on the last space, he can play only an ace.] The game of Patchesi resem- bles Russian BACKGAMMON, from which it differs by requiring always the same number to enter, by al- lowing not more than two men on one point, by giving a separate space to each player when he throws off his men, and by the use of safety points and blockades. Some of these differences make it more complicated, but the fact that each player has only four men tends to simplify it. History. This game, which is of Hindoo origin, is called in India Pachisi. It is widely played in Asia, in some countries with flat tamarind seeds instead of dice. The Spanish explorers found at the court of Montezuma, the Aztec ruler of Mexico, a similar game, called Patolli, played like Back- i gammon, but on a cross-shaped I table. Marked beans supplied the ; place of dice. Some people think j the game had been brought to I Mexico from Asia. PATCHWORK STORY, a story made up of words and sentences cut from newspapers and pasted on a sheet of blank paper. Several persons may join in the amusement, PATERNAL 519 PEANUT BUM one of whom superintends it, and pastes the words on the paper, while the others look over news- papers for suitable words and sen- tences, and cut them out. Each word, or combination of words, should be cut out cleanly and care- fully. The paster makes a line of mucilage on the paper before him, and then, taking up the word or letter he wants with a pin or the point of a sharp knife, presses it into place. By using care, even separate letters may thus be com- bined into a word, which looks as if it had been printed as it stands. An amusing effect is produced by inserting sensational headings, or cuttings from advertisements, at in- tervals in the story. Care should be taken to have the paper look neat, and each sentence should be- gin with a capital, as in writing. Punctuation marks may be filled in with a pen and ink, or cut from a newspaper, like the letters. The plot of the story may be decided on beforehand, and then newspapers may be searched for suitable words and sentences ; but a better way is first to cut out all sorts of word combinations, and then fit them together to make the story, searching only for a word or words now and then to make the connections. In this way a very laughable tale may be put together. Instead of a story, a patchwork let- ter may be written to some absent friend, even the address being made in the same way and pasted on the envelope. PATERNAL, a solitaire game of CARDS, played with a full pack. The four Aces are first placed in a row, and then the other cards are laid, as they come, in piles of three, spreading each pile a little, so that all the cards in it can be seen. The suits are to be completed by placing all the cards in order on the Aces. For this purpose only the top card of a pile can be taken, except that, once during the game, a card may be drawn from the interior of a pile — but this privilege should gen- erally be reserved till the end. In addition, any top card of a pile may be placed on any other top card of the same suit just above or just be- low it in rank, thus freeing the one beneath. The piles may be twice taken up, shuffled together, and re- laid. Sometimes, instead of allow- ing the player to re-lay the cards and to draw one, he is given the privilege of taking a King from the top of any pile, to form the bottom card of a new pile. Skill must be used in changing about the top cards so as best to aid the completion of the suit piles. Trios, a variation of Paternal. The Aces are not laid down at first, but put down with the rest of the cards in the piles as they come. The last two piles contain only two cards each. The Aces are put out as they are freed by changing the top cards and the rest of the suits placed on them in order, as before. Top cards may be placed on other top cards of the next higher rank only, but without regard to suit. A face card may also be placed on a similar face card. No pile may contain more than three cards at any time during the game, and there is no drawing nor relaying. PATIENCE, GAMES OF. See Solitaire. PEANUT BUM, a scramble for peanuts, in which any number of persons may take part. A bag of peanuts, containing at least a bushel, is emptied in the middle of a large room with a bare floor. The con- testants stand around in a ring, and, at a signal, rush forward. The object of each is to get the most peanuts, and to prevent the others from get- ting any, if possible, by pushing and pulling. History. The Peanut Bum was once a common sport at Yale Col- lege, but is now discontinued. Early I, in the college term one was held at PEANUt SPREE 520 PEAKUT SPREE each of the Freshmen society halls, the carpets being taken up and everything prepared for the event. Only Freshmen and Sophomores took part, the members of the two upper classes looking on. The Freshmen were expected to pro- vide the peanuts, but the Sopho- mores, being better organized, and having the advantage of experience, generally succeeded in carrying away most of them. Many quarts of the nuts were trampled under foot in the struggle, and the bag containing them was torn into pieces, which were borne away as trophies. The sport seems to have begun about 1865. In 1880 the college authorities abolished the Freshmen societies, and since that time no Peanut Bums have taken place. PEANUT SPREE, an entertain- ment in which various feats are performed with peanuts, the win- ners receiving prizes. Any number of persons may take part, but from six to ten is best. A leader is chosen, who arranges the programme of events, calls the names of those who are to take part, takes down their records with pencil and paper, an- nounces the winner, and decides disputed points. Several quarts of peanuts are then spread on a table in the middle of the room. A list of events is given below, and others may be devised to suit the fancy of players or the leader. 1. A dish of any kind is filled with peanuts, and each player guesses how many it contains. He who comes nearest to the right number wins a prize. 2. He who can hold the greatest number of peanuts in one hand, without the assistance of the other in placing them there, wins a prize. 3. A peanut is suspended by a thread, and on the floor is placed a vase whose neck is just large enough to receive it. Each player, holding the thread so that the peanut is a foot or more above the vase, tries to drop it in. The one who succeeds wins a prize. If no one succeeds at the first trial, each has another, and Peanut Spree, No. 3. SO on. If two or more succeed, they try again, holding the peanut higher, until only one is able to do it. 4. Each person is given five pea- nuts, and at a signal all begin to shell them. He who finishes first wins a prize. The inner skins must be carefully removed, and no nut must be split into more than the two pieces into which it naturally divides. If a nut be broken, the player may take another to replace it. 5. Five peanuts are placed on a chair at one end of the room. Each player in turn must take them one by one and place them on a chair at the opposite end of the room, returning them in like man- ner. The one that does this most quickly wins the prize. Throw- ing the peanuts is allowed, but if one so thrown does not remain in the chair, the player loses his chance for the prize. 6. A large pin is stuck upright in the floor, and each player in turn pitches five peanuts at it, one by one. He who succeeds in making PEANUT SPREE 52t PEA-SHOOTER a peanut remain nearest the pin wins the prize. 7. Each shells a number of pea- nuts, and he who can catch the greatest number in his mouth, in succession, after throwing them in- to the air, wins a prize. 8. A player is chosen by lot to stand at one end of the room with open mouth, while each of the others try to pitch five peanuts into it, one at a time. He who is most successful wins a prize. The one into whose mouth the nuts are thrown may be the player making the worst record in the event just preceding. 9. Peanuts are strewed over the floor of the room about a foot apart, and he who takes the least time to ga from one end to the other and back, without treading on a peanut, wins the prize. Other events may also be intro- duced, in which peanuts play no part. For instance : 10. A finger-ring is suspended from a chandelier. He who can walk up to it and, without pausing, stick a pencil or penholder through it, wins a prize. 11. A row of chairs is placed in the middle of the room, and he who can go in the least time from one end to the other, passing to the right of one chair and the left of the next, without touching a chair wins a prize. 12. A passage is selected from some book not familiar to any of the company, and he who can read it correctly, upside down, in the least time, wins the prize. 13. He who reads a similar pas- sage at the greatest distance wins a prize. The book may be propped upright on a table, and each player in turn advances toward it till he can read the passage, which he whispers to the leader, to make sure that he has done so correctly. His distance from the book is then measured. The prizes, which equal the events in number, should be wrapped up in packages, so that it is impossible to tell what they are, and placed by themselves. Each prize-winner chooses his own prize and opens it immediately. One or two of the prizes should be useful or valuable articles, and the others ridiculous, or merely blanks. It increases the fun if the packages be marked with laughable titles or mock direc- tions to the opener. Sometimes a prize is given to the person who gains most prizes during the enter- tainment. PEA-SHOOTER. A tin tube two or three feet long is commonly used, and a supply of peas is usually kept in the mouth. Instead of peas, Pea-shooter. little wads of paper or lumps of putty may be used, and the toy is then sometimes called a Putty Blower. For shooting at a target little darts may be used, whence the toy is often known as Puff and Dart. The Darts. darts may be bought at toy shops or made from bits of stick consider- ably smaller than the tube, and about two inches long. A wad of yarn or worsted, like the bottom of a short tassel, is fastened to one end, by winding with linen thread, and a small steel nail is fixed in the other end, so that the dart will stick in the target. Great care must be used to shoot these darts only at a target, as some one might be hurt by them. In shooting, the aim should be quick, and as there can be no sighting, since the tube is held in the mouth, I. PEASE PORRIDGE 522 PEG-TOP the " point of aim " for different dis- tances must be ascertained, exactly as in Archery. The natives of Borneo use tubes ten or twelve feet long as weapons, blowing through them poisoned darts. For the toy, a tube about three feet long will do. PEASE PORRIDGE, a game play- ed by two persons, who sit opposite each other and strike each other's hands, keeping time to the following verse : " Pease porridge hot, Pease porridge cold, Pease porridge in the pot Nine days old." The movement of the hands varies. A common method is as follows : For the first, second, and fourth lines, each player slaps His knees with both hands ; then each slaps the other's right hand with his own, palm to palm ; and then the same is done with the left hands. For the third line the order is, slap the knees, both hands at once, the one player's right to the other's left, right hands, and left hands. PEDRO SANCHO. See All Fours. PEEL-AWAY, a game played by any number of persons on a field divided into three parts by two parallel lines, generally from 100 to 300 feet apart. The two outer parts of the field are called goals, as is shown below. Sometimes the field GOAL, has side lines (dotted in the figure,) beyond which no player may go, but often the field is unbounded at the sides. At the beginning, one of the players stands in the middle of the field facing the others who are in one of the goals. He cries " Pom, pom, peel-away, come away, I'll get you away," and they must then run toward the other goal. As they do so, he tries to touch as many as possible, while they are be- tween the goal-lines. All touched must join him in the centre of the field. They all shout " Pom, pom, peel-away" together, and the other players then run back across the field to the goal where they were at first, the ones caught aiding in try i ng to touch them. The game goes on till all have been touched, the last one touched being the winner. The one touched first stands in the middle of the field to begin the next game. The game is played best on the ice by skaters. Instead of the shout given above, the single word, " peel-away" is often used. This game is called in England King Caesar, or sometimes Rushing Bases. The player who first stands in the middle of the field is called the King, and he must clap each one he catches three times on the head, saying each time, " I crown thee King Caesar." A player is allowed to return to the same goal If he hops out of it ; but if he put down both feet, he must run to the opposite one. Unless a player is properly crowned, he may return to his goal, and when the Kings greatly outnumber the others, they may run in and try to pull the latter over the base-line. PEG-TOP, or PEG IN THE RING, a game played by any number of persons, each of whom has a com- mon wooden Top with an iron point, or peg. A circle about a yard in diameter is drawn on the ground with a stick, or on a pavement with chalk or charcoal, but bare ground is best. Any one who wishes begins by spinning his top in the circle, and the others follow in order, try- ing at the same time to split one of the tops in the ring. If any player fail to cast his top into the ring, or to set it spinning, or if it remains in the circle after it stops spinning, he must let it stay for the others to throw or " peg" at; but if it spin or roll out, or is knocked out by any PENCIL SKETCHES 523 PENDULUMS other top, the owner may take it up, and play as before, in his turn. Each player thus tries to split one of the tops without driving any from the ring, but this is usually very difficult. The tops used are best made of hard wood like box- wood, and should have long pegs, as they are then more apt to spin out of the ring. If a top that "sleeps," or spins in one place, is used, it generally stays in the ring and becomes a mark for the other players. In spinning, the cord should be wound several times around the peg, as well as the top, and the string should have a button at the end. Skilful players are able so to cast their tops as to hit any spot they wish. As the game is sometimes played, any one that knocks a top out of the circle is allowed to keep it. PENCIL SKETCHES, a game played by any number of persons, each with pencil and paper. Each player first draws the head of a man, woman, or animal, and then folds down the top of the paper so as to hide all the drawing except a very little at the bottom. Each then passes his paper to his left-hand neighbor, who adds a body to the head, folding and passing as before. The feet and legs are next drawn, and then the papers are unfolded and shown to the company. The sketches are often very amusing. PENDULUM, a lawn game played with rings and a pendulum. The rings, which are 8 inches in diam- eter, are not more than six in num- ber, and each has a different color and a different value. They are fitted with prongs several inches long, so that they can be made to stand upright in the ground. The pendulum is a heavy ball suspended by a rope eight feet long from a ring sliding on a wire between two posts eight feet high and six feet apart. The rings are placed in line between the posts, and the object of each player, after choosing a ring, is to swing the pendulum so as to catch it and pull it from the ground. If successful, he scores the number marked on the ring, and has an- other turn until he fails. A line may be made on the opposite side of the rings, and anv ring carried Pendulum. over it may score double its number. If a player hits a ring he did not choose, it is accounted a miss. The game may be played by any num- ber of persons, each for himself, or divided into opposing parties. The winning score is fixed upon before- hand, or the game may be played for a certain length of time, at the end of which the person or side with the highest score wins. PENDULUMS, Experiments with. The best pendulums for these ex- periments are made of the bobs used by carpenters for their plumb- lines, which can be bought at any hardware store. Or any small heavy object can be used, if it is easily fastened to a string. Suspend the pendulum bobs by twine of different lengths to screw-eyes fastened in the upper part of a door-casing. One should be made so that it can be lengthened or shortened at will, by passing the twine through the screw-eye, and holding it in the hand, or winding it loosely about a tack driven in the side of the door- way. By pulling on this string the pendulum will be shortened. L PETER CODDLE'S TRIP 524 PHOSPHORUS EXPERIMENTS. 1. Set all the pendulums swing- ing. The longer they are, the slow- er they will swing. 2. Make one of the pendulums swing an inch or so, and then make It swing two or three feet. It will take just as much time to make the short swing as the long one. 3. Count the number of swings any of the pendulums makes in a minute, and then arrange the ad- justable one so that it makes twice the number. It will be just quarter the length of the first. 4. Take down all the pendulums but one. Set this swinging, and then, when it is at its lowest point, strike it sidewise. It will keep on swinging, but in a different direc- tion. Strike it when it is at one end of its swing, and it will then move in a circle. 5. Make a heavy pendulum by suspending a chair with stout twine. Tie a fine piece of sewing-silk to the chair. Try to swing the chair by giving a single pull on the silk and it will break; but it may be made to swing by a series of gentle pulls given at equal intervals. To know at what interval to give the pulls, hang the movable pendulum so that its bob is at the middle of the chair, and then swing it. Give the silk a slight pull at each swing of this pendulum. See also Double Pendulum. PETER CODDLES. TRIP TO NEW YORK, a game played by any number of persons The story of a countryman's trip to the city is printed in a little book, with blanks left for many of the words. Words to fill these blanks are printed on small cards, one on each card. One of the company is appointed to read the story, and the cards are distrib- uted equally among the others. When the reader comes to the first blank, the player on his left reads his first card to fill it, and the other blanks are filled in the same way by the other players, in order. The players should listen carefully for the blanks, and read the cards quick- ly, so that the story may be as smooth as possible. There are a multitude of games of this kind, and a new one can be made by any ingenious person. Among those to be bought at toy stores are, " Jotham Podd's Trip to Paris," -'Japhet Jenkins," "Travels of Sam Slick," and " An Excursion to Coney Island." PHIAL BAROMETER. See Hy- GROSCOPE. PHIAL OF THE FOUR ELE- MENTS. See Mixture OF Liquids. PHILOPENA. See Flower AND Fruit Sports. PHOSPHORUS, Experiments with. Phosphorus is described in C. C. T. In experimenting with it, great care is necessary, because it takes fire on exposure to the air. It must be kept, handled, and cut under water. EXPERIMENTS. 1. Cover a piece of phosphorus the size of a pin- head with a tea- spoonful of lamp-black (see Car- bon, Exp. 3), which has been heated and allowed to cool. The phos- phorus will melt and finally take fire, owing to contact with oxygen absorbed from the air by the lamp- black. 2. Dissolve a bit of phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon, and wet a piece of unglazed paper with the liquid. The paper should not be held on the hand, but on the end of a wire. Take it into a dark room, and as it dries it will shine beauti- fully and finally take fire. Letters or designs can be marked on the paper with a brush dipped in the liquid, but the brush must be put into water as soon as it is used. 3. Phosphorus Torpedo. Cover a bit of phosphorus, the size of a pin- head, with powdered chlorate of potash, and twist it up in a bit of tissue-paper. On being struck with a hammer, it will explode. 4. To Jiiake Red Phosphorus. Heat PHOTOGRAPH WHIST 525 PHOTOGRAPHY a ymall bit of phosphorus in a test- tube or bottle with a very little iodine. The phosphorus will turn red, and will be found to have al- most none of the properties of com- mon phosphorus, being odorless, not giving off light in the dark, and not being easily lighted by rubbing. 5. Place a piece of phosphorus under hot water. It will melt. Now bring a current of oxygen into con- tact with it and it will burn under water. 6. Put a crystal of iodine on a slice of phosphorus. They will take fire at once. 7. The Phosphorus Sun. Place a bit of phosphorus the size of a pea on a piece of chalk about an inch square, having its top hollowed a little. Fill with oxygen a fish-globe about a foot in diameter, and invert it over the phosphorus, first lighting the latter with a hot wire. The phosphorus will burn in the oxygen with great brilliancy. 8. Place in a bottle a tablespoonful of ether and a piece of phosphorus twice the size of a pea. Let it stand several days, shaking it occasionally. The resulting liquid will make the hands or face shine in the dark when they are rubbed with it. If a little be poured on a lump of sugar, which is then thrown into hot water, the phosphorus and ether will rise to the surface and take fire. Put a bit of phosphorus into a flask containing a little water, and then boil the water; the phosphorus will burn with great brilliancy. PHOTOGRAPH WHIST, a game played by four persons, with any number of old card-size photographs, which are dealt as in whist. Each plays one in turn, and the ugliest photograph " takes the trick. If there is doubt, a fifth person should be chosen as umpire, to decide. This game is productive of a good deal of amusement for a few min- utes, but care should be taken, in selecting the photographs, that no one's feelings are likely to be wounded. It is best played at home with photographs from an old album. PHOTOGRAPHY. If adouble con- vex lens (C. C. T.,Lens), such as that in an ordinary magnifying glass, be held at the proper distance between any^object and a white screen or wall, an image of the object will be thrown on the wall. Thus, if such a lens be held near a wall having a window opposite it, and moved backward and forward, a position will be found where the lens throws on the wall a distinct picture of the window, up- side down. In photography, such a picture is thrown by a lens on a sur- face covered with some substance very sensitive to light. Light changes the color of the substance, so that the whole picture is printed on the prepared surface. The effect of the light, however, is not visible till the picture is washed in another chemical, called a "developer." It is then washed in a third fluid to " fix" it, or make it permanent. If the lights and shadows are arranged in the picture as they are in nature, it is said to be a "positive"; but gener- ally the chemical used is turned black by light, so that the lights and shadows are reversed. Such a pict- ure is called a " negative" and to make a positive from it, it is fixed over a sheet of chemically prepared paper. The light shines through the negative, blackening those parts of the paper most that are most ex- posed, that is those that are light in the negative; hence the lights and shadows are reversed again on the paper, and appear in their proper places. This is called " printing." The ordinary instruments and processes used in photography will now be described. Camera. The photographic cam- j era is a box with a lens at one end for throwing an image of the object ! whose picture is to be taken. The i image is formed at the back of the j box, on a piece of ground glass, which can be adjusted at the proper distance from the lens. The most PHOTOGRAPHY 526 PHOTOGRAPHY important part of the instrument is the lens. Cameras can be bought as low as two dollars, but the lenses of such cameras are poor and will not make a clear image. Experts advise the beginner to pay at least ten dollars for his camera. Modern cameras are made in many different Camera. Styles, and fitted with many patent devices, which it is impossible to describe here. The best cameras have what is called the " single swing," by which the ground glass can be tilted forward or backward, so that parts of a landscape at differ- ent distances may all be brought to a distinct focus. The best cameras have also a shifting front, by which the lens can be raised or lowered, thus bringing more or less of sky or foreground into the picture. These and other arrangements are useful but not essential. Lens, A good lens must have depth of focus, that is, it must clearly define both distant and near objects; a good field, that is, it must take in many objects at once; and it must be fairly rapid in its action. It should be provided with "stops," that is, covers with holes of various sizes, so that more or less light may be admitted to the plate. For in- stantaneous pictures very expensive lenses are needed. Focussing-cloth. This is to cover the operator's head when he is ad- justing the camera, to keep out the light. It should be about a yard square, of any material that is per- fectly opaque. It may be made of water-proof cloth, so as to protect the camera in case of rain. Focussing-glass. This is a little magnifying glass used to examine the image on the ground glass to see if it is perfectly distinct. Plate-holder, This is a device for Plate-holder, keeping the sensitive plate from the light till it is ready to be used. It is then fixed on the back of the cam- era, in place of the ground glass, being so arranged that when a slide is withdrawn the sensitive surface of the plate receives the image. Dark Room. For handling the plates before and after taking the picture, it is necessary to have a room or closet into which no light can possibly penetrate. The door must be tight and there should be no windows. A large closet will answer all purposes, but many ama- teur photographers have rooms specially built for this purpose. The closet should be as large as possible, to avoid discomfort from heat and bad air. It may be ventilated by means of crooked tin tubes, painted PHOTOGRAPHY 527 PHOTOGRAPHY black on the inside, fastened to a hole in the outer wall. It should be remembered that the faintest glimmer of outside light may spoil tne plates. To enable the worker to see, a "ruby lantern" must be used. This is a lantern covered Lantern for Dark Room. with ruby-red glass, the light from which does not affect the plates. Many kinds are in the market, one of which is shown in the illustration. Instead of it, a lamp with a close shade of red tissue-paper may be used, but the lantern is best. In this room must be placed all arrange- ments for developing and fixing the negatives, as described below. These include shelves, a sink, running water, and three shallow trays of iron, glass, or rubber, for immersing the plates or prints. The same chemical should always be used in the same tray. The illustration Rubber Tray. shows a hard rubber tray, which may be bought of dealers in photo- graphic supplies. The sink may be made of a large baking-pan having a pipe soldered to the bottom to carry off the water to a pail below. Running water may be obtained by putting a faucet in an ordinary wooden pail, which stands on a shelf above the sink. Over the faucet is slipped a rubber tube long enough to reach to the sink. For preparing the proper solutions, four "gradu- ates" or measuring-glasses, are need- ed, one each of eight, four, and two ounces, marked with drams and one to measure minims, and for weigh- ing chemicals a pair of scales is necessary. Plates. Formerly every photog- rapher prepared his own plates, but now they are generally bought ready for use. There are many kinds, some for landscape, some for instan- taneous pictures, some for transpar- encies, and so on. All come in dif- ferent sizes, and are packed by the dozen in paper boxes. The face, or sensitive side, of the plate can always be told from the back by its duller lustre. In preparing to take a pict- ure, the first thing is to fill the plate- holder, which must be done in the dark room, the face of each plate being carefully brushed with a broad soft camel's-hair brush to remove dust. Each plate should be held at the corner only. Plate-holders generally hold two plates, and these should be put in back to back, so as to face outward. It requires prac- tice to do this without touching the sensitive side of the plates, especi- ally as the light in the dark room is very dim. faking the Picture. Place the camera so that the lens points to- ward the object or view to be taken, and then, throwing the focussing- cloth over the head, move the rear part of the camera forward or back- ward till the image on the ground glass is distinct. It often requires practice to see any image at all, at first, but by moving the eye back- ward and forward, it can be made to PHOTOGRAPHY 528 PHOTOGRAPHY appear. Before the final focussing, the camera should be moved so that just the objects desired appear on the ground glass. To include more of the upper part of the landscape, the sliding front may be raised. If this throws some of the lower ob- jects off the glass, the camera should be moved farther back. The focus is now made perfectly distinct for some one object in the middle fore- ground, the operator viewing its image carefully with the focussing- glass. The images of more distant and nearer objects will probably now be a little blurred. To remedy this, one of the "stops" must be put on the lens. The largest should be tried first, and then a smaller one, till all parts of the picture are equally distinct. No smaller one than ab- solutely necessary should be used, as the smaller the stop, the less light falls on the plate. If there is an ob- ject in the very near foreground, it will be necessary to use the swing- back to make its image distinct. The cap must now be placed over the lens, the ground glass removed, and the plate-holder put in its place, the focussing-cloth being thrown over it as it is taken from the box where it is kept, and remaining over it till it is returned to the box. This is necessary that light may not reach the plate through some crack in the holder. The slide is with- drawn, and then the light is admitted to the plate by removing the cap from the lens, taking care not to shake the camera in so doing. When the exposure is finished, the lens is recapped, the slide returned, and the plate-holder replaced in its box. For the time of exposure, no rules can be given. It must be deter- mined in every case by experience, as it varies with the light, the lens, the plate, the stop used, and the kind of picture. The time may thus vary from almost nothing, with a very sensitive plate and bright light, to 10, 15, or 20 seconds with poor light. In general a hazy or yellow light requires a longer time than clear weather, and the hours near noon less time than late after- noon. Spring foliage requires less time than the same in summer, and a sea view than a landscape. After the photographer has had experience he will judge of the time required by comparing the kind of view, the light, and the other conditions, with those of some previous picture he has taken. A second or two more or less is not fatal to success, but over-exposure is easier to remedy than under-exposure. The be- ginner should make several expos- ures of the same view, and note which one turns out best. The plate-holder should be marked after each exposure with the time, stop used, and other data to be remem- bered. Developing. This process requires great care, and must be carried on in the dark room. There are many developing fluids, each of which has its advocates. The following direc- tions show how to make one of the best. The solution is made in two parts, which are mixed as they are needed. Each may be held in a twelve-ounce bottle. The following chemicals are needed : Sulphite of soda, crystals, i lb. Carbonate of potash, granulated, " Carbonate of soda, " " Pyrogallic acid, 4 oz. Sulphuric " i " Bromide of potash, i " Solution I. Dissolve two ounces, by weight, of sulphite of soda in eight measured oimces of soft water, add slowly half a dram of sulphuric acid, and then 240 grains of pyrogallic acid. Pour in enough water to make eight ounces of mix- ture. In warm weather fifteen grains of bromide of potassium may be added to prevent too rapid working. This solution is labelled " Pyro." It must be used only so long as it is perfectly clear. PHOTOGRAPHY 529 PHOTOGRAPHY Solution 2. Dissolve one ounce each of carbonate of potash and soda in five ounces of water. Add enough water to make eight ounces. Each solution should be poured into its bottle through a wad of clean cotton placed in a funnel. When the developing solution is needed, the two solutions are mixed and diluted, in the proportion of one part of each to two parts of water. To develop the plate, lay it in one of the trays, face upward, and pour the solution over it with a sweeping motion. Then move the tray so that it will be washed evenly, gently breaking all air-bubbles with the finger-tip. The picture will shortly begin to appear on the plate, the very light parts first (which of course are black in the negative). If the plate is under-exposed, the details of the picture will refuse to appear; if over-exposed, the whole picture will appear suddenly. The negative should be examined by holding it up to the light from time to time, and as soon as the details are distinct enough, the plate is thoroughly washed with a stream of clear water from the rubber tube. If it is known beforehand that a plate is over-exposed, only half the ordinary quantity of the second so- lution is used, and a few drops of a solution of bromide of potash are \ added (50 grains to the ounce of; water). The bromide makes the process slower, the second solution hastens it; so by varying the propor- tions, a developer may be made to suit a plate more or less over-ex- posed. Fixing. Two solutions are needed for fixing: one composed of one part of alum to ten of water, the other of one part of hyposulphite of soda (called " hypo " for short) to five of water. The trays for fixing should be about two inches deep, and enough solution is placed in each to cover a plate. When the negative has been washed, after developing. it is placed in the alum solution for four or five minutes, washed again, and then in the "hypo" solution till no whiteness is seen on the plate, looked at from the back. This should take not more than ten min- utes; the " hypo " should be renewed if it works slowly. Fixing may be carried on in a weak light, and after it is finished the plates may be ex- posed to strong light without injury. If the fixing is not thoroughly done, however, the negative will not last. After fixing, the plates are placed in a large pail of water, for several hours, the water being changed every twenty or thirty minutes, and they are then allowed to dry, with- out being heated. Varnishing. This is not necessary unless the plates are to be preserved a long time. Prepared varnish (to be bought of a dealer in photo- graphic supplies) is poured on the plate, which is lowered first at one end and then at the other, so that the varnish flows evenly over the surface. The surplus is drained into the bottle from one corner, the plate being rocked to and fro to prevent drying in ridges. Printing. Paper all ready for printing may be bought, or it may be prepared by soaking albumenized paper in a bath of nitrate of silver, composed as follows: Water, 64 ounces. Nitrate of silver, 8 " Ammonia nitrate, 2 " Magnesia, " i ounce. Ammonia, one drop to each ounce of solution. This solution is used over and over again, adding nitrate of silver and ammonia from time to time. The condition of the solution may be tested by putting enough shot into a glass tube closed at one end to float it upright in a bottle of the liquid. Make a scratch on the tube at the level of the liquid. As the latter gets weaker the tube will sink lower, and enough nitrate of silver PHOTOGRAPHY 530 PHOTOGRAPHY must be added to float the tube at the same level. The silver solution is poured into a glass tray, or one of shellacked wood, and the sheets of paper floated on it, albumen side down. One corner should touch the surface first, and the rest of the sheet be lowered evenly, so that no air-bubbles may get under it. Light bits of wood are laid on the paper to keep the corners down. The paper should be floated from one minute and a quarter to two minutes (longest in winter), and then pressed between blotting-papers and hung up to dry in the dark. Before printing, the paper, whether ready-prepared or home-made, must be exposed for from fifteen to thirty minutes to the vapor of ammonia, longest in cold weather. This is done most con- veniently by hanging the sheet over twine in a box, in the bottom of which is a tray of strong ammonia water. Printing-frame. For printing, a frame like that shown in the illustration is usually used. The negative is placed in it film up, and on it is laid the sensi- tive paper, film down. The two are secured by the springs pressing against the back of the frame, and then exposed to sunlight. The pro- cess must be watched carefully, by opening the back of one side of the frame to see how far it has pro- gressed. The print should be much darker than the finished picture is to be. After printing, the pictures must be washed in clear water, which is changed thrice, letting them remain each time about ten minutes. Toning. This process changes the color of the print from reddish brown to brownish black. A stock solution should first be made by dissolving 15 grains of chloride of gold and sodium in 15 ounces of water. To make a toning bath for twenty prints, add three ounces of this to 10 ounces of water in which have been dissolved a pinch of cooking-soda and a pinch of com- mon salt. The bath must be kept slightly alkaline, and should be tested with litmus paper (see Test Papers). If it does not turn red litmus paper blue, more soda should be added. The prints are to be toned, about a dozen at a time, by laying them one by one face down- ward into a tray partially filled with the bath. It should be seen that they do not stick together. The bath should be kept at a tempera- ture of about 70°, which in a cold room may be done by setting the tray on a hot-water bottle. In ten or fifteen minutes the red color of the prints will turn to a purplish or brownish black. If the process is kept up too long they will become slate-colored. If the prepared silver-paper be used, the following recipe gives better results : Add to the gold so- lution a solution of cooking soda, drop by drop, till it turns red litmus paper blue. Add 10 grains of ace- tate of soda and 18 ounces of water. Fixing the Prints. Soak them fifteen or twenty minutes in a bath formed by dissolving in one gallon of water a pound of hyposul- phite of soda and a tablespoonful each of cooking-soda and common salt. The part used should be thrown away. After fixing, the prints should be soaked three or four minutes in strong salt and PHOTOGRAPHY 531 PHOTOGRAPHY water. They should then be thor- oughly washed, the water being changed eight or ten times. Blue Prints. These are made on blue or cyanotype paper (Greek, cyanos, blue). The process of print- ing is as already described, the paper, as manufactured, being all ready to put into the printing-frame with the negative. No toning and fixing is necessary, the print requiring only to be washed in pure water till the drippings cease to be yellowish. Hydrochloric acid makes the color bluer, and sulphuric acid renders it greenish. A few drops of either are sufficient. Ammonia turns the color to purple and makes it lighter. The ease of blue printing has made it popular with amateurs, and many use it for taking "proofs" even when they desire to print after- ward in the regular way. Bromide Prints. Bromide of silver- paper is very sensitive, and is used where quickness is sought and for enlargements. The paper is so sen- sitive that thin negatives are best printed by the light of a kerosene lamp. To enlarge a picture, the negative should be fixed in a hole in the wall in front of a heliostat, and a lens so placed that a sharp enlarged image of the negative is thrown on the sensitive paper, which is supported on an upright board. No light should enter the room ex- cept that which comes through the lens. The print does not show at first, but requires to be developed, so that it cannot be told directly when the printing is finished, as with an ordinary photograph. The photog- rapher must learn the proper time for exposure in various cases by ex- perience, as in taking the picture. Bromide prints are developed and fixed as follows : The developer is made by mixing three solutions, which are kept on hand separate- Solution I. One pound of oxalate of potash to three pints of hot water. Add sulphuric acid till it turns blue litmus paper red. Solution 2. One pound of proto- sulphate of iron to one quart of hot water. Add one-half dram of sul- phuric acid. Solution 3. One dram of bromide of potassium to one quart of water. Just before developing, mix six ounces of No. i and one ounce of No. 2, and use cold. No. 3 is used to restrain the action in over-expos- ure, but too much of it spoils the print. The developer, when mixed, should be of a clear dark red. If turbid, it is unfit for use. The image appears slowly. When it is done, wash the print several times in a solution of one ounce of citric acid in a quart of water, then rinse in pure water, and finally fix in a solu- tion of three ounces of "hypo" to a pint of water. Fixing takes about ten minutes. Wash the print, place it in the aljum bath, and then wash again. Dry by hanging on a line, not between blotters. Bromide prints last much longer than ordi- nary ones. They may be used for book illustrations, without mount- ing, by soaking in five ounces of glycerine mixed with twenty-five ounces of water. Mounting. Before mounting, the print should be trimmed to the de- sired shape, which is generally done by laying on it a glass or metal form and cutting around the edge. A knife may be used, but specially made cutters, formed of a small wheel, are preferable. The print should be laid, when cutting, on a piece of glass covered with paper. Glass alone dulls the cutter, and wood is too soft. The prints are secured to the cardboard mounting with paste, which must be very smooth and free from lumps. All air-bubbles must be pressed out from between the print and the card, and no more paste used than is absolutely neces- sary. Burnishing. After mounting, the l>IANO 532 PIANO pictures may be passed through a burnisher, like that shown in the picture. The photograph should not be perfectly dry, and should have its face rubbed with fine scrap- ings of castile soap. Taking Portraits Indoors. The sitter should be placed obliquely near one window in the room, the light being shut out from all others by white muslin or paper shades. If the shadows are too strong, light should be reflected from the oppo- site side from a sheet hung over a clothes-horse. The background should be plain and simple. Hints on Landscapes. A land- scape should not be photographed from the shadow side, as it appears too sombre. The best time for taking landscape views is in the morning or early afternoon, but late afternoon is the best time for cloud effects. When a body of water appears in the picture, a point of view should be chosen where the water will not appear as a sheet of white. Distant views are best taken when the air is clear and free from haze or smoke, though a partially cloudy sky gives an excellent light. Flash-Llght. Places which are always too dark to photograph by sunlight may be taken by flash- light. Magnesium " cartridges " to produce this light may be bought of dealers in photographic material. In using them, focus must first be made with the aid of lamp or gas- light. The lens is then capped, the slide drawn, all lights put out, the lens uncapped, and then the car- tridge is lighted, making a sudden, short, and brilliant light,which takes the picture. The lens is then re- capped and the plate removed. PIANO, Experiments with a. The Piano is described in C. C. T. The following experiments can be per- formed by any one who understands the elements of music. I. Place sheets of music on the wires. The notes will now have a rat- tling sound, and a tune on the piano | will sound somewhat as if played on the banjo. 2. Press down very gently the keys belonging to any desired chord, so as to make little or no sound, and hold them down, while some one brushes the wires gently with some light object, such as a feather or a straw. The chord will be heard very softly, as if played far away. By changing the notes, being careful to press them down so gently as to makeno noise, while the feather still sweeps the wires, the player may modulate, or even play a very slow piece of music. The reason is, that ordinarily a damper rests against each wire, which is raised when the corresponding key is pressed; hence the feather causes only those wires to sound which are undampened. The wires must be lightly brushed, as otherwise all of them might sound, in spite of the dampers. 3. Press down one key, gently, as before, and then strike the one an octave below it, very hard, not holding it down. When the sound has been sufficiently dampened, the pressed-down key will be heard sounding clearly. The reason is, that the note struck is composed of several notes, being in fact a chord, and these cause the corresponding wires to vibrate in sympathy. The other notes which will vibrate in like manner are the fifth above the octave, the second octave, and the third and fifth above that. These are called overtones. Thus, if a C in the lower part of the piano be struck, any or all of the following notes will sound, if their keys be first pressed down and held down. $ Wr :?s: :t== @=i Note struck. Keys pressed down. PICKADILL. See Fox and Geese, III. PIGEON FLYING 533 PIQUET PIGEON FLYING. The carrier pigeon is described in C. C. T. These birds are sometimes matched one against another, just like horses or boats, so that Pigeon Flying has become a sport. The birds are carried away long dis- tances from their homes in baskets, released at the same time and place, and the one that reaches its roost soonest wins the race. The quickest times and longest flights made by pigeons in contests of this kind are given in the Appendix. PILLOWS AND KEYS, or PILLOW AND KEY, a game played by any number of boys and girls. All sit in a circle, and a boy taking a cushion or pillow, lays it at the feet of any girl he chooses and kneels on it. The girl must kiss him, and then, taking the cushion, places it in like manner before any boy, while the first-named boy takes her seat. Sometimes a rhyme is repeated by the kneeling player, for instance ' " Had I as many eyes as stars in the skies, And were I as old as Adam, I'd fall on my isnees, and kiss whom I please, Your humble servant, madam." This game is said to be derived from an old dance called the " Cush- ion Dance." PIN DRAWINGS, a game played by any number of persons, with pencil and paper. Sheets of paper, one for each player, are laid in a pile, and five pins are held about three feet above them, between the thumb and forefinger of the leader, who drops them on the paper. At the spot where each of the pin- heads lies, another pin is then driven through all the thicknesses of paper, so that pin-holes are made in each, in the same positions. Each player must now draw on his paper a human figure, so that one pin-hole is included in the outline of the head, and one in that of each hand and foot. Animals or birds may be drawn instead, varying the number of pin-holes and the re- quirements of the game to suit the players. At the close of the draw- ing, each player should write under each picture the name of the one he supposes to have been the ar- tist. Sometimes grains of rice are dropped on the paper instead of pins, to show where the head, hands, and feet of the figure must Pin Drawings. be made. The illustration shows the spots where the pins or rice are supposed to have fallen, and three different figures drawn from these spots. PINOCLE. See Bezique. PIQUET, a game of cards played by two persons with a euchre pack. The players cut for deal, and highest deals. Ace being high in cutting, as in playing, and the other cards ranking as in Whist. The dealer gives twelve cards to each player, two at a time, and places the stock where both can reach it. If the hand of either player contains no face card, it is called carte bla7iche (white card), and he scores lo at once. He must deal the cards on the table quickly, one by one, and then take them up again that his opponent may see he has no face card. The non-dealer may now discard five cards, or less, sup- plying their places by an equal num- ber from the top of the stock. He PIQUET 534 PIQUET must discard at least one. If he discards less than five, he must tell how many, and may then look at those of the upper five cards of the stock that he did not take. Thus, if he discard two, he takes two from the stock, and may look at the next three. The dealer need not discard at all, unless he wishes ; but he is entitled to all the cards that are left in the stock, or as many of them as he wants, and discards as many as he takes. He must take his cards from the top of the stock as they come, even if they have al- ready been looked at. In every case the discard must be decided on and made before any cards in the stock are taken up. Discarding is followed by what is named "calling and showing," in which the players see which has the highest of certain groups of cards. These groups are of three kinds : I. Points; 2. Sequences; 3. Quat- orzes and Trios. Point is won by the player who has the greatest number of spots in any one suit, reckoning Ace as 11, and face cards each as 10. He who wins Point scores one for each card in the suit. Sequences (Latin, sequens, follow- ing) are three or more cards of the same suit in regular order. They rank : first, according to the number of cards, and second, according to the highest card in the sequence. Thus, a sequence of five cards is always higher than one of foiir; but of two sequences of four, — King, Queen, Knave, Ten, for instance, is higher than Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine. Sequences count one for each card, and 10 points more if there are five or more cards; thus, a sequence of three counts 3, but one of seven counts 17. The holder of the highest sequence scores for all the sequences he holds, but the other scores for none of his. The sequences are often given French names, being called respectively tierce, quart, qumt, sixieme, sep- tieme, and huitieme, according as they consist of three, four, five, six, seven, or eight cards. A sequence whose highest card is Knave or King, for instance, is called a "se- quence to a Knave" or " to a King;" thus, a Queen, Knave, and Ten of the same suit form a "tierce to a Queen." If Ace is the highest card, it is a sequence major (Latin, ma- jor, greater, because it is greater than any other sequence of the same number of cards). Quatorzes and Trios are four cards or three cards of a kind, higher than a Nine-spot, and are called simply four Queens, three Aces, or whatever they may be. The value depends on that of the cards that form the group, but any Quatorze is higher than any Trio. A Quatorze counts 14, and hence its name, which is the French for fourteen. A Trio counts 3. The holder of the highest Qua- torze (or Trio, if there be no Qua- torze) scores for all his Quatorzes and Trios, but the other player scores for none of his. The scoring of all these groups proceeds as follows: The non-dealer calls the amount of his Point (the sum of the spots of his highest suit, as explained above). If the other have nothing greater, he says " Good," and the winner shows all the cards of his winning suit ; but if the other has the same, he says " Equal," and neither scores; if he has a suit that will beat it, he says "Not good." If he says " Equal," or " Not good," he neither shows his own cards nor scores till his opponent has led the first card, as shown below. The sequences are then taken up in like manner, the elder hand telling what his high- est is, and the other replying "Good," " Equal," or " Not good," as before. Lastly the Quatorzes and Trios are considered together. Playing now begins, the eldest hand leading first, and the winner of PIQUET 535 PIQUET each trick leading for the next, as in most card games. Suit must be followed if possible, otherwise any card may be played. Any one that leads a "counting-card" (Ace, King, Queen, Knave, or Ten) scores one, whether he takes the trick or not ; and he who takes a trick with a counting-card likewise scores one. He who takes the last trick scores an additional one (thus he scores two if he takes it with a counting-card). The player that takes the majority of tricks scores lo for cards. If he take every trick (called winning a Capot), he scores 40. If each takes six tricks, neither scores for cards. If a player score 30 in hand and play before his opponent scores anything, he wins Pique, and scores an extra 30. If he score 30 in hand alone before his opponent scores, he wins Repzque, and scores an additional 60. Carte Blanche counts towai-d a Pique or Repique, but a Capot does not. The game is 100. It is customary not to write down the score till the end of the hand. Before that time, each player, as he wins a point, adds it mentally to his previous score for that hand only, and announces the total aloud. But as the whole score nears 100, it is necessary to remem- ber what it is, as the game ceases as soon as either player's score reaches that amount. It must be remembered that al- though the dealer does not show and score his winning groups till the first card is led, they are looked upon as if they had been recorded in their proper place, in counting for Pique and Repique. Thus, if the elder hand scores 30 by his Sequences and Quatorzes, while his Point is " not good," he does not repique the dealer, whose score is regarded as being made in its proper place, though he is not obliged to show his winning suit till later. In playing Piquet the chief things for the beginner to note are : 1. That the discarded cards and the ones shown by his opponent, to- gether with those in his own hand, give him the means of making a good estimate of his enemy's strength. 2. That in discarding, all of a long suit should usually be kept to make Point. 3. That as the elder hand leads and there is no trump, he can play a bolder game than his opponent, and need not keep small cards to guard a King or Queen, as his oppo- nent should. An experienced play- er will often omit to call his best groups, preferring to lose, for the time being, rather than give his op- ponent valuable information. The learner is advised to play through carefully the following sample hand. A deals. B's hand is : 1 m •?-4.* 4.^4. *** 4. + om^ 0% A's banc lis: i:i 4- 4.jy| 4- 4- *** 4. '^4. 4- 4- 9? oWM 0^^ 0.0 0^0 PIQUET 536 PIQUET B discards 4.*4. *4.* 4. 4. 4. 4. ^^^ ^ 9 ^ ^ ^ 0^0 (He keeps his longest suit, Spades, for Point, and discards the small cards of the other suits, as by so doino^ he breaks up no sequence, Quatorze, or Trio. He does not keep the Eight of Diamonds as a guard to his King, since he has the lead.) B draws : and draws B (calling his Point) says "Forty- one." A (seeing he has 47 in Diamonds) replies " Not good." B says " A Tierce Major." A says " Good " (since he has no higher sequence), and B shows and says " 3 " (scoring). B says " Four Kings." A says " Good." B (who need not show them un- less A demands it) says " 17, and three Queens make 20." B plays and says "21. A now shows his Point : O O 0^0 tot o'o A plays , saying "6." (5th trick). A (who has thus gained the lead) plays 9? , saying " 7. B plays 2 2 . (6th trick.) PIQUET ^'^1 i^iOUET B plays saying " 26." (8th trick.) B (leading again) plays saying "27.' B plays ♦ ^ (which does not count, as it is not a "counting card.") A plays 0^0 O O and B, counting one for last trick, says " 30." B has taken the majority of tricks, so he has "cards," which cotin's 10, and his score stands 40 to A's 9 for the hand. In playing, where a person sees that he is sure to take tricks with more than one card in a suit, he generally lays them down all at once to save time. So, in the above game, beginning after the first trick, B might put down his and together saying " 24, for the Knave has just been played, and they are therefore the three highest cards in the suit. Three-handed Piquet. The dealer gives each player eight cards. The eldest hand can take four cards, the next player two, with any left by the first, and the third as many as re- main. Points, etc., to be "good," must be in excess of those held by each of the other players, but they score as in two-handed Piquet. A Pique usually scores 20 extra points, a Repique 40, and a Capot 30, but there are several other modes of scoring these chances. Other Kinds of Piquet. Several varieties of the game, differing from the standard Piquet in some minor particulars, are played in Europe. For instance, in Portland Club Piquet, introduced in 1873, the Point is not always estimated simply by counting one for every card held in it ; but if its pips happen to amount to 34, 44, 54, or 64, the Point counts as 3, 4, 5, or 6 points respectively. In these cases the Point scores one less than it ordi- narily would. RULES OF THE GAME. I. If there be a misdeal, or the dealer expose one of his opponent's cards, he must deal again ; but if only one card be dealt wrongly (as when one player has thirteen and the other eleven, or when one has PIQUET 538 PIQUET thirteen and there are only seven in the stock) the non-dealer may let the deal stand, if he choose, and the numbers shall be corrected in dis- carding. 2. If the elder hand have Cane Blanche, he must announce it at once, but need not show it till after the discard. If the dealer have it, he need neither declare nor show it till his opponent has discard- ed. 3. After a player has touched the stock he cannot alter his discard unless there has been a misdeal, or the other player wrongly announces the number of cards he takes, or fails to announce it. 4. If a player take more cards from the stock than he ought, he must play the hand through, but only his opponent may score. If he take less than his due, his opponent may reckon, as tricks won, all cards that cannot be played to. 5. The elder hand may look at any cards that he declines to take from the stock. The dealer may look at what he leaves, after the other has led a card ; but if he does so, his opponent may also look. 6. A player may examine his own discard at any time. 6. If a player call a lower group than the highest he holds, he must abide by his call ; but if he call a group he does not hold he must correct his mistake. 8. When the elder hand has led, or the younger played to it, neither can reckon anything that has been omitted. 9. A player may at any time re- quire his opponent to show him all unplayed cards that have already been shown in reckoning, or may ask for any information about such cards. 10. A card once played cannot be taken up unless it has been led out of turn and the adversary has not played to it, or unless it is a revoke. In the latter case all cards played after the revoke are taken again into the player's hands and played over again. 11. Both players' tricks may be examined by either at any time. 12. Errors in adding or marking the score may be made right at any time during the game. Imperial, a kind of Piquet, in which a trump is turned. The King is the highest card in the pack, and the Ace ranks between the Knave and the Ten. The face-cards, the Ace, and the Seven, are called Honors. There is no discarding. The top card of the stock is turned for trump, and this trump-card is treated as part of each player's hand in reck- oning Point and groups of cards. Of the Piquet groups, the only ones that count in Imperial are quarts- major and groups of four Honors, both of which are called Imperials. Each player scores for whatever Imperials he has, but Point is scored only by the holder of the highest, as in Piquet. The elder hand first shows and scores his Imperials, and then calls his Point. Before reply- ing to the call, the younger shows and scores his Imperials, and then says "Good" or "Not good" to the call of Point. If good, the elder shows and scores it ; if not, the younger waits till after the lead before doing so, as in Piquet. If either have Carte Blanche, only that and Imperials are scored; there is no Point, and the hand is not played. In playing, only Honors are scored for, and always by him who takes the trick contain- ing them. In scoring, an Honor turned up counts the dealer one; Carte Blanche scores 12; an Imperial scores 6; Point scores i. Each Honor won in play counts one. Each trick taken more than six counts one. When a player's score is six, no matter how gained, he is said to have scored an Imperial. When, in the course of a hand, either player's score amounts to that of one or more Imperials, his opponent's score PIQUET 539 PLANETS is reduced to the next lowest whole number of Imperials, called " taking down." Thus, suppose A has 4 points and B 3 ; if B make 3 more, all A's are taken away, and the score is i Imperial to nothing in B's favor. Similarly, if A have 25 points and B 4, and B gain 2, the score is A, 4 Imperials; B, i Imperial. But if each player has one or more Imperials in hand, neither takes down his score. The number of Imperials that shall win the game is decided on beforehand. It is usually about six (36 points). In playing, the most noticeable difference from Piquet is due to the trump. Trumps should be led if the hand is strong in them (that is, if there are four or more). If a player is forced to trump, he should do so with a low Honor, to score it. If a player think, from the score, that he can make an Imperial, and that his adversary cannot, he should try to force the latter to make neces- sary points before the Imperial is scored, that it may take them down. This is called " playing to the score." RULES OF THE GAME. 1. If the dealer turn the wrong card, or more than one card, for trump, he must show his hand to his opponent, who, without looking at his own hand, may either require the right card to be turned, or call for a new deal. 2. If a player look at any of the stock cards, his adversary may call for a fresh deal, if he have not seen his own cards. If he have seen them, he may call on the offender once during the hand to lead some particular suit. 3. All Imperials must be shown before they can be scored. If a player do not show his Imperials at the proper time, as described above, he cannot score them. In other essential points, the laws of Imperial are the same as those of ordinary Piquet. History. Piquet is one of the oldest of the card games still played. It is generally supposed that it originated in France, where it was also called Cent (Hundred), though the same game under the name of Cientos was early known in Spain. It was called Sant (corrupted from Cent) in England till the middle of the seventeenth century, when the French name of Piquet was adopted. What is now called the Point in Piquet was known in old times in France as Ronfie, and some writers think that the game was developed from the old Italian Ronfa. Others think that it may have been derived from the Saxon game of Schwerter Karte (Sword Cards), which would account for the name, the French Pique (pike) as a suit mark being the same as the Spanish Espada (Sword). Some French writers say that Piquet was so named after a man who invented it ; others say that it was named from the Pique, one of its features, but without ex- plaining the latter ; while still others suggest that the name means " Le jeu piquant" (The exciting game). The word is also written Picquet, and in English Picket. PITCH. See All Fours. PITCHETTE. See Grommets. PLANETS. Observations on. The planets are described in C. C. T. in the article Universe. The only ones about which anything more can be seen with an opera glass than with the naked eye are Venus and Jupiter. Planets constantly change position in the heavens, so that no directions can be given for finding them to one who has not studied astronomy. The best way is to wait until one of them is morning or evening star, which can be seen by any almanac. Venus. It can be seen through an opera-glass that Venus has phases like the moon, changing from a thin crescent to a full disk, and then back again to a crescent; but instead of being repeated every month, as with PLANK S4<5 POETICAL BUTTERFLY the moon, these changes take nearly nineteen months. When Venus is full she is nearly eight times as far away from the earth as when she is new, so her apparent changes of size and shape are quite apparent. Jupiter. This planet has four moons, which are invisible to the naked eye, but can be seen through an opera-glass. They always appear in a straight line, and change posi- tion very rapidly. If they are looked at two nights in succession, this change of position enables the ob- server to tell them from stars, which they resemble. PLANK, a game played by two to four persons, with 12 cards and 24 counters. Each of the cards bears three squares, arranged as in the figure, and colored red, white, and blue, the order of the colors vary- ing on different cards. Plank-carcl. The counters are divided into four sets, marked respectively with the letters A, B, C, and D, and in each set there are two red, two blue, and two white counters. The cards are divided equally among the players, and each is given a set of counters. The player at the dealer's left lays down a card face upward, and places a counter on a square of the same color. The player at his left may place a counter on the same card, or lay another card close by its side, plac- ing a counter on the second card, and the other players in turn have the same choice. When the cards and counters have all been played, each may move one of his counters to a vacant space of the same color. He who first gets three of his count- ers, red, white, and blue, in a row, either lengthwise or across the cards, wins the game. No counter may be placed on a square of a dif- ferent color, PLANTING, a game played by any number of persons, in which each in order tells what he has planted and what came up. The articles planted may be objects or persons of any kind, but they must come up as plants or trees, having some punning connection with the thing planted. Thus, one player may say: " I planted Shakespeare, and Sweet William came up;" an- other, " I planted a pack of cards, and W(h)istaria came up." PLATINUM, Experiments with. i. Heat a bit of platinum wire red-hot in the flame of a Bunsen burner. Turn off the gas, and turn it on again at once. The wire will remain red-hot, though it does not light the gas again. The reason is, that platinum con- denses gases on its surface, and the mixed gas and air of the burner being thus con- densed, unite and give out enough heat to keep the wire red-hot, though not enough to light the gas again. 2. Cut a star, or any other figure, from a piece of platinum, and suspend it by a platinum wire in a wine-glass by fastening the wire to a nail laid across the top of the glass. Put a little alcohol into the glass, about a quarter of an inch from the object, light it, and when the platinum is red-hot, smother the flame by plac- ing a piece of paper or card-board on the top of the glass. By lifting the cover now and then to let air into the glass, the platinum figure will remain red-hot and throw out a bright light, until all the alcohol is exhausted. The effect is very beautiful in a dark room. POETICAL BUTTERFLY, THE. A game played by any number of per- sons, one of whom, called the But- POETS 541 POLO terfly, names the others after trees, flowers, birds, or insects. The But- terfly pretends to fly from one to another, asking each for his story, and then commenting on it as he pleases. Each of the players, when thus addressed, must give some quotation, or mention some tale or legend, about the tree, flower, bird, or insect he represents. Thus, the Apple-tree may allude to the story of William Tell, and the Robin to that of Cock Robin, while the Black- bird may quote : " Four and twenty blackbirds Baked in a pie," POETS, a game played by any number of persons, with pencils and paper. Each writes on a slip of paper the name of some well- known author, and on another slip a quotation from his works. The names are then placed in one pile, and the quotations in another, and each player draws a slip from each pile. Each, in order, then reads his slips aloud, and declares whether or not the quotation drawn is from the writings of the author. If not, he is required to give a quotation from the writings of the author whose name is on his slip, and to name the author of the quotation on the other slip. If he makes any mistake he must pay a forfeit. An- other way of playing the game, which makes it entirely one of chance, is simply to exact a forfeit from those players who draw slips on which the names and quotations do not correspond. This game is called in Germany Dichter Er- rashen (Guessing Poets). POLISH CHECKERS or DRAUGHTS. See Checkers. POKER, Experiment with. Heat a poker red hot, and then look along its side at an object ten or twelve feet distant. If the poker is held correctly, three images of the object will be seen close to the sur- face, one of which is upside down. These images are caused by reflection from the heated air close to the poker. A similar reflection from the air close to the hot sand of a desert is called Mirage (a French word meaning reflection). POLO, the game of Hockey played on horseback or roller skates. In the horseback game, called Equestrian Polo, the players ride on ponies not more than 14 hands I inch in height, usually Mexican Mustangs. The sticks, or mallets, are from 49 to 52 inches long, with heads of willow-wood and flexible handles covered with buckskin. The balls are made of light wood. The grounds are about 750 yards long and 500 feet wide, and have at each end two goal-posts, 24 feet apart. At the beginning of the game the leaders toss for goals, and the play- ers on each side take position m front of their goal behind a line drawn about 12 yards from it. The ball is thrown into the centre of the field by the umpire, and the game begins. Sometimes the game is opened by "charging," in which case the players stand only a few feet from the ball, and rush upon it at the word " play ;" but as this is hard on the horses, it is usually omitted, except in the opening game of a match. The object of the game, as in similar ones, is to strike the ball between the opposing goal-posts, called winning a goal. A match game usually consists of three in- nings of twenty minutes each, with two minute intervals for rest, and the side making the most goals in the sixty minutes of play wins the game. In case of a tie, the game is continued till one party makes an- other goal. RULES OF THE GAME. The following are the rules of the Westchester Polo Club : 1. The grounds to be about 750 feet long by 500 feet wide, with a ten-inch guard from end to end on the sides only. 2. The height of the ponies must not exceed 14 hands i inch. POLO 542 POLO 3. The balls to be of wood, with no other covering than paint, and about 3 inches in diameter. The mallets to be such as are approved by the Steward. 4. The goal-posts to be 24 feet apart, and light enough to break if collided with. 5. Match games between pairs shall be for periods of 30 minutes, time between goals included, unless otherwise specified. 6. Match games between teams of four shall be three periods of 20 minutes each, actual play, time be- tween goals and delays not counted, with 10 minutes between the periods for rest, unless otherwise specified, 7. Each team to choose an um- pire, and, if necessary, the two um- pires to appoint a referee, whose de- cision shall be final. 8. Each team shall have a substi- tute in readiness to play when a match is on. 9. There shall be a captain for each team, who shall have the direction of positions and plays of his men. 10. No captain shall allow a mem- ber of his team to appear in the game otherwise than in the Club uniform. 11. No person — players, umpires, and referee excepted — shall, under any circumstances, be allowed upon the ground during the progress of the game. 12. It is forbidden to touch an ad- versary, his pony, or his mallet, with the hand or mallet during play, or to strike the ball when dismounted. 13. The game to begin with a charge, the contestants taking their positions behind the chalk-line, which is to be 30 feet from the goal- posts. When the signal to charge has been given by the referee, the first and second players must keep to the left of the ball until it has been touched. 14. In case of an accident to a player or pony, or for any other reasonable cause, the referee may stop the game, and the time so lost shall not be counted. When the game is resumed, the ball shall be thrown between the players, who shall be lined up at the point at which the ball stopped. But if the game is stopped on account of a foul, the ball is to be thrown in at the place at which the foul occurred. 15. When the limit of time has expired, the game must continue un- til the ball goes out of bounds, and such over-time shall not be counted. 16. In case of an equal number of goals having been made at the end of the third period, the game to be continued until one side makes the winning goal. 17. When the ball goes out of bounds at the sides, it must be thrown in from the place at which it went out, by the referee, or by an im- partial person, between the two sides, which shall be drawn up in line facing each other. When the ball goes out at the ends, the side de- fending that goal is entitled to a knock-out from the point at which it crossed the line. When the play- er having the knock-out causes un- necessary delay, the umpire may throw a ball on the field and call plays. No opponent shall come within 50 feet of a player having the knock-out, until the ball has been hit. 18. A player requiring a mallet during the game, must ride to the end or side line. It must not be brought on the field to him. 19. Foul riding is careless and dangerous horsemanship, and lack of consideration for the safety of others. A player in possession of the ball has the right of way, and no one shall cross him unless at such a distance as to avoid all possi- bility of a collision. 20. The referee may suspend a player for the match for foul riding, or he may award the opposing side a half goal. Polo on Roller Skates, or Rink Polo, a game played by opposing' POLO 543 POLO teams of five players in a rink or other large hall. The ball is of rub- ber, and the sticks, which are curved at the end, are about five feet long and one inch in diameter. The goals, set ten feet from the ends of the rink, are cages six feet wide, three feet deep, and three feet high, and to count as a goal, the ball must be struck into the cage and remain there. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. To Start the game, the ball is placed in the middle of a straight line joining the centres of the goals, and at the whistle of the referee is charged upon by a player on each side, who shall start, without aid, from a point on aline with his goal and i8 inches to the left of it. 2. The side scoring most goals in a half hour's play wins the game. 3. To count as a goal, the ball must remain in the cage. It must not be removed thence by any per- son but the referee. Should any player touch the ball in the cage either with his person or stick, or anything else that indicates his in- tention to remove the ball, the ref- eree shall decide a goal for the other side. If a ball go out of bounds, the ref- eree shall blow his whistle to call game, and place the ball at a point opposite where it went out, at least four feet from the rail. In recom- mencing play, the players who do so must stand in position to knock the ball up or down, not across, the rink with their backs toward the sides, the ball to be midway between two players. 5. Game shall be called by the referee whenever a foul occurs, or whenever one is claimed, unless the referee is satisfied that no just claim exists. Upon claim of foul, if game is to be renewed, the ball must be placed where the foul occurred. 6. It shall be deemed a foul: i. If any player stop or strike the ball when any part of his person is touching the surface. 2. If any player catch or bat the ball with his hands or arm. 3. If any player (save the goal-tend, who may do so) kick the ball with his foot or skate, though he may stop the ball with either. 4. If any player strike down the stick of his opponent, or if any player trip or strike another inten- tionally with stick, hand, or skate. 5. If any player throw his stick in the pathway of a player or at a ball. 6. If a player raise his stick above his hip in striking a ball. But in case the ball is in the air, above the hip, he can raise his stick to stop it. 7. Any act by any player that is manifestly intended as an interfer- ence with another may be declared a foul by the referee, upon com- plaint of the captain of the offended side. 8. Three fouls (other than when the ball leaves the bounds) made by either side during a contest for a goal, shall constitute a goal for the opposite side. 9. If the referee decide that a foul made by the goal-tend prevented a goal, one shall be adjudged for the opposite team. 10. All games shall be played on rink skates with plain boxwood revolving rollers, without the use of additional appliances to hinder the free running of such rollers. Any woods, rubber, or any other material attached in any manner to any skate, shoe, or boot, is positively prohibited. 11. The ball must not be struck hard, but may only be " nursed" or " coached." 12. No person, except the players and referee, shall be allowed on any part of the surface during a game. 13. If the rusher, whose place it is to charge upon the ball to start the game, tries to start before the whistle is blown, or does not start from the designated spot, the ref- eree must warn him once; and if he persists, the referee has the POLO 544 POLO authority to call for a new rusher to start the game. Parlor Polo Board. Parlor Polo, a game founded on Polo, played by two persons on a board like that in the illustration. The squares are colored alternately white and blue, except those occu- pied by men at the beginning of the game, which are red. Each player has six pieces or men, like check- ers, called Goal Tend, Cover Point, two Rushers, and two Half Backs, whose positions at the opening of the game are shown in the figure. A small figure of a polo player on horseback, called the Ball, is placed in the middle of the board. Each player sits behind his own goal, and each plays in turn, throwing two dice to determine his moves. The colored squares alone are used. Any man may be moved a number of colored squares equal to the sum of the numbers thrown, diagonally in any direction, either in a straight or zig-zag line, provided he does not pass over any other man in so doing, nor retrace his steps in the same move. The Rushers must move first, and the Goal Tend must not leave the goal; but aside from this the men are all alike. When a man moves exactly into the square occupied by the Ball, he is said to " have the Ball," and it is placed on him. He can now take the Ball with him in his moves (called "carrying" it), or he may "throw" it, that is, move the Ball like a man. The thrown Ball can pass over the heads of as many men as necessary, but it can be thrown only in a straight line. A player may take the number on one of his dice as a move, with or without the ball, and the other as a " throw," but he can divide them in no other way. Thus, if he throw six-three, he can move up six squares and throw the Ball three, ox vice versa, but he can- not, for instance, move seven squares and throw two. He wins who first plays the Ball, either by throwing or carrying it to one of the squares in the opposite goal. The Ball should usually be carried as far as possible, and then thrown over the heads of the opponent's men. History. Polo has been traced back as far as the 8th century, when it was played in Persia and called Ckugdn, the name of the long- handled mallet used in the game. There is a story that Darius sent Alexander a ball and Ckugdn, as an insulting hint that he was more fit to play polo than to go to war. It is undoubtedly the equestrian game called "Tennis" in the Arabian Nights. The Byzantine Greeks played it with a stick somewhat like a Lacrosse stick, having at the end a network of gut strings. The game was played both on foot and on horseback. The foot game (our Hockey) was carried to France under the name of Chicane (prob- ably a corruption of Ckugdn) and from this we get our word chicanery, meaning trickery, from the tricks employed in the game. Equestrian Polo was introduced into England by some cavalry officers about 1865, and the first game was played near Folkestone. There are now many Polo clubs in Great Britain and sev- eral in the United States. The first club in this country was the West- chester, which played on the POOL 545 PORTRAITS grounds at Fifth Avenue and iioth Street, New York City, still known as the Polo Grounds, though they are not now used for the purpose, the club having removed its head- quarters to Newport, Rhode Island, where frequent matches are played every summer. A kind of Polo has long been played by the Indians of Arizona, who use any kind of a stick they wish, and strike to and fro any object, as a stone or piece of wood. There are no sides, each player acting for himself. POOL. See Billiards. POPE JOAN. See Newmarket. POP-GUN, a toy gun worked by compressed air. The simplest kind is the Potato Pop-gun, which is made as follows : Fit loosely to a piece of goose-quill about three inches long, cut off squarely at the ends, a wooden piston or ramrod. Cut a raw potato into slices about as thick as a silver dollar, and press each end of the quill on a slice, so that both ends will be plugged with little pellets of potato (/). If one of these be now pushed in with the piston (s), the other will fly out with a popping noise. The air within is first compressed andthen, expanding, drives out the bit of potato before it. The remaining piece is now pushed forward to the end of the quill, the vacant end pressed again on a slice of potato, and the gun is ready to be fired once more. A larger gun can be made of a tube of brass or glass, with a piston made by winding twine around of a stick till it will ex- actly fit the bore. A cork is inserted at one end of the tube and driven out by suddenly pushing the piston in at the other. Pop-guns of all kinds are sold at toy shops. In one Pop-gun, the end kind the piston is in the middle, and there is a cork at each end, so that it can be fired either by pulling or by pushing the piston. In an- other, a piece of paper fastened tightly over one end is broken by the force of the compressed air. POROSITY, Experiment on. Por- ous substances are those which are filled with minute holes, or pores. Half fill a glass with boiling water, and lay over the top a piece of pasteboard, over which invert an empty dry glass. The moist vapor arising from the water will soon be seen also in the upper glass, having passed through the pasteboard. In this way many kinds of substances may be tried: wood, cloth. India- rubber, glass, etc., and it will be found that some of them are porous enough to let water vapor through them, while others are not. PORTRAITS, a game played with pen, ink, and paper by any number Autograph Portrait. of persons. Each writes his name on a slip of paper, with as many PORTRAITS 546 POTATO RACE flourishes, and as much ink, as pos- sible. Each then folds his paper once, the fold running lengthwise through the middle of the name, and passes it to the right. The person who receives it presses his A finger on the fold at A, then draws it from B to C, from B to E, and from C to D. He thus makes a series of blots within, and when the paper is unfolded, a rude and comical resem- blance to a human figure will be found. This is supposed to be the portrait of him whose name was written on the paper. As a general thing, the more ink used in writing, the more amusing will be the por- trait. The picture shows an " autograph portrait" thus taken. The game is sometimes called " Smudge- ography." PORTRAITS AND SENTIMENTS, a game played by any number of persons, who sit in a row. Each whispers to his right-hand neighbor the name of some person, and to his left-hand neighbor some sentiment, original or quoted, supposed to be written under the portrait of that person. Each then announces aloud whose portrait has been presented to him, and what is inscribed under it. For instance, a player may be given the portrait of Bluebeard with the inscription : " He was an indulgent husband, and an estima- ble gentleman." The names chosen may be those of the players, or those of famous characters, real or fictitious, ancient or modern. POTASSIUM, Experiments with. Potassium is described in C. C. T. I. Throw a piece of potassium on water as described in C. C. T. , 2. Throw a piece on a large sheet of blotting-paper which has been wet with red litmus water (see Test- PAPERS). Tiie potassium will run about the paper, leaving a blue track caused by the formation of potash (see C. C. T.) 3. In a block of ice about six inches square, bore a hole half an inch wide and two inches deep, en- larging the bottom of the hole to form a cavity. Drop into it a piece of potassium the size of a pea. It will take fire and burn beautifully. The experiment should be tried in a warm, dark room. 4. To Fire a Cannon with an Icicle. Load a toy cannon, and on the gun- powder on the touch-hole put a piece of potassium as big as a pin- head. When this is touched with a piece of ice it will blaze up, setting fire to the powder. POTATO RACE, a running game played by any number of persons. A circle about forty feet in di- ameter is marked out as a race- course, and across it at any point is marked a straight line A B ten feet Course for Potato Race. long, half outside the ring and half inside. On this line spots are marked at intervals of six inches. Each contestant must take a potato from a basket placed near the ring at C, opposite the line, and running around the circle place it on the first spot on the line. As he goes on past the basket he takes another potato, which he places on the sec- ond spot, and so on till ten minutes have passed. After placing each potato the runner must return to the ring without stepping over the line, and each potato must be placed exactly on its proper spot. Three POUND PARTY 547 PREFERENCE judges are appointed, one of whom stands at the potato basket, one at the line, and one in the middle of the circle to call out the runners' names in order and keep the time. Any runner who takes more than one potato, or fails to take any, who skips a spot, or does not place his potato properly, is declared out of the race at once. Instead of pota- toes, apples, or any small objects can be used. The course and line may be marked with lime or flour on grass, and the spots for the pota- toes with dark earth, or by short cross-lines. POUND PARTY, an entertainment to which each guest is required to bring something weighing exactly a pound. These may be eatables, toys, useful articles, or whatever the giver pleases. Each package is numbered and laid aside as it is re- ceived. When the guests are ready for the distribution of the parcels, numbered cards, or slips of paper, are passed around and each draws one. Some one then takes the packages one by one, calling its number aloud; the holder of the corresponding number becomes its owner, and must open it in the pres- ence of the company. PREDICAMENTS. See Cross Questions. PREFERENCE, or SWEDISH WHIST, a game of cards, played with a full pack, generally by four persons, but sometimes by five or six. The four-handed game will be de- scribed first. The pack being placed face downward on the table, each player draws a card from it. The holders of the highest two play to- gether as partners, the other two playing against them. The one who draws the lowest card is allowed to select his place at the table, and deals first. Ace is considered the lowest card in thus drawing, but in playing the cards rank as in Whist. The game resembles ordinary Whist, but differs in the following points : The trump is determined by bidding thus : the eldest hand names the suit he prefers, and then the others, in order, to the left ; but each must name a suit higher in rank than the preceding player, or say " I pass." Hearts ranks as the highest suit, and after it, in order, Diamonds, Spades, and Clubs. The highest suit bid is taken for trump, unless some one bids " Preference," or says " I Pre- fer," when the game must be played without any trump. Preference is higher than any other bid, and as soon as it is bid, play begins at once. In practice, the bids of Clubs and Spades are now used as an invitation to the player's partner to demand Preference, Spades being the stronger invitation. If all pass, the party may agree to play " Millissi- mo," the object then being to avoid taking tricks. Er*)nors and tricks are scored as in Whist, but the score is multiplied by 3, if Clubs are trumps ; by 4, if Spades ; by 5, if Diamonds ; by 6, if Hearts ; and by 8, if Prefer- ence or Millissimo has been played. In the case of Millissimo, not those who take the tricks, but their oppo- nents, score. In addition, a Little Slam (12 tricks) counts 10 points, a Grand Slam (13 tricks) counts 20; the first game in a rubber counts 10, and the second (if won immediately after the first), 20. All these points remain the same, no matter what the trump is. A game ends when one party has made 20 points in tricks alone. A rubber ends when two consecutive games have been won by the same side. After the first rubber, the dealer and the player at his left keep their seats, and the others change. After the second, the player opposite the dealer changes with the one who has not played with the dealer. This series of three rubbers constitutes what is called a "complete game." Each player keeps his own score, credit- ing himself with all points made by himself and each of his partners. PRISM 548 PRISM and after the third rubber, he who has most points is declared winner. As the end of the " small game " is determined by the points made by- tricks alone, it is convenient to score rhem by themselves. When five play, one always stays out of the game, he who drew the highest card staying out of the first rubber, the next to the highest out of the second, and so on. Each, on entering the game, sits opposite the player who drew the lowest card. When six play, two stay out in like manner. PRISM, Experiments with a. The prisms used to separated white light into its different colors (see Light in C. C. T.) are three-sided. Such prisms are sometimes used also for ornaments on chandeliers or lamps. Larger ones are somewhat expen- sive, but a good prism can be made by fastening three squares of glass on a glass bottom, and filling with water the three -sided vessel so formed. The joints are made water- tight with putty. EXPERIMENTS. I. Look through a prism at the edge of any bright object, or at a sheet of white paper pasted on black Experiment 2. paper. It will appear colored, in narrow stripes of red, yellow, and blue. 2. Hold a prism P (see illustra- tion), in a beam of sunlight admitted through a hole S, into the room. If possible, shut out all light from the room except the one beam. This may be done by closing the shutters at all windows but one, and covering that with sheets of thick wrapping- paper, in one of which is cut a small hole to admit the beam. The spot of light made by the beam on the wall or floor will show seven colors, which will be farther apart the larger the prism. The colors violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red are denoted in the picture at I H by their initial letters. 3. Take a bit of red sewing-silk, and hold it in each one of the colors. If the room is perfectly dark, the silk will appear black, or almost so, in each of them except the red. In like manner, yellow silk will appear black in each color except the yel- low. This is because each piece of silk is able to reflect only its own color. 4. Look through a prism at the flame of an alcohol lamp in which salt has been dissolved. It will not appear colored at all, because such a flame is pure yellow and cannot be separated into other colors. This is the only pure color easy to obtain. 5. Receive the colored spot on a hand-mirror, so as to reflect it to the ceiling, and tip the mirror rapidly, so as to make the spot move backward and forward. It will appear white, be- cause the effect is the same as if the colors were mixed together again. With the aid of a HELIOSTAT the colors can be separated muc*i farther, into a ban^l called the spectrum. The beam of light from the heliostat shoulri be admitted to the room througli PRISM 549 PRISONER'S BASE a narrow slit from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch wide. This slit may be cut in a sheet of paper which is pinned over the hole through which the light passes. In front of the slit is placed a lens at such a distance as to throw a clear image of the slit on the op- posite wall, or on a handkerchief held up before it. The prism is then placed in front of the lens. The spectrum will be thrown to one side, where it must be received on a white wall or screen. This must be exactly as far from the prism as the wall or place where the clear image of the slit was formed, otherwise the spectrum will not be clear. If the wall is just at the right distance, and the slit is narrow enough, verti- cal black lines are seen across the spectrum. These black lines are caused by the sun's atmosphere, which stops some colors of light and lets others through. Colored liquids also let through part of the light and stop other parts, as may be seen by placing various liquids in the path of the ray. For this purpose a thin transparent vessel is needed. One may be made by fastening together with shellac var- nish two pieces of window glass, about four inches square, an inch apart, by means of wood strips on three sides. Carmine dissolved in weak ammonia water, placed in this vessel and held in front of the light, either between the slit and lens, or between lens and prism, only lets through a little of the red light, if the solution is strong. When it is weakened, two upright black bands will be seen across the spectrum in the greenish -yellow part of it. A little blood, mixed with water, also gives two bands, but they are in a slightly different place from the carmine bands. This is an easy way of telHng carmme from blood, though their colors are almost exactly alike. By trying all sorts of colored substances, dis- solved in water, it will be found that each cuts off the light in a different way. PRISONER'S BASE, an out-door game played by any number of per- sons, though the best number is from 12 to i6. Two "Bases," or enclosures, are marked off, each large enough to hold half the players, and two " Prisons " a little smaller, from one to two hundred feet from the Bases, according to convenience. Two methods of lay- ing out the ground are shown in the diagrams. The players are divided n B's A's Pcison Prison A's Base B's Base Fig. B's Priscm/ / \ A's Sftison A's Base B's Base Fig. 2. Prisoners' Base Grounds. into two opposing sides, each of which occupies one of the Bases. A player from one side begins the game by running beyond the bounds of his Base, and one on the opposite side pursues him. A second man from the first party chases the pur- PRISONER'S BASE 550 PRIVATE THEATRICALS suer, and so on, each party sending out as many men as they choose. If any one is touched, while out of bounds, by a player on the opposite side, who left bounds after him, he must go to the Prison belonging to the enemy, and stay there till he is released by one of his own side. The Prison of each side is opposite the Base of the other side, as shown in the diagrams. No one is allowed to touch the catcher as he returns to his Base, which he must do at once. A prisoner can be released by any one of his friends who can run from his Base to the Prison without being caught. The prisoner and his friend are then allowed to return to their Base in safety. But if a player is caught while attempting a release, he must himself go to Prison. The game is won by the party that succeeds in getting all its enemies into Prison at the same time. It is necessary for a player to remember who of his opponents left their Base before him and who after him, so that he may know whom to chase and whom to avoid. When a large number of players are out of bounds, this makes the game quite complicated. The game of Prisoner's Base was played in England as early as the fourteenth century, for a proclama- tion in the reign of Edward III. forbids children to play it in the avenues of the Palace of Westmin- ster during the sessions of Parlia- ment, as it annoyed the members. Shakespeare also probably alludes to it in the play of Cymbeline, where he speaks of "... Two stripling^s, lads more like to run The country base than to commit such slaughter." It was a favorite in the county of Cheshire, and was played by men as well as by boys. As played there, no Prisons were used ; these were added in the county of Essex. About 1770 a match game of Pris- oner's Base was played in London between tw^elve gentlemen of Chesh- ire and twelve of Derbyshire. PRIVATE THEATRICALS. If the theatricals are held in a hall, the stage and its accessories will usually be found ready ; if in a private house, a stage must be arranged specially for the occasion. Stage. The only things absolute- ly necessary are that the stage shall be separated from the audience by a curtain, or sliding doors, and that it shall have at least one door in the side. In a house where there are double parlors, separated by sliding doors, one room may be used as the stage and the other for the audience. If there is only one long parlor, a curtain may be hung across one end. It is better that the floor of the stage be raised, but in a private house this is generally too much trouble. It may be arranged, however, by laying boards on sup- ports called " horses," all of which may be hired at a carpenter's shop. Scenery. The scenery on a small stage is usually of three kinds : (i) " the drop," or curtain at the back of the stage, (C D in the plan), on which is painted a landscape, a street, or a representation of the interior of a building ; (2) " flies," or "borders," strips of painted canvas hung across the top of the stage at intervals, to represent sky or ceil- ing: and (3) "wings," or framework covered with painted canvas (W in the plan), which slide in grooves, or are otherwise fastened at the sides of the stage, inclined a little away from the audience. When an interior is represented these are often re- placed by one large piece of canvas, called a " flat." In large theatres elaborate scenes are often "built up " to look as much as possible like reality. In a private house plays are usually chosen that require but one scene, generally the interior of a room, which is easily represent- ed ; but any one with a talent for painting, and the necessary time, may paint drops, flies, and wings. I PRIVATE THEATRICALS 55^ PRIVATE THEATRICALS FF, foot-lights ; AB, curtain LUE, left upper entrance ; YY, exits. Models of these may be bought of dealers in theatrical material. For a hall unprovided with scenery, an interior scene can easily be arranged by getting three frames made at a carpenter's, the size of the required walls. There should be a real door in each, and at least one " practi- cable " window ; that is, a window that will actually open. The frames must be covered with wall-paper and held in place by braces. If pos- sible, a space should always be left behind the rear scene, so as to secure a passage from one side of the stage to the other. This is gen- erally impossible in a private house. Very good garden scenes can be made with potted plants. The dif- ferent parts of the stage, and its Entrances, are given special names, which are abbreviated into letters. If a person stand in the middle of the stage, facing the audience, he is said to be in Centre. The part of the stage on his right hand is Right, Plan of Stage. CD, drop ; C, centre ; LC, left centre ; RC, right centre ; RUE, right upper entrance ; WW, wings ; P, prompter ; that on his left hand, Left. The direction toward the audience is "down," and toward the back of the stage "up." When there are wings, the spaces between them are "entrances." When there are two on each side of the stage, they are the Right Upper, the Right Lower, the Left Upper, and the Left Lower entrances. When there are more, they are often numbered. In a flat, there are real doors. In a private liouse one door usually has to do duty for two, or more entrances. The abbreviations used for these various terms are as follows C. Centre. R. Right. L. Left, or Lower. R.H. Right Hand. L.H. Left Hand. E. Entrance. U. Upper. F. Flat. D. Door. For instance, L.C. means Left of the PRIVATE THEATRICALS 5^2 PRIVATE THEATRICALS Centre, L.H.F., CD., Left-Hand Flat, Centre Door, and R.L.E. Right Lower Entrance. Fig. I. — Foot-light. Lightning. The stage is lighted by a row of lamps or gas-jets along the fTTTTTM Fig. 2. — Foot-light Screens. front, called foot-lights (FFF in the plan), by one or more rows above, Fig. 3. — Tin Foot-light Screen. between the flies, and by lights be- tween the wings. The foot-lights are placed in a sort of trough, so that they are invisible to the audi- ence, as in fig. I ; or they are screened by pieces of wood or tin, as in figs. 2 and 3. These screens may be cut from tin, as in fig. 3, so that they will stand alone. Where gas is used, it should be so arranged that any or all the jets can be regulated by one man, who 'may thus darken the stage at pleas- ure. If lamps are used, a narrow strip of cloth should be hung close inside the foot-lights. It lies on the stage unobserved till the string on ■ which it hangs is stretched tight, I when it rises and darkens the stage. Fig. 4. — Portifere Curtain. In a private house where the stage is not raised, there are no foot-lights, and lamps should be placed on the floor, and on tables or boxes at each side of the stage close to the cur- tain, where they will not be seen by the audience, as in fig. 5. Curtain. The position of the fold- ing or sliding curtain on the stage is shown at AB in the plan of the stage. In a private house, doors may be used instead of a curtain, or an ordinary portiere may be hung by rings on a cord stretched across the room as shown in fig. 4. It may be drawn aside by a cord, tied to the last ring. A, on one side, and run- ing thence, through the screw-eye B in the wall, and then to the hand of the curtain-puller. It can be closed by another string fastened to the same ring, but running through the screw-eyes C and D. Two cur- tains may be tacked to a pole or strip of wood at the top, and drawn aside, as in fig. 6, by strings passing from the inner lower corners to screw-eyes on either side, through two or more rings sewed on the in- side of the curtains, in a diagonal line from corner to corner, as shown in the figure, where one curtain is down, and the other partly raised. PRIVATE THEATRICALS 553 PRIVATE THEATRICALS Arrangement of Lamps in House. when the strings are let go, the cur- tains will fall by their own weight. A curtain can be drawn directly up Fig. 6. — bide Curtains. (as in fig. 7) by tacking a strip of wood to it at the bottom, and then sewing to it vertical lines of rings two or three feet apart, the rings in each line being one or two feet apart. A cord must be tacked to the bottom strip below each line of rings, brought up through all the rings above it ; then through a screw-eye on the strip of wood at Fig-. 7. — Curtain with Rings. the top of the curtain, or on the ceiling; and then across to a screw- eye above the curtain-puller. By pulling all these cords at once, the curtain is gathered up into folds. PRIVATE THEATRICALS 554 PRIVATE THEATRICALS Curtains that roll up (fig. 8) are fastened firmly at the top and tacked at the bottom to a wooden roller, three or four inches in diam- eter. A stout cord is tacked to the roller at one end, beyond the curtain, and then wound around it a number of turns equal to the length of the curtain. The cord is then passed over a pulley in the ceiling. When the cord is pulled. Fig. 8.— Curtain with Roller. it will, by unwinding, turn the roller, and thus roll up the curtain. The roller should be on the inside of the curtain, and therefore the cord should be so wound that the end leaves the roller on the inside. If the curtain is wide, there must be on the other end a similar cord passed over a pulley, across the stage at the top, and then down to the cur- tain-puller. (In the illustration the pulley is made much lower than it should be, so as to appear in the picture.) A very small curtain may be put up with ordinary window- shade fixtures. After a play has been selected, a stage-manager, a property-man, and a prompter must be selected. The duties of any two of these, or of all three, may be undertaken by the same person. In any case, none of them must be a performer. The stage-manager should be a person of experience, and should have full authority in all matters pertaining to the arrangement of the stage, the conduct of rehearsals, and the per- formance of the play. If no such person is available, it is better to have an inexperienced chief than none at all. It may be agreed that such a manager is merely to decide in disputed questions. The prompter must sit at one side of the stage, close to the curtain, (P. in the plan), and "prompt" those who forget their parts ; that is, tell them the next three or four words. He should be present at every rehearsal, and not only know the play thor- oughly, but the manner of each actor, so that he may know an intentional pause from one caused by forgetting a speech. There should be no oc- casion for prompting at all ; but if there is, it should be done quickly and plainly, yet in such a tone that the audience cannot hear. Usually the prompter should also act as cur- tain-puller, and see that all noises, calls, etc., are made that are re- quired off the stage, unless such are to be made by some particular one of the characters. Thus, a knock, a footstep, a cough, the noise caused by the breaking of a piece of glass, should usually be made . by the prompter ; and that he may not for- get what he has to do, he should go over the play beforehand and mark on the margin all places where such noises are to come in. The property-man takes charge of all properties, that is articles of any kind used in the course of the PRIVATE THEATRICALS 555 PRIVATE THEATRICALS play, such as letters to be read, meals to be served, or flowers to be carried. He must go over the play carefully beforehand, make a list of the properties, and see that they are all prepared. He must make notes on the margin of his copy of the play at the places where the various properties are needed, and see that they are ready at the right time. Thus, if one of the characters is to walk in smoking a cigar, the prop- erty-man must see that he has the cigar before going in ; and if a waiter is to bring in water on a tray, it is the property-man's duty to have ready the tray and glasses. These things are often left to the actors themselves, but it is better to entrust them to one man who has memo- randa of them all, and knows exactly where each is needed. Rehearsals. The stage-manager requires each performer to know his part thoroughly before the first re- hearsals. Before beginning to study, each one should read the whole play carefully several times. Long solilo- quies and speeches may be learned separately, but conversation must be studied in connection with the other parts. One who can commit to memory easily may learn all of those portions of the play where he ap- pears, including not only his own part, but those of the other actors. Otherwise, he should learn the last few words of each speech just pre- ceding one of his. These words, which are called his " cue," enables him to know where the other actor has finished speaking. It is an aid to the learner for some friend to hear him recite his part, reading the speeches of the other actors as they come in ; or the learner may hold the book before him and read the play, reciting his own speeches as they occur. If possible, each actor should have a complete copy of the play. If this cannot be arranged, each part should be copied legibly, with all its cues, and, that all may study intelligently, the play should first be read aloud to the performers. At the first rehearsal, the various en- trances, positions, and attitudes of the play must be decided on. Many of these are given, in printed plays, but the minor ones can be varied. Those that are finally adopted must not be changed, for then each per- former will associate each speech with some definite part of the stage, or some particular action, and he will thus remember better both the words and actions. After the first two or three, the rehearsals should be as much like actual perform- ances as possible, and there should be at least one "dress rehearsal," where every detail of costume and every property is exactly as it is to be when the play is given. During the first rehearsals, if the stage-man- ager sees a fault, or anything that might be improved, he stops the players at once, explains the point to them, and then requires them to repeat the passage according to his views. But all such corrections should be made in the early re- hearsals. During the last ones it is of the first importance that the play should go smoothly and without interruption. The number of re- hearsals required will depend on the skill of the actors. In ordinary cases, several rehearsals are usually occupied in learning the parts, it being very difl5cult to make the performers study them properly at home. The best plan is for the stage- manager not to appoint the first rehearsal till each actor, separately, gives notice that he has memorized his part and is ready to begin. Two faults common to most be- ginners are that they do not speak loud enough, and that they speak too fast. Every word, even those parts of the dialogue supposed to be in low tones, should bespoken as if to the person that sits farthest from the stage. The actor is apt to think that he is really speaking for his fellow-actor to hear instead of for the audience. PRIVATE THEATRICALS 556 PROGRESSIVE GAMES Costumes. The proper costumes are usually indicated at the begin- ning of a printed play, but these may often be varied by the actors accor- ing to circumstances. Sometimes the action of a play is supposed by the author to take place in some past age simply for the sake of the pic- turesque costumes, and when these cannot be obtained, the performers may wear modern dress without making other than trivial changes in the text. In dressing for the stage, the actors should remember that delicate effects, such as would be seen in a drawing-room, are lost to the spectators. Making up. Painting the face so as to change the expression, putting on false wigs, whiskers, etc., is called " making-up." False hair is best hired at a costumer's, but when none is accessible, very good wigs can be made by sewing hair on skull-caps of cloth. A negro's wig can be made of the curled hair used to stuff furniture, and light-colored hair can be imitated by using flax, tow, or jute. Beards, side-whiskers, and moustaches can be made in like manner on cloth, and fastened to the face either with fine sewing silk, adhesive plaster, spirit gum, or flour paste. For blackening the face, or mak- ing dark lines, an ordinary bot- tle cork burned in the flame of a candle or lamp answers very well. Burned cork is hard to wash ofT. To remedy this, sweet oil or vaseline may be rubbed over the face before the cork is applied. For reddening the face, carmine is generally used, and for whitening, lily-white, both of which may be bought at any drug- gist's. Paints specially prepared for "making up" can be bought at a cos- tumer's. For giving to the face any desired expression, the best way is to assume that expression, as nearly as possible, before a mirror, and then trace the wrinkles of the face with black lines. In general, parts of the face intended to look hollow should be blackened, as they will then ap- pear in shadow. Where there are foot-lights, it should be remembered that they cast the shadows of the chin and nose strongly upward over the face, and to counteract this efTect lily-white should be freely used. But the amount of " making up " must depend largely on the dis- tance of the audience. In a private house it should be very slight. PROGRESSIVE GAMES, games played by any number of sets of people at once, where the winners of each game move to a different table. The games commonly played are Euchre, Whist, Hearts, and Angling, but others may be substi- tuted. The tables are numbered, and it is decided who shall sit at each of them usually by passing around numbered cards, which also serve as score-cards. Partners can be decided on at each table by cutting the cards, but it is usual to have the score-cards decorated in pairs, and those players having the same device on their cards play together. All begin to play on the stroke of a bell on table No. I. When the players at that table have finished one game, the bell is struck again, and all playing ceases. Those players who are ahead at each table when the bell sounds, have their score-cards marked usually by sticking on them a small gilt paper star or by punch- ing a hole in them ; the losers' cards are marked by a star or figure of some other shape or color, or left unmarked. The winners now move to the next table, those at table 4, for instance, going to table 3, and these at table 3 to table 2; while those at the head table go down to the last. Playing then begins again, and so the game proceeds till some hour agreed upon beforehand. A prize is usually given by the lady of the house to the player who has the largest number of winner's stars. Sometimes there are several prizes, and often a " booby prize " is given PROHIBITED WORDS 557 PROVERBS to the one getting most of the loser's stars or marks. There may be one or more tables called "booby tables," the losers at which receive a special mark, and he who has most of them is given the booby prize. Just after the winners change tables, they may also change partners with those whom they find at the new table, or the same partners may be kept ; but whichever is done, all should follow the same rule through- out the evening. Sometimes, in- stead of the winners moving up, the losers move down, in which case the game is called " Drive." Some- times the winners move up till the head, or " King " table is reached, and at this table the losers move down to the lowest or " Booby" table. The only games suited to toci^ESSIVE EUCHBE. ^ Jan. 1615,1889. Won. Lost. ^^ ft t^i^ f ^ i^ f Score Card. progressive playing are those that are short, so that a great number of changes can be made in an evening. They must also be such that it is easy to tell which side is ahead at any time, for when the players at the first table finish and strike the bell, those at the other tables are usually in the midst of a game. For these reasons, Euchre is one of the best games to play in this way, the form called Railroad Euchre being gener- ally preferred. PROHIBITED WORDS, a game in which the use of certain words is not allowed in answering questions. The words are those often used in conversation, such as Yes, No, Why, But, or any others like them, and are agreed upon by the company before the game. One of the players is chosen to ask the questions, which may be on any subject. He asks one of each player, in order, pur- posely framing them so that it will be difficult to answer without using a prohibited word. When any one does so, the offender pays a forfeit and takes the questioner's place. This game is said to be of Italian origin. PROTEAN CARDS, a pack of 104 cards, 52 printed in black and 52 in red. Each card bears a letter of the alphabet on its upper half, and a numeral on its lower. A great number of games can be played with these cards, many of which are nearly the same as the prin- cipal games of Cards and Dom- inoes. They can be used also for Logomachy and other letter games. The cards are sold at toy- stores,with a little book describing 50 games that can be played with them. Protean cards were invented by Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge (C. P. P.), the editor of " St. Nicholas." Pro- tean means easily changing its shape, from Proteus, the name of a fabulous divinity who could take different forms at will. The cards are called Protean be- cause so many different games can be played with them. PROVERBS, a game in which one of the players tries to guess a prov- erb chosen by the rest of the com- pany. The guesser goes out of the room, and when the proverb has been chosen, each player in order is given one of the words that com- pose it. The guesser is then called Protean Card. I PROVERBS 558 PROVERBS in, and asks a question of each player, who must introduce his word into the answer. Thus, suppose the proverb chosen to be " Make hay while the sun shines." The first player may be asked " How do you do this evening.?" and may answer " Very well, but your questions make my head ache." The second question may be, " What have you been doing this afternoon ?" and the answer, " Playing in the barn, on the hay," and so on. If the proverb is guessed, the one whose answer gave the clue must take the guesser's place. If it is not, the guesser must pay a forfeit and go out again. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. If there are more players than words in the proverb, the words may be given out twice or more; and if there are fewer, some of the players may take two words. In either case, the guesser must be told, when he begins, where the proverb ends, which players have two words, and whether they intend to put those words in the same answer or different answers. 2. The word must be given exact- ly as it appears in the proverb ; not in another tense, mood, or number. 3". If the guesser fails, he may try the same proverb again, after paying his forfeit, or call for a new one. Shouting Proverbs, a kind of Proverbs in which, at a signal from the guesser, all the players shout their words at once. This may be repeated a number of times agreed on beforehand. If the guesser tries to listen to all the words at once, he will find it very hard to understand any of them ; but if he stands near one player at a time and listens only to him, the proverb is easy to guess. For this reason the guesser may be required to stand at an equal distance from all the play- ers. They may sit in a circle, while he stands in the middle. Acting Proverbs, a kind of Prov- erbs in which the players choose sides, and one acts an impromptu play, illustrating a proverb, while the other side tries to guess what proverb is meant. Parallels, a game in which one of the players tells a story to illustrate some familiar proverb, while the others guess what it is. The story continues till the proverb is guessed correctly, when the successful guess- er becomes story-teller in his turn. One way of playing is to choose sides. The sides stand in opposite lines, and a story told by a player on one side must be guessed by some player on the other side. At the expiration of some fixed time, gen- erally from half an hour to an hour, the side one of whose members is telling a story is declared the win- ner. Split Proverbs. The company sits in a circle, and one, beginning the game, throws a handkerchief at an- other of the players, saying, as he does so, the first part of a proverb, which the other must immediately finish by adding the last half of a different proverb. The two must make a complete sentence, but it may be nonsensical or ridiculous. The one who throws the handker- chief counts ten distinctly as he does so, and if the other does not begin to finish the sentence by the time the first has ended his counting, he must pay a forfeit. The one at whom the handkerchief was thrown then continues the game by throw- ing it at another player and begin- ning another proverb. For the sake of illustration some examples of split proverbs are given below : A rolling stone — knows his own father. A wise son — gathers no moss. Make hay while the sun — sweeps clean. In Germany this game is called Verkehrte Sprichworter (Perverted Proverbs). PUMPS 559 PUMPS Home-made Suction-pump. PUMPS. Pumps are described in C. C. T. To make a suction-pump, take an ordinary ar- gand lamp chimney, flj ^^1 and if the long part is not of the same size throughout, cut about an inch and a half from the top (see directions for glass-working in CHEMICAL EXPERI- MENTS). Fit a rubber stopper with one hole into the bottom of the chimney, put a short piece of glass tubing in the hole (not allow- ing it to project above the stopper), and to this fit a rubber tube, a (see Fig. i), as long as may be desired, to reach to the water, c, to be pumped. To make the piston, take a rubber stopper, d, a little smaller than the upper part of the chimney, and make it fit tightly by winding it with twine, if necessary. This stopper must have two holes. Through one fit the end of a glass rod, ^. " Belgium's capital had gathered there, Her beauty and her chivalry.'" — Byron. "Come and walk with us, the Walrus did be- seech." — Carroll. etc., etc. RACKETS 56S kACiCETS B RACKETS, or RACKET (some- times spelled Racquet), a game played by two or four persons with rackets and a ball, in a court sur- rounded by four walls. The floor is evenly paved, and marked as in the diagram : E H A c D B ] Racl ^et C ourt. For double matches, with two persons on a side, the court was formerly 80 by 40 feet, but for single matches it was smaller. Of late years the standard court for both kinds of matches has been 63 by 31^ feet. The walls E, F, G, H are black on the inside, and the balls used are sometimes whitened by shaking them in a bag with some white powder, so that they will leave marks on the black wall where they strike. The front wall, H, should be 30 feet high, and is faced with planks to the height of 20 inches from the floor. The part so faced is called the " Telltale." About 10 feet from the floor is a horizontal white line called the " Service-line," or " Cut-line." A and B are called " Service-spaces," or sometimes "Rings;" C and D the Right and Left Courts ; and E F the " Short- line." In the rear of the court is often a gallery for spectators, which is protected by netting. In the court there is usually an attendant called the Marker, who scores for the players and acts as umpire. The rackets used are similar to tennis rackets, but longer and smaller in the face, and the balls are hard, about an inch in diameter, weighing an ounce. The players decide by lot, or in any other way they choose, on the one to begin the game, who is called the " In-player" or " Man in.'' He stands in one of the service-spaces, and with his racket strikes or " serves" the ball so that it bounds from the front wall above the cut- line into one of the courts : C, if he served from B ; and D, if from A. One of the players on the other side, called the Out-player, stands in readiness to " take the service," that is, to strike the ball either on the bound or before it has reached the ground. The Out-player may stand wherever he wishes, but in case of a double match, the two other players must stand behind the In-player till the ball is served. If the ball is served wrongly, it is a fault, and when the server makes two consecutive faults his " hand is out," that is, he becomes the Out- player, and his adversary serves. After a good service the ball is struck by the players alternately against the front wall above the Telltale, and may fall in any part of the court. It may be hit on the " fly," or on the bound, but if any one fails to hit it, or hit it out of the court, it counts against him, putting his hand out, if he be the In-player, and scoring a point, or "Ace," for his opponent, if he be the Out- player. The game continues till one side, by making 15 aces, wins the game. After the service, the ball may strike one or more of the other walls of the court after it has bounded from the front wall, and a skilful player often makes very puzzling I strokes by driving the ball into a RACKETS 569 RAIN STORM corner, where it bounds about from one wall to another. This is the principal difference between Rack- ets and Lawn Tennis. In Rackets, as in the latter game, the player can make the ball bound in different di- rections by " cutting" it, and as the ball has four walls to bound from, as well as the floor, a "cut" often causes it to take a very unexpected course. RULES OF THE GAME. The following rules are those of the New York Racquet Court Club, and have been adopted by the Na- tional Amateur Athletic Union : 1. The game to be 15 up. At 13 all, the out-players may set to 5 ; and at 14 all, to 3 ; provided this be done before another ball is served. [" Set to 5 " means that instead of playing the remaining 2 Aces of the fifteen, 5 Aces are played. " Set to 3," that instead of the remaining one Ace 3 are played.] 2. On commencing the game, in a double match, whether odds be given or not, the side going in first to serve shall have but one hand ; but in a single match the party re- ceiving odds shall be entitled to them from the beginning. 3. The ball shall be served alter- nately right and left, beginning on whichever side the server chooses. 4. The server must stand with at least one foot in the " service box," and serve the ball over the line on the front wall and within the proper service-court; otherwise it is a " fault." Serving two faults, missing the ball, or the ball served striking anywhere before it reaches the front wall, is a hand-out. 5. All balls served or played into the galleries, hitting a beam, iron rod, the telltale, or any wood or net- ting, or above the cemented lines of the courts, although they may re- turn to the floor, count against the Striker. 6. A ball, to be fair, must be truck before or on the first bound, and must not touch the floor, the galleries, the telltale, or any wood or netting, or above the cemented lines of the courts, before or after reach- ing the front wall. 7. Until a ball has been touched or bounded twice it may be struck at any number of times. 8. Only the player to whom a ball is served may return it. 9. A ball touching the striker or his partner before the second bound loses a hand or an ace. 10. If a fair ball hit the striker's adversary above or on the knee, it is a " let," and shall be played over ; if below the knee, it counts against the striker. 11. The out-players may once only in each game exchange courts to re- turn service. 12. Every player should try to keep out of his adversary's way. When a " hinder " is claimed it shall be decided by the marker, 13. The marker's decision, on all questions referred to him, shall be final. If he is in doubt he should ask advice ; and if he cannot decide positively, the ace is to be played over. History. Rackets is a modifica- tion of Court Tennis. It has long been popular in England and Ire- land, and has been recently intro- duced into this country, where sev- eral clubs have been formed to play it. The New York club has a fine court on 26th Street, near the corner of Sixth Avenue. Fives, a kind of Rackets in which the palm of the hand is used instead of the racket. There is only a front wall in the court, the others being replaced by lines drawn on the ground. In Italy is played a kind of Fives called Pallotie, in which the ball is struck with the arm, protected from wrist to elbow with a guard of heavy leather. RAILROAD BAGATELLE. See Bagatelle. RAIN STORM, Imitation of. Boil Canada balsam in a flask, over an RANK AND FILE 51^ REFLECTION OF SOUND alcohol lamp. Clouds of turpen- tine drops will form in the upper part of the flask, and if a cold glass rod be inserted, these will condense and fall like rain. RANK AND FILE, a solitaire game of cards, played with two packs. The first eleven cards are laid, as they appear, in a row on the table, face upward, and the rest of the cards in similar rows below as long as the pack lasts. The object is to pile the cards in families ; down- ward from four Kings, following suit, and upward from four Aces. For this purpose such cards as are wanted are used as they appear from the pack, instead of putting them in rows. Any card in the first row can also be used, and the two right-hand cards of each of the other rows. When there is a va- cancy in the first row, it is filled from the pack, but other vacancies are not filled. When the pack is exhausted, any card can be used that has no card directly below it. When a line is clear from top to bottom, any King that can be played may be placed in it. If the families cannot be completed thus, the player, beginning at the lower left- hand corner, takes up the cards in the opposite order from that in which he laid them down, and re- lays them, without shuffling, as at first. The cards can thus be re-laid twice; and if the families can be completed thus, the player wins. READER, a game played by any number of persons, each of whom assumes a trade or profession, ex- cept one, who is chosen to act as Reader. The Reader selects a passage from any book, either prose or poetry, and reads it aloud, stop- ping at intervals to point at one of the other players. The one at whom he points must at once sub- stitute for the next word, which must be a noun, some one connect- ed with his assumed trade, and then the Reader goes on. Any one who does not at once respond, or puts in a word not connected with his trade, must pay a forfeit. Some- times the reader copies the passage on paper, calling for the words, as before, and then reading the whole aloud. For instance, suppose the players assume respectively the occupations of carpenter, grocer, plumber, hack- man, physician, and painter, and give in order, as they are required, the words italicized in the following verse, which the reader selects from Horatius at the Bridge, with this result : " Then out spake brave Jack-plane^ The^Jlour barrel of the furnace. To every horse upon this ipecac Putty Cometh soon or late." REFLECTION OF SOUND, Ex- periments on the. Experiments on the reflection of sound at a dis- tance are described under Echoes. 1. It may be observed in a room by cutting two large holes in a card board disk about a foot in diameter. The disk is placed on a twirler, and the experimenter, standing close to it on one side, blows a toy trumpet so that the sound will be reflected from the disk, near the top, to a person on the other side of the room. When the trumpet is blown and the disk rotated at the same time, the listener will hear a successive strengthening and weak- ening of the sound, resembling beats (see Violin, Experiment 5). This is caused by the passage of the holes before the trumpet, letting the sound through instead of reflecting it to the listener. 2. Let one person sound the trumpet at one end of the room, while another, standing at the op- posite end, holds a common palm- leaf fan before his ear. When thej fan is slowly twirled by the handle, a change in the sound is heard, be- cause it is reflected better m some] positions than in others. 3. In front of a concave mirror, r, at w (see illustration) hang a watch, or support it on a block of wood. REPEATING GAMES 571 REPEATING GAMES Sound Mirrors. Place the ear at e, in front of another concave mirror, r^ placed at some distance. It will be found that the ticking is heard more dis- tinctly there than elsewhere. The sound is reflected in the direction shown by the dotted lines and ar- rows. The point c is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror r forms a part. Ordinary chopping- bowls will do very well for mirrors, as they will reflect sound, though they do not reflect light. REPEATING GAMES, games in which the players in turn repeat a sentence after one who is chosen leader. At each round the leader adds something, and the whole, in- cluding additions, must be repeated by all in turn, as in the child's story, "The House that Jack Built." Those who fail, either drop out of the game or pay a forfeit. Anyone may invent sentences for such a game. They should be as ridiculous as possible and contain many long words. A few collections of sen- tences commonly used for such games is given below. I. The following nonsense story, composed by the English actor, Foote, is very well known : " She went into the garden to cut a cab- bage-leaf to make an apple-pie, when a great she-bear, coming up the street, poked his head into the shop. What! No soap ! So he died, and she very imprudently married the barber, and there were present the Pickaninnies, and the Gobillilies, and Garulies, and the Grand Pan- jandrum, with the little round but- ton at the top ; and they all fell to playing Catch as Catch Can, till the gunpowder ran out at the heels of their boots." This can be divided into such parts as the leader chooses, for use in the game. In the remain- ing games the original sentence and additions are numbered. II. My Aunt's Garden. i. "I come from my Aunt's Garden, — oh such a pretty garden ! In my Aunt's Garden are four corners." 2. " In the first corner grows an elegantine — Give me your heart, and I will give you mine." 3. " In the second corner grows a rose so fair — I would embrace you, but I I do not dare !" 4. " In the third corner grows a crimson pink — Tell me of whom you most frequently think." 5. (Each player, after repeating the sentences, whispers a name to his left-hand neighbor.) 6. " In the fourth corner grows a poppy red — Repeat to us all what just now you said." 7. (Each repeats aloud what he whispered.) Another form of " My Auuv, s Garden." 1. See my Aunt's Garden ! Oh what a pretty Garden ! 2. In my Aunt's Garden there is REPEATING GAMES 572 RIBBONS a tree. Oh how pretty is the tree in my Aunt's Garden ! 3. On the tree in my Aunt's Garden there is a branch. Oh how pretty is the branch on the tree in my Aunt's Garden ! 4. On the branch on the tree in my Aunt's Garden there is a nest. Oh how pretty is the nest on the branch on the tree in my Aunt's Garden ! 5. In the nest on the branch on the tree in my Aunt's Garden there is a bird. Oh how pretty is the bird in the nest, etc. 6. The bird in the nest on the branch on the tree in my Aunt's Garden bears in his beak a billet with the words, " I love you." Oh how pretty are the words " I love you" on the billet in the beak of the bird, etc. III. The Key of the King's Garden. 1. I sell you the key of the King's Garden. 2. I sell you the string that holds the key of the King's Garden. 3. I sell you the nail where hangs the string, etc. 4. I sell you the beam, in which is the nail, etc. 5. I sell you the rat that gnawed the beam, etc. 6. I sell you the cat that killed the rat, etc. This can be continued at the pleasure of the Leader. IV. The Good Little Man. 1. I sell you my good little man. 2. I sell you the house of my good little man. 3. I sell you the door of the house, etc. 4. I sell you the lock of the door, etc. And so on at pleasure. V. One Old Ox. 1. One old ox, opening oysters. 2. Two toads, totally tired, trying to trot to Tewksbiiry. 3. Three tame tigers taking tea, 4. Four fat friars fanning the fainting fair. 5. Five fairies fending fireflies. 6. Six soldiers shooting snipes. 7. Seven salmon sailing in Sol- way. 8. Eight elegant engineers eating excellent eggs. 9. Nine nimble noblemen nibbling nonpareils. 10. Ten till-tinkers taking two- pence. 11. Eleven electors eating early endive. 12. Twelve twittering titmice tee- tering on the tip-top of a tall tree. VI. The Good Fat Hen. 1. A good fat hen. 2. Two ducks and one good fat hen. 3. Three squalling wild geese, two ducks, and one good fat hen. 4. Four plump partridges, three squalling wild geese, etc. 5. Five hundred Limerick oysters, four plump partridges, etc. 6. Six pairs of Don Alphonso's tweezers, five hundred Limerick oysters, etc. 7. Seven hundred Macedonian horsemen drawn up in line of bat- tle, etc. 8. Eight cages of Heliogabalus sparrowkites, etc. 9. Nine sympathetic, epithetic, didactic propositions, etc. 10. Ten helioscopic, periscopic, pharmaceutical tubes, etc. 1 1 . Eleven flat-bottomed fly-boats floating from Madagascar to Mount Prunello, etc. 12. Twelve European dancing masters sent to Egypt to teach the Egyptian mummies to dance and sing, etc. A kind of repeating game called Genteel Lady is told about in an article by itself. Queen Dido, and the games like it, are also repeating games, but the things repeated are motions of the head and limbs, in stead of words. RESEMBLANCES. See What is MY Thought Like. REVIEWERS, THE. See BOOK Notices, RIBBONS, a game played by any RICH MAN 573 RIDING number of persons in a circle, each one of whom holds one end of a ribbon, all the other ends being united in the hand of the leader of the game, who stands in the cen- tre of the circle. when he says " Pull," they must let go, and when he says " Let go," they must pull the ribbons. Any one obeying the leader's order is obliged to pay a forfeit. RICH MAN, a game of CARDS played by three persons with a EUCHRE pack. The player who cuts the lowest card deals, and is called Rich Man. He gives himself II cards and each of the others lo, turning up the remaining card as trump. Each of the other players in order, begin- ing at his left, may then demand of him a card with one more pip than some one card in the asker's hand, and if the dealer have it, he must exchange with the asker. For in- stance, if a player have a Nine, he may ask the dealer to exchange a Ten for it. Suits are not mentioned. If the dealer have two or more Tens, he would be allowed to give which- ever he chose. If he have not the card asked for, he says so, and the nextplayerasks, no onebeingallowed a second chance. In case the cards are exchanged, the third player must not see of what suits they are. Play then begins, the eldest hand leading. Suit need not be followed, but the trick must be taken if pos- sible. Court-cards have no rank and cannot win, and a trick com- posed entirely of them is always taken by the leader. The highest plain card of the suit led takes the trick, unless an equal one of the same color has been played, when Diamonds always take Hearts, and Clubs take Spades. If Hearts or Spades are trumps, the trump suit is highest in its own color; but a trump has no power to take unless led or played to a trump lead. There is therefore no *' trumping in." Af- ter the fifth trick is taken, the dealer is allowed to play the trump card, but he cannot take it in hand. The winner of each trick scores one, and the dealer scores two additional points, but 3 points are forfeited for each failure to take a trick when possible, and 3 points by the dealer for withholding a card in the begin- ning of the game, if he has it. RIDING. The art of riding can be acquired by practice only, but instruction from a good master is worth its cost. In this country the American, English, and German styles are all practised. The German style is rapidly pass- ing out. The American style is generally practised in the Western and Southern States, while in the Middle States the English style has become the fashion. The Germans teach to sit with a straight, stiff body, shoulders well thrown back, toes up and turned partly out, and heels well down, the back of the calf of the leg gripping the horse tightly. The American style is to ride with the body in an easy posi- tion, the toes lower than the heels, the knees grasping the saddle firm- ly, and the toes, only, in the stirrup. The English style is a natural posi- tion of the body, the foot thrust all the way into the stirrup, the toes slightly lower than or on a level with the heel. The American style is suited to riding easy-gaited horses only, or on military saddles, while the English style is suited to park riding as well as to rough riding and hunting. The saddle and bridle should always be examined before mount- ing. See that the throat-latch (the strap under the throat) is loose enough to easily pass your four fingers between it and the throat ; that the curb-chain hangs in the chin groove and is loose enough to pass a finger between it and the jaw, whilst the bit hangs naturally ; that the saddle rests where it would lie easiest before fastening the girths: neither high up on the shoulder nor so far back that it will work forward; RIDING 574 RIDING Double Bridle. — A, Cheek; B, Cheek of snaffle head-piece ; C, Throat-latch ; D, Nose- band ; E, Front ; F, Snaffle, or Bridoon-bit ; GG, Curb-bit ; H, Curb-chain ; I, Lip-strap ; KK, Snaffle-reins ; LL, Curb-reins ; M, Head -piece. that the girths are not crossed or wide apart, and that they are tight, but not so tight as to give the horse pain. The snaffle-bit, used alone or with the curb, should be high enough in the mouth to touch its corners, but not wrinkle the skin ; the curb an inch and a half below the corner of the mouth. To Mount. I. Stand on the left side of the horse near his shoulder, the body three quarters facing him, the right shoulder farthest from him ; take the reins up in the right hand and place them in the left. Grasp a lock of the mane with the left hand a little forward of the shoulder in such a manner as may be most convenient, meanwhile holding the reins firmly but not pulling upon the horse's mouth. 2. Now take the stirrup in the right hand, putting the left foot into it. If you can take it without the use of the hand, so much the bet- ter. 3. Put the right hand well over on the right side of the cantle of the saddle (pressing downward to help prevent the saddle turning). 4. Rise with a good spring from the right foot. 5. Throw the right leg overJ clearing the horse's back, withdraw-J ing the right hand at the sam( time, and sink gently into the sad- dle; release the mane; turn th( right foot inward and you will easil) find the stirrup, i^h^ forward en( of stirrup as it hangs, should be turned away from the horse in put-J ting the foot in.) Lengthen the reins in the left hand by letting thei RIDING 575 RIDING slide through the fingers or by pull- ing them through with the right. If a whip is carried, grasp it in the palm of the right hand, butt up, Another method of mounting is i, to stand opposite the saddle-girths ; Engflish Saddle.— A, Pommel ; B, Cantle ; C. Skirt ; D, Flap ; E, Panel ; F, Stirrup ; G, Stirrup-leather ; H, Roll ; I, Dee, for fasten- ing hunting-flask ; K, Staple, for fastening breast-plate ; LL, Girths ; M, Tread of stir- rup. 2, grasp the pommel of the saddle vvrith the right hand, which also holds the reins; 3, take the stirrup in the left hand and insert the foot; 4, take a lock of the mane, half-way up the neck, in the left hand, thumb uppermost; 5, then proceed to get on as described above. This method does away with removing the support of the right hand as the leg is thrown over the horse's back. After one has learned to ride it is well to practise mount- ing from the right side, reversing p the methods given ~ above. To Dismount. Grasp the mane near the shoulder with the left hand, which also holds the reins ; place the right hand on the right skirt ; to steady the body withdraw the right foot from the stirrup, and whilst throwing it over the saddle slide the right hand back to and grasp the cantle, to ease the descent. Restlessness in being mounted is often caused by the rider's foot tickling the horse's side, but oftener from rough treatment, or allowing the horse to rush oR the moment the rider is seated : he should always be made to stand a few seconds. If he starts before you are ready to rise from the ground, say " whoa " and shorten the reins with the right hand to check him, then let them slide through the fingers to posi- tion. It is better to mount only half- way, not throwing the leg over, and come back to the ground to quiet him than to get on whilst he is mov- ing. He may often be made to stand by shortening the right rein or reins, thus pulling his head to the right and holding it there until mounted. A simple way to make him stand, if very restive, is to let the groom pick up his off fore-leg and hold it close to the horse's elbow. Some horses do not like to have their heads held by a groom while being mounted and will be quiet so soon as released. The Seat. Sit without putting the feet into the stirrups, the weight of the body resting on the buttocks ; shoulders back ; elbows close, though not pressed to the body ; the thighs grasping the saddle ; the RIDING 57<5 RIDIN( The Seat. legs, beiow the knees, hanging per- pendicularly, and back far enough to cover the girths ; toes slightly in ; the side of the calf of the leg and the inside of the knee will then be found to grasp the saddle ; the whole body at ease. A strong grip at the knee and with the inside of the calf is as important as the thigh grip and is easily secured by turn- ing the toes well in. The foot should be nearly parallel with the horse's body. The shapes of differ- ent men require modifications in the seat, but a good rule to bear in mind is " toes in and heels down." The length of the stirrup-leathers should now be regulated so as to make the bottom of the iron hang about an inch higher than the hol- low of the foot just in front of the heel of the boot, when " the seat" will remain as above described, ex- cepting a slight throwing forward and raising of the knees. The length of stirrup, however, must bi regulated, somewhat, by the feelin of comfort after trial. Having ono ascertained this length it will b found convenient to note it b) measuring from the finger-tips, rest ingon the buckle of the stirrup (th latter, of course, being against th stirrup-bar of the saddle) toward th arm-pit, with the stirrup and leathe under the arm. See how near th arm-pit the bottom of the stirru comes, and thereafter, keeping thi point in mind, the rider may knov whether his stirrups are about th right length before mounting o any saddle. One of the quickest ways to lean " balance " and to get " shake down " into the saddle is to rid on a pad a few times, or in the sad' die without the stirrups, upon gentle horse in a riding-school, i possible ; or, if no riding-schoo be available, have the halter left o RIDING 577 RIDING with the bridle and fasten to it a rope twenty or twenty-five feet long ; let an attendant hold this and cause the horse to trot in a circle and at the same time retain control of him. It is a good plan to practice rid- ing without stirrups (crossing them over the front of the saddle). In road or park riding the stirrups may be under the ball of the foot. In hunting or rough riding the foot should be pushed "home," that is, as far into the stirrup as it will go. Never use too small stirrups ; there is danger of the foot catching in case of a fall. Stirrups with broad " treads " (the bottom where the foot rests) are the most comfortable. Do not ride the same horse upon all occasions ; frequent changes give ease and security to one's seat and teach general management. In first rides, only a snaffle-bit Snaffle-bit. and a single pair of reins should be used, one rein being held in each hand. Any horse fit for a beginner will start upon the rider moving and loosening the reins and press- ing the heels slightly. To turn, pull the rein on the side in the direction toward which you wish to go. If intending to turn, do not commence pulling until quite ready to change direction. Do not raise the elbows or hands in turn- ing. To stop, slightly raise and draw in the reins, ceasing the pull as soon as the horse stops. Most Southern and Western horses are trained to guide by simple pres- sure of the reins on the side of the neck opposite to which it is de- sired to turn, and all well-trained saddle-horses should be so trained. Having become accustomed to the motion of the horse at a walk, he may be made to trot by steadying the reins, leaning slightly forward and pressing the legs against his side, clucking to him, or touching him lightly with the whip if necessary. There are two methods of riding at the trot : the close-sitting, and rising in the stirrups. In the former, the rider gives himself up to the mo- tions of the horse, holding the body and legs without stiffness. It is possible for the rider who has at- tained good " balance" to sit upon most trotting-horses without being thrown noticeably from the saddle, though on a rough-gaited horse it is very fatiguing. In " rising to the trot," the rider partly raises himself and is partly thrown up from the saddle at every other step of the horse, using the knee as a pivot, aided by a slight pressure upon the stirrups. This rising is easily acquired, but must only be attempted when the rider feels the rise to be in accord with the step of the horse. Do not allow the legs from the knees down to swing backward and forward ; noth- ing is more awkward. Keep the head and shoulders well back. Be careful not to throw the waist for- ward at each rise : it is better even to throw the head and shoulders forward to overcome this most awkward fault. The Canter is an acquired form of slow galloping. When a horse be- gins to canter, he turns himself a lit- tle to one side, that he may advance the fore-leg he is going to " lead" with, and he may be made to take this gait from a walk or slow trot, by lightly pulling and raising the rein, at the same time touching him RIDING 578 RIDING with the heel, pressing with the leg behind the girths and throwing the greater part of the weight of the body on the side opposite the one it is intended to have him " lead," and causing him to increase his speed, at the same time curbing him. If the rider wishes him to start off with the right leg, the left rein must be slightly tightened and the left flank touched, and vice- versa. In cantering in a circle or on a short curve, the horse should always lead with the inside leg, that is, the leg toward the centre of the curve. The reins should be held firmly but gently. Mr. E. L. Anderson, a modern authority, holds that " if the horse is lightened in front (that is, made to raise his legs by a ' play ' of the bit) he maybe lightened more upon one side than upon the other by in- creased action of the bit upon that side." He therefore advocates that if we wish " to make the horse gallop by leading with the right side, we shall lighten that side by a ' play' oi the right rein, and bend the croup by an application of the left spur." In the canter and gallop the body should not be held stiffly from the waist upward, but move with the horse. The Gallop is a natural pace, and consists of a succession of leaps, in which the legs of one side leave the ground after, but pass beyond, the legs of the other side. The horse " leads" or starts to gallop as in the canter, and may be made to " lead " as described above. In riding the gallop, the rider's body is thrown slightly back, the knees hold the horse's sides firmly, but not too tightly, and the hands are held low. In fast gal- loping the rider sometimes stands in the stirrups, holding by the knees to the saddle-flaps, and bending for- ward from the waist. The canter and gallop are easier for women, if the horse lead off with his right foot ; but he should be made to lead off sometimes with the right, and sometimes with the left. Holding the reins, Fig. i. Holding the Reins. If only one pair of reins is used, they should be held in the left hand, by placing all the fingers between them but the forefinger, and then turning the ends under that finger and grasping them between it and the thumb. If it is desired to shorten the hold, the grasp can be loosened, the end taken in the right hand, and the left hand pushed up. In holding the reins thus, the thumb should be pointed forward, the little finger near the pommel, and the elbow close at the side. The right rein is now the upper one, and either it or the left can be pulled at pleasure by simply turning the wrist, without lifting the hand. When the rider has gained ex- perience, and rides with two pairs of reins, different styles of holding them are adopted. The follow ing is one of the most common: c s' Holding the reins, Fig. 2. RIDING 579 RIDING The snaffle reins are held in the left hand, separated by the last three fingers and coming out between the forefinger and thumb, the curb reins being held in the same hand, the near rein between the third and fourth finger and the off between the second and third, the ends com- ing out between the ends of the snaffle reins. Some riders place the curb reins on the outside and the 'snaffle reins inside, arranging the fingers as above. AH the reins may- Holding the Reins, Fig. 3, SS, Snaffle-reins ; CC, Curb-reins. be carried in the right hand in the same manner if desired. Some riders hold the reins as in figure 3. If it is desired to ride with both hands, the reins being in the left, the right hand (which holds the whip, butt uppermost) may be placed in front of the left hand and take the right snaffle rein between the first and second fingers, the thumb under it, not removing it from the left hand. Or both the right curb and right snaffle may be taken in the right hand as in Fig. i, remov- ing them from the left hand or not, as desired. These methods may be practised with reins or pieces of tape before taking a riding lesson.! After a little practice, the rider can \ pull on which ever rein he wishes. ' Either the curb or snaffle may be the tight, or riding, rein at will, but it is not well to ride with both tight at the same time. The reins between the fingers should be held] well up toward the knuckles and the hands firmly closed. As a rule, the hands should be held low and not far forward : about over the pommel of the saddle will give pull enough to control the average horse and yet not look awkward. The learner should avoid depending on his reins to hold himself on his horse, and should be able to keep his seat without their aid. Leaping. A horse can be taught to leap by leading him over a bar, say, sixteen feet long, supported in any convenient manner. At first the bar should be held so low that he can step over it, and gradually raised until it will be necessary for him to jump. Care should be taken not to force or frighten him. Four or five leaps in a day are enough. When a horse is well trained he will jump moderate obstacles either from a stand still or a walk. After he has learned to jump with the leading rein, he may be mounted and put through the same course. He should not be punished for refusing unless he be a rogue. A nervous horse should l)e handled gently, and ca- ressed and rewarded after his lesson, which should be ended after a jump, never after a refusal. In jumping from a standstill or walk, the rider first pulls lightly upward on the reins, speaking, and pressing his legs to the horse's sides to force him forward. As he rises, the rider bends slightly forward; but when the horse is in the air, he leans back, both to keep his balance and to receive the shock of landing without being pitched forward, resuming the erect position as the horse's hind legs reach the ground. This leaning back may be learned upon a gentle horse by raising the right hand and throwing it back as if to slap him on the hind quarter as he rises. The reins are held not too tightly till the horse's fore-feet strike the ground when they are tightened to give him sup- port. In the leap from the trot or canter the rider takes nearly RIDING 580 RIDING the same position as in the gallop, but not leaning forward as in the standing leap. The bit is used only to direct the horse to the object over which he is to jump, the ten- sion being eased just before he rises, that he may extend his neck, and resumed, as he lands, to steady him. If sluggish, the horse may be touched with the whip or spur, be- hind the girths, before he comes to the jump, but not at the instant he takes it, nor should he be encouraged by a cry, or by doing anything that might cause him to swerve. Ahorse can make a flying high leap best when he approaches it in a slow gal- lop, and the rider should never at- tempt to make him jump at so great a speed that he cannot collect him- self for the leap. A high speed also prevents the horse from deciding where he should begin the leap, and confuses him. Only very expert ri- ders are warranted in interfering with a horse in taking his jumps ; most horses jump best if allowed to " take off," or leave the ground, as they please, the rider only steadying them a little if they rush at the ob- stacle. There is a great deal of non- sense in the idea that a horse can be '* lifted " and " helped " over his jumps ; and it is usually novices, or very young persons, who attempt these feats : one might as well try to " lift himself by his boot-straps," as to " lift " ahorse over a jump. If the horse is sluggish, he must be enlivened with whip or spur, or by moving the bit in his mouth ; but not the instant he is to " take off " the ground. The rider must not pull his horse as he rises, nor whilst he is in the air — to do so shortens the jump: if the rider cannot sit the jump, after a few trials, without the support of the reins, he had better improve his seat before con- tinuing the sport. In training a horse to jump, he should be made to leap only a few times at first, as he uses muscles not usually put to a strain, and, moreover, will learn to dislike it if made tired. Horses seem to like jumping in the field with the excite- ment attending the hunt, but some of the best judges say they never like it : they certainly dislike being " schooled," and jumping in cold blood. Always save your horse in hunting : take the fewest jumps necessary, and go through a break in the fence, or through a gate, when you can. Ease your horse in going over plowed ground, or up hill. If waiting at a " check," dis- mount and loosen your girths, and shift your saddle an inch either way. Balking. If a horse refuses to move, or balks, wait quietly for a minute and he will often go on. Sometimes he can be made to go by moving the reins gently, and urging him with voice or whip ; sometimes by pulling him around in the di- rection which he least resists; or, often by turning him around, sharply and quickly, a number of times (thus confusing him), and then starting in the desired direction. A little dirt from the road put into his mouth often so distracts a balky horse's attention from his obstinacy that he will move on. Rearing. The young horse is apt to rear if pulled and excited. When he rises, loosen the reins, even if you must hold on by the mane or neck ; press the legs closely to him, well back: this has a tendency to bring his hind legs forward, and ex- perts often use spurs, applied well back, to bring him down. Try to keep him moving either forward or in a circle, and pull his head toward either side if he is about to rise. If he is about to fall backward, try to throw yourself off to one side. A confirmed rearer is too dangerous to ride. Shying. Shying is sometimes caused by near-sightedness, or other defect in the eyes, but it is generally the result of habit arising from bad breaking. If from the latter cause RIDING 581 RIDING it can usually be overcome ; if from bad eyesight, never. In riding a shy- ing horse, the first requisite is that " the rider shall not shy himself." He should not let the horse know that he is expecting him to shy, as he communicates his timidity to the animal, who loses confidence in both himself and his rider. Whilst the rider should be on his guard, he should not, by change of seat or reins, lead the animal to think some- thing is about to happen as he ap- proaches an object : he should ride straight ahead, apparently paying no attention to the object or the horse. If he shys or sheers from freshness, keep him in a straight line by pull- ing his head toward the object and giving him pressure with the leg on the opposite side. If he stops or turns around, make him go, even if you must whip him {behind the girths), especially if his shying be a mere pretence. If the object be really frightful much kindness should be used, with firmness. A steady rein and plenty of "nerve" in the rider will usually overcome shying, as the horse gains confi- dence in himself through his confi- dence in his rider. He should not be forced to face an object which really frightens him. He may be gotten to pass it by turning his head from it, and pressing him on the side to'ward'^\{\Q\\ his head is turned. If the object is moving toward the horse it is best to turn his head from it and his side toward it, stopping him, or moving gradually, until the object has passed. Horses will often pass an object and not shy at a similar one again, if given a chance to examine it and touch it with the nose after being gently gotten up to it. Never whip a horse for shying after he has passed the object, as he will soon acquire the habit of running after each shy, as he expects the whip. A horse may often be made to pass an object without shying by quietly pulling his head away from it as he begins to notice it, and thus attracting his attention to something else : he cannot think of two things at the same time. If a horse is evidently confirmed in the habit, he is not fit to ride, and should be disposed of and put to work where he can do no harm. Bolting. If a horse bolts, or rushes from control of the bit, loosen the reins a moment and give them a sudden jerk, or sharply '* saw " him : that is, pull the reins alternately on either side quickly and sharply, keeping his head up. Some authorities say that by gathering the reins so short in the left hand that it presses against the mane, and then passing the right hand down (on either side as close as possible to the bit and pulling the horse's head quite around to one side, any bolter may be stopped. It is best to stop the horse, if possi- ble, so soon as he starts faster than the riderwishes him to go, before he has gotten into the running stride. But if he does run, try to keep your seat ; and if there is a clear road, let him go until he begins to tire, and then give him the whip until he is run out and glad to stop. In most cases horses acquire vices through being maltreated, though some animals are vicious by nature. The rider should seldom use his whip to punish his horse, and the spur should never be so used. But when the whip is used for pun- ishment, it should be sharply ap- plied two or three times. If used to make the horse go forward when backing, it should be taken in the right hand, and a sharp cut be <;iven over to the left side, behind the sad- dle girths, and brought back very quickly on its rebound, and struck on the right side, behind the girths. To do this expertly requires some practice off the horse, but it is worth the time, as it does not give the pain on one side only, and cause the animal to swerve. Skilled riders advise that a contest RIDING 582 RIDING between the horse and his rider al- ways be avoided, if possible, by turning the horse's attention to something else. Never strike on the shoulder, as the horse naturally draws bacii, or swerves, from the blow. A bad rider sometimes punishes his horse for not understanding what he is wanted to do, when the fault is with the rider himself, who either does not know how to make his desire known, or does not do so clearly. A well-trained horse is always willing to obey, and does so the moment he understands. To punish him for not understanding is usually one step toward making him vicious. Authorities differ much on the subject of training horses, but it- is safest to err on the side of kindness. A rider who does not lose his temper has a great ad- vantage. A nervous horse with high courage may be a perfect saddle- horse in the hands of a self-con- trolled rider, and useless in those of a cruel, loud-voiced one. In country-road riding, always pick the softest paths ; and if the road be macadamized, ride on the edges. Ride slowly on descents, with shoulders back, and walk your horse down hills. Pulling. Many horses pull, when first leaving the stable, from lack of work, and soon calm down. Some horses of a nervous disposition pull through anxiety to go ahead : such animals can be ridden with com- fort only through gentle treatment and light hands. Often they will not pull unless pulled by the rider. Easy bits, such as a snaffle, bar, either rubber covered, should be used alternately, every few days. Horses with low, heavy shoulders, carrying low heads, are apt to pull, and are not fit for saddle use. If a horse with a good mouth begins to pull and bear down upon the bit, it will often be found that his feet are becoming contracted or "sore,'' or that he is stiff in his front legs. This bearing upon the bit is an effort to transfer a part of his weight. A good veterinary should be con- sulted in such a case. Hands. A rider is said to have " bad hands " when he continually pulls at his horse's mouth. " Good hands," or " light hands," seem to be natural with some riders, and al- most impossible to cultivate in others. Women oftener have good hands than men, perhaps because they are not as strong and are more sensitive. Often a woman can ride with ease a high-strung nervous horse, which may be a puller, or even a run-away, under a rough-riding man. The rider must learn to "give and take" with the reins. If the horse pulls, use force enough to bring him to the pace required, aided by a kindly and quietly spoken word, like " there," or "walk" (but not "whoa," which should always mean stop), and then gradually loosen the reins. Always hold the reins tightly in the hands, whether pulling or not. Unless great force is required, hold the fore-arms at right angles to the body, with the hands down- ward at the wrist, as in playing a piano. It will be found that there is strength enough at the wrists for the control of most horses, — cer- tainly for well broken ones, — and that the hands will grow "light" as they "give and take" from the wrist with the motion of the horse's head whilst in action. If a horse bears down upon the bit, his head may be brought up by raising the hands and moving the snaffle reins sharply and quickly from side to side ; or, if he is persistent, by rais- ing either hand with a sharp pull upwards, ten or twelve inches. If the tendency of the horse is to carry his head too low, carry the hands somewhat high. If he has the opposite tendency, carry the hands low. Spurs. No beginner should wear spurs : they are a source of danger RIDING 583 RIDING except when worn by experienced horsemen, and no rider who turns his toes outward should put them on. Stumbling. A stumbling horse should never be ridden. The fault may arise from some curable disease of the feet, but usually from weak knees or legs. If mounted on a stumbler, keep his head up and make him move at a lively pace by aid of whip or spur. Bits. Most horses go well with the double bit; that is, the curb and snaffle or bridoon, as shown in the picture of the bridle. But some horses with very tender mouths or nervous dispositions go better with the snaffle alone : it may be used with two reins, but without the extra head-piece (B) in picture. A few horses go well with the curb, but dislike the additional mouth- piece of the snaffle. For these the Pelham bit may be used. Pelham Bit. Riding Hints to Girls. A girl should not ride every day, and long, until she is sixteen, unless she have a second saddle, with the pom- mels on the right side, to enable her to sit on different sides of the horse on alternate days. In very young girls the muscles are weak, and the spine and shoulders may grow crooked. No girl ought to ride un- less she likes to and is fearless. A horse quickly knows if his rider is afraid and soon becomes master. A woman's saddle should have a fiat seat (Martin & Martin, of 5th Ave- nue, New York, who have their workshop in London, or Peat & Co., Piccadilly, London, make them). The stirrup should be plain, or of the kind shown on the saddle illus- tration, not the old-fashioned slip- per. Riding should be practised without using the stirrup: it gives great confidence, balance, and free- dom. Of course it is not intended to recommend long rides without a stirrup ; but only practise during exercise in the school or at some safe spot. The rise to the trot can be done without it, and should not de- pend too much upon it: by grasping the upright-head firmly with the right leg and pressing the left knee against the leaping-head, or lower pommel, the rise can be accom- plished with the slightest aid from the stirrup, and in fact should be so ridden. To make the horse canter, leading with his right leg, pull his head slightly to the left with the left rein and press him quickly with the left heel. To make him lead with the left foot pull the right rein and tap him with the whip, behind the girths, on the right side, where the heel would touch him if on that side. A woman or girl, in mounting, should place her right hand on the upright-head, and her left foot in the left hand of an assistant, held about 16 inches from the ground. She places her left hand on his right shoulder, and his right hand is under her left arm-pit. The assistant counts one, two, three. At three, she springs upwards, the assistant aid- ing her by rising. Being on the saddle, she places her right knee over the upright-head. The assistant sees that her left foot is placed in the stirrup and fastens the elastic straps for holding the skirt in place. In dismounting, after first releasing the right leg and the dress from the pommel and turning from the for- RIDING 584 RING BALL ward position, she holds her arms at her sides and simply slips off the horse, her assistant placing a hand under each elbow, thus bringing her down lightly. Women should keep A A, Upright-head ; B, Leaping-head ; C, Seat ; D, Safe (corresponding part on right of Saddle is the Flap) ; E, Stirrup-leather ; F, Stirrup ; G, Secondary Stirrup (which turns down and releases foot in case of a fall) ; H, K, Girths ; I, Balance Girth. shoulders and hips squarely to the front, looking straight between the horse's ears. The right leg above the knee lies flat on the sad- dle, while the right knee grasps the upright-head firmly. Below the knee the leg is drawn back, and the toes are bent downward. The left knee is close to the saddle, and the leg below the knee hangs easily down. The foot in the stirrup is held parallel to the horse's side. The rules of the road in riding are the same as for driving, and should be followed very carefully, both in the park and on the road. See under article on Driving. RING BALL, a game played by any number or persons with a soft ball of rubber or stuffed cloth. The players form a circle, each standing near a base, which is usually a stone. The bases are at equal distances; the size of the circle may be large or small, provided one stand- ing inside it can easily throw to all the bases. At the beginning of the game any player takes the ball and throws it into the air. The one nearest whom it stops must stand within the cir- cle. The one at his right now takes the ball and throws it at the player in the circle. If he misses, he also must go into the circle; if he hits, all leave their bases and run where they please, till the one hit gets the ball, when he shouts " Halt !" and all must stop. In either case, the one thrown at throws the ball in turn at some one of those on the circumference of the circle, but if he has been obliged to go out of the circle to get the ball, he must return inside before he can throw. The one he hits must join those inside the circle. If he hits nobody, all return to their bases. The one hit, or the one nearest the ball, takes the next turn at throw- ing it. So the game goes on, till all but one are inside the circle. This one now takes the ball, and running around the circle, outside, where he pleases, tries to hit those within, while they strive to get the ball and hit him. The player out- side has the advantage, for he can run back as far as he wishes, while they cannot leave the ring. Those whom he bits are "dead," and must retire outside the ring. If he " kills " all without being hit him- self, he is victor. But if he be hit, he and all he has " killed " must go within the circle, while the others take their stand at whatever bases they choose, and the game proceeds as before. This ball game is played in Ger- many, where it is called Kreisball (Ring Ball). In Switzerland it is RING TOSS 58s ROLY-POLY named Eck und Krippe (Corner and Fence), the point inside the circle where the players stand being the ''Eck" and the circle itself the '' Krippe y RING TOSS. See Grommets. RING TRICK. The following trick requires the use of a second ring, similar to the one borrowed ; hence it is best to borrow only a plain gold ring. To pass a ring through a table, sew a ring to the middle of a hand- kerchief by a piece of silk about four inches long. Borrow a similar ring, and pretend to wrap it in the handkerchief without really doing so. Then give the handkerchief to one of the company to hold. He will feel the sewed ring and think it to be the borrowed one. If there is no light from behind the per- former, he may first hold up the handkerchief with the suspended ring on the side away from the company to show them that it is empty. Ask the company to choose at what point the ring is to pass through the table, and, placing a tumbler on the spot ask the hand- kerchief holder, keeping his hand on the ring within it, to hold it di- rectly over the tumbler. Then drop the handkerchief over the tumbler, and ask him to let the ring go, when it will be heard to fall into the glass. Borrow a high hat, and take it in the hand holding the bor- rowed ring in such manner that the fingers, covering the ring are just inside the crown. The inside of the hat may then be shown to the company. Placing the hat on the floor just beneath the tumbler, the performer gently drops the ring into it and then, pulling the hand- kerchief with its attached ring away from the tumbler, invites one of the company to examine the hat, where he will, of course, find the borrowed ring. ROBIN'S ALIVE, a game played by any number of persons, who sit in a circle. The one who begins the game lights a piece of twisted paper or bit of wood and repeats the verse : " Robin's alive, and alive he shall be ; If he dies in my hand My mouth shall be bridled, my back shall be saddled, I'll be sent as a slave to Barbary." As soon as the verse is recited the paper is handed to the next player, who also repeats the lines, and so it goes around the ring. The one in whose hand it goes out must pay a forfeit. This game is called also Jack's Alive, and each player repeats those two words only as he holds the lighted paper. Sometimes the last line is sung, " If it dies in my hand you may back-saddle me." " Back-saddling " consists in plac- ing the one in whose hand the light went out on his back on the floor, and piling chairs on him. ROLY-POLY, or NINE HOLES, a game of ball played by any number of persons, generally nine. As many holes as there are players, each large enough to receive the ball, are dug about a foot apart, the whole forming a square. Around them a line is drawn, about four or five feet from the outside holes, and ten or fifteen feet from this line, in any direction, is marked the position of the Roller. Each player now chooses a hole, and one, selected by lot as Roller, takes his post, ball in hand. Each of the others must have one foot on the boundary line around the holes. The Roller tries to roll the ball into one of the holes. If he make three consecutive misses, a pebble is placed in his hole. If he succeeds, the player in whose hole the ball stops seizes it and throws it at any of the others, except the Rol- ler. If he hit the one at whom he throws, the latterhashishole marked with a pebble and becomes Roller; if he miss, his own hole is so marked, and he becomes Roller in turn. He who throws the ball must stand on the boundary line as he ROLY-POLY 586 ROPE-WAVES does so, unless he chooses to hold the ball and wait his chance, instead of throwing it at once, in which case he may stand three feet from the line. The other players must run for safety; but if the thrower hold the ball, they may save themselves from being hit by running back within the boundary line before he can strike them with the ball. If the Roller send the ball into his own hole, he must run forward and throw the ball like any one else; but as he is so far from his hole, he is at a dis- advantage, and he always tries, if possible, to send the ball into some other one's hole. The first player who gets three pebbles in his hole must stand with his back to the others, usually with his face to a wall, and throw the ball as far as he can over his shoulder. The others in turn, each standing where the ball stops, may throw it at him as hard as they choose ; but whoever hits him in any other part of the body than the back must change places with him. Sometimes he who has three pebbles is considered out of the game, and his hole is stopped up. This goes on until only one is left. He is the winner, and is allowed to throw the ball at each of the others, as described above, in the order in which they went out. Each throws the ball over his shoulder to determine the spot from which it may be thrown at him. History. Roly Poly is a very old English game. It is sometimes played in England with hats instead of holes, and is then often called Egg Hat. In this case the ball is pitched instead of rolled. The French call it Balle aiix Pots (Pot Ball) and it is called also Roll Ball. The Germans have a game called Neunloch (Nine Holes), but the ob- ject of the player is simply to throw his ball into the holes in a certain order. At Yale College, where the game is much played by the Senior class, it is called Nigger Baby, or African Infant, or sometimes Niger Infa7is, which is the same name in Latin. ' The scoring stones placed in the holes are often named " Babies." In Austria they are similarly called Kinder (children). In a variety called Scheiben schiessen (Target Shooting), the nine holes are of different sizes and arranged in the form of a cross, the smallest in the centre. He who hits the centre hole first is called the King, and he who does so next is called the Marshal. ROPE-WAVES, Experiments with. Procure a piece of rope from 20 to 50 feet long, the longer the better; but, if the experiments are to be tried indoor, the rope cannot be longer than the room used. The rope must not be at all stiff; the best kind is cotton window-cord. I. Tie the rope to some object, such as a door-knob, if indoor, or a tree or a fence outdoors, so that it will be pretty tight. Hold the other end of the rope in the hand. By jerking it quickly downward, a downward curve or depression may be made to run along the rope to the other end, where it will be re- flected and return as an upward curve. Or tie the other end of the rope to a chair, stretch it as tight as desired, and then sit on the chair to hold it. When the rope is struck with a stick, a similar wave will run along it, more swiftly the tighter the rope is ; so it can be seen better in a long rope than in a short one. 2. Send a downward curve, as before, and just as it is reflected send an upward curve. The two upward curves meeting in the mid- dle of the rope will be added, and make it swing violently. 3. Send a downward curve, and just as it starts to come back as an upward curve, send another down- I ward curve. The opposite curves meeting in the middle of the rope will destroy each other there, so the A ROUNCE 587 ROWING middle of the rope will remain nearly still, while the parts on either side swing up and down. The still point is called a "node." (See Violin, Experiments on.) 4. Try these experiments with the cord stretched tight and then loose. It will be found that the tighter the cord the faster the waves travel. 5. Send an upward or downward curve, as before, and as it is reflected send a curve to meet it by striking the rope sidewise. The result will be to make the rope move in a cir- cle when they meet. ROUNCE, a game of cards played by not more than nine per- sons, with a full pack. The cards rank as in Whist. Each player is dealt five cards, two and three at a time, as in Euchre, and an extra hand of six cards, called " Dummy," is dealt in the middle of the table. If the eldest hand is satisfied, he says " I play :" otherwise, he says " I pass," and, throwing down his cards, may either retire from the game during that hand, or take up Dum- my. If he retire, the next player to the left has the same choice, and so with the others in order. After Dummy has been taken up, the others must either play their hands or retire. He who takes up Dum- my discards one of its cards. If the dealer choose to play without Dum- my, he may take the trump card into his hand and discard one of his own cards. Play then begins, the eldest hand leading. Suit must be followed, if possible, otherwise any card may be played. The winner of a trick must lead trumps, if he can. At the beginning of the game, each player is credited with 15 points, one of which is subtracted for every trick that he makes. If he fail to make a trick, he is said to be "rounced," and five points are added to his score. He wins whose score is first reduced to nothing. The points are often marked by crosses, as in Auction Pitch. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. In cutting for deal, low deals, and Ace is low. 2. The Dummy must be dealt three cards at a time, each three being given before the dealer gives any to himself. 3. If there be a misdeal, the dealer is rounced, and the deal passes to the next player. 4. Whoever takes Dummy must play it. 5. If all the players up to the one on the dealer's right have refused to play, that one must play his hand, take Dummy, or allow the dealer to score 5. 6. If a player revoke, expose a card, or fail to lead a trump, when possible, after taking a trick, he is rounced. In Germany this game is called Rams, and is played with a Euchre pack. If a player hold no trump, he is allowed to play his poorest card face down, which calls for a trump from every other player. ROUND TAG. See Fox and Geese, 1 1. ROWING, the art of propelling a boat by means of oars. The differ- ent kinds of row-boats and oars are described in C. C. T., under Row- boat. The oarsman sits upright on the thwart, or stationary seat, with his feet against the stretcher, which should be at such a distance that the knees will be bent, but so that the hands will easily clear them. The knees are held about a foot apart, the heels close together, and the toes turned out. The handle of the oar is grasped natural- ly with both hands, one, called the inside hand, at the extreme end, the other, or outside hand, from one- and-a-half to two inches from it. The thumbs are usually underneath though some rowers hold the thumb of either the inside or outside hand above the oar. The rower begins by inclining the body forward, keep- ing the back straight and the head erect, and stretching out his arms ROWING 5^^ ROWING ^^^^^ -r^^- ■^'=-''^^^' --^>^'\). The large sail of a cat-boat or sloop. SAILING 606 SAILING Miss Stays. To fail in trying to tack. Mizzenmast. The after-mast in three-masted vessels. Off. Away from the point from which the wind blows, as in " Keep her head off." Peak. The point of the sail at the outer end of the gaff. Port. The left-hand side of a boat looking forward (see Larboard). Rake. Inclination, as " the rake of a mast," "a raking stern-post." Masts are usually given a rake aft to bnng their weight and that of sails and rigging farther aft. The word is from the Anglo-Saxon rae- can, to reach. Ratlines. Ropes fastened across the shrouds, making ladders by which the sailors in large vessels can climb to the masts. Reef. To fold part of the sail and fasten it together in order to lessen the surface exposed to the wind. The folded part of the sail is called also the reef. From the Anglo- Saxon reaf, a garment. Rig. The arrangement of masts, sails, and ropes in a boat. From the Anglo-Saxon wrigan, to cover. Rigging. The ropes of a boat, di- vided into standing rigging, the rope used to strengthen the masts, and running rigging, the ropes used to work the sails. Serve. To wind yarn or cloth around a rope's end to prevent its ravelling, or around any part to keep it from wearing away by rubbing. Sheet. A rope fastened to the low- er outer corner of a sail or to the boom, to haul it in and keep it in place. From the Anglo-Saxon Sceo- tan, to cast or extend. Shrouds. In large vessels, ropes extending from the head of the lower mast to strong timbers at the sides of the vessel. They serve to strengthen the masts. See ratline. Slack. Applied to a boat with a tendency to turn her bow from the wind, owing to improper construc- tion. Spar. A general term for masts, yards, booms, gaffs, and the like. Spi7inaker. A large triangular sail used by sloops in a light wind. Splice, to fasten the ends of two ropes by interlacing the strands. It is nearly the same word as " split," the strand being pulled apart. Sprit. A light spar extending from the middle of the mast to the outer corner of the sail, used in place of a gaff. From the Anglo-Saxon spreot, a spear or pike. Starboard (star-burd). The right- hand side of a boat (looking for- ward). From the Anglo-Saxon ste- oran, to steer, and bord, a border. Stay. A rope to steady a mast, extending diagonally forward from its top. Stays also extend between the masts and from the upper masts to the sides. Staysail (stay-s'l). A sail spread on a stay. Stem. The upright timber at the end of a vessel's bow to which the ends of the planking are fastened. Stern. The rear end of a boat. From the Anglo-Saxon steam, a hehn, because the helm is placed there. Stiff. Keeping upright, opposed to crank ; a boat is stiff when the wind makes her incline very little. Applied to a wind or breeze, stiff means strong. Tack. The lower fore-corner of a fore-and-aft sail, or a rope attached to that corner; also the direction of a boat when sailing to windward. A boat is on the starboard tack when the wind is on the starboard side; on the port tack when the wind blows against the port side. A boat is said to tack in changing from one tack to another. Tacki means to fasten. The first meaningj is the original one, the other being] derived from it, as the tack holdsl the corner of the sail when thewindj crosses it obliquely. Taut. Tight. Tarpaulin. Tarred canvas, from] SAILING 607 SAILING tar, 2ind. paulmg, provincial English for the covering of a cart. Topsail. The second sail above the deck. Tiller. The rudder handle ; from the provincial English tiller, the handle of anything, Trysail (try-s'l). A small fore- and-aft sail. Throat. The inner concave end of the gaff or boom, which fits around the mast. Topping -lift. A rope to hold the end of the boom clear of the cabin, in a large boat. Up, To put the helm. To put the tiller to windward. Vangs. Ropes to steady the gaff in a large boat, running from its peak to the sides of the boat. From the Dutch vangen, to seize. Wear. To turn the boat so that the wind will be on the other side, w^ithout tacking, the bow being turned away from the wind, and the sail jibed over. Weather. Windward, toward the wind. Weather-helm. A boat is said to have a weather-helm when the tiller must be kept to the weather- side. Wind. The direction from which the wind is blowing ; used in " bring- ing a boat's head into the wind," "turning her head out of the wind," " toward the wind," " away from the wind," etc. Windward. The direction from which the wind blows. Yaw. To go out of the proper course. From the provincial G^x- mangageln, to totter or shake. Knots, Some of the simplest kinds of knots are described in C. C. T. Besides these, the fol- lowing are useful. They are de- scribed in this article because they are used so often on a sail-boat; but every one should understand how to tie them. In making a knot, any bend or loop in the rope is called a " bight" (Anglo-Saxon hge, a bending). The part of the rope not bent in making the knot is called the "standing part." Some knots are made pur- posely very tight, so that they will last forever, and others are made to be easily untied. The Plain Overhand Knot (see C. C. T.) may be made at the end of a rope, either to prevent its untwist- ing, or to keep it from passing through a hole. For it may be sub- stituted the Figure Eight (see C. C. T.), which is easier to untie than the plain overhand. Boat Knot. An overhand knot whose end is not passed through the bight, but secured by a spike or piece of wood on withdrawing, which the knot unties at once. Square or Double Knot. This is formed of two overhand knots, and is the most common knot for fasten- ing two ends together, but it is made incorrectly by most people. The right way to tie it is shown in Figure i, and the wrong way in Figure 2 ; it will be seen that in the former the bight on one side passes over both ropes and on the other side Fig. I. under both, whereas in the latter, called a " granny knot," each bight passes over one rope and under the other. When it is tied pro- perly a strain on it only makes it hold more tightly, and yet it can be loosened at once by pulling the Fig. 2. bights apart. It is secure only when the ends tied are of the same sized rope. This knot is sometimes called a reef knot, as it is used for fastening the reef points. Bowhne. This forms a loop which cannot slip, and is useful in a great number of ways. It is shown in C. C. T., but as it is important, the method of tying it is described here in more detail. A SAILI NG 608 sailing! loop is made and the end passed up through it as in Fig. 3, and then the end is passed over the rope above the loop and through the loop from behind, as in Fig. 4. When the knot is tightened, it will not slip. By 3 i^ig- 4 pulling the rope in a bight througjh the loop thus formed, the best slip noose is made. This is called a "running bow- line." A " bowline on a bight" can be made in the middle of a long rope when it must be done imme- diately, and there is no time to find an end, as when a rope is to be thrown to a drowning man. The rope doubled is first tied, just as in Fig. 3 (see Fig. 5.), but then the end e is pulled apart and brought down over the bight, as shown by the dotted lines. Knots for fastening ropes to hooks, spars, or rings are often "hitches," or Fig. 5. "bends." One of the simplest hitches is a half hitch, shown inC. C. T. A timber hitch, shown in Fig. 6, is useful for fastening a rope to a post in a hurry. It holds tight under a strain, but it loosens as soon as it is Fig. 6. relieved. Clove hitch. This is shown in Fig. 7. The coils thus made are thrown over a post and drawn tight, or the end of the rope may be twisted around the post as shown in Fig. 8, where the end a is repre- sented as fastened to the standing part with a half hitch. Blackwall hitch. This is really no knot at all, but is useful for Fig. 8. hanging a weight from a hook, will be seen from Fig. 9, where i is shown, that the heavier the weight, the tighter the end of the rope is jammed against the hook. In fastening the end of two ropes for hauling, the simplest Fig. 9. method is to use the Common Bend (C. C. T.). Splicing. When two ropes are fastened together, end to end, with- out a knot, they are said to be spliced. Ropes must be spliced instead of knotted when they are to run through a pulley over anything on which the knot might catch. The appearance of a nicely spliced rope is shown in Fig. 10. To make Fig, 10, a "short splice," untwist the strands at the ends which are to be joined, and bring the ropes together so that the strands of one alternate with those of the other, as in Fig. il. SAILING 609 SAILING The strands must be interweaved tightly, but they are shown loose in the figure to make it plainer. Then take any strand, for instance that marked a^ pass it over f, and under e, which is lifted up for the purpose b Fig. II. with a tapering piece of wood or iron, called a marling-spike. Each strand is treated in the same way, then each is shaved down to about half its thickness, and the intertwining is repeated. An " eye splice" is made by mak- ing a bight and splicing the end into the standing part. For a " long splice" more of the ropes must be untwisted than for a short splice. After the strands have been laid alternately as before, un- twist one strand, as a, still further, for several turns, and in the vacant place thus left twist the opposite strand/. At the place where they join, cut off all of each but a few in- ches,shave both down about one fourth, and tie them with an overhand knot. Shave the ends down another fourth, pass each over the other and under the two next strands, cutting off the ends as they appear. One of A's strands is then worked into B in like manner, and the third pair of strands is shaved and knotted in the same way at the original junction. This splice, if neatly made, does not increase the Sailing-car SAILING 6io SALIC LAW thickness of the rope apprecia- bly. Parcelling is covering rope with strips of tarred canvas to protect it. When a rope is wound tightly with spun yarn, it is said to be " served." Rope's ends are served to keep them from ravelling, and splices are often both parcelled and served. When the channels between the strands of a rope are filled, it is said to be " wormed." Parcelling is also kept down by a kind of chain stitch called " marling." In Fig. 12 the rope is " wormed " at a and " served" at b, and " marling " is shown at c. Sailing-Cars. On some . western railways cars propelled by the wind are often used instead of hand-cars to transport laborers and their tools. The car, which is about the size of an ordinary hand-car, is fitted with one or two masts. In one car the mainmast is eleven feet high, and both masts together carry about eighty square Fig. 12. feet of canvas. Ir is said that these cars have sailed at the rate of forty miles per hour directly before the wind. As they are confined to the rails, and therefore cannot tack, they cannot beat to windward, but it is said that they can sail very close to the wind. An ancient sailing-car, which probably never existed except on paper, is shown in the last picture, taken from an old book. For the history of Sailing, see Yachting. SALIC LAW, a solitaire game of CARDS, played with two packs. A King is selected from the packs before playing begins, and laid, face upward, on the table. Cards that cannot be used, as described below, are placed on this King until an- other one appears, when it is laid beside the first, forming the base for another pile of useless cards, till its place is taken by a third, and so on. In a row just beneath these piles the Queens are placed, as they Ancient Sail-car. appear, and below these the Aces. On the latter are placed, in order of rank, the Twos, Threes, and so on, up to the Knaves, not following suit. The top card of any of the piles above the Kings can be used at any time. When the pack is exhausted, the top card of any pile can be placed on any uncovered King, freeing the card beneath it. The player is allowed to draw one card from the interior of one of the piles, and may look at any of the piles to see how they are arranged. If the player is successful, all the cards of the two packs will be arranged on the table in three rows of piles at the end of the game, a face card at the top of each pile. The Salic law is a law that forbids women to come to the throne in some monarchies of Europe, and this game is so called because the Queens take no part in it. SALT 6ti SCALES SALT, Experiments with. Make a strong brine by shaking salt and water together in a bottle, until the water will dissolve no more. Color the brine with any ink that will mix with water. Make a pile of salt on a plate, and pour the colored brine gradually into the plate. It will rise in the pile of salt by capillary attraction (See Small Tubes) till the whole pile is colored. The experiment will not succeed with water, because it will dissolve the salt in the pile ; but the brine has so much salt in it already that it can- not take up any more. 2. Fill a glass funnel with salt, packing it in tightly ; invert it on a plate, and fit over the narrow end the mouth of an empty toy balloon, which has been kept very full of air a long time so that it will inflate with little force. Pour gradually into the plate some colored brine, prepared as before. It will mount higher and higher in the funnel, driving before it the air, which will inflate the toy balloon. The ex- periment will not succeed unless the salt is packed tight and unless the balloon has been well stretched, so as to inflate easily. SANCHO PEDRO. See All Fours. SAND, Experiments with. i. Fill a toy rubber balloon, or any kind of rubber bag, with clean, dry sand and shake it down thoroughly. Fasten in the neck a piece of glass tubing which is allowed to dip beneath the surface of a glass of water. Squeeze the sand. It might be expected that it would be pressed closer together, driving out air into the water, but vhis cannot be done by the hardest pressure. On the contrary, the bulk is actually in- creased by squeezing, as is shown by some of the water rising into the tube. The reason is that the grains of sand are closely packed and fitted together so that when they are disarranged by squeezing they oc- cupy more space. 2. Shake down the sand as be- fore, pour in water till the bag is quite full, and tie up the neck of the bag. The bag will now be found to be quite hard and rigid, though it is full of sand and water. The reason is that the sand cannot be squeezed without altering its position and in- creasing the space between the grains, but as the bag is closed and nothing can enter to fill the extra space, the bag will not yield to pres- sure at all. The property of sand shown in these experiments is shared by shot, marbles, and almost any small objects. It was discovered in 1886 by Prof. Reynolds of England, who called it "Dilatancy." SCALES. The different kinds of scales are told about in C. C. T. A pair of scales which will weigh pretty well up to ten pounds or so can be made thus. Take a stout, even stick, about three feet long, and bore a hole about an inch from each end, and a third in the middle, exactly half way between them. Take two shallow tin pans six or eight inches in diameter, and make three holes with an awl at equal distances around the edge of each. Tie in each hole the end of a piece of string about sixteen inches long, and unite the three strings at their other ends, so that the pan will hang horizontal. Tie each pan to the stick by means of the end holes, so that they hang at the same distance. Hold the scales by a loop of string passing through the middle hole. If prop- erly made, the pans should bal- ance, the stick being horizontal. If they do not, then either the pans do not weigh the same, or the third hole is not exactly in the middle. Put sand in one pan till it balances, and then untie the pans from the stick and exchange them. If they do not balance, this proves that the hole is not in the middle, and a new stick must be prepared. If they do balance, the scales are now all SCALES 6l2 SCALES right, but the sand must always be kept in the pan in which it was put. Even if the scales balance perfectly at first, it is just as well to change the pans. To make weights, go first to a druggist and ask him to weigh out some sand in a glass bottle, so that bottle, sand, and cork shall weigh just, quarter of a pound together. Place this in one scale of the balance, and pour sand into the other till there is an exact balance. Then put the bottle into the same scale with the sand, and into the other an empty bottle, its cork ly- ing beside it. Pour sand into this bottle till it balances all in the other scale, when it will weigh, of course, half a pound. Cork it and label it, and keep it for the half pound weight. In this way, by using the weights already obtained to weigh new ones, as many as desired may be made. These scales will do very nicely for rough weighings. Steelyards. To make steelyards, take a stick about three feet long and bore two holes, one about an inch from one end, and the second about an inch from the first. From the end hole hang a scale-pan, as shown above, and in the other fasten a loop to hold the steelyard by. Fill a bottle with sand till it weighs about half a pound — exactness does not matter. Suspend it by the neck to a short loop and slip the loop over the long end of the stick. Put a pound weight on the scale, and slide the bot- tle along till it just balances. Make a notch at this place. Put two pounds in the scale and slide the bottle along till it balances again, making another notch and marking it " 2 " with a pencil. So go on till you have a notch for every pound. Notches for the half pounds can be cut exactly half way between, which will not be far out of the way. To weigh six pounds, for instance, hang the bottle in the six-pound notch, and then put in the pan whatever you wish to weigh, till it balances. Spring Balance. Take a piece of elastic cord which can be stretched to a length of six or eight feet. Fasten one end to a nail near the ceiling, and at the other end tie a wire hook, to which are to be hung the articles weighed. Tie a bit of colored sewing-silk around the elas- tic cord just above the hook. Now fasten successively to the hook the different weights obtained by means of the scales described above, and make a pencil mark on the wall at the spot opposite which the silk stops, each time. Then anything which stretches the elastic just as much as the half pound weight, for instance, must weigh exactly half a pound. To weigh many pounds, a large and strong elastic must be used. Torsion Balance, a weighing ma- chine in which the object weighed is balanced by the " torsion " of a wire, that is, its effort to untwist. A sim- ple one can be made as follows: Torsion Balance. Fasten an iron wire, A B, firmly across a wooden standard like that shown in the picture. At its middle, H, secure one end of a strip of strong, light wood, C and D. This may be done by filing flat surfaces on oppo- site sides of the wire, splitting the end of the wood, fitting the cleft over the wire, and then winding it on both sides of the wire with strong waxed thread. The strip should project horizontally, or point slight- ly upward, when at rest. About an inch from the end tack to the strip a light paper box, D, to hold the ob- ject to be weighed. At the end of the strip, which must be pointed, an SCANDAL 613 SECRET WRITING upright wooden post, F G, is fixed for the scale to be marked on. A pencil mark is made on this, opposite the point of the lever, and then an object whose weight is known is put into the box. Suppose this to weigh an ounce. Mark the spot to which the lever falls, and then divide the space between the two marks into as many equal parts as you wish. If it be divided into ten parts, each will represent a tenth of an ounce. The size of the balance may be large or small, as desired. A short, strong wire will weigh large quantities — a long, thin one, very small ones. By using a fine platinum wire, and a wisp of straw for a lever, the hun- dred-thousandth part of an ounce may easily be weighed. SCANDAL, a game played by any number of persons, who sit in a row or circle. One of them whispers a story in the ear of his neighbor, and he, in turn, whispers it to the next, and so on till it reaches the last, who relates it aloud. The first player gives it as he told it at the beginning, and it will generally be found that the two stories are quite differ- ent. Instead of a story, a single sen- tence spoken very fast may be used. This game isnamed Scandal, because it shows how stories are often changed in passing from mouth to mouth. This game is called also Russian Gossip. SCOTCH WHIST. See Catch THE Ten. SECRETARY, THE, a game played with pencils and paper by any num- ber of persons. A leader is chosen called the Secretary, who gives to each player a slip of paper. After each has written his name on the slip and returned it to the Secretary, the latter shuffles the slips, and gives one to each person, at random, tak- ing care that no one sees any name but that on the slip given him. Each then writes under the name on his slip his opinion of the person bearing it, and then all the slips are given again to the Secretary, who reads them, one by one, aloud. As they are read the person about, whom the opinion is written guesses who its author is, and if the guess is cor- rect the author pays a forfeit. Some- times the players are required to write their opinions in verse, and sometimes, when there are few play- ers, each writes an opinion of every other, instead of only one. When there are few players, the opinions may be whispered by each one to the Secretary, instead of writing them down. That no one may venture to say anything disagreeably person- al, the Secretary should announce the author of each opinion at the close of the game. Another way of playing is for each one to write on his slip an as- sumed name, instead of his real one. After the second distribution of slips, each writes a description of the person he supposes to have adopted the name on the slip. The Secre- tary reads these one by one, an- nouncing the owner of the name at the end of each. SECRET WRITING. The sim- plest and commonest kind of secret writing is that in which every letter of the alphabet is represented by some letter, figure, or mark, and always by the same one. The cor- respondents must each have a key consisting of th j letters of the alpha- bet written in line, and under each the character that is to represent it. y, abcdefghijklmn "'rq4b5o3mzats g d opqrstuvwxyz x^ ^^.. iu- j. + ^«r- -In writ- wxukih72t t ill ing a letter, the figures in the lower row are used instead of those above, and the one who receives it writes down on a piece of paper for each character the one just above it. Thus the following sentence : z ow7db r kwqzdi d5ih zd hm5 rxxs5 hk55 means " I found a robin's nest in the apple-tree." But though this kind of writing looks so mysterious, it is easily read. For instance, sup- pose the key to the above sentence SECRET WRITING 614 SECRET WRITING to be unknown. By looking over it carefully, the first and last letters of the third word from the end are seen to be the same as the first and the last two of the last word. Nowas"hm5" is the only word of three letters in the sentence, it is probably " the." The last word then reads t.ee (put- ting dots for unguessed letters), which must be " tree." The word be- tween " the " and " tree " very likely is the name of the tree. It ends with " e," and its second and third letters are the same. By trying the names of several kinds of trees, it is found that " apple " is the only one that answers. Now the letters standing alone, "z" and " r," are probably " I " and " a ;" and as the latter is the first letter in "apple," the former must be "I." The word of two letters before " the " must therefore be either " it," " is," or "in," and the word before it is te.t, se.t, or ne.t. The first would have to be " tent " or " test," neither of which makes sense. The second is either " seat " or " sent," and the last can only be " nest." If it were "seat," the last three letters of the previous word must be " isa," if "sent," they are " isn ;" if " nest," they are " ins." The second seems impossible, and if we select the letters " r . . ins nest," it is probable that " robin's nest " will occur to us at once. By trial in the same way the second word is found out, and thus the whole sentence is guessed. A long letter is much easier to guess than a single sentence, for then the same characters oc- cur over and over again, and words like "the" can be told at once from their appearing so often. This kind of writing can be made harder by making no spaces between the words, which the one who has the key can easily separate after he has written down the right letters. But even then it is possible to guess it by patient work, remembering that the letters occurring oftenest are the vowels. Another way of varying this kind of writing is to agree on ten or twelve signs which shall mean noth- ing at all, and which may be put in anywhere. Thus, if c, e, f, j, and 1 were such, the first three words of the sentence given above might stand Cjzowe/dlbfjne. The reader who has the key simply strikes out the signs which mean nothing, or disregards them in reading. Another kind of secret writing is that in which every letter is repre- sented by a single character, but not always by the same one. There are many ways of effecting this. For instance, under the letters of the al- phabet may be written three or more different rows of characters. The first time a letter occurs, it is repre- sented by the corresponding charac- ter in the first row, the second time by the one in the second row, the third time by that in the third row, the fourth time by the one in the first row again, and so on. The charac- ters in the three rows must be all different, else even the reader who has the key may be confused. An- other way is to form an alphabet square like that below. X y z bcdefghijklmnopq rstuv hijklmnopqrstuvw klmn o pqr s tuvwx y'z ab bcdefghijklmno pq rstuvwxyz cdefghijklmno defghi j klmnop q rstuvwxyzabc fgh i jklmnopq rs t uvwxy z ab cd f gh i jk Imnopq r s t uvwxyz a b c de ghi j klmnopqr s t uvwxyza b c d ef hi j k Imnopqrs tuvwxyzab c d e fg ij klmnopqrs tuvwxyzabc de fgh jklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghi klmnopqrstuvwxy z abcde fgh ij Imnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefgh ijk mnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghi jkl nopqrstuvwxyzabcdefgni jklm opqrs tuvwxyzabc defghij klmn pqr s t uvwxyzabcd e fgh i j klmno' i j klmnopqr j k 1 m n o p q rstuvwxyzabcdef stuvwxyzabcdefg tuvwxyzabcdefghi j klmnopqrs uvwxyz abcdefgh i j k Imnopqrst vwxyzabcdefghi j k 1 mnopqrs tu wxyz ab c defghi j k 1 m nopqr s t uv xyzabc d efghij klmn opqrs tuvv« yzabcde fgh ijk Imno pqrst uvwx zabcde fghij klmnop qrstuvwxy SECRET WRITING 615 SECRET WRITING A word is then agreed on by the correspondents as " key-word." Let us suppose it to be " Cyclopae- dia." When a sentence is to be written, the key-word is first writ- ten under it. Thus : I hope to see you on Monday next, c yc 1 o pa edi acy cl opaedi acyc. To find the letter representing any given letter in the sentence, begin at that letter on the left of the al- phabet square, and follow a horizon- tal line till you come immediately below the corresponding letter of the key-word. Thus, the first letter in the sentence is " I," the correspond- ing one of the key-word is " c." The lecter in the same line with " I," which has " c " at the top of its col- umn, is found to be "k." In the same way, beginning at " h " and running along the line until we are under "y," we find "f" for the second letter. The sentence reads thus when completed : K fqas io whm yqs qy adnhdg ngvv. To translate it, the one who re- ceives it writes the key-word above it, and then, beginning at the left of the square with each key-word letter, follows the line till he comes to the letter just under it in the cypher. The letter at the top of the column will be the one he wants. Evidently this kind of secret writing cannot be translated without the key-word ; but when that is once obtained, the task is easy. If the sentence is separated into words, some of them may often be guessed, after several trials, and the key-word found out by the alphabet square. To avoid this, the correspondents may run their words together, or use a long sentence as a key-word — a proverb or quotation, for instance. Many other ways of making different characters represent the same letter at different times may be devised with a little ingenuity. Another kind of secret writing is that in which each word is repre- sented by a separate character, or by another word. If each word is to have its own character, as in the Chinese language, then each corre- spondent must have for his key a list of the words likely to be used, and the character belonging to each. This is awkward, and is sel- dom done. An easier way is to select some dictionary or vocabulary in which words are arranged alpha- betically, and agree that each word shall be represented by the word in the same position a certain number of pages ahead. This method was used in the famous political " cy- pher dispatches" in 1876. For in- stance, suppose Webster's Diction- ary (edition of 1890) be selected, and it be agreed that every word shall be represented by the one three pages farther on. Then " day," which is the second word on page 336, is rep- resented by " debit," the second word on page 339, and so on. An- other way is to select a book, and refer to a word by giving its page and number. Thus, 153-87 might mean the 87th word on the 153d page. Of course pages should be chosen in which the desired word comes near the top, to save count- ing. It may be agreed that when a line is drawn beneath the number, the counting is to be done from the bottom. But the most secret kind of writ- ing is that in which the very fact that there is any secret message at all is concealed. Any one who sees a letter written in one of the ways described above, knows at once that there is something to be concealed, and the object is sometimes to hide even that fact. This is usually done by writing what appears to be an ordinary letter in such a way that certain words, taken in order, form the secret message. For instance, it may be agreed that every seventh word in the letter shall makeup the message. Suppose it is wished to send the message, "Our plan has failed." Some such letter as the following may be written. " Dear seegI^ 6i6 seegX Fred : Will you come to our house on Tuesday, the 30th ? Our plan is to have a little picnic. Has John been in town lately? He failed to put in an appearance yesterday." The seventh words of this note, as will be seen by counting, make up the desired message. Another way to mark the words forming the mes- sage, is for each of the correspond- ents to have a sheet of blank paper with holes cut in various places, the holes in the two sheets matching exactly. The writer places his sheet over the paper on which he wishes to write, and writes the words of his message through the holes. Then he removes the sheet and fills up the spaces with other words, so as to make the whole read like an ordinary letter. The one who receives it places his sheet of paper over it, and reads the message at once through the holes. Both these methods require some skill. An easier way is to mark the words of the message by writing them in a slightly different hand, or by placing a minute dot, or other sign, under each ; but this, unless done very skilfully, is apt to betray the secret. Still another kind of secret writ- ing is that which is done, wholly or in part, with "sympathetic ink." This is some fluid which is invisible when first put on the paper, but is brought out by heating or applying some chemical. The whole letter may be written in the ink, or it may be used simply to mark words in what appears to be an ordinary letter. If the letter be written with water in which chloride of cobalt has been dissolved, the writing will be invisi- ble till it is heated. If it be writ- ten with a weak solution of boiled starch, it will appear blue when brushed over with iodine. Words written with copperas dissolved in water appear brilliant blue when the paper is dipped in a solution of prussiate of potash. SEEGA, a game played by two persons on a checker-board of twenty-five squares (five on each side), with twenty-four men of two colors, generally black and white. An ordinary checker-board and men will do if the board be reduced in size by strips of paper. It is played alternately and consists of two parts — placing the men and moving them. The player having first move places two of his men wherever on the board he chooses, either on adjoining or far separated squares. The second player lays down two men in like manner, and this is continued alternately until all the men have been placed on the board, care being taken by both players to leave the centre square unoccupied. When the men are thus placed, the first player moves one of his men backwards, forwards, or side- ways, but never diagonally. Evi- dently the first move must be into the middle or vacant square. Each player tries to move so as to catch one of his adversary's men between two of his own in horizontal or in perpendicular lines, not in a diago- nal. A man so caught is removed from the board. If, however, in moving, one player moves one of his own men between two of his opponents, he suffers no loss ; a capture must be forced by the op- ponent. If the player who has cap- tured one of his adversary's men can put a second or a third in danger by moving his own again, he has the right to do so ; but this move must be made before he has laid down the captured man. If one player becomes blocked and unable to move, the other either continues moving until he opens a way for the first, or lie has to remove one of his own men from the board, selecting one that per- mits the first player to move. The game is continued until one or the other player has lost all but one of his men. The method of placing the men SEEGA 617 SEE-SAW and the various moves will be easily learned from the following illustra- tive game, the diagram showing the men as placed before moving : • • • • • • • • • • • White 1 C 3A 2 B 2 E I D 5A BCD Setting the Men. (Mr. W.). and 2 C and 3 B and 4 B and 4 E and 5 B and I E Black (Dr. B.). 3 D and 3 E 4 C and 5 C 2 D and 4 D 1 B and 5 D 2 A and 4 A I A and 5 E Moves. 2Ct0 3C 2Dt0 2C 2 B 8 3B X 2 9 3A 1 C 2C 2 B 2 E I E X3E 15 i6 17 18 19 20 2D 1 D 5B 4B 2 E I E to3C C to 2 A to 2 C to 2 B to 2 C to 2 D to 2 E to 2 C to I E to 4 B to 3 B to 2 D to 2 E and 3 C 2 A to 2 B 2 B to 3 B X and to 3 A A I B to I C I A to I B 3 D to 3 C X 3 C to 3 D 3 D to 3 E X 2C 4E 4Cto3C X 2 C and 3 C to 4 C X 4 B I C to I D 5 C to 5 B 4Cto3Cx3B 4Dto3Dx2D I D to I E X 2 E And Black wins. History. Seega is an Egyptian game, probably of great antiquity. It is played much by the peasantry in Egypt and by the Bedouins in the desert, generally with black and white pebbles in holes made in the ground. The common game is with twenty-five holes or squares, like that described, but it is some- times played with forty-nine squares and forty-eight men, or with eighty- one squares and eighty men, though the latter makes it of tedious length. The holes or squares in the seega or board are called by the Egypt- ians oyoon (eyes), and the men kelb (dogs). Lane, in his " Modern Egyptians" (3d ed., 1842), says: " Several Seegas have been cut upon the stones on the summit of the great pyramid, by Arabs who have served as guides to travellers." Dr. H. Carrington Bolton, of New York, to whom we are indebted for an account of the game, saw it played by Bedouins in the desert of Mt. Sinai with pebbles in the sand. The game given herewith was actually played by him with a friend on a Peninsula and Oriental steamer. SEE-SAW, a board balanced at its middle over a block of wood or a fence rail. A person sits on each end, and the two, by pushing with their feet against the ground, make the ends move up and down alter- nately. The board should be as long as possible without bending, and the point on which it is bal- anced should be so high that the feet of the person on one end are well off the ground when those of the one on the other end are touch- ing it. Sometimes a third person, called the " Candlestick," stands in the middle and aids the motion first with one foot and then with the other. When those who ride on the see- saw are equal in weight, the plank must be balanced exactly in the middle, but otherwise it must rest SENSITIVE FLAMES 6t8 SENSITIVE FLAMES Ancient See-Saw. on a pivot nearer the heavier per- son. The light rider, therefore, has a longer ride, and moves faster than the other. See-sawing is a very old amuse- ment. An ancient French see- saw, called Bascule Double (Double Swing-down) is shown on the fol- lowing page. The boards swing on pivots A A in a standard E, and move at right angles to each other. B is a cushion, C is a back for the rider to lean against, and D a handle for him to hold on by. SENSITIVE FLAMES, Experiments with. Nail a block of wood, A, to a block, D, as shown inthe illustration, and fasten at the top of A a wire, B, with a ring five inches in diame- ter at one end. Lay a piece of wire gauze, C, over the ring. Make a glass jet, E (see Chemical Experi- ments), of tubing about quarter of an inch in outside diameter, the diameter at the opening being about three quarters of this. Bend it at right angles, and stick it with wax on the block E with its tip about two inches under the gauze. Con- nect the jet with a gas burner by rubber tubing, and light the gas above the gauze, where itshouldburn in a thin conical flame about four inches long. This flame is so sen- sitive to noises, that at the sound of a hiss, a whistle, a jingling, or the clapping of the hands, it shrinks at once to a small blue flame. Sensitive Flame. 2. Cover the flame with a tube, T, from seven inches to two feet long, and from three-quarters of an inch to one and a half inches in diam- eter. The best size is about one foot long by one and one-fourth inches in diameter. The tube rests lightly onj the gauze. The flame is now still| moresensitive to high, sharp sounds. SETTO 619 SHADOW PICTURES If the gauze and tube be raised slowly, the flame shortensand finally begins to "sing" loudly. The gauze should now be lowered till the sing- ing just ceases, when the flame be- comes very sensitive, beginning to sing at the slightest sharp sound, but ceasing when the sound stops. The responses are so quick that when, for instance, the word " sen- sitive " is pronounced, the flame sings twice, once for each S. SETTO. See Synthesis. SEVENS AND EIGHTS, or DOM- INO WHIST, a game of cards played by any number of persons with a full pack. The scoring is done with counters, any number of which are distributed equally among the play- ers at the beginning of the game. The whole pack of cards is dealt, one at a time, and then each plays in turn, beginning with the eldest hand. The object of the players is to place the Sevens and Eights in two rows on the table, and then all the other cards in order, by suits. Thus, opposite the Sevens of Hearts mrst be placed in order the Six, Fi\ e. Four, Three, Two, and Ace of Hearts; and opposite the Eight, the Nine, Ten, Knave, Queen, and King of the same suit. No card can be put down out of its regular order except Sevens and Eights, which can be played at any time. Only one card is played at a time. Each one must play if he can, and if he cannot, he must place a counter in the middle of the table to form part of the Pool. He who first gets rid of his cards takes the Pool and in addition each of the other play- ers gives the winner a counter for every card left in his hand. Of course the first card played will be a Seven or an Eight, and the opportunity for playing will gener- ally be greater as the game goes on. A good player often holds I back a Seven or Eight as long as possible, thus preventing others from playing, increasing the pool, ■ and enabling him to get rid of his cards before them. If there is not room enough on the table for the whole pack to be spread out, the other cards may be piled on the Sevens and Eights. The game is sometimes called Domino Whist because the cards are matched on the table somewhat as in DOMENOES, but it does not at all resemble Whist. SEVEN UP. See All Fours. SHADOW PICTURES, shadows thrown on a wall or screen so as to form pictures in various ways. The most common shadow pictures are made by holding the two hands so that their shadows will resemble some animal or bird. To make such pictures well requires consider- able skill. The position of the hands in making several of them is shown in the full-page illustra- tions. Another kind of shadow pictures is made by cutting out figures from sheets of paper and throwing their shadows on a sheet hung in a door- way, the spectators sitting on the opposite side. The best size for the pictures is about three feet long by two feet high. They may be made by cutting out parts of any large woodcut like those in the illus- trated papers, but care must be taken that the figures selected are in profile, so that their shadows will look well. If the exhibitor has any skill at all in drawing, a better way is to make pictures especially for the purpose. They may be drawn on an ordinary newspaper, and no matter how crude they are, they usually look well in shadow. All the pictures are made on paper of the same size, and then the sheet in the doorway is covered with papers pinned to it, all but a space in the middle just large enough to show the pictures, which will then appear in brilliant white on a dark back- ground. There should be two ex- hibitors, each of whom holds a cor- ner of the picture so that it hangs close afjainst the sheet. If there is SHADOW PICTURES 620 SHADOW PICTURES I. Old Man ; 2. Elephant ; 3. Doe ; 4. Rabbit ; 5. Horse ; 6. Negro ; 7. Bear ; 8. Walrus. SHADOW PICTURES SHADOW PICTURE^ 9. Chamois; 10. Hound ; n. Wolf; 12. Goat ; 13. Squirrel • i. B^d Flvinc 15. Mastiff; 16. Mephistopheles. * ^' ^''^^^^^i SHADOW PICTURES 622 SHADOW PICTURES only one exhibitor, the pictures must be fastened to sticks, one end of which he holds ; otherwise he would be obliged to stand between the lamp and the picture. The pictures must be so drawn that no part that is to be cut out completely surrounds a dark part, otherwise the latter will have no support. If necessary, however, such a part may be fastened by pasting very narrow strips of paper from it to other parts of the picture. The shadows of the strips will not show at a little distance. After practice, these pictures can be made very rapidly; and as a lamp and a sheet are the only apparatus necessary to show them, an exhibition can be prepared at an hour's notice. Some of the figures may be cut out of separate slips of paper, and arranged so that they may be moved about, which will add to the amusement. Shadow pictures may also be cut out of paper so as to show as dark figures on a white ground, like sil- houettes. Sometimes they are so r^-^ ^ H-^M^si Shadow Pictures Cut from Papers. ingeniously made that it is difficult to tell what they represent till the shadow is thrown on the wall. In the illustration. Fig. i shows how the paper is cut. Fig. 2 is a sharp shadow thrown by it, and Fig. 3 a blurred shadow. The last gives the proper effect. Portraits may be made for exhibi- tion by throwing the sitter's shadow in profile on a sheet of paper pinned against the wall. The outline of the shadow is traced with a pencil and then cut with scissors. The portrait will be light on a dark ground or dark qn a light ground, according as the outside or inside of the paper is used to cast the shadow. Such portraits may be preserved by pasting them on black paper, and they may then be framed or kept in a portfolio. Care should be taken in tracing the outline that the sitter remains perfectly still, and in Drawing a Siliiouette. low the line exactly. A very smi deviation alters the expression. SHADOW PICTURES 623 SHADOW PICTURES Magic Dance. A second curtain, thrown. This magic curtain must called the magic curtain, is stretched j be perfectly opaque, being made of about two feet behind the white thick black cloth, or of canvas sheet on which the figures are to be ! painted black. In it are several holes which vary in size according to the size of the figures to be ex- hibited, and are arranged as the figures are to be grouped. The lat- ter may be cut out of paper which is pinned over the holes, or they may be painted in colors on glass like a magic lantern slide. If now the exhibitor stand behind the magic curtain with a lighted taper, such as are used for Christmas trees, an image of each figure will be SHADOW PICTURES 624 SHADOW PLAYS thrown on the screen in front. If he hold a taper in each hand, two images of each figure will appear, and if he move the tapers from side to side, or in curves, the figures will appear to move about in like manner. By multiplying the num- ber of tapers, the figures can be made to perform the most compli- cated kind of dance. The other tapers should be held by persons whose movements are controlled by the exhibitor by means of signals previously agreed on. One may hold several tapers by fixing them on cross-pieces nailed on a stick, but the images cast by those tapers will, of course, always preserve the same distance from each other. The effect is heightened if any of the figures can be made to disappear at will, as will be the case if the holes can be stopped up. The best plan is to stretch the magic curtain in a doorway and nail across it thin battens, one just above each hole. Pasteboard flaps are then sewed to the curtain under each hole, and when shut over the holes are fast- ened to the batten by a wooden but- ton; or, cloth flaps may simply be pinned over the holes by an assist- ant. The following is an example of what may be done with this arrangement. Suppose that there are four holes at the corners of a square, and that the figures in them represent old women in various attitudes. It is well to have some of the figures so drawn that they may be made to move either way without seeming to go backward. The holes are all stopped at first, so that the screen is dark. One of the flaps is removed, a taper is lighted, and an old witch starts out on the curtain. By moving the taper she is made to run back and forth, and leap mto the air. The operator must remember that the figure always moves in the opposite direc- tion from the taper, so that to make it leap up he must move the taper down. A second taper is now lighted and another similar figure appears. The two run forward and backward, and leap over and under each other, finally running together and melting into one. Another flap islet down and a different old woman appears. Thus by lighting and ex- tinguishing the tapers and stopping and unstopping the holes, one by one, the figures can be made to ap- pear, disappear, and dance about in the greatest confusion. In order that one figure may not interfere with another, the operator should practise his movements first, while some one on the opposite side of the screen tells him of the effect. This is necessary, since he cannot himself see the screen on which the pictures are thrown. SHADOW PLAYS, plays, in which not the actors, but their shadows, are seen by the audience. They may be spoken plays or pantomime. In any case, a large sheet is hung in a doorway, on one side of which the audience sit, while the actors per- form on the other, their shadows being cast on the sheet by a single lamp, which should be as bright as possible. With more than one lamp, double or triple shadows would be cast. Some skill is required al- ways so to act that the shadows will show the action distinctly. Profiles should be shown on the sheet as much as possible. Where the shadow-play is given in a hall, the shadows are thrown on a curtain of white muslin, which must be made with tightly-sewed seams. The shadows can be made more distinct by wetting the sheet or curtain just before the performance, which may be done with a sponge. Some of the most striking effects in a shadow-play are produced by a per- former's stepping over or under the lamp. In the first case he appears to the spectators to jump up through the ceiling, and in the second to sink through the floor. In those parts of the play where any one is to step over the lamp, it should be SHADOW PLAYS 625 SHADOW PLAYS placed on the floor about six feet from the curtain. Directly behind it should be placed a wooden box a little higher than the lamp, on which the actor can step. This box serves also to protect the lamp from being overturned. When a player is to go under the lamp, it is slowly raised by an attendant, who takes good care to stand so that his shadow will not fall on the screen. At other times, the lamp should stand on a low table about ten feet from the curtain. Some person should be given special charge of it, and should rehearse the pantomime with the performers, so that he will know exactly when to move the lamp. The position of the light must be changed very gradually in all cases. The performers should stand as close as possible to the curtain, as the shadows will' then be nearly of the natural size, and moving the lamp has less effect on them. The arms must be held at equal distances from the light, otherwise one will appear larger than the other. Step- ping over the lamp should be done quickly and with a single movement. All small " properties" are made of pasteboard, and when signs are needed they are cut out so that the letters appear in white on a dark ground. Sawdust or oatmeal is the best representative of water or blood. As any two objects in line with the lamp throw shadows in the same place, many comical effects may be produced. For instance. Shadow Plays. — Fig. i. the shadow of a pasteboard house may be thrown on the curtain, and a man rising slowly behind it may appear to come out of the chimney (Fig. i). Or, in the same way, a man may be shown leaping into a crocodile's mouth, as in Fig. 2. As many of these ridiculous effects as expensive possible should be introduced in the play. The chief advantage of a shadow pantomime is that these effects are very easily arranged, whereas in an ordinary pantomime they require the aid of apparatus which is difficult to make and often SHEEPFOLD 626 SHOOTING Shadow Plays. — Fig. 2. SHEEPFOLD, THE, agameplayed by any number of persons, two of whom are chosen as "Wolf" and "Lamb," while the others join hands in a circle, to form the " Sheepfold," inside of which is the Lamb. The Wolf endeavors to break through the joined hands so as to reach the Lamb, but if he does so, the Sheep- fold opens on the opposite side, let- ting the Lamb out, and closing in time to imprison the Wolf. The latter now tries, in the same man- ner, to get out, and if he does so the Lamb is admitted again. If the Wolf succeeds in catching the Lamb, the two players between whom he broke through the sheepfold last become Wolf and Lamb in their turn. SHOUTINQ PROVERBS. See Proverbs. SHOEMAKER'S WAX, Experi- ment with. Place a cake of shoe- maker's wax on three or four small corks. On the cake put several leaden bullets. Leave the wax alone, and in the Gourse of several weeks the corks will work through the wax to the top, while the bullets will go to the bottom. The reason is that shoemaker's wax, although very tough, has some of the qualities of a liquid. Hence the light corks rise to the top and the heavy bullets fall to the bottom, just as they would in water, if they are only given time enough. SHOOTING. The firearms gener- ally used for sport are the shot- gun, the rifle, and the pistol. For the general description and history of guns, see C. C. T. under Rifle. The rifle and pistol are used for tar- get shooting. In the field the rifle is best adapted to furred game — squirrels, deer, etc. ; and the shot- gun to bird shooting. Shotguns are single-barrelled or double-barrelled. The single is cheaper and lighter; the double has the advantage of giving a quick second shot. In a muzzle-loader the charge is inserted in the barrel at the muzzle and pushed in with a ramrod ; in a breech-loader it is inserted into SHOOTING 627 SHOOTING the chamber at the breech, the gun being opened or "broken" for the purpose. Muzzle-loaders are now almost entirely superseded by modern breech-loaders ; the former cost less, but the latter are more convenient to handle, more safely and more rapidly loaded, and de- cidedly more effective in their work. With a breech-loading shot- gun the sportsman need never turn the muzzle of his gun toward him- self. The charge in a gun consists of powder, shot, and wads, which in a breech-loader are contained in a metal or paper case called a shell, having in its base a cap or primer of percussion powder which explodes Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 4. when struck by the hammer of the gun. The "action" of guns, both that by which they are opened or " broken " to put in the cartridges, and that by which they are fired, usually differs with the maker. Most guns must be cocked, before shooting, that is, the hammer must be pulled back ready to fall on the cap ; but hammerlessguns are made which are cocked by opening the gun to insert the cartridge, and which cannot be setoff accidentally by dropping them on the hammer, as the others can. Cartridges already loaded may be obtained at gun-shops, or shells may Fig. 6. Fig. 7, Fig. 9. Figs. 1-3. Swabbers. Fig. 7. Recapper. Fig. 8. Reloading Tools. Fig. 4. Decapper. Fig. 5. Cartridge-holder. Fig. 6. Charger Fig. 8. Cartridge-extractor. Fig. 9. Charge-measurer. be bought and loaded at home. Metal shells may be reloaded as often as desired ; but paper shells are commonly used only once. The tools for reloading are a de- capper, for removing the old cap, a recapper for putting in a new one, a funnel for pouring in the powder and shot, a wad-seater, a block for holding the shell, and for paper shells a creaser or crimper by which the shell is creased, or its edge turned over, to hold the charge in place. Some of these are shown in the illustra- tion. The new cap should be inserted before loading; for if it explodes then no harm can be done. The powder is then poured in, then wads are inserted, then the shot, and then a lighter wad. Wads are bought ready-made. If the gun is a muzzle-loader, the charge, in the order described above, is put directly into the gun instead of into a cartridge. The quantity of powder and shot, and the size of shot used, varies with the object to be shot at. Loads for different kinds of game are given in the article on Hunt- ing. The ordinary charge for guns with number 10 bore is from SHOOTING 628 SHOOTING 4 to 4i drams of coarse powder and il ounces of shot; for 12-bore, 3 to 3i drams of powder and i^ ounces of shot ; for 14-bore, 2^ to 3 drams of powder and |- to i ounce of shot ; and for i6-bore, 2^ to 2f drams of powder and f to | ounces of shot. The extreme load is 4 drams of powder in a 12-bore, and 5 drams in a lo-bore gun. The sizes of shotguns are des- ignated by numbers express- ing the gauges or diameters of their bore, as 10 gauge, or 10- bore, i2-gauge, etc. The origin of these numbers was this : A ball, of which 10 weigh a pound, fits a lo-gauge ; balls weighing 12 to the pound fit a 12-gauge, etc. ; hence the higher the number of the gauge the smaller is its diameter. Bores range from 4 (large) to 20 (small) ; those in common use are lo's and 12's. Guns are cylinder-bored, that is with the bore of the same diam- eter from chamber to muzzle ; or choke-bored, that is, having the bore " choked " or constricted at a point just back of the muzzle for the purpose of keeping the shot together in their flight through the air. The constriction is from Y^g-o of an inch to -j^^ of an inch. The relative merits of choke- and cylinder-bores are these : A choke- bore, delivering its shot in a more compact mass, will kill more surely at greater distance; but it requires more careful aim; it is specially adapted to wild-fowl shooting. A cylinder gun, because it spreads the shot over a wider circle, requires less careful aim, and is preferable where the game is shot at short range. Young sportsmen usually prefer a cylinder-bore. Many sportsmen prefer to have the right barrel of a double-barrelled gun cylinder-bored and the other choke-bored. The right barrel is used at close range, and the left at long range, because it scatters the shot so little. Choke- bored barrels were described as early as 1787 by a Frenchman named De Marolles, but he did not approve of them and they have been adopted only recently. Jeremiah Smith, of Rhode Island, devised a successful mode of choke-boring in 1827, and was perhaps the first to do so, though the credit is given by some to other inventors. The merits of the system were first ex- explained to the public in 1879 by Joseph W. Long, in his book on " Wild-Fowl Shooting." Mr. Long says that choke-boring doubles the closeness of the " pattern " on the target at 40 yards. The shooting qualities of guns are determined by shooting at a target, usually a sheet of paper, placed at a distance of 40 yards from the muzzle of the gun. On the paper, before or after the gun is fired, is drawn a circle 30 inches in diameter. The marks made by the shot pellets which strike within this circle constitute the " pattern." If a large proportion of the entire charge strikes within the 30-inch space, the gun is said to " pattern closely;" and if the shot are evenly distributed, to "pattern evenly;" the pattern is also designated by the number of the pellets. The force with which the shot are projected is measured by their penetration through the leaves of a book or a pad of paper. A gun which gives good penetration is said to " shoot hard." The stocks of guns vary in length, and crook, bend, or "drop, "to fit different shooters. The length and bend should be such that when the gun is brought to the shoulder the rib or top of the barrels should be in line with the eye and a mark on the same level with the eye. A long- armed shooter will require a long gun-stock ; a long-necked shooter a stock with much drop. In selecting a gun care should be taken to choose one that fits the shooter. Safety. To avoid accidents with a shot-gun or rifle, the following rules should be observed : SHOOTING 629 SHOOTING 1. The sportsman must always treat a gun as though it were loaded, even if he knows it to be unloaded. 2. He should never allow the muzzle to point toward himself or any other person. 3. He should never put his hand over the muzzle. 4. He should take out both cart- ridges before climbing a fence, get- ting into a wagon, or entering a house. If the gun is a muzzle- loader, the caps should be removed in like circumstances, though some people think it unwise to keep a loaded gun in the house uncapped, because some one, thinking it un- loaded, might then put on a cap, snap it, and so discharge the gun. But if Rule I is closely observed, this will never be done. Cleaning. Most people clean their guns after each day's use, but some think that they should never be cleaned. The best way to clean them is to wash thoroughly with very hot water and then oil lightly. Trap Shooting. As shotguns are generally used to shoot birds when on the wing, the first acquirement of the beginner should be to aim quickly and correctly. To attain this practice should first be had on a mark at rest, and when, after re- peated tests, the ability has been acquired to bring the gun to the shoulder with correct aim, the learner should practise hitting small objects thrown into the air, etc. The best practice of this kind is trap shooting. A simple trap may be made of an elastic strip of wood 4 feet long, 3 inches wide, and half an inch thick, one of whose ends is nailed to a heavy board, which is fas- tened to the ground by driving stakes through holes in it. The mid- dle of the strip is supported at such a height that its other end can easily be bent down and fastened to the board by a notched trigger. The end of the strip that is thus secured has a small tin box-lid fastened on it. and when the strip is released, by pulling a string tied to the trigger, anything placed in the box-lid, such as an apple or a potato, is thrown into the air, where it can be shot at. The traps sold by dealers in sporting Fig. 10. — Trap, goods (Fig. 10) are made with steel springs, and throw up artificial tar- gets, generally called "pigeons," of which there are numerous patterns, in general shape like a saucer (Fig. 11). The clay pigeon is very thin and brittle, so that a single shot can break it. When thrown, these " pigeons" imitate very closely the apparent shape and flight of a bird. Fig. II. — Clay pigeon, the rounded edge, which is upward, looking against the sky like the out- line of the back and wings. Glass balls were formerly much used in trap-shooting, but have now gone out of fashion. The moving targets must be brittle, for it is hard to tell whether they are hit or not, unless the shot breaks them. For this reason also very small shot cannot be used, and the gun must not scatter its shot. The trap gives the object shot at great speed at first, so if the ball flies away from the shooter he must fire very quickly. The shooter must stand so that his arms may be free to move swiftly. His weight rests equally on both SHOOTING 630 SHOOTING feet, the left being somewhat ad- vanced, and the upper part of the body bent forward a little. The right hand holds the pistol-grip of the gun, the forefinger touching the trigger, and the barrel rests in the left hand, pointing slightly up- ward. At the word " Pull " the trap is sprung by an assistant, and at the same instant the right hand must be raised so that the gun comes to the level of the right eye, the breech resting in the hollow^ of the right shoulder. The rib between the barrels should be directly under the eye. While doing this, the shooter looks steadily at the point toward which he intends to fire, and when the gun is pointed toward it, he pulls the trigger. Long practice is required properly to bring the gun into position, to aim, and to fire, all at once. Many skilful marksmen never take aim by following the mark with the gun as it moves, (called " making a poke shot,"), but aim and fire instantly, called a " snap shot." This is especially the best way in trap-shooting, for a second's delay enables the object to get beyond safe range, as it moves very swiftly, In hunting, besides the "snap shot," there is another method called the "swing-shot," in which the sportsman swings his gun, till it is a certain distance in front of the bird, and then fires. Some keep the gun moving steadily, some stop it at the moment of firing, and others give it a quick motion to one side. The distance of the point aimed at in front of the moving object depends on the speed of the latter and its distance from the gun, and must generally be learned by experience. If the object to be hit is a bird instead of something thrown from a trap, the rules for handling the gun are the same. Other details will be found in the article on Hunting. In trap-shooting matches each shot is scored as a hit or a miss. In one style of trap-shooting the com- petitors who tie on their scores are divided into classes, and the several prizes are awarded to these classes. Thus if in a match at 10 targets each, with six shooters and 3 prizes, A and B hit 10 each, C, D, and E hit 9, and \. \ A Fds\ 40 )^ M / / Shooter's seor^ Diagram A, Shooter's score. Diagram B. F hits 8, the prizes are awarded thus : I St to ties of 10, 2d to ties of 9, and 3d to F who scored 8, A and B, who tied on 10, may divide 1st. prize, or shoot off to decide which shall have it ; but the one SHOOTING 63T SHOOTING who is defeated in shootingoff the tie receives nothing, and cannot claim 2d nor 3d, even though his score \ \20 yds; X /iOJds.\ / \.. / 4/ V Shooter's scores. Diagram C. / Shooter's scori> Diagram D. is actually better than those of the winner of the other prizes. RULES OF TRAP-SHOOTING. The following rules for matches are selected from those of the Amer- ican Shooting Association, I. Judges and Referee. Sec. i. — Two judges and a referee, or a referee alone, shall be selected to judge. Sec. 2. If the judges cannot agree, the referee shall decide, and his decision shall be final in all tournament or sweepstake shooting. Sec. 3. In individual matches a a referee, scorer, and puller may be agreed upon and named by the con- testants. 3. special Duties of Referee. The referee shall see that the traps are properly set at the beginning of a match, and are kept in order to the finish. He shall endeavor to make the targets conform to the flight and direction indicated in Rule 12. He shall test any trap upon applica- tion of a shooter at any time, by throwing a trial bird therefrom. He may at any time select one or more cartridges from those of a shooter at the score, and must do so when the shooter is challenged by a contestant, and he shall publicly test the same for proper loading ; if a cartridge is found to be improperly loaded, the shooter shall suffer the penalty as provided for in Rule 16. 4. Balk. If any contestant is balked or interfered with, or there is other similar reason why it should be done, the referee may allow an- other bird. 5. Shooter at the Score. In all contests the shooter must be at the score within three minutes after his name is called to shoot, or he for- feits his rights in the match. 6. Scorer. A scorer shall be ap- pointed by the management whose score shall be the official one. All scoring shall be done with ink or indelible pencil. The scoring of a lost bird shall be indicated by a o, and of a dead bird by a i. 7. KeepiJig the Score. Sec. i. The call for a broken bird shall be " Dead bird," and the call for a missed bird shalt be " Lost bird." Sec. 2. When two judges and a referee are serving, one of the judges shall announce the result of each shot distinctly, and it shall be called back by the scorer. If the with the SHOOTING 632 SHOOTING decision of the judge calling, he shall announce it at once before an- other bird is thrown, and the referee shall decide it. In the event of an- other bird being thrown before the referee's decision, the bird so thrown shall be " No bird." 8. Broken Birds. A bird to be scored " Dead bird" must have a per- ceptible piece broken from it while in the air ; a " dusted " bird is not a broken bird. No bird shall be re- trieved for shot marks. If a bird be broken by the trap, the shooter may claim another bird, as provided for in Rule 19; but if he shoots, the result must be scored. 9. Announcing the Score. At the close of each shooter's score the result must be announced; if claimed to be wrong, the error, if any, must be corrected at once. 10. Screens. Either pits or screens, or both, may be used, but the screens must not be higher than is actually necessary to fully protect the trapper. 11. Arrangement of Traps. All matches shall be shot from three or five traps, set level, five yards apart, in the segment of a circle (see Diagrams A and C), or in a straight line (see Diagrams B and D). When in a segment of a circle, the radius of the circle shall be eighteen yards. In all cases, the shooter's score shall not be less from each trap than the rises pro- vided for in Rule 14. The traps shall be numbered from No. i on the left to No. 3 or No. 5 on the right, consecutively, according to the number used, as shown in the diagram. 12. Adjusting Traps. Sec. i. All traps must throw the birds a dis- tance not less than 40 3^ards nor more than 60 yards, and each trap must be tested for this standard dis- tance before the shooting begins. If any trap be found too weak to throw^ the required distance, a new trap or spring, that will, must be substituted. Sec. 2. The lever or projecting arm of the trap shall be so adjusted that the elevation of the bird in its flight at a distance of 10 yards from the trap, shall not be more than 12 feet nor less than 6 feet, and the angles of flight shall be as shown on the diagrams. Sec. 3. After the traps are set for these angles, if the bird for any reason shall take a different course, it shall be considered a fair bird, provided the trap has not been changed. 13. Pulling the Traps. Sec. i. The puller shall be placed at least six feet behind the shooter, and when the shooter calls " Pull," the trap, or traps, shall be instantly sprung. In single bird-shooting, he shall pull the traps as decided by a trap pulling indicator, if one is used. Sec. 2. Traps may be pulled in regular order from Nos. i to 3, or i to 5, or vice versa, if so decided by the management. Sec. 3. If the shooting is from traps to be pulled in regular order, the shooter may refuse a bird from a trap not so pulled ; but if he shoots the result shall be scored. Sec. 4. If the trap is sprung be- fore, or at any noticeable interval after the shooter calls " Pull," he can accept or refuse the bird ; but if he shoots the result shall be scored. Sec. 5. Should any puller not pull in accordance with the indicator, he shall be removed, and another puller substituted. 14. The Rise. In single bird shoot- ing the rise shall be : 18 yards for lo-bore guns. 16 yards for 12-bore guns. 14 yards for 14 and i6-bore guns. 13 yards for 20-bore guns. In double bird shooting the rise shall be : 16 yards for lo-bore guns. 14 yards for 12-bore guns. 12 yards for 14 and i6-bore guns. 1 1 yards for 20-bore guns. SHOOTING 633 SHOOTING 15. Calibre and Weight of Gun. No gun of larger caliber than a 10- bore shall be used, and the weight of all guns shall be unlimited. 16. Loads. Charge of powder un- limited. Charge of shot: For lo-bore guns, i 1-4 ounces. For i2-bore guns, i 1-8 ounces. For 14 and i6-bore guns, i ounce. For 20-bore guns, 7-8 of an ounce. 17. Loading Guns. In single bird shooting, only one barrel shall be loaded at a time, and the cartridge shall not be placed in the barrel until after the shooter has taken his position at the score. In double bird shooting both barrels shall be loaded at the score. Cartridges must be removed from the gun be- fore leaving the score. 18. Position of Gun. Any the the shooter may adopt. 19. Allowing another Bird. (Known or Unknown Angles.) Sec. I. The shooter shall be al- lowed another bird for the follow- ing reasons : A — For a bird broken by a trap. B — For any defect in the gun or the load, causing a miss-fire. Sec. 2. When the shooting is at known angles he shall have another bird from the same trap; but if the shooting is at unknown angles he shall have another bird from an un- known trap, to be decided by the in- dicator, except in case it be the last trap, when the shooter has a right to know which trap is to be sprung ; in this case he shall have another bird from same trap. 20. Sifigle Bird Shootijig. Each contestant shall shoot at three or more birds before leaving the score, when the traps are set in the seg- ment of a circle. It two birds are sprung at the same time it shall be declared " No bird." 21. Double Bird Shooting. Both traps must be pulled simultaneously, and each contestant shall shoot at three pairs consecutively, thrown as follows: If three traps are used, the first pair shall be thrown from traps I and 2; the second pair from 2 and 3, and the third pair from i and 3. If five traps are used, the first pair shall be thrown from traps 2 and 3, the second pair from 3 and 4, and the third pair from 2 and 4. If only one bird is thrown it shall be declared " No birds." If a bird is lost for reasons stated in Rule 19, it shall be declared "No birds." If one be a fair and the other an imperfect bird it shall be declared " No birds." If both birds are broken by one barrel it shall be declared " No birds." If a shooter fire both barrels at one bird inten- tionally, it shall be scored " Lost birds ;" but if the second barrel be discharged accidentally it shall be " No birds." Summary. A contestant must shoot at two whole birds while both are in the air, and break or miss one with each barrel to have his score count, and the referee shall be as prompt as possible in calling" No birds," and prevent unnecessary shooting when a bird is broken by the trap. 22. Rapid Firing System. When the traps are set in a straight line and the rapid firing system is to be used, there shall be a screen before each trap on which shall appear the number of the trap, from No. i on the left, and each shooter shall stand at score opposite the trap from which the bird is to be thrown for him to shoot at ; after he has shot at his first bird he shall pass to next score to the right, and so continue until he reaches the end of score, when he shall return to the score opposite No. I, and continue as be- fore until his score is finished. If shooters are annoyed or there is delay in shooting by the smoke of previous shots, the traps may be pulled in reversed order, commenc- ing with the trap on the right. History of Trap-shooting. Until about 1875 live wild pigeons were used for targets at shooting- matches. They were thrown into SHOOTING 634 SHOOTING the air by spring traps much like those just described, and shot on the wing. Sometimes several thousand were killed in one match. Those that were missed escaped, but many were only wounded, and the sport was a cruel one, so Captain Bo- gardus, a well-known marksman, suggested that hollow glass balls should be used instead. As these represented birds neither in shape nor in manner of flight, George Ligowsky, a Cincinnati sportsman, invented the saucer-like "clay pig- eons" which, with various other artificial targets, have nearly every- where taken the place of live birds in shooting-matches. Skilled marksmen have shown wonderful accuracy in trap-shooting. Trap-shooting is said to have been the means of greatly improving modern shot-guns, as it has shown marksmen that the old guns were not fit for firing at such swiftly- moving small objects. Rifle Shooting. The rifle is de- scribed in C. C. T. As the range of this weapon is so great, even more attention must be paid to holding and aiming, than with the shot-gun. In hunting, the rifleman often rests his rifle on a tree or fence to take aim, but no such rests are allowed in target shooting. In firing a rifle from an upright posi- tion the left shoulder is thrown forward, and the right foot placed a step behind the left. The right hand holds the stock with the thumb uppermost, and the forefinger hooked around the trigger. The left arm, with bent elbow, holds the rifle barrel. The marksman bends his head to the right, touching the stock with his cheek, and closing his left eye, looks with the right along the barrel, bringing both sights into line. He aims first below the target, then raises the rifle slowly, pauses an instant just as the target is in line with the sights, and then pulls the trigger. The butt of the rifle should be held firmly to the shoulder, to counter- act the recoil of the weapon. Nearly every one holds his rifle a little dif- ferently. Some riflemen kneel on the right knee in firing, and rest the left elbow on the left knee, sitting either on the heel or side of the right foot. In long-range shooting the marksmen usually sit or lie on the ground, and there are many positions, some of which are curi- ous. Long-range shooting is diffi- cult, for the marksman has to make allowance for the force of the wind, the attraction of gravity, and the drift or deviation of the ball caused by the twist of the rifling. To cor- rect the aim for the wind and for SHOOTING ^3S SHOOTING drift, the rear sight is often arranged so that it can be shifted sidewise, and the rifleman must know just how much to move it for a given range and force of wind. Riflemen describe the direction of the wind by the numerals on a clock-face. The marksman is supposed to be standing in the middle of the clock- face, and the target is at the figure XII. A wind directly from right to left is then blowing from the figure III., and is called a " Three o'clock wind." A wind from a point just to the left of the target is called an " Eleven o'clock wind," and so on. Gravity pulls the ball down so much in going a long distance that in fir- ing at a range of looo yards the rifle must really be aimed at a point about 80 feet above the target, but the rear sight can be moved up and down, so that the sights are in line with the target while the rifle is actually pointing above it. If the sights of a rifle get out of line, the rifle should be fixed in a vise and fired at a target. The sights must then be fixed in line with the hole made by the bullet. Rifle-Matches. In a rifle matcii the competitors shoot at several different distances, called ranges. At Creedmoor, on Long Island, there are ten ranges, one at every hundred yards, from 100 up to 1000, but all these are not used in the same match. The ranges selected depend on the ability of the con- testants, and the kind of rifle used. In a beginner's match with Flobert rifles, for instance, the ranges might even be 10, 25, and 50 feet. The targets are usually the same for each range, the distance being regu- lated by the places (called firing- points), at which the marksmen stand. Each competitor in turn fires a number of shots previously agreed upon, at the shortest range, and then the competitors go to the next firing-point. When two par- ties (called teams) are competing one against the other, the men in the opposing teams fire alternately. In skirmish firing (introduced at Creedmoor in 1886), teams of six men fire at a time, advancing rapidly from one firing-point to another, till they have shot from all of them, and then retiring in the same way. Targets to be used in only one match may be made of wood, but permanent targets are made of iron painted white, with black division lines. After each shot an attendant (called the mark- er) notes where the bullet struck, and then covers its mark with white paint, after signalling the score, as will presently be ex- plained. While he is so doing, a danger signal is displayed, so that no one may shoot when he is in front of the target. During the shooting he retires to a bullet-proof shelter. Behind the target should be a bank of earth, so that no shots may do harm. In a match not held on a permanent range, great care must be .taken to set up the target against a hillside. With very small rifles, many people think it neces- sary only to see that there is a thick high fence, or the side of a building, behind the target, which may be made of paper pinned to the fence ; but there are really no rifles which can be used thus safely. People have been killed by Flobert rifle bullets passing through a wall. The targets are square or oblong, and have painted on them three con- centric circles. The space within the smallest is called the Bullseye, between that and the second the Centre, between the second and third the Inner, and the remainder of the target the Outer. Some- times the Inner is bounded by a square instead of a circle. The size depends on the range. At Creed- moor there are three classes of targets. The first (Fig. i), used at ranges of more than 600 yards, measures 6 by 12 feet. The Bulls- eye is 36 inches in diameter, the Centre 54 inches, and the Inner is a SHOOTING 636 SHOOTING Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Plan of Targets. square of 6 feet. The second class target (Fig. 2), used at ranges of from 300 to 600 yards, is 6 feet square. The Bullseye is 22, the centre 38, and the Inner 54 inches in diameter. The third class (Fig. 3), used at distances less than 300 yards, measures 4 by 6 feet. The Bullseye is 8, the Centre 26, and the Inner 46 inches in diameter. For very small distances the size should be still further decreased. The marker signals the hits to the scorer in any way that may be agreed on. At Creedmoor a Bulls- eye is signalled by showing a white disk, a Centre by a red disk, an Inner by a white and black disk, and an Outer by a black disk. When a bullet hits the target after striking somethingelse.it is called 2iricochet (French for rebound), and is sig- alled by waving a red flag twice, from side to side, in front of the target. When a shot strikes the target support, the flag is raised and lowered thrice in front of the target. The scores of the various hits are as follows : Bullseye, 5 Centre, 4 Inner 3 Outer 2 RULES OF RIFLE SHOOTING. The following rules for rifle matches are condensed from those of the National Rifle Association : I. Rifle matches shall be in charge of an Executive officer, a scorer, and a Range officer. 2. The Executive officer shall have general control of the conduct of the match, and the Range officer shall have charge of all the firing points. 3. The competitors will be sta- tioned not less than four yards in rear of the firing points, until called by the scorer to take position at the firing point. The scorer will sit close behind the firing-point stake. 4. As each shot is signalled, the scorer shall announce the name of the competitor and the value of the shot, and at the end of the score announce in like manner his name and total score. The score shall be open to inspection at all times by any competitor. 5. No sights must be used that cover the target so as to conceal the danger signal. 6. No artificial rests must be used. 7. A breech-loader must not be loaded, nor a muzzle-loader capped, before the competitor takes his position at the firing point. 8. Any objection to the record of a shot must be made before the next is fired. 9. When two shots strike the target simultaneously, the shothav-l ing the higher value shall be marked first, and the competitor whose proper turn it was to shoot will be credited with that value. 10. Any alteration in the score must be signed by the Range officer. 11. When the danger signal is displayed, competitors about to fire will be required to open the breech- lock of their rifles (if breech-loa(^ SHOOTIMG 637 SHUFFLE-BOARD ers). If they leave the firing point, they must witlidraw the cartridge. 12. No rifle shall be cleaned or wiped out except between ranges. 13. If any competitor is not ready to fire when his name is called, he shall forfeit his turn. 14. Competitors will be allowed 01^ minute to each shot. 9^- Ties. Ties shall be decided by the total score made at the long- est distance ; or if those scores are also tied, by the total score at the second distance. If that is a tie, then by the fewest outers in the entire score ; by the fewest inners in the entire score ; and by inverse order of shots, counting singly from the last to the first. In team shoot- ing, if there be still a tie, the com- petitor making the highest score on each side shall fire five rounds at the longest distance. 16. Any competitor violating one of the rules, or refusing to obey an officer of the match, shall not be allowed to compete further. 17. Any competitor firing when the danger flag is shown, or know- ingly discharging his rifle except at his target, shall not be allowed to compete further. This does not apply to a person accidentally firing at the wrong target when no danger signal is up. 18. Any competitor found with a loaded rifle, except at the firing points when about to shoot, shall not be allowed to compete further, 19. Any competitor firing his rifle accidentally may be required to withdraw from the match by the executive officer. History of Rifle Shooting. Rifle clubs have existed in this country for a long time, but scientific rifle matches and organized target prac- tice began in 1873. The National Rifle Association was organized in 1871, and, with the aid of the State of New York, established in 1873 the rifle range at Creedmoor on Long Island, where many matches have since been held. About 25,- 000 men now shoot there every year. SHUFFLE-BOARD, or SHOVEL BOARD, a game played by two or four persons with iron weights, which are slid along a board sprink- led with fine sand. The board is 30 feet long, with slightly raised edges to keep the weights from sliding off sidewise. Lines are drawn across the board five inches from each end, one for a starting line and the other for a finishing line. There are eight weights, or " pieces," weigh- ing about a pound each, and divided into two sets of four each. The players are divided into opposing sides, and each side has one of the sets of pieces. Each player in turn, standing at the starting line, slides his pieces along the board. Each piece that projects partly over the edge of the board scores three points, and each that lies on the finish line or between it and the edge of the board is said to be " in," and scores two points. If no piece is in, the one nearest the line scores one. After a round has been played, the players go to the other end of f+1^ 6 1 8 7 5 3 2 9 4 UioJ Ocean Shuffle-Board. the board and play toward what was the starting line, and they thus change places after each round. Or the sides may play in opposite direc- tions, each keeping its own end of the board. The side wins that first scores 21 points. Shuffle-board is much played on SIEGE 638 SINGLE-LINE DRAWING the decks of ocean steamers, but differently from the way just de- scribed. A figure is chalked on the deck like that shown below. The weights used are of wood, and are pushed from a distance of nine or ten paces by a long staff with a curved end. The players take turns, but nothing is scored till the end of the round, when each is given the number of points marked in the square occupied by his piece. An enemy's weight may be knocked out of the figure altogether, or a friend's shoved in, by a blow from a succeeding player. If a weight remain in the semi-circular space nearest the players, ten is subtracted from its owner's score. The winner must make exactly 50 points ; all in excess of that number are subtracted instead of added ; thus if a player's score be 46 and he make 8 more, 4 points are added to bring him up to 50, and the remaining 4 are subtracted, mak- ing the total still 46. In like man- ner 48 and 3 would make 49, and so on. History. Shuffle-Board was played long ago in England, and its origin was probably similar to that of Bowling, Quoits, and Curling. It was sometimes played on tables with pieces like checker-men. Shuffle-Board was forbidden by law in the reign of Henry VIII., as one of the games that turned the peo- ple from the practice of Archery. SIEGE. See Fox and Geese. SIMON SAYS, a game played by any number of persons, who sit in a circle, or around a table. The l^P^^ says, " Simon says thumbs up," hold- ing out his clenched fist with the thumb uppermost ; " Simon says thumbs down," reversing it ; or "Simon says wiggle-waggle," mov- ing his thumb back and forth. The rest of the players must imitate him whenever he uses the words " Simon says," but when he says simply "Thumbs up," "Thumbs down," or "Wiggle-waggle" no attention is paid to him and the position of the players' hands is not changed. If any one obeys the leader when he should not, or fails to obey when he should, he must pay a forfeit. The leader tries to give his orders in such rapid succession that some of the players will be confused and make a mistake. SINGLE-LINE DRAWING. Puz- zles are often given out in which it is required to draw a certain figure C D G Single-line Drawing. without taking the pen from the paper or retracing a line. This kind of drawing may be called single-line drawing. Given any fig- gure whatever, the following rule will tell whether it can be thus drawn, and if not, with how few lines it can be drawn. Count all the points in the figure where an uneven number of lines meet. There will always be an even number of such points, if there are any at all. Half this number will be the fewest number of lines with which the figure can be drawn. Thus, of the four figures shown, the first has no points where an uneven number of lines meet, the second has two, namely A and C (BC and CD counting as separate lines) the third has four, E, F, G, and H, and the fourth six. Therefore, when a figure is given to be drawn in a single line, the first thing to do is to see whether it be possible so to draw it. Then, if il H SIPHON 639 SIPHON be possible, begin at one of the points where an uneven number of lines meet, but if there are no such points, any point may be taken as the starting-point. When a crossing is reached, it is better always to adopt some one plan and to follow it on all similar occasions to avoid confusion. For instance, the line to the right of the one you are on may be taken, supposing that you are facing the direction of mo- tion of your pencil. Or, you may plan so as always to cross a line, never taking the adjoining one. But if there is no system and you sometimes take one way and some- times the other you will often find that you have left part of the figure undrawn. SIPHON, an instrument for draw- ing liquid out of a vessel over the side. It consists of a U-shaped tube, one of whose branches is long- er than the other. The tube is first filled with the liquid and then the shorter arm is dipped in the vessel, when the liquid will flow over the bend and out of the longer arm. A simple siphon may be made by bend- ing a glass tube (see Chemical Experiments) or of a piece of rub- ber tubing. Instead of first filling the siphon with the liquid, the short end may be placed in the vessel and the mouth applied to the long end. The liquid is brought over by suck- ing it, and when it has" started it will continue to flow. The action should not be started thus, of course,unless the liquid is harmless. EXPERIMENTS, I. Using a bent rubber tube for a siphon, raise and lower the outer end while the water is running. It will be found that the water will run faster the lower the end is, and will stop when the end is just on a level with the surface of the water. The reason is that the difference of weight of water in the two branches of the tube makes the water flow. The greater the differ- ence, therefore, the faster the water will run, and when there is no dif- ference at all, it will stop. The part of the small end that is underwater does not count as part of the tube. 2. Plug the lower end of an ar- gand lamp-chimney with a cork or rubber stopper through which passes the long branch of a glass tube bent into the form of a siphon, the bend and short branch being inside the chimney. Let water flow into the chimney through a tube much smaller than that used for the siphon. As soon as the level of the water reaches the bend of the siphon it will fill the siphon and be at once discharged. Then the supply- tube will fill the vessel again, and so on, the discharges taking place at regular intervals. This arrange- Exp. 2. Tantalus's Cup. ment is often called "the cup of Tantalus," from the old Greek legend of Tantalus, who was said to be doomed to stand up to his chin in water, which receded every time he tried to drink it. The illustra- tion shows the form of the toy sold by makers of chemical apparatus. Cups are sometimes made contain- ing figures of Tantalus, in which a siphon is concealed. Water is allow- ed to run in till it reaches the mouth of the figure, when it suddenly runs out. It is supposed by some people that intermittent springs, which flow at regular intervals, are natural siphons of this kind. The arrange- ment is used practically to "flush " or wash out sewer-pipes at regular intervals. SIREN 640 SIREN Cloth Siphon. Cut a strip of cloth an inch or two wide and about a foot long. Let one end dip in a glass of water raised six or eight inches above the level of the table by means of books, and let the other hang down into an empty glass standing on the table. The cloth, acting as a siphon, will in a short time transfer the water from the upper to the lower glass. SIREN, an arrangement for show- Siren. ing that musical notes are made up of a regular succession of noises. A simple one can be made by having cut out a disk of sheet-iron about a foot in diameter, with holes large enough to admit a lead-pencil around the edge. A similar row containing half as many holes is made a little nearer the centre. The holes in each of these rows must be at equal distances apart. The disk has also a hole in the middle so that it can be fastened to a TwiRLER. A glass tube, drawn out at one end to a jet (see Chemical Experiments), is fixed to the end of a rubber tube. The other end of the tube is held in the mouth, while the jet is held pointing toward one of the holes in the disk. The twirler is now turned, and by blowing through the tube a succession of puffs is heard as the stream of air passes through the holes. Bv turn- SIXTY-SIX 641 SKAT ing faster this series of noises can be made to pass into a musical note, though in this rough form of siren it is mixed with a whistling or hiss- ing sound. The faster the disk twirls the higher the note is, and the smaller row of holes always gives a note an octave lower than the other. If the disk is large enough, the notes of the musical scale can be formed by making eight rows of holes containing successive- ly the following numbers, or num- bers proportional to them : 24, 27. 30. 32, 36, 40, 45. .48. If a glass tube having a cork in one end be placed with its mouth toward the disk, as in the illustration, the sound will grow suddenly louder when the disk reaches such a rate of speed as to give the note to which the tube responds, and this may be varied by pushing the cork backward or forward in the tube. SIXTY-SIX. See Bezique. SKAT, a game of CARDS, played by three, four, or five persons, with a Euchre pack. Only the three at the dealer's left take active part in the game at a time. The dealer gives five cards to each active player, lays two cards face downward on the table to form what is called the "Skat," and then deals five more cards to each. The cards may also be dealt three, four, and three at a time, or two at a time, in which case the skat may be laid out be- tween any two of the rounds. The privilege of playing any one of several different games is now sold to the highest bidder, as follows: The eldest hand first decides on the game that he can play best, de- pending on the cards in his hand, and says, "I ask." (The names of the different games, and the values of the corresponding bids, are given below.) The player on his left then makes his bid, by mentioning the kind of game he can play best, and the eld- est hand, if its value is larger than his own estimated bid, says, " I pass." If his own bid is the larger, he says "Yes," and then the other may bid again or pass. This is repeated till one or the other passes. The third active player then bids against the one that did not pass, in like man- ner. When bidding is over, the highest bidder announces the name of his bid and playing begins. The object of the highest bidder is to make 61 points in the hand. If he does, he scores the amount of his bid ; if not, each of the others, in- cluding the silent players, if there are any, scores that amount. (An exception, in the case of the bid called " Null," is explained below.) In playing, suit must be followed, but if that is impossible any card may he played. In reckoning the necessary 61 points, the cards count as follows for the player taking the trick containing them : Ace, 1 1. Ten, 10. King, 4. Queen, 3. Knave, 2. The Nines, Eights, and Sevens have no counting value. In the lay suits the rank of the cards, beginning with the highest, is Ace, Ten, King, Queen, Nine, Eight, Seven. The four Knaves, which are always the highest trumps, are called " Matadores." and their rank, beginning with the highest, is Knave of Clubs, Knave of Spades, Knave of Hearts, Knave of Dia- monds. (The bid "Null" is an ex- ception to this also, as explained below.) All trumps count as Mata- dores in bidding. The Bids. In some of the bids the suit on which they are based must be mentioned, and the value depends on the trump and on the number of Matadores held, as will be explained. The bids are as fol- lows: I . Simple Game, or Simple. When the highest bidder has bid a simple, the suit named in his bid becomes trumps, unless he chooses to change SKAT 642 SKAT it to a higher suit. (The suits rank is the same order as the Matadores.) The successful bidder takes the Skat into his hand, and then discards two (including one or both of the Skat cards if he wishes). 2. Tournd (toor-nay). The suc- cessful maker turns up as trump one of the Skat cards, and then, taking the Skat into his hand, discards as in simple. But if the turned-up card is a Matadore or a Seven he may change his bid as explained under Grand Tourni, and Null Tourne. 3. Solo. The trump is the suit announced by the highest bidder in his bid, or he may change it to a higher suit. The Skat is not looked at till the close of the hand, when the value of its cards is added to the lone player's count. 4. Grand Solo. This is like Solo, except that no suit is announced with the bid, and the only trumps are the four Matadores. 5. Grand Ouvert. Like Grand Solo, but after the first trick is taken all play with their cards lying face upward on the table. 6. Grand TournS. When the highest bidder has bid Tourne, and turns up a Matadore, he may change his bid to Grand, still taking up the Skat cards, but he may not change if he has looked at the other Skat card. 7. Null Solo. The player making this bid undertakes to win no trick atall, otherwise he loses. No points are reckoned, the Knaves cease to be Matadores, and the cards rank as in whist. There is no trump, and the lone player plays without the Skat. 8. Null Ouvert. The same as Null Solo, except that after the first trick the hand of the bidder is laid face upward on the table, while his opponents play as usual. 9. Grand Null Ouvert, or Revolu- tion. The cards of all the players are turned face upward on the table before the first card is led. The opponents of the highest bidder can exchange what cards they please before playing begins, and can also consult during the game. The lone player takes the Skat into his hand- le. Null Tourni. When the bid der of Tourne turns a Seven he may change his bid to Null, before look- ing at the other Skat card. He takes the Skat into his hand as be- fore, but there is no trump. II. Null Tourni Ouvert. After taking up the second Skat card in Null Tourne he can again change his bid and play as in Null Ouvert. It will aid the learner to remem- ber these bids if he recollects : 1. That in Tourne bids (French Tourne, turned) the Skat cards are taken into the hand, and that one of them is turned for trump (though in Grand Tourne and Null Tourne it does not count as such) ; 2. That in Solo bids (Italian Solo, alone) the Skat is not looked at till after playing is ended ; 3. That in Grand bids the four Matadores are the only trumps ; 4. That in Ouvert bids (French Ouvert, open), one or more hands are exposed while playing; and, 5. That in Null bids the rank of the cards and method of counting is changed. It will be noted that with some of these bids it is much easier for the bidder to make his 61 points than with others, and they are accord- ingly given different values, which the winner adds to his score as be- fore stated. The value of any bid is calculated by multiplying its unit- value (given below) by a number depending on the Matadores in hand and other things, as explained farther on. The unit-values are as follows : In Diamonds, Hearts, Spades, Clubs, Simple, I 234 Tourne, 5 6 T ^ Solo, 9 10 II 12 Grand Tourne, 12; Grand Solo, 16; Grand Ouvert, 24. Null Tourne SKAT 643 SKAT 16; Null Solo, 24; Null Tourne Ouvert, 32 ; Null Solo Ouvert, 48. Revolution, 72. It will now be explained how the numbers are obtained by which the unit-values must be multiplied. Matadores. In announcing any bid except a Null bid, the bidder must say how many Matadores he has in unbroken order, beginning with the highest. In bidding, all trumps count as Matadores. If he has not the highest Matadore (Knave of Clubs) he can announce none. If he has the highest but not the next, he bids "with one Mata- dore," no matter how many lower ones he has. If he has the highest three, but not the fourth, he must bid " with three Matadores," and so on. In the bids where the Skat cards are not looked at till the play- ing is over, any Matadores in the Skat count in reckoning the value of the hand. Thus if a player bid "with three Matadores," having also the fifth, and the fourth is in the Skat, his bid is reckoned as if it had been "with five Matadores." Absence of Matadores counts the same as their presence, as without these cards the difficulty of winning is increased. Thus, if a player has not the highest, he can bid " with- out one Matadore;" if the highest three are wanting, "without three Matadores" and so on. In forming the multiplier of the unit-value, bids with or without i Matadore count I ; with or without 2 Mata- dores count 2 ; with or without 3 Matadores count 3 ; and so on. Sck?ieider and Schwartz. If a player make 91 points in playing he makes his opponents Schneider (German Schneider, a tailor), and if he makes all the points (120) he makes them Schwartz (German Schwartz, black). In these cases he is also said to win Schneider or Schwartz. If he lose, and his op- ponents make 91 or 120 points, they win Schneider or Schwartz. A player may bid to make Schneider or Schwartz, in which case he loses altogether if he does not do so. The value of these points differs according as they are made when bid or not bid. They count toward forming the multiplier as follows : Schneider made, not bid, i. Schneider bid and won, 2. Schwartz made, not bid, 3. Schwartz bid and won, 4. (The loss of a player when he bids and loses Schneider or Schwartz is told below). The value of a bid is found by tak- ing its unit-value, and multiplying by the sum of the points for Mata- dores and Schneider or Schwartz, plus one. Thus, to find the value of a Spade-Tourne bid, without four Matadores, in playing which a Schneider is won: The Unit value is 7. Four Matadores count 4. Schneider won, not bid, counts I. We must therefore multiply 7 by 4-1- 1 -fi, or 6, and obtain 42 as the value of the bid. This seems diffi- cult at first, but with a little prac- tice the value of any bid can be told very quickly. If a player bid to make Schneider and fails to make his 91 points, his opponents score what he would have scored had he won. If he fails to make even 31 points, mak- ing himself Schneider, they score in addition what his bid would have been worth without his announced Schneider. In the case given above, if the player had bid to make Schneider and won, he would have made 49. If he had lost, his opponents would score 49. If he was made Schneider in addition, they would score 49-!- 35, or 84. The game of Skat differs accord- ing to the bid that is made, and to give an example of each would take too much space. The following hints may aid the beginner: The highest bid on which 61 points are likely to be won should SKAT 644 SKAT be made. Making 61 points de- pends not so much on the counting- cards in hand as on those that are likely to be captured. In those bids where the trump is turned, not made, the player should have high Matadores and other high cards to begin with. Solo bids require stronger cards than bids where the Skat is taken into the hand. Null should not be bid unless the player has three Sevens, and no commanding card in his hand. Grand should usually not be bid without four Matadores, unless the other cards are very high. In playing, the highest bidder should remember that all cards not in his own hand are against him (except when the Skat is not taken up). On the contrary, each of the opponents is in doubt as to whether his friend or his enemy holds any card that is not in his own hand. The opponents of the bidder can assist each other in many ways. It is better for the one at the left to get the lead, for then the other will play last, and can put on a counting- card or not, according as his part- ner or the lone player has taken the trick. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. Before the game begins, each player draws a card from the pack. He who draws the lowest is dealer, and the others sit at his left in order, beginning with the holder of the next to the lowest, and ending with the holder of the highest card. If two players draw cards of the same value they must draw again. 2. The deal passes in order to the left, but if more than three play, the dealer is never an active player, cards being dealt only to the three in order at the dealer's left hand. 3. Each player must count his cards before he raises them, to make sure he has the right number. 4. If a misdeal is discovered be- fore a card is led, there must be a fresh deal by the same dealer; but if play begins while a player has the wrong number of cards, his side forfeits the game. 5. If players on both sides begin to play with the wrong number of cards, that hand does not count, and the deal passes to the next. 6. If a player deal out of turn and play has begun, the deal is good, and the next deal passes to the player on his left. 7. In case of two bids of equal value, the elder hand has prefer- ence. 8. The successful bidder may change his bid to a higher, but not to a lower one. 9. If a player revoke, his side loses the hand, unless the revoke is corrected before the next lead. 10. If a card be led, or played, out of turn, it must be withdrawn, unless all have played. 11. A card so withdrawn, or ex- posed in any other way, must be played afterward at the command of an opponent, unless such play would be a revoke. 12. Only the last trick may be looked at. 13. If either or both of the Skat cards are lifted by one who is not entitled to do so, his side loses the game. 14. If the bidder, after the first trick has been played, and before the next lead, sees that he is sure to be beaten, he may throw down his cards and give his opponents their points, thus securing himself against being made Schneider or Schwartz. History. Skat is a German game. It is said to have originated in Altenburg in the present century, and is probably a mixture of Hom- bre. Solo, and other games. It is very popular in Germany, where many different kinds of Skat are played. The kind described here, which is played in America, is called in Germdiny Jiezchskat (Regu- lation Skat). SKATING 645 SKATING SKATINC. Skates are ground either perfectly flat on the bottom, or with a slight groove, so that the sharp edge holds the ice. The bot- tom may be straight, or slightly curved like a rocker. They were formerly always secured to the foot by straps, but now usually by clamps, fastening with a screw or lever. Strap Skates. In the strap skate, if a strap breaks it can be replaced in an instant or mended at any harness-maker's, Clamp Skates. whereas a broken clamp skate can usually be mended or replaced only \ with great trouble, unless the wearer lives in a city, and even then he j must wait some time. But, on the other hand, the strap skate can be buckled securely to the foot only bv pulling the straps so tight that they interfere with the circulation of the blood, making the feet cold and un- comfortable. It also takes much time to put it on properly. Any clamp skate can be put on in a few seconds, but all are apt to come ofi under great strain unless the clamps have been properly adjusted. Those in which the clamps are fitted with spikes sometimes tear ofT part of the sole of the shoe. Screw skates are simple, and can be tightened easily ; but the screw is apt to loosen, and in those where the strain comes directly upon it, it often breaks. Taking all things into considera- tion, a lever skate is best if it is properly used, but skaters with weak ankles should use a heel-strap in addition. Shoes with thick soles must be worn, that the pressure of the clamps may not bend them, and the clamps should be properly ad- justed to the shoes once for all, so that the skates may be fastened by simply moving the lever, without a series of trials to see when the clamps fit properly. The beginner's chief difficulty usually is to keep the ankles stiff. When this has been overconie, he may try walking on the ice on his skates. He will see that it is nec- essary to turn the foot that remains on the ice a little to one side to prevent its slipping back while he is advancing the other, and also that the less he lifts the forward foot the better, it being easier to slide it along the ice, while the rearward foot pushes. At the end of the slide, or stroke, the rear foot is brought forward ready to make a stroke in its turn. The skate-marks will be soi7jething as in Fig. i. (In the diagr.'ims, the full lines show the track df the left foot, the doited ones tha': of the right. The foot- print shows always the position of the skate at the beginning of the stroke.) At the end of each stroke, the foot which is about to leave the ice gives a sidewise push to give impetus to the other. The body SKATING 646 SKATING must be inclined so as to tlirow its weight on the advancing foot. The rear foot may now be held in the air till the forward one has finished its stroke, and the stroke may be lengthened by giving a more vigor- ous push, as in Fig. 2. Plain skat- ing of this kind may be varied in several ways. Thus it may be changed to a motion resembling running, the strokes being nearly straight ahead and the push given by turning the toe slightly. This is Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. an awkward motion, but much used in playing running games, where quick dodging is necessary. The pushing foot, instead of being lifted from the ice, may remain on it, the push being given gradually so that the skate-marks are like Fig. 3. A push is given by the left foot at 2, and by the right foot at i, but after the stroke has been learned this push is scarcely perceptible even to the skater. The body is inclined in the direction of the stroke, as in ordinary skating. From this point the skater should practise with a view to using the outside edge. If in making the stroke the opposite shoulder should be thrown a little forward, and the body inclined toward the advancing side, the skate will rest on its outside edge and the skate-mark will be more of a curve, as in Fig. 4 or Fig. 5. To avoid changing to the inside edge of the skate, in giving the push for the next stroke, the rear Fig. 4. Fig. 5. foot may be crossed over the ad- vancing one in beginning the stroke, Fig. 6. Fig. 7. after being swung slowly around to aid the advancing foot in making Fig. 8. Fig.9. the curve. Skilful skaters can easily make a complete circle on SKATING 647 SKATING the outer edge of one skate, and another on the other in an opposite direction, as in Figs. 6 and 7, thus moving over and over on a figure 8. Inside Edge. Figs. 8 to 11 show the same strokes made on the inside edge of the skate, which is some- what more difficult. Fig. 10, Fig. II. Combinations. By using the out- side edge always with one foot and the inside with the other, a circle is described on the ice in the direction of the foot that skates on the out- Fig. 12. Fig. 13. side edge. Each foot must be crossed over the other at the begin- ning of its stroke, but the foot on the outside of the circle must be crossed farther than the other. Figs. 12 to 15 show other combinations of inside and outside edge. To skate backward, the learner must reverse the directions given above for skating forward, begin- ning by trying to walk backward slowly on his skates. By combining the inside and outside edges, for- ward and backward, a great variety V Fig. 16. Fig. 17. of fancy steps can be executed, of which hints for several are given in Fig. 18. the diagrams. Fig. 19. Figs. 16 to 22 show backward motions alone. Figs. 23 SKATING 648 SKATING to 26, combinations of forward and backward. The simpler ones may be understood without explanation- In Fig. 13 the feet follow nearly the same path, the left leading. In Fig. 25 the feet both move forward at Fig. 20. Fig. 22. first, the left on the outer edge from i to 2, and the right on the inner from 4 to 5, then both change to the backward stroke, the left taking the inner and the Fig. 25. right the outer edge. In Fig. 26 there is a change from forward to backward, or the reverse, at each angle in the curve. Fig. 27 shows attitudes in skating. Fig. 26. Stopping. When the skate run- ners are not curved up behind, the easiest way to stop is to rise on one or both heels, thus digging them into the ice. When the skates are curved behind, one skate may be held at right angles to the forward direction and tipped slightly, so that its edge will scrape. Another way is to place both feet in nearly a straight line, the heels toward each other, so that the skater describes a circle, till his motion is spent, or the feet may be held firmly at a slight angle with the toes pointing a little inward. Safety. A skater may glide over unsafe ice by motion previously gained where it would be dangerous to make a stroke. Ice will also sup- port one lying flat on it when it would break if he stood upright, be- cause when he is lying down his weight is distributed, instead of pressing all on one spot. The strongest ice is that generally known as "black" ice, being per- fectly clear and free from air bub- bles. It is not really black, but perfectly transparent, and the skater over it can sometimes see objects at the bottom of the stream dis- tinctly at a depth of fifteen or twen- ty feet. It appears black because it does not reflect the light of the sky, as bubbly or snow-ice does. Black ice half an inch thick, which SKATING 649 SKATING rests directly on the water, will bear a skater. It is very tough, and bends greatly before it breaks, little cracks running through it in all di- rections. Ice filled with bubbles is Fig. 27. not so tough, and ice which has snow mixed with it is weakest of all. Snow-ice two inches thick is no safer than black ice half an inch thick. It bends very little and cracks suddenly. In general, it is best not to venture on ordinary ice till it is three or four inches thick, and to examine carefully in a thaw. When the water in a pond or river falls after the ice has formed, the ice falls with it in the middle, but is held up by the shore on the edges. Near the shore, therefore, it is not supported by the water, and is more apt to break. It often parts from the shore by its own weight, or long cracks run along the banks with a loud noise, called " boom- ing." Ice on any water is safe in some places and unsafe in others. Springs or currents of slightly warmer water may prevent the water from freezing, making "air- holes," or even large open spaces. The channel of a river, or the parts of a lake near the inlet or outlet, usually freeze last, because the wa- ter there is in motion ; and when they freeze, they usually become covered with black ice, so that it is difficult to tell at a distance whether they are open or not. No skater should venture on such a place till he knows it to be safe. On lakes surrounded by hills, gusts of wind often blow continually in certain places, keeping the water in mo- tion, so that it does not freeze, and there are there- fore large open spaces. When a skater is in doubt as to whether ice will bear or not, the best way is to test it by throw- ing a heavy stone on it. Should the skat- er find that he is on a weak spot, he should not stop, but turn in a sweeping curve and get off as quickly as he can, without straining the ice by taking a stroke, if he is going fast enough. If necessary, he may lie down and roll to a place of safety. If he go through the ice and the water be over his head, there is nothing to do but to seize the edge of the hole and cry for help. As he goes in he should stretch out his arms on either side as far as possible. If he has slipped into an air-hole, the surrounding ice may be strong enough to let him climb out unaided. His compan- ions should get a board or fence- rail and shove it out to him. If none is at hand, one skater should lie flat on the safe ice and one lying behind should push him, holding his feet, as near the hole as possible; another may, if necessary, lie be- hind the second, and so on until the line reaches safe ice. So long as each holds tightly, no one can be carried under the ice even if it break again. Unless the weather is very cold the skater should not wear his over- coat. He may wear a knit woollen jacket under his coat. Skaters often build fires on the ice, which, es- pecially at night, adds much to the SKATING 650 SKATING sport. A fire may be built on mod- erately thick ice without danger; for the layer of ashes that forms beneath it is a non-conductor of heat, and prevents the ice from melting. Skating Contests. These are of two kinds — races and contests of skill in fancy skating. The former are usually governed by the same laws as running races (see Athlet- ics), and the latter are regulated by the rules given below, or similar ones. The programme of events is made out beforehand, and includes a number of well-known movements, ending with an exhibition of " spe- cialties," in which each skater per- forms such other figures as he wishes. When a skater begins to execute his figure he is said to " take the surface." The judges decide at the opening of the contest on a scale of marking, which may range from o for the poorest up to 10 for the best. RULES OF SKA TING CONTESTS. 1. The judges shall, at the com- pletion of each movement in a con- test, mark on a slip of paper the number of points for each contest- ant, and deposit the slip in a closed box; these slips shall not be referred to till the close of the contest, when the judges shall foot up all the slips, and the number of points gained by each contestant shall constitute their award, which shall be final. In case of a tie the contest shall be decided by a general display of com- bined movements at the option of the contestants. 2. The order of taking the sur- face by each contestant shall be de- cided by lot, and the number of figures to be executed shall be de- termined as nearly as possible by the number of contestants. 3. No point shall be given for a movement under the head of spe- cialties, if the skater who executed it has executed the same movement during the programme ; but if the skater, under a particular figure ex- ecutes a movement which the judges rule to belong to another figure, or to specialties, the skater shall have the right to execute that figure in its proper pl.ace. 4. In specialties, the leading con- testant shall execute one specialty, which his opponent shall then exe- cute if he can ; the second contest- ant shall then execute another, to be copied by his opponent, if he can, and so on, leading alternately till the contestant whose turn it may be to lead shall not be able to exe- cute any more, when he shall sit down, and the judges shall score on the merits up to that point. 5. When the contestant falls in executing any movement he shall forfeit one point; if, however, the judges unanimously consider the fall to have been occasioned by un- avoidable accident (such as an ob- struction in the surface, or the breaking of a skate), they may allow him to recommence the figure with- out forfeit. In specialties, a fall only counts against the skater in the particular specialty in which it oc- curs. When any part of the person except the feet or hands touches the surface, the skater is considered to have fallen. Skier or Snow-skates. These hold a middle place between ice-skates and SNOW-SHOES. They are much used by the Norwegians, who are very skilful with them. Formerly regiments of soldiers in Norway were equipped with skier, on which they performed many remarkable evolutions; but the last body of this kind was disbanded in i860. The ski is a strip of wood 5 feet long, 2^ to 3^^ inches wide, and i to \\ inches thick, tapering toward the ends, and having the toe turned up to the height of about 4 inches. The movement of the snow-skater is a sort of shuffle, and the skilful wearer can go on these skates very swiftly along a level surface of hard- ened snow, or even up a steep in- cline, by zig-zagging. Down-hil] SKATING 65 1 SKATING motion requires no effort, the skater simply coasting, as on a sled. Roller-skating. In 1819 skates having three rollers of copper in place of the runner were used in Paris, but they were not popular. On April 16, 1849, they were used in the same city in the skaters' ballet in Meyerbeer's opera of " The Prophet." But the first successful roller-skate was invented in 1869 by James L. Plimpton, of New York. It rests on four wooden wheels, two at the toe and two at the heel, so hinged that they remain fiat on the surface even when the foot is inclined to one side. The principle is shown in the illustra- tion, in which AB represents the foot-piece, RR two of the rollers, e an inclined pivot on which the roller-axle turns, and which is fast- ened to the foot-piece at a. If the body inclines, turning over in the direction of the lower arrow, the foot-piece tips up as shown at vx, and the wheels are thrown around so that the skater moves off in the direction of the arrow z. The curve described by the skater is thus toward that side on which he inclines his body, just as in skating *-!> Principle of the Roller-skate. on ice. Roller-skating began to be popular in the United States about 1875, and from 1884 to 1886 it amounted to what is often called a "craze." Every town had its rink, and there were few persons who did not at least try the sport ; but since that time it has declined in favor. Many games were played on skates in the rinks, especially POLO. The principal difference be- tween ice-skating and roller-skat- ing is that the later requires more exertion, since the friction is great- er ; but the motion is not quite the same, and a good ice-skater is often unable to use roller-skates the first time he tries them on. History. Skating probably origi- nated in the north of Europe, where skates have long been used to travel from place to place on the ice ; but skating as a sport has been devel- oped in temperate countries where there is less snow, such as England, States. In Holland, where there are many canals, skates are widely used. The earliest skates were of bone fastened to the feet with cords. Such skates were used in London in the reign of Henry II., but the sport first became common in Eng- land in 1662, after the restoration of the Stuarts. It was not until 1830 that the first club devoted to figure-skating was formed in Eng- land, but since that time the art has been greatly developed, and hun- dreds of new figures invented, some of which require the co-operation of as many as eight skaters. Ameri- can skaters also are very skilful in figure-skating, and they hold the best records for fast skating. The fastest times for various distances are given in the appendix. In 1886 the National Skating As- sociation was organized, and it has since held annual contests for the Germany, Holland, and the United championship in or near New York SKATING 652 SKATING City. The events in these contests are races for one hundred yards, one furlong, quarter mile, half mile, one mile, five miles, ten miles, and twenty-five miles, and a trial of skill in figure-skating. Skate-sailing. On a windy day it is possible to move very rapidly, let- Skate-sailing. — Fig. i. ting the wind blow the skater along, on both sides, or carry an open um- brella; but to get back, it is nec- essary to skate against the wind. If the skater carries a frame fitted with a sail, so that he may turn it at an angle with his course, he may with practice "tack" back like a sail-boat (see Sailing). Skate-sailing. — Fig. 2. There are several forms of skate- especially if he hold out his overcoat 1 sails. The oldest is stretched on an Skate-sailing.— Fig. 3. oblong frame about three feet high by six feet long, and carried by a spar running horizontally along the middle. The " Cape Vincent" rig (Fig. i) is triangular, the longest side being from eight to fifteen feet long. The " Norton rig (Figs. 2, 3) invented by Col. Charles L. Norton (late president of the Canoe Club), of New York, consists of two sails, each about three feet three inches square, fastened together corner- SKATING 653 SKATING wise, about a foot apart, by a spar made of two strips of wood, as seen in the illustration. The skater stands between the sails (Fig. 3), thus having nothing to obstruct his view. The sails are kept stretched by being buttoned to the ends of the spar and yards, and are connected by a short rope. Any of these rigs may be made of light wood and stout cot- ton cloth. The rig is held firmly in the hands or under the arms, and any one who understands sailing a boat will be able to move in any direction by its aid, if there is plenty of wind. The English Rig is a small lateen sail (see Sailing) fastened to a mast which rests in straps bound around one of the skater's legs. He holds the rig by passing one arm around the mast, and grasping the upper spar with the other (Fig. 4). It has Skate-sailing. — Fig. 4. the disadvantage of being fastened to the sailor, so that he cannot eas- ily get loose in case of accident. Skate-sails have long been in use in Norway, Denmark, and other northern countries (Fig. 5 shows one of the rigs used there), but they have only recently been introduced into this country. The sport has be- come popular in some towns. The following rules are suggested by Colonel Norton for the govern- ance of skate-sailing regattas. The nautical terms are explained in the article on Sailing. Skate-sailing. — Fig. 5. RULES OF SKATE-SAILING. 1. Those on the port tack must give way to those on the starboard tack. 2. When moving side by side, or nearly so, on the same tack, those to windward must give way to those to leeward when requested to do so, if there is an obstacle in the course of the leeward most. But the leeward skate-sailor must go about or change his course at the same time as the windward skate- sailor, or as soon as he can without coming into collision. The new direction must be kept at least un- til the obstacle has been cleared. 3. When side by side, as in Rule 2, and approaching a windward ob- stacle, the leewardmost must give way when requested to do so. But the windwardmost must change his course at the same time as the lee- wardmost, or as soon as he can do so without coming into collision, and the new direction must be kept, at least until the obstacle has been cleared. 4. When running free, it rests with the rearmost ones to avoid col- lision. 5. Those running free must al- ways give way to those on either tack. 6. Violators of any of the forego- ing rules in the course of a race shall forfeit all claim to victory. 7. A touch, whether of person or of rig, constitutes a collision, either with another skate-sailor or with a mark or buoy, and he who is re- sponsible for it, under the rules, forfeits all claim to the victory. SKIPPING ROPE 654 SLINGING 8. No means of locomotion other than that afforded by the wind are permissible during a race. SKIPPING ROPE. See Jumping Rope. SKIPPING STONES. See Duck AND Drake. SLAP-JACK, a game played by not more than ten persons, with a full pack of cards. The cards are dealt and placed as in everlast- ing, but each player plays only one card at a time. When a Knave or "Jack" is thrown on the table, all the players try to slap it, and the one who does so first takes all the cards in the middle of the table and adds them to his pile. The object is to obtain all the cards, and he who does so is the winner. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. Each -player must turn his cards face outward so that the other players will see them first. 2. No one, except the player, shall touch the table, or raise his hands above it till before seeing the face of the card that is being turned, and the player may do so only so much as may be necessary in turn- ing and playing his card. 3. If one or more players slap a card that is not a Jack, the one that slaps first shall receive a card from each of the other players from the bottom of their piles. SLINGING, the art of sending mis- siles with the sling. The simplest sling consists of an oblong piece of leather with a slit in the middle Sling. and a string fastened to each end. The end of one of the strings is looped. The slinger places on the leather a pebble which the slit holds in position, and holds the ends of the strings in his hand : one tightly, aided by the loop, through which he passes his middle finger, and the other loosely. After whirling the sling around his head, he releases the loose string, and the stone flies off. Slings are made also entirely of leather. Practice is required to send the stone accurately, for unless the loose string is let go exactly at the right time it will fly off in the wrong direction. The best missiles to use are perfectly smooth and round clay marbles. A kind of sling can be made by slitting a stick at the end so that it will hold a pebble securely, but not too firmly. The stick is held by the other end, and with it the pebble can be thrown to a great distance. Apples are sometimes thrown in this way, but they are usually stuck on the end of the stick, which is sharpened instead of being cleft. The reason why missiles can be thrown swifter and farther with the aid of a sling than with the hand is that the sling or stick adds, as it were, to the length of the arm. The longer the sling or stick, the swifter the pebble, provided it is not too long for the strength of the slinger's arm. Throw Stick, a sort of sling for throwing a lance or long arrow. It is cut from a flat piece of wood, 5lDEVIEVr. Throw-Stick. and has a projecting tooth at one end, as shown in the illustration. The thrower takes the throw-stick by the end opposite the tooth, and placing the butt of the lance against the tooth, supports it with the thumb and first finger of the hand which holds the stick. Releasing it, he propels it at the same time by a slinging motion of the throw- SLINGING 65: SLINGING stick, which can be learned only by practice. With one of these sticks, a skilled thrower can send a javelin much farther than with the hand alone. They are the invention of the natives of Australia, who use them in war and the chase. Catapult, a kind of sling in which the missile is shot by force of a stretched elastic cord. Catapults may be bought at toy-stores, or made by selecting a forked stick in the shape of the letter Y, the prongs being about two inches apart, and fastening to each one end of a stout India-rubber band. The stem of the Y is held in the left hand, and a small pebble or shot being placed in the middle of the band, it is drawn out Catapult. as far as possible and then let go. The band, snapping back, sends the missile with great force. The size of the rubber band used depends on the strength of the shooter and the size of the missile. The weapon is improved by fastening a concave piece of leather in the middle of the band, to hold the missile. In this way a volley of bird-shot may be sent at once. Catapults may be used by skilled shooters with almost as much effect as fire-arms, and they are nearly as dangerous, not to the shooter, but to other people. Their use is usually forbidden by law in the streets of large towns and cities, but in the country they may be made the source of much amuse- ment. Bolas, a kind of sling. One to catch birds may be made as follows : Six marbles, round stones, or leaden bullets are wrapped tightly in cloth, forming a sort of bag around each, and to each is fas- tened a piece of string about two and a half feet long. The other ends of the strings are tied together. The bolas is held by the tied end, whirled around the head, and thrown into the air, when the heavy ends will fly apart, so that the whole spreads over a space about five feet in d iamet er. A bolas thrown into a flock of birds generally brings Bird Bolas. Q^g down, either by stunning or by entangling it. History. The use of slings is prob- ably older than that of bows and arrows. In the Bible, it is related Saxon Slinger. that in the time of the Judges there were 700 men of the tribe of Ben- jamin who were so expert with the sling that they "could sling stones SLING THE MONKEY 656 SMALL TUBES at a hair-breadth and not miss," us- ing their left hands. The sling was early known in Europe, and the Romans, who used it as a military weapon, probably introduced it into Britain. The picture represents the manner of using it among the Sax- ons in the 8th century. Slings used with very large stones were sometimes attached to a staff three or four feet long, and whirled with both hands. As late as the 15th century an English poet, writing on " Knyghthode and Batayle " (Knighthood and Battle), advises every warrior to learn the use of the sling, because it could be easily carried and stones could be picked Ancient Slingers. Up anywhere. The last illustration shows ancient slingers in a tower. SLING THE MONKEY, a game played by any number of persons, one of whom takes the part of the Monkey. He is fastened to a branch of a tree by a rope, tied around his waist, of such a length that his feet can just reach the ground. All the players, including the monkey, are armed with knotted handkerchiefs. The monkey is " basted," or struck, by the others, and tries to baste them in his turn. If he succeeds in striking any one, that one must take his place. The monkey should swing him- self about by the rope from one side to the other, and, that he may have free play, the branch from which he is suspended must be at consider- able height. Sling the monkey is a favorite game on shipboard. Fox, a game resembling that just described, except that the monkey is called the Fox, and can neither strike nor be struck while he is in his " den," represented by a circle marked on the ground. Even when he is out of his den he can strike only when he is standing on one leg, and if he put the other to the ground he must retire to his den before trying to strike again. Baste the Bear, a kind of Fox, m which the player attacked, called the Bear, has no handkerchief, but is defended by another player, who takes the part of his keeper. The Bear must remain on his hands and knees and must keep some part of his body inside the den. The keeper holds one end of a rope, about four feet long, which is tied to the Bear's leg, and must not let go of it. The Bear may aid the keeper in any way, so long as he keeps on all-fours and does not go entirely outside of the den. Any player struck by the keeper's hand- kerchief must take the Bear's place. Each Bear is allowed to choose his own keeper. SMALL TUBES, Experiments with. I. Take a number of small glass tubes, varying in size from a ther- mometer tube to one quarter of an inch thick. Thrust the ends into water (Fig. i), and the water will rise in each, but higher in the smaller tubes. The water also rises Fig. I. higher at the side of the tubes than in the middle. 2. Put the tubes into mercury (see Fig. 2). The mercury will be lower inside the tubes than outside. It will sink lowest in the smallest tubes, and will be lower at the sides of the tubes than in the middle. SMOKE RINGS 657 SMOKE RINGS Fig- 3. 3. Hold two pieces of glass to- gether like a wedge, and dip them sidewise into water and then into mercury. The water will rise higher ____,,.— —-r\ where the plates -^ ' y/^ are close together, rNj and the mercury will fall lower there. In each case the surface of the liquid will form a curve. Fig. 3 shows how two pieces of glass may thus be held together by a rubber band, being kept apart at the wide-open side by two bits of wood. The curve made by the water surface within the wedge is also shown. SMOKE RINGS, Experiments with. I. Cut in the bottom of a pasteboard box a foot square a round hole about as large as a silver dollar. Over the open top of the box pin a handkerchief tightly. Fill the box with smoke by burning touch-paper in the hole (see Air Currents), or in any other way. Then by tapping on the handker- chief, as the box stands on its side, smoke rings will issues from the hole, like those which smokers sometimes blow from theirmouths. The experiments described below may be performed with a box like this, but it is better to make a larger one as described in the next experi- ment. 2. Take a dry-goods box about two feet square, and saw a hole about three inches in diameter in the bot- tom (see Fig. i). Tack tightly over n^J Fig. I. Box for Smoke Rings. the top a piece of heavy muslin, and stand the box on its side. To keep it full of smoke, place strong am- monia in one flask or bottle and hydrochloric acid in another, and support them so that they can be heated beneath with alcohol lamps. Fit the corks with short tubes of bent glass or rubber whose ends pass through small holes into the box. By heating the flasks the fumes of the ammonia and the acid are thus led into the box where they mix, making a dense white smoke. It will not be necessary to heat the flasks all the time, but only at intervals when the smoke gets Fig. 2. thin. By tapping on the muslin large and beautiful smoke rings are driven out of the hole in the box. 3. Tap lightly on the box ; the ring will move slowly. Give a hard tap ; it will go swiftly, thus the speed of the rings can be regulated at will. 4. Hold the hand or the face in front of one of the rings. Even if it be moving slowly a puff of air will be felt. The reason is that the particles of air in the ring are mov- ing around and around, those on the outside backward and those on the inside forward. These latter make the puff of air, for though the whole ring may be moving forward slowly, its particles may be revolv- ing quite fast. See Fig. 2, where the small arrows show the motion of the smoke in the ring, and the large one that of the ring as a whole. 5. Send a ring across the room against a lamp or candle. It will be put out. 6. Try experiments 4 and 5 with- out any smoke in the box. The result is the same. This is so be- cause the rings are made of air. 1 The only use of the smoke is to SMOKE RINGS 658 SMOKE RINGS make them visible. Wliere it is desired to blow out a candle with an invisible ring it is best to try first with a visible one, and then keep the box and the candle in the same positions so that the ring will be sure to strike the candle. 7. Send two rings from the box, one close after the other. If they a-re close enough the one in the rear will contract and go through the front one, which then, being itself in the rear, will do the same thing in turn. This will be re- peated till the rings are broken up by rubbing against each other. In practice it is hard to make them do it more than once each. 8. This requires two smoke boxes. Send rings from both so that they will strike at various angles. They will bound from one another as if made of India-rubber. But if one ring strike another flatly, as they move in exactly opposite directions, the two will simply grow larger and larger till they break, remaining in the place where they strike. 9. Rings similar to these can be formed in water by dropping into it a solution of permanganate of pot- ash or some other bright-colored salt. As each drop descends in the water it takes the form of a ring, which soon breaks up into several. 10. Another way of producing them is to drop hydrochloric acid into a weak solution of mercuric nitrate. The two liquids act on one another chemically, producing a cloud of mercuric chloride which descends into the vessel in the form of a vortex ring. 11. Smoke rings can be formed in water as shown in Fig. 3. Bore a hole in the side of a glass jar close to the bottom. Pass through the cork a glass tube reaching nearly to the bottom of the jar, bent at right angles near the top, and drawn out to a jet at its upper end. Half fill the jar with water, place the thumb over the hole, and hold the end of the jet in a candle flame. On re- Fig. 4. moving the thumb so that a little water may run out, some smoke will be drawn down into the bottle and Fig. 5. rise in a ring to the surface. If this be repeated a series of rings will be formed like those in Fig. 4. Fig. 5 shows a curious " collar " of SMUT 659 SNAP THE WHIP smoke formed around the bottom of the tube. In Fig. 3 the jar has a faucet in the hole at the side, but it can be stopped with a wooden plug just as well. SMUT. See Muggins. SNAKE'S TA!L, a game played by any number of persons, one of whom is selected as Catcher, and the oth- ers form in single file to represent a snake, the last player being called the Snake's Tail. Each player in the tile places his hands on the shoulders of the one in front of him. At the opening of the game the Catcher stands about twenty feet from the head of the file, facing him, and at a signal tries to catch the Tail without pushing any one in the row. The Snake defends its tail by moving about in any way, but if the row breaks itself it is a foul, and the Tail is considered as caught. When the Tail is caught, he becomes Catcher in turn, and the Catcher takes his place at the head. Another way of playing the game is to allow the Catcher to name any one in the row as the one he in- tends to catch. If he catches the one named, they change positions. The player at the head of the line may stretch out his hands to im- pede the Catcher's progress, but is not allowed to push him. History. This is a Japanese game. Its name in Japan is Hebi 710 wo toro (Catching the snake's tail). The second form of the game is called Ko wo toro (Will catch a child). The head of the row in this case is called the Mother and the other's children. The game begins by the catcher's shouting " Will catch a child." The Mother asks "Which child do you want.'*" and when the Catcher names his choice, she replies " Try to catch if you can," when the game begins. SNAP, a game played by any number of persons with 36 cards. Each card bears a figure or design, and every design is on three cards. The cards are distributed equally, and each player places his share, without looking at them, in a pile, face downward, before him. Each in order then turns over his top card and places it, face upward, as the beginning of another pile. When a player turns a card having the same design as one on the top of another player's exposed pile, both must say " Snap," and he who says it first takes the exposed pile of the other. When a player's cards are all turned, he reverses his ex- posed pile. Cards taken from oth- er players are placed underneath the back -upward pile. He who gets possession of the whole pack wins the game. SNAP THE WHIP, an out-door game played by any number of per- sons, who stand side by side in line, holding hands. The line is usually formed in order of size, the largest players at one end, and the smallest at the other. All run forward till three or four at the large end sud- denly stop, causing the rest of the line to swing around sharply like the lash of a whip when it is snapped. The strain is so great that usually two or more of the players are forced to let go their hands, and those at the smaller end are thrown down if they are not careful. The game is best placed on skates. In this case, when the line breaks, the fragments shoot off with great velocity, like stones from a sling. The best way to hold hands in this game is to form a sort of hook by bending all the fingers of one hand, and hold the neighbor- ing player's hand as in the picture. Butcher's Grip. This arrangement (sometimes called the "Butcher's Grip ") enables the player better than any other to resist a straight pull. SNEEZING 660 SNOW IMAGES SNEEZING, a game played by any number of persons. A leader is ap- pointed who gives to each a syllable ending in "sh,' or some similar one sounding like part of a sneeze, as " ash," " esh," " ish," " osh," " oush," "aish,"or "ashoo." At a given sig- nal from the leader, all the company pronounce their syllables together. The effect is amusing, sounding like a sneeze if it is properly produced. SNOWBALL FIGHTS, contests be- tween two parties armed with snow- balls. The object of one of the parties should be to drive the others from some position, which the latter strive to hold. This is generally a fort built of snow, and a snow fight should usually be the siege of a snow fort. One kind of fort is built of great balls of snow, made by rolling, which are placed in the desired form, and then ce- mented together with snow. To give such a fort a finished look, it should be smoothed, the wall being made sloping on the outside and perpendicular inside. Another way to make a snow fort is to dig it from a drift, piling up on every side the snow taken out. If the drift is firm- ly packed, snow may often be taken out in great square blocks, with which a regular wall can be built. In making a fort, care should be taken to shape it so that the be- siegers will be exposed to fire at all points. The simplest form is a square, but if the besiegers advance close to the fort at the middle of one of the sides, it is not easy to fire at them except at the corners, and then the defender has to lean far over the wall, exposing himself too much. This fault can be remedied by making the fort the shape in the figure. In this way every point in the outside wall of the fort is ex- posed to fire from the inside. Here the best place for the besiegers to assault is on one of the sides of the points, for these are exposed to fire from one side only ; whereas the part between two points is under fire from both sides. These princi- ples are the same that have to be taken into consideration in building real forts. Snowballs should be made so they will sting when they strike, without doing any injury. They should therefore never be soaked in water, nor allowed to freeze. To use such missiles is like throwing stones, and a snowball fight with them ceases to be a sport. When the garrison of a fort is closely besieged, the best throw- ers are often stationed at the walls, while others make snowballs for them. The snowball makers, how- ever, should be changed as often as possible to give them a share of the real sport. As soon as a cer- tain number of besiegers succeed in getting into the fort, the victory should be given to them and the parties should change sides. SNOW IMAGES. Images may be made of snow in two different ways : by sticking together balls or lumps of snow, or by making a mass of snow and then carving the image out of it. The former is the usual way, but better images can be made by the other method. The snow should be slightly moist, when a large mass may be collected by roll- ing a ball till it has gathered a great quantity. Another similar ball is then rolled and lifted to the top of .the first. For a tall figure» a third SNOW-SHOEING 66i SOAP will be needed. The best tool to cut and shape the mass is a mason's trowel, but a shingle or other thin flat piece of wood may be used instead. In this way, figures of men, birds, and animals may be made. If the arms of the image are to be extended, a stick should be thrust through the body so as to project on each side, and the snow moulded over it. An image often made by boys is that of a man fitted with an old hat, with cinders for eyes and a clay pipe in its mouth, and then used as a target for snow- balls. A snowballing match may be held with such a figure, as in the game of Aunt Sally, SNOW-SHOEING, walking on soft snow by means of snow-shoes, or wooden frames strung with thongs. Snow-shoes, which are shown in the illustration, are usually made each Snow-Shoer. of a single light strip of hickory or ash, whose ends are bent until they meet, and then bound together for from 6 to lo inches. Thin pieces of flat wood are fitted across this frame to strengthen it, and it is then woven with thongs or tendons, so as to make a sort of basket-work. The shoe is from three to six feet in length, and from 12 to 20 inches wide. It is fastened to the foot by a toe-strap and two thongs that pass over the instep. The toe of the foot points toward the rounded end of the snow-shoe. That the foot of the wearer may not be ham- pered, the heel is left free to rise and fall without the shoe, and a hole is left in the basket-work under the toe-strap, into which the wear- er's toe sinks at every step. It is difficult to walk on snow-shoes, and to attain skill requires much prac- tice. The shoe is not lifted as in ordinary walking, but rather slipped over the snow. Skilled snow-shoers, however, walk with as much ease over deep drifts of soft snow as on hard ground, the basket-work bear- ing the weight of a man in places where without it he would sink out of sight. Experts raise the shoe a little with the toe at the beginning of the step, letting the end trail, keep head and shoulders erect, and glide the shoes one over the other. Beginners are apt to catch the toe of one shoe under the edge of the oth- er, and so trip themselves up. The Norwegian snow - skates, or skier, which are half skate and half snow- shoe, are described in the article on SKATING. SOAP, Experiments with. Soap is described in C. C. T. i. To make hard soap as an amusement, a few ounces of castor-oil and half a dozen sticks of caustic soda are needed. The caustic soda should be handled very little and kept in a tightly-corked bottle. Dissolve half an ounce of the soda in a gill of soft water, and pour into it an equal vol- ume of the oil ; on stirring, the mix- ture becomes turbid. Boil it gently for half an hour, then add about a gill of water, bring it again to the boiling point and put in a large tea- spoonful of fine salt. After the SOAP BUBBLES 662 SOAP BUBBLES mixture has cooled an hour or two the soap will be found collected in a layer at the top, from which it is easily removed. To make soft-soap caustic potash must be used instead of caustic soda. 2. Dissolve shavings of castile- soap, or any pure white soap, in boiling water, and add to part of it a teaspoonful of sulphuric or hy- drochloric acid, diluted with con- siderable water. A greasy white substance rises to the top. This is stearine, which is often used in making candles. 3, To another part of the soap solution made in experiment 2 add some lime-water. The mixture be- comes white and nearly solid after a time. This is because "lime soap" is formed, which water will not dis- solve. It is this which is formed when soap is used with hard water. SOAP BUBBLES, bubbles made by blowing into a film of soap solu- tion. The solution may be made by dissolving any kind of soap in warm water, but better bubbles will be made if glycerine be added. One of the best solutions for making bubbles is formed after the following recipe : Into a pint bottle half filled with distilled or rain water, put one ounce of white castile-soap shavings. Shake the bottle till the soap dis- solves, and if it will not do so add more water. Then add one gill of glycerine, shake, and allow to settle. The bowl of a common clay to- bacco-pipe is dipped into the liquid so that the rim just touches the sur- face, till on raising it a film is stretched across the bowl. By blow- ing carefully into the stem of the pipe the film will stretch out into a bubble and then by a quick jerk of the pipe to one side the bubble will be detached and will float away, its elasticity closing at once the hole by which the air entered it. If it is strong it will bound on the floor or table, and can be rolled along by blowing it with the breath. Finally, evaporation makes it very thin and it bursts into spray. If the solution is not strong enough, the bubbles are weak, and burst before they are fully blown. The better the solu- tion, the larger the bubbles can be made, but it is better to begin by making small ones, and gradually increasing their size. After the bubble has been blown, the end of the pipe should be closed with the finger, for the bubble is elastic and tends to grow smaller, driving out again the air that was blown into it. Too much of the liquid, or a mass of froth, must not be taken up with the pipe, as it collects at the bottom of the bubble and often breaks it by its weight. Such a collection of froth may often be removed by touching it with the finger. Gas Bubbles. By fitting one end of a piece of rubber tubing over a gas-burner, and the other over the end of a clay pipe, bubbles can be blown after a little practice, by turning on the gas little by little. As the gas is lighter than air, these bubbles will rise to the ceiling, and if a lighted match be touched to them, they will burn in the air. Still lighter bubbles can be made by blowing them with HYDROGEN. Bubbles blown with a mixture of OXYGEN and HYDROGEN gascs ex- plode in the air with a loud report when they are lighted, but this mix- ture is dangerous, and should be used only by an experienced person. Soap Bubble Parties, entertain- ments at which the blowing of soap bubbles is the chief feature. Prizes are usually offered, whic^ are awarded in various ways. Each person may be allowed a certain number of trials, and he who blows and detaches the greatest number of bubbles may be declared winner. Or each one may blow till he makes a certain number of bubbles, and he whose bubbles last longest may receive the prize. Or each may be required to roll his bubble across the table by breathing on it. SOAP BUBBLES 663 SOAP BUBBLES Sometimes two goal-posts or pegs about six inches long and three or four inches apart are placed at the end of the table, and the bubble must be blown so as to roll between them. The sport may thus be varied in many ways. Care should be taken to test the liquid, which should be in good condition before the blowing begins. Experiments with Bubbles. i. A huge soap bubble can be blown by covering the hands well with suds and then holding them so as to form a cup, as in drinking from the hands, but leaving a small hole at the bot- tom. The mouth is then held about a foot from the hands and a current of air is blown into them. Bubbles a foot or more in diameter can be blown in this way. 2. Soap bubbles can be made to >-'^->. carry little figures cut *- ^ from tissue-paper. One of these figures is attached by thread to a disk of paper D about as large as one's finger-nail, by passing the thread F through the paper and knotting it (Fig. i). When the bub- ble is blown, and be- fore it is detached, the thread is taken between thumb and finger and the disk applied to the side of the bubble (Fig. 2). If properly done it will glide down to the lower part, where it will stick. The bubble can then be detached, and it will float away, bearing the figure with it. The bubble should be blown with a glass tube, so that a very little shake will detach it. 3. Bubbles blown from melted rosin in the same way as soap-bub- bles, retain their form for many months, and possess a silvery lustre which makes them very beautiful. 4. Pour some ether into a wide- mouthed jar and then drop a soap bubble into the jar, where it will float on the heavy vapor of the ether. (See also Carbonic Acid.) Let it remain a few seconds and then remove it by pulling the jar down from under it. When a lighted match is touched to the bubble it will flash into flame. This is because some of the ether vapor has entered the bubble through the soap-film. 5. Blow two bubbles, and while they are hanging to the pipes try to make them join, placing the finger over the end of the pipe-stem so as to keep the bubbles the same size. No matter how forcibly they are pushed together, they will bound from each other as if made of India- rubber, and will not join. But if an electrified body be brought near them they will unite at once into a single bubble. 6. The colors on a soap bubble may be thrown on a screen by plac- ing a lens in the path of a sunbeam from a heliostat and holding the bubble just beyond the focus of the lens, where the rays begin to spread apart. The colors will be thrown on the walls and ceiling of the room, and very beautiful changes of tint will be seen as the walls of the bubble grow thinner. 7. Make a stand of a piece of wire like the tripod stands described under Chemical Experiments. With a little practice a bubble can be made to rest upon it and remain a long time. The bubble may be pierced with a pin or cut with a knife without breaking, so long as the pin or knife are perfectly clean, but if either have the smallest par- ticle of grease on them the bubble will break at once The beautiful colors of soap bub- bles are due to what is called the interference of light, caused by the SOAP FILMS 664 SOLITAIRE thinness of their walls. The same colors can be seen in any very thin, Fig, 2. transparent substance, like a sheet of mica, or a film of oil floating on the water. The color is different as the thickness varies, and scientists have thus been able to measure the latter. Probably the most skilful soap-bubble blower living is Mr. C. Vernon Boys, an English scientist, who has performed many interesting experiments with bubbles. Among other things he is able to blow one bubble inside another. SOAP FILMS, Experiments with. The bubbles made of soap film are described under Soap Bubbles. The following experiments can be tried with the soap-water used in making bubbles: i. Dip the large end of a glass funnel into the water. The film formed will run into the funnel. This is because it is so elastic that it shrinks to as small a size as possible. If a bottle be blown at the large end, and the neck left open, the bubble will shrink, driving out the air within it. A skilful operator can blow out a candle by the air thus expelled. 2. Make a circle of wire, and touch it to the soap-water, lifting off a film which stretches across the circle. Place carefully on this film a small ring of silk thread, which has been wetted with the soap- water. Break the film inside this ring, and the thread will be stretched into a perfect circle by the elastic film on all sides of it. SOLITAIRE, any game played by one person. The oldest solitaire or solitary game is played on a circular board in which are either 37 or 33 holes arranged as in the figures. The form with 33 holes, which is now generally used, is the same that is used for play- ing Fox AND Geese. In the second fig- ure it is arranged also for the form of Fox and Geese called the Battle Game. In each of these holes is a peg, though some Solitaire Boards. boards are made with depressions, instead of holes, in which marbles are placed. One peg or marble being taken out by the player, a peg two holes distant from the vacant spot is placed in it, and the SOLITAIRE 665 SOLITAIRE peg over which it jumps is taken from the board, like a captured man in Checkers. Another peg is jumped mto one of the two vacant holes now on the board, and tnis is kept up as long as possible, a peg being taken from the board at each move. The player's object is either to remove all but one of the pegs from the board or to leave those that remain at the end in some given arrangement. The marbles may thus be removed from the board in several ways, no matter what marble is taken at the beginning. Suppose the holes in the modern board to be numbered in vertical rows and lettered in the horizontal rows as below : C I D I E I C 2 D 2 E 2 AiBi C3 D3 E3 FiGi A2B2 C4 D4 E4 F2G2 A3 B3 C5 D 5 E5 F3 G3 C6 D6 E6 Cy D7 E7 There are only seven different cases, and a solution of each is given below. The direction C 4 to C 2, for in- stance, means that the marble in C 4 is to be placed in the empty hole C 2 and the marble between them removed from the board. I. Remove D2 to D Fi Ei E4 Ci Ei E6 G I S3 B3 C7 C4 E/ C7 D4 4 3 3 2 I 3 4 5 3 3 5 5 5 6 7 C2 Ai D3 A3 Ai D5 D3 Bi ?^ F2 C4 E3 F3 D6 to C C B A C D B B D F D E E D5 D4 2. Remove numbers this the middle bii A 2. (By changing the solution is good for 11 of any outside row.) C4 C2 D4 E2 D6 D4 Di E4 Ei G2 E4 Gi E2 F3 E7 D5 to A2 C4 B2 C2 D4 D2 D3 E2 E3 E4 E2 E3 E4 F3 G3 Cy E4 E7 B3 E5 Ai D3 Ci C6 C4 A3 Ai C2 C4 to E7 E6 E5 D5 C5 C3 B I C3 C4 C2 A I C3 C4 A2 3. Remove D 3. (This applies also to E 4, D 5, and C 4.) Fi to D3 C4 to C2 F3 " Fi Ci '• C3 Gi " E3 C6 " C4 G3 " Gi C4 " C2 D3"Fi A2"C4 Gi " E3 E5 " C5 D5 " F3 C5 " C3 E7 " E5 E3 " E5 F3 " D5 C2 " C4 C 5 " E 5 D I " D 3 D7 " D5 Ei - E3 C 7 " C 5 D 3 " F I C4"C6 C4"E4 A3 " C5 E5 " E3 C2"C4 Fi"D3 Ai " C3 ^ 4. Remove D 6. (This solution applies also to B 2, D 2, and F 2.) D4 to D6 C6 to C4 F3 " D5 A3 " C5 E7 " E5 Ai " A3 C7 " E7 D5 " B3 E4 " E6 A3 " C5 E7 " E5 C4 " C6 E2"E4 C6-E6 Gi"E3 E4"E2 G3"Gi E2"C2 D3 " Fi C2 " C4 Gi"E3 E6"E4 Bi " D3 B2 " D4 C I " C 3 D3 " D ? E I " C I F 2 " D 4 C4"C2 D4"D6 Ci " C3 5. Remove C i. (This applies also to each of the seven other corner marbles.) SOLITAIRE 6( C3 to C I C6 to E6 Ai C3 E7 " ES D3 Bi E4 " E6 A3 Ai C7 " E7 Ai C3 E7 " E5 B3 Bi F3 « D5 Bi D3 C4 « E4 E2 C2 C5 <( Es Ci C3 E5 " E3 E4 E2 E2 " E4 Ei E3 Gi " E3 G2 E4 E4 (( E2 E4 E2 C3 « E3 E6 E4 E3 << Ei G3 E5 Ei " Ci DS F3 6. Remove C 2 . (Th LS applies also to C 6, E 2, E 6, B I, B 3, Fi, and F 3-) C4 to C2 E7 to E5 Ci <« C3 F3 " D5 A2 " C4 C6 « E6 C4 " C2 C7 " E7 Ei « Ci E7 << E5 Ci « C3 C4 << C6 E2 << C2 E4 " C4 C2 (( C4 C3 " C5 Ai <5 o X /' 1 /r-r .-A — !_ 4....i., Fig. 3. down firmly with the thumb, just over the spool. Figs. 2 and 3 show a variety of sound figures. In Fig. 2 the position of the bow is marked b, and that of the finger/. The figures can also be produced without a bow in the following manner : In a flat lump of lead fix a piece of lead-pencil about an inch long, having on its end a common rubber eraser. This serves as a ^andard. To the central point of A common window-pane, attach by sealing-wax a glass tube three six- teenths of an inch in diameter and twenty inches long. Place the plate on the standard, so that the end of the tube is just over the rubber eraser. Holding the upper end of the tube in one hand, rub it gently up and down with the moistened thumb and forefinger of the other. The tube is thus thrown into vibra- tion, and causes the pane to vibrate also. Sand strewn on the glass will assume figures similar to those ob- SPATTER-WORK 669 SPECULATION tained by the other methods. In this experiment the plate is caused to vibrate from the centre instead of from the edge. SPATTER-WORK. Procure a box three inches deep, and as large as desired. Remove the bottom and top, and tack wire netting (which can be bought at a hardware store) over the top. The edges of the bot- tom must be covered with cloth, so that the box will not injure what- ever it stands on. On the paper which it is desired to decorate with spatter-work lay some leaves, a fern, a design cut out of paper, or any- thing fiat, and then place the box over it. Dip an old nail-brush in ink and draw it across the wire net- ting. The ink will spatter through Spatter-work. in fine drops on the paper. When the work is as dark as desired, the leaves or paper design is removed, and its shape will be seen in white on the spattered background. If part of the leaves are removed be- fore the spattering is finished, the design will be in two shades, white and gray. The veins of the leaves maybe drawn afterward with pen and ink. SPECULATION. I. A game of CARDS played by any number of per- sons with a full pack. At the begin- ning of the game, each player is given an equal number of counters, and eachplaceson thetable a number pre- viously agreed upon to form the pool, the dealer usually being required to put in more than any of the others. Three cards are dealt to each, one at a time, and the last is turned as trump. The hands are placed face downward on the table, each in front of its owner. Beginning at the dealer's left, each player in order turns up his top card till some one turns a higher trump than the trump card. The owner of this higher trump may then offer to sell to the one bidding the highest number of counters for it, whose property it then becomes. The player on the new owner's left then begins to turn up again, and so on till a still higher trump appears, which may be sold as before. The dealer has the privilege of refusing to turn up any card till a higher card than the trump card appears, and of selling either the trump card or his whole hand. Any one turn- ing up a five or knave of a lay suit pays one counter to the pool. When the cards have all been turned, the owner of the highest trump takes all the counters in the pool. When the game is played at evening par- ties, after a certain number of rounds the one having most coun- ters is given a prize. If any player look at his hand or play out of turn, he forfeits his privilege of tak- ing the pool, even if he have the highest trump. II. Another game is played as follows: Two packs are used, one of which is all dealt to the players, one card at a time, and the other placed face downward before the dealer. Four or five cards are drawn from this pack without being looked at, and placed face down- ward by themselves, each with a different number of counters piled on it. The players may look at their hands and show them to each other. At a signal, they begin the game by bargainingwith one another for any cards they wish, each buying from whom he pleases, at any price SPECULATION 670 SPELLING-MATCH agreed upon. This either goes on for a time previously agreed upon, or the dealer may be allowed to stop it when he likes. He then turns up the cards of the unseen pack, one by one, and the holders of the corresponding cards give them up. When all have been given up, the holders of the remain- ing cards (which of course corre- spond to those laid aside) take the counters that were piled on them. The game then begins again, and after a number of rounds previously agreed upon the player having the largest number of counters is usu- ally given a prize. In playing the game a player may choose to sell all his cards, hoping to make a large number of counters in this way, and giving up his chance for the prize cards, or he may prefer to buy as many cards as he can, hoping to get the prize cards in this way. The price of cards is generally small at the opening of a game and increases toward the end, hence it is often desirable to buy at first and then sell. Sometimes the dealer turns part of the unseen pack and then allows more bargaining. Sometimes a number of the cards are not called for, and he who has most remaining is given a prize. Sometimes the holders of the prize cards are given separate prizes in- stead of counters, and the game may be varied in many other ways, at the pleasure of the players. III. A game played by any num- ber of persons with cards, on some of which are written the names of stocks, and on others words that occur in those names. Thus on one card might be " West- ern Union Telegraph," or " Lake Shore," and on others " Western," or "Shore." The cards are distributed evenly, and each player piles his hand in front of him, backs up. Each, in order, turns a card, and the first to turn a "stock" card says, " I speculate on Western Union," or whatever it may be. The first one after him that turns up a card bear- ing one of the words in the name of that stock takes all of the specu- lator's cards that have been turned over. So the game goes on till some one has all the cards, thus winning the game. When any one has turned over all in his pile he turns the whole pile back into its former position. SPELLING-MATCH, a contest be- tween two parties to see which con- tains the best spellers. A number of people may choose sides (see Choosing Sides), or the match may be between two schools or societies. The numbers should be equal, unless otherwise agreed be- forehand. Each side must have a leader or captain, and the opposing parties generally sit or stand in two rows opposite one another, the cap- tains at the head. Some one, not on either side, selected for the pur- pose, now gives out a word to be spelled to each side alternately, first to the first player on one side, then to the first on the other, then to the second on the first side, and so on. When any one spells a word incorrectly, the same is given out again till it is spelled correctly; and if it is so spelled on the side which did not miss it at first, the captain of that side is allowed to choose any one of the opposite party, who must then take his place on the winning side. If the word is spelled correctly by a member of the side on which it was first missed, there is no choosing. The match goes on thus till one side has all the players. A captain cannot be chosen till he is the only one re- maining on his side. Instead of being given out by an outsider, the words may be given out by the cap- tains, each giving out to the players in the opposite party. When one party orthe other has won the match, it is often ended by "spelling down." In this process words are given out in regular order, and those who miss sit down, until only one is SPELLING-MATCH 671 SPHEROIDAL STATE left, who is considered the victor. Sometimes there are no sides at all, and the spelling down constitutes the whole match. In this case prizes are often given to the players who sit down last. Sometimes, in- stead of passing the word to the next player when it is missed, the one who gives the words announces the correct spelling, and then gives out a different one. This is the fairest method in the case of words which can be spelled in only two ways, so that if one is wrong the other must be right. A good plan is to allow the one who misses the word first to decide whether or not it shall be given out again. Spell- ing-matches are not really means of finding out the best spellers, but they are often exciting sport. The fairest kind of spelling-match is one where the words are written by each contestant, all writing the same word at the same time. When all have finished, the words are spelled correctly by the leader, and each player scores one for every word he has written as it should be. The side with the highest score wins. The following rules give an idea of how a public spelling-match should be conducted. They may be modi- fied or changed as desired. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The officers of the match shall consist of a leader and one or more judges. 2. The leader shall give out only such words as may be decided on before the match. For instance, he may be limited to words contained in a certain dictionary or spelling- book, or to words not obsolete, or to words of a certain number of syllables. ' 3. Any contestant is at liberty to demand that the leader pronounce the word again, or that he define it. 4. If the word given out be spelled correctly, the leader shall say " Right," and at once give out another word. If it be spelled in- correctly, he shall say " Wrong," and either give out the same word again, or another one, as has been agreed before the contest. If he give out a different word, he shall first spell correctly the word missed. The speller may appeal to the judges either on the ground that he spelled the word correctly and was misunderstood by the leader, or that his way of spelling is allowable. In the first case the judges may take the opinion of other players, or decide on their own. In the second, they shall consult such books of reference as were agreed on before the contest, and if the spelling given is allowable it is ad- judged correct. [The best plan is to select two or more dictionaries as standards ; say Webster's and Worcester's, and allow any spelling given in either,] 5. No contestant shall be allowed more than one minute from the time when he understands the word, and if he delay longer than that time he shall be considered to have failed. Pronouncing-Matches. The same rules apply to these as to spelling- matches, except that the leader spells the words and contestants pronounce them. Instead of spell- ing them, the leader may display them written or printed on placards, or lists of the words may be dis- tributed to the contestants at the opening of the match. SPHEROIDAL STATE, Experi- ments on the. I. When warm water is dropped on an ordinarily hot stove it turns quickly to steam ; but if the stove be red hot, the water forms itself into one or more little balls, and rolls about, taking a long time to evaporate. As a stove-top is flat, the water usually rolls off. so the experiment can be tried better by holding the bowl of a metal table- spoon in an alcohol flame till it is red hot and then dropping warm water into it. The handle must be inserted in the split end of a piece SPHYGMOGRAPH 672 SPOIL-FIVE 01' wood so that the hand will not be burned. Let the spoon cool, and when it has cooled enough the little ball of water will suddenly turn to steam. This state in water or any other liquid is called the spheroidal state, because the liquid takes the shape of a flattened ball or spheroid. The reason it does not dry up at once is, that the water is supported on a kind of cushion of steam so that it does not touch the metal at all. 2. Put into a cold silver spoon a drop of water in which sulphide of sodium has been dissolved. It will turn black, because sulphide of silver is formed. Now try the above ex- periment with a drop of such water, and the spoon will not be blackened till it has cooled down below red heat. This is because the liquid, when in the spheroidal state, did not touch the spoon at all. SPHYGMOGRAPH, an arrange- ment for recording the beats of the light so as to reflect a spot on the wall, and this spot moves with each beat of the pulse. The room should be darkened if possible, all light be- Sphygmograph.— Fig. 2. ing shut out save that which falls on the mirifer. Another form, some- times sold as a toy, is shown in Fig. 2. The word sphygmograph is from the Greek sphugmos, the pulse, and graphein, to write. SPOIL-FIVE, a game of cards 1 1 lyed by two to ten persons with a I 11 pack. The rank of the cards is I culiar. In the red suits it is as in W HIST, except that the Ace ranks I low the Two. In the black suits I I e order is reversed below the k lave, the Ace coming next, and ll en the Two, Three, Four, and so to the Ten, which is lowest. The \ ;e of Hearts is always a trump, d the order of the cards in the t imp suit is Five, Knave, Ace of Hearts, Ace of trumps. King, <>jeen, and then as in common its. The following table shows e order briefly : minion Suits. Trumps. pUlse. -rt. suijpic uiic t-ctii uc luauc by fastening a bit of looking-glass to the wrist just above the pulse, with an elastic band, as .in Fig. i. The mirror is held in a beam of RED. BLACK. ^ ♦ ♦ ♦ ^ ^ 4 ♦ 1 ^S SPOIL-FIVE 673 SPOIL-FIVE Common Suits. RED, BLACK s 9? -■l 9? -^ F" ""^1 9 -^ 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? ^ "Q 9? ^ 9? V "^ 9 9 ^ 9 s? 9? 9? ^ 9? ^ 9? «;? 9? 9? 9? 9— 9? 9? 9? 4. ^ 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4-,^ 4» 4. 4. 4. 4. ^^ 4. 4. 4> 4, •^4' 4. 4. 4.^4. Trumps. RED. BLACK. 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9?^9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? 9? Ace of Trumps.* ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ %* ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ■* Omitted, of course, when Hearts are trumps. Five cards are dealt to each player, usually two and three at a time, as in Euchre, and the top card of the stock is turned as trump. When only two play, the non-dealer is often allowed to ask the dealer for another trump, and if the latter agrees the second card is turned. This is called "Fivingit." If the trump card is an Ace, the dealer has the privilege of " robbing," that is, he may discard any card he chooses, placing it face downward under the pack, and take the Ace into his hand. The dealer must rob, if at all, before the eldest hand plays. If any player holds the Ace of trumps in his hand, he must rob before he plays his first card. When a common suit is led, any player may trump, though able to follow suit ; but if he hold no trump he must follow suit if possible. If a trump is led, suit must be followed, except that the Five of trumps, the Knave of trumps, and the Ace of Hearts need not be played when an inferior trump is led. This is called " reneging." Thus, if the Two of trumps is led and a player have no trump but the Knave, he need not follow suit ; but if the Five had been led, he would be obliged to play the Knave. A player who takes three tricks in one hand wins the game, and playing ceases as soon as any one has taken three tricks. If no one wins, the game is said to be "spoilt." If the score is kept with counters, each contributes to the pool a number previously agreed upon, and the whole pool is taken by the winner. When the game is " spoilt," the pool remains, and each puts in more counters (usually half or a third of the original number). Sometimes every trick taken counts five, and he who gains a fixed number of points (usually 25 or 45) wins the game When the game is 45, the trick won by the best trump out counts ten, unless some one has taken enough tricks to win the game be- fore that trump is played. Wh^n SPOONS 674 SPORTS WITH FLOWERS the game is scored thus, if any one take all five tricks he wins at once. This is called "Jinking it." Some- times jinking is allowed also in the regular game. In that case, when a player has taken three tricks he may continue to play. If he take all the tricks, he wins double the pool ; but if not, he wins nothing at all. In Spoil-Five it is considered best to lead the worst card and to reserve good cards till the third trick. A non-leader should trump, if he holds only one trump (unless it can renege), but two trumps should be reserved. Unless a player has a very strong hand, he should try to '* spoil " the game, and to this end should allow no one to get more than one trick, if possible. When only two play, it is, of course impossible to " spoil " the game. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The deal is determined accord- ing to agreement either by dealing the cards one at a time, in which case he who receives the first Knave deals, or by cutting, in which case lowest deals. 2. If there is a misdeal, the deal passes to the left. 3. If a player deal out of turn he may be stopped before the trump is turned. If he is not so stopped, the deal is good, and passes to his left as if he had dealt in turn. 4. If a player neglect to rob be- fore he plays to the first trick, he loses the right to rob, and can win nothing that hand. 5. If a player rob when he is not entitled to do so, or leads or plays wrongly, or reneges when he is not entitled, he cannot win in that hand. (This is called " hanging " the hand.) SPOONS. See Blind Man's Buff. SPORTS WITH FLOWERS AND FRUIT. A variety of sports and cus- toms are connected with flowers and leaves, most of them observed only by young children. By plucking the petals of the daisy or any similar flower, they pretend, in play, that they can tell different things about their future lives. Thus the fol- lowing rhyme is repeated, one word as each petal is plucked : " Rich man, poor man, begg^ar man, thief, Doctor, lawyer, Indian chief." This is repeated over and over again, and the word spoken as the last petal is plucked is supposed to tell what the child's condition is to be if a boy, or if a girl, whom she is to marry. In the same way, to dis- cover where he will live, he says, '* Big house, little house, pigsty, barn ;" to tell what his dress is to be, " Silk, satin, calico, rags," and to find what he is to ride in, " Coach, wagon, wheelbarrow, chaise." Flow- ers are asked questions in this way in many parts of the world. In Switzerland the list of occupations runs : *' Nobleman, beggar, farmer, soldier, student, Emperor, king, gentleman." In this country, instead of pulling petals, the verse is often repeated while touching the buttons of the coat or dress. In Italy the leaves are plucked from the branch of a tree in the same manner. In the same way young girls pretend to find out whether their sweethearts love them, saying: " He loves me, he loves me not," or, "A little, much, passionately, not at all." To find out when they are to be married, they repeat, while plucking the petals, " This year, next year, some time, never;" Dandelions gone to seed are often called " dandelion clocks," and chil- dren amuse themselves by trying to see in how few puffs they can blow away every seed. The number of puffs required is supposed to tell the time of day. Sometimes, if all the seeds can be blown off in three puffs, it is considered a sign that the successful one will be married within a year, or that his mother SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 675 SPORTS WITH FLOWERS wants him. Dandelions are also used to make chains and curls. Chains are made by cutting off the head of tne flower and pushing the small end of the stem into the large end, thus making a circular link; another link is fastened to it by putting the second stem through the first before it is closed, and so very long chains can be made. This way of making chains is very ancient, and gave rise to the Ger- man name Kette-blume (Chain- flower). Dandelion curls are made by splitting the stems into strips and putting them into water, when they curl up curiously. By splitting a stem partway, making some wide and some narrow strips, the form of the curls may be varied. Violets are used in the following sport : Each of two boys holds one of the flowers by the end of the stem, and placing them so that the stems will touch at about their mid- dles, gives a sudden jerk, so that the flowers will catch together. One of the flowers is almost certain to be pulled off the stem, and the uninjured one is the victor. Some- times a violet with a strong stem will come off best in many such contests. The Magic Rose. Dust some finely powdered aniline red over a white rose, and then shake it off. Sprinkle the rose with cologne wa- ter and it will turn red. The reason is that the alcohol in the cologne dissolves the fine particles of aniline which remain on the rose, rendering their color visible. Sports with Leaves. The leaves of the lilac, the " live forever," and some other plants and shrubs have a thin, light-colored skin on the under side, by scratching which with a pin a dark mark is made. These leaves can thus be used to write messages on and to play many kinds of writing-games. Leaves with long stems can be fastened to- gether by pushing the stem of one through the other, as shown in the illustration. In this way crowns, garlands, baskets, and other things may be made. Leaves with short Leaf-chain. stems may be used in like manner by pinning them with long thorns or pine-needles, A drinking cup can thus be made which will hold water long enough to carr)'' it from a spring to the mouth. Sports with Crass. An inter- esting game is played thus with grass : An even number of blades SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 676 SPORTS WITH FLOWERS (about ten is the best number) is selected by each player. The blades should be from six to twelve inches long. Each lays his blades side by side, and, sitting down, holds one end of the branch between his knees. He ties the free ends firmly together in pairs, and then, placing the knotted ends between his knees, ties the others in like manner. Each now examines his bunch of grass to see how it is tied together. Those who have tied their grass so as to form a perfect circle are win- ners. The next best arrangement is a circle of all the blades but two, the others forming a little circle by themselves. The next is a circle of all but four, these forming a sepa- rate circle, and so on. In any case two circles linked together are bet- ter than two entirely separate. There are thirty ways in which ten blades can be thus arranged, and the more blades are used the greater will be the number of arrangements. With ten blades there is a very slight chance of making a perfect circle. With four blades the pos- sible results are only three; perfect circle, two circles linked, and two circles unlinked. The game is en- tirely one of chance, as no one is allowed to look at the knots on one end while tying the others. The game is often played as a Solitaire. Sometimes the bunch of grass is given the name of a playfellow, and the player pretends that his success in tying it tells him how much that playfellow likes him. Another sport with grass is to place a blade between the thumbs and blow on it, which, if correctly done, makes a rough, screech ing note. The thumbs are held so that there is a little crack between them, and the edges of the blade must be stretched ex- actly in the middle of this crack. The broader the blade, the lower the note, and a very high tone can be made by using a thin shred. The note can also be varied by bending the thumbs a little, thus tightening and loosening the blade of grass. Green, a game or custom preva- lent among children in some parts of Georgia and South Carolina. One points the finger at any other with whom he is playing, or whom he may meet, saying, "Green." The one addressed must then pro- duce a leaf, bit of grass, or the like from some part of his dress. Children hide leaves in their shoes and other unlikely places with the object of making their playmates think that the "green" has been forgotten. It is considered a dis- grace not to be able to produce the green when it is called for, and sometimes a forfeit is required from the one so caught. This game was probably brought to this country by French Hugue- nots. It was played long ago in France, and is still common in some parts of that country, where per- sons of all ages take part in it at certain seasons. The French ex- pression ''Prendre sans verd" (to catch anyone without green), means to take by surprise, and is derived from this game. The custom is probably an old May-day game. Sports with Nuts. The ancient Roman boys played with round nuts as we do with marbles. At the present day they are used in such simple games as Odd or Even, and for carving into various shapes, particularly little baskets, a circle of the shell being left for a handle, and the meat cleaned out. The horse-chestnut is most used for this purpose, as its shell is thin and easily cut. Pretty baskets may be made also of filberts and hazelnuts, and even of cherry pits. Cherry pits too may be made into chains by cutting them with a sharp pen- knife into rings, which, when cut open at one side, may be opened enough to put another ring through. Acorn cups can be used as play- dishes, and with a little trimming SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 677 SPORTS WITH FLOWERS with a knife may represent cups, saucers, or plates. Pea-nuts may be used in playing a variety of games, some of which are described in the article on Pea- nut Sprees. Philopena, a game played by two persons with nuts, usually almonds. When a person finds one of these with two kernels in it. he may ask any one he chooses to eat a philo- pena with him. If the one asked consents, each eats one of the ker- nels, and whoever says the word " Philopena" first on meeting the other after the end of a certain time (usually after the day on which the philopena is eaten) is entitled to a present from the other. A more common way of eating a philopena is called Give and Take. If either of the players takes any object whatever from the other's hands, the giver is entitled to say " Philopena" and receive a present. This arrangement goes into force as soon as the philopena is eaten. Constant watchfulness is required to avoid being caught, and the play- ers use all sorts of tricks to throw each other off his guard. For in- stance, one may pass the other a plate at table, or hand him a book or other article to look at. I The Philopena is said to have originated .'n Germany, where it is called Viel-liebchen (much beloved), and some think that the first part of the word Philopena is a corrup- tion of this name, the Latin word po37ia (punishment) being added be- cause the gift was thought to be a penalty. Others think that the first part is from the Greek (a friend). Fruit Sports. Children eating ap- ples give them names, and then count the seeds to decide their own fate. The following rhyme is re- cited while counting: •' One, I love ; Two, I love ; Three, I love, I say ; Four, I love with all my heart, And Five, I cast away. Six, he loves ; Seven, she loves ; Eight, both love ; Nine, he comes ; Ten, he tarries ; Eleven, he courts ; Twelve, he marries." This rhyme is at least a century old, and probably much older. To Make Designs on Gi-owing Fruit. While the fruit is still green fasten on the side exposed to the sun letters or designs cut from tin- foil, or from thin sheet-waz, such as is used for making wax flowers. The foil or wax will prevent the sun from coloring the skin of the fruit underneath, and if it is removed Cucumber Horses. SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 678 SQUAILS when the fruit is ripe the letters will be left in light green. Fruit of some other color than green when ripe should of course be chosen. Among the best for the purpose are rosy apples. Cucumber Horses. The illustra- tions show how toy horses can be made from cucumbers and matches. Still more life-like ones can be made of crook-necked squashes. Apple-skin Bird. Cut a thin slice from an apple (Figs, i and 2) and then pare the skin from it in one piece, leaving some of the apple adhering to it, and including a bit of the stem at the top, as shown in Fig. 3. Cut through all but the thin outer skin near the top of the strip (Fig. 4) and then, holding it between the thumb and finger just below the cut, pinch it slightly (Fig. 5). The effect of pinching is to Apple-skin Bird. move the top part backward and forward, like a bird pecking at some- thing. If a piece of bread be held in one hand and the bird be made to peck at it, the resemblance at a little distance is quite striking. Other sports with fruit, nuts, etc., are described in the article on Hal- loween. SQUAILS. A game played by any number of persons, usually four or six, with disks of wood, like CHECKER men, called squalls. The players, divided into two sides, sit alternately around a table with a smooth top, in the centre of which is a short metal column called the Process. Each player has two squalls, which are numbered or colored to distin- guish them from the others, and each in turn plays a squail toward the Process by placing it so that the edge projects from the table, and then striking it with the palm of the hand. The object is to get as near the Process as possible. The player may play his squail from any part of the table edge that he can reach with either hand while sitting in his chair. He may try to drive friendly squails nearer the Process, or knock those of the en- emy away. Any played squail fall- ing from the table, or going within three inches of the edge, is " dead " for that round. At the close of the two rounds the side which has the nearest squail to the Process scores one for each squail nearer than any of the enemies'. If a player knock the Process from the table, or within three inches of the edge, the opposing side scores two and the Process is replaced. Cachinole. A kind of Squails placed on a circular board, in the centre of which is the Process. The squails are snapped with the fingers from the edge of the board. Squails and Cachinole are practi- cally the game of Curling adapted to in-door playing. The principal difference between them and the similar out-door games is that the players shoot from all sides toward a centre, instead of from one end to the other of a rink or alley. The natives of the Friendly and Samoan Islands, in the South Pa- cific Ocean, play a game like Squails, called Laffo, in which the players pitch beans upon a mat, trying to strike off those of the other players. I STAGE-COACH 679 ST. HELENA STAGE-COACH, a game in which all the players sit in a circle except one, who stands in the middle. Each of those sitting takes the name of some part of a stage-coach, of some article of dress of a passen- ger, or of something else connected with a stage ride. The one in the middle of the room then tells a story, bringing in these names as often as he pleases. Whenever he speaks the name a player has taken, that player must rise and turn around, or pay a forfeit. When the word "stage-coach" is spoken, all must rise and turn. The story ends with the words " the stage turned over," at which all change seats. In the confusion the story-teller tries to slip into a chair, and if he succeeds, the one left standing must take his place and tell a similar story. Of course there must be only chairs enough in the game for those sitting. If the story-teller gets a seat, he may take the name of the one left standing, or choose a new one. If he is unsuccessful, he must tell another story. This game may be varied in many ways : thus, the story may be about a sea voyage, and the players may be named after parts of a ship. This game is similar to that of Echo, where instead of turning at certain words the players repeat them after the story-teller. The Germans call it " Die Reise nack Jerusalem" (The Journey to Jerusa- lem), but it is entirely different from our " Going to Jerusalem." STARCH, Manufacture of. Starch may be made from flour as follows : Mix flour with enough water to make a stiff dough, and then knead or roll it between the fingers on a piece of muslin stretched over a bowl or dish, pouring on a little water every few seconds. The water that flows through the mus- lin carries with it a white matter, which gradually settles to the bot- tom and may be collected. This is starch. When all the starch has thus been removed from the dough, a sticky mass remains, which is called gluten. STATUARY. See Living Statu- ary. STEAM-WHEEL. A simple kind of steam-engine can be made as follows : Fasten the lid of a tin baking-powder box to the box with shellac varnish, and punch two holes in the side of the box, one about as large as a pin and the other as large as a slate-pencil. The latter must be fitted with a wooden plug. This box is the boiler of the engine. It must be glued between two upright posts fixed in a board, so that the pin-hole is on top. The upright posts rise about two inches above the boiler and bear, on an axle made of stiff iron wire, a wheel like a water-wheel, or the paddle-wheel of a steamboat. This can be made by taking a large pill-box, cutting slits in the sides, and drawing slips of pasteboard through the slits so that they project about half an inch. The slips are steadied by filling the box with damp sand be- fore putting on the lid. This wheel is arranged so that one side is di- rectly over the pin-hole. The boiler is now supplied with water through the plugged hole, and an alcohol lamp is placed under it. When the water begins to boil, the steam will issue from the pin-hole, and striking the paddles of the wheel, will spin it around very rap- idly. If a grooved wooden wheel be glued to one side of the paddle- wheel, it may be connected by a string to one of the moving toys which are sold at toy-stores to be set in motion by miniature steam-engines. ST. HELENA, a solitaire game of CARDS played with two packs. The four Kings of one pack are laid in a row on the table, and under them the four corresponding Aces. Cards are then placed, as they come, in a row above the Kings, and in an- other below the Aces ; and then two cards are placed at the right of SttLL POND 6go STOCK EXCHANGE the rows and two at the left. The whole pack is distributed in this or- der. The player's object is to build up families by suits, downward from the Kings and upward from the Aces, and whenever a card can be placed in its proper order it is so placed ; but those that fall in the upper row can be used only on the Kings, and those in the lower row on the Aces. The side cards can be used on either row. After the pack has been distributed, the top card of any pile can be placed on any other top card just above or below it in rank ; and when a card is thus uncovered that can be used in building, it is so used, bearing in mind the restriction noticed above. If it is necessary to pick up the outer rows, reshuffle them and re- lay them. It may be done once, and then any cards may be used in building, no matter on what row they fall. This game is said to have been played much by Napoleon in exile on the island of St. Helena, and this gives it its name. STILL POND. See Blind Man's Buff. STILTS, poles or crutches to raise the feet above the ground in walk- ing. The stilts are held as shown in the picture. As usually made, each stilt has a step of wood, on which a foot is placed ; but some stilts have in- stead a loop or stir- rup of leather, into which the foot is thrust. The latter kind is dangerous, for if the wearer trip or lose his balance and fall, the feet are apt to become entan- I gled, whereas in the ^ other case he can easily jump from the stilts to the ground. Skilful walkers have Stilts. their stilts strapped tightly to their legs, so that they may use their hands freely. The art of walking on stilts depends on the principles of balancing, and is best learned by practice. The learner should mount at first from a stump or fence, high enough to step at once onto his stilts. It is impos- sible to stand still on stilts without the aid of a staff, for the ends of the poles do not offer so broad a support as the feet ; but by taking little steps in one direction and an- other, the walker may remain near one spot as long as he pleases. It is easier to balance the body on long stilts than on short ones, for the same reason that it is easier to balance a long pole than a short one. In the Landes, a marshy tract of country near Bordeaux, France, the shepherds make great use of stilts (C. T. T.). In this and other regions where necessity has compelled the use of stilts, various stilt-games are played. The illustration below, from an old manuscript, shows the use of stilts in ancient times. Ancient Stilts. STOCK EXCHANGE, THE, a game played by any number of persons, with a pack of cards. The players sit in a circle, and one of them, tak- ing the cards in his hand, gives them STOP 68i SUGAR OF LEAD one by one to his left-hand neighbor, calling out the name of each card as he does so, three times in quick succession. His neighbor, as he re- ceives them, hands them to the next player, calling out their names in like manner. The noise and con- fusion increases with each card handed out, and is supposed to re- semble the sounds heard in the Stock Exchange, where the brokers are calling out the names of the stocks they wish to sell or buy. If the circle is not large enough for the whole pack to go around, the player at the right of the dealer holds the cards, as they reach him, instead of passing them. Thus the noise grows gradually less, and finally sub- sides when all the cards have gone around. Sometimes, when a Knave appears, instead of naming k the holder says H'm, H'm, H'm, thus imitating the undertone of conver- sation ; and when an Ace is passed, the one who passes it cries Oh ! Oh ! Oh! STOP. See Newmarket. STRING-BALL, a game played by any number of persons with a hard rubber ball, suspended by a string from the limb of a tree or from a stick projecting from a window. The string should be from lo to 15 feet long, and the ball should hang about three or four feet above the ground. One of the players strikes the ball with his hand, so that it swings, and those toward whom it moves try to catch it before it swings back past its lowest position. Should any one succeed, the striker is out and another takes his place; if not, he scores one point and strikes again, keeping on till he is put out. The order in which the players are to strike, and the number of turns each is to have, is decided at the beginning of the game. Another method is for the striker to try to hit the ball so hard that the cord will be wound one or more times around the branch or stick to which it is fastened. Each has but one trial at a time, and scores as many points as the cord makes turns around the branch. The cord is unwound after each trial so that the ball hangs as at first. This is a German game, and its name is a translation of the German name Schnurball. STRING-STICKS, an arrangement of sticks and string shown in the first figure. The string appears to String-sticks. — Fig. i, pass directly through the top of the sticks, as it can be pulled back and forthby theends Aand B. A sharp knife can be passed down between the sticks at C, apparently cutting the string, yet it can be pulled back and forth as before. The second il- lustration shows the real arrange- String-sticks. — Fig. 2. ment of the string, which makes this possible. The string does not pass through EF at all, but down the sticks and through the hinge (D in Fig. i). SUGAR OF LEAD, Experiments with. Make a strong solution of sugar of lead, and add hydrochloric acid or a solution of common salt. SULPHUR 682 SULPHUR DIOXIDE A fine precipitate of chloride of lead will be formed. Boil the solu- tion and this will be dissolved, but on cooling it is deposited in beauti- ful crystals, sometimes called " The Silver Shower." 2. Repeat the above experiment, adding iodide of potassium to the solution of sugar of lead instead of hydrochloric acid. The crystals of iodide of lead formed on cooling are bright yellow, and the experiment is hence often called " The Golden Shower." SULPHUR, Expenments with. Sul- phur is described in C. C. T. 1. Place in a test-tube enough bits of stick sulphur, or flowers of sul- phur, to half fill it. Heat the sul- phur in an alcohol lamp flame and it will melt. At first it forms a light yellow liquid ; but if it be heated more it turns dark, and be- comes so thick that it will not run out even if the tube be held upside down. If it be heated still more, it becomes fluid again and finally boils, giving off a light yellow va- por. While it boils, pour half of it into a glass of cold water and set the rest away to cool. That which was poured into the water forms a dark mass like India-rubber, which does not resemble sulphur at all, and that which cools in the test tube forms long yellow crystals. The first is called amorphous sul- phur, from two Greek words mean- ing "without form." 2. To dissolve sulphur. Sulphur will not dissolve in water or alcohol, but it will in carbon disulphide. If the solution be poured on a plate and dried, the sulphur will be de- posited in crystals ; but, as can be seen with a magnifying glass, these are not the same kind of crystals as those obtained by cooling in the first experiment, being shorter and blunter. The amorphous sulphur will not dissolve even in carbon disulphide. 3. To bleach with sulphur. Light a small piece of sulphur, and hold over it some colored flowers in an inverted glass. The flowers will be turned white, either entirely or in spots. Dip the flowers in very weak sulphuric acid or ammonia, and the color will be partially re- stored. The bleaching is done by the gas called sulphur dioxide, which is made when sulphur is burned. More experiments with this gas are described in the article on it. 4. Mix seven grains of powdered sulphur with four grains of fine iron filings, and heat the mixture in an ignition tube. They will combine to form sulphide of iron. SULPHUR DIOXIDE, Experiments with. Sulphur dioxide gas may be made by burning sulphur, as shown in Experiment 3 in the preceding article. It is hard to collect it when made thus, and it is also impure. A better way is to put two or three teaspoonfuls of small scraps of cop- per into a flask, cover them with strong sulphuric acid, and heat the mixture. The delivery-tube from the flask must lead to the bottom of a bottle where the gas will col- lect, as it is heavier than air. It will be perceived by the smell that the gas is the same as that produced by burning sulphur. The liquid re- maining in the flask is colored blue with BLUE VITRIOL. By passing the delivery-tube into a bottle of water, the gas will dissolve, forming sulphurous acid, which may be used in bleaching, like the gas. EXPERIMENTS. I . To turn sulphur dioxide gas to a liquid. This can be done by ap- plying cold or pressure, but the lat- ter method is not safe without spe- cial apparatus. The first method is easy if care be taken. The de- livery-tube first leads the gas into a bottle packed in ice, and it next passes through a drying bottle, and then through a U-tube packed in* pounded ice and salt. The gas willB condense into a heavy oily liquid at the bottom of the U-tube. If the SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN 68$ SULPHURIC ACID tube be one with a stop-cock at both ends, they may be turned, and the liquid can thus be kept any length of time. Otherwise it will evapo- rate again into the gas. The evap- oration of the liquid produces great cold, as will be seen in the following experiments. 2 Put a little mercury in a watch- glass or butter plate, pour liquid sulphur dioxide over it, and blow a current of air across it with a bel- lows. The mercury will be frozen. 3. Pour some liquid sulphur di- oxide on the bulb of an alcohol thermometer wrapped in cotton. It will sink very low. A mercury thermometer will not do so, because the mercury would be frozen. 4. Pour a quantity of the liquid sulphur dioxide into ice-cold water. Some of it will sink to the bottom. Stir this with a glass rod and it will boil at once, while some of the water will freeze. SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, Experimentswith. (Read the article Chemical Experiments.) Sul- phuretted hydrogen, also called hydrogen sulphide, is a gas com- posed of hydrogen and sulphur. It should be made out of doors or in an out-building, for it has a very bad odor, like that of rotten eggs. It can be made like hydrogen, using, instead of zinc, lumps of iron sulphide as large as the tip of the little finger. The gas can be col- lected over hot water, or led into a bottle of cold water, in which it will dissolve. EXPERIMENTS. 1. All the experiments given under HYDROGEN can be repeated with sulphuretted hydrogen. When burned in a jar it will deposit a thin crust of sulphur on the inside. 2. Fill a bottle with chlorine and another with sulphuretted hydrogen and bring them mouth to mouth. Sulphur will be deposited. The same result will follow if chlorine water and sulphuretted hydrogen water be mixed. 3. Hold a wet silver or copper coin in a stream of the gas or dip it in sulphuretted hydrogen water. The coin will be blackened. 4. Make a drawing or write a sen- tence on a piece of paper with sugar of lead dissolved in water. It will be invisible when dry. Dip it in sulphuretted hydrogen water, and the writing or drawing will show plainly in black. The reason is, that while sugar of lead is white, sulphide of lead (which is formed when it touches sulphuretted hydro- gen) is black. SULPHURIC ACID, Experiments with. Sulphuric acid is described in C. C. T. (Read also the article Chemical Experiments.) i. Put a few teaspoon fuls of water into a glass, and on it slowly pour about twice as much sulphuric acid in a fine stream. Stir the liquid with a test-tube containing a little alcohol or ether. Enough heat will be de- veloped to boil the liquid in the tube. Even water will boil in the tube, but not so readily. 2. Make a thick syrup by dissolv- ing sugar in hot water. Put a few teaspoonfuls into a glass and pour sulphuric acid in it slowly, at the same time stirring it with a glass rod. The acid will turn the syrup into a mass of black spongy char- coal, as shown in the figure. If the Experiment 2. syrup is not thick enough, the mass will be half liquid. 3. Dip bits of wood into strong sulphuric acid. They will be charred as if by heat. 4. Dilute some sulphuric acid with about half its volume of water, and when it has become cold, dip into a piece of unglazed paper, let- SULTAN 684 SUN-DIALS ting it stay about a quarter of a min- ute. Rinse the paper in water, then in very weak ammonia, and then in water again. The paper will be much tougher than before, being changed to a substance called vege- table parchment. The time it should remain in the acid varies with the kind of paper used, but by trying several times very tough parchment can be made. SULTAN, a solitaire game of CARDS, played with two full packs. One Ace of Hearts and the eight Kings are removed from the pack and arranged on the table as fol- lows : One King of Hearts (called the Sultan) is placed in the centre, with the Ace of Hearts just above him, and below him the other King of Hearts. On each side of the Ace are laid the Kings of Clubs, just below them the Kings of Dia- monds, and below these the Kings of Spades, representing respectively War, the Treasury, and Industry. The back is now shuffled, held back upward, and playing begins. The first four cards are laid in order on one side of the figure already formed, with their ends toward the figure, and the next four on the other side in like manner. These eight cards are called the Sultan's Divan. The piles of suits are now to be com- pleted in order, by placing on the Kings the Aces, Twos, Threes, and so on up to Queens, using cards from the pack, any card from the Divan, or the top card of the Stock, which consists of the cards that cannot be used, piled on one side. The Ace of Hearts is also built upon in like manner. When a place in the Divan is empty it must be filled at once, either by the next card played, or the top card of the Stock, as the player chooses. When the game is ended, it shows the Sultan surrounded by his eight Queens. SUN-DIALS. The use of sundials and the form of one kind are de- scribed in the article Clock in C. C. T. There are many other kinds, all of which can be con- structed with a little care. One of the simplest consists of a circle or disk of metal, having its circumfer- ence divided into twenty-four equal parts, numbered from one to twelva twice over, as in Fig. i. Zinc isi Fig:. I. the best material for all the dials, as it does not rust and is easily marked and cut. In the centre is fixed a straight pin called a style, which must be exactly perpendicu- lar to the disk. The accuracy of the dial depends on this, and on its being placed so that the style points in the same direction as the earth s axis. This may be brought about in two ways. In one, a little hole is made through the metal disk, close to the style, and then, on a clear night, the dial is so placed that by looking through this hole, the north star is brought into line with the style. In the otherll method a triangle is cut out of pasteboard (see Fig. 2) having th& A angle C just equal to the latitude of the place. This can be done by finding the latitude on a C Fig-. 2. B map, and then making the angle with the aid of a SUN-DIALS 685 SUN-DIALS piece of metal marked off in de- grees, called a protractor, which can be bought of any dealer in draw- ing materials. Fix this triangle, with the aid of a compass, so that the end B points due north and the base BC is horizontal. Then fix the dial so that the style points along the line AC, the free end be- ing toward A. The figure 12 must be exactly below the style. Globe-dial, A dial can be made of an ordinary school globe, mounted on an axis which points toward the north pole (see Fig. 3). The globe Fi?. 3. is divided into twenty-four parts by meridians of longitude, which are numbered from i to 12 twice over, one six o'clock meridian being ex- actly on top of the globe, and the other at the bottom. There is no style, the hour being pointed out by the line between the light and dark part of the globe. As this is rather blurred, the dial is not very exact. Trough-dial. This is formed of a serai-circular trough of tin or zinc closed at the end as shown in Fig, 4, Straight lines divide it lengthwise into twelve equal parts which are numbered from 6 A,M. to 6 P,M., the twelve o'clock line being at the bottom. Instead of a style a wire is stretched lengthwise- across the middle of the trough from end to end, whose shadow points out the Fig. 4. hours. The trough must be placed in a north and south direction. Horizontal Dial. This is more common than the others just de- scribed, but is harder to make be- cause the dial is not divided into equal parts. To make one exactly requires the use of mathematics, but one can be made roughly as follows : Fix a disk or square plate of zinc on a post, so that it will be perfectly level, and in the middle drive a pin for a style, inclined as before in the direction of the north star. The triangle in Fig, 2 may be cut out of zinc and soldered to the dial, its edge AC answering as a style. Watch the shadow of the style, and mark each hour on the edge of the dial where the shadow falls at that hour. Only the time used must be sun time — not true time. The difference between these two sorts of time will now be ex- plained. Correction. If the earth moved around the sun at a uniform speed, the sun dial would always indicate the true time, but it moves faster at some times than at others, so that a correction must usually be added to or subtracted from the hour it points out, and the same correction must be used in marking the hours on the dial, A table of these cor- rections (expressed in minutes) is given below. All corrections marked -f are to be added to the reading of the dial to get the true time, and all marked — are to be subtracted. In marking the dial, where it is necessary to get sun time from true time, the cor- rections marked — are added to the SUN-SPOTS 686 SWAY K A true time, and those marked + are subtra:ted. All the days of the month are not given, but the cor- rections for the omitted ones can easily be calculated. Thus, the cor- rection for Jan. 5 is -1- 5i, and that for Oct. 12. is — 13^. 25 — 2 21 — 7 Jan. 30I- 3 24 - 8 I 4 + 4 + 5 May 27 30 - 9 — 10 6 + 6 I - 3 Oct. 8 + 7 17 - 4 II + 8 28 - 3 3 — II ?e + 9 + 10 June 7 10 — 12 — 13 19 + II 4 — 2 14 - 14 23 + 12 10 — I 19 - 15 27 + 13 19 + I 27 — 16 31 + 14 24 + 2 Nov. 3 Feb. + 14 29 + 3 July 10 17 - 16 -15 19 + 14 4 + 4 21 — 14 26 4- 13 10 + 5 25 -13 March 19 + 6 28 — 12 Aug. Dec. 3 + 12 4 + II I + 6 I — II 12 + 10 II + 5 2 — 10 15 + 9 16 + 4 6 - 9 19 + 8 21 + 3 8 — 8 22 + 7 25 + 2 10 - 7 25 + 6 29 + I 12 - 6 28 + 5 Sept. 14 16 - 5 - 4 - 3 April 41- I 18 I + 4 7 — 2 21 — 2 4 + 3 10 - 3 23 — I 8 + 2 13 — 4 27 + I 12 + I 16 - 5 29 + 2 19 18 - 6 31 + 3 SUN-SPOTS, Observations on. he sun is des( :ribed in C C. T. The spots on it may be seen through an ordinary opera-glass, the eyes being protected from its rays as fol- lows : Procure two strips of window- glass one inch wide and two inches long, and smoke one of them over a lamp or candle flame till the sun can be seen through it without hurting the eyes. Fasten the pieces of glass together, smoked side inward, by elastic bands, keep- ing them apart by slips of paper pasted at the ends, so that the smoked side will not rub. The pieces of glass can now be fastened over the eye-pieces of the opera- glass by a large elastic band around the middle. The spots can now be seen easily. When a spot shaped so that it can be recognized is seen, it should be watched from day to day, and will be seen to change its place. The reason is that the sun is turning on its axis like the earth, carrying the spot around with it. The average number of sun-spots does not remain the same, but is greatest every eleven years. The last year when there was the largest number was 1881, and the next will therefore be in 1892. Until about that time there will be more and more of them, and then they will decrease in number till about 1897, when they will begin to increase again. SWAYKA, a game played by any number of persons with an iron pin eight or nine inches long, and any number of iron rings varying in di- ameter from two inches to one foot. The pin, which is called the Swayka (its name in Russian), is so sharp that it will stick upright when thrown either at the ground or a board floor. The rings are placed in any order on the ground, and the players try to throw the Swayka so that it will stick upright within one of them. Their object is so to place it in each one of the rings in any order. RULES. 1. The players take turns, each- having only one throw in a turn. 2. A player may throw first at whichever ring he chooses, but he must announce beforehand which one it is, and if he throws the Swayka into any other it counts as a miss. 3. Whoever can place the Swayka in all the rings in regular order of SWEDISH WHIST 687 SWIMMING size, beginning with the smallest and ending with the largest, receives the name of King, has general con- trol of the game, acts as umpire, and has the right to order any one to pick up the Swayka for him. When he reaches the largest he must begin at the smallest again, otherwise he cannot remain King. He holds the title as long as he can throw successfully in that order. If two or more players earn the right to be King they must throw together, the other players omitting their turns till all but one have missed. 4. No player may throw a second time at the same ring till he has placed the Swayka in all the other rings. 5. When a player misses, all the rings he has thrown into count for nothing, and he must throw, at his next turn, into the next larger ring. If he miss that, he must take the next larger at his following turn, and so on till he is successful or misses the largest ring. 6. Whoever misses the largest ring is out of the game, and is obliged to pick up the Swayka for his companions till some one else misses that ring and takes his place. 7. The game may last as long as desired. If so agreed, he who has been King the greatest number of times during the play is victor. Swayka is a Russian game, and is said to be very popular in that countrv. SWEDISH WHIST. See Prefer- ence. SWIMMING, the art of propelling one's self through the water by the arms and legs. Learning to Swim. The learner should choose, if possible, a grad- ually sloping shore with gravelly or sandy bottom, where there is no current. If he is not used to the water, he must first accustom himself to being under it by ly- ing down on the bottom, where it is only one or two feet deep. He will thus, after practice, be able to enter the water without gasping, and will learn that it is easy to keep his body afloat by a very slight push of the hand against the bottom, as shown in Fig. i. He should try to Fig. I. open his eyes under water, and when he puts his head out he must re- member to breathe outward before inhaling, thus expelling the water from his nostrils. After he has ac- quired confidence, he should wade out to a depth of about four feet, and try to swim to shore, using the simple chest stroke, or swimming " dog-fashion," as explained below. At first he will probably splash about rather aimlessly with hands and feet; but as soon as he sees that he can keep himself afloat, he will be able to follow directions more exactly. When he sinks he can sustain himself by pushing with one hand against the bottom — but this should be done as seldom as pos- sible. When he can swim a few strokes without this aid, he should begin at a greater distance from shore, and so on, until he is perfect- ly at home in the water. This will probably be only after much patient practice, though some learners make faster progress than others. This is not the only way of learn- ing to swim. Some people advise the learner to jump at once into water over his depth, trusting to his instinct and to his natural strug- gles to get to shore; but this should never be tried unless some older person is near to rescue the sv/im- mer in case of need. Timid people should never try it at all. Another SWIMMING 688 SWIMMING method is for a teacher or compan- ion to support the learner, by plac- Fig. 2. ing a hand beneath him till he has learned to make the proper motions and is able to keep himself up. In another method a band around the learner's chest is fastened by a rope to the end of a pole held by an as- sistant (see Fig. 2), who thus gives the swimmer aid as long as he needs it. Some teachers say that the learner ought to practise his strokes lying across a chair, before he tries them in the water, but others con- sider this unnecessary. The various kinds of swimming strokes will now be described. Breast-stroke. This is the ordi- nary stroke and the one generally used by learners. Fig. 3 shows the position of starting as seen from above, and Fig. 4 the attitude as seen from one side. The hands are brought under the chin, fingers to- gether, and palms down and slight- ly hollowed. The arms are then pushed straight forward, keeping the hands together till they are at German Swimming School. full length. The hands are now j line with the shoulders, when the separated and brought obliquely hands are brought in edgewise till backward and downward (called | they are together just beneath the " striking out") till the arms are in | chin, as at first. Some swimmers SWIMMING 689 SWIMMING take a longer stroke than this, bring- ing the hands down as far as the hips. While the hands are making this stroke, the feet and legs make a corresponding one. The knees are bent so that they will be as far apart as possible, while the feet are together, and the legs are then kicked back and out so that the soles of the feet press flatly against the water. The legs must then be closed stiffly, like a pair of scissors, forcing the water out from between them, and so pushing the swimmer forward. When they are closed the knees must be opened again as at first. The arm and leg strokes must be made at the same time, the feet be- ing drawn up as the hands are ad- vanced, the kick being made quickly as the hands begin to strike out, and the legs being closed when the hands have about half finished the stroke. Fig. 4 shows the proper angle for the body to make with the water surface. The head should be kept back as far as possible, that it may be supported by the lungs. The breath should be in time with Fig. 4. the stroke, the lungs being empty when it is being made, and full when the swimmer is drawing in his limbs for a new one. The reason for this is that the body is lighter when the lungs are full of air, and there is greatest need of their sustaining power between strokes. Beginners are apt to place most reliance on the arm movement, pay- ing little attention to the legs; but the leg stroke is really as important as that of the arms, or even more im- portant, as some teachers think. The swimmer will be able to go much farther without tiring himself if he uses his legs properly than if he sim- ply kicks with them. Side-stroke. The swimmer lies on his side instead of his breast. Either side may be used, but most swimmers prefer the right, since the right arm can then be used to the greatest advantage. The head is turned so that the chin rests against the uppermost shoulder, and lies as deeply in the water as possible. The face may be kept above water, or it may be above only when the forward impulse raises it a little. The lower hand is advanced under water on a level with the head, and SWIMMING 690 SWIMMING then is brought downward at arm's length. It is returned by bending the elbow and wrist, so as to give as little resistance as possible. While this hand is being advanced, as just described, the upper hand is used like an oar, the fingers being bent at right angles to the arm. Thus the hands are used alternately, each doing its work in turn. At the same time the upper leg is kicked out in front of the body, and brought around like an oar, the foot being stretched out in a line with the leg, and the lower leg is stretched out beyond the back, and brought around to meet the other. Both legs are then drawn in for another stroke, as in the chest-stroke. The side stroke requires more practice than the chest-stroke, but the body offers less resistance to the water in this stroke than in any other. It is often used by skilled swimmers as a rest in going long distances. Overhand Side-stroke (Fig. 5). This is like the one just described, except that the uppermost arm is Fig. 5. advanced out of water instead of under it, as shown in the illustra- tion. Swimming Dog-fashion. The arms are moved alternately outward, downward, and then inward, with a pawing motion, but without leaving the water. The motion of the legs may be as in the chest-stroke, or they may be kicked backward alter- nately. This stroke is often used by beginners, and is the natural one for most people, though not the best for ordinary use. Swimming Turtle-fashion (Fig. 6). Like the last stroke, except that the arms are thrust forward alternately above water, the body turning from side to side. This stroke is swift, Fig. 6. but more tiresome than the chest- stroke. Swimming on the Back. There are several methods. In one, the swimmer lies on his back, keeping his face barely out of water. The legs are inclined downward and held together, the stroke being made entirely with the hands. The arms are kept closely at the swimmer's sides and he propels himself by a rapid twisting motion of the hands from the wrist, the back of the hand being uppermost to begin with, and the palm at the end of the stroke. The chest stroke may also be used in swimming on the back. The swimmer may advance head first or feet first, as he chooses, and he may use hands alone or feet alone in making his stroke. When the arms are not used they should be folded on the chest, or held straight along the side. There are many other methods of swimming, and every good swim- mer usually has a stroke differing a little from every other. When one has mastered the simple strokes, he can invent other methods to suit his fancy. Some of the styles used by skilled swimmers, besides those already mentioned, are : I. The corkscrew stroke, in which the body turns under water, appar- ently screwing its way forward. This is done by a patting motion of the soles of the feet, the swimmer steering with one hand, which is held straight forward. SWIMMING 691 SWIMMING 2. Swimming with one hand or foot, or both feet, out of water. This is useful where a swimmer wishes to carry his clothes across a deep stream. 3, Swimming with hands and feet bound, or with one hand holding one foot. Diving, entering deep water head- first by leaping. The water should be more than six feet deep, or the swimmer may injure himself by striking against the bottom. Va- rious attitudes in diving are shown in the accompanying illustrations, but that commonly preferred is the Diving Forward. one where the diver extends his hands above his head. Sometimes a spring-board is used to aid the leap. Before beginning to dive the swimmer should master the ordi- nary strokes, and should be able to keep his eyes open under water. He must leap so that he will enter the water head first, for if he strikes flat on his chest the shock is severe. When the dive is made properly there is no splash, the body enter- ing the water smoothly. When be- neath the water he may strike out, keeping under as long as possible, and rising at a distance from the place where he entered, or he may rise at once, aiding himself by a Diving Sideways. downward movement of the hands. The depth to which a diver goes be- pends on the angle at which he enters the water, and on his move- ments beneath it. Skilful divers often bring up stones from a depth of twelve or fifteen feet, while on the other hand they can dive without touching bottom when it is only six or eight feet below the surface. A very deep dive is often aided by carrying a stone in one hand. The learner may begin diving by stand- ing in water up to his waist and plunging into it head first. He should try diving from a moderate height before he ventures to leap from a high bank or from a spring- board. Some swimmers dive feet foremost : but this requires skill to keep upright, if the jump is from a high place; and if the swimmer strikes on his side or does not hold his feet together, he may be badly SWIMMING 692 SWIMMING injured. Jumping into the water from a low bank, however, is per- fectly safe, and requires no skill. When a swimmer dives frequently, he should fill his ears with oiled cotton. People who have large nos- trils are often obliged to stop them up in like manner, and boys, when diving, often hold the nose in one hand ; but this is awkward and can only be done when diving from a very low bank, or from a row-boat. Floating. The human body is a very little lighter than water, on an average, but the head is heavier than water. If left to itself, there- fore, the body tends to float, bnt with back upward, the head hang- ing down beneath the surface. To float on one's back, keeping the mouth and nostrils out of water, so as to breathe, requires skill and con- fidence. The lightest part of the body is the lungs, and the swimmer's effort should be to alter the posi- tion of the limbs and body above and below the lungs, so that there will be a perfect balance. One of and throws up his hands, with the result that he goes down, his body not being light enough to sustain his arms out of water. The learner should remember that his body will float of itself so long as it is nearly under water, and that there is no danger of his sinking unless he tries to raise head or limb. In assuming the floating position, all the move- ments must be made slowly and under water. The lightness of the body will be increased by keeping the lungs as full as possible. To one who is skilled in floating the sensation is delightful, and swirn- mers often rest themselves thus in still water. In rough water it is of course impossible. Treading Water. To tread water the swimmer assumes an upright Floating, the best floating positions is that where the swimmer extends his arms above his head, throws the head back, and draws up the legs under the thighs. The body is not horizontal, but inclines downward toward the legs, the back being slightly hollowed. The only parts of the body above water are the chin, mouth, and nose. A more difficult position is the horizontal, the body being held straight and stiff, the legs close together. The toes, chest, face, and fingers are just above the surface. It is also pos- sible to float perpendicularly. Con- fidence is more essential to floating than anything else. The beginner usually feels that he is going to sink, Treading Water, position, only the head' being above water, and moves his legs as though walking upstairs, pushing down- ward against the water with the soles of his feet. Very slight exer- tion is required to keep the head SWIMMING 693 SWIMMING above water, but the swimmer must not try to keep it too high, remem- bering that when more of the body is above the surface, it is harder work to sustain it. Another method is to move both feet together, as in the chest-stroke — but this causes the body to rise and fall with each ef- fort. In either method the arms may be held straight at the sides, or "akimbo," or folded across the chest. Swimming in Rough Water. The swinimer should learn his strokes in still water, but when he has mas- tered them he should practise them also in rough water. He should try to go through the waves rather than over them. In the surf it is necessary to look out for the under- tow, which is a strong current of water flowing outward from the shore underneath the waves which are rolling in. If the swimmer lets his legs drop too low, this current will strike them and pull him back. He should not, therefore, let them hang at an angle with the surface, as ordinarily, but should swim with his whole body as near as pos- sible on the top of the wave. The upper current will then help him get to shore. Cramp. Swimmers are sometimes attacked in the water by cramp, a contraction of the muscles of the arm or leg, making it impossible to use the affected limb. Many swim- mers have been drowned by an at- tack of this kind, yet there is no danger if one keep his presence of mind. The trouble can often be re- lieved by rubbing, changing posi- tion, or a powerful effort to straighten the cramped limb, but if not, the swimmer should float or paddle to the shore, or until aid arrives. The chief thing is not to loose courage, for the best swim- mer, if he do this, is no better off than one who does not know how to swim at all. Swimming Apparatus. Many de- vices have been invented to aid Swimming Propeller. swimmers (see illustration), but I before them while learning the use none are recommended for learn- of the legs. Life preservers or de ers, except that some teachers ad- vices to keep the^od7afloat are vise their pupils to push a plank I useful where it is necessary to keep SWIMMING 694 SWIMMING in the water a long time, or where a person who does not know how to swim is obliged to jump into the water ; but they are a hindrance rather than an aid to real swim- ming. Those provided in steam- boats and ships for use in case of accident are usually wide strips of Captain Boyton's Suit. cork or inflated rubber covered with canvas. Some are tied on close under the arms, and others are arranged to be put on like a waistcoat. Care must be taken that the preserver does not slip to the lower part of the body, for then the head will go down and the feet up. Other devices to aid swimmers consist of plates to be fastened to the hands and feet, but the most cel- ebrated invention of this kind is the SWIMMING 695 SWIMMING inflated India-rubber suit of Cap- tain Paul Boyton, shown in the illustration. By putting on this suit a man makes a boat of himself, and can paddle or sail, as he wishes, carrying provisions with him. In one of these suits Captain Boyton has performed many remarkable feats, such as crossing the English Channel on May 28, 1875, in twenty- four hours, descending the Danube, 460 miles, in six days, in May, 1876, and floating from Cedar Creek, Montana, to St. Louis, Mo., 3580 miles, which took him from Sep- tember 17 to November 20, 1881. General Advice. The swimmer should not stay too long in the water. Usually twenty minutes at a time is long enough. The head should be wet before going in, for as cold water drives the blood from the surface of the body as it touches it, there might be a rush of blood to the head if it were the last part of the body to enter the water. It is wrong to bathe just after a meal. At least two hours should be allowed to pass after eating before entering the water. It is a good plan for the swimmer to accustom himself to swim with his clothes on. This may be of great use in case of accident. He should also practise undressing, or at least removing his heavier gar- ments, while in the water. Where it is necessary to plunge into the water at once to save life, only the coat and shoes should be removed. Life-saving. It is often difficult to bring to shore a person who is drowning, for such people sometimes lose their presence of mind and grasp the rescuer so that he cannot swim. If the person to be saved has a clear head, he should be di- rected to place his hands lightly on the hips of the rescuer, who can then easily swim ashore with him ; but if the drowning man has lost his presence of mind, the rescuer should approach him from behind, if possible, and push him to shore. or even drag him by the hair, or by an arm or leg. If possible, his head should be supported, but this is not absolutely necessary. He should be brought to shore as quickly as he can be, either above or below water. In case he is insensible when brought to shore, or apparently drowned, the water must first be forced from his lungs, and he must then be made to breathe. Many ways of effecting this have been rec- ommended. In all cases there must be no delay, as to wait even a few seconds may cause the loss of life. The patient should not even be re- moved to shelter, as that takes time, but he must be treated in the open air. Efforts to make the blood cir- culate must not be made till the pa- tient begins to breathe. To remove water from the throat, place the rescued man on the ground face downward, with one arm under the forehead, when the fluid will drain away. Breathing may now begin. If not, it may be excited by smelling-salts, by tickling the throat with a feather, by rubbing the chest and face, or by dashing cold water on them. If this is not successful, the motions of breathing must be imitated. Lay the patient on his face, supporting the chest by a folded coat. Turn him gently on one side, and a little beyond, and then back again. As the body is turned back on the face, the back should be pressed firmly between the shoulder-blades. These move- ments must be repeated every four or five seconds. When the patient is on his chest, the air is forced from the lungs, and when he is turiied on his side the air enters again. While these efforts are be- ing made, the hands and feet should be dried, the body stripped and dry clothes or coverings put on, without interfering with the movements de- scribed. History. Men have been able to swim from the earliest times. The Israelites knew how, as we learR SWIMMING 6g6 SWIMMING from the Bible, and there are refer- ences to swimming on the Assyrian tablets in the British Museum. The ancient Greeks thought it so neces- sary that one of their proverbs, de- scribing an uneducated man, was, " He knows neither how to read and write, nor how to swim." Swimming was taught to the Greek youths, es- pecially the Spartans, as a part of their regular athletic training (see thehistory of Athletics). The Ro- man soldiers were trained to swim, and swimming-races formed part of the Roman athletic contests. Julius Caesar once saved his life by know- ing how to swim. The Romans built enormous bathing-houses, of which there were 850 in the city at one time, one of which had a swim- ming-tank measuring 200 by 100 feet. The art has always been prac- tised more or less, but in the last century it was opposed in Europe by many teachers and physicians who thought that it injured the health, and people did not learn it as gener- ally as they do now. In the begin- ning of this century it came again into favor, and now almost every one thinks that both boys and girls should know how to swim. Swim- ming-schools are to be found in all countries, but the art is taught most carefully in France and Germany. In France the method of learning the stroke before entering the water is in favor. It is said that out of twenty-six military cadets taught in this way, who were made to enter the river Marne, nineteen swam at once without further instruction. In this country this method is not favored. A recent writer on the subject says : " Ten minutes' work in the water is worth ten hours on a chair." The first writer on swim- ming in this country was probably Benjamin Franklin, whose advice to learners is often quoted. It is much the same as that given above, except that he advocates plunging at once into water breast deep after a white stone or other object, for the purpose of teaching the swim- mer the buoyancy of his own body. Swimming-races, though not as common as other kinds, are fre- quently held, and skilled swimmers often attempt feats in the water, such as long distance swims, long swims under water, and the like. The records of some of these are given in the Appendix. It should be remembered that these are in- fluenced greatly by the direction of the current or tide, or the fact that some were performed in a tank where the swimmer had to turn fre- quently. RULES FOR SWIMMING RACES. The rules of the National Ama- teur Athletic Union for swimming- races are as follows : Sec. I. Oflicials shall consist of one referee, three Judges at the fin- ish, three Time-keepers, one Starter, one Clerk of the Course, with assist- ants, if necessary. Sec. 2. Duties and powers of these officials shall be the same as is pre- scribed for them in the foregoing rules (see Athletic Games). Sec. 3. In the 100 yards swim- ming-race, each competitor shall stand with one or both feet on the starting-line, and when the signal is given shall plunge. Stepping back, either before or after the signal, will not be allowed. Sec. 4. The half mile and one mile start shall be the same as the 100 yards, except that competitors may start in the water (tread- water start) from an imaginary line. Sec. 5. A competitor shall keep a straight course, parallel with the courses of the other competitors, from his starting station to the op- posite point in the finish line. Com- petitors will be started ten feet apart, and each one is entitled to a straight lane of water, ten feet wide, from start to finish. Any contestant who, when out of his own water, shall touch another competitor, is liable I SWINGING 697 SWINGING to disqualification — subject to the discretion of the Referee. Sec. 6. Each competitor shall have finished the race when any part of his person reaches the finish line. SWINCINC. Swings are made usually of a single rope, fastened at both ends, two to six feet apart, to the limb of a tree or a cross-piece of timber. The rope must be of such a length that the loop hangs within three or four feet of the ground. In the loop is fastened a wooden seat, on which the person who swings sits while a companion pushes him forward. The push is repeated every time the swing re- turns to its original position, and it thus rises a little higher each time, till the pusher can run quite under the swing, giving it a parting push as it swings up out of his reach. The longer the swing is the pleas- anter the motion, for the person in a long swing moves more nearly in a straight line than in a short one, and the time of a swing is longer. A swing about thirteen feet long should go backward and forward in two seconds, one twenty-nine feet long in three seconds, and one fifty-two feet long in four seconds. The time is nearly the same, no matter whether the swing be sent high or low ; if it be sent high it moves faster, so that it goes over its path in about the same time. The person who sits in the swing may move himself by pulling the ropes back, leaning backward and stretch- ing out his feet every time the swing moves forward. It is better still to stand in the swing while ex- ecuting this movement. Two per- sons standing in a swing face to face and doing this alternately may make the swing rise very high. This is called " pumping " or " work- ing," Each must stoop down, lean backward, and push his feet for- ward while the swing moves in the direction he is facing. Sometimes the person sitting in the swing jumps from it, and con- tests may be held by two or more persons, in which each tries to jump farther than the others ; but such jumping is dangerous, and may re- sult in injury to one not accustomed to it. In thus jumping the forward impetus is given entirely by the swing, and the skill of the jumper is shown only in knowing when to jump. If he wait too long, until the swing is nearly at the end of its path, it moves so slowly that he will be given scarcely any forward move- ment ; and if he jump too soon, the swing will not be far enough ad- vanced. The simplest form of seat for a swing is a board with a V-shaped notch in each end, which is fitted into the rope, and kept in place by the weight of the swinger. In an- other form the rope is put through a hole in each end of the board be- fore fastening it at the top ; or if the swing is made of two ropes, each is passed through one of the holes of the seat and tied beneath. Seats are sometimes made with backs and arm-rests. Such a seat may be formed of an old chair by removing the legs and fastening the rope to the seat. Two holes should be bored on each side, through each pair of which a rope is passed, and the ends of each of these ropes are tied to one of the swing ropes. In pushing a rope-swing care must be taken that it is not given a motion to one side, or a twist. If it acquires either of these mo- tions, the best plan is to stop and begin again. To stop a swing the pusher must wait till it has reached the point nearest to him, and then, seizing the seat or ropes with both hands, run forward with it, holding back with all his strength. The body should be inclined backward, and the heels dug into the ground at every step. The farther apart the ropes of the swing are at the top, the size of the seat remaining the same, the less likely it will be SYNTHESIS 698 SYNTHESIS to move sidewise. When the ropes are very near together, it is almost as easy to move the swing sidewise as straight ahead ; but when they are far apart, the backward and for- ward motion is the easier, as will be seen by trial. When the ropes are farther apart and slope toward the seat, the swing is also less likely to twist. But, on the other hand, when the ropes are far apart it is harder to keep one's seat. A swing that will neither move sidewise nor twist can be made by fasten- ing the ends of the rope to trees 30 to 50 feet apart.. The motion of such a swing is delight- ful, but it requires great skill to sit in it. Swings that will not twist are made also entirely of wood. They are usually hung in a wooden framework, which may be set up anywhere. Some kinds are set in motion by the swinger, who presses with his feet on a board in front of the swing. SYNTHESIS, or SETTO, a game played by any number of persons with 64 cards, 25 of which contain each one root of a word ; 19, three prefixes (or beginnings of words) each; and 15, three suffixes (or ends of words) each. There are also five prize-cards, each with one suffix. Words can be formed by putting a prefix before a root or a suffix after it, or both. Thus, with the root act, the prefix trans and the suffix ion can be formed the words transact, action, and transac- tion. At the beginning of the game each draws a card, and he who gets the first prefix deals. There are several ways of playing. In the first method four cards are dealt to each player, and four are placed face upward on the table. When all have played their cards as de- scribed below, the dealer gives four more to each, and soon till all have been dealt, but no more are dealt to the table. The player at the deal- er's left begins the game by trying to make a word by combining cards on the table, using any of the pre- fixes and suffixes he pleases. If he can do so, he places the word in front of him, and it becomes his property. Whether he has been able to do so, or not, he then plays one of his own cards, and tries to combine it with some card or cards on the table in like manner to form a word. If he cannot, and has other cards in his hand which will form a word with the one he is playing, with or without any on the table, he may play, saying " I form," giving the word he intends to make, and piling together the cards that form part of it. He must take it as soon as possible, and can play on no other word before he does so. Any other player may take it by forming the announced word, but no other. If the player can neither take a word nor form, he must lay his card with the others on the ta- ble. The next player has the same choice, but instead of using his card to form a word with those in the middle of the table, he may add it, if possible, to the word the first player made, thus taking it away from him. The other players go on in like manner, each in his turn. When a word made by any one has remained uncaptured during one round, it cannot be taken after- ward. When all the cards have been played, he who has taken the largest number of cards scores 3 points ; and every word of 4 sylla- bles scores i point, of 5 syllables 2 points, and of 6 syllables 3 points. When a player takes all the cards from the middle of the table, he is said to have made a " sweep " as in Casino, and every sweep counts a point for him who makes it. In addition, the five prize-cards each count toward game the number of points marked on it. He who has most points wins the game. Another way of playing is to give six cards to each, and put none on the table. The players must not SYNTHESIS 699 SYRUP look at their cards. They play, in order, till some one can make a word with the cards on the table, when he takes it as before. Any player may retake it by putting on another syllable at any time during the game. But if a player can take more than one word in one turn, he may do so, and such words cannot then be retaken. A third method is to remove the root-cards. Twelve cards are placed on the table, face upward, and the players have no cards, but each, in playing, may use any root in the English language. In a fourth way of playing, the prizes are removed and four cards dealt to each. No one looks at his cards. The first prefix or suf- fix card played is called the Leader. A player may take all cards on the table any of whose syllables is the same as a syllable on the card he plays. The greatest number of cards like the Leader scores 3, every syl- lable like one on the Leader scores I, and the greatest number of cards taken scores 2. The game is 13 points. These games may be varied, or others devised, at the pleasure of the players. The word Synthesis is from two Greek words meaning a putting together. Farrago. The same game as Syn- thesis, except that each card bears but one syllable. Farrago means a mixture. It was originally a Latin word, meaning a kind of mixed fodder for cattle. SYRINGE. The force-PUMP is really only a syringe arranged to throw a steady stream. Simpler ones can be made as follows. I. Cut off the top of a smooth round glass bottle so far below the neck that the remainder will be of the same size all the way down (see instructions for glass working under Chemical Experiments). Fit to it a piston like those described under Pump, without a valve. Now make a tiny hole in the side or bottom of the bottle, either by directing the tip of a BLOW-PIPE flame on the glass or by boring with a file moistened with turpentine. The smaller -the hole, the greater the force with which the water can be driven out by pushing in the piston. 2. A syringe may be made also from a piece of any kind of wood that contains pith. The pith must first be punched out, and then one end of the pipe thus made must be plugged with a bit of wood hav- ing a small hole in the centre. The piston can be made as be. fore. SYRINX, or Pan-pipe, an ancient musical instrument. One can be made by a boy with an ear for music, of any wood that contains pith. Punch out the pith, and plug one end with a wooden stopper. By blowing across the open end, a rough musical sound can be made. By cutting different lengths and trying them, a perfect scale may be obtained. The pipes should now be fastened side by side to across strip so that all the open ends are in line, when a tune can be played on them with a little practice. SYRUP, Experiment with. Three- quarters fill a bottle with very thick syrup, and then, having corked it, turn it upside down. After most of the syrup has de- scended to what is now the bottom of the bottle, what re- mains will form into a curious shape resembling a water-spout, large at the top and ta- pering at the bot- tom. The taper- ing part twists about curiously till all the syrup has run down, which takes several minutes. Experiment with Syrup. TABLEAUX 700 TAG T TABLEAUX, or TABLEAUX VIVANTS (French for "Living Pictures "). A theatrical enter- tainment in which the performers neither move nor speak. The ef- fect depends entirely on the dress, attitude, expression and grouping, as in a picture. Unless an artist is stage manager, tableaux are best made by copying an actual paint- ing as nearly as possible in group- ing, costume and background ; or, if an engraving be copied, the colors may be arranged at pleasure. The chief thing to remember as regards colors is that the picture must neither be too sombre nor contain brilliant colors close together, whether on the figures or in the background. As it is very difficult for the performers to keep perfectly still, tableaux can be shown for only a few seconds at a time, and it is well to raise and lower the curtain several times. The great changes of scene necessary between the tableaux and the short time during which they can be shown often makes such exhibitions tiresome, and everything possible should be done to reduce the waits between the scenes. To this end no per- former should take part in two consecutive tableaux, and as soon as the curtain falls on one scene the actors in the next should be ready to take their places. If possi- ble, one background should be ar- ranged behind another, so that it is necessary only to take away the first to show the second. One method is to make three frames, represent- ing picture-frames, at the rear of the stage, either with or without sepa- rate curtains. Tableaux can be ar- ranged behind these during the ex- hibition of one on the stage. It is then necessary only to lower the curtain while the actors leave the stage, raise the background curtain which concealed the frames in the rear, and then raise the stage-cur- tain again, disclosing the new tab- leau. If the frames have separate curtains they may be raised and low- ered alternately, one tableau being prepared while another is exhibited. Some of the frames may be made so as to show only the head and shoulders, in which case it is merely necessary for the actors to stand behind them. The background, in the case of small frames, should be black or very dark cloth. The il- lusion is heightened by having fine black gauze stretched between the stage and the audience. Instead of an ordinary curtain several cur- tains of white gauze may be let down, one byone, and then raised in the same way ; the effect being to cause the picture to fade away gradually. This is especially effec- tive when some slight change in the position of the actors is all that is necessary between two tableaux. One of the frames at the rear may be used to show a sort of panorama, a line of figures passing slowly be- hind it, each stopping for a few seconds at the proper place. The figures may represent historical or mythological characters ; and a lec- turer may describe them, pointing to each with a wand. In all tab- leaux, since the figures are seen on one side only, no care need be taken of that part of the costume turned away from the spectators. The faces should be colored or made up in the same way as for theatricals. TAG. A game played by any number of persons, one of whom tries to touch or " tag " any of the others he can. If he succeeds, the one tagged must take his place. No player can be tagged when touching the "goal," or "bye," which is any object agreed upon, such as a tree, fence, or stone. Sometimes, instead of some partic- ular object, anything made of a TAG 701 TAKE CARE given material is considered a " bye " — such as anything of stone, iron, or wood. The game is then called " Stone Tag," " Iron Tag," or " Wood Tag," as the case may be. The first tagger is generally selected at the opening of the game by COUNTING OUT. Cross Tag. There is no goal in this form of the game, but any player who is chased can be relieved by any other player running be- tween him and the one trying to tag him. The latter must then run after the player who ran between, till he in turn is relieved. When any one is tagged, he must take the pursuer's place as before. Tree Tag. Each player chooses a tree as his goal, and cannot be captured while touching it except by some other player's going around it three times. When any player is touched by another, or captured at his tree, the tree of the one who captures him becomes his goal. The game ends when all the play- ers are at one tree. Squat Tag. When a player who is pursued is tired, he is al- lowed to stoop or squat close to the ground, the pursuer not being allowed to touch him while in this position. The number of squats allowed varies from two to eleven. King's Land. A kind of Tag played by any number of persons, one of whom, representing the king, stands within boundaries agreed upon at the beginning of the game. The other players can be touched by him only when they venture inside the boundary ; and when they do so they call out, "I'm on king's land; king can't see !" or similar words. By running in and out again on all sides they strive to confuse the king and divert his attention from one to the other. In Connecticut the forbidden land is sometimes called Van Die- men's Land, in New York Dixie's Land, and in Philadelphia Golden Pavement. The name for it in Devonshire, England, is Judge Jeffrey's Land, from the cruel judge of that name who lived in the reign of James II. This game is sometimes called Rook's Castle, and the old English name for it was Tom Tiddler's Ground. The German boys, when they play it, say : " King, I'm in your land ; I'll steal your gold and silver sand ! " In France, the king is called the Crow, and French children playing this game, say, " I am in your castle. Crow, and I shall always be there." A similar game, though not a game of Tag, is King's Castle. Several kinds of Tag are played in France. In one, called Chat Perchi (Cat on a Perch), a player cannot be caught when his feet do not touch the ground ; as, for instance, when he is on a bench or clinging to a tree. Chat Coupi (Cut Cat) is our Cross Tag. In a kind called Mere Garuche (Mother Garuche ; probably from gare, meaning " take care ! ") the players, called Children, as they are caught must hold the hands of the first pursuer, and thus all must pursue together. Any pursuer may seize and detain whomever he can ; but the original pursuer. Mother Ga- ruche, must touch him before he is regarded as caught. Gorilla. A kind of Tag in which the pursuer is called the Gorilla. The other players howl and make any kind of noise, but the Gorilla keeps perfectly quiet. As soon as he touches any player he begins to howl, while the touched player, becoming Gorilla, stops howling. The players know who is Gorilla by his silence, and can thus avoid him. TAKE CARE. A game played by any number of persons in several ways. In one of the most com- mon, flour is packed tightly into a bowl, which is then turned over TALKING MACHINES. 702 TEA-KETTLE and removed, leaving the flour in a mound. On top of this is placed a small coin. The players in turn then remove each a part of the flour with a knife, and whoever lets the coin fall must pick it from the flour with his teeth. Sometimes each one says " take care " as he cuts off his portion of the flour, and the game thus receives its name. There are many substitutes for the flour and coin. One of the best is a card-house of two cards on a pile made of the rest of the pack loosely thrown together. Each player removes one card, and he who allows the card-house to fall must pay a forfeit. The game may be played out of doors with a little flag stuck in a pail of sand, from which each player removes a little on the end of a stick. TALKING MACHINES. A ma- chine to say the word " Mamma " can be made as follows: Take a toy trumpet, and holding the small end in the mouth place the two hands over the funnel. By blow- ing through the trumpet and open- ing and shutting one hand the syllable " Ma " can be produced quite plainly. By repeating this the word " Mamma " can be spoken. A very good imitation of the human voice can be made also by stretching two india-rubber bands across the end of an empty spool (see illustration). The edges of the bands should be close to- gether without overlapping. On blowing through the other end of the spool the bands vi- T,,,.. „c^^ , brate like the hu- 1 alkincf Spool. , , , man vocal chords, and make a sound something like the voice, which changes with the force of the breath. TASTE, Experiments on. i. To find which of the company has the most delicate sense of taste, dissolve a little sugar in water so as to make a slightly sweet solu- tion. Pour half of this into a glass and replace it with pure water. Put half the diluted liquid into a second glass, replace it with pure water, and so on till the liquid can- not be distinguished from ordinary water. The liquid must not be too strong to begin with, or too many dilutions will be required. Care should be taken to keep the glass- es in proper order, as, if they should be mixed, it would spoil the experiment. Now place on the table the glass containing the strongest solution, and one of pure water, and let the company enter one at a time, blindfolded. Give each to drink several times from the two glasses, in any order you please, asking him after each taste whether he had pure or sweet- ened water. Care should be taken to have glasses alike, and filled to the same height. Those who tell incorrectly are considered " out." Those who make no mistake take part in a similar trial in which the next weaker solution is used. This goes on till only one is left who can taste the sugar-water, who is declared to have the most delicate taste. The experiment may be tried over again, using first salt and then vinegar, instead of sugar. It will often be found that he who has the most delicate taste for sugar cannot detect acids as easily as some one else. 2. Prepare three glasses of water, dissolving a little quinine in one, salt in the second, and leaving the third pure. After holding some of the bitter or salt water in the mouth for a few seconds, swallow some of the pure water, and it will taste sweet. TEA-KETTLE. A game played by any number of persons, one of whom leaves the room while the others agree upon a word with sev- TEETOTUM 703 TELEGRAPHS eral different meanings, or upon two or more words pronounced alike. The player who went out now returns and asks each in turn a question. The word or words agreed on must be introduced sev- eral times in the answer, but instead thereof the word "tea-kettle" must be substituted. If the word is compounded with another or with a prefix or suffix the word " tea-kettle " must be similarly com- pounded. Thus, suppose rain, rein, reign, to be the selected words. The first question may be, " How do you do.^ " to which the answer is returned : " Not very well, for I was out yesterday in the biggest tea-kettle of Queen Victo- ria's tea-kettle." The next may be asked, "Do you enjoy riding.^" " That depends on the tea-kettles, and also on whether it is tea-ket- tle-ing or not." The player from whose answer the word is guessed becomes questioner in turn, leaving the room while another word is de- cided on. TEETOTUM. See Tops. TELEGRAPHS. The electric tel- egraph is described in C. C. T. un- der this head. A simple one on Morse's system may be made as follows : To telegraph between two stations requires two sounders, two keys, a battery and a line of wire. Sounder. Make a small electro- magnet (see Magnets) about two Fig. I. inches long. Fasten it on its side on a strip of board by tacking strips of cloth or leather over it, and from a piece of bent wire over it suspend the armature by threads so that it will hang as close as possible to the poles without touching them. (See Fig. i.) When a current passes through the magnet wire the arma- t:r Fig. 2. IT ture will be attracted and will make a clicking sound. Put in two brass screws behind the armature, so that it will touch them as it hangs, and then attach it by pieces of elastic to another screw at a distance of two or three inches, so that the elastic will pull it back against the screws when the current is off, thus making another click. The elastic must not be so strong as to prevent the magnet's drawing the armature to itself. The mode of holding back the armature is shown on a larger scale in Fig. 2. Key. Procure two strips of brass, one two inches long and the other Fig. 3. four. Punch a hole in one end of each and screw them to the same board with the sounder, at right angles to each other, the free end of the long piece just lying across the middle of the short one. Bend the long piece upward a little, near the screw, so that in its natural po- sition it will not touch the short piece. (See Fig. 3.) By pressing the end of the long piece down, contact can be made between the two, and if they are to be left in con- TELEGRAPHS 704 .TELEGRAPHS tact the long piece can be caught unde: the free end of the short one by turning it aside on the screw as a pivot. (See Fig. 4.) The wires Fig. 4. are attached to the strips by being wound once around the screws, just before screwing them down tight. Battery. The best battery to use is a Gravity (see Electric Batteries), but any other will do except the Leclanche and similar cells, which weaken very fast when the current is passing. In a tele- graph the current has to pass all the time, for if the circuit were broken at one station it would be impossible to signal from the other when a message was to be sent. The best place for the battery is in a box under the table on which the instruments stand. Line Wire. The size of the wire between the stations depends somewhat on distance. In tele- graphing from one room to anoth- er in the same house, small insula- ted wire may be used, which may be, secured along the edge of the floor, where it will not be seen, by means of double-pointed carpet tacks. If the line is to be out- doors ordinary telegraph wire should be used, which is fastened to trees or posts by insulators, so that the current may not be drawn away. Glass insulators may be bought of a dealer in telegraph sup- plies, but simple ones can be made of rubber tubing cut into pieces about an inch long. A nail is driven through the tubing lengthwise into a tree, and the wire is wound once or twice around it. Ground Connection. Where the two stations are in the same house, the circuit consists of wire both ways, but where the line passes outdoors the current passes one way through the wire, and back through the ground. Where there are gas pipes, connection with the ground can be made by simply winding one end of the wire tightly around one where it is exposed. Where there are no gas pipes a wire must be carried to the ground, where the end is attached to a cop- per plate about a foot square and buried deep enough to be con- stantly in moist ground. Connections. The different in- struments may be connected in any order desired, but the following directions should be observed by those who wish exact instructions. Connect one wire of the battery with the ground wire, and the oth- er with one end of the wire around the electro-magnet of the sounder. The other magnet wire is connect- ed with one of the brass strips of a Fig. 5.— B. Battery. GG. Ground plates. KK. Keys. L. Line. - l_ PPP. Poles. SS, Sounders. <* the key, and the other strip with the line wire, as shown in Fig. 5. At the other station the same connections are made, except that there is no battery, so that one of the magnet wires is connected directly to the ground wire. If there are to be one or more stations between the end ones, each must have its key and sounder. The TELEGRAPHS 705 TELEGRAPHS wire is " grounded "only at the end stations. The connections are best made by brass binding screws, which can be bought of a dealer in telegraph supplies ; but they can be made almost as well by winding the ends of the wires tightly around each other, and pounding them close together with a hammer. The better the connections the better the telegraph will work. Telegraphing. The alphabet used is the Morse, described in C. C. T. This consists of a combination of dots and dashes. To make a dot, the key is merely tapped down with the finger, so that contact is made for an instant only. To make a dash it is held down a little long- er. The operator at the other end must read the message by sound. He can hear the click made by the armature striking the magnet when the key is pressed down, and the click made by its hitting the screws behind it when the key is raised and the elastic pulls it back. If the interval between these two clicks is short, he knows a dot has been made ; if a little long- er, a dash. With a little prac- tice it will be easy to read thus, even when messages are sent very swiftly. To practice read- ing it is not necessary to have a telegraph instrument — any- thing which will make two clicks in the same manner will do; for instance, a stick moved backward and forward between two fence palings. The keys must be kept press- ed down all the time at all sta- tions, except when a message is being sent. A signal or call, consisting of any arrangement of dots and dashes, must be agreed on, to be given before a message ; and no message should be sent till the signal has been given and answered, showing that some one is at the other station to receive it. The answer may con- sist of a repetition of the signal or some other combination of dots and dashes. If there are more than two stations, each must have a different call, for all the sounders on the line click when a message is sent. Wheatstone Telegraph. In this telegraph the receiving instrument consists of a galvanometer, and the key is replaced by a commutator, or arrangement for reversing the current. Galvanometer. The instrument described in the article under this head can be used, but a pin must be stuck in the dial card just on each side of the needle, so that it may move only a small fraction of an inch, otherwise time would be lost in waiting for it to stop swing- ing. When the current flows one way the needle turns to the right, and when it is reversed, to the left. The Morse alphabet may be used, one direction meaning a dot and the other a dash. Commutator. A simple commu- tator, or current reverser, can be Fig. 6. made as follows : Fasten two strips of brass C and D (see Fig. 6) to a block of wood by screws at C and D, and at the other end fasten two cross strips, A E and B F, the former passing below and the latter above the two first strips. Bend k TELEGRAPHS 706 TELEGRAPHS the strips C and D upward so that when at rest they will press against B F. Join the line wires to C and Z>and the battery wires to A and B. Then, by pressing down the strip £>, the current travels in the direction of the arrows marked i, and, if the strip C be depressed, in the other direction. There must be a battery at each end of the line ; but, as will be seen by observing the way the commutator makes connections, only the battery at the signalling station furnishes current to the wire. Electro-Chemical Telegraph. Dis- solve some ferrocyanide of potas- sium in water, and soak unglazed paper in the solution. Connect the paper with the negative pole of an ELECTRIC BATTERY, and con- nect the positive pole with a steel nail. Write with the nail on the paper, and a blue mark will be produced. This is because the chemical on the paper is decom- posed by the electricity, forming Prussian blue. Now let one person, with the paper and nail, remain in one room and the wire which con- nects with either pass through another room, through a key, to make and break the circuit. The person with the nail draws it across the paper so as to make a straight line, while another telegraphs with the key, using Morse's alphabet. The dots and dashes will appear in blue on the paper, since whenever the key is down the current passes and the Prussian blue is formed, but when the key is up the nail makes no mark at all. Flash Telegraph. The simplest way to telegraph by flashes of light is to place a common kero- sene lamp in a soap box, cutting a hole in the top to admit the chimney, and boring several holes in the bottom to admit air. At the end is a hole about two inches in diameter, covered by a shut- ter made of a flat piece of wood screwed loosely to the box by one corner, so that it can swing down over the hole. Each telegrapher has a box arranged in this way, and the signals are sent by opening and shutting the shutters. The best way is to use the Morse alphabet, opening the shutter for only an instant to represent a dot, and longer for a dash. This telegraph can be used as far as the light of a kerosene lamp can be seen. To distinguish the light from that of other lamps near it the hole may be covered with colored glass. If the apparatus is to be used in the open air some kind of glass, either clear or colored, must be put over the hole to prevent the wind from putting out the lamp. Heliograph, or Sun Telegraph. The flash telegraph just described can be used only for short distances, but the sun's rays, reflected by a mirror, can be seen twenty or thirty miles, and sometimes even farther. The sending and receiving stations are usually on the tops of high hills. To be sure that the ray is sent in just the right direction, the mirror must first be made steady and yet free to turn. 1 1 may be supported on a tripod or gimbals, such as a com- pass is hung on, but a simpler way is for a boy to hold it firmly in his lap as he sits on the ground. For long distances a large mirror several feet square should be used. Scratch away a bit of the silvering as large as a pin-head from the back and then, looking through the hole thus made toward the place where the signal is sent, bring some small object into the line of sight. The object must be steady and not large enough to obstruct the beam. The best thing is a bit of wire supported on another tripod, or, more simply, nailed against a tree so that it projects to one side. Now, all the boy with the mirror has to do is to see that he keeps it steady and throws his beam of light on the wire, for this is in line with the distant point TELEGRAPHS 707 TELEPHONE where the signal is to be sent. The light can be cut off for a great- er or less time by holding a piece of cloth, a board, or a coat in front of the mirror, and thus the Morse alphabet can be used as before. Other Uses of the Morse Alphabet. This alphabet can also be adapted to hundreds of other systems of telegraphy where electricity is not used. Wherever two kinds of sig- nals can be sent from one point to another where they are observed by any of the senses, one signal can be used as a dot and the other as a dash, and hence they can be com- bined to form letters. The follow- ing examples show how the signals can be received through any of the five senses. Hearing. Two persons may com- municate with each other by long and short whistles or by raps on a table. Sight. Besides the flash tele- graph described above, motions of the hand or of a flag to the right and left may represent dots and dashes, or, by night, lanterns of two differ- ent colors may be used, one for dots, the other for dashes. In a crowded room two persons may thus communicate by motions of the head or finger, unnoticed by the rest of the company. Touch. Taps with the finger or light scratches with a pin may be used in the same way. Smell. A person blindfolded and having his ears stopped may have a message sent him by means of two odors, for instance by holding a rose and a violet near his nostrils. Taste. Two substances may be touched to the tongue in like man- ner, or an ordinary electric-tele- graph message may be received by means of the galvanic taste, the end of one wire being placed on the upper surface of the tongue and the other beneath it, and the electro-magnet being dispensed with. This requires some practice, but has been done successfully. TELEPHONE. The electric tele- phone is described in C. C. T., un- der this heading. An acoustic or non-electric telephone which works well for short distances can be made as follows : Procure two pieces of smooth pine board six- teen inches long by thirteen wide, and three-eighths of an inch thick. Cut in each a hole nine inches in diameter, and bevel the edges of the holes on one side of the board (see Fig. i). To the ends of each board, on the side not bevelled, nail strips of pine three inches wide, one-half inch thick, and thirteen inches long, so that the side view will be as in Fig. 2. Now buy a calfskin drum-head (which can be obtained of a dealer in musical instruments), and cut out of it two round pieces large enough to be tacked over the holes in the boards just prepared. The skin which is placed on the bev- elled side of the hole should not be stretched tightly over it, but only enough to smooth it. The tacks must be put in close together, and about half an inch from the edge of the skin. The skin is now stretched by hanging a weight to it. In an old-fashioned ©copper cent bore two holes large enough to ad- mit number 15 copper Fie 3 ^^^^ ^'^^' 3)- Pass a piece two or three feet long through one hole and back through the other, twist the ends together (Fig. 4) and then pass them through a hole exactly in the centre of the skin, from the tacked side. Place the board on the edges of two tables (Fig. 5), so that the wire will be be- tween them, and hang to it about thirty pounds. Wet the skin on both sides with a moistened sponge, and it will stretch, forming a con- Fig. 2. T Fig. 4. TELEPHONE 708 TELEPHONE cave surface (Fig. 6). After two or three hours, when it is dry, remove the weight, and the skin will keep this shape. This arrangement is T Fig. 6. Fig. 5. called the " disk." It may be bor- dered with leather, as shown in Fig. 7. Now bore a hole in the wall of the house where the telephone wire is to pass through it, and screw the disk to the wall so that the hole in the middle will be ex- actly opposite that in the wall (see Fig. 8). For the " line wire" from one disk to the other (which is fastened in like manner at the other end of the line) number 15 copper wire is the best. One end of the wire is passed through the hole in the wall and that in the disk, from the outside, through a copper cent, or large button, as described above (Fig. 4), then out again, and secured by twisting around the main wire. The wire must not touch the sides of the hole through which it passes, nor must it touch a tree or wall between the two stations. If it must pass around a corner it must be kept from touching by means of little loops of cord called insulators. The best insulators are made of pieces of cord four inches long and three-sixteenths of an inch in thick- ness. The ends are brought together secured by winding As Fig. 8. (Fig. 9) and with fine copper wire (Fig. 10). many of these insu- lators as are needed are strung on the wire before it is put up (Fig. II), and the wire can be kept Fig 9 away from any ob- ^.^ stacle by tying one to a tree or pole (Fig. 12). The wire should never be bent at a right angle, but two insu- lators may be used, as in Fig. 13, where the wire ad is seen carried around a corner. The wire attached to the disk at the far- ther end should be on- ly a few feet long, and the main wire should be tightened before the two pieces are connected. /frn" Fig. The \ / / K Fig. I.. Y tightening can be done by a pulley screwed to the outside wall of the house at the farther station. When the line is as tight as possible, one person should hold it while another fastens to it the short wire from the other disk by making a " tele- graph splice," shown in Fig. 14. TELEPHONE 709 TENNIS The tighter the wire the better the telephone will work. If it still sags it may be tightened by tying it by insulators to the limbs of trees above it, thus making it higher in the middle than at the ends. In speak- ing, the mouth should be held directly in front of the button on the disk, about six inches from it. Fig. 14. Lovers' Telegraph. A simple acoustic telephone made of tin box- es, paper and string. Remove the top and bottom from two baking- powder boxes, and over one end of each tie tightly a piece of parch- ment paper (see Sulphuric Acid, experiment 4). Through a hole in the middle of each paper pass one end of a piece of waxed cord, and prevent it from pulling through by knotting it. The cord thus connects the two boxes ; and if a person holding one speak into it, he can be heard by one who holds the other box to his ear. The cord between the boxes must not touch anything. If the cord is too long, its weight will break the parch- ment paper, but if the heads of TENNIS. A game played with a ball and a bat strung with gut, called a racket. There are two kinds — Court Tennis, or Tennis proper, and Lawn Tennis. The latter is more common and simpler, Lovers' Telegraph. the boxes are made of drum-head skin it can be made much longer. Rackets. be described and will therefore first. Lawn Tennis is played by two, three, or four persons, on a piece of ground called a court, of the shape and size shown in the diagrams. The balls are of hollow rub- ber covered with cloth ; the rackets, or racquets, are strung with cord or gut, as seen in the illustration. The courts may be on smooth turf or hard bare ground, or the game may be played indoors on a bare wooden or cemented floor The lines are marked out- doors with whitewash, powdered marble dust, high grass or white TENNIS 710 TENNIS tape, and indoors with chalk or paint. At a and B, in the dia- grams, are two posts, between which a net is strung across the court. The smaller rectangles into which the lines divide the court A, ] Pole. {^ Side Line. i :? V u • 1 »4 c c ! 0) 1 4; 8 1 ^^""" Line. B, Pole. SINGLE COURT (FOR TWO PLAYERS). Dimensions : Length, 78 feet ; Width, 27 feet; from Net to Service Lines, 21 fctt. (Height of net, centre 3 feet, sides, 3% feet). A, Pole. m Side Line. Service Side Line. 1 1 1 i 2 ^ 8 1 1 1 S Service 1 Side Line. m B, Pole. DOUBLE COURT (FOR TWO, THREE, OR FOUR PLAYERS). Dimensions : Length, 78 feet ; Width, 36 feet ; Net to Service Line, 21 feet ; Service Side Line to Side Line, 4% feet. (Height of net, center 3 feet, sides sH feet.) are also called courts. The illus- I ting the side lines and ladies' fig- tration given below represents a ures, it will represent a two-handed four-handed game ; but, by omit- | game as well. TENNIS 711 TENNIS The two-handed game will be described first. The players decide by lot who shall have the first turn, and on which side of the net each shall play. Usually one throws a racket into the air and the other calls out "rough" or "smooth." Each racket has a rough and smooth side, and, if the one that calls has named correctly the side that falls uppermost, he may take choice of turns or choice of courts as he pleases. Otherwise his opponent has the same privilege. If the win- ner of the toss elect to choose which turn he will take, his opponent has choice of courts, and vice versa. Each player now goes to his own side of the net, and the one who has obtained the first serve standing be- hind the rear line of his court (called " base line ") at the right, as shown in the figure (see Rule 6 below), strikes the ball with his racket over the net and into the court next the net on his left. This is called " serv- ing." If the ball fails to go over the net or strikes in the wrong court it is said to be a " fault" and the server must try again. If his second service is also a fault it is called " doubles," and his opponent scores a point. If the ball touch the net, but go over it, it does not count as a service, but is called a "let," and played over again. While the player is serving, his opponent, who is called the " striker-out," stands where he pleases. When a fault is made he cries out " Fault." When he gets a good ball he must strike it, after it has bounded once, so that it will pass over the net into any of the courts on the opposite side. This is called "returning" the service. After the return, the ball may be struck either on the first bound or before it has bounded. If the lat- ter, it is said to be " volleyed." The players strike the ball from one to the other across the net in this way till one of them fails, either by missing the ball entirely, or by strik- ing it into the net, or by sending it beyond the boundary of the entire court. His opponent then scores a point. After the service a ball is good even if it strikes the net in going over. When two faults have been made, or either player does not return the ball properly, there must be another service by the same player as before, but this time from the left of his service line into the court next the net on his right, his opponent changing position also so as to receive the service. The same player serves each time till the game is ended, first from one rear court and then from the other. His opponent serves in the second game, and they alter- nate thus as long as they play ; but a player must always serve from the right at the beginning of a game, no matter which court he served from last. The method of scoring in Lawn Tennis is peculiar. When a player has no points his score is called " Love," and when neither has a point the score is " Love-All." The first point a player scores is called " Fifteen," the second " Thirty," the third " Forty," and the fourth " Game," except as noted below. The state of the score is described by calling out together the points of the players, that of the server first. Thus " Forty-Love " means that the server has forty to his op- ponent's nothing, and " Fifteen- Forty" that he has fifteen to his opponent's forty. " Thirty-All " means that each has thirty. The one whose score reaches the " Game " point first, wins. But whenever the score is " Forty-All " it is called " Deuce," and then the next point is not "Game," but "Advantage" (usually called " 'Van- tage"). If the player winning 'Vantage gains the next point, he scores Game, otherwise the score is brought down to Deuce again. Hence, when the score is once Deuce, the game often lasts a long time with evenly-matched players. TENNIS 712 TENNIS When the server has 'Vantage, the score is called 'Vantage In; when his opponent has it, 'Vantage Out. When a player has won six games he has won a " set," no mat- ter whether his opponent has won five games or none at all ; so an or- dinary set may include from six to eleven games. Where the players are evenly matched it is often agreed that " 'Vantage sets " shall be played. In this case no player wins till he is two games ahead of his opponent, and a set may therefore consist of any number of games over eleven (see Rule 23). Double Lawn Tennis. In reporting the score of a set the number of games won by each player is given, separated by a dash. The score of a series of sets is rep- resented by several such combina- tions, separated by commas; and in each the first number is the score of the winner of the whole se- ries. Thus the abbreviated score " Jones beat Smith 6-0, 4-6, 6-5," means, that in the first set, Jones won six games to Smith's none, in the second, four to Smith's six, and in the third, six to Smith's five, thus winning two out of three sets. During the game each player tries to make his opponent fail, sometimes by striking the balls into an unexpected part of the court or first on one side of the court and TENNIS 713 TENNIS then on the other, so as to tire him out in running forward and back- ^<«sX\l Fig. I. ward to return them. Sometimes the balls are so struck that they will bound in an unexpected direc- Fig. 2. tion. This is done by "cutting," as will be explained below. Some of the different modes of striking the ball, in service and return, are shown in the figures. Figs. 1-3 and 6 represent methods of service, and Figs. 7-ID return strokes. Practice and judgment are required to choose the proper one. Some tennis players stand close to the net after they have served, and volley all the balls the more difficult way ; others prefer to stand at the service line and take most of them on the bound. To cut the ball is to strike it so that it will spin in the air, by hold- ing the racket not squarely but a little sidewise. If it be made to spin, as shown by the curved arrow in Fig. 4, while moving from left to right in the direction of the large arrows, the spin will tend to make the ball roll forward along the ground, so it will bound forward much closer to the ground than might be expected. In Fig. 5 the spin tends to make the ball roll backward along the ground, so it will bound not so close to the ground as it otherwise would ; it I TENNIS 1H TENNIS may bound straight up, or even backward a little. By giving the m ^ > Fig. 4. Fig. 5. ball a spin in other directions it can be made to bound in various ways. With practice it is possible to tell from the way a ball is struck just what kind of a cut it has been given, and so what kind of a bound *S4J/i^tll'^^ Fig. 6. to expect ; so, skillful players gener- ally use the cuts only in connection with very swift strokes. A stroke that is sometimes used close to the net is made by loosening the hold on the racket just as it hits the ball. The ball thus bounds very little from the racket, and simply drops over the net, very close to it. In playing, it is often necessary to strike the ball while running, and good players learn to vary the force of their strokes according rs they run with the ball or against it. The various ways in which the racket must be held, according as the bail Fig. 7. is high or low, to the right or left, can best be learned by practice. Fig. 8. Some players learn to use the racket with either hand. TENNIS 715 TENNIS In serving, the different methods of striking a ball can be made more effective than in returning ; for in serving the player's own time can be taken, and he can throw his ball into the air to strike it as he wishes ; but in returning there must be no delay and the ball must be taken as it comes, often with a spin or in an awkward place. It is therefore of great importance to learn to serve well. Three and Four-Handed Lawn Tennis. The game is played by one person against two, or by two on a side. The court is widened for the play after the service, but the ser- vice courts remain the same size, as shown in the figure already given. In the three-handed game the single player serves every alternate game. In the four-handed game, the order of serving and receiving is agreed on at the beginning of the set, and continues the same till the end, but partners must serve alter- nately. (See Rules 31-34, below.) After the service all the players take part in the game, one on each side usually playing close to the net. and the other in the rear, or one playing in left and the other in right hand courts, called " playing sides." RULES OF THE GAME.^ CAs adopted by the National Lazvn Tennis Association.^ The Court, i. The Court is 78 feet long and 27 feet wide. It is divided across the middle by a net, the ends of which are attached to two posts, standing 3 feet outside of the court on either side. The height of the net is 3 feet 6 inches at the posts, and 3 feet in the middle. At each end of the court, parallel with the net, and 39 feet from it, are drawn the base lines, the ends of which are connected by the side lines. Halfway between the side lines, and parallel with them, is drawn the half court line, dividing the space on each side of the net into two equal parts, the right and left courts. On each side of the net, at a distance of 21 feet from it, and parallel with it, are drawn the ser- vice lines. The Balls. 2. The Balls shall measure not less than 2|| inches, nor more than 2| inches in diamete*- ; and shall weigh not less than i|| ounces, nor more than 2 ounces. The Game. 3. The choice of TENNIS 716 TENNIS Court Tennis Court. sides, and the right to serve in the first game, shall be decided by toss ; provided that, if the win- ner of the toss choose the right to serve, the other player shall have choice of sides, and vice versa, or the zviiijier of the toss may insist upoti a choice by his opponent. If one player choose the court, the other may elect not to serve. 4. The players shall stand on opposite sides of the net ; the player who first delivers the ball shall be called the server, and the other the striker- out. 5. At the end of the first game the striker-out shall become server, and the server shall become striker-out ; and so on alternately in all the sub- sequent games of the set, or series of sets. 6. The server shall serve with one foot on the ground immediately behind the base line ; the other foot may be any- where except touching the base line or the ground within the court. He shall deliver the service from the right to the left courts, alternately ; be- ginning from the right. 7. The ball served must drop between the service line, half-court line, and side line of the court, diagonally opposite to that from which it was served. 8. It is a fault if the server fail to strike the ball, or if the ball served drop in the net, or be- yond the service line, or out of court, or in the TENNIS 717 TENNIS except as pro- wrong court ; or if the server do not stand as directed by law 6. 9. A fault cannot be taken. 10. After a fault the server shall serve again from the same court from which he served that fault, unless it was a fault because he served from the wrong court. 1 1. A fault cannot be claimed after the next service is delivered. 12. The server shall not serve till the striker-out is ready. If the latter attempt to return the service, he shall be deemed ready. 13. A service or fault delivered when the striker-out is not ready counts for nothing. 14. The service shall not be vol- leyed, that is, taken before it has touched the ground. 15. A ball is in play on leaving the server's racket vided for in law 8. 16. It is a good return, although the ball touch the net ; but a service, otherwise good, which touches the net shall count for nothing. 17. The server wins a stroke if the striker-out volley the service, or if he fail to return the service or the ball in play ; or if he re- turn the service or the ball in play so that it drops outside of his opponent's court ; or if he otherwise lose a stroke as provided by law 20. 18. The striker-out wins a stroke if the server serve two consecutive faults ; or if he fail to return the ball in play ; or if he return the ball in play so that it drops outside of his opponent's court ; or if he otherwise lose a stroke as provided by law 20. 19. A ball falling on a line is regarded as falling in the court bounded by that line. 20. Either player loses a stroke if the ball touch him, or anything that he wears or carries, except his racket in the act of striking ; or if he touch the ball with his racket more than once ; or if he touch the net or any of its supports while the ball is in play; or if he volley the ball before it has passed the net. 21. In case a player is obstructed by any accident, not within his con- trol, the ball shall be considered a " let." But where a permanent fixture of the court is the cause of the accident, the point shall be counted. The benches and chairs placed around the court shall be considered permanent fixtures. If, however, a ball in play strike a permanent fixture of the court (other than the net or posts) before it touches the ground, the point is lost ; if after it has touched the ground, the point shall be counted. 22. On either player winning his first stroke, the score is called 15 for that player ; on either player winning his second stroke the score is called 30 for that player ; on either player winning his tiiird stroke, the score is called 40 for that player; and the fourth stroke won by either player is scored game for that player, except as below : If both players have won three strokes, the score is called deuce; and the next stroke won by either player is scored advantage for that player. If the same player win the next stroke, he wins the game ; if he lose the next stroke, the score returns to deuce and so on until one player wins the two strokes immediately following the score of deuce, when game is scored for that player. 23. The player who first wins six games wins the set; except as below : If both players win five games, the score is called game all; and the next game won by either player is scored advantage game for that player. If the same player win the next game, he wins the set ; if he lose the next game, the score returns to games all ; and so on, until either player wins the two games immedi- ately following the score of games all, when he wins the set. But the committee having charge of any tournament may in their discretion TENNIS 718 TENNIS modify this rule by the omission of advantage sets. 24. The players shall change sides at the end of every set ; but the um- pire, on appeal from either player before the toss for choice, sliall direct the players to change sides at the end of the first, third, fifth, and every succeeding alternate game of each set ; but if the appeal be made after the toss for choice, the umpire may only direct the players to change sides at the end of the first, third, fifth, and every succeeding alternate game of the odd, or deciding, set. If the players change courts in the alternate games throughout the match as above, they shall play in the first game of each set after the first in the courts in which they respectively did not play in the first game of the set immediately pre- ceding. 25. When a series of sets is played, the player who served in the last game of one set shall be striker-out in the first game of the next. 26. In all contests the play shall be continuous from the first service till the match be concluded ; pro- vided, however, that between all sets after the second set either player is entitled to a rest, which shall not exceed seven minutes ; and provided, further, that in case of an unavoidable accident, not within the control of the contestants, a cessa- tion of play which shall not exceed two minutes may be allowed between points : but this proviso shall be strictly construed, and the privilege never granted for the purpose of allowing a player to recover his strength or wind. The umpire in his discretion may at any time post- pone the match on account of dark- ness or condition of the ground or weather. In any case of post- ponement, the previous score shall hold good. Where the play has ceased for more than an hour, the player who at the cessation thereof was in the court first chosen shall have the choice of courts on the re- commencement of play. He shall stay in the court he chooses for the remainder of the set. The last two sentences of this rule do not ap- ply when the players change every al- ternate game as provided by rule 24. 27. If a player serve out of his turn, the umpire, as soon as the mis- take is discovered, shall direct the player to serve who ought to have served. But all strokes scored be- fore such discovery shall be counted. If a game shall have been completed before such discovery, then the ser- vice in the next alternate game shall be delivered by the player who did not serve out of his turn, and so on in regular rotation. 28. There shall be a referee for every tournament, who shall have general charge of the matches. There shall be an umpire for each match and as many linesmen as the players desire. The umpire may act as linesman also. The umpire shall have general charge of the match and shall decide upon and call lets and also decide whether the player took the ball on the first or second bounce. The umpire shall also decide any question of in- terpretation or construction of the rules that may arise. The decision of the umpire upon any question of fact, or where a discretion is al- lowed to him under these rules, shall be final. Any player, however, may protest against any intrepreta- tion or construction of the rules by the umpire, and appeal to the referee. The decision of the ref- eree upon such appeal should be final. The court shall be divided be- tween the linesmen, and it shall be their only duty to decide each for his share of the court where the ball touched the ground, except, how- ever, the linesmen for the base line, who shall also call foot faults. The linesman's decision shall be final.. If a linesman is unable to give] a decision, because he did not see, or is uncertain of the fact, the um- TENNIS 719 TENNIS pire shall decide or direct the stroke to be played again. THREE-HANDED AND FOUR-HAND- ED GAMES. 29. The above laws shall apply to the three-handed and four-handed games, except as below : 30. For the three-handed and four- handed games the court shall be 36 feet in width ; \\ feet inside the side lines, and parallel with them, are drawn the surface side lines. The service lines are not drawn be- yond the point at which they meet the service side lines, as shown in the diagram. 31. In the three-handed game, the single player shall serve in every alternate game. 32. In the four-handed game, the pair who have the right to serve in the first game shall decide which partner shall do so ; and the op- posing pair shall decide in like man- ner for the second game. The partner of the player who served in the first game shall serve in the third, and the partner of the player who served in the second game shall serve in the fourth, and the same order shall be maintained in all the subsequent games of the set. 33. At the beginning of the next set, either partner of the pair which struck out in the last game of the last set may serve ; and the same privilege is given to their opponents in second game of the new set. 34. The players shall take the service alternately throughout the game ; a player cannot receive a service delivered to his partner ; and the order of service and striking out once established shall not be altered nor shall the striker-out change courts to receive the service, till the end of the set. 35. It is a fault if the ball served do not drop between the service line, half-court line, and service side line of the court, diagonally opposite to that from which it was served. 36. It is a fault if the ball served do not drop as provided in law 35, or if it touch the server's partner or anything he wears or carries. Court Tennis. Tennis played in- doors in a court or room, a plan of which is given. The court nearly fills an entire building, which is lighted from the roof. The playing space is 96 by 32 feet, and is sur- rounded on three sides by a corridor {a, a, a) about 6 feet wide, called the Penthouse, with a sloping roof about 7 feet high. The part of the Pent- house at the rear of the court is called the Dedans, and is occupied by spectators. It is separated from the court by an open grating, c c, while the rest of the Penthouse is closed, except for spaces at b b, through which the court is entered, and for six small square windows — three in each court. The floor of the court is of smooth asphalt, and the walls are covered with cement and painted black to the height of 18 feet. Across the middle of the court is stretched a net ; the space on one side of it is called the Service side, that on the other the Hazard side. On that wall of the Hazard court at d there is a projection like a chi;nney, called the Tambour, and in the Penthouse near it, at^, there is a square opening called the Grille. Part of the courts is divided into spaces called Chases, as shown in the figure, which are numbered on the wall from i to 6. The server stands in the Service court and serves the ball on the wall over the Penthouse at g. The ball must strike on the Penthouse roof, and then roll off into the receiving court. The player in the Hazard court strikes it on the bound where he likes, so long as it first strikes the ground on the opposite side of the net. Thus, he may strike it against the nearest wall so that it bounds back across the net. The scoring is as in Lawn Tennis, except that the server may win a point by sending the ball into a " winning opening" — that is, the Grille, or the window in the Penthouse nearest the end wall. TENNIS 720 TENNIS If a player fail to strike the ball before the second bound, then, ex- cept on the hazard side beyond the service line, a " chase " is said to be made. Note is taken of the cross line at which the ball bounded ; but if only one chase is made it does not affect the score till one of the players scores forty, when they change sides and " play for the chase." The player who allowed the chase to be made tries to re- turn the ball nearer to the end wall than the point at which it was marked, in such a way that it will bound a second time. As often as his opponent returns the ball he tries again until he either succeeds or misses. If he succeed, he is said to " win the chase " and scores the strike ; if not, it is given to his adversary. The ball need not be returned if it fall " worse " than the marked chase — that is, nearer the net on either side — in which case the chase is lost without farther play. Whenever two chases are marked, the players change sides and play for them at once. In playing for chases, as in other play, he who sends the ball into a "winning opening" gains the stroke. History. Tennis is said by some to be derived from one of the Roman ball games introduced into Gaul by Roman soldiers. It was much played in Europe in the Middle Ages, at first by kings and nobles, but it soon became popular with the common-people. It was introduced into England early in the 13th century. From being an open-air sport it came to be played in closed courts, probably at first the court of a castle or monastery, whence the irregular shape of the present court had its origin. In early times the ball was struck with the hand, and the French still call the game Jeu de Paume (the Palm Game), Afterward the hand was provided with a glove, as is still done in the Basque country. On the glove strings were then stretched, and then the raclcet was invented. At one time it was not uncommon for one player to use his hand, while his opponent had a racket. The outdoor form, which was the earlier, as has been said, continued to be played in va- rious ways, but the present variety, as played here and in England, was introduced in England about 1874. It is claimed that it was invented by Major Walter Wingfield, of the the British army, who attempted unsuccessfully to take out a patent for it in that year. His court was divided on one side into two squares, while on the other the server stood in a diamond-shaped space. Lawn Tennis soon became popu- lar, and generally took the place of Croquet, which preceded it. In 1881 a National Lawn Tennis Asso- ciation was formed by the chief clubs in this country, which has since given a tournament every summer, usually at Newport. The origin of the word Tennis is not certainly known. Some writers say it is from the French tenez ! (look out !) which they suppose to have been the exclamation of early J players when the ball was served. \ Other suggest that it is from the Latin icEnia (a band), for the mark or line over which the balls are served. The word was first printed in English in Gower's " Ballade to King Henry IV." (1561), where it is spelled " Tennes " and accented on the last syllable ; but there were many other ways of spelling it, such as Tenise and Teneys. The word racket (French raquette) is said by some to be from the Latin retis (net), by others from the Dutch rackeii (to stretch), and by others from the Low Latin racha (the wrist), from the old manner of hitting the balls with the hand or wrist. The French outdoor tennis is called Longue Paume (Long Tennis), and is played over a low stretched cord instead of a net. The indoor game is called Courte Pau7ne (Short Tennis). TENNIS 721 THAUMATROPE Tennis lost its populaiity in France during- the Revolution, because it was played so much by the nobility. The peculiar method of scoring in Tennis had its origin thus : In France the " chases " were num- bered up to fourteen ; so when the first stroke was won the marker called out " Fifteen," for a lower number would mean that the ball had made a second bound at the corresponding chase. A stroke thus came to be called Un Quinze (a Fifteen), so that two strokes natu- rally scored thirty, and three strokes forty-five. The " five " was subse- quently omitted from the last num- ber. The term Deuce is from the French a deux (equal). When the doors of the National Assembly were closed by the King of France just before the Revolu- tion, the members met on June 20, 1789, in a Tennis court in Versailles, and swore that France should have a constitution. This oath is known in history as le serment du Jeu de Paiime (the Tennis oath). Badminton. A kind of Lawn Tennis in which shuttlecocks (see Battledore) are used instead of balls. It may be played in a parlor, or in the open air, by two, four, six, or even more players, divided into two opposing sides. The court may be of various sizes, but the best is 28 feet long by 20 broad, the service line being 10 feet from the base line. The net, which is only a foot deep, is suspended ^yi feet above the ground. The rackets used are the same as in Lawn Tennis. The shuttlecocks are usually loaded with lead or rubber, and are sometimes made so that they may be tightened by interlaced strings. The game is played like Lawn Tennis, except that, as shuttlecocks cannot bound, they must always be " volleyed," and when one falls to the ground it counts against the player missing it. Badminton is named from the country-seat of the Duke of Beau- fort, in England. TENT PEGGING. See MUMBLE- the-Peg. THAUMATROPE. A toy consist- ing of a square or a disk of paste- board having pictures on both sides. The disk has strings, by which it can be twirled so rapidly that the eye can see the pictures on both sides at once. This is possible because the image of anything seen remains in the eye about one-eighth of a sec- ond, and as it does not take so long as that for the disk to turn around, the images of both sides are in the eye at the same time. Parts of a figure may be represented on one side of the disk and the rest on the other in such a way that when the disk is twirled the figure is seen complete. Thus, the man in the illustration will appear to be riding the horse. Drawing Thaumatrope Figures. The simplest figures to draw are those whose parts do not have to fit together very exactly. For in- stance, a cage may be drawn on one side and a bird on the other, and when the disk is twirled the bird will appear in the cage, but its position does not matter much. The figure on the opposite side of the disk from the spectator must be up- side down, so that when it turns over to his own side it will be up- right. In the case of parts of figures which must fit together exactly more care is required, as for instance when some of a man's limbs are drawn on one side of the disk and the rest on the other. The required figure should be selected from a book, or drawn entire on a sheet of paper, and then the parts to be drawn on each side of the disk must be traced on separ- ate pieces of tracing paper. Two straight lines, A B and C D, must be drawn across the picture, and their traces lightly penciled across both the partial drawings. One of the partial drawings is now pasted on one side of a piece of pasteboard and pinholes are pricked through it at A, B, C, and D, or THAUMATROPE 722 THREE-FACED PICTURES points near them on the lines ; the other partial drawing must be pasted on the other side ot the pasteboard upside down, but so that the lines A B and C D join the pinholes made from the other side. Thus the two ^- ^^ Thaumatropes. partial pictures will exactly corre- spond in position. The pasteboard is now cut into any convenient shape — a disk is best, but not necessary — and the figures may be painted or details added to suit the maker. It is best to put only outlines on the tracing paper, so that the work will not be wasted if a mistake is made in pasting. The middle strings must be fastened at the ends of the line A B, and the others, if there are more than one, at equal distances above and below, so that the card will twirl about this line; otherwise the figures will not blend correctly. It does not matter how the lines A B and C D are drawn in the first place so long as they cross, but their position must be traced exactly on the par- tial drawings. Many comical effects can be produced by the Thau- matrope. A man may be drawn on one side and a bottle on the other so that the man will appear to be drinking when the disk is twirled. In the same way can be shown a house, and the same house in flames ; a sleeping man, and the same man attacked by rats, and countless other designs. If the axis on which the card twirls is changed a little, the position of the figures changes. This can be ef- fected by using two strings only on ^ BA ^ \, BA l> i B Drawing Thaumatrope Figures. each side, and having one of these on one side made of stiff elastic. When the string is pulled, the axis of the card will change, and with it the relation of the fig- ures. Thus, in the case of the man drinking, the hand may appear slightly raised at first, and, on tightening the string, may be visibly lifted to the mouth. THEATRICALS. See Private Theatricals. THREE-FACED PICTURES. Pic- tures which will appear differently. THIRTY-ONE 723 THREAD THE NEEDLE according as they are viewed from the right, the left, or directly in front. They can be made as fol- lows : Select any three pictures of Fig. I. exactly the same size, on paper of the same thickness. Cut them in- to vertical strips about one-third of an inch wide, numbering the strips in each case so that their relative places may be remembered. Then paste the strips on to thin paper; first the three strips numbered one, then those numbered two, and so on. The result will be a confused picture as wide as all the three orig- inal pictures together and of the Fig. 2. same height as one of them. (See Fig. I, where the three kinds of strips are lettered a, b, and c, re- spectively). This is then folded up like an accordion or fan (Fig. 2), every third strip, c, remaining flat. while the others are pushed to- gether. The latter are now pasted firmly to one another, so that the picture seems to be divided verti- cally by fences or partitions of pa- per. The whole may now be mounted on pasteboard and will show one or the other of the three pictures, according to the point from which it is viewed. THIRTY-ONE. A game of cards played with a full pack, by any number of persons not exceeding sixteen. Three cards are dealt to each, and three more are placed, face upward, in the middle of the table. Each player, in turn, ex- changes one of his cards for one in the spare hand, until some one is ready to show his hand, or stops changing. The highest hand is one containing cards all of the same suit, the sum of whose pips is 31 (reck- oning Ace as II, and face cards as 10 each). Next in rank are three cards of a kind (three Kings being highest and three Aces lowest), and after that, in order, hands all of the same suit, the sum of whose pips is less than 31. When any one has 31 he shows his hand at once, and wins the game. When any one cannot better his hand by exchang- ing, and still has not 31, he an- nounces the fact, and then the oth- ers, in turn, can each exchange once more, after which all show their hands, and the highest wins. Another way of playing is to keep the score with counters, each player being given two or three at the be- ginning. He who has the lowest hand puts one in the centre of the table, and the game goes on till only one has any counters left. That one is then declared the winner. THREAD THE NEEDLE. A game played by any number of persons, who join hands to form a line. The player at one end, whom we will call A, and the one at the other end, whom we will call B, begin the game by a dialogue in verse as fol- lows : THREE ELEMENTS 724 THREE LIVES A. " How many miles to Babylon ? " B. " Threescore miles and ten." A. " Can I get there by candle-light ? " B. " Oh yes, and back again." A. " Then open the gates as high as the sky. And let King George and his train pass by." B and the player next him then lift their joined hands as high as possible, and A, with the others behind him, pass under. This is then repeated, B becoming the in- quirer and threading the needle in his turn. History. The game is an old one, and the verse is said in many differ- ent ways, one variation of the last two lines being : *' Then open the gates without more ado, And let the King and his men pass through." The verse is sometimes used also in a game like Peelaway, when it ends : " Yes, if your legs are long as light, But take care of the old gray witch by the hillside." Threading Grandmother's Needle. A form of the game in which the dialogue is between the two on one end and the others. It is as follows : " Grandmother's eyes are grown so dim Her needle she can't fill." " Our eyes are very bright and good ; Thread it for her we will." THREE ELEMENTS, THE; or, FISH, FLESH, AND FOWL. A game played by any number of persons, who sit in a circle. One of them, who is chosen in any way the company pleases, stands in the middle, holding in his hand a hand- kerchief or soft ball. This he throws suddenly at any one of the players, crying out one of the three words Earth, Air, or Water, and then counting ten. If the player whom the ball strikes cannot speak the name of some creature that lives on or in the element named, before the other has finished count- ing, he must pay a forfeit and take the place of the one in the middle of the circle. Otherwise the play- er in the middle of the circle must throw the ball at some one else. Sometimes the words Fish, Flesh, and Fowl are used, instead of the names of the elements. If desired, the forfeits may be omitted^ RULES OF THE GAME. 1. The name of the element may be spoken as soon as the ball is thrown, but the counting may not begin till it strikes the player. 2. In counting, every word must be pronounced clearly. 3. In case of doubt as to whether the name of the creature has been spoken before the counting is fin- ished, a majority of the players shall decide. 4. All birds shall be considered to live in the air. 5. Amphibious animals may be regarded as living either in water or on the earth. THREE KINGDOMS, THE. See Twenty Questions. THREE LIVES. A word game played by any number of persons. The first player thinks of a word and gives its first letter. The sec- ond thinks of one beginning with that letter and gives the second let- ter. The third thinks of one be- ginning with these two letters and gives the third. This goes on till some one is unable to think of a word beginning with all the letters given, or till some one's letter fin- ishes a word of four or more letters. In either of these cases the player is said to " lose a life," and the one next in order begins a new word. When any one has lost three lives he drops out of the game, and the victor is he who remains in at the last. Thus, suppose the first player thinks of " House," and says " H." The second thinks of "Happy" and says " A." The third thinks of "Harness" and says " R." The fourth thinks of " Harpy," but can- not say " P " because that com- pletes the word " Harp," so he thinks of " Harlem " and says " L." The fifth is unable to think of any word beginning with " Harl," and THREE THINGS 725 TIDDLEDY WINKS so loses a life. When only two or three are left in the game it be- comes more exciting, each one try- ing to give the word such a turn that the next will either not be able to go on with it, or will be forced to complete it. When a player cannot go on, and has thus lost a life, he may require from any one before him to tell what his word was ; otherwise a player might merely add a letter without think- ing of any word at all. THREE THINGS. A game played by any number of persons sitting in a row or circle. The one who begins gives to his left-hand neigh- bor the names of three things be- ginning with the same letter, which the latter must then connect in some way, and then give three other things to the next in the line. When any one is unable to connect the names he receives he must pay a forfeit, and the names are passed along to the next player. Thus, the first player gives out " Hen, Ham, and Heaviness." The second says: "The hen tried to eat the ham, and found that heaviness in the crop resulted. I give Door, Dinner, and Duty." The third says: " I opened the door to go in to dinner, when I had to go back to fulfill a forgotten duty," and so on. THROW THE HANDKERCHIEF. A game played by any number of persons, who sit in a circle. One stands in the centre and begins the game by throwing a handkerchief at some one in the circle, who at once throws it at some one else, and so on. If the one in the centre can touch a player who is holding the handkerchief, or can catch it when thrown by any player, such player must take his place. A large towel is often used instead of a handkerchief. It should not be tied in a knot, but allowed to spread out when thrown, as this in- creases the difficulty of throwing, and the fun of the game. THROWING LIGHT. A guessing game played by any number of per- sons. Two of the players privately agree on some object, and then converse about it without nammg it, trying to mystify the rest of the company. This is called " Throw- ing light " on the object chosen. As soon as one of the others thinks he has guessed it, he joins in the conversation, and aids in throwing light. If one of the original play- ers thinks, from what he says, that the guess is not correct, he says " I challenge you," and the guess must be whispered in his ear. If it is in- correct, the guesser must sit with a handkerchief over his face till he is able to " throw light " correctly. The game goes on thus till only one of the players is left in the dark. It is allowable to choose two words of the same sound but different meanings, as in how do you like IT ? and use either meaning at pleasure, so as to make "throwing light" more difficult. THUSSAYSTHE GRAND MUFTI. See Grand Mufti. TIDDLEDY WINKS. A game played by any number of persons, singly or as partners, on a table covered with a thick cloth. Each player is provided with a set of six small counters and one large one, all of the same color, the different players having different colored sets. A little basket or cup, gen- erally of ivory or celluloid, is placed in the centre of the table, and each player ranges his small counters in front of him in a line about eight inches from it. The object of the game is to snap each of the smaller counters, by pressing on its edge with the larger one, so as to make it jump into the basket, and he wins who first gets all his counters in. The players take turns, but he who is successful in snapping a counter into the basket has the privilege of playing until he fails. After a player has played out all his counters from the starting line, he can play, when his turn comes. TIN, EXPERIMENTS 726 TIP any of his counters wherever it may lie ; but he is not allowed to touch any of his adversary's coun- ters, and if any of his own be cov- ered, and no other be available, he must wait until his adversary has uncovered one before he can play. A player may not intention- ally cover any of his opponents' counters. If a counter fall off the table, it must be replaced one inch from the edge where it fell off. Partners sit opposite each other, and may play each other's counters after they have left the starting line. Variations. The game may be played with several variations by marking, around the basket on the cloth with French chalk, a ring about four inches in diameter. 1. Any counter falling within this ring is to be considered dead, the winner being he who gets most counters into the basket. 2. Any counter falling within the ring must be returned to its place in the starting line, and played out by the player at his next turn. 3. If a counter fall within the ring, the next or any other player during that round, is at liberty, if he choose, to play it (instead of his own) to any part of the table he may consider best for himself. If it be not played thus, the player to whom it belongs can play with it at his next turn in the usual way. 4. Mark on the cloth any figure, such as a circle, a square, etc., and divide it into numbered segm.ents or parts. Several games may be played with these, the counters scoring according to the number of the part they fall in. Tiddledy Winks may be played also as a progressive game, on any number of tables. TIERCE. See Fox and Geese, II. TIN, Experiments with. Tin is described in C. C. T. i. Take an ordinary piece of tin-plate and hold it over the flame of an alcohol lamp till the tin begins to melt; then thrust it into cold water. This will harden it. Rub the surface first with a piece of paper wet with a mixture of weak nitric and hydro- chloric acids, and then with one wet with caustic soda dissolved in water. The surface of the tin will then be seen to be formed of crys- tals like frost on a window-pane. 2. Place some metallic tin (not tin-plate) on a playing card and hold it over the flame of a spirit lamp. The tin can be thus melted without burning the card (see illus- tration). The reason is that the Melting Tin on a Card. metal conducts heat so well that it leads the heat away from the card before the latter has time to burn. TIP. A game played by any num- ber of persons. Apile of favors is placed on a table, consisting of par- cels of candy or any desired articles, and each takes his turn at selecting from them. Before doing so, the player turns his head while some one touches any one of the articles. This is called the Tip, and the player may select and keep any fa- vor he pleases till he touches the Tip, when the turn passes to the next. As all know what the Tip is except the one selecting, his choice affords much amusement to the company. TIP CAT 727 TIT-TAT-TO This game is popular in Germa- ny, and is appropriate for children's parties. TIP-CAT. See Cat. TISSUE PAPER, Experiment with. Make a cylinder of tissue paper four or five inches high and two or three inches in diameter, and, standing it upright on a table, set it on fire from above. It will turn to cinder as it burns, and the cylinder will bend inward above to form a sort of dome, which the hot air under- neath, when it has been nearly con- sumed, will carry up into the air five or six feet. This experiment often has to be tried several times before it succeeds, but when it does it is very striking. The mass of light cinder really forms a small hot-air balloon, like those described under Fourth of July. TIT-TAT-TO, or NOUGHTS AND CROSSES. A game played by two persons on a slate, or with pencil and paper. A figure is first marked on the slate, or paper, like the one in Fig. I, but without the numbers, which are here only for conven- ience of reference. The players take turns in putting marks in the Fig. -Tit-tat~to. places numbered in the illustra- tion, and each tries to get three of his own marks in a row, and to pre- vent his opponent from doing so. One player usually chooses an x for his mark and the other an o. The following game should be played out on paper. The num- bers refer to the first illustration. The x's ranged as have won. X o X o X o X o and I 5 2 3 7 4 8 6 o's are now are and the o's in Fig. 2 The winner points to his row of three and says, " Tit, tat, to ; three in a row." In the above X X o 000 X X Fig. 2.— Tit-tat-to. game the player who chose x for his mark made a mistake in his last play. If he had put his mark on 6 instead of on 8, he would have pre- vented his opponent from making a row. The game is so simple that with two skillful players it always ends in a draw ; that is, neither gets a row of three. Tit-tat-to resembles nine men's MORRIS, and they may be derived from the same game. The ancient Romans played a game somewhat like it, as we learn from a passage in Ovir! s " Art of Lct^e." In Ireland the game is called Tip Top Castle. The game of GO bang also seems to be a form of it. In Germany the game is called Muhle7ispiel (The Mill Game), and played with peb- bles or grains of corn on a diagram like Fig. 3. Fig. 3. — Muhlen- spiel. TlVOLl 728 TOBOGGANING The pebbles can be placed on any of the nine places where lines meet, and whoever first gets three in a row says " Trip, trap, troll ; meme iniihle ist voll " (Trip, trap, troll ; my mill is full). Nine men's MORRIS is called by the Germans Doppehniikle (Double-Mill). TlVOLl. See Bagatelle. TOAD, THE. A solitaire game of CARDS, played with two packs. The first thirteen cards are placed, as they appear, in one pile, called the Toad. The rest of the pack is arranged in five piles, in any order the player wishes. As the Aces ap- pear they are placed in a row, and on them families are built upward, without following suit. The top card of any of the piles may be used for this purpose. The player will try, of course, to arrange the piles in the best order for building, in the cases where it is allowed. Success depends on the order in which the cards fall in the Toad. Toboggan. TOBOGGANING. Coasting on toboggans, or sleds without run- Manner of holding Toboggan. ners. Toboggans are made of tough elastic wood from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch thick, and vary in length from four to eight feet, and in breadth from sixteen to twenty-four inches. Across the upper side ribs or cleats of wood are fastened to give them strength, and along the side are hand-rails, to which the coasters may cling, and to which cushions are often strapped. The front is bent backward in a curve to form a sort of dashboard. The slides on which toboggans are used are either natural or artificial. In this country the latter are most com- mon. Natural slides are apt to be uneven, and contain little mounds, called in Canada cahots, which make the toboggan leap into the air and cause accidents. The ar- tificial slides are frameworks of timber supporting a slideway of boards which is covered with snow and ice. The highest point may be forty or fifty feet above the ground. These slides are often built on the side of a hill, where part of the descent is natural. There are also double slides, con- sisting of two slides side by side, but with the incline in opposite directions, so that after descending one the coaster has only to ascend TOBOGGANING 729 TOBOGGANING a flight of steps to be at the top of the other sHde. At the top of the sHde is a starting platform, and leading from this are chutes, or flat-bottomed troughs, in which the toboggan runs. There may be several of these, each from four to six feet wide, with raised side- boards to keep the toboggan on the chute. Below the chutes is generally a natural slide with a very slight inclination, and some- times hay is placed at the bottom, to stop the toboggans. On one side of the slides is a flight of steps, and by its side a dragway on which the toboggans are drawn up. The plan shows how such a slide is built. The chutes are packed with snow, or sometimes with a mixture of snow and sawdust mixed with water and allowed to freeze. If the packing is done properly, the surface should be perfectly smooth, and the tobog- gans will attain great speed — often as great as a mile a minute. The makers of one kind of toboggan have advertised that with their toboggan a speed of three miles per minute may be reached. Yet, on properly built slides toboggans are safer than ordinary sleds, for they cannot leave the chute ; and as they have no runners and are close to the ground, they rare- ly upset. Steering. The toboggan is guid- ed either by short sticks of wood in the hands or with the foot. The right foot is generally used, and the steerer kneels or lies on his side. The principle is the same as that by which a sled is steered. By touching the ground with the bit of wood or the foot on one side, that side is made to go slower and the toboggan turns in that direc- tion. A toboggan is easier to steer than a sled. On some slides steer- ing with bits of wood is forbidden, as it tears up the surface. The toboggans made in Canada are commonly of one piece of wood, with a smooth flat bottom. Toboggans are made in the United States of slats rounded on the bot- tom, so that each is a sort of low Plan of Slide. runner. Some toboggans are shod with steel. The rail at the side is often made to yield to the motion of the toboggan, so that it bends easily. The screws that fasten it should not appear on the bottom, TOBOGGANING 730 TOOTHPICK BOMB for if they project they increase the friction and tear the ice on the slide; and if they are sunk into the wood, the snow collects in the holes and roughens the bottom. Toboggan Yachts. Snow yachts have been built and sailed on the prairies of the great West. They are shaped and rigged like ice- boats, but have toboggans instead of runners, the rear, or steering to- boggan, being only six inches wide. One of these toboggan boats is thirty-two feet long and fourteen feet beam, has a mast twenty feet high and a boom twenty-two feet long. She is sloop-rigged, and is said to have made forty miles an hour. Snow yachts cannot sail close to the wind. (See Sailing.) When they wish to " go about," they do so by " wearing." Water Toboggan. A toboggan used by bathers. The slide is cov- ered with little rollers, over which the toboggan glides easily, and it ends in the water. The coasters, clad in bathing suits, shoot down the slide with great velocity and over the surface of the water for many rods. When the force of the toboggan is spent, it is allowed to sink, and the coaster swims to the shore. The toboggan is recovered by a string attached to it. One of these slides is at Fort Hamilton, on New York Bay. Histofy. The word toboggan is a corruption of the Indian odabag- gan. Toboggans were used by the northern Indians, before the dis- covery of this continent, for the transportation of game, furs, and other goods. They were drawn either by dogs or by men, and were well adapted for travelling on the deep snow. They were originally fastened together entirely with deer-thongs, but now metal rivets or screws are used. During the French and Indian wars and in the Revolution tobog- gans were used for transporting military stores and equipments in northern campaigns. About 1835 British officers in Montreal intro- duced tobogganing as a sport by coasting down Mount Royal. The sport grew quickly in popularity, and the artificial slide, which had long been in use in Russia, was Russian Slide. soon introduced. In this country, tobogganing was first practised in northern New England near the Canadian boundary, but within a few years it has been popular in other regions. In 1884 a large slide was erected in Saratoga, New York ; and since then others have been built in various parts of the United States. At the "winter carnivals" in St. Paul, Minnesota, Burlington, Vermont, and other cities — in imitation of the one held annually in Montreal, Canada — to- bogganing is one of the favorite sports, and there are parades of the members of toboggan clubs, clad in gayly-colored uniforms. TOM TIDDLER'S QROUND. See Tag. TOOTHPICK BOMB. A toy made by interlacing four wooden toothpicks. Place three in the form of a triangle, so that the end of each rests on that of the next. Now push them together as far as possible, and lock them by weaving in a fourth under one pick, over the next, and under the third. This can be done after a few trials. Lay TOPS 731 TOPS the bomb on a plate, with one end projecting over the edge, and light that end with a match. When the end has burned down to the place where two picks cross, they will be released and their spring will throw all the toothpicks into the air. TOPS. See the article in C. C. T. String Tops. The string is wound sometimes around the body of the top, which is grooved for the purpose, or around an upright peg at the upper end. The former kind is spun by being thrown on the ground, while the end of the string, ending in a loop or button, is retained in the hand. The cuts show the way of holding in Eng- land and this country. As the top English Manner of Holding Top. moves through the air the string unwinds, giving it a whirling mo- tion which keeps up after it has struck the ground. Other tops have generally a handle by which the top is held in one hand while the string is pulled by the other. The handle is loose enough to allow the top to whirl as the string un- winds, and is either withdrawn when the top is set going or re- mains on the top as it spins. Some American Manner of Holding Top. tops can be set going in the air and then placed on the floor. Whip Tops are set in motion by twirling with the fingers, and then the whirling is increased and kept up by whipping the top with a piece of cord, usually fastened to a whip handle. This requires some Whip Top. skill. An eel-skin is said to make the best whip, as it is soft and clings to the top when it strikes it. Spring Tops have a handle or cap, fitted over the upper end, which is held in one hand while the top is turned round by the other. This winds up a spring in the han- dle, which, when the top is placed on the floor, is set loose, and, un- winding, spins the top, when the handle is then pulled off. Spring tops are apt to get out of order, and are not much used. Teetotums. Little tops called teetotums are spun by twirling them with the fingers. They have usually from four to eight flat sides or edges, on each of which is a letter or number. Teetotums are used in playing several games, to deter- mine the moves, each player twirl- ing the teetotum in turn and play- ing according to the letter or num- ber that is uppermost after the top has fallen on its side. Humming Tops are made hollow, with a hole in one side, past which the air rushes as they spin, making the air within vibrate and causinga humming sound. (C. C. T.) Some humming tops are fitted with one or more reeds, or vibrating tongues of metal, like those that make the sounds in a parlor organ, and they thus give a district musical note. TOPS 732 TOPS sometimes a whole chord. They are sometimes arranged so that the note changes as they spin fast- er or slower. A humming top may be made from an ordinary cylindrical bak- ing-powder or spice box. Make a hole exactly in the middle of cover and bottom, and push a lead pencil through the box, the point pro- jecting about half an inch. Lift the cover slightly and with a strong pair of scissors cut a slit in the box about two inches long and one- eighth of an inch wide. Replace Humming Top. the cover, and the top is complete. If the lid does not fit tight it should be fastened on with glue. It is spun by means of a handle made of a piece of lath three or four inches long with a hole in one end large enough to admit the lead pencil freely. The string is wound on the pencil above the box, the hole in the handle is placed over the pencil, the end of the string is brought up through the hole, and the string is then pulled with one hand while the handle is held in the other. These tops are often made by boys in France. Color Tops or Chameleon Tops. Tops bearing a fiat disk or plate painted in various colors. When the top is spun, these colors appear blended or mixed together. A loose circle of paper or leather, with part cut away, is placed on Color Top. the disk, and may be pushed I around so as to expose different ' colors. When the top is spinning, Design for Color Top if this piece be touched, it will move, and the exposed colors will be different, so that the top will color. Rings seem to change its TOPS 733 TOPS of colored paper and various de- signs like those shown in the illus- tration can also be dropped on the disk and made to overlap in vari- Appearance of the Spinning Wires. ous ways, which also changes the color of the spinning top. Color tops usually have a hole in the top of the stem, into which bits of wire of various shapes can be put. When the top is spinning, these wires whirl round so rapidly that they look like glass vessels or dishes. They are best seen against a black background. Color tops are usu- ally spun in little glazed saucers, so that they keep their motion for a long time. If a disk with rows of holes in it be placed on a spinning color top, the central hole being larger than the handle of the top, it will gyrate on being touched, and the holes will appear like a delicate lace-pattern, changing with each touch. If shining steel buttons be glued to the top of the disk, the appearance on spinning will be still more beautiful. French Top. A case in which are packed a number of small tops shaped something like saucers. The case and its contents are set spinning in the usual way, and French Top. then, holding it by a loose handle, the spinner shakes the case, and the tops within fall out one by one and continue to spin on the floor Dutch Rackets. Dutch Rackets. A game played with a top and a racket, D (see illustration), about the size of that used in Lawn Tennis, which, in- stead of being strung, is made entirely of wood, one side being slightly hollowed and the other fitted with little cups, each of which TOPS 734 TOPS is marked with a different number. The top B is spun on the hollowed side of the racket by the string C, pulled through the standard A, and the player then tosses it into the air, turns the racket over, and catches the top in the cups in suc- cession, till it falls to the ground or stops spinning, scoring each time the number marked in the cup in which he catches it. The screw E is for tightening the racket. Flying Top. A toy consisting of a stick to which are fastened three leased it untwists, turning the flyer, which propels the Fly-Fly through the air. (Figs. 1-3.) The height to which it will rise depends on the size of the vanes and the elasticity of the india-rubber band. Fig. 2 is worked by pressing down and pull- Flying Top. vanes with oblique surfaces. The string is wound around the stick or spindle, which is then placed in a stand. The end of the string is passed through a hole in the side of the stand, and being pulled causes the top to turn rapidly around. When it has attained sufficient speed it rises high in the air, from the action of the vanes, which work in the same way as the screw pro- peller of a steamer. Fly-Fly. A form of flying top in which the force is derived from a twisted rubber band. The flyer or cap holding the vanes turns freely on the spindle, and a thick piece of india-rubber is fastened to the flyer at one end, and at the other to the spindle. If the spindle be held firmly in one hand and the flyer turned with the other, the rubber will be twisted, and when re- Fly-Fly.— Fig-. I. ing up the beam A A, which is guard- ed by a slot in one of the uprights. Magnetic Top. Atop consisting of a flat disk of iron pierced in the middle by an axle, pointed at one end. When it is spun like any oth- er top and a magnet is presented to it, the top avoids the magnet, be- ing repelled instead of attracted, though it is of iron. When the top is still, however, or spinning very slowly, it is attracted, like any other piece of iron. The reason is that when the top spins fast the magnet induces electric currents in TOPS 735 TOPS the iron disk, which really becomes a small dynamo-machine. The ef- fect of these currents is to repel the magnet, and their action is strong- er than its attraction for the iron, unless it is spinning slowly. With a copper top the repulsion is even greater ; but the tops are made of iron because it seems stranger that a metal which is usually attracted by a magnet should ever be re- pelled. Fly-Fly. Travelling Top. A top which rolls instead of spinning. A simple one can be made thus : Cut out a flat circular piece of wood or tin about three inches in diameter and make in the edge two notches ex- actly opposite each other. Tie to- gether the ends of a piece of strong -Fig. 3. twine about three or four feet long and pass it around the legs just above the knees. Twist the string by means of a stick thrust be- tween the strings. When it is twisted, remove the stick and put the disk in its place, the string holding it by the notches on its TOPS 736 TOURMALINE edge. Now release the disk and force the cord to untwist swiftly by pulling the knees apart. The string will make the disk revolve with it till it has untwisted. How Tops Spin. When not in motion, a top cannot be made to stand on its point, but when it is spinning it does so easily. The reason is that every part of the top is then moving around with great force, and when the top tips a little to one side, so that the part on that side tends to fall toward the ground, that part of the top is whirled around quickly to the other side and another part takes its place. The falling motion is there- fore turned to one side, and instead of tipping over the top merely gy- rates; that is, the stem moves around in a circle. This is hardly no- ticeable when the top is spinning very fast, but as the rubbing of the point against the floor stops it grad- ually, it gyrates more and more, and finally touches the ground. But tops which gyrate or " wabble " when they begin to spin, usually become quiet in a few seconds, and remain so as long as they are spin- ning fast. They are then said to " sleep." The motion of a top has been studied by many learned men, and requires mathematics to ex- plain it completely. The earth spins in its course like a great top, and it also gyrates like one, but very slowly, the North Pole taking more than 25,000 years to describe one of its circles. The Romans called the top bux- um, the name of the box tree, be- cause they used that kind of wood in making it. It is alluded to by the Latin poets as a children's toy, and has been a favorite with all nations, TOURMALINE, Experiments with. Slices of the mineral called tour- maline can be bought of an opti- cian. If one slice be held in the left hand and another in the right, and if the latter be slowly turned around, while the experimenter looks through them at the sky, it will be found that there is one position where it is impossible to Fig. I. see through them. (See Fig. i.) Looking through them at a card pierced with a hole and placed be- tween the experimenter and the light, he will find that as he turns one tourmaline quite around, the hole will disappear and reappear again twice. While they are in the position where the hole cannot be seen, let some one hold a very thin piece of mica between them. The hole will at once become vis- ible, and if the tourmaline near- est the eye be turned, beautiful colors will be seen, changing one into another. The light, after it has passed through the first tour- maline, is said to be polarized. Most reflected light is also partial- ly polarized, as may be seen by looking through one tourmaline at the light reflected from glass, polished furniture, water, or even from the sky. When the tourma- line is turned, the light will grow brighter and dimmer by turns, though it will not disappear entire- ly. If a piece of mica be held be- tween, as before, the same colors will be seen. An arrangement for polarizing light by reflection may be made by laying on a board a piece of glass painted black on the under side, and supporting on one side of it the tourmaline, mounted in a cork which fits in a hole in an upright bit of wood. The hole must be bored diagonally, so that the cork makes an angle of about 5 5 degrees with the flat glass. This particular angle is the best, but it is not necessary to be exact. Place TRADES 737 TRAP BALL Fig. 2. the arrangement in front of a window where the light from the sky can be reflected from the black glass and then observed through the tourmaline. The latter can be turned by turning the cork in the hole. On do- ing so, it will be seen that the light reflected from the black glass is well po- larized. Examine a num- ber of transparent objects by placing them just be low the tourmaline, and it will be seen that some show colors and some do not. Crystals of different sub- stances deposited on glass should be tried, also pieces of glass. In- stead of a tourmaline, an arrange- ment of crystals called a Nicol prism may be used. This is still better, as it allows more light to pass. It can be bought of any dealer in scientific apparatus. Glass shows the prettiest colors and figures when it is in a state of strain from uneven cooling. To prepare it, take pieces a quarter of an inch thick and about an inch or an inch and a half square, and heat them red hot on a piece of slate in a coal fire, or over a Bun- sen burner. Let them cool on a piece of cold iron. They will not break if they have been heated enough. Instead of the tourma- line or Nicol prism, the following arrangement may be employed. (See Fig. 2.) Bore a hole length- wise through a cork about an inch and a half long, and then cut it in two diagonally, making an angle of about 34 degrees with the axis, as shown in the picture. Glue to the diagonal surface of the lower half of the cork six plates of very thin glass, separating them by tis- sue paper glued at their edges. Then glue on the upper half of the cork, so that the round hole in it seems continuous with that in the lower half. Two of these arrange- ments may be used instead of the two tourmalines, or one may be used with the apparatus for polar- izing by reflection. Objects can be made of thin sheets of mica, which show beauti- ful colors when examined by polar- ized light. Among these are a piece bent into a half cylinder, held in place by strips of gummed paper ; two such half cylinders, crossed ; a cone, made by cutting a small sector out of a mica circle and then bringing the edges to- gether; a wheel, each of whose spokes is twisted a little, and bars of mica crossed in various ways. TRADES. A game in which each of the players pretends, in dumb show, to work at some trade — the shoemaker sewing a shoe, the carpenter hammering or sawing, etc. One of the company is chosen as leader, and whenever he drops his trade for that of another player, that player must take up the one that the leader has just left, while all the others stop their motions. Whenever the leader resumes his original trade, the others begin to work at theirs, as at first. Any one who makes a mistake must pay a forfeit. TRAP BALL. A game played by any number of persons with a trap, bat, and ball. The trap is made of wood, of the size and shape of a low shoe, having in it a spoon-shaped lever, arranged as shown in the il- lustration. The ball is like a small Trap and Ball. base ball, and the bat like a short cricket bat, to be used with one hand. The players divide into two parties, one of which takes position in the field, while those on the other, one by one, take turns at the bat. The batter places the ball in the trap, and by striking the free TRAP BALL 738 TRAPPING end of the lever with his bat sends the ball into the air. He then tries to hit it as far as he can. If he miss his stroke, or strike the ball beyond the side boundaries, or if a fielder catch the ball before it touches the ground, he is out, and the next player takes the bat. Oth- erwise, the fielder who stops the ball bowls it at the trap, and if he hits it, or the ball stop within a bat's- length of it, the striker is out. If not, the striker estimates the dis- tance of the ball from the trap in bat-lengths, and calls it out. If it be within the actual distance, he scores toward game the number of bat-lengths called; but if it be more than the real distance, he is out. When a player is out, he takes no further part in the game till all his side are out, when the sides change places. Those who do not go out continue to strike and score, in or- der, till all are out. When each side has finished its turn at the bat, the game is at an end, and the side with the largest score wins. Sometimes, instead of the trap, a piece of wood called a Splent is used. A little hole is made in the ground with the bat, the splent is placed with one end in the hole, and the ball is put on that end. When the end of the splent outside of the hole is struck with the bat, the ball rises, as from the trap. Trap ball is a very old game. Old English Trap Ball. The illustration, from an ancient English manuscript, shows a form of it. ■'"-""":,!ii^.,,..>Hii>iiBiii rie.3,. Figure Four Trap. TRAPPING. Catching animals or birds by means of traps or snares. It is not considered honorable to trap wild game that is usually killed by sportsmen with the gun, but troublesome and dangerous ani- mals are properly caught in this way, as well as fur-bearing creat- ures, like the mink or beaver. The best traps are the common steel traps, to be bought at hardware stores, and which are made of sev- eral sizes. An easily made trap is the Figure Four, so called from its shape. It consists of a heavy stone or log supported by three notched sticks placed as shown in the picture. The separate pieces are shown in Figs, i, 2 and 3, and the completed trap in Fig. 4. The animal trying to remove the bait from the end of the pointed stick brings the stone down upon him, and is crushed to death. When a log is used, a row of stakes is driven into the ground on each side of it, TRAVELLER 739 TRUSSING GAME and it falls between them. For catching animals alive, there are various forms of traps made of wire or wood. The simplest is a contrivance having a swinging door which will open only inward. The animal pushes up the door to get at the bait, and is unable to push his way out again. A trap for small burrowing ani- mals, called the Jug-trap, is made by burying a jug or other earthen- ware vessel, having a hole knocked out of the upper part. A passage is made from the surface to the hole, and the animal entering it falls into the jug and is caught. TRAVELLER, THE. A game played by any number of persons, one of whom represents a traveller. The others are numbered, and each receives several counters, or bits of paper, bearing his number. The traveller then asks them, in order, for any information he chooses about the places to which he is going. As soon as he is given some that is correct he takes a counter from whoever gives it, and asks the next player a different question. After a specified time, or number of rounds, the traveller examines the counters in his possession, and the player who gave him most in- formation becomes traveller in his turn. TRIC-TRAC. See Backgammon. TRICYCLING. See Cycling. TRIPLET. A game of cards played by three persons with a full pack and any number of counters, which are divided equally. The dealer — the player who cuts the low- est card (ace being high) — gives two cards to each. Each looks at his cards, and places in the centre of the table a number of counters agreed on beforehand. One more card is then given to each by the dealer, who turns the next card as trump. Any player may now de- clare that he wishes to win " by hand," whereupon all must show their hands, and the highest wins. The three kinds of hands in or- der from the highest to the low- est are as follows : 1. A Triplet — three cards of a kind. If there are two triplets, the highest wins, but one contain- ing a " special card," or a face card of trumps, beats any other. The " special cards " are the Three of Trumps, Spades, and Hearts. 2. A Tierce — any three cards in regular order, regardless of suit. If there are two, the highest wins, and one containing a special card, or face card of trumps, always wins. 3. Three of a suit, according to the total number of pips — a special card counting 13, an ace 12, and a court card 11. If one of two other- wise equal hands contains a face card of trumps, it beats the other. If any one wins by hand there is no playing. If no one declares that he wishes to do so play begins, the eldest hand leading. Suit is not followed. In play, only face cards of the trump suit rank as trumps. No card can be taken by one of the same color unless the latter be a trump. Any card of a common suit, or any plain card of the trump suit, may be taken by a higher card of opposite color; but any card may be taken by a trump face card, and this by a special card. The Threes of Clubs and Diamonds, when not trumps, are the lowest cards in their respective suits. To win in play, a player must take two out of the three tricks. If no one does this, the same dealer deals again from the stock without shuffling anew. He who wins takes all the counters in the middle of the table ; but if no one wins, they remain and accumu- late. TRUSSING GAME, THE. A game played by two persons, each of whom tries to overturn the oth- er, after both have been tied or " trussed," as follows : The player seats himself on the floor; his hands, placed palm to palm, are TRUTH 740 TUG OF WAR bound together at the wrist with a handkerchief, and his legs are tied in like manner above the ankles. The knees are then drawn up, the arms placed over them, and a stick about four feet long pushed over one arm, under both knees, and out again over the other arm. The player can now move no part of his limbs except his toes. If he is overturned the ends of the stick prevent his falling on his side, but he cannot right himself without aid. Two players, " trussed " in this way, are placed opposite each other in the middle of the room, their toes just touching. The ob- ject of each is to tip his opponent over by means of his toes, and he who first does this is the winner. If either of the players falls over, he must be placed in position again by the spectators. It is related that an English gentleman, having captured some thieves in his house at night, with his servants' aid, " trussed " them thus, to secure them until morning, and tipped them over on one side, with such success that the robbers were not able to move from the place where they were left. This game is called also " Chick- en Fight." or "Cock Fight." TRUTH. A game played by any number of persons, with two packs of cards. The first pack is dealt, one card at a time, to the players ; the second is placed face downward, in front of one chosen as leader of the game. The leader begins by asking a personal question beginning with " who," as " Who is the prettiest in the room ? " or " Who will be mar- ried first ? " at the same time turn- ing over the top card of the second pack. The one of the players who has the same card in the first pack is supposed to be the one referred to in the question. He must hold up the card matching the one turned, as soon as he sees it, and then give it to the leader, who lays the two cards aside. The player who had the matching card next asks a question, the leader turning up at the same time another card ; and so the game goes on till the cards have all been used. The inquiries may be complimentary or other- wise. TUG OF WAR. A sport in which any number of persons, divided in- to two parties or "teams," pull a rope in opposite directions. The tug may be pulled in two ways : in the first, there is no limit of time, but the teams pull until one has pulled the other over a given line ; in the second, the pulling is for a certain number of minutes, and at the end of that time the team wins on whose side the middle of the rope is. In both methods the mid- dle of the rope is marked, usually by tying a piece of colored cloth around it, and a person acting as judge or referee holds it exactly over the line as he gives the signal to begin pulling. In the first meth- od, instead of requiring one team to be pulled over the line, two points in the rope are sometimes marked, at equal distances from the middle point, and the team that first pulls the opposite one of these across the line is the winner. The second method is often used indoors, where the tug is pulled " from cleats ; " that is, where each player has a wooden cleat or strip, nailed on the floor, to brace his feet against while he is pulling. Four men make a team, and the one furthest from the cleat is called the "anchor," the one nearest the cleat being No. i. The rules of the National Ama- teur Athletic Association for tugs of war are as follows : Tugs of war shall be pulled on cleats made of wood ; same to be at least four inches thick, six inches high, and twenty-two inches long, and at least six feet six inches apart. The distance from the clamp in the centre to the first cleat on eithei' side shall be not less than six feet. TUG OF WAR 741 TUNING FORKS The cleats shall be set on edge and bolted to the board. The rope shall be a manila, three stranded rope, not less than four and a half nor more than five inch- es in circumference. There shall be a clamp equi-distant from the first cleat on either side, which shall be sufficient to hold the rope in position until released. This clamp shall not make any appreciable kink in the rope. Any position may be assumed before the pistol is fired. No mechanical device shall be used for holding the rope. No belt other than one to protect the body shall be used. The flanges to hold the rope in place shall not be constructed so as to bind on the rope in any posi- tion that the anchor may assume. Leather shields and gloves may be used, and adhesive substances may be put on the same. The belt shall not weigh more than twenty pounds. Competitors shall not use weights in unlimited pulls, but in pulls limited to specified weights, competitors may use weights, pro- viding the total weight of the team, including weights, does not exceed the limit. The standard time limit for each pull shall be five minutes, and a rest of not less than ten m inutes shall be allowed each competitor between trial pulls. A shorter or longer time limit may be agreed upon for other than championship contests. When tugs of war are limited to teams of a given weight, com- petitors shall be weighed beforv competing. They shall be weighed as they pull ; i.e., including cloth- ing, shoes, belt, etc. The weighing-in shall be done immediately before the pull. No knot of any kind shall be tied in the rope, and the rope shall not be passed more than once around the body of the anchor. In no case shall any man pull on more than one team in a contest, and no substitute shall be allowed to pull on any team that has pulled a trial. In case a team gains three feet from its opponents, it shall be awarded the pull. Immediately before the pull the captains of the opposing teams shall draw their numbers. If there are only two teams, two out of three pulls shall decide. With three teams — i and 2 pull, the loser pulls 3, and the winners pull the final. With four teams — i and 2, 3 and 4; the winners pull the final. With more than four teams, have a pre- liminary round of as many contests as the total number of contestants exceeds 4, 8, 16 or 32, and drop the losers. This leaves in 4, 8, 16 or 32 contestants, and the game then proceeds regularly with no byes or uneven contests. There shall be no byes. If there is a second prize it shall be competed for by all teams beaten by the winning team only. I n case of a tie both teams shall be credited with a win, and new num^ bers shall be drawn. No pull shall be awarded by less than half an inch. The individual tug of war shall also be governed by the team rules, and the contestants must pull from the first cleat from the clamp. History. The tug of war had its origin in a boys' game sometimes called in England " French and English," and in this country " English and Americans," in which two parties pulled one against the other at the ends of a rope. Since it has been reduced to a systematic sport it has found a place in the programmes of most athletic meetings. (See Athlet- ics.) TUNING FORKS, Experiments with. The tuning fork is a two- pronged instrument used by mu- sicians to tune their instruments by, since it gives a pure, true note. Two of these forks will be needed, giving notes about a half a tone TUNING FORKS 742 tUNING FORKS apart. They may be bought at a music store. A tuning fork may be sounded by rapping it on the edge of a ta- ble, by pressing the prongs togeth- er with the teeth and then sudden- ly releasing them, or by striking it with a stick. EXPERIMENTS. Sound a tuning fork, and while it is vibrating touch the end to a bare table. This sound will be greatly increased. This is because the table vibrates in sympathy with the fork, so that there is a larger sounding surface. 2. Sound the fork and hold it in succession close to the mouths of bottles and jars of various sizes, pouring in water while the fork is vibrating. When the volume of air in the jar is just large enough, it will vibrate in sympathy with the fork, giving out a loud sound. 3. Turn the fork around slowly while it is over the jar. The sound will rise and fall in loudness, being almost nothing when the corners of the prongs are toward the jar. Hold the fork up to the ear, turn- ing it in like manner, and the same result will follow. This is because in this position the sound-waves from the inside of the prongs interfere with those from the out- side. 4. Make a cardboard or paper roll, just large enough to go over one prong of the fork, and while it is in the position where it makes least noise, either in front of the ear or over the jar, slip the roll over one prong. The sound will at once increase, owing to the fact that the waves from one prong are cut off and cannot interfere with those from the other. 4. Make a wooden box about six inches long, four inches wide, and two inches thick, open at the ends. This is called a resonance box, and makes the fork sound louder, just as a table does ; but it is more convenient, because it can be car- ried about in the hand. Sound a fork, touch it to a resonance box, and walk slowly toward the wall with the fork. The note given will be now louder, now fainter. This is caused by the interference of the sound reflected from the wall with that proceeding directly from the fork. 5. Hold two forks tuned to the same note on resonance boxes sev- eral feet apart. They can be tuned together by sticking bits of wax on the prongs of the one which gives the highest note. The wax will load the prong, making it move more slowly and give a lower note. Sound one of the forks, and after a few seconds stop it. The other one will be found vibrating slightly. Its note can often be heard by placing the ear to the opening in the resonance box. If this does not succeed, the vibration can be detected by holding against one of the prongs a bit of glass as large as a pea, fastened to a thread by means of sealing-wax. This is a case of "sympathetic vibration," other examples of which are given under Violin. The experiment will not succeed unless the forks be tuned to the same note. 6. Load one of the forks with wax so that it is almost, but not quite, in tune with the other. Sound them both at once, and " beats " will be heard, just as in Experiment 5, under Violin. 7. Sound a fork and dip the prongs into a basin of still water. The vibration will cause curious ripples. 8. Gum a piece of tin-foil or a bristle to one prong of a fork ; set the fork vibrating, and then draw it over a piece of smoked glass. The vibration of the fork will make the bristle draw a wavy line on the glass. 9. Touch one end of a long rod or pole to a resonance box, and touch a vibrating tuning fork to the other end. The rod will con- TUNING FORKS 743 TUNING FORKS duct the sound, which will come apparently from the box. lo. Sing the same note as that given by a tuning fork. Stop, and, holding the mouth in exactly the same position, hold the vibrating fork close in front of it. The mouth will act like the jar in Ex- periment 2, increasing the sound. If the mouth be fixed as if to sing any other note, the result will not be the same — the sound being in- creased very little, or not at all. 11. Bore a hole in a block of wood about an inch and a half square and fit in it the stem of the tuning fork. Place a tumbler of water on a resonance box, and after sounding the fork, dip the block in the water. The sound will be conducted through the water to the box, which will strengthen it just as if the fork had been placed directly on the box. 12. Place a piece of window glass three inches square over the mouth of a glass tumbler, seeing that it touches the rim all around. Slide the glass slowly to one side, hold- ing a vibrating tuning fork to the opening. When it reaches the right size, the air in the tumbler will give out a loud sound, in answer to the fork. (See A, in Fig. I.) 13. Take apiece of thin paper, and, having wet it, paste it over the mouth of the tumbler. When it is dry, cut away part at one end so as to make a hole bounded by the edge of the tumbler and a straight line. Make this hole small at first, but cut away more and more of the paper till the air within an- swers the tuning fork as before. Sprinkle a little sand on the paper and. sing the note given by the fork. The sand will dance up and down. (See B, in Fig. i.) 14. Tilt the tumbler by placing a book under one side (see B, in il- lustration), so that the sand almost runs down the paper by its own weight. If the proper note be now sung in any part of the room the sand will begin to move down the paper, but it will not move for any other note. If the gamut be sung, for instance, the sand will keep still till its own note is reached, when it will move at once. 15. Dip the mouth of a tumbler, five or six inches deep, into a soap solution (see Soap Bubbles), and then slide the glass plate through the soap water under the mouth. Take tumbler and glass out of the water and stand them on the table. TUNING FORKS 744 tURK^ AND RUSSIANS Slide off the glass while sound- ing the fork as in Experiment 12. There will be a soap film over the opening thus made, which, as soon as the air in the tumbler responds to the fork, will be covered with curious wrinkles. To see these to advantage, the light of the sky must be reflected from the film. 16. Tune two wide - mouthed bottles or glasses of equal size, by slipping pieces of glass over their Fig 2 mouths, as in Experiment 12, so that each will strengthen the vibra- tion of the tuning fork. Stand one upright and lay the other on its side on a pile of books so that the mouths of the bottles just touch. The bottle on the books is kept from rolling off by bits of wax, and the glass over its mouth is held in place in the same way. Vibrate the fork and hold it horizontally between the mouths of the bottles. A position will be found where almost no sound at all is heard. This is because the sound from one bottle interferes with that from the other. If a piece of paper be slipped between the fork and the mouth of either bottle the sound will at once be heard again (Fig. 2). 1 7. Suspend a light piece of card- board by a string near a vibrating tuning fork ; it will be attracted. Hold a candle flame near the fork ; it will be repelled. This is because the sound-waves in air attract bodies heavier than air, and repel those which are lighter. 18. Tie a silk thread six inches long to one prong of a tuning fork, and to the other end of the thread fasten a button or other object of slight weight. Vibrate the fork, holding it horizontally, and the thread will also vibrate, dividing up into segments, between which are points of no motion, or " nodes." (See Violin, Experiment 2.) The number of segments seen when the fork is held with prongs side by side is double that when one prong is over the other. The number of segments is also greater when the weight on the thread is less. TURKS AND RUSSIANS. A game played by two persons with slate and pencil. About a quarter of the slate is marked off by a line at each end, and in each of the com- partments so marked off are made a number of dots about the size of a pin-head, those at one end representing Turks and the others Russians. The number of Turks and Russians may be large or small, as agreed on, but must be equal. At one end of each compartment is a small square which serves as a battery. Each player, in turn, places the point of his pencil in his own battery, and then draws a line quickly in the direction of his ene- my's men. The line must have no angles in it, but may be straight or curved. Those dots through which the line passes are considered dead men, and he who first kills all of the enemy's men is the winner. Sometimes the players are required TWELFTH DAY 745 TWENTY QUESTIONS to shut their eyes or turn away their heads, when drawing their lines. TWELFTH DAY. The sixth day of January ; so called because it is the twelfth day after Christmas. It is also the feast of the Epiphany, on which is celebrated the visit of the three Magi, or Wise Men, to the infant Christ. In ancient times Twelfth Night was celebrated with great merriment and many games, and Twelfth Night parties are occa- sionally given now. As the wise men who visited Christ are said by tradition to have been three kings, one of the chief amusements of Twelfth Night is the choosing of a King and Queen by means of col- ored beans baked in cakes, whence it is sometimes called the " Bean King festival." One cake is cut into pieces and given to the boys and the other to the girls, and the boy and girl who find the beans in their pieces become King and Queen. Cards having written on them various titles, such as Prime Minister, First Lady in Wait- ing, etc., are now placed in two bags, the boys' titles in one bag and the girls' titles in the other. Enough blank cards are mixed with them to make the whole num- ber equal that of the guests. Each guest now draws a card and as- sumes the title, if any, written on it. The hostess may provide appropri- ate costumes for the King, Queen, and Courtiers. The evening is usually spent in playing games. Among the amusements of Twelfth Night in ancient England were the blowing up or burning of paste- board castles. A pastry stag, out of which flowed blood made of claret, was sometimes served on the table, and the guests pelted each other with eggshells filled with rose-water. Shakespeare's play of this name was so called because written for a Twelfth Night party. TWENTY QUESTIONS. A game played by any number of persons. divided into two opposing parties, one of which tries to find out, by twenty questions and one or more guesses, a subject chosen by the other. Captains. Inorder to avoid con- fusion, questions are asked and answered only by the captains or leaders of the two parties ; but be- fore each question there is a con- sultation of all the players on the side that is to ask it, and the best answer is decided on by the other side in the same way. Umpire. An umpire is generally chosen beforehand, to decide dis- puted points, and to avoid dispute he may take down in writing each question and answer as it is spoken. Time Limit. In order to avoid taking too much time, it is usual to require a question or answer to be given within a certain time after the preceding answer or question. This time limit (usually three or four minutes) is agreed upon at the beginning of the game. Guessing. When the questioning side have asked their twenty ques- tions, or as many as they wish, they proceed, through their captain, to guess the subject. Sometimes only one guess is allowed, sometimes two or three, as agreed on before the game. If more than one is permit- ted, all but the last may be asked during the questioning. Thus, if there are to be three guesses, the questioners may ask ten questions, then make a guess ; then six more, then make another guess, and so on. But if the last guess is wrong, wherever it may be made, the guess- ers lose the game. The subject must be guessed exactly as it is chosen. For instance, if it is " Mr. B.'s left eye," and the guess be "One of Mr. B.'s eyes," the answer must be " No." But if the question be asked, " Is it one of Mr. B.'s eyes? " the answer is " Yes." Then, if more than one guess is allowed, the right and left eyes can be guessed in succession. If not, " Is it his TWENTY QUESTIONS 746 TWENTY QUESTIONS right eye ? " should be asked ; and when the answer " No " is given, the guess " Mr. B.'s left eye " will of course be made. But if the party have asked their twentieth ques- tion, and have but one guess, they must take their chances of hitting it correctly. GENERAL ADVICE. Subject. In choosing a subject it should be remembered that those that appear difficult are often easy to guess. If the questioners are skillful, and not likely to over- look anything, the difficulty de- pends simply on the number of sep- arate things that must be found out in order to know the subject defi- nitely. This kind of difficulty is pos- sessed by a subject like " The sec- ond pane of glass from the upper left hand corner of the upper sash, in the third window from the east- ern front corner of the second ^^ --'—-. ^ x^^^ ~~^\. % ^ / \ ■^ /<^ -\-\\ V \ f 1 Thou \ \ r \ \ Thi . -J--y-|- /. / \ ^- ^-^, .^// \ \^ " y / '^ -^ Question Diagram. Story of the New York City Hall. Here, after finding out that the subject is " A pane of glass," at least seven more questions are re- quired to locate it, since questions like " In what part of the City Hall is it } " are barred out, the answer being a part of the subject. By making the subject complex enough, it can thus be made im- possible to guess it even in twenty questions ; but subjects of this kind do not add to the interest of the game, and they should be restricted by rule. Another kind of difficulty is pos- sessed by subjects which are either far away or immaterial, like the " Garden of Eden," or " Courage." A beginner might be quite unable to guess either of these, but each consists of but one thing, and eith- er may be guessed in a comparative- ly few questions. The best subjects are those that combine these two kinds of difficulty, as " The petal of a rose on the east side of the Garden of Eden," or "The Courage of Israel Putnam in entering the wolf's den." Subjects may also be adapted to the questioners. If they are not well acquainted with history, an TWENTY QUESTIONS 747 TWENTY QUESTIONS historical subject may be chosen, and so on. Questions. In playing the game the questions should be asked ac- cording to some system, and the same system should be followed throughout. If one idea is followed out for two or three questions, and then abandoned and another taken up, twenty questions may easily be asked without getting much infor- mation. The more general ques- tions should be asked at the be- ginning, the object being to divide the field of conjecture. This may be made evident by a diagram (shown on the previous page) sup- posed to contain all the things in the world. These are divided by the vertical black line into Real and Imaginary, and these again by the horizontal dotted line into Thoughts and Things. The space within the inner circle is supposed to be the Past, that between the two circles the Present, and that outside the Future. So if the ques- tion be asked, " Is it real or imag- inary ? " and the answer be " Real," everything in the right or imag- inary side is left out of considera- tion. If the questioner next finds out that it exists now, he may con- fine himself to the space inside the inner circle, and so on. The dia- gram can be made much more elab- orate, or divided according to a different plan. The one given will serve as an illustration, and the reader can amuse himself by trying to construct others. One system of questioning that may be followed with a real object is to locate it exactly, which may often be done by a few skillful questions. The object, though real, may be one of a class, as "a shoe," in which case it cannot be located, but the nearest or most prominent one of the class may be inquired about. Or, instead of locating the object, its form, size and color may be found out exact- ly, or its use may be investigated ; but whatever line of questions is begun should be continued. In some cases, however, a skillful player will see, after one or two questions, that the kind of queries he is making will be of no use, and he then often prefers to change his tactics, even at a loss. For in- stance, if the first few questions as to form, color, and size show that the object is one whose appearance is totally unfamiliar, so that a full description would not help the questioner, that kind of questions should be abandoned. If the ob- ject is real but not now existing, it is a good plan to find out whether it is of historical interest. If the first question shows that the subject is imaginary, it should at once be asked whether it is mentioned in a book ; and if so, where. Most imaginary subjects can be reached thus. If the object is immaterial, it may be ascertained first whether it is an event, a thought, a quality, a sound, etc. Such subjects are generally hard to guess, but experience will suggest various lines of questioning that may be followed. As material ob- jects are easiest to guess, a quality of character, or a thought is often best connected with some person. The question may be asked, " Name some person who possessed this quality of character in a high de- gree." " On what occasion did he show it?" etc. Often while the questioner is following out his plan, an answer will give him a hint of some " short-cut" to the desired end. In general, the questioner should not be afraid to ask questions in the begin- ning, but should never ask par- ticular questions before general ones. Usually he can cut off a large part of the field of possibility left him, at each stroke, and this should be his general object. He should never alter his plan of attack ex- cept for some special reason. If a particular question be asked first, TWENTY QUESTIONS 748 TWENTY QUESTIONS it is often wasted. For instance, suppose the subject be " The sound of Patrick Henry's voice in the Virginia House of Burgesses," the question, " What is its shape ? " would be useless, and would not have been asked had the questioner first found out that the subject was immaterial. Beginners often waste many questions in this and similar ways. When the questioners are al- lowed more than one guess, one or two may be made in the midst of the game to test a theory; but when only one is allowed it should not be made until the guessers are sure they are right, unless all their questions have been asked. When the questioners think they know the subject, they had better test their knowledge by a particular question rather than by a guess; but this should never be done un- less there is very good reason, for if the suspicion is unfounded, a question has been wasted. Answers. The answering side should be careful to tell everything the question calls for, but no more. For instance, if the subject be " The blue Union of the American Flag," and the question is asked, " What is its color }" The answer " Blue " would not be correct. " Blue and white " would be the proper answer. " Blue with white spots " would tell also the arrange- ment of the colors, which is more than the question called for. The following classified examples of subjects may be valuable to the beginner in showing him how they can be varied, and also in indicat- ing the best order of questioning : MATERIAL REAL SUBJECTS. General. — A book ; a man ; a ring. Particular. — The blue book on the table ; Mr. S.; Mrs. B.'s ring, Complex. — The third book from the left on the upper shelf of alcove 202 in the Blank library, etc. Historical. — Martin Luther's Bible ; Charles II.; the ring with which Prince Albert wedded Queen Victoria. MATERIAL IMAGINARY SUBJECTS. Particular. — The book Mr. L. dreamed about the other night. Mythological. — The Sibyl's book ; the Cyclops ; the ring of the Nibelungs. Fictitious. — Arthur Pendennis ; Aladdin's ring. Historical. — The book Job wished his enemy to write. IMMATERIAL REAL SUBJECTS. General. — Courage ; a sound ; a thought; an event. Particular. — Mr. B.'s courage ; the ticking of the clock; Mr. B.'s thought about this subject ; the party yesterday. Complex. — The first note Madame X. sang to day, in her- first solo at the opera. Historical. — Gen. Custer's courage at the Big Horn; the cheers that greeted Sheridan on his ride from Winchester ; the thoughts of Napoleon after Waterloo; the signing of the Declaration of Independence. IMMATERIAL IMAGINARY SUB- •JECTS. Particular. — The courage I thought he had. Mythological. — The sound of Vul- can's hammer; the beauty of Venus ; a council of the gods. Fictitious. — " The sound of ham- mers, blow on blow," in Long- fellow's " Building of the Ship; " the shipwreck, in Shakespeare's " Tempest." It is often difficult to classify a subject ; for instance, some might call a dream real but immaterial, and others might consider it im- aginary. The first of the two sample games which follow is from the short treatise on Twenty Questions by " Hotspur," and was played in Lenox, Mass., in 1880. It was un- derstood at the beginning that the subject was Biblical. The second game is of historical interest, the TWENTY QUESTIONS 749 TWENTY QUESTIONS questioner being George Canning, English statesman. The two games show also the advance that has been made in questioning since Canning's time. It will be noticed that most of the questions in this second game are alternative ; that is, contain the word " or ; " and each question systematically cuts the field of possibility left open by the last. Game I. 1. Is this subject mentioned in the Old, or in the New Testament ? — The New. 2. In what book ? — Acts. 3. With whom is it most inti- mately connected.? — One of the Apostles. 4. What was his name ? — St. Paul. 5. Material or immaterial .> — Material. 6. What are its component parts ? — Vegetable matter. 7. What is its shape ? — An elon- gated oval. 8. What is its size ? — About three-eighths of an inch in length, by about one-sixteenth of an inch in breadth and thickness. 9. What is its color ? — Yellowish. 10. What is its use.? — A means of preserving life. 11. In what way.? — Various ways. 12. On the especial occasion you have in mind, in what way.? — By being thrown away. 13. Whose life was it the means of preserving.? — The lives of St. Paul and his companions. 14. Who threw it away.? — St. Paul and his companions. 15. Where were they when they threw it away.?— On the Mediter- ranean. 16. From what did it preserve their lives .? — From death. 17. Death in what form .? — Death by drowning. Correctly guessed. " A grain of wheat of the cargo of the ship which carried St. Paul to Malta." Came 11. 1. Does it belong to the animal, or the vegetable kingdom .?— To the vegetable. 2. Is it manufactured or unman- ufactured .?— Manufactured. 3. Is it a solid, or liquid.? — A solid. 4. Is it a thing entire in itself, or in parts .? — In parts. 5. Is it for private use, or public.^ —Public. 6. Does it exist in England, or out of it.? — In England. 7- Is it single, or are there oth- ers of the same kind .?— Single. 8. Is it historical, or only exis- tent at present .?— Both. 9. For ornament, or use ? — Both. 10. Has it any connection with the person of the king.? — No. 11. Is it carried, or does it support itself.?— The former. 1 2. Does it pass by succession .? — [Not answered, on account of un- certainty; but, by agreement, the question was counted one in the game.] 13. Was it used at the corona- tion .? — Yes. 14. In the Hall, or Abbey?— Probably in both ; certainly in the Abbey. 15. Does it belong specially to the coronation, or is it used at o'ther times.? — It is used at other times. 16. Is it exclusively of a vegetable nature, or is it not in some parts a compound of a vegetable and min- eral .? — Exclusively of a vegetable nature. 17. What is its shape .? [Objected to as too particular, though it would now be considered perfectly proper. It was withdrawn, and not counted.] 17. Is it decorated, or simple.? [Objected to, but the objection not sustained.] — Simple. 18. Is it used at the ordinary cer- emonial of the House of Commons or House of Lords.? — No. 19. Is it ever used by either House ? — No. TWENTY QUESTIONS 750 TWENTY QUESTIONS 20. Is it generally stationary, or movable ? — Movable. Guessed correctly by Mr. Can- ning. "The wand of the Lord High Steward." (The Lord High Steward of England was in ancient times the first officer of state in the English court, but now, as at the time of this game, there is no reg- ular holder of the office. A tem- porary Lord High Steward is ap- pointed to take part in coronations and the trials of peers. He has a wooden wand of office, which he breaks when his duties are over.) Variations. Several variations are sometimes made in the game. One player may select a subject and allow the others to question him, either through a captain or in rota- tion. When two parties play one against the other, the captains may be dispensed with, and the ques- tions and answers given by the players in order. The game may be played for points, in which case each side questions during a given number of games, and answers during the same number, the players on the sides remaining the same. The number of questions asked in each game is scored to the askers, wheth- er the subject be guessed or not, and the side having the less num- ber of points wins. In this way of scoring, to guess the subject in twenty questions counts no more than to fail altogether. This may be remedied by agreeing that a failure to guess shall count more than twenty against the askers. It may be agreed that the answerers shall be limited in their choice of a subject, the others undertaking to guess it in less than twenty ques- tions. Thus the subject maybe an event in American History, and ten questions maybe allowed. When the game is played by young children, more than twenty questions may be allowed, or the number may not be limited at all. Learners may begin with a large number of questions, and gradually diminish it as they become more expert. Skilled players think that it is possible, if the questions are asked properly, to guess any subject in twenty questions, and that most subjects can be found out in from fifteen to eighteen. The Tliree Kingdoms, or Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral. A kmd of Twenty Questions in which the first question is " To which of the three kingdoms does it belong } " or "Is it Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral.?" It was formerly con- sidered that everything in nature belongs to the Animal kingdom, the Vegetable kingdom, or the Mineral kingdom; but there are many things hard to classify thus, and as subjects are now taken that are not material — such as thoughts, words, or ideas — it is rarely asked. In the old game of Animal, Vege- table, and Mineral the number of questions was often unlimited, while the answers were required to be merely " Yes " and " No," as in Clumps. rules of the game. 1 . The umpire is elected by ma- jority vote before the game. There is no appeal from his decisions. 2. The captains, if any, shall be chosen by vote of each side. 3. The parties shall determine by lot which shall question first, and afterwards they shall do so alter- nately. 4. The umpire shall take down in writing the subject and each ques- tion and answer. 5. The subject must have, or must have had, an actual existence either in fact, fiction, or imagina- tion. It may be material or imma- terial. [This rule bars subjects like " The sound of a hammer that was not heard at the building of Solomon's temple," which we are told was once actually chosen.] 6. Any question may be asked TWENTY QUESTIONS 75^ TWIRL THE PLATTER whose answer is not part of the sub- ject. For instance, if the subject be " A button on Mr, Smith's coat," and the guessing party have found that it is a button on some one's coat, it is not allowable to ask " On whose coat is it ? " The question " With what person is it most near- ly connected ? " is often objected to for a like reason. The legality of this question and others in doubt must be decided by the umpire. 7. It is not allowable to ask two or more questions at once; thus, " What is its shape and size ? " must count as two questions. 8. If there are captains, they must in all cases give the questions and answers, and no attention need be paid to a question put by any other player. 9. If there are no captains, the questions are put and answered by the players in regular order, and no question asked out of that order need be heeded. 10. If it is impossible to answer a question exactly, as correct an an- swer as possible must be given, and at the same time its defects must be pointed out. Thus, if " Napoleon's little finger-nail " be the subject, and the question be " What was its size ? " although of course the ex- act answer cannot be given, the answer should be " Probably about one-third of an inch in diameter; we do not know exactly." [The simple answer, " We do not know," though literally true, is not allow- able in such a case, but sometimes no other can be given ; in which case the umpire should permit it.] 1 1. A vague question may be an- swered vaguely. Thus, " Where is it situated?" "In the United States." The question in this case should be, " In what city or town is it ? " 12. An answer made by a player not a captain, or out of regular or- der is not counted as an answer, but the questioners may use whatever information they gain from it. But the answering side may endorse it if they please, and then it is treated as their regular answer. 13. When the players ask and answer in order, any one may de- cline to take his turn, and must then wait until the next round. 14. After each question or an- swer is written down by the um- pire he shall call " Time," and the following answer or question must then be given within the time- limit previously agreed upon. 15. If any side fail to give its question or answer within the time-limit, the opposing side gain a question; that is, an extra question is allowed if they are the question- ers, and one less if they are the answerers. A question is thus gained for every expiration of the time-limit; thus, if the time-limit be five minutes, and the answering party take sixteen minutes to con- sult over an answer, the askers are allowed twenty-three questions. History. Twenty Questions is said by some persons to have been invented by George Canning, the English statesman, who was born in 1 770, and it is sometimes called in England the Canning Game; but it probably existed in some form long before his time. Not only Canning but other eminent men, including William Pitt, were fond of the game. Pitt once guessed the subject " The stone on which Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, stood, when he struck Wat Tyler down, in Richard II. 's time." About 1880 the game became very popular in the eastern United States, but it had been played in this country many years before that time. TWIRL THE PLATTER. A game played by any number of persons with a tin or earthenware plate. The players stand in a circle, and one of them, who may be chosen in any way, begins the game by twirl- ing the plate on the floor in the middle of the circle, calling out at TWIRLER 752 TWIRLER the same time the name of one of the other players. That one must catch the platter before it falls to the ground, and then twirl it again, calling out the name of some one, as before. Any player failing to catch the platter before it falls must pay a forfeit. Sometimes the play- ers are numbered, and the one who twirls the plate calls out a number instead of a name. TWIRLER. An arrangement for spinning objects rapidly, used in some of the scientific experiments described in this book. It consists usually of two wheels fixed on a stand, and so connected by a band that by turning a handle fixed to one, the other revolves very rapidly. The object to be twirled is fixed to this second wheel. Twirlers can be bought of dealers in scientific or school supplies, or its place can be supplied by the wheel of a toy cart. Turn the cart bottom up- ward, pin or tack the object to be twirled to one side of the wheel, and twirl it from the other side with the forefinger. If the object is to be twirled horizontally — as, for in- stance, a pail of water — the cart may be placed on its side on a table with the wheel to be used pro- jecting over the edge. The cart is kept in place by putting a weight on it. The string supporting the object is now tacked as near the middle of the hub as possible, and the wheel twirled as before. An excellent twirler can also be made as follows : Support a board from six to twelve inches wide and a few feet long, by placing one end under the top of a door-way, open- ing the door slightly, so that the middle of the board rests on it. Over the free end of the board hang a circle of twine so long that the lower end reaches within two feet of the floor. This end should be provided with a hook. If the twine now be twisted and the ob- ject to be twirled hung on the hook, the untwisting of the cord will make the object spin. It will move still more swiftly if it is as- sisted to untwist by pressing down- ward with a stick just above the twisted part. A flat piece of cork may be strung on the twine a little above the end, and kept in place by knots. On this colored disks of paper may be placed, producing the same effects when spun as the color Top. UGLY MUG 753 UNCLE JOHN u UGLY MUG. A singing game, playeci by any number of persons. A leader is chosen, who stands fac- ing the rest of the company. They must imitate every gesture that he makes, and those who can do so sing with him. He sings, to the tune given below : I m^- -mz=i ^ put my right hand in. put my right hand out, I gs give my right hand shake, shake, shake, and turn my - self bout. Ashe sings he suits the action to the words, first stretching out his right hand, then facing in the op- posite direction and extending it again, then shaking it, and finally turning back to his first position. In like manner he then sings : " I put my left hand in," etc. " I put my both hands in," etc. " I put my right foot in," etc. " I put my left foot in," etc. " I put my both feet in," etc. " I put my ugly mug in," etc. To " put both feet in " the play- ers jump forward, and to shake them they dance up and down. At the last line the players stretch their heads forward. Sometimes those who laugh are required to pay for- feits. In England this game is called " Hinkumbooby " or " Looby Loo- by," and the verse begins : " Looby, Looby, Looby, All on a Saturday night." UNCLE JOHN. A singing game played by any number of boys and girls. The players dance hand in hand in a circle singing : Uncle John i~ very sick ; What shall we send him ? A piece of pie, a piece of cake, A piec« of apple dumpling. What shall we send it in ? In a piece of paper. Paper is not fine enough ; In a golden saucer. Whom shall we send it by ? By the king's daughter. Take her by the lily-white hand. And lead her o'er the water. The dancers then sit down, and the last down (supposing it to be a girl) selects a friend and whispers in her ear the initials of some boy. She then takes her place in the ring, but facing outward, while the friend announces the initials, and the players again circle and sing : " X. Y., so they say, Goes a-courting night and day. Sword and pistol by his side, And to be his bride. He takes her by the lily-white hand And leads her o'er the water ; Here's a kiss, and there's a kiss For Mr. 's daughter." The one whose initials were given then kisses the girl who gave them ; she faces inward, and the game goes on as before. If the player last down was a boy, his full name is given in the first line of the last-quoted stanza, and the initials he gives are inserted in the fourth line. VALENTINE PARTY 754 VEGETABLE INSTRUMENTS . VALENTINE PARTY. An enter- tainment at which each guest gives a valentine to every other. The party must be given on or near St. Valentine's day, February 14th. The hostess informs each guest beforehand what he or she is expected to do, and at least a day beforehand each guest must send in his valentine. On the evening of the party some one appointed by the hostess reads them all aloud, giving each to the person to whom it is addressed, after it is read. Assumed names are usually signed to the val- entines, which may be sentimental or ridiculous, as the writer pleases. Sometimes each guest is allowed to write as many or as few val- entines as he wishes ; and if the hostess finds, on looking them over, that any guest has received none, she either writes him one her- self or asks some one else to do so. VEGETABLE MUSICAL INSTRU- MENTS. Rude musical instru- ments of several kinds can be made from trees or vegetables. Some of these are described below. Willow Whistles. A green willow stick from two to five inches long is cut, as in Fig. i. The bark is loosened by pounding it carefully with a smooth stone or the handle of a pocket-knife till it will slip off. A thin slice of wood is then cut from the notch A to the end of the stick at B, and then the bark is slipped on again. (See Fig. 2.) If the whistle has been proper- ly made, blowing at the end B will make a shrill noise. Willow whistles were once sup- posed to have the power of causing rain. Swiss children, when they make these whistles, sing " Franz, Franz, lend me your pipe," which is supposed once to have been an appeal to a water spirit. Squash Trumpets. From the leaf- stalk of a squash or pumpkin vine the leaf is cut through the fleshy part so that the hollow stalk will be closed at that end. A slit about an inch long is then made length- wise, close to the closed end. When that end is placed in the mouth so that the slit is entirely within, a harsh note may be pro- duced by blowing. If little holes are cut in the stem different notes \r Fig. I. Fig. 4. Vegetable Musical Instruments. may be produced by stopping these with the fingers ; and by cutting them at the right distance apart — which may be done after a few experiments — a tune can be played. (See Fig. 3.) Corn-stalk Fiddle. A piece of corn-stalk is cut so that a joint will be at each end. Part of the edges of the concave side are then slit so as to detach two cords, the joints holding them at the ends. Then two bits of stick are cut, of the thickness of a slate pencil and about an inch long, and one is pushed under the cords at each end, to raise and tighten them. This makes the fiddle. (Fig. 4.) The bow is made in like manner VIBRATING RODS 755 VIBRATING RODS of a smaller piece of stalk, and when one is drawn across the other a squeaking noise results. VERBARIUM. See Dictionary. VIBRATING RODS, Experiment with. Obtain two pieces of white pine, each four feet long, one inch wide, and quarter of an inch thick. On the flat side, close to the end of each, fasten with wax a bit of silvered glass one inch square. Fill two dry-goods boxes (A and B, Fig. i) about fourteen inches square, with sand, to serve as steady supports for the rods. Fas- ten one rod, C, upright to one of the boxes by two screws so that the rod projects above the box just thirty inches. The other rod, D, is held horizontally across the Vibrating- Rods— Fig. i. side of the other box by two bits of wood, F, G, screwed across it but not into it, so that the rod may be slipped forward and backward. Over the mirror of the upright rod is pasted a piece of paper one inch square with a hole in its centre a quarter of an inch in diameter. A beam of light from a heliostat or a lamp is allowed to enter the room. In case a lamp is used, it must be covered all but the opening through which the light passes, and a lens must be set in the beam so as to make the rays parallel. The box supporting the upright rod is so placed that the beam falls squarely on the mirror at the end of the rod. The other box is placed on a table, and the horizontal rod is slid out till just thirty inches of it are beyond the box. The box is now disposed so that the beam is reflected from the upright rod to the mirror on the horizontal rod, and thence to the wall, or a screen at S, where it ap- pears as a bright spot. If the up- VIBRATING RODS 756 VIBRATING RODS right rod be made to shake to and fro by giving it a pull and letting it go, the spot becomes a verti- cal line, which grows shorter and shorter till the rod stops. In like manner, if the horizontal rod is Vibrating Rods— Fig, 2. Vibrating Rods— Fig. 3. Vibrating Rods— Fig. 4. made to shake, there will be a bright horizontal line on the screen. If both rods together be made to shake, the result will be a figure like those obtained with the DOUBLE PENDULUM, but mUCh more clear and beautiful. The kind of figure depends on the VIOLIN 757 VIOLIN length of the horizontal rod. With the length given above — that is, where the vibrating rods are equal — it will be like that in Fig. 2. Un- less the rods have been very exact- ly adjusted, the figure will change, becoming in turn each of those represented in the illustration. Other curves are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, and many others still will be obtained by sliding the rod D in and out. VIOLIN, Experiments with a. These can be tried equally well on a banjo, or guitar, but a violin bow is necessary for some of them. 1. Loosen all the strings but one — preferably one of the middle strings. Pluck or bow it first ex- actly in the middle and then close to one end, listening carefully. There is a difference in the sound, which has more " twang " when the string is plucked at the ends. This is because the note given by the string is composed of several faint ones, called "overtones," beside the loud one which is most plain- ly heard, and more overtones are present when the string is plucked at the end. 2. Press the finger firmly down Sonometer. exactly on the middle of the string, and sound it again. The note heard will be an octave higher than the original note. Touch the finger lightly to the same spot, and sound the note as before. The result will be the same, but by looking closely it will be seen that both halves of the string are vibrating. By press- ing the string at a third its length from the bottom and drawing a bow across the smaller part, the fifth above the note given by the whole string is obtained. By touch- ing the same spot lightly and bowing as before, the whole string can be made to vibrate, the longer part vibrating in halves. The whole string thus vibrates in three parts. The points between the vibrating parts, which are almost still, are called " nodes." If it cannot be seen that the string is vibrating in parts, bend a little narrow strip of paper and hang it over the string where the node ought to be. When the string is made to vibrate the paper will be agitated only a little, whereas if it be moved along a little way it will shake violently, or be thrown off the string. By touch- ing different points of the string a skilled violin player can make it vibrate in four, five or more sec- tions. Notes thus produced are called "harmonics." This experiment will succeed better if a Sonometer is used, which is easily made as follows : Take a piece of violin string, or piano wire, a little longer than the table you wish to use. Tie it to a nail at one end of the table and pass it over a pulley screwed horizontally into the other end. To the end of the string tie a tin pail filled with sand. VITESSE 758 VOLTAIC PILE nails or scraps of iron. It may, instead, be fastened to a second nail, as in the diagram, but the other way is best, as the pull on the string can then be easily al- tered. The string should now be fiat on the table, or nearly so. Cut wedge-shaped sticks of wood and place them under the string, as shown in the picture at A, B and D. By letting the wedges at the ends remain and moving the third, the same results will follow as if the string were touched with the finger. Two ways of vibrating are shown in the diagram, the nodes being at C. The weight of the pail can be varied by taking out or putting in nails or sand, thus stretching the string to the desired degree, 3. Sound a string and then touch it lightly in the middle. It will give the octave faintly. 4. Loosen all the strings of a violin but two, and tune those to the same note, pluck one, and then stop it ; the other will continue to sound. Tune one slightly higher or lower than the other, and try the same experiment. The second string will still sound, but not as loud or as long as before. This is called "sympathetic vibration," The notes which are most sympa- thetic, or are set in motion most easily by a vibrating string, are the same note, its octave, the fifth above the octave, the second oc- tave, and the third and fifth above that. This is shown best by experi- ments on the Piano, 5. Tune the two lower strings as nearly as possible to the same note, and loosen the others. Place the ear behind the drum, if the instru- ment be a banjo, or close to the openings in the body, if it be a violin or guitar. Pluck the two strings together, and the resulting sound will be heard, first louder and then softer, in waves or pul- sations. These are called beats. If they are not heard, raise or low- er the pitch of one of the strings a little. The beats will be slower the nearer in tune the two strings are, and faster the farther they are apart ; but if the notes are not very near, the beats will be so fast that they cannot be distinguished. They can be heard still better with TUNING FORKS. VITESSE. A game played by two persons, each with a full pack of CARDS. Each player sits with his pack face downward before him, and at a signal both begin to turn over their cards one by one, face outward, and throw them on the table. They do not take turns, but each plays as fast as he can, repeat- ing as he does so the names of the thirteen cards from Ace to King, over and over again, one for each card he turns. Whenever the card turned is the same as the one called out, he must lay it by itself, and begin again at the Ace in calling out. The player who first lays aside thirteen cards in this way wins. But if a card is once passed that should have been thrown out, the player must go on as if it had been any other card. The game of Vitesse thus requires quickness of hand and eye, and at the same time close attention, and a prac- tised player will always win over a beginner, though it looks so sim- ple. The word Vitesse is French, and means Quickness. VOLTAIC PILE. A kind of elec- tric BATTERY, named after its inventor, Alexander Volta. A sim- ple one may be made as follows : Take a glass tube about an inch in diameter — an argand lamp chim- ney from which the lower part has been removed may be used. Paste two sheets of ordinary ^old paper back to back and cut out disks just large enough to slip into the tube. The disks can be cut several at a time by first folding the paper. Cut an equal number of disks in like manner from silver paper, and then VOWELS, THE 759 WALKING TRIPS make a pile of them, gold alter- nating with silver. The tube must thus be filled with the disks pressed together as tightly as possible, and closed at each end with a cork, through which passes a wire touch- ing the end disk. A Leyden jar may be charged with such a pile by connecting one wire with the knob and the other with the outer coating. The electricity in the pile will last a long time, VOWELS, THE. A game played by any number of persons who sit in a row. Each, in turn, asks a question of his right-hand neighbor, at the same time requiring him to answer without using some one vowel. If the vowel is used in the answer, the offender pays a forfeit. w WALKING TRIPS. In making a walking trip as few things as pos- sible should be carried, as every pound of weight adds to the fa- tigue. In this article only neces- sities are considered. Outfit. The shoes should fit the feet easily, and the soles should be neither so heavy that their weight is uncomfortable, nor so light that the feet feel through them the roughness of the ground. Low shoes should not be worn, as they admit dust and dirt. For climbing rocky hills or mountains heels filled with iron nails are best, as they hold to the rocks. Steel should not be used, as it is hard and slippery. The inside of the sole should be perfectly smooth. A roughness or lump which would not be noticed in an ordinary walk may become painful after a tramp of twenty or thirty miles. The best plan is to wear movable leather in-soles. As soon as the least lump is perceived the shoe should be taken off, the sole removed, and part of its under surface pared off with a sharp knife, just under the uncomfortable spot. If this is done faithfully, the soles will be perfectly fitted to the feet at the end of a day's walk, and the trouble of doing it will be amply repaid by the in- creased comfort. This simple meth- od of adapting the sole to the foot was devised by Russell A. Bigelow, a New York lawyer. Some people put sweet oil or salve on the feet when they begin to chafe, and they should be washed frequently. The other articles of dress may be according to the fancy of the wearer, so long as they are easy- fitting and comfortable. For warm weather, gauze underclothing and a loose flannel shirt are best, with a light jacket to wear when not walk- ing. For colder weather the shirt may be tighter at the wrists and neck and the underclothing thick- er. In all seasons knee-breeches and a soft hat are best. One can buy a knapsack, which may be strapped on the back, or, if his bun- dle is small, it may be carried in the hand. It is generally better to carry a small weight in the hand than in a knapsack. Other articles that may be carried are slippers, to rest the feet at night (some think that these should be taken, even if nothing else is); a change of under- clothing; needle and thread ; but- tons; adhesive plaster; fish-line and hooks; extra handkerchiefs; pen, ink and paper; a ball of twine and matches. If the trip is to last more than a few days, so that a change of underclothing is posi- tively necessary, it may be packed in a valise and sent by express to some town on the road. One valise WALKING TRIPS 760 WALKING TRIPS can usually be made to answer for a party of four or five. A cane or staff is a great aid in climbing, or in the latter part of the day, when the walker is tired ; but as it is often in the way, it is best to cut a fresh one when it is wanted. Shelter and Food. In some parts of the country it is possible so to ar- range the trip that every night shall be spent at a hotel. Otherwise it is necessary to ask for shelter at farmhouses, or in a very wild coun- try to CAMP OUT ; but this requires extra luggage. In some parts of the United States it is very easy to get shelter for the night at a farm- house ; elsewhere it is often impos- sible. If the walking party wish to stay at farm-houses, they should in- quire beforehand of some one who knows the country whether they can do so without trouble. The mid- day meal should be light, unless a rest of several hours is taken after it. No food should be taken when tired, and it is best to rest at least half an hour before eating. The pedestrian is apt to be very thirsty, especially on a warm day. Many authorities say that no water at all should be taken while walking, and that the blood should be cooled by simply bathing the wrists and tem- ples freely at intervals, or plunging the arms into water up to the el- bows. Others drink freely of spring water. Perhaps it is best for each to decide for himself which way is best. Distance and Hours. Unless the walker has been used to walking eight or ten miles a day, he should go not more than fifteen miles on the first day, and increase this dis- tance by two or three miles a day till he feels he has reached the limit of comfort, say twenty-five or thirty miles. The tendency of be- ginners is to walk as far as they can the first day, with the result that they are too lame on the next day to go more than five or six miles without pain. Ten hours a day at a rate of three miles an hour is quite enough. In a long trip, lasting many weeks, the muscles become hardened, and much more than this can be done — thirty-five miles a day, or perhaps even forty ; but this is an extreme. For most boys under eighteen years, twenty miles will be found quite enough ; and this distance must be lessened, if weight is to be carried. The best time to walk is in the morn- ing and late in the afternoon, taking a long rest at noon, before and after the mid-day meal. It is best both to retire and to rise early. If the legs and feet feel hot and full of blood while walking, it is a great relief to lie on the back and hold them up as straight as possible against a tree or wall for a few minutes. If the whole body is tired, one of the best resting postures is to lie flat on the face on the ground. This is said to be a favorite position with the Indians when tired. But there is no reason why more than a pleasant degree of fatigue should ever be felt, if the walker does not overdo. The walker generally suffers from sunburn during the first two or three days, but it usually ceases after a time. The second day of the march is generally most fatigu- ing. The change of life and ex- citement often keep him from sleeping soundly through his first night, and he often feels tired when he wakes. The fresh air makes him very thirsty, and his stomach often becomes disordered. These symptoms, however, will soon pass away. No medicines nor alcohol should be taken, though laxative food, such as fruits, is good. Routes. The general road to be followed should be studied on the map before starting, leaving the exact route to be decided on from day to day. For parts of the country that are the resorts of tourists there are guide-books, giving the best routes, the names of hotels on the WANDERING CARD 761 WATCH, EXPERIMENTS road, and much other information. If part of the route lies over a country where there is no road, the direction of the nearest town must be found out from a map or other- wise. A pathless walk of more than an hour requires a compass. While walking in a forest it is necessary to get the right direction only at first; it can be kept by "lining" trees. This is done by selecting three trees on a line with the eye in the proper direction; after the nearest is passed another is taken, beyond the last, so that three are always kept in view. It is never safe to trust to instinct to keep in a straight line in the woods, for most people naturally walk in a circle, owing to the fact that one leg is slightly stronger than the other. Persons lost in the woods have oft- en travelled thus in a circle, some- times for days. Party. A large party is more en- joyable in some respects, but it has the disadvantage that some will al- ways want to walk farther than oth- ers.and that it is difficult to agree on the route, the hours, and the rest- ing places. The best plan is either to choose a leader with power to decide these things, or for all to agree to follow the wishes of a ma- jority. When one person walks alone, he can do exactly as he pleases, but such a trip is apt to be lonely, and it is also dangerous, for in case of accident there is no one to give or obtain aid. WANDERING CARD. A soli- taire game of cards, played with one full pack. The first 1 3 cards that are taken from the pack are laid in a row, as they come, face upward. The next 13 are laid on these in the same order. As each of the second 13 is played, the number of the pile on which it is placed is spoken, and if the num- ber of pips on the card is the same, the card is laid aside, and the next card is laid on the next pile. Knaves count as 11 , Q ueens 1 2, a nd Kings 13. This is repeated till the pack is out, when there will be four cards in each pile, except where a card has been put aside. The top card of those laid aside is now taken and slipped under the pile having the corresponding number. The top card of that pile is slipped under its proper pile, and so on till one is reached that is in its proper place. Then the next card of those laid aside is taken, and so on till all have been used. The player has won if the pack is arranged at the end of the game in 13 piles each of which contains four cards of the same value. Clock, The. A variation of the preceding game. Cards are placed in twelve piles of four each, face downward in a circle, and num- bered to correspond with the fig- ures on a clock dial. The thir- teenth pile is placed in the centre. The top card of the middle pile is now turned and placed face up- ward under its proper pile, and so on, as in the game just described. WATCH, Experiments with a. 1. Close the ears tightly, and hold the watch firmly between the teeth. The ticking will be heard distinctly, because the sound is conducted through the teeth and the bones of the head to the inside of the ear. 2. Let one person hold the watch against the end of along pole, and let another press the other end of the pole against his ear. or hold it between his teeth. He will hear the watch tick distinctly, the sound being conducted along the pole. 3. Let one person hold the watch and another walk slowly away till he just ceases to hear the ticking. Let the first person now hold the watch in front of a concave mirror, such as is used for lamp reflectors. The second person will find that he can hear the watch tick if his ear is directly in front of the mirror, but that the sound ceases if he moves to one side or the other. (See Re- flection OF Sound.) WATCH, TRICK WITH 762 WATER DROP WATCH, Trick with. I. To indica:e on the dial of a watch the hour secretly thought of by another. Taking a pencil, the performer taps with it the hours on the dial, asking the other to count the taps mentally, beginning from the number he thought of. Thus, if the number were six, he must count the first tap as seven, the next as eight, and so on. He is instructed to say " Stop " as soon as he reaches the number twenty, when the performer's pen- cil is found to point to the number thought of. The trick is performed as follows : The first seven taps may be given on any numbers whatever, but the eighth must in- variably be given on the number Xn, the ninth on XI, and so on backward around the dial. When the spectator, having reached 20, says " Stop," the tap will be made on the number he thought of. The reason is easily understood by those who understand algebra. Let X be the number thought of. Then the first tap is numbered x+i and the eighth x+8. But if x=i2, x+8 =20, and the spectator will "Stop," therefore the tap must be made on the figure XII. If x=ii, x+8 — 19 and x-f-9=2o, therefore the ninth or next tap must be made on the figure XI, and so on. WATCHMAN, THE. See Going TO Jerusalem. WATCHWORD GAME, THE. See Dictionary. WATER CLOCK. A device for telling time by means of water. A simple one can be made as follows : Stop up one end of an argand lamp chimney with a cork, through which passes a glass jet (see Chem- ical Experiments) drawn out so fine that water will pass through it only in drops. Fill the chimney with water, marking the level by a scratch made with a diamond or sharp file. As the level slowly falls, mark it anew every fifteen minutes or oftener, as desired, making lar- ger marks every hour. The chim- ney can now be used as a clock by filling it and letting the water be- gin to drop exactly at some hour. If it be desired to distinguish small- er intervals of time, the water must be allowed to drop out faster, so that the level will fall more quick- ly ; but then the clock requires fill- ing oftener, unless a long tube be used. The marks on the tube will be closer together at the bottom than on top, for, as the level falls, the pressure decreases and the wa- ter drops out more and more slow- ly. To be exact, the clock must be kept at the same temperature, as otherwise the water will flow out at different rates of speed. The water clock was used by the Greeks, who called it Clepsydra (from kleptein, to steal away, and hudor, water). WATER CUTTER. See Circu- lar Saw. WATER DROP, Experiment with a large. Across a barrel-hoop, from fourteen to twenty-four inches in diameter, stretch thin sheet india- rubber. Pour water on it, and it will sag downward, making a sort of bowl. Continue to pour water in gradually, and finally the rubber bowl will all at once change its shape. Dip out a little water, and it will take its old shape again. The sheet of rubber filled with water is like a huge water drop, only it can- not wholly detach itself and fall to the ground like a real drop. The change of shape can also be pro- duced by dipping the hand into the water. An amusing way of show- ing the experiment is to drop a coin into the water and then ask some one to pick it out. As soon as the hand is thrust under water the rubber bowl will drop down- ward, carrying the coin farther away from the hand. To perform this experiment properly it is necessary that the rubber should be neither too tight nor too loose at the be- ginning. The proper tightness va- WATER MILL 763 WATER WHISTLE ries with the size of hoop, and is best found by trial. WATER MILL, or WATER EN- CINE. To make a water mill, take two glass tubes (see Chemical Ex- periments) about a foot long, and bend two inches of each at each end at right angles, but in different planes, so that if the bent part at one end be held vertical that at the other will be horizontal. Looking along the tube from one bend, held vertical, the other bend must be in the same direction in both tubes ; that is, both must be to the right, or both to the left. Make a jet at one end of each tube. In one end of a glass cylinder (an argand lamp chimney will do), fit a cork or rub- ber stopperwithtwoholes. In these holes fit those ends of the tubes at which the jets were not made. The tubes extend in opposite di- rections, and the jets therefore point to opposite sides. Suspend the lamp chimney by tying a string around it at one end, and then fill it with water. As the water runs out through the jets the reaction will make the mill spin around. WATER PRESSURE, Experiments on. I . Bend a piece of glass tubing into the shape of a letter U, but with one branch much shorter than the other. The longer branch may be six inches long and the shorter one inch. Pour mercury into the tube till it stands about half an inch high in each branch. Thrust the tube under water so that the opening of the long branch re- mains above the surface, and the mercury will rise in the long branch. The deeper the tube is in the water the higher the mercury rises. For a depth of six inches it rises about half an inch. The mercurv is pushed up by the pressure of the water on the smaller branch of the tube, and the pressure increases with the depth of water. 2. Plunge the tube to any depth in a pail of wate ', say five inches ; note the height of the mercury, and then plunge it to the same depth in a bath-tub full of water. The mercury will rise to the same height in both cases. The reason is that water pressure depends on the depth, not on the amount of water in the vessel. 3. Attach a thread to the centre of a circular disk of cardboard about an inch and a half in diame- ter, by passing through it a sewing needle and knotted thread. Pass the thread through an argand lamp chimney so that the disk can be held firmly against one end by the thread. While it is so held, push that end of the chimney down into a pail of water. The upward pres- sure of the water will hold the disk to the end of the chimney without the aid of the string. Pour water into the chimney, and when that on the inside has reached the level of that on the outside, the disk will fall. The reason is that the upward pressure of the water on the disk is just equal to that of the water that was poured in, so that the pressure on both sides balanced, and there was nothing to hold the disk up. 4. To the end of a glass tube about half an inch in diameter tie tightly an india-rubber bag or bal- loon, and fill the balloon with water, which may be colored, to make it more easily visible. Thrust the balloon into water, and the colored water will rise in the tube farther and farther as the balloon sinks deeper. WATER WHISTLE. A whistle may be played under water by at- tending to the following d irections: Buy a tin whistle or flageolet at a toyshop; close the hole nearest the mouth-piece by putting wax over it, and connect the mouth-piece with a water faucet. Stand the whistle upright in a jar tall enough to hold it and turn on the water, which will run through the whistle. Fill the jar, and overflow it. If the flow be now carefully regulated, a low WAX WORKS 764 WEDGE, EXPERIMENTS but distinct musical note will be heard, caused by the water flowing through the whistle. WAX WORKS. See Mrs. Jar- ley's Wax Works. WEAVING. The process of weaving is explained in C. C. T., in the article Loom. It is possible Weaving— Fig. i. to weave on a small scale with no other tools than two lead-pencils, a piece of cardboard and some yarn or string. Cut the cardboard (which may be an ordinary visiting card), as shown in Fig. i, making slits Weaving- about an inch long, and punching holes half-way between them along the horizontal line. Lay the pen- cils on a table so that about two- thirds of each will project over the edge, supporting them by a book laid on the ends (see Fig. 2). The pencils should be about six inches apart. Now tie one end of a piece of yarn several yards long to one of the pencils near the table pass the other end through the first hole in the card, around the other pencil, back through the adjoining slit, around the first pencil, through the next hole, and so on — always passing it through a hole in one direction and back through a slit. After all the holes and slits have been passed through thus, tie the yarn. The yarn thus arranged forms the warp of the cloth, and the card takes the place of the healds, for by pushing it up and down it will be seen that one set of threads is brought first above and then below the other. Cut a shuttle out of cardboard in either the shapes shown in Fig i, and wind yarn upon it for the weft. Pull the card up, pass the shut- tle between the warp threads in one direction ; then push the card down and pass the shuttle back, and continue until the piece of cloth is as large as desired. To take the place of the batten, and make the weft threads lie close, an ordinary paper-cutter can be used. WEDGE, Experiment with. Hinge together two boards about a foot square, or fasten them with leath- er on one side. Cut a piece of wood into wedge shape and place it inside the hinged boards be- tween two lead-pencils, used as rollers. The small end of the wedge must be turned outward, and its angle must be less than that made by the hinged boards. On pressing the boards together, the wedge, instead of rolling inward on the pencils, as might have been ex- pected, is pressed outward. This is because the wedge tends to move in the direction which allows the boards to come nearest together. If the wedge moved inward the pencils would also roll inward, and force the boards farther apart. If the angle of the wedge be equal to that of the boards, it will not move at WEIGHING IN WATER 765 WHIRLWIND BOX all when the boards are pressed; and if the angle is greater, it will move inward. WEIGHING IN WATER, Experi- ments on. I. Weigh a piece of metal or stone with a pair of scales. Then tie the object to one of the scale pans with a piece of string and let it hang in a glass of water while weighing it. It will be found to weigh less than before. This is because the water partly supports the weight of the object. 2. Fill a goblet with water so that it runs over, and then float on it a block of wood. Some of the water in the glass will be forced out by the wood. Balance an empty glass on a pair of scales. Place the wood in the opposite scale and balance it by pouring water into the glass. Pour this water into the first goblet used, and it will just fill it again. The reason is that any floating body displaces a quantity of water ex- actly equal to its own weight. 3. Balance a glass of water on one pair of scales and hang a piece of lead from one pan of another pair, balancing this also by weights. Let the lead dip into the water, when both balances will be de- stroyed — the pan containing the water growing heavier and that with the lead growing lighter. Re- store the balance again in both cases by pouring sand into the lighter pan. Afterward balance these quantities of sand against each other, and they will be found to be equal. The reason is that the water bears up part of the weight of the lead, but adds to its own weight in so doing by an equal amount. WHAT IS MY THOUGHT LIKE? A game in which one of the play- ers thinks of an object and then asks each of the others to guess what that thought is like. When all have answered, the questioner then tells his thought, and asks each of the company to tell how his guess resembles it. Much skill is often required to give a good answer. In another form of the game each writes the names of two ob- jects on separate slips of paper, and when all the slips have been well mixed each draws two. Each then writes in verse the resemblance between them, and finally all the verses are read aloud. This game is sometimes called Resemblances. WHIRLWIND, THE. A game played by any number of persons, all but one sitting in chairs placed close together in a circle. The players face inward and one stands in the centre of the circle, leaving one chair unoccupied. At a sig- nal each player changes to the chair just at his right, and then to the next one, the whole circle mov- ing around thus as fast as possible. The player in the middle tries to secure a chair, and when he does so the one on his right must take his place. WHIRLWIND BOX. An arrange- ment by which a little whirlwind can be made. Take a soap-box, remove the bottom and fasten the Whirlwind Box. cover to the box with hinges, so that it will open and shut like a door. Place a handful of small bits of tissue paper in front of tht> box, and shut or open the door suddenly. There will be a minia- ture whirlwind, as is shown by the motion of the bits of paper. WHIST 766 WHIST WHIST. A game of cards played with a full pack by four persons, two in partnership against the other two. The cards rank in order as follows : Ace, King, Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, Seven, Six, Five, Four, Three, Two, the last being the lowest. In cutting for deal, however, the Ace is the lowest card. Partners are generally decided by cutting the cards, the two highest and the two lowest playing together. The one cutting the lowest card is the dealer. Each player deals in his turn, and the right of dealing goes to the left. The partner of the dealer shuffles the cards for the ensuing deal, and must place them to the left of the next dealer. The player on the dealer's right cuts the pack, and in dividing it must not leave fewer than four cards in either packet. The dealer, beginning with the player at his left, deals one card at a time to each until the whole pack is dealt, thus giving to each player thirteen cards. The last, or trump card, is turned face up on the table, and re- mains there until the first trick has been played, when the dealer takes it into his own hand. Two packs of cards are usually played with, to save time, the second pack being shuffled while the dealer is dealing the first. The thirteen cards received by each player is termed a hand, and the four hands termed a deal. The player at the left of the dealer leads. Each must follow suit, if he can, and the highest card of the suit led wins the trick. The winner of the trick then leads, playing a card of any suit he chooses, and so on in turn until all the cards, making thirteen tricks, have been played. If a player be not able to follow suit, he may play a trump or a card of any other suit he chooses. If he trump, he wins the trick (as trumps take all other suits), unless another player trumps over him — that is, plays a higher trump. A player renounces when he does not follow suit ; if he renounces, and has cards in that suit, he revokes. When all the cards have been played out the side having the most tricks counts towards game one point for each trick taken in excess of six tricks. Thus, the side making seven tricks scores one point, eight tricks two points, and so on. The game of ten points, called Long Whist, in which honors are scored, is now seldom played. The Honors are the Ace, King, Queen, and Knave of trumps. If two part- ners hold all four of these, either separately or together, they score four points towards the game. If they hold any three of them, they score two points. When each party holds two honors — that is, when they are evenly divided — neither party scores, and it is then said that " honors are easy." The honors can be counted only by those to whom they have been dealt, and not by those who win them in playing. They must be announced at the end of the hand, and before the first card of the next hand is dealt, or they cannot be counted. Short Whist, a game of five points where honors are scored, is usually played in England. In playing a rubber — which is the best two out of three games — the winners gain (i) a treble, or gain of three points, when their adversaries have not scored ; (2) a double, or gain of two points, when their adversaries have scored less than three ; (3) a single, or gain of one point, when their adversaries have scored three or four. The winners of the rubber gain two points, called the rubber points, in addition to the value of their games. When the rubber consists of three games the number of points made by the losers is deducted from the number made by the winners. The American game is of seven points without honors. A good player usually leads from the suit in which he has most cards (called his " long suit "). The reason of this is that he wishes to draw all the other cards of that suit from the WHIST 767 WHIST other players. Then, when all the trumps have been played, if he gets the lead he can take a trick with every remaining card of the suit, no matter how small it is. When a player has enough of the highest cards in a suit to win all the others from the other players, he is said to have " complete command " of it. If he has the highest cards, but not enough to win all the others, he has temporary command. When com- plete command of a suit has been obtained, as described above, it is said to be " established." A player will know by his partner's lead what the latter's long suit is, and can aid him in establishing it by leading it in turn. As the success of this plan depends on getting an opponent's trumps out of the way, a good player leads trumps if he have as many as five, even if they are small ones. The particular cards that should be led in different cases are given in the rhyming rules below. On \\\& first round of a suit second in hand should usually play high, if had it been his lead he would lead high, and low if he would lead low, but on the second round he should play the winning card. The second player should not trump if he has many trumps, but wait till, by lead- ing them, he may exhaust those of his opponents. But if he have only two or three, the best way to use them is in trumping. The third player is expected to take the trick, if his partner has not done so, or at any rate to play his best card, so that the trick will cost the fourth player as dear as possible. But if he hold the highest card out and the second below it, he often plays the latter, which is called "finessing." The reason for doing this is that the chances are two to one that the fourth player does not hold the next to the highest card. If he does, the third player loses no more than he would have done by any other play: if he does not, a trick is won. This combination of cards — for instance. Ace and Queen, or King and Knave — is called a Tenace (French, tenace^ strong), and the third player is said to " finesse against " the middle card. A player should particularly watch his left-hand neighbor; for if the latter prove weak in any suit it is not necessary for the former to play so high, when he is third in order. The fourth player should, of course, take the trick with as small a card as he can, if his partner has not already taken it. When anyone leads a suit in which he knows another player has no card, he is said to " force " that player, for he gives him no choice except to lose the trick or to trump. It is generally considered bad for a player to force his partner when that player has few trumps, for it is then probable that his partner has many, which he wishes to keep till he can lead them. But if he has found out that his partner does not wish to lead trumps, or that the opponents do, then he should force. It is always right to force the strong trump hand of an opponent. When a player has no cards of one suit and his partner has none of another suit, it is often of advantage for them to lead those suits alter- nately. Thus, suppose A has no Spades and B has no Hearts. When they discover that this is the case, A leads a Heart, which B trumps, and then returns a Spade, which A trumps. This is called cross-rufifing, or seesawing. If a player sees that his opponents are likely to establish a cross-ruff, he should at once lead a trump, no matter how lowr ; for even if the trick is taken, it requires two of the enemy's trumps to do it, while in a cross-ruff each of those trumps would take a trick. When a suit is led in which a player has no cards, and he either cannot trump or does not wish to do so, he puts on the smallest card of WHIST 768 WHIST his weakest suit. This is called " throwing away " or " discarding." When a player is strong in trumps and wishes them led, it is customary to make what is called the " signal for trumps " or " trump signal." This is done by discarding hrst a rather high card and then a lower one, instead of the lower one first, as would be the ordinary rule. Directions how to play Whist have been put in rhyme by William Pole. Some of them are given below : Your first lead makes your partner understand What is the chief component of your hand; And hence there is necessity the strongest That your first lead be from your suit that's longest. In this, with Ace and King, lead King, then Ace; With King and Queen, King also has first place; With Ace, Queen, Knave, lead Ace, and then the Queen; With Ace, four small ones, Ace should first be seen; With Queen, Knave, Ten, you let the Queen precede; In other cases, you the lowest lead. Ere you return your friend's, your own suit play; But trumps you must return without delay. When you return your partner's lead, take pains To lead him back the best your hand contains. If you received not more than three at first. If you had more, you may return the worst. If second hand, your lowest should be played. Unless you mean " trump signal" to be made; Or, if you've King and Queen or Ace and King, Then one of these will be the proper thing. Mind well the rules for trumps — you'll often need them. When you hold five, 'tis always right to lead them; Or if the lead won't come in time to you; Then signal to your partner so to do. When, second hand, a doubtful trick you see, Don't trump it if you hold more trumps than three; But having three or less, trump fearlessly. When weak in trumps yourself, don't force your friend. But always force the adverse strong trump hand. For sequences stern custom has decreed The lowest you must play, if you don't lead. When you discard, weak suit you ought to choose. For strong ones are too valuable to lose. While many of these plays are in use, the American leads are con- sidered better on account of show- ing number in suit. SUITS WITH ACE AT HEAD. Holding Ace, King, and three or more small ones, lead Ace, then King. Holding Ace, King, and two small ones, lead King, then Ace. Holding Ace, King, Queen, and one small one, lead King, then Queen. Holding Ace, King, Queen, and more than one small one, lead Queen, then Ace with five, King with more than five. Holding Ace, King, Queen, Knave, lead King, then Knave. Holding Ace, King, Queen, Knave, and small one, lead Knave, then Ace with five, King with six, and Queen with more than six. Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, Ten, lead Ace, then Ten. Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, and one small one, lead Ace, then Queen. With two or more small ones follow the Ace with Knave. Holding Ace and four or more small ones, lead Ace, and follow with fourth best. Many players lead fourth best. IN TRUMPS. Holding Ace, King and five, lead Ace, then King. Holding less than five, lead fourth best. Holding Ace, King, Queen, Knave, lead King, then Knave. All other suits headed by Ace are the same as in plain suits. SUITS WITH KING A T HEAD. Holding King, Queen, Knave, and Ten, lead King and follow with Ten. Holding King, Queen, Knave, and more than one small card, lead Knave. If you have five in suit, follow with King ; if more than five, with Queen. Holding King, Queen, Knave, with or without one small card, lead King, then Knave. Holding King, Queen, and. small cards, trumps, lead Queen, if you WHISl 769 WHIST have seven or more in suit, or if you hold the Ten with five in suit. If you have fewer than seven trumps, or do not hold the Ten, lead the fourth best card. Holding King, Queen, and small cards, common suits, lead King, if you have four or less than four ; if more than four, lead Queen. Holding King, Knave, Ten, Nine, with or without small cards, lead Nine. If the Nine wins, follow with Knave, if you have four in suit ; with Ten, if you have more than four. But if the Nine forces the Queen, or Queen and Ace, follow with King, if you have four in suit; with Knave, if five ; and with Ten, if more than five. Holding King, Knave, and Ten, alone, lead Ten ; with small ones, lead fourth best. Holding King, Knave, and small cards, or King and small cards, lead the fourth best. SUITS WITH QUEEN A T HEAD. Holding Queen, Knave, Ten, and Nine, with or without small cards, lead Ten. If you have four in suit, follow with Queen ; if more than four, with Knave. Holding Queen, Knave, and small cards, or Queen and small cards, lead the fourth best. SUITS WITH KNA VE AT HEAD. Holding Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, with or without small cards, lead the Eight. If you have four in suit, follow with Knave ; if five, with Ten ; and with more than five, with Nine. Holding Knave, Ten, Nine, and small cards, or Knave and small cards, lead the fourth best. SUITS WITHOUT HONORS. Holding four or more small cards, lead the fourth best. RULES. The following general rules will enable the learner to remember the leads : Lead the Ace. if you have King and more than four in suit (except in trumps), or if you hold Queen and Knave also. Never lead the King with more than four in suit. Never lead the Queen with less than five in suit. Never lead the Knave with less than five in suit. If you lead Ace from a long suit, and do not hold King, or Queen and Knave, follow withyour original fourth best. When the Queen, led from a King-Queen suit wins, follow with the fourth best remaining. In opening a suit with a low card, lead the fourth best. Never lead from a single card, as it is apt to mislead your partner. Dummy. This is played by three persons, a fourth hand, called Dum- my, being exposed on the table. The laws are the same as those of Whist, with the exception that (i) Dummy deals at the commencement of each rubber ; (2) Dummy is not liable to the penalty for a revoke ; (3) Dummy's partner is not liable to any penalty for an error whence he can gain no advantage. Double Dummy is played by two persons, each having a dummy, or exposed hand, for his partner. The laws are the same as in Dummy Whist, except that there is no mis- deal. RULES OF THE GAME. 1. If there is a misdeal, the deal passes to the next player, unless the mistake was caused by an interrup- tion from an opponent, in which case the same player deals again. 2. If a card be exposed by a player, a new deal by the same dealer may be demanded by his opponents, if they have not looked at their hands. 3. A player must not deal for his partner without his opponents' per- mission. 4. The dealer must take the trump into his hand after his first play, and after that no one may ask what it is. but any one may ask what the trump suit is. 5. A card wrongly exposed on the WHIST 770 WHIST table must be played whenever it is called for, unless so playing it would cause a revoke. 6. If a player lead out of turn, he must take back his card, which is treated as exposed ; but if all the others have played to the lead, it is considered good. 7. If the third hand play before the second the fourth may also play before the second. 8. If the third hand have not played, and the fourth play before his partner, the latter may be called on to win or not to win the trick. 9. If a player revoke, his opponent may score 2 points, unless he dis- cover his error before the trick is turned and quitted, in which case he may change his play, and the wrongly played card is simply treated as exposed. 10. A revoke cannot be claimed after the cards have been cut for the following deal. 11. After a trick has been turned and quitted it cannot be looked at. Bridge Whist. A game that is played, after the lead of the first card, like Dummy Whist. The differences lie mainly in the declaration of trumps, the differing values of suits, increasing values by going over, methods of scoring and rubber count. The dealer does not turn a trump. He has the option of making it, but if he does not wish to do so his part- ner must make it. The value of the tricks above six varies as follows, according to the trumps declared — spades count 2, clubs 4, diamonds 6, hearts 8, and "no trump" 12. After the declara- tion of trump suit the adversaries have the right to go over (that is, double the value) ; the dealer's left- hand adversary having the first right to do so ; if he does not wish to^^ over, or double, he says to his part- ner, " May I play } " His partner must answer " Play " or " Over." If either adversary goes over, the dealer and his partner have the right to go over them, the player who declared the trump having the first right ; and the going over may be repeated until both side are satisfied. After the leader — the player at left of dealer — plays his first card, the dealer's part- ner places his hand on the table face up and the dealer plays it as in Dummy Whist. Honors are Ace, King, Queen, Jack, and Ten of the trump, or the four aces when " no trump " is de- clared. Honors are credited to the original holders, and are valued as follows : Three honors held between the partners (called simple honors) count the same as two tricks, four honors are equal to four tricks, five honors equal to five tricks, four honors in one hand equal to eight tricks, four in one hand and the fifth in partner's equal to nine tricks, and five honors in one hand equal to ten tricks. In " no trump " three aces be- tween partners count thirty, four aces between partners forty, and four aces in one hand one hundred. Slam is thirteen tricks scored in- dependently of the revoke penalty, and adds forty to the honor count. Little Slam is twelve tricks simi- larly counted, and adds twenty to the honor count. Chicane (one hand void of trumps) is equal in value to simple honors ; that is, if partner of player having Chicane scores honors, he adds the value of three honors to his score ; while if the adversaries score honors it deducts an equal value from them. The value of honors. Slam, Little Slam, and Chicane is in no .wise affected by going over. Each game consists of thirty trick points. The rubber is the best of three games ; if the first two games be won by the same partners the third is not played. Tricks and hon- ors are scored in separate columns. At the conclusion of a rubber the total score for tricks and honors is added up and 100 added to the win- ners' score — the lesser score is then WHIST 771 WHIST deducted from the greater, the remainder being the value of the rubber. The penalty for a revoke is at the option of the adversaries, who may at the end of the hand take three tricks from the revoking player and add them to their own, deduct the value of three tricks (in the hand where the revoke occurred) from the score of the adversaries, or add the value of three tricks to their own score. The penalty for a revoke takes precedence of all other scores. Dummy is not liable to the penalty for a revoke. No player should pur- posely incur a penalty because he is willing to pay it, nor should he make a second revoke to conceal a first one. Duplicate Whist is that form of the game of Whist in which each deal is played only once by each player, but in which each hand is played over again so as to bring the play of teams, pairs, or individuals into comparison. Each player, when it is his turn to play, must place his card face up before him, leaving it there until all have played to the trick, when he must turn it over with the ends to- wards the winners of the trick. When the deal is played each player must place his hand in the tray or other device, face down, and the trump card is placed face up on top of the dealer's hand. The points made on each deal are recorded on score cards made for that purpose, as the game of seven points is not played in Duplicate Whist. leralache, or Russian Whist. This is exactly like our Whist, except that there are no trumps. The scoring varies according to agreement, but is generally as in Long Whist. History. The game of Whist is traced back by some to the Italian Trwnfo, the French Triomphe, one of the first card games ; but others say that the game of Trump, from which Whist is derived, was not the same as these games, and originated in England. Trump was played in England in the beginning of the i6th century and was probably very simi- lar to the game of Ruff and Honors, or Slam, which followed it. Ruff and Honors was played by four per- sons with a full pack of 52 cards, but only twelve were dealt to each, four being left in the stock, the topmost card of which was turned for trump. The holder of the ace of trumps was allowed to exchange four cards for those in the stock, and the game was nine points ; but in other respects the game was like Long Whist. The first known mention of Whist in print was in a book called " The Motto," published in 1621, where it is spelled Whisk. The earliest known use of the present spelling is in Butler's " Hudibras " (1663). For about fifty years after this it was spelled indifferently either way. Cotton, in his " Compleat Gamester " (1674), says : " Whist is a game not differing much from this [Ruff and Honors], only they put out the Deuces and take in no stock." The game was thus played with 48 cards. Whist is mentioned in George Farqu- har's play of " The Beaux's Strat- agem" (1707), and in 171 5 Alexander Pope speaks of it in one of his epis-. ties. About 1725 the game was made ten points, and began to be played with 52 cards again. In " Whist-and-Swabbers," which was much played about this time, cer- tain cards called Swabbers entitled their holders to part of the money wagered on the game, no matter who the winners might be. The game was much studied by a party of gentlemen who frequented the Crown Coffee House in London in 1730, and then it began to be played in its modern form, Richard Seymour, in his " Compleat Game- ster, for the use of the Young Princesses," published in 1734, has an article on " Whist, vulgarly called Whisk." He gives an account of the game as it was played in his time, from which it appears that it was then much used by card-sharpers, a WHIST 772 WINDMILL, THE full account of their various methods of cheating being given, with the way to defeat them. " Formerly," he says, " it was usual to deal four cards together ; but it is demon- strable there is no safety in that method ; but now the cards are dealt round one and one at a time, as the securest and best way." It also appears from this book that two-handed and three-handed Whist were sometimes played. In the lat- ter, each player had twelve cards, and, says Seymour, "always two strive to suppress and keep down the rising man." About this time Whist began to be a fashionable game, and in 1743 appeared an anonymous treatise upon it, of which it is thought Edmund Hoyle was the author. At this time Hoyle gave lessons in Whist for a guinea each, and he did so much for the game that he is often called the " father of Whist." It was then thought necessary for all well-edu- cated people to know how to play it. In the " Rambler " for May 8, 1750, occurs the passage, " Papa made me drudge at Whist till I was tired of it ; and Mr. Hoyle, when he had not given me above forty lessons, said I was one of his best scholars." Since Hoyle's time there have been many writers on the game. Whist had been treated as though the art of the game depended on arbitrary rules, but it is now granted that all rules for play depend on general principles. The modern game is but an elaboration of the old one. Before Hoyle, Matthews had an idea of the discard, which is now accepted by all advanced players. In the writings of Des- chapelles, a noted French player, and of Clay, Drayson, and Caven- dish, celebrated English players, the rules of the Crown Coffee House (1728) are still the important ones. They were (i) " Lead from your strong suit. (2) Study your partner's hand. (3) Attend to the score." Hoyle understood that it was neces- sary to unblock, without knowing how to do it systematically. These writers all had a desire to show length and strength of suit, which has been met by N. B. Trist, of New Orleans, who, in American Leads, proposes a systematic course of play when opening, and continuing leads from strong suits. Within the last forty years Short Whist has been substituted for Long Whist in Eng- land. The signal for trumps has also been introduced, and is now recognized as legitimate, although at first it was strongly opposed by many of the best players. Whist means silence ; and it is supposed that the game was so named from the necessity of silence while it is being played. WHISTLE, Experiment with a. Fit over the mouth-piece of a toy fife or whistle the end of a rub- ber tube several feet long. Blow through the tube, and at the same time swing the whistle around in a circle so that it will sound while swinging. If a person twenty or thirty feet distant listens to the whistle, he will hear its sound grow alternately sharper and flatter, as it approaches him and recedes from him. This is because the pitch of sound depends on the speed with which the sound-waves reach the ear, and they get to the ear faster when the sounding body itself is moving toward the listener. WHO WAS HE ? A game played by any number of persons. One begins by giving a brief sketch of some historical character, and then asking " Who was he ? " He who makes the first correct answer gives another similar sketch, and so on as long as the players choose. WICKET. See Cricket. WINDMILL, THE. A solitaire game of cards, played with two packs. An Ace is placed on the table to begin with, and the first eight cards played are laid in order in a circle around it, so as to re- semble the sails of a windmill, but WINDMILL 773 WINE GLASSES leaving a space within. In this space the first four Kings are placed, one above the Ace, one be- low it, and one on each side. One family is to be formed on each of the Kings by piling downward, and * The Windmill. lour families on the Ace by piling i^pward, beginning another family with another Ace when the one before it is completed. Suit need not be followed in any of the piles. In piling, the sails of the windmill may be used, each being at once re- placed by the next card played. Useless cards are laid aside to form stock, of which the top card can be used at any time, instead of playing from the pack. WINE CLASSES, Experiments withi I. Dip two wine glasses un- derwater, and while they are there bring them mouth to mouth, see- ing that both are completely full. Lift them out together and stand them on the table, one being on the other and both still full of water. It will be found that the upper one can be lifted up a very little way without any of the water running out. Holding it in this way, pour slowly on the foot of the upper glass some red wine, or some al- cohol colored with carmine. (See Fig. I.) It will run off the foot in drops, fall on the side of the glass and trickle down to the open space between the two glasses, WINE GLASSES 774 WOLF Avhen it will enter the water and rise into the upper glass. The water in the upper glass can, with \<^''^'^^ ."V^ Fig. 2. care, be colored red in this way, while that in the lower glass re- mains transparent. The wine or alcohol rises in the water because it is lighter. 2. Fill a soup plate with water, and on a cork or an inverted but- ter plate in the middle place a crumpled piece of paper as large as one's fist. Set fire to it and at once turn a goblet over it. The water will be drawn up into the goblet. (See Fig. 2.) The reason is that the paper, in burning, exhausts the oxygen under the goblet, re- ducing the pressure there, and the pressure of the outside air then forces up the water, 3. Fill a glass with water so that it almost overflows, and then place over it a sheet of paper which touches both the edge of the glass and the surface of the water. Turn the glass upside down, and the water will not run out. (See Fig. 3.) To guard against accidents, , this should be done over a basin I or sink. A piece of glass may be used instead of paper; but if the tumbler be tilted a little to one side it will slide off. To prevent this, bits of cork may be glued to it on the inside. 4. Place a lighted candle in a gob- let or large wine glass. After it has burned a few seconds, lay on the glass a piece of wet paper having a hole cut in the middle, and then press down on it another glass in- verted. The paper is to make the two glasses fit together very tightly. Soon after the upper glass has been pressed down on the lower, the can- dle will go out for want of air, and it will be found that the two glasses stick together very tightly, so that the lower can be lifted by the up- per, and so that it requires consid- erable force to pull them apart. This is because some of the air inside, heated by the candle, has risen out of the glass, so that the Fig. 3. pressure outside is greater than that within, and the two glasses are thus held together. WIZARD OF THE EAST. See Guessing the Sign. WOLF. An outdoor hiding game, played by any number of persons. One of the players, chosen Wolf by COUNTING OUT, hides, while the rest of the party stay near the goal or bye, which may be a tree, stone, or other object. When they have waited a minute or so. WOLF 775 WRESTLING they cry out " Coming ! say noth- ing ! " and, if there is no reply, they go out in different directions to look for the Wolf. If the Wolf is not ready when he hears the cry he must shout " No ! " and the oth- ers must then wait a reasonable time before they shout again. When any one finds the Wolf he cries " Wolf ! " to let the others know, and all then run to the goal. If the Wolf can touch any of them before they reach it, the ones caught become Wolves also, and hide with him next time ; but if he catches no one he must hide again alone. The game goes on till all are Wolves and the first one caught by the Wolf is Wolf at the beginning of the next game. The Wolf often does not wait to be found, but runs out whenever he thinks there is a good chance to catch any one. If he can get to the goal before any of the others he can generally touch many of them as they come in. In such a case one of the best runners can often lead the Wolf away on a chase while the others run in to the _ goal. The game may be block- -m ed by the Wolf's keeping close to the goal in such a case, or by his insisting on chasing a player he cannot catch. The players, therefore, before the game, should agree either that the Wolf must select some one player to pursue, and allow that player to re- turn to goal if not caught in a cer- tain time, or that all the players must run in to goal, letting the Wolf touch whom he can. When there are several Wolves they may hide in the same place or different places, as they choose, and any one of them may run out when he pleases. If the Wolves arrange among them where they shall hide and how they shall run out, they usually succeed in catching more players than when each follows a method of his own. Any player who wishes may remain at the goal, instead of running out to look for the Wolves. This game is sometimes called " Whoop " in England. There is never more than one player that hides, and he tries to catch but one. The one caught carries his captor to the goal on his back, and then hides in his turn. WORD MAKING AND WORD TAKING. See Logomachy. WRESTLING. A sport in which one person tries to throw another to the ground. There are several kinds, which differ chiefly in the manner in which thecontestantsare Wrestling — Fig. i. allowed to hold one another. The simplest and best kind for boys is the kind first practised in Cumber- land, England. In this country this form of wrestling is commonly called "backhold " catch. In it the contestants are allowed to hold each other in only one way, which is arranged before the wrestling begins. The wrestlers stand chest to chest, each placing his chin on the other's shoulder and grasping him around the body, as shown in Fig. I, the right arm of each being under his opponent's left. They are allowed to use every means to i throw each other, except kicking or similar injury, and if either con- WRESTLING 776 WRESTLING testant unclasps his hands he is re- garded as beaten, just as if he had been thrown. A wrestler is con- sidered thrown when both shoul- Wrestling — Fig. 2. ders touch the floor. The object of each contestant in this kind of wrestling should be to force his right shoulder beneath his oppo- nent's arm-pit. To prevent this, the latter must keep his left arm pressed in as far as possible. Each tries to throw the other by swing- ing him sidewise, pulling him for- ward, or pushing him backward, at the same time trying to trip him in various ways. Some of the de- vices employed are described below. The Back-heel. The wrestler puts his foot behind his opponent's heel and tries to bend him over it. To meet this, the latter may loosen his hold or turn his side. The Buttock. The wrestler turns as far as he can to the right, then he straightens up and at the same time throws his left leg back of his opponent's left, which will enable him to bend him over backward for a fall by doubling him over his hip. To meet this the opponent will hold him tight, and at the moment of his trying to trip, he will endeav- or to lock his left leg from the in- side around the left of his adver- sary, and then bend him over back- ward for a fall. This last is called a " back-hank." The Hank. The wrestler turns sidewise, twists his leg about that of his adversary, and pulls him backward. To meet this the op- ponent should lean forward and strengthen his hold. The Click. The wrestler pulls his opponent forward to make him resist by dragging back, and then suddenly ceasing, trips him up with one foot. The Hipe. The wrestler forces his shoulder under his adversary's right arm, lifts him up as far as pos- sible, and at the same time catch- ing the opponent's left leg with his right, drags it up. If properly done, this brings the opponent down on his back. The hipe may be per- formed with the left shoulder and leg ; and though this is not so easy, if it fails, the wrestler is left in a position for a Buttock. Dog Fall. This occurs when both wrestlers fall to the ground togeth- er. They must then break their hold, rise, and begin the contest anew. Wrestling— Fig. 3. In another method, the hold is not arranged at the beginning of the contest, but the wrestlers stand face to face with their hands held out before them, as shown in Fig, 2. WRESTLING 777 WRESTLING The object of each is now to seize his opponent under the latter's arms which is called getting the " un- derhold," and is an advantage. In Fig. 3 the boy whose back is toward the spectator has the underhold. The opponent tries to prevent this by pushing aside his hands. Neither may succeed in getting the under- hold, in which case the wrestling is similar to that just described. If either get the underhold, he may throw his opponent by lifting him up bodily or by drawing him for- ward by the waist and pushing backward against his breast, as well Wrestling— Fig. 4. as in the other ways described. Sometimes tripping is not allowed in this kind of wrestling, and some- times several other holds are al- lowed, such as seizing the head with one or both hands or with the arm taking the shoulders or arms with one or both hands ; seizing the legs ; or a combination of any two of these holds. In the shoulder grip, shown in Fig. 4, the wrestler seizes his oppo- nent by the shoulders with both hands, pulls him outwards, to right or left, and throws him with a sud- den jerk, using any trip that is avail- able. One of the arm grips is shown in Fig. 5, where the wrestler seizes his opponent with both hands by the left fore-arm, pulls him quickly for- ward, and, putting the arm over his shoulder, throws him, as shown in the cut. Fig. 6 shows a method of throwing by a leg grip. In Collar and Elbow, or Cornish wrestling, the hold is by the jacket. Wrestling— Fig. 5. as the name indicates. When the contestants are allowed to take any hold they please above the waist, the method is called " Graeco Ro- man ; " and when any hold what- ever is permitted, it is called Wrestling— Fig. 6. " Catch as Catch Can." The rules of the kinds of wrestling most gen- erally used in public contests in this country are given below. WRESTLING 778 WRESTLING COLLAR AND ELBOW. I. The men shall wear short coats or jackets made of canvas, not ex- tending below the hips, with strong Wrestling— Fig. 7. collar and elbow, suitable for the grasp of an opponent. They shall wear rubber sandals on the feet. 2. Each man shall take hold of the collar of his opponent with his right hand, while with the left hand he must take hold of the right el- bow. 3. Both men shall stand up breast and breast, with limber arms, and show fair and equal play with the feet. 4. Either man breaking his hold with one or both hands, to save himself from a fall, shall forfeit said fall. 5. All falls must be square back falls ; either two hips and one shoul- der or two shoulders and one hip to be on the carpet simultaneously, to constitute a fall. 6. Striking upon the face, side or knees is no fall, and nothing shall be allowed for forcing a man from such positions to his back. Going down on one or both knees is fair, as long as no holds are broken. 7. A rest of at least ten and not more than twenty minutes shall be allowed between each fall. 8. The first fall, best two in three or three in five, shall win, according to mutual agreement. 9. The ring shall be twenty-four feet square, and nobody shall be al- lowed inside except the referee and two umpires. CA TCH AS CA TCH CA N. 1. The contestants can take any hold, trip or lock they please. 2. To constitute a fall, two shoul- ders must strike the floor simulta- neously. 3. Long or short drawers must be worn, and nothing heavier for the feet will be allowed than socks and thin slippers. 4. A rest of at least ten and not more than twenty minutes shall be allowed between each fall. 5. The umpires shall take their positions at a proper distance from the contestants, and there remain, and will not be allowed to talk to or advise the principals during the contest. They shall however have the right to call the attention of the referee to any point which, in their judgment, may require his decision. 6. Doing anything to injure an opponent shall be considered foul. For each violation of this rule the offender shall be deemed to have lost a fall, and the referee shall have the power to award the match to the injured party. Wrestling— Fig. 8. GR^CO-ROMAN. I. Wrestlers are allowed to take hold anywhere between the head and the belt or waist. Grasping the legs is strictly forbidden. WRESTLING 779 WRESTLING 2. The men shall use open hands, and are not allowed to strike or scratch, to clasp one of their own hands within the other, nor inter- lace their fingers ; but they can grasp their own wrists, to tighten their hold around their opponent's body or otherwise. 3. The principals shall have their finger-nails and hair cut short, and must wrestle either barefooted or in their socks. 4. Should a wrestler fall on his knee, shoulder or side, a new start must be made. 5. Should the principals roll over each other, the one whose shoul- der shall touch the ground first is deemed conquered. 6. A rest of not less than ten nor more than twenty-five minutes shall be allowed between each bout. 7. Two shoulders touching the ground simultaneously constitutes a fall. History. Wrestling contests have been held since the earliest times. They formed part of the Greek athletic games. At first the Greeks used to wear belts in these contests. Wrestling— Fig. 9. but finally their use was forbidden and the wrestlers contended naked, their bodies being made slippery with oil. In the middle ages wrest- ling was a sport only among the lower classes, though knights and nobles often looked on at wrestling bouts. They were very rough, and the wrestlers were frequently maim- ed or even killed. A mediaeval wrestling match is shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 8, from an old manuscript, shows an early English wrestling match in which the contestants mounted on the shoulders of other men. In early times (14th and 15th centuries), in England, such matches were held on feast days before the Lord Mayor and aldermen of Lon- don, dressed in their robes of office. After the Reformation the sport was not in favor, yet it was kept up in the west and north of England and by students at the Universities. Advocates of athletic sports tried hard to bring it into favor again, but physicians thought it caused rheumatism and ague, and it was not until about 1826 that it began to be revived. Since that time it has been popular. The Japanese are famous wrest- lers. Fig. 9 shows one of their con- tests. YACHTING 780 YACHTING YACHTING. Much information about different kinds of boats and rigging will be found in the article Sailing. There are now in this country about 75 yacht clubs, 20 of which are in New York and 10 in Boston. Only a few of the boats are large racers, the great majority of the 2000 boats on the official lists being comparatively small. Besides these, there are many thousand others whose owners belong to no club. The yacht clubs all hold races once or twice a year, and of- fer prizes for the fastest yacht. As the boats are of many different sizes, what is called a system of time-allowances is adopted, that small boats may race on even terms with larger ones. The object is to give a greater time-allowance the smaller the boat, and then credit it with the difference be- tween this calculated time and the real time. Thus the time-al- lowance of a small boat may be 2 minutes per mile. If the course is 20 miles long, and she makes it in 80 minutes, her corrected time would be 80-40, or 40; while a larger boat, with a time-allowance of half a minute, whose actual time was but 56 minutes, would be credited with 56-10 or 46, and would therefore be beaten. There has been much discussion over the proper method of calculating time- allowances, and each club general- ly adopts its own rules. The Eng- lish rule is based on the length and beam, which is one reason why English yachts are so nar- row, the time-allowance being thus larger. The New York clubs use now a measurement based on sail- area and length, and the New England Racing Association one based on length alone. In the former system the allowance varies from nothing for the largest yacht up to 136 seconds per mile for the smallest ; and in the latter, from nothing for a boat 116 feet long up to 5 minutes 29 seconds for one only 12 feet long. The yachts in a club are usually divided into class- es, according to their rig and measurement for time-allowance. Steam launches and yachts. Steam launches are usually long and narrow, and have no decks. The boiler, which is upright, is placed in the centre of the boat, the engine aft, and the boat is driven by a screw propeller. The length varies from thirty to forty feet, the beam from seven to nine, and the draft from two and a half to three feet. Steam yachts are larger than launches, with decks and cabins, and some of them are fitted up with great magnificence. The largest steam yacht in this country is the Alva, owned by W. K. Van- derbilt, which is 285 feet long and has 32.3 feet beam. Steam yachts generally have also masts and sails, to be used in case of accident to the machinery. Some steam yachts have what is called a safety-coil boiler, in which a coil of pipe contains the water, and there is no danger ot explo- sion. Small launches have what are called naphtha engines, in which the expansion of a small quantity of naphtha vapor drives the piston. These engines occupy little room, and can be run by any one. To run a steam-engine a license from the United States Government is required. The only steam yacht club in this country is the Ameri- can Yacht Club, formed in New York in 1883. There are several systems of time-allowance for steam yacht racing, most of which are based simply on the ^ength of the yacht. In the system devised by Dr. C. E. Emery, a yacht 50 feet long is allowed a speed of 9.947 VACHTING 781 YACHTING knots an hour, and one of 300 feet 18.074 knots; so that if the for- mer should make 12 knots in a race while the latter made 19, the small- er yacht would be considered the winner. The best recorded time made by a steam yacht was from Larchmont, N. Y.,to New London, Conn, (about 90 miles), in 4 hours, 34 minutes, 57 seconds, by the Atlanta, July 15, 1886. History. Sailing for pleasure is a very old form of amusement. In the 17th century Englishmen were accustomed to buy their pleasure- boats from the Dutch, and called them yachts, from the Dutch jag-t, a swift form of sailing vessel. The first yacht race on record was in 1661, between Charles II., King of England, and his brother the Duke of York, afterward James II. The first organized yacht club was the Cork Harbor Water Club, of Cork, Ireland, formed in 1720, which was soon followed by the Royal Yacht Club and others in England. The yachts of this pe- riod were broad, had blunt or " bluff " bows, and drew but little water. The fourteen sail-boats owned by Charles II. varied in length from 31 to 66 feet, in beam from i23^to2i.6feet,andindraught water from 6 to 7.6 feet. Before the present century Americans adopted a longer, deeper and nar- rower boat. The English followed, and have gone on in the same di- rection until the English " cutter " has become the narrowest and deepest of yachts. In this country, on the other hand, the tendency has been to return to boats of the old type, called by some people, in derision, " skimming dishes," be- cause they are broad and shallow. One reason why the English favor such deep boats is because of the rough seas and deep water near England, and deep vessels sail bet- ter in very rough water. In this country the first yacht club, the New York Club, was formed in 1844. In 1 85 1, during the World's Fair in London, a keel schooner- yacht, called the America, built for the purpose, was sent to England from New York to compete with English yachts. She raced, Aug. 22, 1 85 1, fifteen English yachts, for a silver cup, and won it. This victory created great interest in yachting in both countries. In 1857 the cup won by the America was given by her owners to the New York Yacht Club, to be held till won by some foreign yacht. A list of the races for it, all of which have been held near New York, over a forty mile course, is given in the appendix. ^ 20ETR0PE 782 ZOETROPE ZOETROPE. A toy by which a succession of figures in different attitudes are made to appear like a single one in motion. The sim- plest form of the toy consists of two Zoetrope— Fig-, i. disks fastened on the same axis six or eight inches apart, so that they will turn on it together. The Zoetrope— Fig. 2, figures are arranged on one, as shown in Fig. i, and in the other are a number of slits equal to that of the figures. The figures repre- sent some action at successive in- stants ; thus, in the first picture the man has his bow drawn to one side ; in the next it is pushed a little farther along, and so on. If any one look through the slits while the discs are turned, and direct his attention to any one spot, he will see a different picture in that spot every time a new slit comes in front of his eye, and he will not see one picture moving away from the spot and another coming up, because the pasteboard Zoetrope — Fig. 3. between the slits then comes be- tween. Thus he will see in the same place a succession of momen- tary pictures, each in a slightly different posture, and it will seem to him as though he saw the man playing the bass viol. In this way an endless variety of movements may be counterfeited. The disk bearing the figures is often made a little smaller than the one with the slits, and fastened with it on the axis at the same point (see Fig. 2). The observer then looks through the slits at a mirror, and the effect is the same ZOETROPE 783 ZOETROPE ZOETROPE 784 ZOETROPE as before. The zoetrope in this shape is more easy to manage. Another form is a round box, open at the top, which revolves on an upright stand (Fig. 3). The fig- ures are on strips of paper which fit around the inside of the box, and the slits are vertical ones in the edge. Six such slips are shown in Fig. 4. The observer looks through the slits toward the figures on the opposite side of the box. The effect is the same as be- fore, though in this case the figures and slits are moving in opposite directions. An arrangement has been devised by a Frenchman for showing the zoetrope to a large audience with the aid of the Magic Lantern. The word zoe- trope is from the Greek zoe, life, and trepeifty to turn. The toy is also called the Magic Wheel and the Zoopraxiscope, from the Greek zoe, life, praxis, action, and skopetn, to see. 3hn^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 029 712 934. A