Uleifie states and tanriWi^s. ^P«<:ia| ^ CoUraao, Utah, >I*W Mexico , Afi^Euaoa, fPl 4»id 4la»Ca. / Class Book :£^ PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF Montana^ Idaho^ Wyoming^ Colorado^ Utah^ New Mexico^ yirizona^ California^ Nevada^ Oregon^ IVashingtoriy and Alaska. DESIGNED TO ACCOMPANY ^SWINTON'S GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. _^ Copyright, 1884, by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Company-. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP MONTANA. Situation. — What country on the north of Montana ? WTiat territory on the cast? What territories on the south and west? Between what degrees of latitude is it located : Mow many miles docs it extend north and south? What degrees of longitude nearly mark its boundaries? How many miles does it extend east and west? How does it compare in extent with the other territories ? In what great plateau is this terri- tory located? What is its shape? Surface. — What is the general surface of the south-western half of Montana? Of the north-eastern half? What mountain range divides it from Idaho? What important mountain system extends through the western portion? From the course of the rivers, what do you infer of the elevation of the western part? Of the eastern part? What of its comparative general elevation? What two extensive valleys in the eastern part? What one in the north-west? Lakes and Rivers. — What are its three principal rivers ? Describe the course of the longest. Of its main branch. Have these rivers many tributaries ? Where do their waters reach the ocean ? Describe the course of Clarke's Fork. What lake does it drain ? Where does this water reach the ocean ? Is this territory well watered ? What parts appear to be most so ? Counties and Cities. — What three counties comprise the northern tier? What two the eastern tier? What county extends nearly across the state on the west? What part of the territory appears to be most inhabited? Name the seven southern central counties. Name and locate the capital. Name one other city in each of the central counties. Name the three counties largest in extent. What counties appear to be least settled ? What important National division partly in the central- southern portion ? Its extent? IDAHO. Situation. — What country on the north of Idaho? What division on the north-east? On the east? What state and territory on the south ? On the west ? What river forms part of the western boundary ? What parallel marks its northern boundary? Its southern? Nearly between what meridians is it? What is its shape? Surface. — What mountain range divides it on the north-east from Montana? What mountains in the south-eastern part? What is the surface of the central portion? What extensive valleys does it con- tain? What of its general elevation ? Lakes and Rivers. — What is the principal river of Idaho ? Where does it rise ? In what direction does it flow ? Name some of its tribu- taries on the north and east. On the south. What river crosses the northern part of the territory? What lakes are connected with it? What lake in the south-east ? What is the outlet of this lake, and into w liat does it flow ? Counties and Cities. — What counties border on the .Snake or Shoshone River? Name the western tier of counties. Name the counties adjoining Montana. What is the north-eastern county? Wliat is the capital, and in what county? Wliat other principal places in the counties adjoining? In what parts of the territory are the chief settlements ? WYOMING. Situation. — What territory on the north of Wyoming ? What terri- tory and state on the east? On the south? What tw^o territories on the west ? What is its shape ? What parallels mark its boundaries ? What meridians nearly mark its boundaries ? According to the scale cf miles, what is its extent north and south? East and west? How many square miles does it contain ? Surface. — What is the general surface of Wyoming? Which por- tions are most mountainous? What mountains in the south-east? In the center? In the north? Has it many mountain peaks? Name several of the most imi)ortant. Which is the highest ? What do the flowing waters show as to height of land? In what directions do its ■-treams flow ? Is its general elevation high ? Lakes and Rivers. — What four large rivers have some part of their source in Wyoming? Where do the waters of each find the ocean? What is the length of the longest of these river systems, as it flows from its source to the sea ? What the shortest distance across the country from its source to its mouth ? [See map of U.S.] What lake in the north-western part? Connected witli what river? Counties and Cities. — How many counties in Wyoming? Which is the largest in extent ? What National division to the north-west ? Its dimensions in miles ? Near the size of what eastern state is this Park? Name and locate the capital. :i^^ ! IDAHO, "^J •' i( / MONTANAaWYOMINO^^u EXPLANATION Cities ot over 2.000 Uih.-i)>ltant5 are underlined Count)' Towns Kallronds — SCAUeOF MILES 10 20 so 40 M GO 70 80 go 10 gu I Local Time 4^ A.M. whei} i^'' Noon on the 4/o Meridian of 4" Greenwich 4'" 112 Longitude 111 West from 110 Gi-eenwicli 109 h^-r^--^. « ■ ? ; Virginia Cif, c^ . 1 J ;i>ri"ir ,0 ^ aa/llJ? . .^ IV Mojuiii Washburn j Ac;^, :|^.k Heart Mt, Wit-Shenaeti i Ml.Lfdyf lyiognt Stevej 1 Wyoiiiiog,; . Peal. ■ South rasi,-i:ity . , (J Pd»J<; f( ^ FfemonVi Ouicn Hornel Ml ' ^ "- - > >sl V *■' Grind E»i«mproe>t !0 I ?; s Kaudi • -a 'Till blal'^^'_2^ Longitude ^^L^I iioni \\ ii,- ping trade with points in Oregon and Washington. Malade City {759), county seat of Oneida County, near the Utah line, is the trade center of an agricultural and lumber region which is rapidly grow- ing in population and wealth. Silver City, county seat of Owyhe County, is the largest town in the south-west section of the territory. It is the center of an important quartz- mining district, and is largely employed in supplying the mines and reducing their product. Idaho City, in Boise County, is the trade center of rich mining districts, both gold and silver being mined extensively in its vicinity. Hailey and Bellevue, in Alturas County, are important mining centers, which have recently been developed. Challis, in Lemhi County; Montpelier and Paris, in Bear Lake County; Placerville, in Boise Countv; Salmon City, in Leniiii County; and Wash- ington, in Idaho County, — are also among the more thriving and populous places in the territory. WYOMING. WYOMING. [Area, 97.890 square miles. Pop- ulation (1880). 20.798. SITUATION AND EX- TENT. "if- Wyoming Territory is situated principally on the east- ern slope of the Rocky Mountains, and extends eastward into the great plain lying between these mountains and the Missis- sippi River. The south-western portion slopes towards the Pacific Ocean through the Green River valley- It lies between 41° and 45° north lati- tude, and between longitude 104° and 111° west from Green- wich. The length of the territory from east to west is about 360 miles, and its width north and south is about 270 miles. It is the ninth in size of all the states and territories, and the forty-si.xth in popu- lation. II. SURFACE. The greater portion of the territory is mountainous, being traversed by the main axis of the Rocky Mountains. The principal mountain-ranges are the Black Hills in the north-east, the Big Horn Mountains in the north-central, the Shoshone, Teton, Gros Ventre, and Wind River ranges in the west, tlie Laramie Range in the southeast, and the Rattlesnake and Sweetwatur mountains in the central portions of tlie territory. Interspersed between these mountain-ranges are e.xtensive and beautiful plateaus of level and fertile tablelands. | The principal mountain peaks are Mount Hayden (13,858 feet), Fre- ; mont Peak (13,570 feet). Mount Moran (12,800 feet). Washakie Needles (12,250 feet). Chimney Mountain (i 1,853 f'^et), and Elk Mountain (i i. 551 feet). The mean altitude of the Laramie plains, one of the principal plateaus, is about 7,000 feet: while Bridgers Pass, in the Medicine Bow Moun- tains, is 11,410 feet. , Yellowstone Lake is 7.788, Shoshone Lake 7.670. and Lewis Lake 7.750 ' feet above the level of the sea. III. DRAINAGE. Wyoming, being situated mainly in the highest parts of the Rocky ^fountains, is the source of in- numerable rivers. Three of the largest rivers on the continent receive waters through her bor- ders. The Missouri River, through the North Platte, drains the south-eastern part of the territory ; and through the Chey- enne, Powder, and Big Horn, the north- ern portion. The Snake River, which eventually becomes a portion of the great Columbia River of the north- west, and empties into the Pacific Ocean, has its source in the north- western portion of this territory; while the Green River, which drains the south-western portion, finds its way out through L'tah and Colorado into the Colorado River, and thence into the Pacific Ocean through the Gulf of California. IV. CLIMATE. The climate of the territory is greatly varied. The remote- ness of the ocean, together with the altitude, exert great influence on the temperature. In the more exposed regions the winters are cold and severe; but the summers are delightful for their mildness, and for the invigorating in- fluences which are experienced by the traveler. On the plains there are seasons of severe storm, when the winds from the mountains sweep down upon them in great fury ; but these are of brief duration. The general character of the climate in these regions for the greater part of the year is favorable to health and comfort. V. RESOURCES. The resources of Wyoming are varied as its surface, and of great importance, but in the main they have not as yet been fully developed. Soil. — The soil on the plains is of unsurpassed fertility. Though irri- gation is necessary, as a rule, to successful farming, the numerous streams which traverse the territory afford ample facilities for this purpose. Hundreds of thousands of acres of pasture-lands, clad with nutritious grasses, afford abundant range for millions of cattle. The pasturage continues throughout the year, as during the winter the snows are dry. and the winds drift them into ridges : so that it is of rare occurrence that a herd can not find plenty of grass. Minerals. — Gold and silver have been discovered in several places in the territory; and the Black Hills, the Wind River, and Big Horn -Mountains, all have their thrifty and prosperous mining camps. Copper ores in great abundance have been developed at Hartville and near Cheyenne, in the south-eastern part of the territory. Valuable iron ores are found in the southern portion of the territory near Rawlins, and near Laramie in the south-east. .\ superior quality of soft coal is known to exist in great abundance in many parts of the territory, especially near Carbon, Evanston, and Rock Sorings. 10 WYOMING. Soda, gypsum, mica, graphite, kaolin, fire-clay, antimony, and sulphur are also among the mineral resources of the territory. ... Forests. — Portions of the territory are finely timbered, the vaneties of pine spruce, cedar, and cottonwood of good quahty being most fre- quent, and covering many thousands of square miles. Water. — The many mountain-streams of the territory afford abundance of water-power for the handling of machinery, for mining, and for irrigation. Scenery. — The scenery throughout the territory is beautiful and grand. The mountain parlis and valleys are much resorted to by pleasure- seekers and sportsmen. Mineral springs, hot and cold, in great vari- ety, are abundant ; and pulmonary diseases are favorably affected by the waters and the climate. VI. INDUSTRIES. The industries of Wyoming are rapidly increasing in variety and c.Ktent, and already employ large sums of capital. Grazing. — Cattle-raising is the chief industry of the territory. While cattle often go the year round without other feed than the range affords, the most successful stockmen are now providing against emergencies by harvesting and stacking, at the proper season, vast quantities of the grasses which make most excellent hay. Sheep-raising is also an important industry of Wyoming, and there are many extensive herds yielding a handsome income. Farming. — Increasing attention is being given to this industry, and the principal products are hay, potatoes, and garden vegetables. Lumbering. — Important lumbering operations are carried on in several localities ; and railroad-ties, telegraph-poles, laths, shingles, and building and fencing boards are produced in large quantities. Manufactures. — Considerable attention has been given to the manu- facturing interest; and extensive rolling-mills, railroad repair-shops, and wagon and carriage shops are in successful operation. Commerce. — The commerce of the territory is almost exclusively by railroad, and consists of the trade in cattle, and merchandise generally. The Union Pacific Railroad passes through the south side of the terri- tory, and has done much towards the development of the resources of the territory. The Oregon Branch of this line starts from the town of Granger, in the western part of Wyoming, and constitutes an important factor in the business interests of the territory. VII. GOVERNMENT. The territory is governed under the laws of Congress ; and the governor and other principal officers are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate of the United States. The laws provide for a governor and other territorial officers, who con- stitute the executive branch of the government. The legislative department of the government is vested in a Legisla- tive Assembly, made up of two houses, — the Council, or upper house, and the House of Representatives, — both elected for two years. Ses- sions are held biennially in the even years, and are limited to sixty days. The judiciary power is vested in a Supreme Court with three judges, who are appointed by the President of the United States, and hold office for four years ; district courts, circuit courts, and others of inferior jurisdiction, whose officers are elected by the people for terms of vary- ing length. The right to vote is extended to women equally with men at all terri- torial elections. VIII. EDUCATION. Liberal provisions have been made for the support of public schools. A territorial superintendent is at the head of the system, and county superintendents and district boards have charge of the details, which are generally well provided for. A teachers' institute is provided for, which may arrange and prescribe a course of study for uniform use throughout the territory. Women may vote at the school elections, and are eligible to hold school offices. Parents are required to see that their children between the ages of seven and sixteen attend school during three months in each year. The larger towns maintain excellent graded schools, good buildings are provided, and the schools receive liberal and popular support. IX. HISTORY. The greater portion of this territory was acquired by the United States, through the " Louisiana Purchase," from France in 1803, though a portion of the south-western section came under the protection of our government by the " treaty of 1848" with Mexico. The territory was organized by Act of Congress, July 25, 1858. X. THE NATIONAL PARK. The Yellowstone National Park occupies the north-western corner of the territory, and affords the tourist and pleasure- seeker a greater variety of natural and scenic attractions than any other locality on the continent. The Yellowstone Lake, 7,788 feet above the level of the sea, is remark- able for the beauty and sublimity of its surroundings. The geysers are wonderful alike to the pleasure-seeker and the scientist, while the general mountain scenery rivals that of any other region in the world. XI. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Wyoming is divided into seven counties, and contains the following leading cities and towns : — Cheyenne (6,000), the capital of the territory, and its chief city, is an important railway center, 106 miles north of Denver, and 516 miles west of Omaha. It is the leading shipping and outfitting point for the great mining and stock-raising regions of Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana. Banking- houses with ample capital, large wholesale stores, and many fine private residences, churches, and schools, indicate the wealth, enterprise, and industry of the community. Laramie City (3,500), "The Gem of the Plains," 57 miles west of Chey- enne, is also a thriving, growing city. Extensive rolling-mills, owned and operated by the Union Pacific Railroad, afford employment for several hun- dred men, and have a capacity of 25,000 tons of railway iron per annum. In addition to these, large railway machine-shops are located here. In the immediate vicinity are rich deposits of coal, iron, lead, and other minerals. A large freighting and forwarding business is done with the surrounding ranches and camps. Rawlins, situated 709 miles west of Omaha, is the county seat of Carbon County. Here are located extensive machine-shops which afford employ- ment to large numbers. It has a fine business in shipping and outfitting for the Big Horn mining regions, and is an important point for the ship- ment of cattle. Iron ore is mined near by, and a superior metallic paint has been made in this vicinity. Evanston, the county seat of Uintah County, is a well-built and flourish- ing town, with railway machine-shops, and a large trade in lumber and charcoal. It is in the immediate vicinity of extensive coal-mines, which yield half a million tons per annum. Carbon, on the Union Pacific Railroad, 657 miles west of Omaha, is principally engaged in mining and the business tributary to the mining interests. Rock Springs, situated 830 miles west of Omaha, is an important coal- producing town. It also has a large business in the handling and shipping of cattle to the eastern markets. Green River, the county seat of Sweetwater County, is a railroad town, with machine-shops, round houses, etc. It is in the midst of a fine agri- cultural region, and has a good trade with the surrounding country. Sherman, situated upon the main range of the Rocky Mountains, at an altitude of 8,242 feet, commands a grand view of the Laramie plains, w ith their countless herds of cattle and beautiful river scenery. A monument to the memory of the projectors of the Union Pacific Railway has been erected on the summit in the village. Hilliard is a lumber town, situated 943 miles west of Omaha. A flume 33 miles long has been constructed to transport lumber, ties, telegraph- poles, and cordwood from the lumber-camps to the railroad. Other indus- tries are the manufacture of charcoal and the smelting of ores which are shipped from Utah. COLORADO. II COLORADO. GRAND CANON OF THE GUNN QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — What i.s the shape of Colorado ? What parallels mark its northern and southern boundaries ? Nearly between what meridians is it? How many miles in length according to the scale of miles on the map? How many in width ? What state and division on the north ? What states on the east? What divisions on the south ? On the west? Surface Of what great plateau is Colorado a characteristic part ? Where in this plateau is it located ? What general mountain range is prominent here ? Give the names of some of its minor divisions. Name some of the principal mountain peaks. Give their location. What is the surface in the western two-thirds of the state ? The eastern third ? Where are the North, Middle, and South parks? Rivers — What four large rivers have their sources in this state? [See also other maps of this region.] Which flow west? Which south ? Wliich east? Where does each reach the ocean? What do these rivers indicate in respect to the height of land? Counties and Cities. — Name the counties crossed by the 105th me- ridian. By the I o6th meridian. How many counties has this state ? [In what county do you live? In what part of the state? Its county seat.'] Name and locate the state capital. What is the second city in size? What other principal cities, and where located? In what natural region are most of the cities and towns located ? What do you judge from the map to be peculiar to the eastern tier of counties ? DESCRIPTION. [Area, 103.925 square miles. Population [1880). 194,327.] POSITION AND EXTENT. Colorado is one of the Pacific Highland States, and the most western state having an eastern drainage. It is situated partly in the Rocky Mountain region, and partly in the great plain of the Mississippi valley, between latitude 37° and 41° north, and longitude 102° and 109° west from Greenwich. Its length from east to west is about 380 miles, and its width north and south about 275 miles. It is the thirty-fifth state in population, and the fourth in area. 11. SURFACE. Nearly one-half of the state — its eastern end — is a great plain, through which course the upper tributaries of the Arkan- sas and Platte rivers, ren- dering its surface beauti- fully undulating ; but, in the main, this portion of the state is very level, pre- senting much the appear- ance of a vast sea of grass. The western division is traversed by the various ranges of the Rocky Moiuitains, which here attain their greatest alti- tude, with broad table- lands or plateaus on their GARDEN OF THE GODS. VVeStem SlOpC. 1 4'io Ijocat Time A. M. Longitude when Kaon on "West from /^*^"\Va!i>bi>rpil ^C. ~1;i nta'i I irnVTM . t i ,— ^; 'J'lu-ljank ^aBOKe. - TSIIV,,,;^. -'■' ''V- Tj^.--"' i >j^ dUnab!' '- V ^, A 1 ^^.iL. n 3>^ I LoiiKi^udi- '\Vc^t from Local Titin: A. 31. wlien yoon on •1" the Meridian 4^! of Greenuith — I _H 108 Greenwich 107 UTAH - COLORADO EXPLANATION. Cities of over 2.000 inlinWtanfs are underlinea County Towns ® Kallroads ■*- SCALE OF MILES --awd*' f1 Hordin 'Corona C lj?*t-.w ' ►•, A! ^•v5 ^i«(A** ' Carbb/iate^ ^^K..^ " ..Akron 4.^rv..S&.. y / V-' i:;;iil6;?;;Vi;^tt-_iH.: I7tfland station f) I I a J \, ¥^ \ LG 1 L P 1 N ; Cv •V '5, I \.^; C L E /rI^-.t5%/,,|3.--^o^^eI^Ss^jt^^ ,.,.^^, ^\ ^HT^r riumw Gcorgejowa ",iCIJ^''X , „ ^^^^.I>-4 AW"? CREEK I. i (^,,,,4 AolfCros-.^i^SS^nrygl V. ^,5(Ja • l^**^ j '^ .. ? ]irr(Jfanite\ i,,^ - Ilk". ■? 4, \- \_ "S^nr'! kfeBoik 1 ,1 1. *^ 'FriuVlitowin 1 I ,rKuh K St*t1y t YEd(.-ei-t^n Biini'-uiitEarlir^.^_^-^5M ^"^r^-'-'^) ,.,,:^'T -r ■- V Vsti?'^|C0V<^'SIe^.Pe^•^^* . i S^„born-| y "*,'>, 14] / I \ V B>in,->nja!> %X: ■■, V-'i>2T J- ~ jko H s :e^ V <^ ,v^H*sita ^4 -,^f .Biedell - o ■ South FueW Idy C^ i;; k P 1» \reaii Lfc/'~*ii Jlo' f ^/y ' /»*'^ ' ^S> ..kalt;C'recV H COLORADO. The Front or Colorado range, in the north-central, and the Sangre de Cristo range in the south-central portions of the state, rising through a series of verdure-clad foot-hills from the broad plains on the east, form part of the great western watershed of the continent. West of these, the Park, Saguache, San Juan, Uncompahgre, Roan, and Elk ranges occupy the greater part of the state. Interspersed among these ranges of mountains are numerous "parks," or elevated, irregu- lar plateaus, where may be found, shut in by peaks clad in perpetual snow, vast areas of valuable fertile lands clothed with verdure, and dotted with the homes of an enterprising and thrifty agricultural people. The most important of these natural gardens, with their approximate areas and elevations, are, — North Park. — Area, 2,500 square miles ; elevation, 9,000 feet. Middle Park. — Area, 3,000 square miles; elevation, 8,500 feet. South Park. — Area, 2,200 square miles : elevation, 9.500 feet. Estes Park. — Area, 100 square miles ; elevation, 7,500 feet. San Litis Park. — Area, 8,000 square miles : elevation, 7,500 feet. The principal mountain-peaks, with their elevations, are, — Mount Blanco 14464 Mount Evans '4-330 Pike's Peak i+,i47 Mount Elbert i4-35i Holy Cross 1 4! '76 Spanish Peak 13,620 Mount Rosalie I4,340 Uncompahgre Peak . . . 14,235 Gray"s Peak 1 4-341 Long's Peak I-^27I Mount Massive I-^,298 Buckskin Mountain . . . . 14,296 III. DRAINAGE. While Colorado has no navigable rivers, her position upon the very crest of the continent makes her the source of many streams, part of them finding their way through the Missis- sippi and Rio Grande into the Atlantic Ocean, and part through the Colorado into the Pacific. The principal streams of the .Mississippi system, which originate in this state, are the North Platte, which rises in the Park and Front Mountains, and the South Platte, which rises in the Front Mountains in the north-central part of the state, together forming the Platte River of Nebraska, which empties into the Missouri at Plattsmouth ; the Republican, which rises in the eastern part of the state, and flows out through Kansas and Nebraska into the Missouri at Kansas City; and the Arkansas, which has its source a little north and west of the center of the state, and flows south-westerly through grand gorges and canons into the great eastern plain, passing out of the state into Kan- sas near the 38th parallel of north latitude, and continuing an easterly and south-easterly course to the Mississippi. The Rio Grande rises in the San Juan region in the southern part of the state, passes south into New Mexico, in longitude 106° west, flowing south through that territory, and south-east between Texas and Mexico, into the Gulf. The Colorado River, which empties into the Pacific Ocean through the Gulf of California, receives as tributaries from this state the San Juan, which rises in the south-west corner of the state, and flows out through New Mexico : the Grand, w-hich flows w^est into Utah ; and the White and Yampa, tributaries of the Green River of Wyoming, which drain the north-western portion of the state. iV. CLIMATE. The state being situated in the heart of the Rocky Moun- tains, far removed from the modifying influences of the ocean, its climate partakes of the character of every latitude. The rigors of a northern winter, and the balmy breezes of an Ital- ian summer, may both be experienced within a day's journey. The extreme dryness of the atmosphere tempers the severity of the cold in winter, and the exhilarating effects of the altitude make the summers most delightful. Pulmonary affections are greatly benefited by the climate and waters. The mean annual temperature is about 50°. The rainfall is scant for agricultural purposes, and is exceedingly varied. The influences of irrigation and agriculture will, it is anticipated, promote the quantity as well as the uniformity of the rainfall. V. RESOURCES. Soil. — The soil of Colorado is naturally fertile; but the insufficiency of the rainfall makes irrigation a necessary ad- junct of successful agriculture in most parts of the state. The most productive lands are found in the parks and valleys of the South Platte, Clear. Cherry. South Boulder, San Luis, and Rio Grande, while the level lands in all parts of the state yield a fruitful harvest wherever they can be artificially watered. The great plains in the eastern part of the state, as well as the parks and plateaus of the mountain regions, afford excellent pasturage the year round. Minerals. — Gold was first discovered in Colorado in 1858; and the more important deposits are found in what miners call "true fissure" veins or lodes, and in "chimneys" having the appearance of the craters of extinct volcanoes. These deposits are extremely rich. Many of them have been penetrated for hundreds of feet without any apparent reduction of the quantity of the ores. The most productive mines are located in Gilpin County; but gold is found in one form or another throughout all the moun- tainous portions of the state. Silver was discovered as early as 1864 near Georgetown, but it was not until 1870 that any important results were reached. The importance of the silver deposits was never suspected until the great mines of carbonate ores were opened near Leadville in 1877, about which time the silver excitement reached its height. Like gold, the silver is found in all the geological combinations. " Na- tive silver," "ruby silver," "silver glance,'" "smelting ore," "free-mill- ing ore," -'mill dirt." "stamp rock," "sand carbonates," etc., are terms used in describing them, while they are found in veins, lodes, fissures, contracts, sedimentary deposits, and other forms. .Silver in various forms is found in almost every county in the mountainous part of the state. Lake producing the greatest quantity, followed by Gilpin, Clear Creek, Boulder, Summit, Gunnison, Pitkin, Custer, San Juan, Hins- dale, Dolores, Grand. Saguache, Chaffee, Ouray. Park, and others. The principal deposits are found in beds or strata between layers of porphyry and limestone. Coal of superior quality is found in many parts of the state. There are thousands of square miles underlaid with valuable deposits, and the supply is comparatively inexhaustible. An excellent lignite, adapted to domestic use and to railway purposes, is mined in large quantities in the vicinity of Boulder. Bituminous varieties are found in the vicinity of Trinidad, as well as in the south- west near Durango, and in the regions around Gunnison. Anthracite has been discovered in several places ; but its extent and value is as vet comparatively unknown. Iron ores in many of the valuable varieties have been discovered in sev- eral parts of the state, and are abundant in the immediate vicinity of the coal-measures. Quarries of excellent granite, limestone, sandstone, etc., have been opened, and marbles of superior texture and color are abundant. Among the other minerals of Colorado are agates, alum, amethyst, anti- mony, arsenic, baryta, bismuth, chalcedony, chalk, copper, fire-clay, garnet, graphite, gypsum, jasper, manganese, mica, onyx, opal, salt, soda, suljjhur, talc, topaz, tufa, turquoise, etc. Mineral springs are found in many parts of the state. Waters, both hot and cold, containing salt, soda, sulphur, iron, etc., are of frequent occurrence, and their medicinal properties make them the resort of thousands of invalids and tourists. COLORADO. IS The forests of Colorado are not rich in valuable timber; but the moun- tain-regions are abundantly supplied in the lower altitudes with many varieties of pine, spruce, fir, aspen, hemlock, and cedar. VI. INDUSTRIES. Mining. — As the wealth of Colorado lies in her mines, so the principal industry of her people is devoted to their work- ing. The digging and raising of the ores to the surface is a work of great labor, and affords profitable employment to thousands of men. These ores are then treated by various processes known to science, resulting in the extraction of the precious metal which becomes the bullion of commerce. The ore beds, or veins, or contracts, are reached througli shafts, ver- tically, or through tunnels into the face of the mountains, horizontally. All these openings have to be made with mucli labor and skill, and heavy timbers are placed to protect the sides from caving in upon the workmen. The ores, as they come from the mine, are generally sold by the mine- owner to the mills or smelters, where the reduction to bullion is made by various processes of pulverization by stamp-mills, roasting-ovens, and smelting-furnaces. In many cases the ores are transported hundreds of miles before treatment, while in others they are treated near the mines by works erected with special reference to the peculiarities of the ores of the locality. There are many different methods of reducing ores. Soine of the processes involve the principles of chemistry to a wonderful degree, while others are very simple. In many cases the refuse of one course of treatment is made to pay a handsome profit when submitted to another and different process. Agriculture. — While mining has been the great business of Colorado, agriculture affords emploj'inent to an industrious and numerous portion of her people. The principal crops are wheat, oats, barley, corn, potatoes, hay, and the products of the garden. Lands which a few years ago were com- paratively worthless have been made productive by tlie introduction of a system of irrigation ; and experiments are now being made in the eastern portion of the state with artesian wells, from which it is hoped an ample supply of water for irrigation will be afforded in lo- calities remote from the mountains. Cattle-raising is an important industry. The climate is favorable, and the native grasses are abundant, affording nutritious food all the year round. Wool-growing is also carried on to a large extent, and is a productive and profitable business. Fruit-growing has received considerable attention, and small fruits yield abundant and paying returns. Manufactures. — The most important manufacturing inter- ests in Colorado are those which are represented by the es- tablishments for treating ores, though iron and steel works, foundries, and rolling-mills have already been put in operation. The developments of the iron and coal fields will undoubtedly enhance the interest of capitalists in these enterprises. The commerce of the state is principally with the east, and by railroad. The interchange of bullion, cattle, wool, etc., the products of Colo- rado industry, for the merchandise of the eastern markets, makes a business of great magnitude. Transportation. — The railway systems which center in this state are numerous and important. " The Colorado Pool " is a powerful factor in the railway interests of the west. Important divisions of the Union Pacific System radiate from Denver in four directions. The Denver and Kio Grande, the Burlington Route, the Denver and New Orleans, and the Atchison, Topeka. and Santa Fe, are all important lines. I VII. GOVERNMENT. The State government consists of three departments, — the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The officers composing the executive department are a governor, lieu- tenant-governor (who is also president of the Senate), secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general, and superintendent of pub- lic instruction, all elected by direct vote of the people, and holding their respective offices for the term of two years. The legislative department consists of a Senate and House of Repre- sentatives. Regular sessions are held biennially, convening on the first Wednesdays in January of the odd years. The Senate is com- posed of twenty-six members, elected for four years : and the House of Representatives, of forty-nine members, elected for two years. The judicial department is administered through a supreme court, the three judges of which are chosen for nine years; six district courts, with six judges, each elected for six years : county courts, with one judge in each county, elected for three years ; and justices' courts, which are presided over by justices of the peace, who are chosen for two years. In the Congress of the United States. Colorado is entitled to two senators and one representative; and the state has three votes in the Electoral College in choosing a President of the United States. VIII. EDUCATION. The public-school system was early made a prominent fea- ture in the policy of the state. The organization consists of a state superintendent, state board of education, state board of examiners, county superintendents, and dis- trict boards. Provision is made for graded schools. State and county teachers' associations have been provided for. The laws require at least sixty days of school in each district annually; but the average duration of the schools is much longer, while in the cities and towns the schools are in session from a hundred and twenty to two hundred days. The state institutions are the State University located at Boulder, School of Mines at Golden, Agricultural College at Fort Collins, Mute and Blind Institute at Colorado Springs, and Industrial School at Golden, all of which are liberally provided for. Numerous private institutions of high order have been established. IX. HISTORY. Territorial History. — The territory included within the borders of Colorado was acquired, part from the F"rcnch through the "Louisiana Purchase" in 1803, and part from Mei.xco through the " treaty of 1848." Prior to the acquisition of that part of the territory which came to us from France, no important explorations or researches had been made in this region. In 1803 the government sent out a small expedition under Lieut. Pike. Later, in 1819, Col. S. H. Long led another expe- dition, neither of which made any foothold or discovery of importance. Private enterprises, as late as 1832, were unsuccessful in the accom- plishment of any good results; and it was not until Capt. Fremont, in 1S42 and 1844, had made surveying and exploring expeditions, that the government knew any thing of the character of its newly acquired domain. From this time until 185S, fur-traders, explorers, emigrants bound for the Pacific coast, and Mormons on their way to Utah, were the only white men who ventured into these regions. In 1858, however, a prospecting party from Georgia established a lodgment on the Platte near the present site of Denver. They were soon joined by others, who, hearing of the discovery of gold, flocked to the new Eldorado. Several towns were established, and efforts to form a territorial government were at once inaugurated. A territorial government was not fully consummated till 1861, when, with William Gilpin as governor, Colorado first became an organiza- tion under the United States. The young territory grew rapidly in i6 COLORADO. population, and had hardly acquired a territorial standing before efforts were made to secure state privileges, which came near being successful in 1S65, when President Johnson vetoed the "enabling act " passed by Congress for that purpose. Continued prosperity attended the territory, however, and the tide of immigration flowed in unabated. State History. — In the winter of 1874-75 another effort was made to secure a state government. These efforts were successful ; and the necessary laws having been enacted by \ Congress (March 3, 1875), a constitution adopted by the people! (July I, 1S76), and state officers elected (Oct. 3, 1876), the state government of Colorado was inaugurated in November, 1876, making the thirty-eighth state in the Union. From the date ' of its admission, Colorado is fitly called the "Centennial State." X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. | For purposes of local government the state is divided into counties, of which there are at present thirty-eight. The lead-] ing cities and towns are as follows : — Denver (35.630) is the capital of the state, its commercial [ metropolis, and the chief railroad center of this part of the United States. The city was first settled in 1858, and for about fifteen years had a moderate and steady growth, which gave place in 1872 to a remarkable era of prosperity, which has not yet ended. j The city is beautifully laid out, and is located at the junction of Cherry Creek and the South Platte River, a few miles from the base of the foot-hills which rise and gradually recede into the mountains. Long's Peak and Pike's Peak are both visible in the distance. Denver has a well-ordered city government, water-works, gas-works, electric-lighting establishments, telephone, street-railways, and all other conveniences of a metropolis. Among the finest public buildings are the Union Depot, Tabor Grand Opera-House, Tabor Block, Windsor Hotel, St. James Hotel. There are also a mining and industrial exposition of great proportions and interest, a branch of the United-States .Mint, a board of trade, and a stock exchange. The public-school system of the city of Denver is of special excellence. A high school and numerous ward schools have been provided ; and no expense has been spared to keep the requirements up to the demand. Leadville (14,820), the county seat of Lake County, is the second city in size and importance in the state. This city is situated near the Arkansas River, on California Gulch, and was settled in 1876. Tiie surrounding scenery is grand and impos- ing. It is the leading silver-mining center in Colorado. Surrounded by the richest mines in the state, it is pre-eminently a min- ing city. Numerous large smelting and reduction works, with stamp- mills and other mining interests, afford the principal business of the city. The city has a good system of jjublic schools, with excellent buildings, which are a credit to the enterprise and taste of the people. Pueblo, countv seat of Pueblo Count)', on the north bank of the Arkansas River, and South Pueblo, on the opposite side of that stream, constitute one of the most populous and important manufacturing centers of the state. Among the most prominent industries are steel and iron foundries, rolling- mills, nail-mills, car-shops, smelters, etc. A rich agricultural region lying to the east is tributary to the cities, and important railroad lines center here. ISoth cities are efficiently organized with good local governments, water- works, and fire departments, and maintain excellent systems of public schools. Gunnison City, tlie county seat of Gunnison County, was laid out in 1S79. 't h-is o^s S"d water works, theaters, banks, churclies, newspapers, and public schools. It is connected with Denver by two lines of railway, and is the distributing point for the many mining-camps in South-western Colorado. Important manufacturing establishments are located here. Boulder, the county seat of Boulder County, is an important railroad center, and has a large and growing trade and business. The coal-mines in the vicinity afford its most important industry: but extensive gold and silver mines, and important manufacturing interests, all contribute to its prosperity. Boulder is also a literary center of the state, being the seat of the Uni- versity of Colorado. Colorado Springs, the county seat of El Paso County, was settled in 1S71, and has already become a flourishing and prosperous citv. It is situ- ated in the vicinity of many points of interest to the tourist, and is the resort of thousands who make it the base of their excursions to Manitou, Pike's Peak, the Garden of the Gods, Monument Park. Engleman's Canon, etc. It has many fine buildings, and has superior educational facilities, with ex- cellent public schools. Colorado College and Deaf-Mute Institute are located here. Georgetown, the county seat of Clear Creek County, is the oldest and one of the most important mining towns in the state. It has a flourishing mining business, and large sampling and reduction works. There are many points of interest in the vicinit)-, and it is an important radiating point for miners and tourists. Alamosa — situated on the Rio Grande in the famous San Luis Valley, is surrounded by grand scenery, and is the center of a flour- ishing business, in which the cattle, wool, and farming interests are important features. Aspen — the county seat of Pitkin County, was laid out in 1879. but has already become a flourishing community, with good stores, smelting-furnaces, etc. Black Hawk is situated about 35 miles west of Denver, m Gilpin County. The many gold and silver mines in the vicinity make it one of the important mining towns of the state. It is closely allied with its neighbor. Central City, in business and social intercourse. Breckenridge — the county seat of .Summit Coun- ty, is situated on Blue River, on the Pacific slope of the main range. It is a thriving town, with smelters and other mining ad- juncts. It has good schools and a great variety of business interests. Buena Vista — the county seat of Chaflee Coun- ty, is situated on the Arkansas River, at the junction of the Denver and Southern Pacific Division of the Union Pacific Railway with the Denver and Rio Grande. It has a flour- ishing business, and good banks, churches, and schools. Canon City — the county scat of Fremont Coun- ty, is situated at the foot of the mountains, and on the left bank of the Arkansas River. It has a good business with the farming community around it. It commands some of the finest mountain scenery in the world. The state penitentiary is located here. Del Norte — the county seat of Rio Grande Coun- ty, is the center of a fine farming community, and enjoys a good trade with the surround- ing country. Durango — the county seat of La Plata County, is situated on the Pacific Slope, and is sur- rounded by fine farming-lands, and some of the best timbered lands in the stale. The coal-mines near by are an important element of its prosperity. Fort Collins — the county seat of Larimer Coun- ty, was settled as a colony in 1871. It is a favorite resort for tourists visiting the neigh- boring mountain-parks. It is situated in a fine farming section, and supports good pub. lie schools and a large public librarj*. Greeley — the county seat of Weld County and the principal market-town in its portion of the state, was organized as a colony in 1870. It has a fine business with the surrounding country, and supports an excellent public school. Longmont — situated in Boulder Count>', is an important town in a fine farming region. It is beautifully laid out, and is a popular stop- ping-place for parties visiting Estcs Park and other contiguous mountain-resorts. Manitou is one of the most noted pleasure-re- sorts in the state, and is well supplied with cver>* thing required by the invalid or the tourist. Rico — the county seat of Dolores County, and an important mining town, has stamp-mills, smelting-works, b.anks, churches, and excel- lent schools, both public and private. Other important mining towns are Adelaide. Alma, Alpine, Ashcroft Bonanza. Caribou, Coal Creek, Cochetopa, Columbia, Crested Butte, Fair play, Frisco, Garfield, Gold Hill, Gothic, Irwin, Kokomo, Lake City, Ne- vadaville, Ohio City, Ouray, Pitkin, Red Cliff, Robinson, Rosita, Silver Plume, Silverton, Teller, Tin Cup, and Tucson. Box Elder, Como, Deer Trail, El Moro, El Paso, Elbert, Evans, Fort Garland, Gardner, Grand Junction, Hugo, Kit Carsnn. Kiowa, La Junta, Loveland, Saguache, and Walsenburg are important from their agricultural surroundings. The Alpine Tunnel. Antelope Springs, Brookvale, Cottonwood Springs, Dome Rock, Elkhorn, Estabrook Park, Estes Park, South Park, Grand Lake. Grant, Green Lake, Hot Sulphur Springs, Idaho Springs, Morrison, Middle Park, North Park, Pagosa .Springs, Poncho -Springs, Soda Springs, Twin Lakes, and Wagon-Wheel Gap are noted as the resort of tourists and pleasure-seekers. UTAH. 17 UTAH. SALT LAKE CITY. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — What divisions bound Utah on the north? What state on the east? What territory on the south? What state on the west? Over how many degrees, north and south, does it e.xtend ? .'\ccording to the scale, how many miles ? Surface. — What general natural regions is the surface divided into from north to south ? Name of the principal mountain range ? Names of its minor divisions? Lakes and Rivers. — What large lake in the northern part? What other lakes, and where ? Have these lakes surface outlets ? What is the largest river? Describe its course. Where do its waters reach the ocean? Name some of its chief tributaries. What other considerable streams ? Into what bodies of water do they flow ? Counties and Cities. — In what part of Utah is the principal tier of settlw;d counties ? E.xtending in what direction ? Name the counties north of the central county. Name those south of it. Name and locate the capi- tal. W'hat are the largest cities north of it? What south of it? [Name your countv. Its county-seat. In what part of the territory is it?] DESCRIPTION. [Area, 84.970 square miles. Population (in 1880). 143,963.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Utah occupies the eastern part of the Great Basin and the western part of the upper valley of the Colorado. It is included between ^y" and 42° 10' north latitude and 109° and 1 14° west longitude. The Great Basin is a remarkable depression of land lying between the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatch mountains, mostly in Utah and Nevada. • Much of the land is an arid waste, with no streams and little vegeta- tion. The waters of the rivers have no outlet to the sea. and di.sap- pearin sinks or in salt lakes. In shape Utah is nearly a parallelogram, 350 miles in length north and south, and 280 miles in width. In area it is a little more than half the 1 size of California, and near- ly the same size as Idaho, Minnesota, or Kansas. II. SURFACE. As indicated by its loca- tion, Utah is divided into two great plateau regions, differing, however, very widely in all their surface features. The eastern and western parts of the terri- tory are of about the same elevation, — 5,000 feet aboNC the sea-level. Mountains. — Rising from this plain, the chief mountain range is the Wahsatch, which extends nearly north and south the entire length of the terri- tory. The Uintah Mountains are an eastern spur of the Wahsatch. extending at right angles from the main range to the north-eastern boundary of the territory. The high- est elevations in the territory are in this minor range, which, in the cases of Reed's and Hayden's peaks, reach to nearly 14,000 feet above the sea. The highest points in the Wahsatch Range are Mounts Nebo and Baldy, each about 12.000 feet high. The western part of the territory consists in part of barren alkaline deserts, or of plains covered with a scattering growth of sage-brush and grease-wood. Toward the Nevada line are se\eral short ranges of mountains. Valleys. — E.xtending from the crests of the Wahsatch Range are numerous spurs and lateral ranges, between which are found many very fertile valleys supporting a thrifty and prosperous people. Among the more important of these valleys are the Salt Lake, Bear Lake, and Utah valleys, adjacent to the lakes from which they are named; the Bear River, Weber, Upper and Lower Sevier, Ogdcn. and Provo valleys, lying along the rivers of the same name ; and the Pah Vant, Beaver, Parowan, and Tintic valleys, named after the mountains in their immediate vicinity. Outside of the Great Basin, the most important valley is that of the Virgin River, in the south-western part of the territory. The high tablelands of Eastern Utah south of the Uintah Range partake somewhat of the surface features and charac- teristics of Colorado and Wyoming. III. DRAINAGE. Western Utah. — West of the Wahsatch Range there are no waters that reach the ocean. All the streams flow into salt lakes, or disappear in sinks in the desert. Great Salt Lake, which receives the drainage of about 20,000 square miles, is the largest saline lake in the United States. It is 80 miles long and 40 miles wide, and covers an area of over 3,000 square miles. UTAH. Its waters contain 22 per cent of salt. The largest streams flowing into it are the Bear River, Weber River, and the Jordan. Utah Lake is a fresh-water lake, having the Jordan River for its outlet. Sevier River flows into Sevier Lake, a body of saline water 20 miles long and 10 miles wide. Bear Lake, lying partly in Utah and partly in Idaho, is remarkable for its beauty and picturesque scenery. The rivers within the rim of the Great Basin are all short streams, rising in the mountains, and are especially serviceable for the irrigation of the agricultural valleys through which they flow. There are abundant indications to show that a large part of the Great Basin was once occupied by a great inland sea, of which the largest remnant is now the Great Salt Lake. There are also indications that this gradual subsidence is still going on, and that the great saline lake is lowering its level year by year. On account of the great percentage of saline matter in solution in the lake, no animal life is possible in its waters. The specific gravity is one-sixth greater than that of pure water, which enables it to float the human body lightly on its surface. The character of the salts held in solution is also such as to render the waters remarkablv curative and invigorating to the bather; and thus the lake has become the resort of many people who seek its shores either for health or pleasure. Eastern Utah. — The eastern half of the territory, which in its general physical character belongs to the Colorado river system, has several noble streams. The most important are the Green and the Grand rivers, which unite in the eastern part of the territory to form the main stream of the Colorado ; and the San Juan, which has a course of 150 miles in the extreme south-eastern part of the territory. The Virgin River, also belonging to the Colorado system, drains the south-western corner of the territory. .All the streams of the Colorado system have worn deep valleys or canons in the soft limestone in many parts of their courses. The canons of the Colorado River proper constitute the most magnificent natural feature of their kind in the world. The mysteries of these canons were first penetrated by Professor J. VV. Powell of the United States Geological Survey, in 1869. He entered Green River with his adventurous party at a point in Wyoming Territory near the Utah line, and, after nearly three months of exploration, came out at the foot of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado, in Western Arizona. Scenery. — The surface and drainage features of Utah con- tribute to make its scenery grand and picturesque. The terri- tory abounds in splendid mountain views, beautiful lakes, vast chasms worn by the water or rent asunder by earthquakes, extensive lava-fields, extinct volcanoes, and huge rocks standing like monuments of a race of giants. IV. CLIWIATE. The climate of Utah has the general characteristics of the Great Basin. The air is exceedingly dry, owing to the light rainfall. On the plains the days in summer are intensely hot, but the nights are cool and refreshing. In the valleys, at the foot of the mountains, the summers are delightful, and the winters mild and enjoyable. The upper valleys, between the lateral ranges, are cool and pleasant in sinimi and have heavy snows in winter. V. RESOURCES. The resources of Utah are found mainly in its great moun- tain range, the Wahsatch. Here are the rich stores of mineral wealth that have yielded to the skill and industry of the miner, and here is stored the far richer treasure of the snow, which alone has made agriculture a possibility, and thus has rendered the territory habitable by man. Soil. — The greater part of Utah is a desert by nature. The soil of the valleys, having largely been produced by wearing away of the mountain rocks, meets all the requirements of agriculture except the element of moisture, and therefore, when irrigated, yields bountiful returns to the farmer. Even the dry soils of the alkali plains and deserts readily submit to the influence of moisture, and, when washed free of their mineral impurities, are among the most productive in the territorj-. But as the amount of water available for purposes of irrigation is limited, the greater part of the cultivated lands of Utah lie at the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, and along the streams that take their rise high up the sides of that range. The north-eastern part of the territory, having a more regular rainfall, is adapted to grazing, its plains being covered with rich nutritious grasses. The greater part of Utah is treeless. The mountain forests consist chiefly of pine. The cottonwood grows along the banks of the streams. Minerals. — Utah is rich in deposits of silver, iron, copper, lead, and coal: but the leading product of the mines is silver. The mineral wealth of the territory is as yet largely undeveloped, and it is probable that in the end the richest mineral treasures will be found to be among the baser metals ratlier than in gold and silver. The richest mining districts are in the Wahsatch Range. Iron County possesses immense stores of the choicest iron ores. The granites, marbles, limestones, and slates are also of the best quality, and are found in abundance in several counties. The mountain streams, in addition to their service in irrigation, afford excellent and abundant water-power for nmning various mills, chiefly for the manufacture of flour, woolen goods, etc. VI. INDUSTRIES. Agriculture and mining are the chief industries of the people of the territory ; but considerable numbers are also engaged in manufactures, herding, and the various branches of commerce. Agriculture. — The leading farm products are wheat, barlev. oats, vege- tables, and fruit. In Southern L'tah the irrigated valleys produce cotton, tobacco, rice, and grapes in abundance. According to the census of 1880, there were in the territory 9,452 farms, containing 655,524 acres, nearly two-thirds of which were improved. These farms were valued at over $14,000,000, or over S20 per acre. It is notable that the average size of these farms is only 69 acres, which is below the average in any other state or territorj-. This feature is a peculiarity of Utah farming, by which a few acres are carefully watered and tended like a garden, thus yielding the richest return to the thrifty husbandman. Market-gardening for the supply of the many mining camps and larger towns in the territory is also a profitable jnirsuit. The hardy fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone are grown in the northern districts, while the sub-tropical region around the head waters of the \'irgin River yields grapes, oranges, apricots, and other fruits. Mining. — In 1881 the total product of the mines of the territory was estimated to exceed Sy.ooo.ooo. Of this, by far the greater part was silver. Gold is mined independently to some extent, and also in con- nection with silver. Lead is an incidental product of silver-mining. Coal is chiefly mined for manufacturing and railroad uses. Copper is found in rich deposits, and its product promises to be verj- large. Excellent building-stone is found in many localities, and good quarries are already opened up, adequate for local needs. Stock-raising is a growing industry in both Eastern and Western Utah. In i 3 t^ ftj o '^ w -• ;i ra • »- 3 « o 3-3.a;r5reS-n'*^ J=:t)z;Z3 -.T — « =■ I ? '"- •;5 5: :: w "■ >^ '^ ? 3 3- S S <" re 5' — -* c tj re 3 — ri :i :^ S ? ^ 13- , -- 3 P Si-' ^ 0! 3' re ^^- pi P " c _ S. -. n -• 5' — ^, [J GTQ 3 re 3 = - -. 3 "c -^ — £i- 3 „ / 3" /^ rt' re "1 « re O re t/j "-^ £. " o 3- Pi' "■ 3- o ii o 5 re ;;■ 28 CALIFORNIA. CALIFORNIA. SHEEP RANCHE DESCRIPTION. [Area, 158.360 square miles. Population [1880). 864,686 estimated population (1883), 1.000.000. I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — California, the largest and most populous of the Pacific States, borders on the Pacific Ocean, It is included between 32° 31' and 42° north latitude, and 120° and 124° 15' west longitude. Extent. — In shape it is an irregular oblong, about 750 miles long and 200 miles wide. It is three times as large as the New England States, and, e.xceptin Texas, is the largest state in the Union. II. SURFACE. Physical Divisions. — California may be divided into five distinct sections: (i) the mountain region of the Sierra Ne- vada ; (2) the plains of the Sacramento valley ; (3) the coast belt ; (4) the plateau east of the Sierra Nevada, on the border of the (ireat liasin ; (5) the Colorado desert, in the south-east. Mountains. — The .Sierra Nevada .Mountain.s extend north and south nearly two-thirds of the entire length of the state. The average width of this great range is about 70 miles. The western slope \o the Sacramento valley is very gradual, and is 60 miles long; the eastern slope to the Great Basin, short and precipitous, not exceed- ing 10 miles in length. The loftiest sumn. its are Mount Whitney (14.887 feet) in the south, and Mount Shasta (14,440 feet) in the north. The average height of the crest summits is from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. The higher peaks of this range are snow-clad all the vear round, and are the retreats of numerous small glaciers, — the remaining fragments of a system of mighty glaciers that once covered the entire chain. The Coast Range extends in parallel ridges, near the Pacific, the entire length of the state, 750 miles. It is from 20 to 40 miles wide, and is less than half the average height of the Sierra Nevada. Its most noted peaks are .Mount Hamilton (4,448 feet), the site of the VINE-GROWING. famous Lick Astronomical Observatory : St. Helena, in Napa valley '4-343 feet); Mount Tamalpais (2.604 feet), and Monte Diablo (3.848 feet), near the Bay of San Francisco; and Mount San Bernardino (1 1.600 feet), in the southern part of the state. Valleys. — In the central part of the state the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range are nearly parallel ; but in the north and towards the south the two chains run together, and inclose the Sacramento valley. This great central valley is 400 miles in length and from 20 to 50 miles in width. It is drained from the north by the Sacramento River, and from the south by the San Joaquin. The Coast Range is intersected CALIFORNIA. 29 by numerous small valleys opening towards the ocean, the most im- portant of which are the Russian River, Napa, Santa Clara, Salinas, and San Gabriel valleys. The Colorado desert, in the south-eastern part of the state, east of the San Bernardino Mountains, belongs to the Great Basin, but has a very moderate elevation, and in some places is below tlie level of tlie sea. It is dry, sandy, hot, and barren. The plateau region, east of the Sierra Nevada, is a part of the Great Basin, which includes Nevada and Utah. It is an arid country, gen- erally destitude of vegetation, with the e.xceplion of sage brush and bunch grass and the forests on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Scenery. — California is noted for its picturesque scener)'. The Vosemitc \'allc\'. in the lieart of the Sierra Nevada, attracts tourists from all parts of the world. It is a glacial valley seven miles long, and a mile and a half wide, with almost vertical walls of solid granite from 3,000 to 4.000 feet in height. It has numerous waterfalls, of which the most remarkable is the Yosemite Falls, where the water plunges down 1,600 feet in one unbroken sheet, and 2,600 feet in three leaps. Mount Shasta, in the extreme northern part of the state, is a volcanic cone, which rises 14,440 feet above the level of the sea, and 10,000 feet above the level of the surrounding plateau. It is one of the most beautiful of mountains ; and the surrounding country is a favori'te resort for tourists and hunters. The Big Tree Groves, near the Yosemite Valley, contain some of the largest trees in the world. Lake Tahoe is a favorite resort for summer tourists. III. DRAINAGE. The two largest rivers, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, drain the Sacramento basin, and flow into the Bay of San Francisco. Their tributaries rise in the summits of the Sierra Nevada, which supply an abundance of water from melting ice and snow during the long dry season. The Sacramento River, 400 miles long, rises in the lakes of the mountain region around Mount Shasta, and flows south into the Bay of San Francisco. It is navigable for small steamers to Red Bluff, 300 miles. Its chief tributaries are the American, Yuba, and Feather rivers. The San Joaquin, 350 miles long, rises in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and flows north into the Bay of .San Francisco. It is navigable for large steamers to Stockton, 120 miles, and for small steamers 75 miles farther. Its chief tributaries are the Kings, Kern, Merced, Tuolumne, Fresno, Stanislaus, Calaveras, and Mokelumne rivers. The smaller rivers which flow directly into the Pacific are the Klamath River, Eel River, and Russian River, north of the Bay of San Fran- cisco ; and the Salinas River and Santa Ana River, to the south of that bay. The rivers of the plateau and desert region east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains have no outlet to the ocean. They are small streams that terminate in salt lakes, or disappear by evaporation in the " sinks " of the desert. The most important of these rivers are the Mohave imo-hd've). which sinks in the sands of the Mohave desert: Owens River, which flows into Owens Lake (salt); the Truckce, which flows into Pryamid Lake in Nevada: Carson River: and Walker River. Lakes. — Lake Tahoe, two thirds in California and one third in Nevada, is in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. It is 20 miles long, 10 miles wide, and is noted for its beautiful moun- tain scenery. Clear Lake, in the Coast Range, north of the Bay of San Francisco, is a favorite summer resort. Tulare Lake is a large and shallow sheet of water which lies in the southern part of the Sacramento valle}-, and has its outlet in the San Joaquin River. Mono Lake lies at the foot of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, in a region of extinct volcanic cones. Its waters, like those of Great Salt Lake in Utah, are so intensely salt, bitter, and alkaline, that no fish can live in them. Owens Lake, south-east of Mono, is also a saline lake. In the northern part of the state, on the boundary line of Oregon, there is a group of fresh-water lakes, of which the largest are Goose, Rhett, and Klamatli lakes. IV. CLIMATE. The climate of California is sub-tropical. There are two seasons, — a dry season, from May to November (summer) ; and a rainy season, from November to May (winter). Snow falls only in the mountain regions. In general, the climate is health- ful, breezy, and invigorating, subject to no sudden extremes of heat and cold. In the coast belt the climate is remarkably mild and equable. In the Sacramento basin and the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada the summer is very hot and dry, but the rainy season is cool and delightful. The rain-winds of California are the south-west return trade-winds, which have their moisture condensed as they strike the cool mountain slopes and summits. In summer the great tropical rain-belt of the trade-winds is moved from 7° to 10° farther north than in winter. As a consequence the return trade-winds descend to the earth mostly to the northward of California. Besides, any rain-clouds falling upon California have their moisture dissipated and absorbed by the hot air rising from the heated earth during the long, dry, hot summer. The cause of the equable climate along the coast belt is the return Japan current, which moves in a broad stream from 20 to 30 miles wide the entire length of the coast. This current in winter is warmer than the neighboring land : in summer it is cooler. This difference of tempera- ture renders the climate more equable, and also causes the dense fogs prevailing along the coast both in summer and winter. The strong, chilling, and fog-laden winds that blow in San Francisco during the summer months are caused by the cold-air currents that rush from the ocean through the Golden Gate into the heated valley of the Sacramento. V. NATURAL ADVANTAGES. Soil. — The soil of the valleys and rolling hills is fertile and easily tilled, and is well adapted to the production of the cereals and the vine. The tule lands along the banks of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin are exceedingly productive when reclaimed and protected by levees from overflow. Minerals. — California is rich in minerals, of which the most important is gold. The gold region lies chiefly on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Quicksilver-mines are numerous in the northern part of the Coast Range. Petroleum is found in the coast belt south of San Francisco. The only coal-mines in the state which are extensively worked are near Monte Diablo, in Contra Costa County. ' There are also in California valuable deposits of iron, copper, and tin, though they are not extensivelv worked. Forests. — The western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and of the Coast Range north of the Bay of Monterey, are covered by extensive forests of conifers, such as pine, fir, and redwood. The most durable lumber for building purposes is supplied by the red- wood trees of the Coast Range. The oak and svcamore are found in the vallevs and foot-hills. The Sacramento valley, the southern coast belt, and the plateau and desert region east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, are almost desti- tute of trees. The " Big Trees " (Sequoia gigantea) are among the wonders of the world. Some of these trees are over 100 feet in circumference and 300 feet in height. The best known groves are the Calaveras Grove and the Mariposa Grove, both near the Yosemite Valley. There is a forest belt of these trees, from three to six miles in width, extending along 30 CALIFORNIA. the Sierra Nevada from the Yosemite region southward for 120 miles. : The Sequoia furnishes e.xcellent lumber resembling redwood. VI. INDUSTRIES. Agriculture is the leading occupation, the annual wheat-crop alone exceeding in value the annual product of the gold and ■ silver mines. Owing to the diversity of climate, surface, and soil, the agricultural products are exceedingly varied. The Cereals. — In wlieat-growing, California ranks as one of the leading states. Barley and oats are e.xtensively raised. The Grape. — The culture of the grape ranks ne.Nt in importance to wheat-raising. The vine thrives in nearly all parts of the state below an elevation of 4,000 feet. The annual wine product already exceeds 12,000,000 gallons. In the hot and dry Sacramento basin and in the southern part of the state the grapes are made into raisins. Fruit. — The central and northern sections of the state are favorable to the culture of apples, pears, peaches, plums, prunes, apricots, and cherries. Great quantities of plums and apricots are put up in cans for export, and pears and grapes are extensively shipped by rail to Eastern cities. Dried prunes, plums, and peaches are important articles of export. The coast belt south of Santa Barbara is noted for the production of the citrus fruits, — oranges, lemons, and limes. Other Products. — Bee-culture is an important industry in San Diego and Los Angeles counties, and great quantities of the finest honey are sent to Eastern markets. Olive-oil is an important product of the olive-orchards. Cotton and tobacco grow in the state, but are not extensively cultivated. Potatoes and other vegetables are grown along the coast and in the bay counties. Mining. — For twenty years after the discovery of gold in 1S4S, mining was the leading industry in California; but since that period it has ranked second in importance to agriculture. The annual gold product does not now exceed ?i 7,000,000 ; but formerly, for many years in succession, the annual yield exceeded $50,000,000. The total product of the mines since 1S48 is estimated to exceed j5 1, 000,000,000. Gold is obtained from "quartz-mines " by crusliing gold-bearing quartz- rock, and from gravel banks by washing away the earth with streams of water forced by heavy pressure through strong hose-pipe. Prominent among the other industries are stock-raising, lum- bering, varied manufactures, and a large domestic and foreign trade. Stock-raising. — Tlie rolling hills and the mountain slopes of Cali- fornia allord pasturage for large herds of cattle, horses, and sheep. The coast belt north of San Francisco is noted for its dairy products. Lumbering. — In the redwood forests of the coast north of San Fran- cisco, and in some parts of the Sierra Nevada, saw-mills are numer- ous, and lumbering is the chief industry. Manufactures. — The most important manufactured products are lumber. Hour, wine, liquors, mining machinerv, iron-work, woolens, boots and shoes, leather, clothing, canned and dried fruits. Commerce — California has an extensive exiiort and import trade. It is connected by steamship lines with China, Japan, India, the Sand- wich Islands, Australia, Mexico, and South Amiyica. It is connected with the Atlantic states by two transcontinental railroads, bv a steam- ship line via Panama, and by sailing-vessels around Cape Horn, Its chief exports are wheat, wine, wool, gold, dried and canned fruits. Its chief imports are tea, coffee, sugar, and manufactured articles of all descriptions, VII. GOVERNMENT. The government of California is administered under the pro- visions of the state constitution, which was adopted in the year 1879. State Government, — Tlie officers of the executive department of the state government are the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, comptroller, treasurer, attorney-general, surveyor-general, clerk of the Supreme Court, and superintendent of public instruction, all elected by direct vote of the people for a term of four years. The Legislature consists of a Senate of forty members, elected for four years, and of an .Assembly of eighty members, elected for two years. The Legislature holds biennial sessions. The judicial power is vested in the Senate sitting as a court of impeach- ment, in a Supreme Court, superior courts, justices of the peace, and such inferior courts as may be established by law. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. Local Government. — The officers of a county government are a board of supervisors, board of education, treasurer, assessor, ta.\-collector, district-attorney, sheriff, surveyor, county clerk, and superintendent of common schools. The unit of political division is the school district, the officers of which consist of three school trustees, elected by direct vote of the people for a term of three years. National Representation. — California is represented in Congress at Washington by two senators and six representatives, and hence is entitled to eight electoral votes. Vlli. EDUCATION. The state has a well-organized system of public schools. The state constitution provides that a free school shall be maintained in every school district for at least six months in the year. The schools are supported partly by state, by county, and by district taxation. Each county has a county superintendent of common schools, elected by the people for a term of four years, and a county board of education, consisting of the county superintendent and four members appointed by the county board of supervisors. The county board of education prescribes the text-books and coUit.e of study, and examines teachers. Each school district has a board of trustees of three members, elected at special school elections for three years, one member being elected each year. The scliool trustees appoint teachers, build schoolhouses, and have the local government of the schools. California raises annually, by direct state tax, more than a million of dollars for the support of public schools; and the total expenditure for schools in 1S83 was over three millions of dollars. State Institutions. — The State University of California, at Berkeley, is well endowed, and is free to both young men and young women. The State Normal ,School, at San Jose, is attended by a large number of students ; and the Branch State Normal School at Los Angeles is a flourishing institution. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind is located at Berkeley. There are numerous denominational colleges and seminaries and many excellent private schools, IX. HISTORY. Upper or Alta California was first explored by the Spaniards, within fifty years after the discovery of America by Columbus. The name •' California " was given by the Spaniards to tlie region norlli of Mexico. The name is taken from an old Crusader romance which was very popular in the days of Cortez. The Spaniards made their first settlement in Upper (California, at San Diego, in 1769. San Diego was the first of a series of Missions, which the Spanish Catholic missionaries established in California, running north from San Diego to San Francisco, Into these Mis- sions the Indians were gathered, and the Padres, or Roman Catholic priests, taught them the arts of civilization. They cultivated the vine, the olive, and the fig, and lived in spacious houses, built of adobe, or sun-dried bricks. In 1822 .Mexico threw off the yoke of Spain, and became an independent republic. Alta or Upper California was then made a Mexican province. The first American settlers found their way into California in 1S43, In 1S46 the war between the llniled States and Mexico began. The Americans in California immediately raised the "bear flag," and asserted their independence of Mexico. At this time Capt, John C, CALIFORNIA. Fremont, who had been sent west to survey a new route to Oregon, arrived in California. Fremont united with the Americans, who were successful in several encounters with the Mexicans. In July, 1S46, Commodore Sloat, then commander of the United States fleet on the Pacific coast, hearing of the declaration of war, took pos- session of Monterey. A little later, Stockton superseded Sloat. He took San Diego, and, aided by Fremont, captured Los Angeles. Late in the year, Gen. Kearney, with a small column from the army operat- ing against Mexico on the northern line, reached California after a long and toilsome march from Santa Fe, in New Mexico. Kearney arrived in time to take part in the battle of San Gabriel, Jan. S, 1847. This action overthrew the Spanish power, and established the author- ity of the United States in California. The Mexican war was ended by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848. It was just before this treaty was con- cluded that the first discovery of gold in California took place (Jan. 19, 1648), — a discovery which resulted in founding a great state on the Pacific coast. The news of the discovery reached the States ; and it soon spread throughout the world that California was the golden land, the true '' El Dorado." An extraordinary rush of immigration to the diggings now set in. Some crossed the thousands of miles of dreary and desolate plains, others braved the deadly climate of the Panama route, while still others made the long circumnavigation of Cape Horn. In 1849, between the months of April and January, nearly forty thousand emigrants arrived at the port of San Francisco. California was soon ready to become a state. In September, 1849, a convention met at Monterey and framed a state consti- tution. Congress admitted California into the Union, Sept. 9, 1850, The history of California may be divided into two periods, — the period of ''gold and experiment," and the period of "wheat and growth." The first period began with the discovery of gold, and lasted till about i860. During this period the great object of the people was to | accumulate a fortune and return " home." The second period began when the population ceased to be exclusively a mining population and ; commenced to develop the agricultural resources of the state. After some years it was found that the yearly returns derived from the export of wheat were fully equal to the value of the gold produced. With the period of "wheat and growth,'' people began to think of mak- ing their homes on the Pacific coast. They found they had every in- ducement to do so in its remarkable climate and its rich returns for human industry. The subsequent progress of California has been both rapid and health- ful. The pioneers of California were, as a rule, young men of energy and brains. Many were finely educated. This has given a very bright and progressive character to California life and civilization. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. California is divided into fifty-two counties, and contains the following leading cities and towns : — San Francisco, the largest city of the Pacific coast, is a great commercial and manufacturing seaport. In foreign com- merce it ranks as the fourth city^ in the United States. The foundation of its commercial greatness is its magnificent harbor, the finest on the whole coast. The city is situated on a low sandy peninsula lying between the Bay of San Francisco and the Pacific Ocean. The bay is a beautiful sheet of water 60 miles long and ro miles wide. The entrance to this land- locked harbor is through the Golden Gate, a narrow strait one mile wide. The manufactures consist of mining-machinery, iron-work, woolen goods, boots and shoes, leather, clothing, cigars, carriages, furniture, and agricultural implements. The chief exports are wheat, wine, wool, gold, canned and dried fniits. The chief imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, svigar, coffee, and tea. San Francisco*is the site of a United States branch mint, the largest and finest in the world. Sacramento, in Sacramento County, on the Sacramento River, 120 miles from its mouth, is the capital of the state. The state Capitol is an imposing building, erected at a cost of three millions of dollars. Sacramento is the site of the exten- sive machine-shops of the Central Pacific Railroad. It is in the center of a rich farming region, and has an extensive trade. Oakland, in Alameda County, on the east side of the Bay of San Fran- cisco, 10 miles from San Francisco, ranks in population as the second city in the state. It is closely connected with San Francisco by ferries. It is a favorite place of residence on account of its trees, its gardens, and its mild climate. The city has important manufactories of hosiery, cotton goods, nails, etc. Los Angeles, in Los Angeles County, is the business center of Southern California. It is noted for its orange groves and vineyards, and is a favorite winter resort for Eastern tourists. It is the seat of the IJranch State Nor- mal School. San Jose, in Santa Clara County, is the trade center of the beautiful and highly cultivated valley of Santa Clara. It is the seat of the State Normal School and of the College of Notre Dame. Stockton, in San Joaquin County, on the San Joaquin River, has a large agricultural trade with the surrounding country. It is the seat of the State Asylum for the Insane. Alameda — contiguous to Oakland, is, like that city, a famous place of residence for people doing business in San Francisco. Berkeley — contiguous to Oakland on the north, IS the seat of the University of California and of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind. Chico — in Butte County, has an important trade in farm products and lumber. Eureka — in Humboldt County, on Humboldt Bay, in the redwood region, has the largest lumber trade in the state Fresno — in Fresno County, in the southern pan of the San Joaquin valley, is the trade center of a large vine and fruit growing region made fertile by irrigation. Grass Valley — in Nevada County, is a mountain town in the midst of extensive quartz-mines. Modesto — in Stanislaus Count>', in the San Joa- quin valley, on the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad, is the trade center of a large agricultural region. Monterey — in Monterey County, on Monterey Bay, is a fashionable summer resort. Marysville — in Yuba County, has an extensive mining and agricultural trade. Napa — in Napa County, on the Napa valley branch of the California Pacific Railroad, commands the trade of the beautiful and fertile Napa valley. It is the site of a branch State Asylum for the Insane. Nevada City — in Nevada Countj-, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, is situated in a rich gold region, and has an extensive mining business. Petaluma — in Sonoma County, on the San Fran- cisco and North Pacific Railroad, and at the head of navigation on Petaluma Creek, is an important shipping point for the farm prod- ucts of Sonoma County. Port Costa — in Contra Costa County, on the Bay of San Francisco, 30 miles from the city of San Francisco, is the chief point for the ocean shipment of wheat. It contains im- mense warehouses for storing grain, and h.-is the largest flour-mill in the state. Placcrville — in El Dorado County, is the termi- nus of the Sacramento and Placcrville Rail- road. It was formerly a famous mining town. Red Bluff — in Tehama County, at the head of light steamer navigation on the Sacramento, commands the trade of the upper Sacramento valley. Santa Barbara — in Santa Barbara County, on the seacoast, is a favorite resort for invalids and tourists, on account of its charming climate. San Bernardino — in San Bernardino County, in the southern part of the stale, is surrounded by vineyards and orange groves. It is on the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad, and has an extensive trade with Arizona. Santa Cruz — in Santa Cruz County, is a noted summer resort for sea-bathing. It has manu- factures of paper, powder, lime, and leather. Santa Clara — in Santa Clara County, is sur- rounded by an extensive fruit-growing region. It is the scat of the University of the Pacific and of the Santa Clara College. San Diego — in San Diego County, on San Diego Bay, has one of the finest harbors of the Pacific coast. It is connected by rail with the Southern Pacific Railroad at CoUon. San Quentin — in Marin County, on the Bay of San Francisco, is the site of the State Prison of California. Santa Rosa — in Sonoma County, is the business center of the fertile Russian River valley. San Rafael — in Marin County, on the shores of the Bay of San Francisco, is a favorite sum- mer resort on account of its delightful sum- mer climate. St. Helena — in Napa vallej*, is surrounded by extensive vineyards, and has an extensive trade in wine. Truckee — in Nevada County, near the crest of the Sierra, at an elevation of about 6,000 feet, h.is extensive saw-mills and lumber manufactories, run by the water-power of the Truckee River. It is in the vicinity of Donner Lake and Lake Tahoe. In winter snow falls to a great depth. Vallejo — in Solano Couni>', on the Bay of San Francisco, is the bay terminus of the Napa Valley and the California Pacific railroads. Near the city, on Mare Island, is a United States navy-yard, — the only one on the Pacific coast. Visalia — in Tulare County, is the trade center of an extensive grain-growing region in the San Joaquin valley. Yreka— in Siskiyou County, is in the extreme northern part of the state. It was once a famous mining town, but is now the trade center of an agricultural and stock-raising country. It is on the tine of the California and Oregon Railroad. 32 NEVADA. NEVADA. DESCRIPTION. [Area. 110.700 square miles. Population {Census of 1880). 62.266.] I. SITUATION AND EX- TENT. Situation. — Nevada lies east of California, and includes the western part of the central plateau known as the Great Basin. This basin, between the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch Mountains, is 500 miles in width, and is crossed by more than one hundred short moun- tain ranges. Nevada is included be- tween 35° and 42° north latitude and 1 14*^ and 120° west longitude. Extent. — It is nearly 500 miles in length north and south, and 300 miles in width. In area it is about two-thirds the size of California, and about equal to Colorado or Arizona. II. SURFACE. This state is a vast plateau, elevated about 4,CXX) feet above the level of the sea. It is crossed north and south by short detached mountain ranges and spurs, over sixty in number, gen- erally lying in parallel lines, with narrow intervening valleys. Mountains. — The highest mountain summits are Mount Wheeler (12,800 feet), Mount Moriah (12.000 feet), and Granite Mountain (12,000 feet), — all in the Snake Range, near the boundary line of Utah. The most noted peak is Mount Davidson (7,827 feet), famous for its immense mineral treasures. SUTRO TUNNEL. Valleys. — Nevada has no broad river valleys. Its longest rivers, the Humboldt and the Carson, are bordered in a part of their courses by a narrow strip of green and fertile meadow lands. Many of its wide, open valleys lying between mountain ranges have no rivers e.xcept the small, narrow streams that rush down from the melting snows, and rapidly disappear on reaching the plains. The valleys and plains are covered in many places with sage-brush and bunch-grass, with here and there an alkaline flat of dazzling white, or a small lake of intensely salt and bitter water. General Aspect. — The general aspect of the country is exceedingly barren, desolate, and unin\-iting. III. DRAINAGE. As Nevada lies in a region of light rains, its rivers are small and comparative!}' few. Its only waters that reach the Pacific are a few small streams that flow into the Colorado. All its other rivers flow into saline lakes, or terminate in sinks in the sandy deserts. The Humboldt, the largest and longest river, rises in the north-eastern part of the state, flows south-westerly in a winding cour.se of 350 miles, and disappears in the broad, shallow, and brackish waters of the Hum- boldt lake and sink. The Central Pacific Railroad runs along the narrow valley of this river for more than 200 miles. Truckee River, which is the outlet of Lake Tahoe, is 90 miles long, and flows into Pyramid Lake. Lake Tahoe is partly in Nevada, and partly in California. The Carson River rises in the Sierra Ne\'ada Mountain.s, and flows east- erly into Carson Lake; and Walker River, rising in the .same moun- tains, flows into Walker Lake. The Colorado is merely a boundary river. None of the rivers of Nevada are navigable, but they are valuable for irrigation purposes. IV. CLIMATE. The average annual rainfall in Nevada does not exceed five inches : hence the climate is exceedingly dry. The extremes of heat and cold are much greater than they are nearer the coast in the same latitude. NEVADA. 33 The cause of the dryness of the Great Basin is the Sierra Nevada Kanj^e, which condenses the greater part of the moisture in the rain-winds from the Pacific. In summer, on the arid plains, the heat during the day is intense; but, owing to rapid radiation, tlie nights are always cool. V. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES. Agriculture is possible in Nevada only where the soil ean be irrigated by the water of mountain streams. The extent of land capable of being cultivated depends entirely on the water-supply. The farms of Nevada lie chieHy along the banks of the Carson River, Walker River, and Humboldt River, where the products i are grain, hay, vegetables, and fruit. In parts of the state the extensive plains, covered with sage-brush and bunch-grass, afTord fine natural pasturage for cattle and sheep, and stock-raising is an important pursuit. Minerals. — Nevada, though meager in vegetation, is rich in minerals, and mining is the chief pursuit of the people. Silver-mines are fountl in nearly every mountain range in the state. The most noted mines are those of the Comstock Lode, on Mount David- i son, in Storey County, in the western part of the state. These are called silver-mines, though they yield both gold and silver. For many years after their discovery in 1859 they were the richest mines in the world, yielding an annual product of 530,000,000. The mines of the ' Eureka and White Pine Districts were also famous for their richness. 1 The total silver product of Nevada in 1881 exceeded $8,000,000. Lead is obtained in large quantities in the reduction of silver ores. Salt is found spread in thin beds over the surface of low basins, and in the form of rock-salt in solid crystalline masses. Nevada also contains valuable deposits of soda, sulphur, borax, and antimonv, though none of these minerals are extensively worked. Forests. — The greater part of Nevada is almost treeless. The forests are limited to a narrow belt on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and the canons of the mountain ridges, where the pine, fir, and spruce reach a considerable size, though not so large as on the California slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The nut pine yields a great abundance of edible nuts, which the Indians use as an important article of food. Commerce. — The trade of Nevada consists in the e.xport of bullion and ores, live-stock, and wool, and in the import of bread-stuffs, machinery, and manufactured articles of all de- scriptions. The most important railroad is the Central Pacific, which extends the entire width of the state. There are several short branch roads, of which the most important are the Virginia and Truckee, from Reno to Virginia City ; the Eureka and Palisade ; the Battle Mountain and Austin. Vi. GOVERNMENT. The present constitution was adopted in 1866, and its pro- visions are of the most liberal character. The officers of the execiilive department of the government are the governor, lieutenant-governor, secrctarv of state, treasurer, comp- troller, surveyor-general, attorney-general, and superintendent of public instruction, all elected bv direct vote of the people, for a term of four years. The legislative department consists of a Senate of twenty-five members, elected for four years, and an Assembly of fifty members, elected for two years. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial. The judicial department consists of a Supreme Court, district courts, and justices of the peace, elected by direct vote of the peojile. National Representation, — Nevada is represented in Congress at Wash- ington by two senators and one representative, and is therefore entitled to three electoral votes. VII. EDUCATION. The public school system of Nevada resembles that of Cali- fornia. The schools are under the general control of a State Board of Education, consisting of the governor, the superintendent of jiublic instruction, and the surveyor-general. Each county has a count) suiierinfendent of schools, and each school district has a local district board of three trustees. There is a State University at Elko. The schools of Virginia City, Gold Hill, and Carson are distinguished for their excellence, VIM. HISTORY. The soil of Nevada was part of the extensive territory ac- quired by the United States from Mexico by the treaty of (iuadaloupe Hidalgo, in 1848. When the present boundaries of California were marked off, in 1S50, the newly-acquired region to the east was organized as Utah Territory. This territory embraced nearly all of what is now the state of Nevada. While Nevada was a part of L'tah it received a small Mormon popula- tion. These first actual settlers went to Nevada in 1848. The population was very small till the time of the first great silver dis- covery, in 1859, when it increased rapidly by emigration from Cali- fornia, A number of towns were founded, among which Virginia City and Carson took the lead. Nevada was made a separate territory in 1861, and in 1864 was admitted into the Union as a state. IX. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Nevada is divided into thirteen counties, each of which has a local county government. It contains the following leading cities and towns : — Virginia City (10,917), in Storey County, is the most noted mining town in the world. It is built on the steep slopes of Mount Davidson, at an elevation of 6,0CX3 feet above the sea- level and of 2,000 feet above the surrounding plateau. The ores of the famous mines that underlie the city are obtained by means of shafts and inclines, some of which reach a depth of more than 3.000 feet. The machinery of these mines for hoisting the ore, pumping the water, and ventilating the lower levels is the finest and costliest in the world. The lower levels are so intensely hot that the miners can work only half an hour at a time ; and to strangers visiting the mines the heat is insufferable. The immense quantities of lumber used in timbering up the shafts and drifts in the mines are brought , from the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Gold Hill (4,531) is on the Comstock Lode, contiguous to Virginia City. Indeed, the two cities run together, and form but one town, though they have distinct city governments. Some of the richest mines lie underneath the town. Both Gold Hill and \'irginia City are supplied with water from the Sierra Nevada, brought bv means of flumes and strong iron pipe. Both cities are distinguished for their excellent public schools. Carson (4,229), in Ormsby County, is the capital of Nevada. It is situated near the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada Moun- tains, and is abundantly supplied with the purest mountain water. It is the site of a United States branch mint. Austin, in Lander County, is the center of the silver-mining district of Reese River. Hamilton — in \Vh'M Pine County, lies in ihc center of a rich mining district. Reno — in Washoe County, is on the Truckee River, on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, at the point of its junction with the Virginia and Trvickec Railroad, of the richest mining districts in the state. Winnemucca — in Humboldt County, on Hum- It is connected by rail with the Central Pa- , boldt River, contains extensive workshops of cific Railroad at Palisade. ' the Central Paafic Railroad, Battle Mountain — on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, is a shipping point of ores and mining supplies. Elko — on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, is the site of the State University. Eureka — in Eureka County, is the center of one _3»- 3.*- Local Time A.X. 3" u-hen yoon on 3^ the Meridian 4 of Greenicicll 4 ■^ \ *•' Local Time A. ]^. 9 when Noon on 9' the Meridian 9* o/ "WashiTHr^on 9'i2 OREGON. OREGON ^^%A.,,!ilj4 MT HOOD QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — Wliat division north of Oregon 'i What river marks most of this boundary? What division -on the east? What states on the south? By what is it boinided on the west? Between what parallels is it situated? Nearly between what meridians ? According to the scale of miles, what is its width from east to west? What its length from north to south? Surface. — What is the nature of the surface of the western portion ? The central and eastern portion ? What is the principal mountain range? Its location and extent? What high mountain peaks does it contain ? What e.xtensive river valley ? Lakes and Rivers. — What is the largest river ? Describe its course. In what direction do its tributaries in this state flow? Name and describe the tributary which forms part of its eastern boundary. What considerable streams empty into the Pacific Ocean ? What lakes in the southern part ? Are they connected by rivers with the ocean ? Counties and Cities. — How many counties are there in Oregon ? In what part of the state are the counties smallest in extent? Where the largest in extent? What counties border on the Columbia River? What counties border on the Willamette River to the west? What to the east? What is the capital, and where is it located? The largest city? What city near the mouth of the Columbia River? Name several cities located on the Colum- bia River. Several on the Willamette River. What proportion of the state appears from the map to be but sparsely settled ? DESCRIPTION. \krea, 96,030 square miles. Population {Census of 1880), 174,768.] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — Oregon lies ne.xt north of California, bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and extending to the Columbia River, which separates it from Washington Territory on the north. It extends from 42° to 46° 20' north latitude, and from 1 16° 30' to 124° 35' west longitude. Extent. — In shape it is an oblong, 350 miles long east and west, and 275 miles wide. In area it is a little more than half as large as California. II. SURFACE. Mountains. — Oregon is a mountainous state. The Cascade Range extends north and south the entire length of the state, at a distance of 120 miles from the coast. It divides the state into two distinct sections, East Oregon and West Oregon. The loftiest summit is Mount Hood, a volcanic cone 1 1,225 feet in height. The Coast Range is made up of numerous broken ridges and spurs, the highest of which do not e.xceed an elevation of 4,000 feet. In the southern part of the state the most marked ridges are known as the Umpqua, the Rogue River, and the Cala- poosa mountains. The Blue Mountains are in the northern part of East Oregon. Valleys. — The largest and most highly cultivated valley, the 36 OREGON. Willamette, lies between the Cascade Mountains and the Coast Range. It is 140 miles long, and from 10 to 40 miles wide. There arc numerous coast valleys opening towards the Pacific, the most important of which are those of Rogiie River and the Umpqua River. Plateaus and Plains. — East Oregon is a plateau region which has an elevation of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The south-eastern section is an extension of the Great Basin. This is largely a desert region, covered with volcanic ashes, sand, and sage-brush, and dotted here and there with alkaline lakes. The scenery along most of the rivers of the state is remarkably fine ; and at the Cascades, where the Columbia breaks through the mountain walls of lava basalt, it is especially majestic and beautiful. III. DRAINAGE. The Columbia, with its tributaries, drains the greater part of Oregon. It forms the northern boundary of the state for a tlistance of 300 miles. It rises in the Rocky Mountains of the northern United States and British America, and flows south- westerly into the Pacific. Its chief branches in Oregon are the Willamette, Des Chutes, John Day, Umatilla, and Snake. There are numerous short rivers flowing from the Coast Range directly into the ocean, of which the largest are Rogue River and the Umpqua. The greater part of the lake country along the border of California is drained through that state by the Klamath River. In a part of the central plateau the rivers terminate in alkaline lakes, either within the state, or in Northern Nevada and California. IV. CLIMATE. The climate resembles that of California in respect to sea- sons, there being two seasons, — the wet or winter, and the dry or simimcr season. But the winters are colder and the rainfall greater than on the more southern Pacific coast. Eastern Oregon has a drier climate than Western Oregon because the Cascade Mountains condense the moisture of the rain-clouds from the Pacific. The climate of the coast belt of Oregon and of the Willamette valley is made cooler in summer and milder in winter by tiie Japan current, which flows southward along the coast. This current is warmer tlian the land in winter, and colder in summer, thus causing the prevailing fogs along the coast of Oregon as well as of California. On the coast there is very little snow or ice ; but in the mountain valleys and in Eastern Oregon there is considerable snowfall, followed by heavy rains toward the end of the winter season. The summers in the mountains are warm and delightful. V. RESOURCES. The soil of the Willamette valley, the coast valleys, the Des Chutes valley, and the valley of the Columbia in Eastern Oregon, is a rich black loam, and is very fertile, yielding in abundance all the products of the temperate zone. It is espe- cially adapted to the production of the cereals, root-crops, and fruits. There are also large tracts of natural pasture-lands adapted to grazing of herds of cattle and sheep. The gold-mines of Eastern Oregon are worked to a considerable e.xtent, and the Coast Mountains contain valuable coal-deposits. The great forest belt between the Cascade Mountains and the coast constitutes one of the chief resources of the state. The trees are mostly coniferous, the pine, fir, and cedar; being valuable for lumber and for the production of ship-stores, — tar, turpentine, and rosin. VI. INDUSTRIES. Agriculture is the leading industry of the state ; and the chief product is wheat, of which many millions of bushels are annually exported. The other important farm-products are barley, oats, potatoes, garden vegetables, and fruit, — such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, and cherries. The broad plains of Eastern Oregon afford good grazing-grounds for cattle, horses, and sheep ; and wool and live-stock are largely exported. In 1880, according to the report of the tenth census, there were produced 7,480,000 bushels of wheat, 4.385,000 bushels of oats, 1,359.000 bushels of potatoes, 920,000 bushels of barley, 126,000 bushels of Indian-corn, and orchard products to the value of ?583,ooo. The improved land in farms amounted to 2,198,000 acres, which %vas about double that of 1870, and was estimated to be worth about §57,000,000. Manufactures. — The saw-mills of Oregon produce immense quantities of lumber. Oregon pine is shipped to all parts of the western coast of America, and even to more distant quar- ters of the globe. The forests also furnish material for ship-building, which is a large and growing industry. The other important manufactures are woolen goods, iron-work, carriages, leather, and pine products. In 1S80 tlie capital invested in manufactures was over J 6,3 12,000, and the annual product over Sio,ooo,ooo in value. Fisheries. — The salmon fisheries near the mouth of the Columbia are very extensive, and great quantities of canned salmon are exported. Sea-fishing is also prosecuted by considerable numbers. The total value of the product of fisheries of Oregon in 1880 was over $2,776,000. In the value of its fisheries product, Oregon ranked as the seventh state in the Union. Commerce. — Wheat, lumber, and fish are the leading ex- ports. Wheat is shipped direct from Portland and Astoria to Liverpool and China. Lumber, masts, and spars are shipped to California, South America, and the Atlantic States. Other articles of export are wool, hides, and bullion. The chief imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, coffee, tea, and sugar. Oregon carries on an extensive coasting trade with California, Alaska, British Columbia, and the ports on Puget Sound. It has railroad communication with California by means of the Oregon and California Railroad, now nearly completed. It is connected with the eastern states by the Northern Pacific Railroad, which has its western termi- nus at New Tacoma, on Puget Sound in Washington Territory; and by the Oregon Branch of the Union Pacific Railroad, which enters the state from the south-east. The Columbia River sjstem is navigable for ships to Portland (on the Willamette, 12 miles above its junction with the Columbia), 112 miles from the sea. The main stream of the Columbia is also nangable for smaller vessels to the Cascades, 60 miles above the mouth of the Willa- mette. There is a short railroad around these Cascades, above which the river is navigable for steamers to the Dalles. Here there is a second railroad around the rapids, above which small steamers ascend the Snake River to Lewiston in Idaho, — a distance of 275 miles from the Dalles, and 475 from the Pacific Ocean. The Willamette is navi- gable for steamers of considerable size as far south as Eugene City during a large part of the year. Tliis and other rivers are rendered navigable by means of locks and portage-railroads, and thus contribute largely to the commercial facilities of the state. VII. GOVERNMENT. The government of Oregon is administered in accordance with the provisions of the State Constitution, adopted in 1859. The officers of the executive department of the state government are the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, and superin- tendent of public instruction, all elected by direct vote of the people for a term of four years. The legislative department consists of a Senate of thirty members, elected ' for four years, and a House of Representatives of sixty members, elected for two vears. OREGON. Z7 The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, circuit courts, county courts, and justices of the peace. Oregon is represented in the National Congress by two senators and one r representative, and has three electoral votes for President of the United States. VIII. EDUCATION. The public schools of Oregon are under the general control af a State Board of Education, consisting of the governor, the secretary of state, and the superintendent of public instruction. Each county has a county superintendent of schools, and each school district a school board of three members. The schools of Portland are noted for their excellence, and the country district schools are steadily increasing in excellence. ' In addition to its excellent system of public schools, there are a number of superior private institutions of high grade in the state. Among these are Pacific University, at Forest Grove ; McMinnville College, at McMinnville; Willamette University, at Salem; Blue Mountain Uni- versity, at La Grande ; Ashland College and Normal School, at Ash- land ; and the Bishop Scott Grammar School, at Portland. IX. HISTORY. The coast of Oregon, though occasionally visited by naviga- tors from early times, did not attract much attention until near the close of the last century. As early as the year 1788 twro trading ships from Boston, under Capts. Kendrick and Gray, visited the Oregon coast. In 1792 Capt. Gray discovered the great river of Oregon, which he named the Columbia, in honor of Capt. Kendrick's ship. At this time this North Pacific country did not belong to any nation. When the United States acquired from France the great territory of Louisiana, in 1803, President Jefferson sent an exploring party, under Lewis and Clark, to go to the head waters of the Missouri River, and thence advance across to tlie Pacific. These bold explorers, with a party of men, set out in 1S04. They explored to the very head of the Missouri River, a distance of three thousand miles, then crossed to the head waters of the Columbia, and down that river to its mouth. This was the first exploration of this region. The report of this exploration led John Jacob Astor, a far-seeing merchant of New York, to plan a settlement on the Oregon coast, with the view of fur-trading. Mr. Astor sent out one party across the continent, and another in a vessel; and in 181 1 a settlement was made on the southern bank of the Columbia. This settlement was named Astoria. The British became very jealous of this American settlement, and set up a claim to the North Pacific region. By treachery Astoria was given up to the British " North-west Fur Company" in 1812. The United States continued to assert its claim to the country. A great deal of correspondence on the subject between the two governments resulted. At last, in 1818, the United States and England agreed to a joint occupancy of the whole territory for ten years. In 1828 the treaty of joint occupancy was renewed, to terminate on either party giving a year's notice. Up to this time, the number of Americans in Oregon was trifling; and the first beginnings of real settlement were made in 1834. In that year a little band of Methodist missionaries established themselves in the lovely valley of the \\'illamette. Here they were joined by others, and several mission stations were founded. No settlement of the conflicting claims of the British and Americans to this region was made till 1846. It was then agreed by a treaty that the American possessions should extend as far north as latitude 49°. Out of the bounds of Oregon were afterwards formed the state of Oregon and the territories of Washington and Idaho. Oregon was organized as a territory in 1848. The growth of Oregon was very slow until after the discovery of gold in California. In 1S50 Congress passed a law giving lands to settlers in Oregon. The country then began to fill up. In 1859 it was admitted as a state. Since the completion of the Pacific railroads its growth has been e.\ceedingly rapid. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Oregon contains twenty-three counties and the following leading cities and towns : — Portland (17,577), 'i^ Multnomah County, is the business center and largest city of Oregon. It is situated at the head of navigation on the Willamette River, a little over twelve miles above its junction with the Columbia. It is an impor- tant railroad center, and is a manufacturing and commercial city. From its location at the foot of the rich valleys of the Columbia and the Willamette, and at the head of ship navigation in the Columbia River system, it enjoys a commanding commercial position on the Pacific coast as the most important jjoint between San Francisco and Puget Sound. Since the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad the city has grown even more rapidly than before. The city has excellent public schools and other educational institutions. Salem (2,538), in Marion County, south of Portland, 53 miles by rail, is the capital of the state. It has an extensive water- power, and has large flour and woolen mills. The Willamette River affords excellent shipping facilities, and the city is a distributing point for a large and wealthy agricultural section. Other manufactures are iron, leather, etc. The city is the seat of Willamette University. Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia, is a seaport, a summer resort, and the center of the business of canning salmon. The salmon fisheries employ several thousand men, and the value of the annual product of salmon exceeds $3,000,000. The facilities for lumbering and ship-building are also great, and are being largely developed. Albany, on the Willamette, south of Salem, has extensive flour-mills, saw-mills, carriage-factories, and machine-shops. It has a large trade with the interior, and by means of rail and river transportation has excellent shipping facilities. Corvallis, the county seat of Benton County, is favorably located on the west bank of the Willamette, and is the seat of the State Agricultural College. The Dalles, county seat of Wasco County, is situated at the Upper Cas- cade Rapids of the Columbia, 115 miles from Portland. It has great advan- tages as a manufacturing point, and is the center of trade for Eastern Oregon. This place is much visited on account of the splendid scenery of the Dalles of the Columbia. Eugene City, at the head of steamer navigation on the Willamette River, is the seat of the State University, and is the shipping point for farm-products for a large section of the Willamette valley. Jacksonville, county seat of Jackson County, in the southern part of the state, on the line of the Oregon and California Railroad, is the trade center of .Southern Oregon. Oregon City, county seat of Clackamas County, is situated about 12 miles south of Portland, on the Willamette. It has a valuable water-power, and contains flouring-mills, saw-mills, and the largest woolen-mills in the state. The Willamette is here made navigable by an extensive series of lochs on the west bank of the river. Roseberg, on the Umpqua River, is an important trading town on the Oregon and California Railroad. Baker City, county seat of Baker County, is a growing place in Eastern Oregon on the line of the Oregon branch of the Union Pacific Railroad. Several prosperous mining districts are in the vicinit\'. East Portland, opposite Portland, on the Willamette, is a busy and enter- prising place, which shares the growth and prosperity of its neighboring city. Among other places worthy of special mention, are Dallas, a manufac- turing town, in Polk County ; Ashland, near the California line, in Jackson County; Forest Grove, seat of the Pacific University, in Washington County; Marshfield and Empire City, near the coast, in Coos County ; McMinnville, a railroad town and seat of the McMinnville College, in Yamhill County; Pendleton, center of a fine agricultural region, and county seat of Umatilla County: Umatilla, a shipping and trading town on the Columbia River; Brownsville; Dayton; Halsey; Junction City; Oakland; and Weston. 38 WASHINGTON. WASHINGTON. CUTTING UP A WHALE. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — What coun- try on the north of Wash- ington Territory? What di- vision on the east ? What state on the south ? What forms the western bound- ary ? What larsje river forms a large part of tlie southern boundary .' What degrees of latitude nearly mark its limits north and south ? What is the distance between these limits according to the scale of miles ? What degree of longitude marks its eastern limit? How many miles from this meridian across the territory to the Pacific Ocean ? Surface. — What is the nature of the surface west of the Columbia River? What east of this river? What range of mountains extends through the territory from north to south ? Name and locate some of the highest peaks. What important valley largely within this territory ? What is the nature of the coast ? Lakes and Rivers. —What large river crosses this territory? Describe its course. What are chief tributaries on the north? What on the east? What rivers on the western slope ? What lake, and where ? What other important inland waters, and in what part ? Counties and Cities. — Name the counties that border on the Pacific Ocean. Name those that border on its connected inland waters. Name the tier of counties, north and south, ne.xt east of these waters. In what portion of the territory are the chief settlements? Name and locate the capital. Name the more important cities on the navigable waters in the north. Those on the Columbia River. DESCRIPTION. [Area, 69,180 square miles. Population [Census of 1880). 75,116 ; 1883, esti- mated. 125.000] I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — Washington Territory lies north of Oregon, and borders on the Pacific on the west, and British Columbia on the north. It is included between 45° 32' and 49° north latitude, and [17° and 124° 28' west longitude. Extent. — Its length east and west is 340 miles, and its width 200 miles. Its area is thus somewhat less than that of Oregon, which state it resembles both in its general shape and its surface features. II. SURFACE. Washington, like Oregon, is crossed north and south by the Cascade Mountains, which divide it into Eastern Washington and Western Washington. The highest peaks of the Cascade Range are St. Helens, 12,000 feet, and Mount Rainier (Tacoma), 14,444, both \T)lcanic cones, whose peaks are covered with perpetual snow, and whose upper slopes are covered with glaciers. Western \Vashington, includ- ing about one-third of the area of the territory, is di- vided into the tide - water basin of the Columbia in the south, the Chehalis valley in the middle, and the Puget Sound basin in the north. The Coast Range extends in broken ridges along the Pa- cific near the coast. In the north these mountains are known as the Olympic Range, CAPE FLATTERY. of which the highest summit is Mount Olympus, 8, 1 50 feet. The western slopes of these mountains feed numerous short and rapid streams which flow directly into the Pacific Ocean. Eastern Washington, which includes two-thirds of the area of the terri- tory, is for the greater part a plateau of moderate elevation traversed by the Columbia River and its tributaries. The surface of this plateau consists of several broad plains or prairies well adapted for grazing and wheat-raising, divided here and there by the spurs of the Cascade Range and by many irregular and abrupt changes of elevation. The rivers are broken by numerous rapids, and the scenery is varied and picturesque. In the extreme north-eastern and south-eastern parts of the territory are found the broken spurs of the Pend d'Oreille, and the Blue Mountains ; the former extending into the territory from Idaho, and the latter from Oregon. III. DRAINAGE. The Columbia River drains the entire eastern part of the territory, and also a considerable part of the region west of the Cascade Range. It receives the water of a number of noble streams in part or entirely within the borders of the territory. Among these are the Cowlitz, Klikitat, Yakima, Okanagan, Pend d'Oreille, Spokan, Snake, and Walla-Walla. The other drainage .systems include the rivers flowing into the Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and those emptying directly into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these streams, though short, are navi- gable to a considerable distance, and are of value in lumbering and shipping operations. The Chehalis, flowing into Gray's Harbor on the coast, is the most important. Puget Sound is a magnificent arm of the sea. extending far into the WASHINGTON. 39 interior, and affording great commercial facilities. It is navigable for the largest ship ; and its network of deep tide-water channels is unsur- passed in any quarter of the globe. IV. CLIMATE. Washington, like California and Oregon, has two seasons, — the rainy and the dry ; but the rainfall is greater than in Cali- fornia, and the dry season is shorter. Around Puget Sound the winters are exceedingly mild for so high a latitude. Eastern Washington, on account of its position to the east of the Cascade Mountains, has a much lighter rainfall than Western Washington, and much colder winters. i The territory, however, in all parts, has a much milder climate than east- ern states of the same latitude ; and this is mainly due to the Japan current, which renders the sea much warmer than it is in similar sec- tions of the eastern coast of the continent. This action is similar to that of the Gulf Stream on the western coast of Europe. V. RESOURCES. The natural resources of Washington are of the most splen- did character. The soil is rich and productive, easily tilled, and adapted to the production of cereals. Extensive plains in the eastern part of the territory afford fine pasturage for live-stock. The bays and rivers abound in fish. Western Washington is very heavily wooded, the forest trees consisting mainly of pine, fir, spruce, and cedar. This whole section is also underlaid by the richest deposits of coal. The territory has great commercial advantages. It is deeply penetrated by Puget Sound, whose waters are navigable for more than a hundred miles for the largest vessels, thus afford- ing excellent facilities for the ocean shipment of lumber and the products of the fields and mines of the territory. VI. INDUSTRIES. The industries of Washington are as varied as its resources. Large numbers of the population are engaged in farming and lumbering. Coal-mining is rapidly developing, the fisheries are important and valuable, and an extensive foreign and domestic trade is growing up with the completion of the railroad lines to the east. Agriculture. — Farming is the leading occupation, and wheat is the chief product, of which great quantities are raised for export. On the extensive grazing-grounds of Eastern Washington stock-raising is an important source of wealth. In iSSo there were nearly 500,000 acres of improved land in farms, valued at over $13,844,000. The chief productions were 566,000 bush- els of barley, 1,571,000 bushels of oats, 1,921,000 bushels of wheat, 703,000 pounds of hops, 1,035,000 bushels of potatoes. The value of live-stock was $4,852,000, and the total farm product was valued at f4,2I2.000. Lumbering. — In the Puget Sound basin the cutting, sawing, and ship- ping of lumber is a leading pursuit. Ship-building is also carried on to a considerable extent, and spars are shipped to the .Atlantic coast. Mining. — Gold-mines are worked to some extent in the mountain sec- tions, but the mineral wealth consists chiefly in extensive coal deposits in the Puget Sound basin. The best known coal-mines are those of Bellingham Bay, Seattle, Renton, Newcastle, and Carbon Hill. Fisheries. — On the Columbia River there are extensive salmon can- neries. The fisheries on the coast are also of considerable value. In iSSo the value of the seal fisheries product was over J61.000. Manufacturing. — The manufactures of Washington are in their infancy. They consist principally of lumber, tlour. machinery, iron-work, and ship stores. Commerce. — It is connected with the east by the Northern Pacific Rail- road, and by branch lines with Oregon and California. This great line of railway, the shortest of the transcontinental lines, is already exer- cising a great influence on the development of the territory. It is opening up new routes of travel, and bringing together distant part.s, thus cementing the bonds of the future great commonwealth of the North-west. It is also utilizing the magnificent harbors of tlie Puget Sound, and bringing forward the exhaustless stores of wealth that have been locked up in the mines and forests of the territory. The Columbia River is navigable throughout the territory with the exception of a few rapids, affording good facilities for the transporta- tion of wheat. The chief exports of Washington are wheat, lumber, coal, wool, live- stock, and fish. The imports are all kinds of manufactured articles. VII. EDUCATION. Washington has laid the foundation for a good system of public schools. The schools are under the general control of a superintendent of public instruction, appointed by the governor and council for a term of two years, and of county superin- tendents of schools, elected by the people. Each school district has a local board of three school directors. The Territorial University is established at Seattle. VIII. GOVERNMENT. Washington has a territorial form of government, subject to the provisions of the United States statutes. The executive officers consist of the governor and the secretary, ap- pointed by the President of the United States, with the consent of the Senate, for a term of four years. The Legislature consists of the Council, of nine members, and the House of Representatives, of thirty members, elected by the people. The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, the judges of which are appointed by the President and Senate of the United States for a term of four years; in district courts, county probate courts, and jus- tices" courts, the judges of which are elected by the people. IX. HISTORY. When the Territory of Washington was organized, in 1853, it included all of the present area, and also Idaho and considerable parts of Montana and Wyoming. In 1863 the territory was reduced to its present limits upon the organization of the territories to the east of Washington. The settlement of the boundary disputes with Great Britain, the discovery of gold in California, and the completion of the Pacific Railroad, ha\c been the main causes of the growth of the territory. The north-west boundary had long been a matter of dispute with Great Britain, and was finally settled as to the mainland in 1S46. From that time the only question unsettled was the true boundar)- line through the channel of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca. This resulted in the joint occupancy of the San Juan Islands, ten in number, by the United States and Great Britain. In the year 1872 these islands were decided to belong to the United States by the Emperor of Germany, to whom the question was submitted for arbitration, and they thus came under the exclusive control of the territory. X. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Washington Territory comprises twenty-six counties and the following leading cities and towns : — Olympia, capital of the territory, and county seat of Thurs- ton County, is situated at the head of Puget Sound. It is connected by a branch road with the main line of the Northern i Pacific Railroad, and has most excellent facilities for commerce 40 WASHINGTON. and general trade. Its harbor is safe and commodious, and is especially adapted for the lumber trade and for ship-building. Seattle, county seat of King County, is situated on the eastern side of Puget Sound, at the mouth of the Dawamish River. It is one of the leading financial and business centers of the territory, and has great commercial advantages. It is surrounded by a rich coal and lumber region, which is being rapidly developed. The principal manufactures arc iron and lumber. It is the seat of the University of Washington Terri- tory. Tacoma, in Pierce County, about midway between Seattle and Olympia, on Puget Sound, is the western terminus of the Northern Pacific Railroad. It has an excellent harbor, and is largely engaged in the manufacture and shipping of lumber. Here are located the extensive machine-shops of the western division of the railroad, and its business is being largely ex- tended since the completion of the road to the east. Walla- Walla (by the census of 1880, the most populous town in the territory) is situated in the south-eastern part in the rich and fertile Walla- Walla valley. It is connected by railroad with the Columbia River at Wallula, and is extensively engaged in trade and the shipment of wheat, wool, etc. Vancouver, county seat of Clarke County, is situated on the Columbia, 100 miles from its mouth. It is one of the oldest settled ]>oints in the terri- tory, and has considerable trade and shipping. Spokan, on the Spokan River and the Northern Pacific Railroad, has an e.xtensive water-power, which is being considerably developed. Whatcom, on Bellingham Bay, is a shipping point for coal and lumber. Colfax, county seat of Whitman County, is a growing town in the center of a fine agricultural district. Tumwater, closely connected with Olympia in its business and manufac- turing interests, has immense water-power, which is utilized in manufacture of lumber, flour, etc. Cascades, at the head of the lower rapids of the Columbia, is largely engaged in trans-shipment of the commerce of that river. A ship canal is being built at this point. Wallula, on the upper Columbia, is the terminus of a railroad into the fertile Walla- Walla valley. Oysterville is the most important town on the Pacific coast, and is largely engaged in the taking of sea-fish. Port Townsend, county seat of Island County, is the chief port of entry for the entire Puget Sound region, and the headquarters of the military division of the Columbia. Ainsworth, in Whitman County, is a growing commercial town on the Northern Pacific Railroad, and the terminus of an important branch of that line. Wilkeson and Carbonado are growing railroad towns in King County. Other important places are Dayton, in Columbia County: Steilacoom, in Pierce County: Blakely, in Kitsap County; San Juan, in San Juan County; Yakima, in Vakima County; and Port Gamble, in Kitsap County. ALASKA. 41 ALASKA. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Situation. — In what part of North America i.s .Alaska? What bounds it on the north? What on the east? What waters form its southern and western boundaries? What parallel marks its most northern limit? Its most southern limit? Surface. — What important continental range of mountains terminates in Southern Alaska? What peninsula and islands indicate its course? WMiat mountains to the north of this? What important mountain peaks, and where are they located ? Which is the highest ? What is the nature of the southern coast of Alaska ? Oi the western coast ? Rivers, Lakes, and Towns. — What is the principal river of .Alaska ? IJe- scribe its course. In what general direction do most of the streams flow?! Has it many lakes? What is their size, and where are they mostly located? Name the lar<;est one. Name and locate the capital. ' DESCRIPTION. [Area. 531,409 square miles. Population (Census of 1880). 33,426.\ I. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Situation. — Alaska, which includes the extreme northern and western parts of our continent, is separated from the rest of the United States by British Columbia. Its area is considerably greater than that of the original thirteen states. The mainland extends from the mouth of the Portland Canal. 54° 40' north latitude, to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. 71° 23' north latitude. . and lies between the meridians of 130° and 167° west longitude. The 4-' ALASKA. Island of Attuo, the most westerly of the Aleutian group, which is in- cluded in Alaska, is situated in 173° east longitude. This island is as many degrees west of San Francisco as that city is west of .Maine. Extent. — Alaska is 1,100 miles in length north and south, and 800 miles in width. Its area is nearly four times that of California. In consequence of the numerous Ijays, inlets, and fiords that indent its shores, together with its long chain of islands stretching across the I'acific almost to .Asia, Alaska has a coast line of not less than 20,000 miles. Its most northerly point is Cape Barrow; and the most westerly point of llie mainland is Cape Prince of Wales. II. SURFACE. Mountains. — A great mountain-chain called the Coast Range extends along the I'acific from British Columbia to the penin- sula of Alaska. The Alaskan portion is from 50 to 75 miles wide, and many of its summits rise to a great height. Mount ■ St. ICIias, estimated to e.xceed 19,000 feet, is the loftiest peak in North America. Mount Fairweather exceeds 16,000 feet, and numerous other mountains e.xceed 12,000 feet in height. The sk)pes of this mighty range are covered with thousands of glaciers, that push their slow-moving masses down to the bays and fiords that indent the coast. Some of these glaciers are 40 miles long, and from 10 to 15 miles wide. The glacial scenery of this region is by far the grandest in the world. The long chain of the Aleutian Islands stretch- ing out into the Pacific almost to Asia is a continuation of this chain of- mountains, though the island peaks seldom exceed a height of j.ooo feet. The interior of .Alaska has been but little explored. It consists of rolling grassy plains, and mountains covered with scattered groves of pine and spruce. III. DRAINAGE. The Yukon, the chief river of Alaska, is one of the great rivers of the globe. It rises in British Cohmibia, and fious into the Pacific. It is navigable for steamers for 2.000 miles, and is a mile wide at a distance of 600 miles from the sea. Tlie only large river of Alaska that flows into the Arctic Ocean is the Colville. IV. CLIMATE. Two thirds of Alaska is in the north tem[)erate zone, and one third in the Arctic zone. Owing to tlie influence of the warm Jajjan current, sometimes called tlie (iulf Stream of the I'acific, that bathes the western shores of .Alaska, the climate of the coast belt and of the Aleutian Islands is temperate. The rainfall of this region is very heavy, owing to the condensation. by the mountains, of the warm rain-winds which come, heated and vapor-laden, from the Japan current. At Sitka, and southward along the coast, and westward throughout the Aleutian chain of islands, it rains or snows two davs out of three during the entire year. East of the Coast Range, and on the vast plains that border on the Arctic Ocean, the cold in winter is intense, the thermometer falling to 70° below zero. At Sitka, during the longest days of summer, there is no darkness at midnight. The sun just dips below the horizon, and then rises again. V. RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES. The resources of Alaska consist chiefly of the fish which swarm in its innumerable bays, fiords, and rivers ; of the furs of its wild animals ; and of its forests and minerals. Fisheries. — Salmon abound in all the streams of Alaska: and extensive canneries are already established on the Yukon River, the Chikat.and among the islands of the Alexander Archipelago. The cod fisheries off the coast jy|e carried on by a considerable number of vessels from San Francisco. The Arctic Ocean is the resort of many whaling-vessels, which push their _ way in the summer months into these dangerous seas in pursuit ol whales. Furs. — The principal fur-bearing animals are the seal, sea-otter, fox. ermine, marten, and beaver. The most valuable of these is the fur- seal, which is found in vast numbers on the two small" islands of St. Paul and St. George. These two islands are leased bv the United States Government to the Alaska Fur Company. The annual product of the seal fisheries, as reported in the census of 1S80. is valued at nearly $2,100,000: and of other fisheries, over $500,000. Forests. — The timber lands of .Alaska are limited chiefly to the coast belt of South-western Alaska. The trees most valuable for lumlier are the yellow cedar, and the spruce or Sitka pine. Minerals. — Gold has recently been discovered on the tributaries of the Yukon, but the mines have not as yet been extensively worked. Vegetation. — The agricifltural resources of Alaska are limited. Potatoes and vegetables can be grown along tlie western coast and on the islands, but the cereals will not ripen. VI. GOVERNMENT. No territorial government has yet been organized in Alaska. This territory was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000. The population of the entire territory consists of a few hundred whites and about 33,000 natives. Sitka is a port of entry in charge of a United States rev- enue officer. \