Pan -Dualism Science AND Philosophy. The Classification of Science— Recent Progress in Science —The Dualistic Philosophy —Harmony of Science and Religion, Etc. By REV. SAMUEL FLEMING, LL D., PH. D„ Vice-Prest. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc, Mem. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Etc. ■v CHICAGO: Skeen & Stuart, Stationers & Printers, 1880. (7k 'o The themes announced on the title page, and others, were subjects of lectures and discourses hitherto delivered before the American Authropological Association; and on other occasions, at Chicago, 111. ; Logansport and Crown Point, Ind. ; Burr Oak, Sturges, and elsewhere in Mich. It is intended to issue them in parts as may be convenient. Buek Oak, Mich., 1880. A CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCE, BASED UPON THE ORDER OF NATURE FROM THE LOWER TO THE HIGHER, AND THE METHOD OF PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY FROM GENERALS TO SPECIALS, . AND PHENOMENA TO RELATIONS. LAWS AND APPLICATIONS.* By REV. S. FLEMING, LL. D., PH.D. Laws of Reciprocity. International Law 3. The Science of Revenues 2. The Science of Civil Laws 1. The Science of Civil Politics, (a) Monarchism. (b) Oligarcliism. (c) Republic The Science of the Constitution and Laws of the State The Constitution of the Family. 1. Marriage. 2. Heredity. 3. Government. ] _ The Human Race and the Races. Origin E. THE SCIENCE OF THE CONSTITUTION AND LAWS OF HUMAN SOCIETY II. Political Ethics. Political Lconoinv nguage and the Languages ....'....'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'. Philology. 1-111 unci Vanities Of Race Bllinnli.™ III. 2. The Laws of Rectitude, (a) Personal, SeltfXove. (b) Social, Benevolence, (c) Divine, Piety. j Relations to other beings 1. The Basis of Obligation. ] The moral constitution. Capacities for determining moral relations and qualii The Science of the Moral Functions and or Obligation. The Conscience ^ L . 1 Canons of Literary Taste Harmony of linguistic i .Ethics. Theo-dcntoloey .Ethology or DEONTOLOGY. i Science of the Beautiful. The Laws and Methods of Reasoning. of Artistic Taste: Harmony of formal proportior uiii laritjes and Correspondences. Analogical... From universale to particulars. Deductive From particulars tn universals. Inductive Relations of premises and validity of inferences . Conception, Recollection, Association, Elaboration Intuition. Primordial ideas of Being: Space, Time, Number. Resemblance Capacities for rational and complete cognition, and for determining Hie laws of relations ~ lience of the Rational Functions, conditio >:H mediately upon the psychical constitution. 3. The Mental Functions, (a) Perceptive, Intellect, (hi Sensitive, s,mi//eit,,. (c> V.ilitive, Will 2. The Psychical Functions conditioning simple Mental Acts. Receptive, Retentive, Presentative (b) The Psychical Basis of (1) Continuity and Identity. (2) Consciousness, Sensation, Memory. Psychical Scusoriu 1. The Psychical Constitution, (a) The uervo-ethereal connecticn of the physical and psychical systems the basis of v I The Science of the .Mental Functions conditioned immediately upon the Psychical Constitution D. PSYCHO-MENTAL SCIENCE. The science of the human psychical nature and functions of the rational Mind and tones. The Fine Arts. The t Iteason ■ RATIONAL PSYCH. Mental Psychology. Therapeutics. re" f. (b) Abnormal Conditions of the Physical System. (1) Physicil disease. (2) Psychical derangement [Mental Physiology] (a) constitution and Normal state of the Physical System, j K U re s .':::::::::::::. .':::::.:::::::::; '::: :::::: ::::::::: :::;::::::;::;:;::::::.::;:.::::::;:: ;.:::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::: IKomyf 2. Beines constituted for erect position, for speech, and douiinior over the lower orders of beings, with capacity for mechanism. Limited to the human order of mammals (J; The Science of animal forms existing in petrified states .' [Paleontology] (c) Sciences pertaining to Sub-kingdoms: Concliology, Ichtby>logy, Ophiology, Entomology, Ornithology, Mammalogy (b) General Types: (I) Radiates; (2) Molluscs; (3) Articulates: (4) Vertebrates (Sentient nature, Sensation. Instinct Physical functions Physical structure. [Irrational 1. Beings having a muscular and nervous structure, and capacilhs for sensation, affection and voluntary motion The Science of beings possessing conscious life, and which derive lourishment from organic matter 4. The Science of vegetal forms existing in petrified states [Paleontology] 3. Applied Botany: Culinary. .Medical, Esthetic 2. Special Sciences pertaintng to Agr' 1. Constitution Anatomy, ANTHltOPOSOPHY. Animal Fossilogy. c'oiup. Psychology. I 'unip. I'liysiology ('oiii]i. Anatomy. Zoo-Co c-a Veg. Fossilogy. The Science- of beii allure, Horticulture Functions. ( Structure gs possessing unconscious life, and which derive nourishment from ; Tl C, PHYSICO-VITAL SCIENCE. The Science of beings constituted of organic Matter and ] PI i >' to n oiny i matter Botany t Bot. Physiology. Morphology. ' Phytology. Biology. 4. Applied Chemistry, j ^{j™ S^SSSTl^ .. . . . . . . .\ t 3. Laws of Chemical changes caused by the action of Electi icily ■ 2. Laws and methods of separating the constituents of compounds 1. Laws and methods of uniting the constituents of compounds. 1 77/-' science of compound substances and the Imcs and nadhods of miiU'il 3. Laws of the Persistence of Force. The Correlation and Confer (d) Laws of the electric force applied to produce mechanical (fleets (c) Laws of mechanical heat, causing expansion, evaporation, etc. (b) Heterogeneous aggregations causing union of surfaces. Cementing, etc. (a) Homogeneous integrations and condensations conserving nechanic arts. Strength of material 2. Laws of force and motion operating among atoms and moleculis of leterogeneous Integrations. and separating their eonstitut ration of the physical forces Molec. Attr. Changed relations of force and motion by the (c) Laws of forces acting on bodies which are nol of machines, causing increase or diminution of motion. Mech. Powers C Gases equilibrium, causing motion of Vapor, Produa.cn ^^tf^.£ ;;;;; [ Solids and fluids (Gases. Aerial pressure (b) Laws of forces acting on bodies which are in equilibrium, - Liquids. Water pressure ( Solids and fluids. Weight, etc. Gravity (a) The science of motion considered apart from its causes Laws of force and motion manifested among masses 1 science of matter and nwtooi in their relations to Meehinical eff'eds f Electric phys. phenomena. Electricity. .Aerology climatic:. | Iydrology 4. The science of the phenomena caused by insensible oscillie motion of aerial or ethereal medi; I Actinic radiations. Actin -' Luminiferous radiations. Thermogenetic radiations 3. The science of the forms and phenomena of matter as exhibited in the Atmosphere (d) Divisions and phenomena of solids and fluids as exhibited upon the earth's surface (c) Action going on within the earth's crust (as earthquakes and volcanoes) causing changes of earl (b) Petrifactions of organic substances as related to stratification (a) Forms of inorganic matter constituting the stratified and itnstiatified portions of the earth's crui 2. The science of the history and constitution of the earth's crust (d) Phenomena exhibited in the forms of Auroras and Zodiac il lights. Hypothetical (c)The constitution and laws or the Solar system. Suu, Planets, Planetoids, Satellites. Comets, Me (b)The science "!' the Slellai masses. Sun systems; Group svsicms; Cluster systems; Nebular systi (a) The Genesis of the Stellar universe. Attractive and liadi ttc forces, producing nebulous motion 1. The science of the celestial masses constituting the Stellar Universe I. The forms, phenomena and laws of matter and force as exhibited in their general relations B. PHYSICO-DYNAMIC SCIENCE. The science of Matter and Force .Actinographyor Photology [Therinoticsl [Phonology] Agri. Chem. Mich, t'tccin. Electro-Chem. Analyt. Chem. Synth. Chem. CIIEMICS. MOLECULAR MECH. Pneumatics. Ilvdi'o-Dynam. DYNAMICS. Areostatics. Hydrostatics. STATICS. Cinematics. MOLAR MECH. MECHANICS. Meteorology. Photography. Piiys. Optics. Phys. Acoustics. Anemology. Phys. Geography. Seismology. •Paleontology. Mineralogy. GEOLOGY. . Astrogony. Geogony a„ i!, J ii.ii,»n,.,i,. * 2 - Special Sciences: Surveying, Geodesy, Navigation, Astronomy Applied Mathematics. - ( j General Mensuration: Line!, surfaces, solids, capacities, time, circular, motion, etc. 3. Relations of the sections of a cone, and methods of determination 2. Relations of lines and their included angles, plane and spherical, and methods of determination 1. Relations of magnitude, plaue and spherical, and methods ot determining their content I. Properties, relations and laws of extentional or (jnuntilatirc Vontfnt. The science of Magnitude 3. Relations ot" variable quantities and their differentials, and n'cthods of determining the functions of their arcs. 2. When any of the elements are represented by symbols of unknown values 1. Relations of quantities and methods of determination, when all the elements of an expression are known 1. Properties, relations and laws of A americal Content. The science: of Number THE SCIENCE OF QUANTITY ASTRONOMY. PHYSICS. Dynainology. Conic Sections. Trigonometry. Geometry. Calculus. Algebra. Arithmetic. Mathematics. i Bottom Upwards. fcK-TWcCorH/ I. THE CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCE. DEFINITIONS. Tire term science has been variously defined. It is from the Latin scientia (froms<%'<9, to know, ) which is defined as "a knowing, or being skilled in any thing; generally, knowledge, science." The original sense of the term sci- entia involves the twofold conception, of the thing, or fact itself, which is the subject of knowledge, and the knowing the fact. The former is the objective signification, the latter the subjective. In defining the term, therefore, diverse forms of expression have been used, and different senses conveyed. In the edition of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, published in 1878, modified definitions are given as follows: " Knowledge; the comprehension of truth or fact; truth ascertained; that which is known; hence, specifically, knowledge duly arranged, and referred to general truths on which it is founded." By some, the definition given is ' c systematic knowledge " ; by others, " what is comprehended by the mind " ; another definition is in the following language: "Science is the name for such portions of human knowledge as have been more or less generalized, systematized and verified." Herbert Spencer gives the following, corresponding with the general divisions of his " Classification of the Sciences": 1. That which treats of the forms in which phenomena are known to us ; 2. That which treats of the phenomena themselves. Prof. Tice, after stating that ' ' there is a broad distinction between knowledge and science," gives this distinction in 4 Science and Philosophy. the following terms : " Knowledge is a clear and certain perception of that which exists, or of truth or of fact. Science is a body of general principles : particular truths, and facts, arranged in systematic order." The terms science and knowledge have sometimes been used as synonymous ; frequently without due discrimina- tion. It is evident that the facts of science, if not science itself, exist prior to, or irrespective of the mind which ac- quires the knowledge of them, if we except the science of the mind itself. Existence is one thing, the knowledge of such existence is radically another thing. Hence the pro- priety, and often great importance of recognizing this dis- tinction, and of discriminating in the use of the terms. Scientific terms should be used with definiteness of mean- ing, for clearness and conciseness of written or oral instruc- tion. If science and knowledge are synonymous terms, if the definition "science is knowledge" is the same with the terms transposed, thus "knowledge is science", every child and uneducated person who knows that "fire burns", is a scientist, without, it may be, knowing what fire is, or its causes. Then science would signify no more than knowledge. But all fundamentally distinctive ideas are appropriately expressed by different terms. And it is desir- able that the demands of language be recognized, and this practical rule for the use of discriminating words be ob- served. Synonymous words are properly those which are derived from different languages, and are used for euphony, or variety. Further, there is a legitimate distinction between com- mon, obvious, or non-scientific knowledge, and scientific knowledge. And this is not a distinction in respect to cer- tainty ; for common knowledge is often as certain as scien- tific knowledge, as in reference to the fall of a body to the earth : while much that is called scientific knowledge is far from being exact in its complete sense, as in respect to the nature of the ultimate cosmic forces, the aurora borealis, and other phenomena. Nor is it a difference simply in degree of knowledge, but a difference also in respect to Classification of Science. 5 kind and quality. Thus two persons may observe an eclipse of the sun or moon ; one may know only that one body in- tercepts the light of another body ; the other person may know the causes, the sizes, distances, orbits, periodic times, laws of motion, and many other elements whose knowledge is essential to the determination of the phenomenon. The attainments respectively differ, — the former having only the knowledge of a single fact, the latter the knowledge of the whole system of facts, principles and laws pertaining to the phenomenon; the former possessing ordinary knowledge, the latter scientific knowledge. The distinction is therefore fundamental, and should be recognized as really as other differing facts. These may be regarded as extreme cases, and it may be said that the point of transition, or the boundary line be- tween the non-scientific and the scientific may not be clearly determined. Be it so ; the claims of science require exact- . ness of knowledge to the extent to which the exactness may be obtained by observation or reasoning, and to which the facts themselves fix the standard. And though perfection is the standard and aim, the knowledge of a sufficient num- ber of related facts constituting a systematic knowledge, or knowledge sufficiently "generalized, systematized, and verified", for the comprehension of the relations and laws pertaining to such facts, may be received as evidence of scientific attainment, and capacity for intelligent progress. A man may possess a practical knowledge of carpentry, by which he may perform work, when a frame is "laid out", without the scientific knowledge of the principles, rules or methods by which such work is planned ; much less with- out the higher mathematical and mechanical knowledge of architecture. Another point of distinction claims attention. The term science is used in both a general, and a special or restricted sense. Either the whole body or aggregate of facts through- out the whole range of phenomena, relations, laws and applications, is referred to comprehensively, as "The classification of all science" ; or, a branch or sub-science 6 Science and Philosophy. is referred to specially, as "The Science of Chemistry." Frequently a special science is recognized by the form of statement implying that to which reference is made, the term science being used by metonomy for a science, or a particular branch of general science, thus: " Science [chemistry] teaches that all masses of matter are made up of elements which had previously been isolated or sepa- rate." Or this: "Science [the science of the conserva- tion of the forces] teaches that a certain quantity of heat may be changed into a definite quantity of mechanical work ; this quantity of work can also be re-transformed into the same quantity of heat as that from which it orig- inated." It may be added that the term science is some- times used in an indefinite sense, or without precision, as " a man of science ", — one who possesses a wide range of knowledge. These distinctions between knowledge and science, be- tween ndn-scientific and scientific knowledge, and between the special and general significations of the term science, being recognized, it remains only to give such forms of definition as shall meet the requirements of the case. The following are believed to be sufficiently precise : 1. Science (special or particular) is a system of phenom- ena, principles, relations and laws pertaining to a special subject. 2. Science (general or universal) is the aggregate of special sciences. SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION. Many attempts have been made to classify the various sci- ences. The conception that they are naturally related, inti- mately, or more remotely, having general or special connec- tions, has led to such arrangement of these in departments and groups as has accorded with the fundamental principles upon which they have been conceived to be allied. And since science consists chiefly of the facts, phenomena, laws and principles, material or immaterial, which pertain to being, or the forms in which being is known, it is evident that schemes of classification will be adopted according to Classification of Science. 7 the systems of philosophy maintained by those who con- struct them. All classification will hence be observed to conform in general principles of structure to one or another of the three following systems of philosophy with respect to existence, or entities, viz. : Spiritualism, Materialism, or Dualism. The first, which includes Idealism, rejects the doctrine of material essence, mind only being held to be fundamental and real, — the outer world only phantasmic or apparent, or as held by some, matter being a mode or manifestation of mind. The second rejects the doctrine of a spiritual entity, — the mind or spirit being held to be a phe- nomenon of matter ; force, life and mind being but proper- ties, or special manifestations of matter. Both the above systems are monistic, one substance, or essence, only held to exist. The third maintains the real existence of both matter and spirit in essential connection, yet distinct and unlike, not only in essence, but in their laws of development and modes of action, — two related yet diverse processes. This may be termed Dualistic Realism, in contradistinc- tion to the Monistic Realism predicated of each of the two former systems above-mentioned. But so diverse and even contradictory, in important re- spects, are many of these schemes of classification, that the question may be asked with pertinence, is any unex- ceptionable classification possible ? Indeed, it has been admitted by men of high scientific standing that the most perfect classification will contain some incongruities and minor imperfections ; and that a system substantially cor- rect may, notwithstanding, contain something which is artificial, or merely theoretic. An apparent incongruity may be explained by the fact that several of the sub- sciences bear relations to different and widely separated sciences as to their fundamental characteristics, as will be observed in the scheme of the writer of this article. A few diverse schemes are here given to illustrate the fact that one's philosophy will determine his principles of classification. The fundamental principle of Oken, a German philos- 8 Science and Philosophy. opher, is, that "Mathematics is the universal science, and holding the transcendental idea that mathematics is zero, equal to nothing (0), has constructed his scheme to embrace three general classes, viz. : 1. Mathesis, the doctrine of the whole; 2. Ontology, erroneously defined to be u the doc- trine of the phenomena of matter", or what seems to be, consistently enough with his doctrine of Idealism ; 3. £iol- ogy, all orders of life and mind. Included in class first he has two groups : 1st. Pneumatogeny, the doctrine of immaterial totalities ; subjects arranged in the following order : Primary Art, Prim. Consciousness, God, Prim. Rest, Time, Polarity, Motion, Man, Space, Point, Line, Surface, Globe, Rotation. Group 2d, under the term Hylogeny, defin ed to be " the doctrine of material totalities, ' ' includes the following : Gravity, Matter, Ether, Heavenly bodies, Light, Heat, and Fire. Included in Ontology, he has Rest, Centre, Motion, Line, Planets, Form, Planetary Systems, Comets, Condensation, Simple Matter, Elements. Air, Water, Earth, Mineralogy, Geogony, etc. Other divisions of this anomalous system are here omitted. The author has conceived of a phenomenal process which is given under the term Ontology, but which, so far as it represents the facts, pertains to cosmogony. It will be observed, moreover, that the place of geogony, to repre- sent a consecutive order, is at point where the genesis of the earth is given, if it can be found. But this system is based upon the fundamental principle of mathematics, which, according to the author, is zero = ; for, as it is assumed, "Mathematics is the universal science of forms, without substance." Such a system of nothings consist- ing of terms, names and propositions, without realities, may well be termed Idealistic Nihilism ! The philosophy of Hegel (German) is founded upon the theory that the essence of the universe is a process of thought from the abstract to the concrete. His classifica- tion is based upon Logic, as its fundamental principle, instead of Mathematics, which is Oken's, with which it otherwise well corresponds. A quotation from President Classification of Science. 9 Hopkins, that " Classification is a law of forces, not a law of logic", may here be given as a sufficient answer to Hegel's principle. The method of M. Compte (French), and author of "The Positive Philosophy", gives what he calls "The one rational order", as follows: Mathematics (including me- chanics), celestial and terrestrial physics, chemistry, phys- iology and social physics. In its general outlines, it is a near approach to the proper order ; but, in its special appli- cation and interpretation, it is a statement of the philos- ophy contained in his celebrated work just referred to. In that he gives his theory in the following statements : "Our study of nature is restricted to the analysis of phenomena, in order to discover their laws, and can have nothing to do with their nature, or cause, or the mode of their produc- tion." The question is suggested, What is the province of philosophy, if not to explain such nature, cause, and mode of production? He opposes "all inquisition into the essence of things " ; rejects all hypotheses of "electric liuids and luminous ^ethers which are to account for the phenomena of heat, light, electricity and magnetism." He denies that there can be any such thing as internal obser- vation of the mind, or any knowledge of the causes of phenomena. What does he mean by mind ? and how does he know that there are other minds than his own, or what is so called, to study his Positive Philosophy ! He defines law to be "a constant relation of succession or similitude", and ignores all causes operating in matter, and of course there are no such entities as force, life or mind, human or divine. In his subdivisions and groups, many incongruities are found, the statement of which must here be omitted. The subject matter of concrete mathematics, which is composed of plane geometry and rational mechanics, he has stated to consist of space, time, motion, and force, whose nature, in- deed, may not be inquired into. He undertakes to classify the science in the order of historic development, or pro- gress, which cannot be substantiated. Thus, historically, 10 Science and Philosophy. geometry had advanced to a considerable degree of perfec- tion before the invention of algebra; and chemistry had made considerable progress before geology and mineralogy had become strictly sciences ; while many of the facts of zoology had been arranged in systematic order more than two thousand years before the laws or methods of the stratification of the rocks, including immeasurable periods of time, had come to be accepted, as against the almost universally received doctrine of a miraculous creation of "the heavens and the earth ", in six literal days about six thousand years ago. The method of Herbert Spencer, while ostensibly based upon the distinction between the abstract and the concrete sciences, really procedes in development upon the hypothe- sis of Materialistic Evolution. He classifies the sciences under three tables : 1. Abstract /Science, which includes mathematics and logic. 2. Abstract- Concrete Science, which includes mechanics, meteorology, chemistry, heat, light, electricity and magnetism. 3. Concrete Science, which includes astronomy, astrology and geogony. Evolved from the latter are those subjects which are contained in the two following branches : 1. Mineralogy, meteorology, and geology ; 2. Biology, out of which evolves morph- ology, physiology, psychology, and sociology. It will be seen that the distinction between the abstract and the con- crete sciences has involved inconsistencies and confusion. While mathematics is appropriately placed first in the order, inasmuch as its principles apply to the measure of content, which belongs to all things susceptible of measurement, especially to the physical, mechanical and chemical depart- ments of science ; and also, as numerical mathematics applies to organic being, social statistics, etc., logic per- tains to the rational nature and cannot with propriety be placed below both inorganic and organic nature without involving the necessity of separating subjects which are necessarily affiliated, as empirical psychology and rational psychology are. Further, both mathematics and logic are both abstract and concrete, being founded in principles Classification of Science. 11 which are applied practically both to forms and things. The term abstract, which means to draw from, or separate, or that which is considered apart from its related subjects, is more appropriately applied to some other sciences than those assumed ; thus Kinematics is an abstract science, inasmuch as it is "motion considered apart from its causes." In the second table, the sciences of the laws relative to bodies are given before the recognition of such bodies, as if anticipating them ; yet these are given under a twofold term, " abstract-concrete ", instead of being given as ab- stract. Thus, in giving the mechanical laws of solids and fluids before the supposed existence of these, is presump- tion, and we may well ask, how can there be laws of enti- ties which as yet do not exist ? for it should be observed, these material entities are expressed in the third table, and as being evolved from terrestrial elements, and included under the term geology. The scheme betrays the design • of the classification. It seems evidently devised to exhibit, under the term " concrete ", the evolution from matter and motion, of all the "totalities" included in this branch. According to this, matter and motion, in their redistribu- tion, evolve the phenomena of force, life, and mind, while these entities, held as real by a true dualism, are regarded by Mr. Spencer as having no substantive existence, but only modes of motion manifested by matter, the only real existence, according to his philosophy. The author of this scheme proceeds upon the postulate that "The second and third groups supply the subject matter to the first, and the third supplies the subject matter to the second." Why not, then, begin with the subject matter, not simply includ- ing material phenomena, but the inherent force, and the laws of manifesting phenomena? He abhors a "serial" order, upon whatever scheme of philosophy, and combats M. Compte on this ground, yet has conveniently adopted it for his main purpose, as betrayed in his third table. An extended criticism of his system of philosophy, and his classification of the sciences, is not intended in this 12 Science and Philosophy. paper. Such has been given by M. Lettre, French ; Prof. Bain, English ; and others. Only one other scheme of classification by other persons than the writer of this, will here be given ; it is that of Prof. Laurens P. Hickok, D. D., LL. D., American, and author of several profound philosophical works. He gives what he designates a "Rational Method of the Classifica- tion of all Science." His method includes two general branches or divisions : 1. Empirical or Inductive Science ; 2. Rational or Transcendental Science. These fundamen- tal divisions are clearly defined. The first limits to facts or phenomena ; the second to laws and principles. The first embraces "what is given in experience", using the terms empirical and inductive to include observation and experiment. It is divided into two parts: 1. Qualities given in Perception ; 2. Things given in Reflection ; the former grouping external phenomena, as optics, acoustics, etc., the latter grouping things in space and time, includ- ing mensuration, substance, cause, counter-cause, chemis- try, magnetism, mechanism. The second or rational branch is divided into, 1. Intuitive (all mathematics) ; 2. Discur- sive (all philosophy). "Mathematics deals only in forms ; philosophy deals only in existences." Discursive science is divided into two parts. 1. Ontology, which includes cosmology, psychology, and theology. 2. Deontology, defined to be the rule of speculation, includes the canons of taste, (esthetics), politics, ethics, and religion. Cosmology is treated as including not only material nature, but physi- ology, now classified under biology. According to this scheme, therefore, man's physical nature belongs to cos- mology, the term anthropolgy not being given as it is com- mon with systems of philosophy. The subdivisions of Dr. Hickok do not appear to be sys- tematically arranged. His special field of thought does not embrace the sciences pertaining to inorganic matter, nor indeed to biology, but lies in the profound depths of transcendental philosophy held to be consistent with chris- tian theism. Classification of Science. 13 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. Science may be properly classified with respect to either the order and facts of nature, or the laws of thought and methods of obtaining the knowledge of facts. In respect to the first basis, the classification may proceed upon the twofold method of arranging the order and laws of phe- nomena, separately considered, or of considering these in their immediate connection. And while either special method involves the complex process of nature, which is the province of philosophy in the discovery of laws, — the object of classification is to set forth the order of facts and laws which have already been discovered. It is a state- ment of their connections as brought within the scope of observation, and as they stand in their completeness of order, while many facts may still remain unknown. Pro- cesses are continually going on in the physical realm, as exhibited in the heavens and in the earth. It is hence not a statement of historical development of each particular science, nor of the body of sciences. It is not an arrange- ment according to the chronological order of discovery of the facts. It is not a curriculum or course of study for dis- cipline and acquisition. Such a course, is arranged with reference to a harmonious development of mind, and requires the prosecution of diverse studies pursued simul- taneously. Yet a proper classification proceeds upon the method of arranging or grouping the subordinate sciences according to both the order of philosophic inquiry, and of the subordination of facts and principles to the divisions and uses of science from the lower to the higher, and from phenomena to laws and applications. Further, any scheme of classification, founded upon material existences and relations irrespective of the imma- terial entities which give qualities and motion to the mate- rial, must be radically defective. The fact of an order of succession in respect to the modication of the primary Force which inheres in matter, is too obvious to need more than a statement of the fact. Thus, in organic existence, 14 Science and Philosophy. the all-related force of Gravity is general, being applied to all bodies, whatever their constituents or mode of combina- tion, while modified forms of this principle are limited to specializations. As at every step in the gradation of ma- terial existences, the order of nature is from the inorganic to the organic, so these terms involve the general and the special, and the addition proceeds from the lower and more general forms of force to the higher, more limited and special. Thus, also, in organic being we find Life as a common or general substance or entity, forming the basis of the general division of science denominated Biology. The lowest specialized form of life pertains to Botany, — the science of organic unconscious vegetal life, including many classes ; the next higher pertains to Zoology, which is the science of that form of organic life which has con- sciousness and animation, including many classes, and sub- ordinate orders, kinds and species. The highest in the gradation of being pertains to Anthropology, the science of the form of organic life which is conscious and rational, limited to mankind. In every higher order a new capacity has been added. It has been a " life unto life." This natural order of classification from generals to specials, and from the lower to the higher, may be illus- trated by the following diagrams, commencing with the lower, or gravitation, as in reading the scheme of classifi- cation accompanying this paper : ( Man = organization -f- sensation -f- rational mind. Life, •< Animal = organization -f- consciousness and sensation. ( Plant = organization i Special : Chemical affinity. Special: Cohesion. General: Gravitation. The fundamental distinctions of this classification are those which pertain to the body of sciences included in the scheme given. They are first, Ontology, the science of being, or the material or immaterial substances, qualities and attributes of universal being. This properly includes Classification of Science. 15 not only the general divisions given, but those which relate to the superior orders of being not given, viz. : Angeology, Christology and Theology. A classification of all Science, therefore, embraces these subjects. Ontology includes three general divisions : Cosmology, Biology and Anthro- pology. These are arranged in their natural order, as based upon the succession of immaterial or spiritual enti- ties united with their respective material forms. Such order is essentially serial : in other words, there is a grada- tion of existences, as just noticed, and as indicated by the branch and group-descriptive terms given in the body of the scheme, as Physico-dynamic, etc. Each general division includes its subordinate divisions or departments. Cosmology, the science of inorganic nature, includes three departments : Physical, Mechanical and Chemical Philosophy. These terms are given in the left-hand column. The corresponding terms, which are the general names of the sciences grouped together, are given in the right-hand column, each special science being defined in the middle portion or body of the scheme. The gen- eral term, Dynamology, formed upon the Greek etymon dunam, is used to designate the science of the immaterial principle, Force, as Biology designates the science of the vital principle, or Life. Biology and Anthropology include the several branches or departments as given. Individuals of a group are allied by some mode, principle or law dis- tinguishing them from others in special respects. The order of these general divisions and branches of science, as arranged in the scheme, has been detetermined by a study of their relations ; and it is proper to indicate the reasons for so determining, especially in the case of some of the sciences which by other persons may be as- signed different places. The line of separating Mathematics from the divisions above, indicates that this is not an ontological science, though contributing to it, its abstract principles applying throughout all the other divisions — cosmology, biology and anthropology. It may be termed immaterial, but non-sub- 16 Science and Philosophy. stantive, yet the measurer of all material forms, forces, relations and effects. It has been treated as " The univer- sal science", and all attempts at classification seem neces- sarily to lead to the assignment of this to the first place, on whatever basis a scheme is constructed. The progress of science within the past few decades, and the very wide applications rendering divisions of scientific research and use indispensable, has made it necessary more and more to distinguish the several subordinate branches of a general division with reference to special relations and purposes of science. What has been denominated physi- cal science in the recent past is found to include too exten- sive a field of culture and use, and to require too vast an amount of scientific labor in research, analysis and applica- tion, both for individual gratification and for the demands of science. Then " Natural Philosophy" monopolized the whole field. Now Chemical Philosophy has taken the rank of a distinct department, and has extended its domain in every direction wherever it could find a field of research. It has even been obliged to review its own analyses, and to criticise its own results, by further experiment upon its own elements, to determine whether they are themselves compounds. And the analyses have yielded important fruits. Kecently four new elements — cesium, rubidium, thallium and iridium — have been detected by the new and wonderful method of the Spectrum Analysis, a notice of which will be given farther onward. But Mechanical philosophy has an equal claim to distinc- tion as a special department. Its aims and uses are prac- tical — the relations and applications of matter and motion to mechanical effects ; and in this age of inventive genius and of vastly extended applications of mechanical force to the demands of utility, give increasing importance to this department of science. The distinguishing triumphs of the past few years have resulted from the conservation of those forces and agencies which appear phenomenally in their general relations in physical nature, but are now specialized in this department for the higher uses of human Classification of Science. 17 society. Thus the form of force which has operated nat- urally as heat in all the previous history of matter, has become a science in mechanical philosophy, manipulated and controlled by scientific art, and takes the name of Thermotics, a science of vast extent and application. Hy- drology has become specialized in Hydro-dynamics, Aerol- ogy in Pneumatics, Electricity in Electro-magnetism, etc. The subdivision of Physico-dynamic science into three departments — Physics, Mechanics and Chemics — seem to be demanded by the vastly extended range and special applications of these, as well as by the legitimate distinc- tion recognized between phenomena and laws. Cosmogony is treated as a branch of Astronomy. It is obvious this is its place, from the fact that Stellar Astron- omy grows out of it, and includes its forming masses and nebular states. This contemplates a prior state, and the processes of the formation of special masses from the original mass of nebulous matter. . The advancement from nebulous masses to globes in the various stages of conden- sation gives stellar astronomy. The sun is one of the stars, and is specialized as the center of the system to which our planet belongs, and hence solar astronomy is a consequent, and its place above stellar astronomy is appropriate. Again: our earth, far back in the periods of world-forma- tions, was in its cosmogenic stage, forming part of* the great nebulous cosmos ; hence the term geogony, the science of the genesis of the earth, is grouped with cosmogony. But while the greater part of the earth's interior is still in its gaseous state, the facts pertaining to its crust create a new sub-group, as Geology, Mineralogy and Seismology. Biology is divided into two general departments, while it includes three sub-sciences, viz! : Botany or Phytology, Zoology and Anthroposophy, — the latter being the science of the human physiological constitution. The radical dis- tinction between animals and man pertains chiefly to the immaterial nature — the latter possessing rational and moral capacities, and also an order of physical nature not possessed by animals ; yet a real distinction obtains 18 Science and Philosophy. physiologically, and indeed a vastly greater difference than between any of the different orders of animals. This dis- tinction is stated in the classification. Physiology, which pertains to man's physical nature, is the sub-science of Biology, termed Anthroposophy, while comparative physi- ology, and morphology, belong respectively to Zoology and Phytology — the former relating to beings having sentient but irrational life, and the latter to insentient or uncon- scious life. If this method of division, in which Biology and Anthro- pology share in the inclusion of a special subject appears to be anomalous, it is legitimate ; for while both include those sciences which are grouped as belonging to physio- logical nature, Anthropology includes also the higher order of psychical nature, in essential connection with our mental, rational and moral nature, — entities and attributes of an imperishable subsistence, but whose functions and develop- ment for temporal existence depend upon the physiological connection. It will be observed in the scheme that the proper distinctions of signification are preserved, thus: Biology is the general science of organic being having Life ; Botany is the special science of organic being hav- ing vegetal life / Zoology is the special science of organic being having sentient life ; Anthroposophy is the special science of organic being having rational life — the latter term having been chosen to express the distinction main- tained above. If it is held by any readers of this paper that animals possess a psychical nature, as well as man, be it so. At least a nervo-ethereal nature may be predicated of beings having sensation and the power of voluntary motion; and such a substratum or basis of the physical as well as the sentient nature of animals, as corresponds with man's psychical nature, may exist, perhaps must. If so, it is reasonable to presume it must be of an order as much lower than man's psychical nature, as the mental or sentient constitution of animals is lower than man's. But if such psychical nature does exist, the fact can be known only by rational induction, for the beast has no capacity for Ian- Classification of Science. 19 guage to verify the assumption. The essential difference, physiologically as well as mentally, is expressed in the scheme. INCOMPLETE, SUBORDINATE AND CONDITIONING SCIENCES. Few of the physical sciences, especially, can be com- pletely developed by themselves. Physics, Mechanics and Chemics are more or less mutually related, either as con- ditioned or conditioning. Astronomy has necessarily re" quired for observation of its facts some of the principles and laws of physical optics, while scientific art has been called to construct appropriate instruments for observation, as the telescope and spectroscope. And the laws of plan- etary and stellar motion must necessarily be known before the science of astronomy can be fully acquired. But classi- fication cannot await the discovery of all the facts of science, but must proceed with the materials at hand, when radical distinctions have been determined. Geogony treats of general phenomena, the unformed, but forming and mingling elements, and conditions meteor- ology by furnishing the materials involved in the latter science, in its special sphere. Meteorology cannot be completed as a science by the study of the atmosphere alone, but in connection with the facts which reveal themselves by the action of atmospheric electricity. Thermotics, the science of heat, is but par- tially developed by the study of the ethereal radiations giving the physical phenomena of heat, but finds its com- pletion in the experiments and application of mechanics, of hydrology and pneumatics. Paleontology, being allied with mineralogy in respect to the general process of stratification, by furnishing mate- rials which enter into it, properly belongs where it is as- signed ; yet these materials, constituted in part of fossils, cannot be completed without employing the facts which are brought forward in vital organisms. Hence paleontology is given as a conditioning science, contributing to botany and zoology, inasmuch as the ancient organisms, while 20 Science and Philosophy. many of them contain extinct types, are made a study in connection with living organisms ; and thus the apparent anomaly of the same branch of science being grouped both with physics and biology, is explained by the fact that paleontology, in its mere physical relations, deals with sub- stances irrespective of relations to organisms, while fos- silogy belongs to both. So, as already noticed, anthrop- osophy belongs both to biology and anthropology. So of other sciences having different connections as indicated by the terms arranged within the body of the scheme contigu- ous to the column of sciences at the right. It may here be stated that in the sub-column terms, expressive of incom- plete and subordinate sciences, or having other relations, are included in brackets. Light and sound are grouped together because produced by vibratory motion, yet not affiliated, because the media of vibration differ, the former being ether and the latter air, The analogy between light and sound is illustrated by firing a cannon at a distance from the observer ; first the flash of light is seen at the moment of the explosion of the powder, transmitted at the rate of about 184,000 miles per second, the sound being heard some moments after the flash is seen, transmitted, at the rate of about 1,100 feet per second. Neither the luminous body nor the sonorous body throws off any substance, but only gives an impulse in wave-form causing vibrations of different kinds of substance, — ethereal vibrations exciting the optic nerve causing the sensation of seeing, and aerial vibrations exciting the auditory nerves causing the sensation of hearing. But while acoustics (or photology) is grouped with physical optics, in respect to the cause of their production, both musical sounds and colors are grouped as belonging to esthetics high in the series of science. In these respects both phonology and photology are subordinate sciences. Actinism, produced by vibration of ether, like light, but exceeding in rate those which produce the highest color, i.e., exceeding 800 billions of miles per second, is affiliated with electricity, light and heat, and bears relations to two Classification of Science. 21 diverse and widely separated sciences — photography and phytology. Its action is both chemical and vital, operating on the sensitive silver in photography (which more prop- erly may be termed actinography), and also constitutes the vital agency necessary to excite germination in plants. This latter result has been attributed to the violet ray re- vealed by the spectrum, but this may be owing to the fact that the higher, inconceivably rapid vibrations of ether producing the actinic rays are not appreciated, and the effects in germination have been associated with the highest rays of light brought within the scope of vision. Actinism is hence grouped generally with sound, and specially with heat, light and electricity, but is subordinate to botany. There are reasons for the theory that electricity is concerned in normal vital action — not only vegetal, but animal. Nature has anticipated both the mechanic and the fine arts. Far down in the depths of mineralogy are found gems of rarest beauty — the esthetics of Architecture. Up in the field of meteorology the clouds are tinted by the sunbeams with a perfection of beauty surpassing the possi- bilities of the esthetic art of Painting. "The music of the spheres" have for centuries enchanted the votaries of astro- nomical science, and still challenges the admiration of all observers contemplating the perfection of that grand choral movement which excels the harmony of a Handel or Beethoven, — anticipating the rhythm both of Poetry and Music. Mineralogy, meteorology and astronomy belong to physical science, but they have furnished elements of the esthetic forms which reason appropriates in the sphere and achievements of the Fine Arts. Note.— I haye chosen the natural method of commencing the scheme at the lower part of the paper to be read upward, the suggestion having been taken from the diagrams of Pres. Hopkins, in his " Outline Study of Man." II. RECENT PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. The progress of Science within our own times has been wonderful. Prof. Helmholtz uses the following language : ' ' The contemplation of the astounding activity in all branches of science may well make us stand aghast at the audacity of man, and exclaim with the Chorus in the Anti- gone : Who can survey the whole field of knowledge ? Who can grasp the clues, and then thread the labyrinth?" Every department of science has been vastly extended, and every votary of science stimulated to untiring efforts to survey this field, not only, but to enter the secret chambers of knowledge to find the treasures concealed from the human mind, until modern discoveries, modern analysis, and modern invention have combined to make those hitherto hidden facts of science known, and available to practical benefits to human society. The exact science, Mathematics, has found ample room for the application of its principles and methods of deter- mining the content of all material existences and relations. The sublime science, Astronomy, has reveled in its excur- sions into illimitable space, adding new triumphs, discover- ing new facts pertaining to the constitution of the stellar universe, and the relations of the celestial masses, measur- ing, by the agency of light, the immense distances, magni- tudes and motions of the tiny objects which the natural eyes behold in the expanse above, and in former times re* 24 Science and Philosophy. garded as " fixed stars." The profound science, Geology, has carried us back into the illimitable depths of past dura- tion, to contemplate the usually slow process by which the earth has been changing from its primordeal, nebulous con- dition, to that in which it has become fitted for living and rational beings, adding new testimonies of the rocks to the truth of Scripture, expressed by the significant language : " Of old hast thou laid the foundations of the earth." The widely related, efficient science, included in the scope of terrestrial Mechanics, has found abundant use for its forces, and the practical application of its dynamics, in the con- stantly increasing demands of human society. The splen- did and delicate science, Chemistry, has exulted in its new and valuable discoveries in the realm of atoms and mole- cules, verifying the atomic theory, and adding new evi- dences that many of the supposed elements of matter are really compounds, and must yield to the searching analysis which finds them to be but molecules composed of two or more atoms. The vast and richly diversified science, Biol- ogy, has yielded its living evidences of the progressing series of organic natures, and of the vast scope of its his- tory, extending its relations to ancestries, the periods of whose origin belong to the immeasurable epochs of palaeon- tological history. The crowning, all-conserving science, Anthropology, has added new evidences of its superiority in importance, as it stands highest in the scale of associated sciences ; and while it has maintained this highest rank by maintaining the honor of its subject-matter, its votaries have found its latest and greatest achievement in the evi- dences of a formal psychical constitution as the basis of mental action. It is not the aim of the writer to pursue the history of the development of the sciences, exhaustively, but to indicate some of the lines of progress. The brilliant discoveries in Astronomy, within the past few years, have added largely to the wealth of this noble science, fascinating the student, and inspiring to new achievements. Previous to the present century, the solar Recent Progress of Science. 25 system included seven primary planets as having at that time been discovered. In the year 1800 a new planet was discovered, and designated an asteroid, or small star, — but it is more properly called a planetoid, or small planet. The name by which this is known is Ceres, after the reputed originator, or god, of corn. It was an event of so great interest to astronomers that it was announced with much eclat that "The long-expected planet between Mars and Jupiter had been discovered." Soon after, three more were observed. Since that time, by means of the greatly increased power of telescopes, more than two hundred have been added by discovery, all being very small. Many others will be found. The problem still to be determined has been, whether these planetoids are "fragments of a broken world", as formerly supposed, or separate conden- sations from cosmic matter, instead of forming one large body, as in the case of other primary planets. It is not probable, however, that a single cosmic mass exploded at any one period, producing such fragments in such positions in their orbits as they maintain, nor that such original mass was so dissipated by the action of a propulsive or radiate force at one time, as to resume its original nebulous state. The second hypothesis is the more probable, viz. : of separate condensations from original nebulosity. Neptune, one of the largest planets, and nearly twice the distance of Herschel from the sun, was discovered in 1846 by M. Challis, of Paris, and its elements and orbit deter- mined by Le Yerrier. The discovery of this planet fur- nished a satisfactory explanation of the aberrations of the planet Herschel, caused by the approximations of Neptune, though distant, at its nearest point, more than a billion and a half miles. This increase of the number of the solar' family furnished an additional illustration, on a grand scale, of the laws of universal gravitation and of celestial mechan- ics. Added to this have been discoveries abundantly con- firming the theory of stellar motion in groups, clusters and nebulae, " the places of more than 200,000 stars having already been determined", and we have some conception 26 Science and Philosophy. of the vastness of human achievements, and of the possibil- ities still awaiting discoveries in this illimitable "field of ether. ' ' The universality and laws of primary force, denominated Gravitation, have been subjects of exceeding interest, as they pertain to this primary mode of motion. The fact of an attractive Force acting either upon or within bodies by which they tend to approach each other, arrested the atten- tion, about the year 1600, of the elder Galileo, who ex- tended the principle to all terrestrial bodies. Newton, eighty years afterward, studying this principle, and at the suggestion, it is said, of the fall of an apple, found that there was a definite increase of velocity of bodies approach- ing the earth, and also that the same kind of attractive force must apply to the moon, while a centrifugal force, either generated from the attractive force or originated from an extraneous force, continued this secondary planet around the earth. This was the first grand step toward the dis- covery of the laws of gravitation, applicable to the motion of the earth around the sun, and, generally, to all planets. More recently the principle has been applied to comets, stellar and other masses. Geology, while below chemistry in the order of nature and classification, had made far less progress in develop- ment at the commencement of the present century, a fact which might have been presumed, inasmuch as the latter science has ministered especially to the wants of mankind. According to Buckland, it was at that time "without a name." The general features of geology had been sketched by Leibnitz and Hooke more than a century previous. Near the beginning of the present century the outlines of the subject were classified into three general divisions of formations — the primitive, the secondary and the tertiary. These became the subjects of investigation, historically, in the order named. The first, especially, by Werner, of Germany, who examined chiefly the primitive and transi- tion rocks. The second by Wm. Smith (English), whose observations were first published in 1799. The third by Recent Progress of Science. 27 Cuvier and Brougniart (French), whose works upon " Or- ganic Kemains" and "Mineral Geography" were pub- lished in 1808. During the past half century this science has advanced with other sciences, with yastly increased interest and success, rendering this one of the most fasci- nating, especially in more recent times, in yielding its stores of facts pertaining to the glacial period, the deposi- tion of metallic substances, experiments showing the order and conditions of the cooling processes, resulting in the different mineral states, and the wonderful revelations of paleontological history, together with many other facts of great interest, but which cannot, in this paper, be specially given. These give abundant confirmation to the theory that immense periods of time, measured by millions of years, have passed during this history, dissipating the doctrine formerly held by many as taught in the Scriptures, that the heavens and the earth were created, out of nothing, about six thousand years ago. Among the departments of science which minister to the, wants of human society, none has awakened the spirit of invention and improvement at all to compare with that of Mechanics. With the increase of knowledge, there has been a correspondingly increasing demand for instruments of discovery and analysis, not only, but for the application of scientific skill in the invention of motive powers and the means of the transmission of intelligence, as well as imple- ments of handicraft, of agriculture, etc. The steam power, first utilized by the invention of a machine in 1655, and improved by Watt in 1774, inaugurated its grand work for human society in 1806, when Eobert Fulton, after repeated experiments, applied this power to the propulsion of vessels, -first on the Hudson river, amazing the thousands who wit- nessed the successful experiment, and introducing a new propelling power to vessels upon the sea, now bearing their burdens, estimated by millions of tons, on every river and over every lake and sea of earth. This power has added incalculable millions to the material wealth and strength of every civilized nation. The last world-wide application of 28 Science and Philosophy. this power, besides its innuinerous minor applications to all kinds of mechanical work, was inaugurated in 1821, when it was successfully applied to the propulsion of railroad trains. In 1819 Electro-magnetism was first applied to mechani- cal purposes ; and in 1831 the Magnetic Telegraph, for the transmission of intelligence, was invented and successfully applied. And now, even the comparatively coarse medium, air, has aided in business and social communications, at trifling expense, by means of the recently invented Tele- phone and the Phonograph. Chemistry has shared richly in the results of recent sci- entific progress, and has ministered richly to the wants of human society. Three centuries ago, Paracelsus boasted of possessing the " philosopher's stone", by which the baser metals were said to be transmuted into gold; but he gave a new direction to the efforts and objects of Alchemy, insisting that its chief aim should be the preparation of medicines of different kinds for different diseases. But Chemistry, as a science, must date its commencement two centuries later, when the analyses of distinguished scholars, as Scheele, of Sweden, and Dr. Black, of Glasgow Univer- sity, and the Academies of Science at Berlin and Paris, determined important principles of this science. The discoveries of Sir Humphrey Davy, in the early part of the present century, gave a new impetus to this branch, leading to chemical analyses and the establishment of chem- istry as a science. These have been followed by eras of progress which have brought the subject to a high degree of perfection. Now, the four elements of the ancients, and of the alchemists of comparatively recent times — earth, air, fire, and water — have been found by successive analy- ses to contain sixty -five elements, the last four having been detected by the new and wonderful method called the Spec- trum Analysis. It may be here stated what this method is, for the gratification of any whose attention may not have been called especially to it. It is well known that a spectrum is an image formed by Recent Progress of Science. 29 the light of the sun, or any other luminous body, either as direct or reflected rays', passing through a triangular piece of glass called a prism. The colored lines thus formed by differently refracted and dispersed rays, reveal the nature and qualities of the elements contained in the luminous body by the different colors, combinations, and the phe- nomena presented, compared with previous results of ex- periment in the laboratory, upon light reflected from differ- ent mineral substances. It has been found that every kind of mineral substance, whether in the form of a solid, gas, or nebulous matter, when in a state of intense luminosity, possesses the capacity to emit a specific color, with its accompanying mixed lines. This being known, when a new body is analysed by its light, its constituents are de- termined by the lines of light. Thus the solar envelops, protuberances, etc., of the sun are examined by the analysis of the solar spectrum. By this -method, the character of comets, meteors, or other celestial masses are determined. By this the problem of the sudden appearance or disappear- ance of stellar masses is explained, by determining the state of the mass thus emitting light, and the conditions of luminosity. What the telescope has failed to determine in respect to the elements and qualities of bodies, or the nature of nebulous masses, whether such masses are clus- ters of stars in the infinite distance, or of original, unformed nebulous matter, the spectroscope has accomplished; and what has been held by most astronomers as a theory, has become confirmed as a fact, that, as Prof. Schellen says, "luminous nebulae actually exist as isolated bodies in space, and these bodies are masses of gas. ' ' Thus, clusters, groups, stars and planets, are in process of genesis from primeval cosmic matter, and Cosmology may be regarded as a science, established by the aid of art in the construction of larger telescopes, and their new associate in the field of stellar research, the spectroscope, bring within the scope of obser- vation new facts, and confirming the generally received theory of the nebular constitution and the genesis of the stel- lar and planetary systems from such original cosmic matter. 30 Science and Philosophy. The conservation of all the lower departments of science to the wants of man, in his individual and social relations, gives a vast superiority of rank to Anthropology. In re- cent times, the chief points of practical importance in the progress or development of this science have pertained to Sociology. Eesearches in special lines of investigation have furnished many facts of great interest pertaining to antiquities, archives of ancient cities, inscriptions upon rocks, hieroglyphics and monuments, which have yielded abundant fruits to explorers, and vastly increased the knowl- edge of particular races and languages ; while increasing evidences are furnished that the antiquity of the human race is much greater than that indicated by the generally accepted chronology. In the department of Philology, great progress has been made during the period of our own times. Comparative Philology is no longer confined to the Latin and Greek of the ancient languages, and two or three of the modern lan- guages, but every language of the globe is yielding rich fruits bearing upon history as well as philology ; especially has the Sanscrit, the mother of all the Indo-European languages, received special attention, resulting in the estab- lishment of professorships of the Sanscrit in several col- leges. But questions of the highest interest pertain to Psychol- ogy, especially relating to our psychical nature and its con- nection with our physiological constitution, to the phenom- ena of " Unconscious cerebration", and other facts which have elicited research in the modes of receiving and retain- ing sensations and the memory of facts, and into the medium of transmitting such impressions. Such inquiries have led to the adoption of the following theory of account- ing for these phenomena, viz. : that the psychical constitu- tion is not simply mental or spiritual, but is dual or two- fold, consisting of two substances we may conveniently term respectively ethereal and spiritual. The following rational deductions are given as the only satisfactory hy- potheses pertaining to our interior being, viz. : That the Recent Progress of Science. 31 great rapidity of the transmission of impressions, being at least 100 feet per second from the extreme parts of our physical system to the brain, or requiring but one-fifteenth of a second to produce a sensation, involves the necessity of the existence of an ethereal substance permeating the nerves, and hence called " nervous ether", which forms the elementary substance of the formal psychical nature. That, as the physical germ is the initial organism of the future physical body, "potentially alive", in the germinal state, so this nervous ether contains the psychical germ or initial organism of the future psychical body, potentially perfected, and which emerges in its real or developed form upon the death of the physical body, or properly its sepa- ration from the soul, or interior being. That the psychical nature, while connected with the physical, forms the basis of vital action, continuity and identity ; and that the mechanism of thought and feeling involves the necessity of two psychical centers of activity, corresponding with the brain and heart, viz. : the psychical sensorium, which is the seat of intellectual action, the basis of sensation, memory, etc., and the psychical cardium, the seat of the emotional and sympathetic affections. Scientific progress has both increased the number of special sciences and extended the limits of those previously known. This has created the necessity of the division of scientific research, inducing students to pursue single lines of inquiry, the result being more thorough and extensive knowledge of the respective departments, which have be- come the common heritage. Examples of this devotion to special sciences are now numerous in every department, as in the case of the late Prof. L. Agassiz, who devoted many years to the study of animalculaB. In the history of plants and animals, species, genera, and even classes have been multiplied, as individuals have devoted their lives to these subjects, with all the helps at command, leaving no depths unexplored. The anatomist and physiologist no longer confine attention to the human structure, but find in com- parative anatomy and physiology many types and char- acteristics brought forward and perfected in the higher 82 Science and Philosophy. orders, or old forms substituted by new, till finally, in the human constitution the completed form best adapted, not to the lower purposes of physical strength and endurance, by which the animal subserves human ends, but the best form for the higher ends of intellectual, moral and social natures by which man is evidently distinguished above the brute. This division of labor has been found essential in applica- tion to the numerous sciences now demanding vastly in- creased forces of professional teachers in colleges and universities. Now, a college can scarcely claim the name of a liberal institution of learning in which one professor is required to associate sciences so unnaturally connected as Mathematics and Moral Philosophy, or Chemistry, Botany and Pharmacy, as in some European colleges a century ago. A comparison of the courses of study and the professorships in colleges in our country during the past thirty or forty years will exhibit the marked advance- ment of the sciences, and the increased requirements of the present time. In 1837, Geneva College, now Hobart Col- lege, Geneva, N. Y., of which the writer was a student, contained a professorship of "Mathematics and Natural Philosophy"; of the "Latin and Greek languages"; of " Modern languages, History and Belles-Lettres", to which was added Rhetoric and two other mixed professorships. For the year 1849-1850, the catalogue of Western Reserve college, Hudson, O., of which the writer had been a theo- logical student, exhibits the following: The institution embraced three departments : General Science, Medicine, and Theology, besides a preparatory department. Five professors gave instruction in General Science, or the Lit- erary department ; one of which was the professor of the "Latin and Greek" ; one of " Chemistry, History, Medical Jurisprudence (in the Medical department), and Natural History", — the latter embracing several branches, includ- Geology ! and one professor of "Modern Languages." Great advancement upon this order is now exhibited in the principal colleges of our land. I here name only three : In 1875, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., had twenty pro- fessors and adjunct professors, besides tutors, assistants and lecturers — twenty-seven in all. The University of Wooster, O., in 1876, had thirteen instructors in the Liter- ary department, and the same number in the Medical department. The Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Mich., in 1877, had, in all departments, fifty-live instructors. Ill PAIST-DUALISM. [Copyright 1881. Samuel Fleming.] The term used to designate the Science of Being, is' On- tology : from ontos, being, and logos, doctrine. It is here used, in its broadest signification, to include universal being, derived and underived. The term Universe (from .unus, one, versum, to turn), originally limited to the phenomena of the revolving firmament, is now generally used to signify the all-related system of being, and hence applies to all created or derived beings as bound together by one set of laws for ultimate ends, as contained in the plans of the Creator. Different, and often conflicting, theories respecting the origin and nature of being have been maintained from the earliest ages of philosophic thought. Dualism is the doctrine of two principles, beings or natures. Ancient dualism, held in modified forms, may be stated generally to have been either the theory of two original principles, one active and the other passive, or that which maintained that there are two deities, one good and the other evil ; as opposed to the hypothesis of one principle or being, which was Monism. Pan-Dualism, or Neo- Dualism, announced and main- tained in this work, is the doctrine of the Dual nature of all Being, or of two inseparably, co-existing and mutually depending subsistences in every order of being. The pecul- iarity of this hypothesis consists in its including universal being, hence the propriety of the term Pan-Dualism. The 3 34: Science and Philosophy. general terms used to designate the two subsistences coher- ing in every order of being, are Matte?' and Spirit. Be- cause of this modern and new application of the term dual- ism, the prefix neo is significant, as Neo-Dualism. It is sufficiently evident to most minds that the theory here maintained is true as applied to man and the lower animals, and by many as applied to vegetal life, while a few maintain the theory of a spiritual force, or, as it may be stated in a negative form, an immaterial nature, as ap- plied to inorganic beings. The author of this work extends the doctrine of realistic dualism to in elude universal being, not excepting the infinite Source of all material and spirit- ual entities. The scheme of Classification of Science, given in this work, is based upon the hypothesis here announced, the terms of the fundamental subjects, — cosmology, bi- ology, and anthropology, expressing the doctrine as it relates to all mundane orders. The author holds that the phenomena both of matter and spirit are referable to real entities ; that every order of dependent being, as to its form and peculiarity, owes its origin to a special act or "operation" of the Creator, pur- suant to a pre-arranged plan of succession and progress, proceeding from the lower to the higher, and that this plan has included beings of all preceding cosmoses ; that types and essential qualities which had entered into the constitu- tion of lower orders are incorporated in succeeding and higher orders, with super-added capacities, — it has been a "life unto life;" and that species and varieties have been evolved from the inherent properties and functions of the general orders, promoted, it may have been, by the varied relations of associated existences and adaptations. It is also maintained that all forms of truth, — physical, biologi- cal, mental and rational, — are in essential harmony with each other; that all true science points primarily to original facts, fundamental principles and laws or modes of action; that, pursued to their basal conception, all facts, all laws, all light and knowledge, all purity and perfection, relate to the Fountain of all being ; and so, rightly understood, Pan- Dualism. 35 all scientific truth is essentially allied with all religious truth, that these are complements of each other, like the vast domains of matter and spirit which they represent and unfold. The true philosopher, seeking facts and discovering modifications of antecedent facts, which both Nature and Revelation are constantly yielding to patient and liberal research, ' ' will not be found questioning the authority of the Scriptures, when some new and at first apparently opposing scientific truth is discovered, but only some human, dogmatic interpretation, as if it were itself the Word of God." Nor will the seeker after " more light" discard those forms of truth which relate to man's interior, psychical and imperishable materiality, or the evidences of a corresponding divine nature, which a rational philosophy demands as necessary deductions and interpretations of derived natures. It is the want of the reciprocal recogni- tion and conservation of all truth that embarrasses the solution of the final great and earnestly sought problems of our own constitution and of universal being. Human knowledge is finite and partial. " We know in part." And because this has been true of all human thought and attainments, there has frequently obtained modifications of what had been cherished as settled faiths, induced by research into special departments of the broad field of Science. We have only to examine the history of thought and philosophic inquiry to be convinced of this Statement. Take the following examples for illustration : Who does not know how recently it was the common faith alike of the votaries of religion and of science, that the earth was the center of the universe, around which the sun, moon and stars in their courses revolved ? So, also, down to a recent period, it was the common faith of Christians that the universe was called into existence "out of nothing," and the earth furnished with its almost infinite variety of creatures of different orders as now found, in the space of six time-measured days of twenty-four hours each, about 6,000 years ago. It is not strange, therefore, that 36 Science and Philosophy. with the greatly increased facilities of modern times for researches in both Science and Scripture teachings, there should obtain such modifications of faith as a true philos- ophy demands. Matter and Spirit. It is held by the author that Matter and Spirit constitute the two co-existing- entities of all being. In the present state, whatever may be the fact in the future state, we have no capacities for cognizing the essences of either, and may well acknowledge, with a profound writer [Blaise Pascal], that " we know not what matter is, still less what spirit is, and least of all how these two are united in the same being." Dr. Turnbull [Theophenies] has propounded the following inquiries : "What is matter? what its essence and mode of existence % how does it link itself with spirit ? What is mind ? — its nature and essence, — its mode of ex- istence, — its ineffable relation to God and the universe ? What is God?" Involved in such mysteries, with no capacities for penetrating into the essence of things, we can only define both matter and spirit in terms expressive of their phenomena and effects. But these two kinds of substance are essentially opposite in respect to properties, susceptibilities and capacities. Matter is inert, or passive, — susceptible of being moved or acted upon, and is the vehicle of spiritual existence and action. Spirit possesses the inherent nature of self-activity, though primevally latent, as will be shown ; it has the capacity for causing motion or change of state and constitution in matter. The one has formal existence, the other diffusive ; each, as evolved and acting, has its peculiar laws and modes so un- like that neither could have been derived from the other. They are essentially diverse, yet they so act and re-act mutually, both in the cosmic and higher orders of being, as to indicate an essential connection, at least of some kind or mode, so that it may be stated generally that they are co-existent, co-etaneous, and co-related. Pan- Dualism — Ether and Potential Force. 37 The following diagrammatic representation is intended to illustrate the original and derived material and spiritual natures of all orders of being in the universe, so far as the facts of such orders have been revealed either by Nature or the Scriptures. The circle is the symbol both of infinity and perfection, representing the underived Being. On the left of the circle and of the central division are represented the material natures of the respective orders, and on the right the spiritual natures. The idea of the origination of all finite being by mediation is suggested by the place occupied by the word Logos. The subjects will be treated in the order of rank from the lower to the higher, commencing with beings constituting the present mundane system. ORDERS OF UNIVERSAL BEING. " The Fountain of Life."— Ps. 36: 9. -S g£ ( Source of Material Nature x""*N Source of Spiritual Nature. ^3 j= •< Immanent Presence ( 1 Immanent Force . ja sg ( Theogenetic Material Nature v.^ Theogenetic Spiritual Nature. LOGOS. Angelic Material Natures Angelic Spiritual Natures . [Prior Ethereal and Cosmic Na- tures probable f Human Psychical Nature Rational Spirit.— Mind. Animal Organisms Conscious, Self-directive Instinct. _s J Vegetal Organisms Unconscious, Self -directive Life. S 1 Cosmic Matter . . Self-active Force. ^ Ethereal, Self -Subsisting Matter. Potentential, Self -subsisting Force. (, in equilibrium .... 1. Ether and Potential Force. The existence of an inconceivably rare and intangible form of matter called JEther, or Ether, has been held as a hypothesis from an early period of philosophy. One of the ancient Greek monistic systems, that of Anaxagoras, was founded upon the theory that ether was the original essence of the universe, and was without beginning. The term is a Greek word, from aitho, to light up, to shine, to keep burning, and was applied to the upper or pure air. This conception, five hundred years before the Christian era, cor- responds well to the chief function which modern philoso- phy assigns it, and which the increased facilities for deep research and experiments pertaining to its properties have aided to establish as a truth of science, viz., its extreme elasticity and capacity to transmit heat, light, etc., — a 38 Science and Philosophy. remarkable fact, indeed, because the ancients had no knowl- edge of this function, as appears evident from the sup- posed limit of this substance to the immediate space above the common atmosphere. Plato described it in terms im- plying motion, a property belonging to it, indeed, but not the visible motion observed as in the twinkling of a star, which may have suggested the name ether. Huygens, about A.D. 1660, was the first to propose the necessity of such a medium as ether to account for the transmission of light. Abundant confirmation of the truth of this hypothesis has been furnished by the repeated tests of experiment, and it is now the accepted doctrine of nearly all scientists. Two theories have been held as to its nature : one, that it consists of distinct but exceedingly attenu- ated atoms ; the other, that it is a continuous fluid which u decomposes itself into atoms by the free play ol its own force." The author's conception of it is a modification of the last, and may be given as a third theory, that it is not transmutable, — does not change its state, but is the finite source whence the atomic elements of the universe were originated, by the inhering self-subsisting Force to which, the Creator gave efficiency. By some it has been designated a semi-material substance, because its nature differs from all other forms of matter. Ether may be defined to be the primordial, continuous, homogeneous and non-transmutable or permanent state of matter, — most subtle or tenuous, most elastic and most highly susceptible of vibratory action. It occupies uni- versal space, and inter-penetrates all bodies, filling even the inter-molecular spaces. It is so subtle and imponderable that it offers no appreciable resistence to the most rapid motion of atoms or masses. It is the most perfect medium, transmitting the vibratory motion, in modified forms, which gives the phenomena of heat, light, actinism, and electricity, and propagating its vibratory wave-motion of extreme rapidity and delicacy through the almost infinite spaces unchanged in order and character. It is the in- visible body of the cosmic universe, — the medium of com- Pan-Dualism — Ether and Potential Force. 39 munication between the visible and invisible realms, — the vail which separates us from the Holy of holies ! The extreme tenuity of ether will be understood approxi- mately by comparisons : Thus, it is stated that if the par- ticles of all the planets, comets and meteoric matter were diffused through the entire space encircled by the orbit of Neptune, — a diameter of nearly eight billions miles, — the ether diffused in the same space would immeasurably ex- ceed in tenuity the fine nebulous matter so diffused. Its comparable capacity for vibratory motion is expressed by hundreds of billions of miles in a second of time. The velocity of progress of its wave-forms, producing light and heat, is about 185,000 miles per second, or a million times that of sound by air- vibrations ; for the transmission of electric currents, the rate is estimated at 250,000 miles per second. That ether is a material substance, appears evident from numerous experiments, but is sufficiently obvious from the fact that its vibratory action is interrupted by the molecules of bodies, which are said to absorbjibr instance, the lumin- ous rays, rendering such bodies opake, as iron. Glass is transparent because the luminous vibrations of ether pass through the inter-spaces of its crystalline molecules without causing them to vibrate. The description of ether, above given, relates to it chieily in its active state, as now existing in connection with atoms, in which alone its properties are manifested. It is held that it existed antecedently to the cosmic forms of matter in its statical condition, or in equilibrium. This seems reasonable, from the fact that it belongs to the universal order, and its properties or susceptibilities cannot be con- ceived as manifested before the evolution of cosmic matter which furnishes the conditions of activity, and renders it possible for such phenomena to exist. And further, it may be reasonably presumed that a harmonious system of being should be constituted of orders corresponding in essential natures. It will be shown, the author believes, that all the subsequent orders are constituted of some form of material 40 Science and Philosophy. and spiritual substances. It is held that these two kinds of essence obtained from the beginning ; and that Ether ex- isted in equilibrio, Spirit or Force inhering in this primeval substance potentially, or in a latent and undeveloped state, and that it was as much a reality as in any subsequent or active state, as really existing as latent heat in a certain condition of cosmic matter. There has been, from the first, a co-existence in each order. But the attributes of Force, like the physical properties of Ether, could have been known only by being brought into an active state. In its original state, inhering in Ether, Force was simply self-subsisting, possessing the undeveloped capacity for action, but became active when brought into cosmic relations. The ultimate efficiency of Force in matter is constantly dependent upon the Immanent Divine Force, as the sub- stance and essential form of all matter constantly depend upon the underlying, corresponding essence of the Divine material nature. Both Matter and Force are real, self- subsisting entities, and though derived from the Fountain of all being, they exist as distinctly from the person of the Infinite One, as the offspring of plants and animals from their parents. The author conceives that the state of inactivity previous to the evolution of the cosmic elements was the night of ante-mundane time, which followed, it may have been, the completion of the immeasurably vast cycles during w T hich successive orders of angelic beings were created, — whether through processes corresponding with those of the cosmic state with which we stand related, or through "diversities of operations," remains among the deep things which form subjects of contemplation in the future state. But it is conceived that "before the beginning of the dust of the world," before the chaoses of unformed globes and systems, before the mineral and liquid fire-mists of nebulous stages, before the genesis of the elementary gases or atoms, dark- ness and silence, which are the necessary consequences of a state of material equilibrium and spiritual latency, reigned throughout the vast, ethereal expanse outside the sphere of Pan-Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 41 celestial activities whose center is the eternal Throne of Universal Empire, till TV Omnific Word the void and silence broke, And myriad forms of life successive woke. 2. Cosmic Matter and Foece. This order includes the entire realm of inorganic Nature, the subject matter of Physico-Dynamic Science. Upon the introduction of this order we may appropriately conceive the Divine fiat uttered upon primeval Force inherent in primeval Matter, Let there he action; as early in the pro- cess of generating terrestrial being from a nebulous condi- tion, the fiat was uttered, "Let there be Light." It was the dawn of the present mundane system, which broke upon the silence and night of preceding cosmoses, conceived to have been the arenas of successive orders of angelic be- ing, — it may have been also of lower orders. This involved the origination of the elements of the present cosmic states of matter. To the primary property of Force designated above as self -subsistence, there was added the attribute of self -activity , and what was but potential became actual Force. Thenceforward we are to contemplate action throughout the vast expanse of the ethereal realm, hitherto in a state of equilibrium. What was in a former epoch an immeasurably vast extent of a continuous and inactive sub- stance, is now the theater for the exhibition of incalculable myriads of individual particles, dotted throughout the un- bounded firmament now occupied by the various forms of matter, as atoms, molecules and masses ; systems of suns with their planets, comets and meteors ; systems of stars, groups, clusters and nebulae, extended in space which even the most powerful telescopes fail to penetrate ; immensities so transcending the grasp of finite mind, that the reverent spirit cannot but exclaim, " Great and marvellous are Thy works ! Lo ! these are but parts of His ways ; how little a portion is heard of Him !" To the consideration of the facts of the cosmic order, with the evidences of the co-existence of Force with Matter, 42 Science and Philosophy. as manifested in the cosmogenetic processes, and the actual dynamic operations of nature, we now give attention. Matter exists in four normal states, in each of which it has its special characteristics and sphere of action, viz., as ether, gas, liquid, and solid. In the ethereal state, matter is continuous, permanently elastic, and non-transmutable. In the gaseous state, matter exists in particles, is perma- nently elastic, and transmutable. "A gas is a substance, a finite portion of which will distribute itself through any space, however great, to which it has free access." [Encyc. Brit.] When free, it is in constant motion, tend- ing to fly off in straight lines, and to reflect from other particles or objects with which it comes in contact. Gases move freely, either in a gaseous or ethereal element. A gas may be a single atom, or a compound of two or more combined in one element. Thus oxygen, a simple gas, united with nitrogen, another simple gas, form air, a com- pound gas. In the liquid state, matter consists of a col- lection of atoms or molecules, held, in its normal state, in contact by either attraction or pressure, while its ele- ments continually roll about and among each other. This condition results in mutual pressure in every direction. Yapor, sometimes treated as existing in a distinct state, and sometimes as transparent gas, seems properly to be included as belonging to the liquid state, inasmuch as it is induced by the force of heat keeping the particles so separate that the specific gravity is less than that of air. In the solid state, matter consists of a collection of atoms or molecules which remain, in its normal state, in nearly the same relative positions, each particle being in imper- ceptible vibratory motion. Of the sixty-five chemical elements, five are in the gas- eous state, viz., hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine ; three are in the liquid state, viz., mercury, bromine, and gallium ; all others are in the solid state. The gaseous state is the only one known in which the molecular weights of simple and compound elements are determined. While a simple gas and a single atom may be contemplated as Pan-Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 43 equivalent, it has been found that many atoms often enter the constitution of a compound gaseous element. The almost infinite variety of forms in physical nature are built out of atoms and molecules. An atom is an indi- visible particle, or the simplest elementary substance; i. e., one which cannot be separated into parts. A molecule is a composite or union of two or more atoms. A chemical element is an atom or molecule which may enter into chemical combination. Several considerations tend to confirm the hypothesis that diversity exists among the primary atoms in respect to form, magnitude, and property. This inference is de- duced from the following, among other facts, generally ac- cepted : The atomic weights differ ; thus, the weight of hydrogen being 1, nitrogen is 14 ; oxygen, 16 ; chlorine, 35. The liquid elements differ ; as bromine, 80 ; mercury, 200. The solid elements differ ; as carbon, 12 ; potassium, 39 ; iron, 60 ; lead, 200 ; etc. The properties differ ; the union of like atoms forms mechanical combinations by co- hesive force, while the union of unlike atoms forms chemi- cal combinations by chemical affinity. The complex and diversified forms and qualities of matter everywhere exhib- ited in nature, give evidence that originally the primordial atoms must have differed. The infinitesimal minitudes of atoms and molecules can- not be appreciated, but may be mathematically expressed ; thus, it has been estimated that a hydrogen atom is but the one five hundred millionth of an inch in diameter ; this would aggregate the inconceivable number of 1,250,000,- 000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms in a cubic inch. These specific distinctions of matter being recognized and accepted generally as now existing, and as having in some respects existed from the period of the origination of the elements which enter into the physical forms of be- ing, attention is directed to a succinct statement of what has generally been conceived to have been the successive stages of progress in the evolution of the cosmic system of the universe. 44 Science and Philosophy. The philosophers of antiquity generally believed in the eternity of matter, although their conceptions of matter, for want of the facilities for fundamental analysis for which modern science is so wonderfully distinguished, must have been very inadequate, as may be inferred from the respect- ive bases of their opposing systems of matter ; thus, Thales thought that water was the original substance ; Heraclitus, that it was fire ; Democritus, that it was atoms, etc. The idea of a chaos as the primeval condition of matter, seems to have been fundamental in the systems of cosmogony, held and taught by the philosophers of Chaldea, Egypt, Greece, and other nations. In these systems generally the earth was the great world and center of all movement. Aristotle and some others held, that not only the earth and the visible heavens were without beginning, but the human race, vegetal and animal existences. Of the diverse systems of modern cosmogony, that which most satisfactorily accounts for the general phenomena of world formations, is that of Herschel and Laplace ; the lat- ter, however, elaborating it into a complete system. In this hypothesis, taking the sun as an example, the matter of a given solar system is supposed to have been an ex- ceedingly diffused nebula, nearly spherical, the scattered particles extending beyond the most distant planet, the planets not yet having separate existence. This immense sphere of vapor or nebulous matter, by the action of grav- ity reciprocally upon the separate particles, tended to con- densation. The exterior portions, which, being at compar- atively great distances from the common center, and were not attracted equally with those nearer the center, were at length left in a separate ring-form or zone of gaseous mat- ter, now luminous, which continued its revolution by the centrifugal force given, while the individual particles were attracted toward each other; and, in the course of ages,' formed a separate globular nebula, thence a more con- densed planet. Other portions are supposed to have be- come detatched in a similar way, resulting in the system of planets now revolving around the sun, which still in- cludes a vastly greater amount of matter than the aggre- gate of the planets. Secondary planets or moons are sup- posed by the hypothesis to have been derived from the primary planets. This hypothesis, imperfectly stated, indeed, has been held generally as the true cosmogony of our own, and of other stellar and planetary systems. A few, however, as Proctor [Expanse of Heaven], have with- Pan-Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 45 held assent from this theory. And, indeed, it seems prob- able to the author that the theory requires modifications, in some respects, to make it accord more perfectly with known facts and processes now occurring in the history of celestial bodies, but space cannot now be given to the sub- ject, except to state generally the stages of progress con- ceived to have obtained in the evolution of primeval mat- ter in the universal system.* The first stage of world-formations was evidently that of atoms. These are conceived to have been originally or as first evolved of different magnitudes, widely separated in the ethereal element, and probably at unequal distances, each atom being a force center. The first form of force was that of Gravitation, by which the particles compara- tively near were drawn together, increasing in velocity as they approached, according to the laws of falling bodies. Atoms of similar kinds formed molecules by cohesion, and those of different kinds united by chemical affinity, form- ing compound elements. Vast ages must have been re- quired for these preliminary operations to produce changes of relative position, convergence and counter-action, before such union of elements had taken place sufficiently to de- velop the force of Repulsion, causing their segregation and new conditions of aggregation. The second stage was that of the aggregation of atoms in the form of nebulous masses. During this second series of movement, we are to conceive that atoms, gases and molecules formed some kind of union by their action with- out coalescence, at first into solids, or even the liquid forms, but ultimately during the immence ages required by reactionary movement, formed luminous scattered masses of sufficient dimensions and so widely separated, as to con- stitute materials for systems of suns now occupying the im- measurable spaces. Some of the most interesting phenom- ena presented to the astronomer are various forms of nebulous or cloud-like masses, which, from terrestial points of observation, appear to be either spiral, ring-like, or nucleous formation, exhibiting, it is reasonably inferred, the successive stages of progress, and the apparent processes, * It is due to distinguished scientists, as Leibnitz, Whiston (successor to Sir I. Newton in the chair of Mathematics), and Buffon, to state, that each advanced fundamental ideas with respect to the original condition of matter and the general processes of world-formations, which contributed to prepare the way for the construction of the theory elaborated by Laplace. 46 Science and Philosophy. in the order named in the generation of group and even cluster systems, by the breaking up of the ring-like forms, and by condensation into suns, and, ultimately, planets. Atomic matter still exists in vast portions of space, as manifested in the form of meteors, widely separated as in- dividual particles, but subject to the attraction of planets and probably of suns, by which they acquire a velocity of thirty or forty miles per second. The third stage was that of stellar formations. Our sun is one of the stars which differ vastly indeed in magnitude, and is an epitome of universal world-building. Originally, or in its earliest separate stage, it must have occupied space vastly exceeding the present limits of the most remote planet, even if one or two more exist outside of Neptune, which is probable. But so aggregated and condensed is the sun at the present point of its history as to be limited in dimen- sion to a diameter less than one million miles. The op- posite processes of aggregation and segregation result in both the comparative reduction of the diameter of the sun and the formation of the ring-like nebulous matter of which the several planets were formed. The author is in- clined to the theory that the nebular hypothesis should be so modified as to include the action of the repulsive force in throwing off the separate masses from the central body, as well as that of the attractive force, in condensation, thus leaving out of the sphere of the comparatively strong at- tractive force the nebulous rings which ultimately formed the planets. Other suns and systems probably have been subject to a corresponding process of change and develop- ment, resulting in varied dimensions, and in group and cluster forms having their centers ; for astronomers have verified the statement of Paul eighteen centuries ago, that "one star differeth from another in glory.-' The fourth stage was that of planetary formations by gradual condensation of the ring-like masses which were either thrown off the sun or left out in the distance. The geogony of our earth furnishes the facts which essentially obtain in respect to all planets, whether of our own solar system, or other stars far enough advanced to have gener- ated planets. Its primary stage was that of a ring, — its secondary stage was that of a nebulous, diffused, and thence a chaotic mass, of a spheroidal form. Prof. Dawson [Earth and Man] supposes the diameter of the nebulous matter of the earth, in its first or annular form, to have Pan- Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 47 been originally at least 15,000,000 miles, and that the atoms were at first kept apart by heat (repulsion), which opposed both their mechanical and chemical union. Condensation, however, followed, though after a vast period of gaseous condition. According to his theory, the denser matters gradually sank to the central region of the mass, and is now in a partially condensed stage, while a crust was formed by the condensation of the outer portion, nearly at its present diameter. Reactionary or volcanic movements still con- tinue, and may yet continue for a vast period. The strati- fications of the crust constitute the principal subject of Geology. We have seen that all cosmic matter is in motion, either visible or invisible, not only masses but molecules, and from the operations of nature it is inferred that these ele- ments have been in motion from the commencement of atomic existence. And this implies Force. Back of the motion of masses, back of the motion of atoms, was a cause or ohain of causation, beginning with a spiritual entity; for matter, as we have seen, is essentially inert, and cannot be the cause of its own motion. It can neither move itself, or cease its own motion. The possibility of a change of state lay in either an ab extra, or inherent Force. It is found, by repeated experiment, that cosmic matter is transmutable, and subject to laws of correlation and con- servation. The power that produces these changes must be either finite or infinite, or in some sense the result of both. Different hypotheses have been maintained of the nature of Force. The term itself is quite too often used without proper discrimination. The Duke of Argyle says [Reign of Law] : "It may be that this one Force, into which all others return again, is itself a mode of action of the Divine Will." Dr. McCosh says {Christianity and Positivism]: " The profoundest minds have been fond of regarding this Force as the Power of God acting in all action ; and we shall see this one Power blowing in the breeze, smiling in the sunshine, sparkling in the stars," etc. But these Christian theists do not intend to teach pantheism. They are to be understood, probably, to convey the meaning that 48 Science and Philosophy. the Divine will is the immanent and efficient Force, though not immediate, operating by established relations and laws, or modes of action. They recognize the existence and the immediate action of physical Force as an entity distinct from matter. Rightly interpreted, there is a pro- found truth in these utterances, corresponding with those contained in the richly-freighted lines of Alex. Pope : " Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees; Lives through all life, extends through all extent, Spreads undivided, operates unspent; Breathes in our soul," * * * etc. Leibig held, that Nature is a living being, endowed with a soul or vital principle. This doctrine has been styled Hylozoism. Frequently by scientists, especially by materi- alists, the term energy is used in the sense of force : thus, " Energy is the power of doing work." " The sum of all the energies in all worlds is a quantity fixed, — invariable," — a form of defining the recent doctrine of the conserva- tion of Force. Helmholtz frequently uses the term energy for force, but in the following the term force is referred to as an effect, rather than cause: " Heat-force is produced by the excessive action of the ether." The term " energy," literally at work, or working, signi- fies either work done by some force, or the exertion, intens- ity, or efficiency of such force. Force, as used in this arti- cle, is the immaterial, or properly spiritual entity that originates or causes motion or change inherently in matter ; it is the power inherent in matter which produces, or tends to produce effects, and hence it is a cause, not an effect, nor indeed a condition of motion, except in a conventional sense, as applied to any of the forms or instruments of Force ; as mechanical, chemical, vital, or voluntary. We find the term used elsewhere [Enc} T c. Brit.] nearly as in this article: "Contemplated from the highest point of view, these physical phenomena may be conceived to re- sult from the operation of one primary form of Force, on one primordial form of Matter." Force actuates every state and form of matter. All the Pan- Dualism — Cosmic Matter and Force. 49 phenomena of nature, from the atom to the globe, from the chemical compound to the universal system, result from one or more forms of Force inhering in all. Every change and every process in cosmic nature implies the ne- cessity of a corresponding Force. The law of gravitation, that "bodies attract each other directly as the masses, and inversely as the squares of their distance," assumes this, if, as held, matter is essentially passive. Matter and Force are so adjusted by their constitution that the quantity of one is the measure of the quantity of the other ; hence, if the aggregate of atoms constituting a body can be determined, the quantity of Force by which such body acts will be expressed by such aggregation, and vice versa. Force is held to be self-active in the sense of being constituted for definite ac- tion ; the change of position of a body, is the result of an act either propelling or attractive. The forms of dynamic action are various, but fixed in their own order. Ethereal action reveals a power inhering in this primary material element adequate to bear onward and onward, with inconceivable velocity, to the very verge of creation, — distances the finite mind, at least in the pres- ent state, fails to appreciate, — a succession of wave- vibra- tions which leave the impress of their character unaltered upon objects at the immeasurably distant points of space. We infer, therefore, that Force pervades the entire ethereal element ; and it should be so, for ether is diffused in the inter-molecular spaces, and for the propagation of the wave- motion an equally pervading Force is requisite. Molecular and massal action result from the same Force inhering in the atoms, the molecular spaces and inter-massal spaces, as one inseparable or indivisible entity, acting by its own nature in the material conditions which limit its action. We trace this spirital entity in the changes effected in matter under the forms of physical, mechanical and chemical action. We see evidences of its existence in the form of heat or the repulsive action, which as really as attraction has its laws, — in the transmutation of solids, liquids and gases, in volcanic action, in the rose-red pro- 4 50 Science and Philosophy. tuberances of the solar photosphere, and in the boiling and seething chaotic masses in the processes of world-forma- tions. Matter, in all its forms and states, is the vehicle and instrument of the all-inherent, co-existent and co-etaneous Force. We need not accept the doctrine of Des Cartes, that extension is the only property of matter, but may regard inertia as the form of Force, which continues the motion it gives to a body, and which also maintains the equilibrium of bodies by its potentiality. It is sufficiently evident that the agency of this force was concerned as the instrumental cause in the evolution of all the states of Matter, and in the conservation of all its forms of action ; and that matter, in every stage of development, has constituted the vehicle and means of manifesting the diversified forms of the in- herent and self-active Force. The doctrine, therefore, of the dual nature of cosmic being, of the self-subsistence and co-existence of Matter and Force, is substantiated by the highest scientific considerations. 3. Vegetal Organisms and Self-directive Life. In the ascending series of the creative works, when the principle of activity in the chemical form of Force had built up the cosmic forms and conditions, a higher order was introduced, the Divine fiat, Let there be Life, having been virtually uttered upon the prior nature. What, in the former stage, was but the self-active Force, now, by the Divine Power in the communication of a new and special element or attribute, becomes a self ■ directive Life. In all the progress of the generations of existence, when a lower order had fulfilled its ends preparatory to the introduction of a higher, there has been added a " life unto life," a con- servation of the lower forces and material properties to a higher form and sphere of existence. Here, as elsewhere in this article, the term "order" is used in its radical sense to distinguish beings with reference to their dynamic characteristics, — as force, life, instinct, and mind, — and not with reference to the anatomical distinctions upon which are based the classifications of Natural History as found in text-books. The mystery of Life has in all ages been a subject of special interest and study. The question, What is Life? relates to a reality deeper than phenomena or organization. This real entity is itself a cause or essential agent in the production of phenomena possessing a capacity higher than Pan- Dualism — Vegetal Life. 51 mere Force. Its seat is in the region which is inaccessible to human view, and is known only by its manifestations. Some regard it merely as a consequent of certain condi- tions, and not as itself a real entity and a cause of phenom- ena. This is the materialistic view. Others, while often using the term life in the sense of a process, regard it as a distinct form of power acting in and through vital organ- isms. / Pres. McCosh says he is "inclined, on the evidence of science, to believe in a vital power as different from the chemical as the chemical is from the mechanical." But the author has failed to observe in the doctor's works a statement of the nature of that power. Argyle says : " Life is the antecedent cause of organization, and not the organization itself." So also the question pertaining to the origin of Life has baffled many a philosopher. Some attribute it to the sun. And it is true that the phenomena called life upon the earth, as manifested to us by the changes wrought in matter, is largely due to the agency of the sun, inasmuch as an organism depends for its nurture and growth upon heat, light, and the actinic rays which originate from the solar activities. "All the realities of nature are in the region of the in- visible." The authors of "The Unseen Universe" main- tain the hypothesis that there is in the invisible realms " an intelligent Agent whose function it is to develop Life." Prof. Taylor Lewis says [Six Days of Creation] : "Vegetal life had a moment when it began to be, — a new, and at first a super-natural force put into Nature. " Interpreting the passage in Genesis, "Let the earth bring forth grass," to mean, Let the earth germinate or cause to germinate, adds, "The command was to the earth, which was not a mere passive recipient, but exerted a real causative power. " "The divine power was exerted, but it was upon and through the nature previously existing ; while here was the beginning of a new energy imparted to nature which it did not possess before." It is not the purpose of the author to treat of the physi- ology of plants with reference to organism, concerning which no disagreement is presumed, but to present consid- erations concerning the doctrine of Life / that there is a real spirit essence inhering in the physical organism which is the self-directive agency in building it up ; that all the processes of vegetal development relate to, and depend upon, the action of this agent in reference alike to its typi- cal form and the germination of the plant, and to the 52 Science and Philosophy. assimilation of the nutritive elements through the circula- tory organs, or that the self- directive spirit of the plant appropriates its nutriment through the organized channels, giving the functional capacity to its organs. Nothing is more evident than the almost infinite forms and variety of life in the vegetal realm, which in spring- time seem to awaken from their apparently latent state ; it is a fact of universal observation and admiration, eliciting innumerous efforts to portray, in prose and poetry, the charming scenes. And the phenomena in every age has suggested the thought, that there must be a living power beneath the development, exerting an immediate agency. Mythology has invested this power with the attributes of a diety, while Christian Theism has attributed the results contemplated either to the direct agency of the Infinite Spirit, or to a constituted vital subsistence inhering in the organism as its living soul, as really as the human spirit is the self-active force in the material body. The author maintains the latter view. The spirit of nature, which was hitherto its actuating force, co-existing with cosmic or inorganic matter, was brought forward in essence and constituted a self-directive but unconscious Life in organic matter. The Divine oin- nific Word, which seems to have uttered its mandate upon the self-active Force in nature, "Let the earth bring forth grass," etc., actuated or gave efficiency, or properly, anew attribute to the finite Force, resulting in the introduction of a new and advanced order of existence. As there had been a nature in the earth, acting as a real dynamic agency of its own, acting in a dynamic system of activities, so this nature, in some sense, was endowed with a capacity for di- recting processes of its own, and thus bearing a finite part as the agency in bringing about a new and superior order, to which the lower should be subordinated for the higher ends of existence. Thence forward there existed not only a self-subsisting and self-active Force, but a self-directive Life. In spiritual nature, as really as in material, there is continuity, — the successive orders of the spiritual nature being essentially the same kind of substance. The vegetal order appropriates the lower elements and forms of Force to the special ends to be subserved in the higher orders of being. This principle of progression, upon which the preceding forms of existence contribute elements which enter into the higher, has often been an- nounced by Christian philosophers. Dr. John Harris [Man Primeval] expresses it in these words : "All the laws Pan-Dualism — Vegetal Life. 53 and results of the preceding stages of creation will be found to be brought forward into the higher economy ; and all that is characteristic of these lower steps of the process will be carried up into the higher, as far as it may sub- serve the great end, or unless it shall be superseded by something analogous in the higher stages." Pres. Hopkins [Outlines of Man] has elaborated and illustrated the same thought. The order of creation and development is both progress- ive and continuous. Types and characteristics in the lower are incorporated in the higher. The law of continu- ity, in essential respects, must be recognized as applicable to all matter and spirit. It is the same primordial spirit essence, and the same primordial ethereal essence out of which the successive orders of finite existences have been derived, yet possessing new attributes and qualities not previously brought out by the All-efficient Source of uni- versal being. ISTo new material essence has been created which did not exist essentially in the primary ethereal state, and nothing fundamental to this nature will be annihilated, No new spiritual essence has been created which did not exist potentially in the primordial Force. And when the cycle of mundane existence shall have been completed, the physical organism will be dissolved, and both the form of cosmic matter and its related life will return to their prim- ary state in the illimitable ocean of finite being. Every organic order of being, at least, has been antici- pated by one or more types of a previous order. So bound together, so related, are all orders, that there are found in vital and even cosmic nature features and characteristics which anticipate the higher forms, even of the human organ- ism. Theories of typical natures may indeed be carried too far. An English writer has advanced the hypothesis that " The earth, indeed the entire universe, obeys the laws and possesses the functions of organic life, as exhibited in expansibility, contractibility, circulation, and spiral rota- tion." Yet there are correspondences of the lower to the higher natures. There are modes of action in cosmic nature which have their counterparts in the higher biologi- cal and mental natures. There are adaptations of instinct- ive action in seeking protection and happiness, which are anticipations of the higher rational action in seeking the good and avoiding the evil, in an ethical and religious view. But illustrations will here be omitted. The spirit or life of a plant is as real an entity as its nicely adapted material organism. Indeed, an organism 54 Science and Philosophy. cannot exist, except in a mere form of stratification or con- gelation, without the Life which preserves its form and vitality. The seed, the germ, the protoplasm, is preserved in its form, because of the living power co-existing with, and inhering in the passive, material nature. Nor can a real organism be constructed in the chemical laboratory. The scientist, whom we honor as a benefactor while in his legitimate field of research and achievement in discovering the facts and laws of nature, can neither construct an or- ganism, such as may be found in the living' being, nor, if he could, can he impart the life force necessary to perform the function of an organ. The functions of life are as much higher than those of cosmic force, as the latter is broader in its sphere of operations than the former. Life may cease to manifest its activity, and remain, in peculiarly favorable circumstances, in its latent, or simply potential state, as in the recorded cases of grains of wheat preserved for thousands of years in the catacombs of Egypt. The same is true of animal natures, as toads. But when the " vital spark" is separated from the organic, the organism dissolves and the elements return to their cosmic state. 4. Animal Organisms and Instinct. Few will question the existence of a dual nature in the constitution of the animal. The theory here maintained includes the hypothesis of the identity of essence, onto- logically considered, though modified in respect to attri- butes of primary force, life, instinct, and mind, — all pos- sessing the primary qualities of the spirit nature, viz., in- divisibility and self-subsistence, to which are added, in the advanced stages, respectively, the attributes of self-activity, unconscious self-direction, constituting life, and conscious self-direction, pertaining to animal life or instinct. The introduction of Animal Life upon the globe was preceded by the Divine utterance, "Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle and creeping thing, and beast of the earth, and it was so. And God made the beast of the earth," etc. This passage teaches several truths : the Divine purpose to introduce a new order ; the agency of the spirit of Nature, or the creature ; and the agency of the Creator. The facts of a co-agency of the Infinite and the finite has obtained in all the pro- cesses of creation, both natural life and the moral or spir- itual life. Paul teaches the principle, in respect to the latter, in the following: " Work out your own salvation, Pan- Dualism — Animal Life. 55 for God worketh in you." " We, as workers together with Him." There is also indicated in the statement in Genesis the fact, that in all orders preceding the human, the primal nature is the finite source and agency of their origination, the term earth representing this nature both as to the ma- terial and spiritual entity. This is the import of the com- mand, Let the earth bring forth vegetal and animal life ; whereas the formula used upon the introduction of the human order was changed, — the significance of which will be noticed onward. There is no absurdity in the view "That there is a plastic or formative power which had been put into the earth " [Prof. Lewis]. Cosmic being hav- ing a finite origin, is in a sense destined to complete a cycle of actual existence and return to Nature. In the animate order, the physiological organisms, especially in the higher grades, are vastly more complex than in the vegetal, while the vital principle possesses correspondingly increased capac- ities as is adapted to stages higher than the simple life of the plant. This inhering spirit of nature now possesses a conscious capacity, as well as self-subsisting, self-active, self- directive and sentient instinct. The functions of the ani- mal constitution are of two kinds, physiological and sentient, the latter being superadded to the former, while the mere vital capacities, i.