POPULAR WORKS PRINTl^D FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, ΦϊύΨΐ^^ AND MAY BE PROCURED BY ORDER OF ALL• OTHER BOOKSELXiSRS. THE FAMILY LIBRARY, WITH PLATES AND WOODCUTS, Price Five Shillings each. ANY VOLUME OR WORK SOLD SEPARATELY, Vol. 1, 2. LIFE OF BUONAPARTE ..... 8. LIFE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT . . . . 3, 10, 13, 19, 27, 38. LIVES OF BRITISH ARTISTS . 5, 6, 9. HISTORY OF THE JEWS .... 7, 51. HISTORY OF INSECTS ... . . 8. COURT AND CAMP OF BUONAPARTE 11. LIFE AND VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS . . . 12. LIFE OF NELSON, BY SOUTHEY .... 14. LIVES OF BRITISH PHYSICIANS . . . . 15. 48, 49, 50. HISTORY OF BRITISH INDIA . 16. DEMONOLOGY AND WITCHCRAFT . . . . 17. LIFE AND TRAVELS OF BRUCE . . . . 18. VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS'S COMPANIONS . . . 20. 32. VENETIAN HISTORY ..... 21. HISTORY OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS . . . . 22. 34, 37. LIVES OF SCOTTISH WORTHIES . 23. TOUR IN SOUTH HOLLAND . . . . . 24. LIFE OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON . . . . 25. MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY . . . . . 26. REFORMATION IN ENGLAND . . . 28, 29. LANDER'S TRAVELS IN AFRICA . . . . 30. SALMAGUNDL BY WASHINGTON IRVING 31. TRIALS OF CHARLES I. AND THE REGICIDES . . 33. LETTERS ON NATURAL MAGIC . . . . 35. LIFE OF PETER THE GREAT . . . . . 36. SIX MONTHS IN THE WEST INDIES 39, 40. SKETCH BOOK . . . ... 41 to 46. TYTLER'S GENERAL HISTORY . . 47. CROKER'S FAIRY TALES ..... 52. MEMOIR OF THE PLAGUE IN 1665 53, 54. THE LIFE AND TIMES OF WASHINGTON . . 55. KNICKERBOCKER'S HISTORY OF NEW YORK . 56, 57, 58. WESLEY'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY . . . 59, 60. NAPOLEON'S EXPEDITION TO RUSSIA 61. LIFE OF ALI PASHA . . . . . . 62. LIVES AND EXPLOITS OF BANDITTI AND ROBBERS . 63.. SKETCHES of IMPOSTURE, DECEPTION, and CREDULITY 64. HISTORY OF THE BASTILE . - LIFE OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS . . . . CHRONICLES OF LONDON BRIDGE THE LIFE OF JOHN, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH . . THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF CERVANTES THE LIFE OF MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO . . . . 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70, 71. RUINS OF CITIES Two Vols. One Vol. Six Vols. Three Vols. Two»Vol8. One VoL One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Four Vols. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. One Vol. Three Vols. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. One Vol. One VoL One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. Six Vols. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. One Vol. Three Vols. Two Vols. One VoL One Vol. One VoL One VoL One Vol. One VoL One Vol. One Vol. One Vol. Two Vols. PRINTED BY BRADBURY AND EVANS, WHITE7ailRI. POPULAR BOOKS PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, AND MAY BE PROCURED BY ORDER OF ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. 33ooiis on ^Biblical (iTriticism, $rc. BROWN'S SELF-INTERPRETING BIBLE, with Notes, Maps, &c., 4to. CONCORDANCE OF THE SCRIPTURES, Bound and Gilt. £ 5. d. 2 5 1 6 16 15 15 3 9 15 CAMPBELL ON THE GOSPELS. 2 vols. 8vo. . CARPENTER'S INTRODUCTION, &c., THE FAMILY EDITION. 4to. OWEN ON THE HEBREWS. 4 vols. 8vo PRIDEAUX'S CONNEXION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 2 vols. 8vo. . . . . . . . 18 ROBINSON'S GREEK AND ENGLISH LEXICON OF THE NEW TES- TAMENT. 8vo. ...... BURDER'S ORIENTAL CUSTOMS, New Edition, by Jones. 8vo. CLARKE'S SUCCESSION OF SACRED LITERATURE. 2 vols. 8vo. DR. ADAM CLARKE'S COMMENTARY ON THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 6 vols, imperial 8vo. . . ..696 DR. ADAM CLARKE'S COMMENTARY ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2 vols, imperial 8vo. ...... BLAYNEY'S JEREMIAH AND LAMENTATIONS. 8vo. . . . BOOTHROYD'S VERSION OF THE SCRIPTURES. With Notes. 3 vols. 4to. BROWN'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 8vo. . . . . BURKITT'S NOTES ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2 vols. 8vo. CALMET'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 8vo. CARPENTER'S INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE. Imperial Svo. CRUDEN'S CONCORDANCE OF THE SCRIPTURES. Imperial 8vo. DODDRIDGE'S FAMILY EXPOSITOR. Imperial Svo. . FULLER'S EXPOSITORY DISCOURSES ON GENESIS. 12mo. . . GLEIG'S HISTORY OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 2 vols. 12mo. GURNEY'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 24mo. HENRY'S COMMENTARY ON THE BIBLE, hy Blomfield. 4to. HORNE'S COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS. 8vo edition. JENNINGS'S JEWISH ANTIQUITIES. 8vo. . . . . LOWTH'S LITERAL TRANSLATION OF ISAIAH. 8vo. LECTURES ON HEBREW POETRY. 8vo. . . . MACKNIGHT'S TRANSLATION OF THE EPISTLES. Imperial 8vo. NEWCOME'S TRANSLATION OF EZEKIEL. 8vo. . . . — THE MINOR PROPHETS. 8vo. . NOVUM TEST AMENTUM GREECE. 32mo. (Glasgow.) SEPTUAGINT GR^CE. 2 vols. 32mo. (Glasgow.) STUART'S COMMENTARY ON THE ROMANS. 8vo. ' HEBREWS. 8vo. TRANSLATIONS OF THE PROPHETICAL BOOKS OF SCRIPTURE. 5 vols. 8vo. . . . . , , , • AVINTLE'S TRANSLATION, OF DANIEL. 8vo. . . . . WILLS'S GEOGRAPHY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 8vo. CALVIN'S COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS. 2 vols. 8vo. . PATRICK, LOWTH, ARNOLD, WHITBY, & LOWMAN. 3 vols. Imp. 8vo. BROWN'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 8vo. GILPIN ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2 vols. 8vo. . . . 2 8 12 .3 3 12 1 1 1 4 12 18 1 1 4 12 3 6 1 10 7 7 7 7 1 1 7 7 4 8 12 12 •2 4 8 9 12 16 i'OPULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE. And may be procured by order of all otbcr Booksellers. ILigfit Beaiiing, ππίί 23oo]fes in tfie pciiiuici? gtgle. EGAN'S (PIERCE) BOOK of SPORTS and MIRROR of LIFE. Cuts, 8vo. GRANT'S SKETCHES IX LONDOxV. 24 Engia%nngs by Phiz. 8vo. HONE'S EVERY DAY BOOK and TABLE BOOK. 3 vols., 8vo. YEAR BOOK. Numerous Cuts. 8vo. .... STRUTT'S SPORTS AND PASTIMES OF THE PEOPLE OF ExNGLAND. Svo. ....... PARTERRE (THE) ; a collection of tales and anecdotes. 90 Cuts. 4 vols. 8vo. RAMBLES and ADVENTURES of CAPTAIN BOLIO. 32 Ensrravings. 12mo. GRACE DARLING, HEROINE OF THE FERN ISLANDS. A Tale. 20 Plates bv Phillips, &c. ...... PICKWICK AJBROAD ; or a Tour in France. 41 Engravings ' y Phiz. Svo. EGAN'S PILGRIMS OF THE THAMES. 26 Engi-avings. 8vo. . PAUL PERIAVINKLE ; or the Press-gang. Now Publishing, to be completed in Twenty Parts, each ....... COLMAN'S BROAD GRINS. 6 Engravings. 32mo., Gilt. . . . EDGEWORTH'S NOVELS AND TALES. 18 vols., 12mo. JOHNSON'S (CAPT.) LIVES OF NOTED HIGHWAYMEN. 13 Engravings. LONDON SINGER'S MAGAZINE. Cuts. 8vo. .... HEARTS OF STEEL. An Historical Tale. 12mo. . . . £ s. d. 7 12 1 11 6 10 t) 10 6 1 I 9 10 1 1 13 1 1 6 4 10 9 7 5 23ici$rapSg, i^istorg, anii CSfeograpSg. ^ ^ ^ AUTOBIOGRAPHY. A Collection of the most amusing Lives. 33 vols. 5 15 6 BROOKES'S GENERAL GAZETTEER. By Marshall. 8vo. . . 12 CECIL'S LIFE OF THE REVEREND JOHN NEWTON. 32mo. . .020 CLASSIC (THE) AND CONNOISSEUR IN ITALY and LANZI'S STORIA PITTORICA. 3 vols., 8vo. . . . . . . 1 16 CONDER'S DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 12rao. . . . . . . ..0120 GILLIES'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 8 vols,, 12mo. . . . 1 15 GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY of ENGLAND. Foolscap, Chiswick Press, l2mo. 9 GORTON'S TOPOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 4 vols., Svo. . . . . . 3' 12 LANGHORNE'S TRANSLATION OF PLUTAR'CH'S LIVES. 8vo. .080 MITFORD'S HISTORY of GREECE. Edited by Davenport. 8 vols., l2mo. 2 2 MODERN TRAVELLER. Bv Josiah Conder. 33 vols., 1 8mo. . .550 PARIS AND ITS ENVIRONS. With 204 fine Views by Heath. 4to. .220 WATSON'S LIFE OF PHILIP THE SECOND. New Edition. Svo. .090 LIFE OF PHILIP THE THIRD . . . .090 WHISTON'S JOSEPHUS'S HISTORY OF THE WARS OF THE JEWS. 3 vols., 8vo. Oxford. . . . . . .17 ADVENTURES in ALGIERS and OTHER PARTS of AFRICA. 3 vols., 8vo. Ill 6 MILNER'S CHURCH HISTORY AND CONTINUATION. 8vo. .0150 FULLER'S HISTORY OF CAMBRIDGE. New Edition. Svo., Plates. Edited by Nichols. ....... MOSHEIM'S ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 2 vols., 8vo. . ..170 arfiemistrg, j^atural l^istorp, ^Botang, i^leiiiime, ^urgcrg, jPardevB, ^c BUCHAN'S DOMESTIC MEDICINE. 8vo. .... GRIFFIN'S CHEMICAL RECREATIONS. 12mo. . . . . RYDGE'S VETERINARY SURGEON'S MANUAL. Fourth Edition. 8vo. SOUTH'S OTTO'S PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF THE BONES AND MUSCLES. *8vo. ...... THOMSON'S HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 2 vols., 12mo. . . . OUTLINES OF MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, &c. 2 vols., 8yo. SYSTEM OP INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 2 vols., Svo. . OUTLINE OF THE SCIENCE of HEAT, ELECTRICITY, &c. Svo. ........ BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY. By AVright. 466 Cuts. 4 vols . . Μ AWE'S EVERY MAN HIS ΟΛΥΝ GARDENER. 12mo. STRUTT'S SYLVABRITANNICA; Portr.ut6 of Forest Trees. 4to., SOPlates WHITE'S NATURAL HISTORY. By Lady Dovor. 12mo. £ s. d. 12 7 6 14 12 I 12 2 2 15 1 4 8 6 1 1 6 POPULAR BOOKS PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, AND MAY BE PROCURED BY ORDER OF ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. ADAMS'S PRIVATE THOUGHTS ON RELIGION. 18mo. ALLEINE'S ALARM TO UNCONVERTED SINNERS. 32mo, . . AMBROSE LOOKING UNTO JESUS, and other Works. 8vo. BAXTER'S SAINTS' EVERLASTING REST. 8vo. . . . . Pocket Edition. 18mo. BERKELEY'S (BISHOP) WORKS. 8vo. . .... BLAIR'S SERMONS. 5 vols, in one. Svo. .... LECTURES ON RHETORIC AND BELLES LETTRES. 8vo. BOLTON'S TREATISE ON COMFORTING AFFLICTED CON- SCIENCES. IBmo'. . . . . . . . BOOTH'S (ABRAHAM) SELECT WORKS, viz. Reign of Grace, &c. 12mo. BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. Notes by Adam Clarke. 18mo. . — Large Svo. Edition. Plates. HOLY WAR. New Edition. IBmo. . . . . BURDER'S VILLAGE SERMONS. New Edition. 12mo. BURKITT'S HELP AND GUIDE TO CHRISTIAN FAMILIES. 32mo. BURNET'S EXPOSITION OF THE THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. Svo. BUTLER'S ANALOGY OF RELIGION, NATURAL and REVEALED. 12mo. , SERMONS. New Edition. 12mo. .... CALVIN'S LIBERTY of CHRISTIAN RELIGION. By Allen. 2 vols. Svo. CALVIN'S COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS. 2 vols. 8vo. . . THEOLOGY AND LIFE. By Dunn. 12mo. CAMPBELL'S (G., D.D.) LECTURES on ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. Svo. ■ PULPIT ELOQUENCE AND PASTORAL CHARACTER. Svo. ..... -^ DISSERTATION on MIRACLES. Svo. WORKS. Complete in 6 vols. Svo. CARPENTER'S SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. Sixth Edition. 12nio. CAVE'S LIVES OF THE FATHERS. New Edition. 3 vols. Svo. Oxford . CAVE'S LIVES of the APOSTLES and PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. Svo. CECIL'S SERMONS. New Edition. I2mo. .... CHARNOCK ON THE DIVINE ATTRIBUTES. Svo. . . . CLARKE'S (DR. ADAM) MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. 13 vols. 12mo. — ^ SERMONS. 4 vols. 12mo. . PROMISES OF SCRIPTURE, By Carpenter. 32mo. ....... COLES ON GOD'S SOVEREIGNTY. 12mo. . DODDRIDGE'S RISE AND PROGRESS OF RELIGION. 32mo. DUNN'S SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF HOWE. DWIGHT'S SYSTEM OF THEOLOGY. 5 vols. 8vo. — — — — 5 vols. Pocket Edition. — — — — — Imperial Octavo. ELLISS KNOWLEDGE OF DIVINE THINGS. 12mo. . FINNEY'S SERMONS ON IMPORTANT SUBJECTS. 12mo. LECTURES TO PROFESSING CHRISTIANS. I2mo. . ON REVIVALS OF RELIGION. I2mo. FISHER'S MARROW OF MODERN DIVINITY. 12mo. GILL'S BODY OF PRACTICAL DIVINITY. 2 vols. 8vo. . CAUSE OF GOD AND TRUTH, Svo. . GOODWIN'S REDEMPTION REDEEMED. 8vo, in the Press . GURNALL'S CHRISTIAN IN COMPLETE ARMOUR. Svo. HALL'S (REV. ROBERT) SELECT WORKS. 12mo. . HANNAH'S PULPIT ASSISTANT New Edition. 8vo. £ s. d. 2 2 8 9 3 12 7 7 I 1 1 1 12 6 6 2 2 5 3 12 3 18 1 1 6 4 6 1 6 6 6 1 10 1 10 6 3 6 12 POPULAR AVORKS PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGO, 73, OHEAPSIDB. HAWKER'S EVENING PORTION. New Edition . . . . HERVEY'S THERON AND ASPASIA. New Edition. 8vo. MEDITATIONS AND CONTEMPLATIONS. 8vo. . . HILL'S (REV. ROWLAND) VILLAGE DIALOGUES. Cuts. 12mo. . — — — — ■ 3 vols. 12mo. HOOKER'S ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY. 2 vols. 8vo. . HOWE'S CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY. By Dunn. 12mo. THEOLOGICAL TREATISE. By Taylor. 12mo. . . LELAND'S DIVINE AUTHORITY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTA- MENTS. 8vo. ........ VIEW OF DEISTICAL AVRITERS. By Edmonds, 8vo. MASSILLON'S SERMONS. New Edition, 8vo. . . . . • NEALE'S HISTORY OF THE PURITANS. 3 vols. 8vo. NELSON'S FASTS and FESTIVALS of the CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 8vo. Oxford. ........ NOVUM TESTAMENTUM GR^CE. 32mo. Glasgow. ... OLNEY HYMNS. By Newton and Cowper. 32mo. PASCAL'S THOUGHTS ON RELIGION. ISmo PEARSON'S EXPOSITION OF THE CREED. 8vo. PORTEUS'S LECTURES ON ST. MATTHEW'S GOSPEL. 8vo. PULPIT (THE), A collection of one hundred and fifty sermons. 2 vols. 8vo. ROBINSON'S SCRIPTURE CHARACTERS. 8vo. ROMAINE'S WORKS. New Edition. . . . , . . SAURIN'S SERMONS. Translated by Robinson, &c. 3 vols. 8vo. SCOTT'S (REV. THOMAS) THEOLOGICAL WORKS. 12mo. Chiswick SEPTUAGINT (THE) GREEK. 2 vols. 32mo. Glasgow. SHEPARD'S PARABLE OF THE TEN VIRGINS. 12mo. . SHERLOCK'S WORKS, witli Summary by Hughes. 5 vols. 8vo. . SIMPSON'S PLEA FOR RELIGION. New Edition. 12mo. . . . SACRED CLASSICS, or LIBRARY OF DIVINITY, viz. BEVERIDGE'S PRIVATE THOUGHTS, by Stebbing. 2 vols. . BOYLE'S (Hon. Robert) TREATISES, by Rogers BUTLER'S FIFTEEN SERMONS, by Cattermole . . CAVE'S LIVES OF THE APOSTLES, by Stfsbing. 2 vols. . BISHOP HALL'S TREATISES, by Cattermole HORNE ON THE PSALMS, by Montgomery. 3 vols. . . HOWE'S THEOLOGICAL TREATISES, by Taylor . KNOX'S CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY, by Stebbing LOCKE ON THE REASONABLENESS OF CHRISTIANITY . SACRED POETRY of the SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 2 vols. SERMONS BY DIVINES OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 3 vols. . TAYLOR S (Rev. Jeremy), LIBERTY OF PROPHESYING . SERMONS ON THE MIRACLES . STURM'S REFLECTIONS ON THE WORKS OF GOD. 2 vols. THORN'S LECTURES ON THE CHRISTIAN SABBATH. 18mo. TILLOTSON'S WORKS, WITH LIFE, by Burch. 10 vols. 8vo. . WARBURTON'S DIVINE LEGATION OF MOSES. 2 vols. 8vo. WATSON'S SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 12mo. bound WATTS'S GUIDE TO PRAYER. 32mo. bound . . . . ■ '- DEATH AND HEAVEN. New Edition WESLEY'S SERMONS, WITH LIFE, by Drew. 2 vols. Svo. . . WHEATLEY'S ILLUSTRATION OF THE COMMON PRAYER. 8vo. WHITFIELD'S SERMONS. Life by Drew. 8vo. WITSIUS OK THE COVENANT BETWEEN GOD AND MAN. 2 vole. 8υο. £ s. d. 3 10 6 5 6 9 18 6 6 4 10 6 12 12 1 7 10 6 5 2 2 6 9 9 1 1 1? 18 1 16 8 12 6 1 17 6 » 4 6 4 6 9 4 6 12 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 9 12 6 4 6 4 6 12 3 6 3 3 1 8 4 1 6 1 6 1 1 8 12 15 POPULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE. And may be procured by order of all other Booksellers. JiKsceUHneous Hiterature. BEAUTIES OP WASHINGTON IRVING. 21 Cuts by Ckuikshank. BOOK OP SONGS; Minstrel's Companion set to Music. 12ηιυ. BuCKE'S HARMONIES AND SUBLIMITIES OP NATURE. 3 vols. 8vo. CAMPBELL'S (GEORGE D. D.), PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 8vo. COWPER'S LIPE AND AVORKS. By Grimshawe. 8 vols. 12mo. POEMS. 2 vols. Pocket Edition. . . . . CRABB'S DICTIONARY OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. New Edition. DAVENPORT'S IMPROVED EDITION of WALKER S DICTIONARY. 1 8mo — — Willi Key to Proper Names. 18mo. DE FOE'S NOVELS and MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. In vols., monthly at ENFIELD'S HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY. New Edition. 8vo. EURIPIDES OPERA OMNIA. 3 vols. 8vo. . . . . FERGUSON'S LECTURES ON MECHANICS, &c. &c. 8vo. FRENCH CLASSICS. Edited by Ventoullac, viz : ELISABETH. Cotiin. 18mo. Cloth boards NUMA POMPILIUS Florian, NOUVEAUX MORCEAUX CHt)ISlS. De Bvffon. LA CHAUMIERE INDIENNE. St. Fierrc. CHOIX DES CONTES MORAUX. Be Marmontel. BELISAIRE. Marmontel. .... HISTOIRE DE PIERRE LE GRAND. Voltaire. TELEMAQUE. Fenelon. .... PENSEES, DE. Pascal. CHOIX DES TRAGEDIES, DE. Ramie. . COMEDIES, DE. Moliere. FULLER'S CHURCH HISTORY OP BRITAIN, by Nichols. 3 vols. 8vo. GARDENS AND MENAGERIE of the ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 2 vols. . GLEIG'S HISTORY OP THE BIBLE. 2 vols. i2mo HIGGINS'S PHILOSOPHY of SOUND & MUSICAL COMPOSITION. 12mo HOLLAND'S (Mrs.) DOMESTIC COOKERY. New Edition HOWARD'S BEAUTIES OF BYRON. 32mo. .... JOHNSON'S DIAMOND DICTIONARY. 32mo. . . . . POCKET DICTIONARY FOR SCHOOLS. 18mo. JOSEPHUS'S HISTORY of the WARS of the JEWS. 3 vols. 8vo. Oxford LOCKE'S ESSAY ON THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. 8vo. LONDON ENCYCLOPEDIA. Ninth Edition. 22 vols, royal 8vo. MADAN'S LITERAL TRANSLATION of JUVENAL, 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford. MANUAL OF ASTROLOGY ; or. Book OF THE Stars. 8vo. s. d. 4 6 5 11 6 9 3 MILTON'S POETICAL WORKS, by Sir Egerton Brydges. 6 vols. Plates. Pocket Edition. 18mo. PARADISE LOST. „ „ 18mo. . SELECT PROSE WORKS, by St. Johh. 2 vols. 12mo. . . MITCHELL'S PORTABLE ENCYCLOPEDIA. 50 Plates, 8vo. . MOAT'S SHORT-HAND STANDARD. 24 Engravinirs, 8vo. . . . MORE (Mrs. HANNAH) ON FEMALE EDUCATION. 18mo. . MORNINGS AT BOW STREET. 21 Cuts by Cruikshank. 1 ^π,ο. . . PALEY'S WORKS. Notes and Illustrations by Paxton. 5 vols. 8vo. PORTER'S (MISS) LAKE OF KILLARNEY. A Tale. Timo. . . READY RECKONER. New Stereotype Edition. .... ROLLIN'S ANCIENT HISTORY. 6 vols. 8vo. Maps. . . . SALE'S AL KORAN OF MAHOMET. 8vo. .... SCOTT'S MINSTRELSY OF THE SCOTTISH BORDER. 8vo. . . SHAKSPEARE'S DRAMATIC WORKS. Diamond Edition. 12mo. AND POETICAL WORKS. Octavo Edition SHELLEY'S POETICAL WORKS. New Edition. 4 vols. SPHINX ; A COLLECTION OF three hundred rebuses, charades, &c. &;c. STERNE'S WORKS. Complete in I vol., 8vo. . ' . TEGG'S DICTIONARY OF CHRONOLOGY. New Edition. 12mo. VOCAL COMPANION : OR Singer's Own Book. 12mo. , . . WATTS'S LOGIC ; or Right Use of Reason. 24mo. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND.. 2i -lo. . . \VESLEY'S LOGIC. Improved by Jackson. 18mo. ■ JOURNAL OF HIS LIFE, VOYAGES, and TRAVELS. 8vo. WESLEY AN A ; Important Passages from his works. 18mo. YOUNG'S NIGHT THOUGHTS. 18mo. . ". . . . JONES'S ENGLISH SYSTEM OF BOOK-KEEPING. Part 1. (Tradesmen) ■ — 2 parts, in one vol. (Merchant and Banker) MORE'S (MRS. HANNAH) POPULAR WORKS. 2 vols., 8 vo, in the Press. DOUCE'S ILLUSTRATIONS OF SHAKSPEARE. 8vo., Cuts, in the Press. 16 α 1 9 14 6 10 4 6 8 15 12 8 12 1 6 12 6 4 3 2 2 10 6 6 6 6' 3 6 3 12 1 P^)PULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, And may be procured by order of all other Booksellers. ^oolis for OTfiilten. BAUBAULD'S EVENINGS AT HOME. 18mo, .... BOOK OF TRADES (Griffin's) New Edition. 16mo. BOY'S BOOK OF SCIENCE. Square 16mo. . . . . CHILD'S (Mrs.) STORIES FOR HOLIDAY EVENINGS. 18mo. . CHILD'S CThe) 0Λ\^Ν BOOK. Sixth Edition. 16mo. CHILD'S BOTANY. Square 16mo. . . . . . . — Coloured plates .... ENDLESS AMUSEMENT, four hundred curious experiments. 18mo. . ■ New Series. IBmo. .... EARLY FRIENDSHIPS, bv Mrs. Copley . . ... GIRL'S OWN BOOK, by Mrs. Child. Square 16mo. . . . . BOOK OF SPORTS, by Miss Leslie. Square 16mo. HISTORY OF ENGLAND, for young historians. 18mo. Bound. JOYCE'S SCIENTIFIC DIALOGUES. Royal 18mo. JUVENILE EVERY DAY BOOK. Square 16mo. . . . . SCRAP BOOK. 4to Plates . . . . LOOKING-GLASS FOR THE MIND. 65 Cuts, 12mo. MOTHER'S (The) STORY BOOK. 26 Cuts. 18mo. Bound PETER PARLEY'S WORKS, square 16mo., any sold separately, viz : TALES ABOUT EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA; AND AMERICA. ANIMALS. New Edition . . . . . ENGLAND, IRELAND, SCOTLAND, AND WALES. Square 1 6mo. CHRISTMAS AND ITS FESTIVITIES. Sq. 16mo. PLANTS. Prepared for Press, by Mrs. Loudon. . ANCIENT AND MODERN GREECE . . ROME AND MODERN ITALY UNIVERSAL HISTORY . . . . THE SEA AND PACIFIC OCEAN . SUN, MOON, AND STARS GRAMMAR OP GEOGRAPHY .. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA LIFE OF FRANKLIN and WASHINGTON — MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE and ROME . SERGEANT BELL AND HIS RAREE-SHOW. Square 16mo. . STORIES ABOUT POLAND, by Robin Carver. 18mo. Half Bound STRIVE AND THRIVE, a Tale, bv Mrs. Mary Howitt TExMPERANCE TALES, founded on facts. Square l6mo. . . . TEGG'S PRESENT FOR AN APPRENTICE. „ „ . TEGG'S STANDARD LIBRARY FOR THE PEOPLE, bound and gilt, viz : THREE EXPERIMENTS OF LIVING . . . . ABBOT'S HOARY-HEAD and t.he VALLEYS BELOW . . LOVE-TOKEN FOR CHILDREN, by Miss Sedgwick THE MOTHER'S BOOK, by Mrs. Child . . . . LIVE AND LET LIVE, by Miss Sedgwick BEST'S ART OP ANGLING, by Jackson . . . . MRS. CHILD'S FRUGAL HOUSEWIFE TODD'S SABBATH SCHOOL TEACHER . . . . LETTERS TO MOTHERS, by Mrs. Sigourney . MORE'S (Mrs. Hannah) STORIES FOR THE MIDDLE RANKS . RICH POOR MAN AND POOR RICH MAN . DIARY OF AN AMERICAN PHYSICIAN . . . MASON'S TREATISE ON SELF-KNOWLEDGE MORE'S PRACTICAL PIETY . . ... ■ TALES FOR THE COMMON PEOPLE TODD'S STUDENT'S MANUAL .... MORE'S DRAMAS, SEARCH, AND ESSAYS . . . PHILOSOPHY OF COMMON SENSE .... EPHRAIM KCLDING-S DOMESTIC ADDRESSES TOM TELESCOPE'S ΝΕΛΥΤΟΝΙΑΝ PHILOSOPHY. Cuts. Square 16mo. UNCLE PHILIP'S CONVERSATION ON THE WHALE FISHERY . — ABOUT the tools and TRADES OF ANIMALS ...... WATTS'S DIVINE SONGS FOR CHILDREN. Bound. . HOPEFUL YOUTH FALLING SHORT OF HEAVEN . . YOUNG MAN'S OWN BOOK. 18mo. ..... ■■ AID 10 KNOWLEDGE. 18mo. . . . . YOUNG LADIES' STORY-TELLER, by Miss Leslie . . . . £ s. d. 4 6 8 6 2 6 7 6 2 3 2 2 2 6 4 6 4 6 3 6 5 5 8 3 6 3 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 β 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 7 6 2 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 2 2 6 2 2 2 6 2 G 2 3 2 2 6 2 9 2 2 3 2 6 3 3 2 2 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 6 1 3 6 3 6 2 POPULAR WORKS PRINTED FOR T. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, AND MAY BE PROCURED BY ORDER OF ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS. ^SCHYLUS. A NEW TRANSLATION. ADAM'S ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, with Questions. By Boyd. AINSWORTH'S DICTIONARY, LATIN AND ENGLISH. : ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By the Rev. J. Williams. . ANTHON'S HORACE, with English Notes. By Boyd. SALLUST, „ „ — CICERO'S ORATIONS, „ . CiESAR'S COMMENTARIES, with English Notes, Plates, &c GREEK GRAMMAR. Edited by Major. PROSODY £ s. d- . 5 . 12mo. 7 18mo. 7 , 5 , 7 6 . 5 . 6 s. Plates, &c. 6 LATIN GRAMMAR. Edited by the Rev. W. Hayes BALDWIN'S HISTORY OF ROME. 12mo. Bound. . . .036 GREECE. 12mo. Bound. . .040 PANTHEON OF HEATHEN MYTHOLOGY. 12mo. Bound 5 6 BONNYCASTLE'S SCHOOL BOOKS, improved by the Rev. E. C. Tyson, viz : INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA. 12mo. Bound. . .040 KEY TO ALGEBRA. „ „ • ..046 INTRODUCTION TO MENSURATION. „ . .050 KEY TO MENSURATION. „ „ . ..050 ARITHMETIC. „ „ • .036 KEY TO ARITHMETIC. „ „ • ..046 BURGESS'S HEBREW ELEMENTS. 12mo 5 RUDIMENTS OF HEBREW. 12mo. . . ..070 CRABB'S DICTIONARY OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. Fourth Edition 7 ENFIELD'S SPEAKER. New Edition. Bound. . . . 3 6 FIRST LESSONS OF GRECIAN HISTORY. Questions and Answers. 12mo. 10 FISHER'S YOUNG MAN'S BEST COMPANION. Bound. . ..036 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY BY A LADY. New Edition, by Wright 4 6 Q. HORATII FLACCI OPERA (DOERING). Oxford. 8vo. . . 18 BUTTON'S COURSE OF MATHEMATICS, by Ramsay. 8vo. . . 15 KEITH ON THE USE OF THE GLOBES. New Edition, by Wright .066 LEMPRIERE'S CLASSICAL DICTIONARY, by Pare. l8mo. . .070 MANGNALL'S HISTORICAL QUESTIONS, by Wright. 12mo. ..050 MEADOWS'S ITALIAN AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY. 18mo. .070 FRENCH & ENGLISH PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY. 18mo 7 MURRAY'S SCHOOL BOOKS, Improved by Tyson, viz, ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 12mo. Bound . . ..040 Abridged, 18mo. Bound . . .010 EXERCISES. 12mo. Bound . . ..026 KEY TO ENGLISH EXERCISES. 12mo. Bound . .026 ENGLISH READER. 12mo. Bound . . ..040 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH READER. 12mo. Bound .026 GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES, by Gartley. IBmo. . .020 MORRISON'S NEW SYSTEM OF BOOK-KEEPING. 8vo. Bound ..080 PINNOCK'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. New Edition . . .056 POTTER'S ANTIQUITIES OF GREECE, by Boyd, 12mo. . ..090 TEGG'S FIRST SCHOOL BOOK, or Reading made Easy. Bound . *^ TOOKE'S (HORNE) DIVERSIONS of PURLEY. New Edition, by Taylor SPELLING BOOKS, viz. ENFIELD'S, New Progressive . . . * .01b MAYOR'S, a Very Superior Edition . . . ..013 DILWORTH'S J, „ . - . . . .013 FENNING'S „ „ . . . ..013 VYSE'S „ „ . » . . .013 WRIGHT'S GREEK-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. 18mo. Cloth. . .070 PAINTBD BY BRADBURY AND EVANS, WHITEFRIAaS. Γη /f^ \ ' ί\ !' S/, /// IDimi l^reiris else lal30T0., oliscurus fio, Fu/jLuhcd Jnn. /. /;^«. hy .Τ•/ιη. //onn Ic'c/a: , IVmihL•,/,,, ,.V/_,,, ΕΠΕΑ ΠΤΕΡΟΕΝΪΑ, OR THE DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY, BY JOHN HORNE TOOKE. // WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS FROM THE COPY PREPARED BY THE AUTHOR FOR REPUBLICATION TO WHICH IS ANNEXED HIS LETTER TO JOHN DUNNING, Esq. A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED, WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES, By RICHARD TAYLOR, F.S.A., F.L.S. LONDON: PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE, 1840. -γ\0 .< By Transfel JUN 5 i^e^ PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E, TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. ALE RE i FLAMMAM. CONTENTS. PAGE. ■ Editor's Preface ν Editor's Additional Notes vi PART I. CHAP. Introduction 1 I. Of the Division or Distribution of Language 9 II. Some Considerationv of Mr. Locke's Essay 15 III. Of the Parts of Speech 22 IV. Of the Noun 26 V. Of the Article and Interjection 29 Advertisement 37 VI. Of the Word that 41 Advertisement 50 VII. Of Conjunctions 52 VIII. Etymology of the English Conjunctions 78 IX. Of Prepositions „ . 154 X. Of Adverbs 251 PART 11. CHAP. I. The Rights of Man 301 II. Of Abstraction 311 III. The same subject continued 326 IV. The same subject continued 365 V. The same subject continued 604 VI. Of Adjectives 624 VII. Of Participles 647 VIII. The same subject continued 658 Appendix — Letter to Mr. Dunning 685 Index 725 THE EDITOR'S PREFACE TO THE EDITION OF 1829. In preparing for the press and printing this enlarged edition of Mr. Home Tooke's Diversions of Parley, an undertaking assigned to me by the PubHsher, on his becoming possessed, by assignment from the Author's representatives, of the copy containing his last cor- rections and additions, it has been my endeavour in the first place to remove the many inaccuracies of the former Edition by a collation of the citations in which the work abounds with the originals so far as they were within my reach ; and, next, to incorporate in it, as well as I was able, the new materials in such a manner as should not interfere with the integrity of the former text. As these additions, written in the Author's in- terleaved copy, and which especially in the Second Part are very abundant, were wholly without any re- ferences connecting them with the text, and sometimes written at a distance of several pages from the passages to which they seemed to belong, I must beg the Reader's indulgence if I should at any time have failed in this part of my task ; reminding him that, all the new matter being distinguished by brackets^ [ ], he may use his own judgement as to its relation to the text. A work of such celebrity, connected with studies to 1 The brackets in p. 201 — 212, do not, as elsewhere, denote new matter. VI ADDITIONAL NOTES. which I had been much attached, having been thus intrusted to my care, I was tempted, during its progress, to hazard a few notes in my capacity of Editor : and though it may have been presumptuous in me to place any observations or conjectures of mine on the pages of Mr. Tooke, yet I must plead in excuse the interest excited by the investigations which they contain. ADDITIONAL NOTES By the EDITOR', P. 38. GRIMGRIBBER. " Mankind in general are not sufficiently aware that words without meaning, or of equivocal meaning, are the everlasting engines of fraud and injustice : and that the grimgribber^ of Westminster Hall is a more fertile, and a much more formidable, source of imposture than the abracadabra of magicians.'' — Mr. Tooke makes this remark after having stated that his first publication on language was occasioned by his having '* been made the victim " in a Court of Law *' of Two Prepositions and a Conjunction," of and concerning, and that, *'the abject ^ The number of these notes has been considerably increased in the present Edition. 2 I know not whence Mr. Tooke got this word, which was also used by Mr. Bentham, to mean, I suppose, the jargon used as a cover for legal sophistry. It may be connected with Qrimoire, respecting which Dr, Percy has the following note : — " The word Gramarye, which occurs several times in the foregoing poem (King Estmere), is probably a cor- ruption of the French word Grimoire, which signifies a Conjuring Book in the old French romances, if not the art of necromancy itself." — Vol. i. p. 77. Perhaps both are referable to ' Grammar,' which might have been looked upon as a kind of magic. The French Grimaude is a grammar-school boy. May not also the Scotch Glamer, Glamour, a charm, have the same origin ? ADDITIONAL NOTES. VH instruments of his civil extinction." In a recent case the Preposition upon seems to have played a similar part in the hands of some who " perche non erano grammatici, eran percio cattivi legisti." The point at issue was the meaning of upon, as a preposition ofTime,thatis,as employed to express the relation as to time be- tween two acts ; the Declaration now required of magistrates, &c,, by the Act 9th Geo, iV., being directed to be subscribed '* within one calendar month next before, or upon admission to office." If then the Declaration shall not have been subscribedfwithin the space of one month next before admission, it is to be sub- scribed UPON admission, '^The words 'next before,' of course," says the Attorney-General, " are clear ; next before must make it antecedent to his admission." — Q, B. p. 68 \ And let us be thankful that next before is still permitted to mean antecedent. But alas for the doubts and difficulties in which the other al- ternative is involved! Does upon also mean antecedent to? or subsequent? "That 'upon' may mean before there can be no doubt at all;*' says the Attorney- General. — Q. B. p. 16. " Now here it is ' upon his admis- sion' that he is to do this. I say that that is * before he ia admitted.'" " I do not say that * upon' is always synonymous with ' before.' It may possibly be afer, it may be concurrent, but it may be prior-" . — ib. p. 15. " One of your Lordships mentioned," adds Sir J. Campbell, " looking to this very Rule, that it w^as drawn up ' upon reading the affidavit of David Salomons.' The affidavit had been read before your Lordships granted the Rule. Now your Lordships will read ' upon' as meaning be- fore, if in that way the intention of the legislature will best be effected." — p. 1 6. "Lord Denman. — ' Upon reading the affidavits' is ' afer read- ing the affidavits.' Then if the two are analogous, 'upon admission' is • after admission;' so that it will be after his admission that he is to make the Declaration. Attorney-General. — Suppose it were, that upon making the "Declaration he is to be admitted. Mr. Justice Pat- TESON. — That would be intelligible : and then I should say the Decla- ration would be first. Mr. Justice Coleridge. — But here it is, that upon admission he is to make the Declaration : You say, it means before. Read it so ; then it is ' shall within one month next before, or before his admission.' " — Q. B. 17, 18. ^ The extracts marked Q. B. are from the arguments in the Queen's Bench, 1838 ; and those marked Exch. are from the Proceedings in the Exchequer Chamber on a Writ of Error, 1839 ; both printed from the Notes of Mr. Gurney. 2 SirF. Pollock says, with perfect truth, it has " no meaning in John- ion bearing the import of before." Vlll ADDITTONAL NOTES. " Sir F. Pollock. — Now, my Lords, the question is, What is the meaning of the word * upon'? In the first place, in plain English, among a number of meanings given to * upon ' — upwards of twenty, I think. — Mr. Justice Littledale. — Twenty-three, I think : and there may be a great many more enumerated from Johnson's Dic- tionary ^. Mr. Justice Coleridge. — It could hardly mean either inde- finitely before, or indefinitely after, for that would be no time ; then you must add something to the words before or after. Sir F. Pollock. — My Lord, there is no meaning in Johnson bearing the import of before. Mr. Justice Littledale. — ^There is one which means * concurrently"^: that is, I think, the eighteenth. Sir F. Pollock. — There is one which is ' in consequence of;' then if it is to be in consequence of admission, admission is to come before it. There is another, • supposing a thing granted :' here admission was not granted, but refused. There is an- other, ' in consideration of/ which certainly does not import that the act done in consideration, is to go before the act in consideration of which it is done ; and there is another, which is ' at the time of, or on occasion of.' Mr. Justice Littledale. — That is the one I meant to refer to. Sir F. Pollock. — But there is a general observation in Johnson in con- nection with all these. 'It always retains an intimation, more or less obscure, of some substratum, something precedent.' Now, my Lord, let us see what are the legal instances in which the word ' upon' is used. I am quite surprised, I own, that my learned friend should refer to the expression ' on payment of costs,' and * upon reading the affidavit,' to show that the admission is to come after, because the payment of costs comes before ; and it is the second time ^ he has fallen into the error. Says my learned friend, 'upon the payment of costs' means that pay- ment of costs is to come first, and therefore * on admission' means that admission is to come last ; that is really my learned friend's argument. ... * Upon reading the affidavit' certainly imports that the rule is granted after that ; and that is one instance in which it is impossible not to perceive that ' upon ' rmist import the precedence of the act which is so introduced." — Q. B. pp. 39, 40. ' Several of these are, as is usual with Johnson, meanings not of the word he explains, but of some other word in the sentence : thus, 2. Thrown over the body. " Thrown her night gown upon her." 3. By way of imprecation. " My blood upon your heads ;" — " Sorrow on thee." 5. Hardship or mischief. " If we would neither impose upon ourselves." In these it is clear that throw, body, imprecation, mischief, blood, or sorrow, are no meanings of upon. As well might it be said that upon means blessing, " Blessings on thee !" — or ink, " Ink upon paper." 2 The example quoted is from Swift : ** The king upon this news marched." The news obviously preceded the marching ; and they were not concurrent. — Ed. 3 It will be seen in the subsequent proceedings, that Sir J. Campbell does not abandon this mode of reasoning, by which it might as well be proved that after means before. " Β comes after A : then A comes before Β : — Therefore after means before. — Q. E. D." ADDITIONAL NOTES. IX Notwithstanding Sir J. Campbell's suggestion that the law was to be expounded ^' without very nicely scanning or critici- zing the language employed," — p. 24 ; and '* without entering into any very nice criticism of the words/' — p. 65 ; *' the lan- guage employed" being *' not very happily selected," p. 68, the Court of Queen's Bench gave the following clear and straightforward judgement : — "We are of opinion that, as the Declaration is to be made upon ad- mission, the Admission is the, first thing to be done." — Judgement of the Court, delivered by Lord Chief Justice Denman, p. 54. This judgement has, however, since been reversed by the other Judges in the Exchequer Chamber, and the question decided on grounds quite independent of philology. Sir J, Campbell thus objects to it, in the proceedings on the Writ of Error, 1839: — " The effect of this decision of the Court of Queen's Bench is, that a Jew or a Mahometan may be Lord Mayor of London." — Exch. p. 12. " My Lords, can your Lordships suppose that those who framed that Act of Parliament really had it in contemplation that there might be a mayor of any corporation in England who was a Mahometan or a Pa- gan ?" — p. 71 " There certainly was the greatest anxiety that no one should be admitted until he had made a declaration in the form given ; so that no one who was not a Christian — that neither Jew nor Papist nor Infidel — should be allowed to be admitted." — p. 12. " Sir F. Pollock. — My learned friend seems to me to have a pious and a Christian horror of a Jew wearing the Lord Mayor's chain : " yet *' a Jew may be Lord Chancellor, Lord Treasurer . . . ." — Exch. p. 57. " The Court of Queen's Bench have chosen to put their Judgement upon the broad plain ground ; they say ' upon ' means after ; and we can give no sensible construction to the Act unless we so read it." — ■ p. 59. " There is nothing in which the dexterity of an advocate is so conspicuous as in turning the question. In the Court below, my learned friend said the question was this, — whether corporations should be inundated with Jews, Turks, and Atheists ; at any rate, my Lords, that is not the legal question." — p. 70. " Att. Gen. — I acknowledge that my learned friend will find no difficulty in citing instances where ' upon ' means after ; where ' upon ' doing an act means after doing the act ; but there are others where * upon ' doing the act means before the act is done. Suppose a new trial 'granted ' upon' payment of costs ; the costs are to be paid before the new trial takes place. Sir F. Pollock. — The payment of costs comes first: — and here we say the admission comes first." — Exch. p. 27. " Att. Gen. — There are, I think, thirty meanings given in John- son's Dictionary to the word ' upon.' Baron Alderson. — If one man is to do one thing upon another man's doing another, then each χ ADDITIONAL NOTES. is to do his part^." — p. 30. " Sir F. Pollock. — My Lords, I say that the meaning of the Act is, that ' upon ' means after ; and if you are to take it that it is concurrently, and at the same time, and on the same occasion, still that that which is to be done wpon something else taking place, is, in point of order, to come after it." — p. 55. " The law says that upon conviction the party shall be hanged. Does that mean that he is to suffer the penalty before or after conviction ? The word upon occurs more frequently in that way than in any other ; ' upon refusal,* * upon receipt.' Mr. Justice Vaughan. — A reward to be paid ' upon conviction/ Lord Chief Justice Tindal. — A copyhold fine is payable upon admission ; which means, and is decided to mean, after admission. There the admission is the consideration upon which the fine becomes due. You will however find it have a double meaning in many cases. Sir F. Pollock. — It never means oe/bre. Baron Alderson. — It may mean at the time ' upon admission ' must mean before, or immediately after, or at the time." ! ! — p. ^Ί , Lord Chief Justice Tindal. — "The words of the Act, 'upon his admission,' do not, as it appears to us, mean after the admission has taken place, but upon the occasion of, or, at the time of, admission." " We hold it to be unnecessary to refer to instances of the legal mean- ing of the word ' upon,' which in different cases may undoubtedly (! !) either mean before the act done to which it relates, or simultaneously with, or after it."• — p. 93. " We therefore think that the Judgement of the Court of Queen's Bench ought to be reversed." — Judgement de- livered by Lord Chief Justice Tindal. — Exch. pp. 93, 96. Should the philologist complain that this Decision is in complete violation of the nature and use of language, let him remember that the cause was removed out of the province of grammar ; tlie great consideration being, not the true and plain meaning of words, but how religious exclusions should best be perpetuated. And although upon was pro hac vice tortured and sacrificed, Grammarians will nevertheless recur to the manifest truth, that, when used to mark the relation of Time between \wo acts not simultaneous, the act which is governed by the preposition is always that which is first in order. P. 79. IF.— -The derivation of IF from the imperative Give, seems very plausible so long as we limit our view to the English form of the word, especially as taken in connexion with the Scotch GIN, supposed to be the participle Given. But we cannot arrive at a collect opinion without viewing the word in the forms in 1 Undoubtedly : But in what order } ADDITIONAL NOTES. XI which it appears in the cognate dialects, and which do not seem at all referable to the verb To Give. Thus, in Icelandic we have ef, si, modo, with the verb efa, if a, du- bitare ; and the substantive efi, dubium, and its derivatives. See Ihre, V. Jef, duhium. In old German it is ihu, ipu, ube, oba,Jef, &c., and in modern German ob, in the sense only of an, num, all of which must surely be identified with the Gothic iK^, l]5/\l, and Q/\.]5Al> which latter Grimm (Deutsche Grammatik, vol, iii. p. 284.) considers as a compound oija and ibai, and supposes that the sense of doubt is included in the Gothic word, and that ibai may be the dative of a substantive 'iba, dubium, with which also he conjectures some ad- verbs may be connected (ib. p. 110.). In old German, he remarks, the substantive iba, dubium, whose regular dative is ibu, was preserved in the phrases, mit ibo, dne iba, p. 150, 157. Wachter gives the same account, and adds, " Haec particula apud Francos eleganter transit in substantivum ibu, et tunc c^M^iwrn significat : " as in the Athanasian Creed, ano ibu in euuidhu faruuirdhit, "without if he shall perish ever- lastingly:" — that being considered a matter of so great certainty as not to admit of a doubts In the A.-S. gif, Grimm considers the 5 prefixed as representing the Gothic Q in jabai ; and the old Frisic has ief, gef, iefta, iof, which Wiarda considers the same with the Francic oba and ibu. Mr. Richardson, in his lately published Dictionary, and the writers of several recent grammars, implicitly follow Mr. Tooke in this ety- mology of IF, adopted from Skinner ; but which appears more than doubtful, and inconsistent with the Teutonic or Scandinavian forms of the word. — See Jamieson, Hermes Scythicus, p. 122. P. 82. The following particulars of the author of Criticisms on the Diversions of Piirlei/, published under the assumed name of I. Cassander, are taken from a memoir in the Gentleman's and Monthly Magazines for 1804, probably written by the late Mr. William Taylor of Norwich, the authenticity of which ί have no doubt may be relied on. I well remember Mr. Bruckner, who had been my Father's preceptor in the French and Dutch languages ; and I believe Mr. Tooke had no other reason for coupling him with Mr. Windham, {'' my Norwich critics, for I shall couple them," see pp. 123, 126 and Note, 1 See Dr. Hook's Letter quoted at p. 186. Xll ADDITIONAL NOTES. 132, &c.) than that he resided in the city for which Mr. Windham was returned to Parliament. *' The Rev. John Bruckner, born in the island of Cadsand, 1726 — educated at Franeker and Leyden, where he obtained a pastorship, and profited by the society of Hemsterhuis, Valckenaer, and the elder Schultens. In 1753 he became minister of the Walloon Church at Norwich, and afterwards of the Dutch— till his death. May 12, 1804. In 1767 was printed at Leyden his ' Thtorie du SysUme Animal,^ in the 7th and 10th chapters of the second part of which there is much anticipation of the sentiments lately evolved and corroborated in the writings of Mr. Malthus. " In 1790 he published, under the name Cassander, from his birthplace, those Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley which attracted some hostile flashes from Mr. Home Tooke in his subsequent quarto edition. This pamphlet displays a pro- found and extensive knowledge of the various Gothic dialects, and states (p. 16.) that the same theory of Prepositions and Conjunctions so convincingly applied in the Epea Pteroenta to the Northern languages, had also been taught concerning the Hebrew and other dead languages by Schultens." Mr. Bruckner can hardly be considered an opponent of Mr. Tooke, as might be inferred from the style in which he is an- swered by the latter. He imputes a want of care, of know- ledge, or of success in some particular instances, (and, indeed, Mr. Tooke made no pretensions to much acquaintance with the northern languages, see p. 251,) but concurs with him in the main, and bestows great praise on his WOrk, assigning as his motive for publication a regret ^' that a performance, in other respects valuable, and well calculated to open the eyes of the learner with regard to false systems, should remain in its pre- sent state, and not be rendered as perfect as the nature of the subject will permit." To the same purpose he adds, in p. 5 : — '^ You have not given your system the consistency and solidity of which it is susceptible, and which you were very able to give it, had you been willing to bestow a little more thought upon it." At p. 22, alluding to some alleged mistakes, '^ I have been ex- amining your outworks again ; and, as I find them absolutely untenable, I would advise you to abandon them in case of a ADDITIONAL NOTES. Xlll regular attack, and to shut yourself up in your capital work, which is of good design and workmanship, and will stand the best battering-ram in the world, provided, however, you bestow a little repairing upon it. In what follows, I shall point out to you the places where this is most wanted.'' And in p. 73, *' I have read with pleasure, and even with some advantage, your ninth and tenth chapters, which treat of prepositions and adverbs. The light in which you place these parts of speech is new, and well calculated to turn the attention of the stu- dious in general from idle and endless subtleties to the contemplation of truth, and acquisition of real knowledge." '' Truth, as you say, has been improperly imagined at the bottom of a well : it lies much nearer the surface. Had Mr. Harris and others, instead of diving deeper than they had oc- casion into Aristotelian mysteries, contented themselves with observing plain facts, they would soon have perceived, that prepositions and conjunctions were nothing more than nouns and verbs in disguise ; and the chapter of the distribution and division of language would have been settled and complete long ago, to the contentment and joy of every body : whereas, in the way they proceeded, their labour was immense, and the benefit equal to nothing." — p. 77. I may with propriety add here a candid estimate of Mr. Tooke's work from the Annual Review for 1805. " Few good books have been written on the theory of lan- guage : this is one of them. Philosophic linguists have mostly pursued the Aristotelic, the antient, method of reasoning, a priori ; they have rarely recurred to the Baconian, the modern, method of reasoning, a posteriori. They have examined ideas instead of phsenomena, suppositions instead of facts. The only method of ascertaining in what manner speech originates, is to inquire historically into the changes which single words undergo ; and from the mass of instances, within the examina- tion of our experience, to infer the general law of their forma- tion. This has been the process of Mr. Home Tooke. He first examined our prepositions, conjunctions, and adverbs, all those particles of speech foolishly called insignificant, and showed that they were either nouns or verbs in disguise, which had lost the habit of inflection. He now examines our adjec- XIV ADDITIONAL NOTES. tives and abstract substantives, and shows that they too are all referable to nouns or verbs, describing sensible ideas. "Whether this opinion is strictly nev7, scarcely merits in- quiry ; it W2LS never applied before on so grand a scale, and in so instructive a manner." After mentioning the suggestions of Schultens, Lennep, and Gregory Sharpe, the writer proceeds : — ■*' Such scattered soli- tary observations may have prepared and do confirm the com- prehensive generalizations of Mr. Home Tooke ; but to him the English language ow^es the pristine introduction of just principles, and a most extensive, learned, and detailed applica- tion of them to the etymology of its terms. He has laid the groundw^ork of a good Dictionary." " The good sense with which all the phsenomena are ex- plained, the sagacity with which the difficulties are investigated, the force of intellect displayed in every conjecture, these con- stitute the essence of the treatise, and will cause it to outlast the compilations of a more laborious erudition. This work is the most valuable contribution to the philosophy of language which our literature has produced ; the writer may be charac- terized in those words which Lye applied to Wachter : ad or- nandam, quam nactus est, Spartam, instructissimus venit : in intima artis adyta videtur penetrasse, atque inde protulisse quodcunque potuerit illustrando ipsius proposito inservire." — p. 675. "^ The following note by Mr. Price, the late editor of Warton's History of English Poetry, 1824, records the judgement, not exactly in accordance with the preceding, of one whose inti- mate knowledge of northern and early English philology gives a value to his observations. Having occasion to notice that Mr. Tooke had overlooked the use of the genitive absolute, Mr. Price adds : " Nor is it mentioned here with a view to disparage the great and important services of this distinguished scholar; but as a collateral proof, if such be wanting, of his veracity in declaring, that all his conclusions were the result of reasoning a priori, and that they were formed long before he could read a line of Gothic or Anglo-Saxon. To those who will be at the trouble of examining Mr. Tooke's theory and his own peculiar illustration of it, it will soon be evident that ADDITIONAL NOTES. XV though no objections can be offered to his general results, yet his details, more especially those contained in his first volume, may be contested nearly as often as they are admitted. The cause of this will be found in what Mr. Tooke has himself re- lated, of the manner in which those results were obtained, combined with another circumstance which he did not think it of importance to communicate, but which as he certainly did not feel its consequences he could have no improper motive for concealing. The simple truth is, that Mr. Tooke, with whom, like every man of an active mind, idleness, — in his case perhaps the idleness of a busy political life, — ranked as an enjoyment, only investigated his system at its two extremes, — the root and summit, — the Anglo-Saxon, and English from the thirteenth century downwards ; and having satisfied himself, on a review of its condition in these two stages, that his previous convictions were on the whole correct, he * abandoned all fur- ther examination of the subject. The former I should feel disposed to believe he chiefly studied in Lye's vocabulary ; of the latter he certainly had ample experience. But in passing over the intervening space, and we might say for want of a due knowledge of those numerous laws which govern the Anglo- Saxon grammar, — and no language can be familiar to us without a similar knowledge, — a variety of the fainter lines and minor features all contributing to give both form and ex- pression to our language entirely escaped him ; and hence the facilities with which his system has been made the subject of attack, though in fact it is not the system which has been vulnerable, but Mr. Tooke's occasionally loose application of it. This note might have been spared ; but it has been so much the fashion of late to feed upon what Leisewitz would call ' the corse of Mr. Tooke's reputation,' that I may stand excused for seeking this opportunity of offering a counter statement to some opinions of rather general currency." Vol. ii. p. 493. P. 100. THOUGH is placed by Grimm in his class of pronominal adverbs, as being one of the numerous particles originating from the demonstrative pronoun that, φ^Ύ^, on which, and their relation to each other and their common source, he treats fully in vol. iii. p. 165-177 ; — -see alsop, 285. Mr, Bruckner XVI ADDITIONAL NOTES. objects that ^eah, the A.-S. form, is not the imperative of Dapian ; and indeed Mr. Tooke has not shown how his ety- mology of though is apphcable to the forms of the word in the cognate languages, and which must have had the same origin. Besides those which he mentions, there are the Gothic φ/\.ΙΐΙΐ and its compounds, the Icelandic po, the old Frisic tach, thach (Wiarda), and the Francic thoh, Ihre also considers it as an oblique case of the demonstrative pronoun : v. TheUy Thy, (quamvis), Ty. It is material to observe that Mr. Tooke's account of Though will only suit it in the sense of Although, licet ; but not at all as veruntamen, Germ. Ooch ; — in which sense also, as he admits in the note, p. 100, it is constantly used. This is a sense which it has always borne ; as for example : peah hypa nan ne cpaei^, ppaet fecfC J>u. Yet [thougK] none of them saith. What seekest thou? — John, 4. 27. Anb cpse^, plajropb, ic ^a, ^ ne eobe ppa J>eah. And said, I go, sir, and went not, though, — Matt. 21. 30. peah hp9&^epe, na ppa ppa ic pille. Τ%οΛ- widaru, nalles thaz ih willi. — Tatian, clxxxi. 2. Dock, niet gelijck ick wil. Het Nieuwe Test. Dordrecht, 1641. Though, not as I will.— Matt. 26. 39. Here I cannot help being led by the literal correspondence of the Francic with the A.-Saxon, to suspect that the con- junction J'eah-hpas^epe is a remarkable substitution for jjeah- pi^ep, verum e contra^ or veruntamen, as it is in the Francic : and as it is now in the German, doch dawider, sed ex ad- verso. See Schilter v. Widar. A curious instance of the. confluence of like-sounding words. Perhaps in the instance which Wachter gives of Weder used as quam, it has been confounded with Wider. Ten Kate, v. ii. 6 1 8, conjectures though to be the imperative of ^icjean, accipere; thus, ^eah, licet, q. d. * Take it so.' Jamieson considers it as the past part, of To think. Rich- ardson gives only Mr. Tooke's etymology; as if this were an established truth, and not merely an ingenious conjecture. Grimm's account appears to be that which is founded on the most comprehensive survey, and an extensive knowledge of the shades of meaning produced by inflexion. With regard to Kaplan, Wiarda gives Thavigan and Toverij ADDITIONAL NOTES. XVll expectare, as its old Frisic representatives ; and Bruckner quotes Doogen and Gedoogen as having the same meaning in Dutch. P. 179. 275. Verbs compounded with FOR. — The particle/or prefixed to Verbs seems to have various significations, which can only be studied with advantage by bringing together all the Verbs and Participles in the Teutonic languages compounded with it. See Lamb, ten Kate's Anleidiug^ ii. 53 ; Jamieson's Hernies ScythiciiSf ch. vii. and viii. ; and Grimm's Deutsche Gram- matiky ii. 850, where a large collection and able comparison is given. '* Ver ; Gothisy. " Neither I shall repent me, for that I haue giuen you counsaill, nor yet you shall forethinke yourselfe that you have obeyed." — Wilson, Art of Rhetorique. This Mr. Richardson places among the compounds of fore, confounding it with forethink, praemeditari, an entirely distinct word. The substantive forethought he does not give. ADDITIONAL NOTES. XIX forwayy forwearied^ , forwelkedy forwept, forwon, forwondred, foriooundedj forivrappedy foryelde, &c. &c. The compounds oi for and fore have evidently been con- founded, as in the cases oi forego, to precede, and forgo (as it should be v^^ritten^), to give up : so, popj^eon, Fiem. ver- sien, to overlook, to despise ; j:ojie|"eon, Flem. veursieti, to foresee: forethought, prsemeditation, -and for thought, repented. When the particle has a privative signification, it probably represents the Gothic fra : also in pop^ipan, Fiem. vergeeven, To forgive' ; which are the collaterals of Ι^Κ-ΛΓ^^Ι^Λ^ί• The explanation given by Mr. Tooke will not apply to the generality of cases. P. 220.— SUBSTANTIVE PREPOSITIONS. Piepositions are thus classed by Grimm, vol. iii. 251. I. Simple Prepositions; (as to several of which Mr. Tooke states that he had not been able to satisfy himself. — p. 251,) With one consonant : — as In, on, out, of, at, up, by^ to. With more than one : — as For, from, till, nigh, with. li. Derivative Prepositions. — After, over, under, hinder. III. Compounded, of two Prepositions. — Upon, out of, within, behind, before, about, above, beneath: on innan,on upan, on iippan, be-upan, on-bupan. v. p. 250. Lf Substantive Prepositions. — Against, among. -ry -^r J [To this class belongs op bune, adown.^ Adjective Prepositions. — Betivixt, between, amid, an heh, on high, below, toward. Among, is not Eremanj, as Somner has it, but On je- man J, this being a substantive (ccetus) and not the participle, which is ^emen^eb. See p. 227. Against, which Mr. Tooke would refer to a supposed participle, Grimm derives from a substantive gagen, gegen, apparently governed by the different prefixes : — thus ingagen, entgegen, zugegen, begagene, on^e^en, to-jejnep, and, in Layamon, to-gen, to-geines. ^ " Repose is best tasted by hoaie^ foreweariedy Bp^d's Psalms,1583. " Forewearied in aiFayres of great importance." Eyrd's Songs,l589,Ded. ^ See the Errata to Lord Holland's Life of Lope de Vega, 1806. 5 Mr. Forby's East Anglian Vocabulary has "Forgive, To begin to thaw;" " Forhinder, To prevent," as still in use: and my Norfolk nurse used "I little forthought" simply in the sense of " I little thought." So poppfan is used simply for To give. Burns uses forgather, to meet. Forswear is both to abjure and to perjure. b 2 XX ADDITIONAL NOTES. P. 234. To LONG or BELONG. Gelanj. ALONG on : LONG of: ALONG with. The distinction between the two senses of the word Along, (or rather of the two words,) as shown in the passage from Gower, *' I tary forth the night alonge. For it is nought on me alonge To slepe,". is attributed by Mr. Tooke wliolly to the difference of their prefixes, as being respectively the representatives of Anblan^ and Delanj. He refers the LANG or LONG in the latter as well as in the former to Lengian, To make long, lengthen. It seems to me however tlrat in these words, thus written alike, the second syllable in each is as entirely distinct in meaning and origin as the prefix. ^* To slepe is nought on me alonge.^^ We shall in vain, I think, attempt to make out any relation to the notion of lengthy here, any more than in the word BE- LONG, which word also, it is remarkable that Junius does not notice, and Skinner merely says of it, ^' a Teut. Belangen, Anlangen,'' I conclude therefore that the root to which Lrelanj is to be referred is not Lenjian, To lengthen, but Langen, pertinere, for which see Wachter. From this we have also, in Kihan, '^ Belangh, Verlangh, necessitas, res 7ie- cessarittj res momentosa, — Een saecke van groot verlangh ;" and '* Belangherif pertinere :" — in Schilter, '* Gilengido, affi- nitates ; Gilanger, propinquus ;" and, in Ten Kate, vol. ii. p. 84 and 261, ^^ Belang, Gelang, quod alicui quid refert: — Belangen, spectare ad aliquid ;" to which he refers the termi- nation ling ; the idea conveyed in all of which is that of close and intimate connection, and not at ail of longitudinal dimension. Of the termination LING Somner says, ** adjunct! cui additur notat subjectum," as in Foundling, Hireling, Duckling, Nestling, Firstling, Groundling, Fatling, Sapling, Worldling, indicating that the quality or circumstance closely belongs to the subject'. That Cling and Clench maybe con- i "LING oritur a langen, spectare, pertinere, et hinc, substan- tivis annexum, ex substantivo suppositum facit personale, et quodvis subjectum denominationis, quatenus subjectum, illud ad substantivum sub aliqua ratione pertinere creditur." And, " Ex adjectivo facit sub- stantivum, ea qualitate prseditum cui annectitur." Wachter, Prolegom. Sect. vi. e. g. Youngling, Darling. See also Grimm, ii. 352, and 356 for adverbs in lings -. — Scotch, Bud dlins, Scan tlins ; and Darkling, Milton. ADDJTIONAL NOTES, XXI nected with this root as intensitives, ί would only submit as a hasty conjecture; and Fling and Sling in a contrary sense. Our early writers frequently use Long as a verb, without the prefix Be, in the sense of pertain. So Chaucer : " That appertaineth and longeth all onely to the judges." Tale of Melibeus, Along, in the sense of length, was formerly written Alonsgt. And it is to be remarked that Along, when the representative of Erelan^, is always followed by on, upon, at, of, or the Noun in the genitive case, as in *' on ppeorte jelan^:" • — ''set J)e ij- ujie lip jelan^/' Our life is along at Thee. — '' hit ip aet Erobep borne jelanj.'' — '' Which was upon the kynge alonge" — Gower. '' ye bjiinca hip ^elanj." — Oros. 5. 8. Along with should seem also to be from Langen, perti- nere, as well as Along of, and to have no relation to Length. Latimer and Ridley were sentenced alorig with Cranmer. *' And he to England shall along with you." — Hamlet, iii. 3. John- son, explaining the expression in Pope " Come along/' by onward, absurdly derives it from the French Allons, Richard- son gives Along and Belong as verbs, in the sense of To lengthen ; but with no instances of either in that sense : none, I should think, exist. He also gives the following senses of Belong : To reach, To attain. To appertain : the last being the only real one- — the others imagined, merely to make out a sup- posed etymology. The other senses of Langen mentioned by Wachter, are trahere, expetere, prolongare, porrigere, tangere, and, metaphorically as he Supposes, pervenire, from Vv'hich he would derive the sense, pertinere : but the connection seems very remote and doubtful, and a confusion of the agent with the object. P. 243. ABOUT.- — Mr. Tooke seems to have gone astray in his account of this word; and very strangely, as its history seems tolerably clear. He appears to have been put on a wrong- scent by Spelman, who derives it from the French Bout and About er ; and overlooking Skinner's derivation of it, which he quotes, and Junius's, which he omits, he says, in p. 243, '* Spelman, Junius, Skinner, and Menage all resort to Franco- Gall, for their etymology." This is certainly not true with regard to Junius and Skinner, however some of the passages XXll ADDITIONAL NOTES. as quoted by him from them may have this appearance. What is given from Junius relates to a different word^ *But, Scopus/ and has no reference to About; his account of which^ being omitted by Mr. Tooke, I here insert : '* About, circum, circa. A.-Saxones abiitan vel abutoii dicebant ; quse videri possunt facta ex illo embe utan quod occurrit Marc. 14. 47; Άη op ^am J?e ]?ap embe uran ptobon, Unus ex circumstantibus. Vide tamen Spehnanni Glossarium in Abuttare." Skinner, as will be seen in the first quotation from him, (p. 242.) which is the whole of what he says upon the w^ord About, derives it unhesitatingly from A.-S. abiitan, ym- butan. The other passages which Mr.Tooke quotes from Skin- ner treat of Abutt and But, which he derives from the Franco- Gall. Bout, and have no reference whatever to About. Skinner errs in compounding Abiitan of the Latin prepo- sition Ah and the Saxon utan ; for analogy obviously leads us to consider the A as a contraction of the Saxon On (as Again, onjean ; Aivay, on pe^ ; Aback, on baec, &c.) and it is some- times written with On, which requires butan, and not utan. The word is found in the following forms ; onbutan, on- buton, abutan, abuton ; embe utan, embutan, ymbe- utan, ymbutan, ymbuton ; all orthographical variations of two, onbutan and ymbutan ; and these, though really di- stinct words, as being compounds of butan and utan with the distinct prepositions On and Ym or Ymbe, yet seem to have coalesced^ in the course of time, not greatly differing in sense or sound, to form our present word About, which is the repre- sentative of both. Of this I think no one vvill doubt who at- tends to the idiomatic features in which it exactly resembles its progenitors, as the following phrases of King Alfred and the 1 The tendency of similar words to coalesce in the course of time, and from being confounded in popular use, is one of the phsenomena of language to be noticed : For example mystery (μνστηρων), and mistere, ministerium, maisterie, mestiero, metier, an art or craft : — the French Jsle, Ital. Isola, Lat. Insula, confounded with island, (properly Hand) A.-S. 6alonb, eitlanb. So Unter and Inter, Beorn and Beam. Thus has Weremuth been transformed into Wormwood, Σταφ^ aypia into Stavesacre ; Fehrifugium into Featherfew ; Frithborg into Friborg, out of which mistake grew the word Frankpledge ; Knave converted into Nativtis, &Co ADDITIONAL NOTES. XXlll Saxon Chronicle will show : peojijian ymbuton, far about ; }»aeji ymbutan, thereabouts ; noji^ ymbutan, north about : j-uS ymbutan, south about. With regard to Onboba, I cannot imagine where Mr. Tooke got it, or how it could be connected with About. [Having thus called in question the reality of this word in the edition of ] 829, I had supposed that it would not again be cited with- out some proof that it had an existence ; but Mr. Richardson, in his lately published Dictionary, under the words About and Abutf still refers us to '^ Abuta, Onbuta, Onboda ; Boda, the first outward extremity or boundary of anything ;" all of which are, so far as I can find, mere creatures of the imagination, or of some mistake. Mr. M^Culloch, also, in his Grammar, 1835, refers to this fictitious Saxon ^'Abuta, the verge or extre- mity of a thing." It is to be regretted that those who claim credit for founding new grammars and dictionaries on the principles of Mr. Tooke, should make them the means of dif- fusing and perpetuating all his errors in detail. I find that the subject is sometimes interposed between the two prepositions, as in King Alfred's Orosius, b. 1 . ch. 1. p. 22. *' Op Ipsem lanbe Ipe ymb hy iitan psepan." Of the lands that round them about were, ymb li^an utan, circumnavi- gare. And so the Icelandic description of the annular eclipse of August 5, 1263, in Haco^s Expeditioiij ed. Johnstone, p. 44 : " Sva at litill hringr var biartur um solina ιιίαη^ So that a little ring was bright about the sun : or, round the sun about. — ■ '* YmbJ^a punnan utan." Bed. 645, 22. — Uran-ymb some- times occurs for ymb-utan. — I confess I do not understand the ground of Mr. Grimm's question {Grammat. iii. 265,) as to the import of the a in about, considering the analogy of similar words compounded with on, P. 247. DOWN, ADOWN.— Mr. Tooke shows clearly that his pre- decessors had entirely failed in their endeavours to investigate the origin of this Preposition ; and gives a new and ingenious conjecture, in the absence of any thing satisfactory. I have given in the Note to p. 247 what occurred to me, whilst employed upon that part of the work, as the true expla- nation of this preposition which has so much puzzled our ety- mologists. The most perplexing questions sometimes admit XXW ADDITIONAL NOTES. of a very simple solution. We must return for its origin to our substantive Down, A.-S. Dune, a hill. Those indeed who looked to this source had been so much at a loss how to con- nect a pieposition signifying depression with a substantive which denoted elevation, that the question must have seemed to Mr. Tooke quite open for fresh conjectured When, however, I met with Op biine in Anglo-Saxon, no doubt remained that the mystery was solved, and that all the obscurity had been occa- sioned by the disappearance of the particle prefixed. There is no need therefore any longer to torture Dune or Do^vn, and to make it appear to signify the reverse of that which it really means, a hill; for as Ορ bune means Off ox From HiW, it must imply Descent ; and Down is only put for Adown or Op- bune by an elision of the prefix. As abuna, abune, with their compounds, are also found, we can have no doubt that the A in this case has arisen from the Op rapidly pronounced^ ,• and instead of Adown being from a and the preposition doivn, as Dr. Johnson tells us, the fact is'just the reverse, — Down is contracted from Adown or ^bune, and Άbune is from Op bune\ As the instances w^hich I have as yet found of the use of Op bune are but six, of which Lye gives references only to five, and those dispersed under different heads, and, unlike his gene- ral practice, without the context, I have thought it might be satisfactory if I furnished the reader with the following : UnderOpbune,Deorsum, Lye only refers us to Op and Dun. " Of. Of. De." — " Of ]?am munte." " Of heofonum. De ccelo." " Of bune. Deorsum; Oros. 3. 5. Boet. 25." 1 *' Conjecture cannot supersede historical fact ; and it ought never to be adopted in etymology, unless to explain those words of which the existence precedes record. Mr. Tooke, who had more intellect than northern lore, frequently advances a rash though always an ingenious conjecture: but Mr. Richardson pursues the same untracked course with still less caution, and often connects (like Mr. Whiter in his Etymolo- gicon) words as obviousty distinct in pedigree as a negro and a white." ■ — Monthly Review, for Jan. 1817, N. S. vol. Ixxxii. p. 86. "^ So in the case of " De chez," p. 162, where chez is the substantive CASA. 3 Thus Ashamed from Offceamob ; Athirst from of Sypfte ; ajnnchep from oflnnchej), Laymn. "^ So Declivis, from de and clivus. ADDITIONAL NOTES» XXV " Dun. bime. A down. Mons ; ^If. Gl. 18. gr. 5. Matt. 24. 3. Ps. 67. 16. — op bune. Downward, doivri. Deorsum ; Oros. 3. 5. R. Luc. 4.9. 5oei. c. 33. §.4. 1.86." "Sbun. abuna. abune. Deorsum; Bed. 1. 12. C.Luc. 4. 9." " Sbunaj-ett:. Depositus ; Bed. 4. 6." "SbmieafCijan. abunepci^an. Descendere ; C. Luc. 19.5. P^. 71. 6. 87. 4." " Sbunpeajib. Deorsum ; C. Sax. 1083." To which I subjoin so much of the context of the passages referred to as will be suiScient for the satisfaction of the reader. King Alfred's Orosius, 3. 5. p. 94. — -Sub hi leton heo]ia hpaegl op bune CO potum. And they let their garments down to their feet. King Alfred's Boethius, 25. — Spa biS eac j.'am tpeopum Se him ge- cynbe hip up heah to pcanbanne. })eah 6u teo hpelcne boh op bune Co ]78epe eoppian. ppelee ]m began meege. ppa ]?u hiiie alsecpC. ppa pppmc]? he up. ^ ppiga^ yip hip gecynbep '. So it is also Λvith the trees, to which it is natural to stand erect. Though thou tug each bough down to the earth with all thy might ; when thou lettest it go, then springeth it up, and stretcheth according to its nature. Snb nip hipe Sonne ep]ie Co pealianne op-bune Sonne up, — 33. §. 4. 1. 86. And it is not to them easier to fall downwards than upwards-. To these should be added another^ given under the word J^ealb, which Lye thus explains ; '^ Propensus, proclivisj de- vexus, incurvatus. ^ibeji healb. istuc proclivis, (thereto in- Ϊ " Validis quondam viribus acta, Pronum flectit virga cacumen ; Hanc si curvans dextra remisit, Recto spectat vertice ccelum." — De Consol. lib. 3. metr. 2. " The yerde of a tre that is haled adowne by mightie strength boweth redily the croppe adown : but if that the hunde that is bente let it gone againe, anon the croppe lokethe Alright to the heuen." — Chaucer' stransL• 2 " Aut mersas deducant pondera terras." — De Consol. lib. 3. metr. 9. *' -ne iiye nat ouer hie, ne that the heuinesse ne draw nat adoune ouerlowe the yerthes that be plonged in the waters." — Chaucer's transL where observe that he uses Adoun. In the King of Tars we have, "His robe he rente adoun." Warton, ii. 25. 8vo. •' The table adoun riht he smot." Ibid. " Al that he hitte he smot doun riht." Ibid. " He hem a-dun leide." Layamon, 1. 551. " And descended a doun to the derk belie/' P. Ploiihmans Crede. " That hongen adoun to theo grounde." Davie's Alisaundre, Warton, ii. 54. " Theo duyk feol doun to the grounde." Ibid. 59. XXVI ADDITIONAL NOTES. clined) ; Boet, 24. 4. oj: bune healbe. De monte devexus ; 41. 6.'' It will be seen that he has here fallen into a singular mistake in rendering the phrase literally '^de monte," which he never could have done if the context had not escaped his at- tention : Alfred's Β oethius, 41. 6K — Άτlb j-ume bij) tpiojreCe, fume fiopepjrete ; ]-ume pleogenbe. •;] ealle peali bio]> op bune healbe pij> psepe eop]?an. And some be two-footed, some four-footed ; some flying : and yet all be downwards inclined towards the earth®. Matt. 24. 3. — pa he psefc uppan Olmetyp bune. As he sate uppon a mount of Olives. — Food's Gospels. Psal. 67. 15 — 17. fSpelman. — Dune Gobep, munt pset. Munt ge- punnon, bune ρεεϋ. Co hpy pene ge muntap gejumnene. Dune on ]?am jelicob ip God puman on lime. Mons Dei, mons pinguis. Mons coagulatus, mons pinguis, ut quid suspicamini montes coagulates ? Mons in quo beneplacitum est Deo habitare in eo. R. Luc. 4. 9. op bune. C. Luc. 4. 9. abune. In these two versions of Luke 4. 9. (If thou be the son of God, cast thyself down from hence) we see abune in the Cambridge MS. (Wanley's Cat. p. 152, Lye's C.) supplying the place of op bune in his R., which is the Rush- worth MS. in the Bodlei?ai Library, Wanl. p. 82. In Mareschal's edi- tion the passage is thus rendered, fcyp J)u py liobep punu, apenb ])e heo- nun nyj>ep^ Gothic, ^^ΐΚ-ΠΙ φΠΚ ΦΛΦΚ^ ά,^Α^Φ'- 1 " Sunt quibus alarum levitas vaga, verberetque ventos, Et liquido longi spatia aetheris enatet volatu. HcGC pressisse solo vestigia gressibusque gaudent, Λ^6ΐ virideis campos transmittere vel subire sylvas. Qu3s varus videas licet omnia discrepare formis ; Prona tamen facies hebetes valet ingravare sensus. Unica gens hominum celsum levat altius cacumen," &c. De Consol. lib. 5. met. 5. 2 The following is the passage answering to this in Alfred's metrical paraphrase, p. 197 : Sume potum cpam Some with two feet polban pe'S^ap. tread the ground : pume pieppete. some fourfooted. Sume pleo^enbe Some flying pmbe]7 unbep polcnum. wind under the welkin. Bi]? j^eali puhca gehpilc Yet is each creature onhnijen Co hpupan. inclined to the ground, hnipa]? op bune. boweth adown, on peopulb plice]>. on the world looketh, pilna)? Co eop])an. tendeth to the earth. 3 The representatives of which still remain in the Dutch neder^ down, daalen, to descend ; Germ, thalwarts, downhill. Mr. Gwilt, in his &axon Rudiments, cannot be right in giving to m'Sep and abune the significa- tion of backwards. ADDITIONAL• NOTES. XXVll Bede 1. 12. — Tugan hi eapmlice abun op Sam pealle. Miserrime de muris tracti, solo allidebantur. Bede A. 6. — Dset: abune aj-etcon op Sam bifcop pice Pin}:piJ»e. Ut deposito Winfrido, otc. C. Luc. 19. 5. — Sbuneaptijan (Cambridge MS.) And in the Durham Book Cot. Nero, I find — Anb cuoeS to him Zache oejiepca (t oefej'tlice) abime j-tig. popSon to bsege in hup Sin ^ebsepneb ip me to punian. j oepiptube opptaj abune. Et dixit ad eum, Zacchee, festinans descendej quia hodie in domo tua oportet me man ere. Et festinans descendit. Psalm 71. 6. — pe abuneaptah ppa ppa pen on plyp. Descendet sicut pluvia in vellus. Psalm 87. 4. — Hepeneb ic eom mib abuneptijenbum on pea]?e. — - ^stimatus sum cum descendentibus in lacum. Psalm 73. 3. — Mount Sion is called fsepe bune. Matth. 4. 8, — Junius says that the Rushworth MS. has Sune instead of bune — On Sune heh puiSe : where Mareschal has On ppiSe healme munt. Chron. Sax. an. 1083. — Anb pcotebun abunpeapb mib apepan. And shot downwards with arrows. — Anb ]?a oSpe ])a bupa bpsecon psep abune. And the others broke down the doors. I believe it will be found that the adverb and preposition Down exists in none of the other Teutonic dialects, but solely in the English language. With regard to the substantive^ Wachter derives it from Dunen, turgere. [Since the publication of the Edition of 1829, I have met with one more instance, in the poem of Judith : pi Sa hpeopi^-moba puppon hypa psepen op bune. — Thwaites, Hept. p. 25. Also, in the third volume of Grimm's Grammatik, 1831, I find op bune classed in his division of Prepositional Adverbs formed of Substantives, p. 151. seq. with others exactly analogous: e. g. aha berge, aba himile, deorsum ; and the converse, formed in the same manner, ze tale, deorsum, ze berge, sursum ; Old French and Italian, amont, aval, a monte, a valle, up, down ; — and Ger. bergauf una bergab gehen. To walk up and down hill. The matter seems now so perfectly plain, that ί wonder Mr. D. Booth, in the Introduction to his Analytical Dictionary, 1830, p. cxxviii. should have kept in the path of difficulty.] P. 265. GENITIVAL ADVERBS. The adverbs formed from the oblique cases of substantives and adjectives are collected by Grimm in great number from the Teutonic languages in all the periods of their history, and classed according to their origin XXVlll ADDITIONAL NOTES» from the genitive, dative, or accusative case. — Grammatik, vol. iii. p. 88 et seq. Such as the following are evidently to be referred to the genitive : ^^anej" baejej" ye abbobe eobe." One day the abbot went.— ~«SW. Chron. an. 1083. Thervvith the nightspel said he anon 7'ihtes. — Chaiic. Miller's Tale, 3480. -Bj/ rights. Unawares. Athwari-ships. Amidships. His tha/ikes. Now adai/es, (P. PL 186. Whit.) Now on dayis, (G. Doiigl. b. 5, 140.) Besides. Betimes, Straightways. (This Richardson omits ; and Webster, I know not why, says it is obsolete.) Ways occurs as the genitive singular, ^' any ways afflicted," Com. Prayer. {Always, however, Grimm says is from the plural. Fdse, lie considers as the genitive ellej", p. 61. 89.) Go thy loays. '^ Iiepasnbe ]?εερ paejej- j^e he asji com." He turned the way that he before came. — ApoUonius, ed. Thorpe, p. 13. Of late; of old? '* Nipej- o]?]?e ealbep" — Conyheare, p. 246. Among those which are to be referred to the Dative plural, Grimm, iii. p. 136, mentions l^pilum, aliquando. So that our WHILOM has come down to us with its datival inflexion entire, like some fossil among the debris and alluvium of our lan- guage, with all its original characters unobliterated : — and the substantive While supplies us with two adverbs — Whiles, from the genitive singular, and Whilom, from the dative plural. Yet Lennie, among the conceited absurdities of his grammar, twentieth edition, Edinb., 1839, gravely tells us that ^^ while should not be used as a noun ! '' Alas for the poor children who are doomed to be tormented out of their mother tongue by these Grammar-makers ! P. 266. 678. 680. FUTURE INFINITIVE. Such expressions as the follow- ing evidently have their origin from the ancient Derivative or Future Infinitive. The house is to build. There are many things to do, trees to plant, fences to make, &c. Hard to bear. Fair to look on. Easy to learn. Good to eat. Difficult to handle. Sad to tell. So, ^' i^it ip j-ceame to tellanne, ac hit: ne jiulitre him nan j^ceame to bonne." — Chr. Sax. an. 1085. '' ppi]?e jebpolpum to pasbenne," — Thwaites, Hept. 4. ^' began to bobienne ; pasjep on to locianne." — Oros. II. ADDITIONAL NOTES. XXIX iv. 68. A house to let ; (for which some folks, thinking to show their grammar, write A house to be let.) Ages to come. He is to blame. What is to be, *' pe dede J>at is to drede." — Langtoft, 399. " ])e day is for to wite?i." — lb, 2. 341. *' That is the robe I mean, iwis ^, Through which the ground to praisen is." — Rom. of the Rose, 1. 69. " That is a frute full wel to like."— lb. 1. 1357. " Nought wist he what this Latin was to saij." Prioresses T. 134. 53. " Thynges that been to flien, and thynges that been to desiren." — Soet.5.2. " Andis hereafter tocommen." — P.Ploughm. Creed. "Where- fore it is to presuppose that it was for a more grevous cause." — Fahyan, 389, A.D. 1285. " And this is not to seeh, it is absolutely ready." *' I do not think my sister so to seek." — Comus. It seems to have been first altered by accenting the vowel, in- stead of using the nne, as to puniaii, and then to have been written hke the simple infinitive, but with to prefixed : *^ γ\\ο- pen ])e paij" to halben." — Chron. Sax, an. 1 140. Originally the simple infinitive was not preceded by to : thus we still say, I bade him rise. I saw him fall. You may let him go. They heard him sing. See Grimm, iv. 91 and 104; Pure infinitive and Prepositional infinitive. With regard to Lye's statement (referred to in the note, p. 192.) that to was sometimes prefixed, though redundantly, to the simple infinitive, it will be found tliat he is not borne out by the passages to which he refers, and which, as he has not given them, I insert. '' Άnb j-sette {?asp miinecaj- Ysohe to J)epian." — Chron. Sax. 118. 10 ; — ad inserviendum Deo; ■ — evidently not the simple but the future infinitive. '^ pa ye- onbe he f man j^ceolbe Jia j^cipu to heapan." — Ibid. 134. 10. — ut naves confringerent. Here the to is not the prefix to the infinitive ; which is clearly governed by j'Ceolbe ; but the verb is a compound, toheapan. ^^ eobon heom to heopa jajipan peopime," egressi sunt ad quserendum sibi ^ Iwis, ywis, gepij-, certainly, indeed ; (not as Somner supposes, / wis, scio). The verb piCan, therefore, gives us these two adverbs : From the past participle, jepij-, Fr. Th. kewisso, — iwis ; From the future infinitive, Co-pitanne, — το wit : The near relation of pitan to videre, visere, εώω, βίσομαι, has been pointed out by Junius, Wachter, and others. XXX ADDITIONAL NOTES. victum : the sense is here mistaken ; it should be ^Uhey went to their ready retreat ;'' and the passage is not to the purpose. '' J^e onbjieb J»ybep to papanne," — Matt. 2. 22. (" to pa- penbe," — Fox.) and '* To jzapenne ^ bebypijean minne pasbep," — Ih. 8. 22. are obviously future. Thus, in Ger- man, zu is prefixt to a verb governed by another verb tliat precedes it, except in the case of auxiliaries and some others. Some writers of the present day have a disagreeable affec- tation of putting an adverb between to and the infinitive. Grimm considers the infinitive as declinable, and makes the Future Infinitive a Dative Case, vol. ii, p. 1022. iv. 61. 105. The form v/hich occurs in Wiclif, *' Thou that art to co- mynge^''' — Matt. 11. 3,, would seem to be a corruption of the future infinitive, as it answers to pu ]?6 to ciimenne eapt, &c. Yet we find to makienbe in Hickes, ii. 171. xxiii. ,• and, in the Saxon Chronicle, an. 654, instead of *' Botiilp onjon |)agt mynptep timbpian," MS., Cot. reads, ''ajan to ma- cienbe f mynptep :'' a form which often occurs in old Platdeutsche : *' Wultu uns uthdryven, so vorlbve uns inn de herde swyne tho varende." — Matt. 8. " Crist Ihesu that /5 to demynge the quyke and deed." — 2 Tim. 4. 1. *' ihesu Christo, de dar thokamende ys, tho richteude de levendigen und dedoden."" — Platdeutsche Bible, Magdeburg, 1545. **Do began he to bevendeJ'—Bruns Gedichte, 360 : From which it would seem to have been confounded with the present parti- ciple; unless there should have been a form in which the par- ticle to was used with the Present Participle, in the same manner as with the Past and with the Future Infinitive : — as to-bpecenb, to-bpocen, to-bpecaiine. See Grimm, iv. 1 13. P. 292. 559. 609. ENGLISH IMPERSONALS. METHINKS. Mr. Richardson in his Dictionaiy thus explains Methinks : ^' It causes me to think," which is as little to the purpose as to explain Me seemeth, It causes me to seem, instead of It seems to rae\ 1 Other instances may be noted where the jDronoun follows the verb in the Objective case ; as " Woe is me." — " Oh, wel is Mm that hath his quiver Furnisht with such artillery." — Steyiihold and Hopkins , Psalm 127, ADDITIONAL NOTES, XXXI Thus Shakspeare : *' Prince. Where shall we sojourne till our coronation ? GIo. Where it thinks best unto your royal selfe." Richard the Third, act 3. so. 1, as it stands in the first copies, though since altered to seems. Thinks, in this case, is the representative of Dunken, To appear, and not of Dejiken, To think. We have therefore in German mich dunkt, as in English methinksy i. e. It appears to me. Several Im personals of a similar kind may be enumerated. '* Me seemeth good that with some little traine Forthwith from Ludlow the young prince be fetcht." Richard the Third, act 2. sc. 2, "Let him do what seemeth him good." — 1 Sam. iii. 18. *' Her thought it ail a vilanie." — Chauc. R. Rose, 1. 1231. " Him oughtin now to have the lese paine." — Leg. Good Worn. 429. " Him ought not be a tiraunt." — lb. 1. 377. "The gardin that so likid me." — Chauc. R. Rose, 1. 1312. " So it liked^ the emperor to know which of his daughters loved him best." — Gesta Rom, ed. Swan, i. Ixxii. ch. 20. " He should ask of the emperor what him list. — lb. Ixxxv. ch. 41. " Me mette," — (I dreamt;) Chaucer, Miller's T. 3684: Nonne's Pr. 1. 14904 ; Piers Ploivm. p. 1. &c. If this be from Metan, To paint. To image, it would seem from its impersonal form to be q. d. " It imaged to me." In some instances, however, " mette" occurs governed by the pronoun in the nominative case. "Well me quemeth," (pleaseth) Chauc. Conf. Am. 68. Also our common expression " If you please ;" vv^here you is evidently not the nominative to the verb, but is governed by it, q. d. " If you it please :" yet, by a singular perversion of the phrase, we say "I do not please," "If she should please," for "It does not please me," "If it should please her." " Stanley. Please it your majestie to give me leave, lie muster ap my friends and meete your grace. Where and what time your majestie shall please. '^ Richard the Third, act 4. sc. 4. '' Me op^mc]?," pcenitet me. — Somner. " Snb hit f'lihte him peapa baja." — Gen. 29. 20. And it seemed unto him but a few days. *' Da Fmnaj^, him }?iihte, "j J^a Beojimap y-ppascon iieah an je^eobe." — Oros. p. 22. It seemed to him that the Finnas and the Beormas spoke nearly one lan- giinoe. ]7unbeplic ]?mcan. Boet. 16. 2. To seem wonderful. 1 " In thir gilicheta mir." — Schiller. Goth. " Thateileikaithimma." —John 8. 29. XXXU ADDITIONAL NOTES. ΘΛ i'XVi^ φΠΓΚβϊφ. Quid vobis Yidetur^— Mark 14. 64. hpsdt Ipmc^ eop be Ejiij-te? T/ υμΤι/ ^οκεΊ περί τον άριστου; Matth. 22. 42.; where the pronoun is eop, νμίν, in the dative ; not je, νμεί^, — J>inc^ exactly correspond- ing to ^oK€ij to vv^hich word, indeed, Wachter supposes Dunken, videri, to be related ; whilst Denken, cogitare, he derives from ding, sermo, ^' sensu a sermone externo ad internum translate. Quid enim est cogitare, nisi intus et in mente sermocinari^ ?" See Ihre, v. Ting, Tinga, colloquium. It is clear, notwithstand- ing the occasional writing of ]?incan for J?encan, that, from the earliest existing records of all the Teutonic dialects, these have come down to us as two entirely distinct words ; — -they are al- ways kept distinct in the prssterite ; — and no mere conjecture of a common origin can warrant us in confounding them^. Goth. φAΓKgA^, To think. prset. φΛΙίΤΛ• Luc. i. 29. A.-S, ))encean,|)encan, l^mc- an, prset. J^ohte. i^ra/?c. Thenken, preet. thahto. Germ. Denken, prset, dachle. IceL at peckia, preet. I^eckti. Suio-G. T^nka. φί1ΓΓΚ9;\Ν, To seem. preet. φπίΐΤΛ•^αο. 19. 11. I^mcan, prset. J?uhte. Thunken. Dunken, prset. dunkt. at pykia, prset. I^otti. Tycka. All these when impersonal govern the person in the dat. or ace. ' The quotation which he adds, may be interesting, in reference to the observations on Mr. Locke's Essay in Chap. II. p. 19, 20, &c. " Eleganter Tertullianus, cap. v. con. Prax. Vide quum tacitus ipse tecum congrederis, ratione hoc ipsum agi intra te, occurrente ea tibi cum sermone ad omnem cogitatus tui motum, et ad omnem sensus tui pulsum. Quodcunque cogitaveris sermo est, quodcunque senseris ratio est. Loquaris illud in anim,o necesse est : Et dum loqueris, conlocu- torem pateris sermonem, in quo inest haec ipsa ratio, qua cum ea cogi- tans loquaris, per quam loquens cogitas. Ita secundus quodammodo in te est sermo, per quern loqueris cogitando, et per quern cogitas lo- quendo." ^ Junius (Gloss, to Goth. Gospels) and Lye confound them. But they are clearly distinguished by Wachter ; and by Ihre, v. Taenka, and Tycka, as to which he says, " eo cum discrimine, quod hoc mentis sit cognitio, iiiud sententia :"' the one signifying ^j^rception, the other de- liberation and ail the operations of the mind, as relating to the past and future as well as the present. Mig tyckes, impers. mihi videtiir." Mer thickir. Gloss, to Edda, part ii. 1818, v. pickia, }>otti, pokti : and t'. patti pro ]?eckti, and peckia. Also Biorn Haldorsen, v. |:»yki and j>enki. ADDITIONAL NOTES. XXXlU P. 338.346. 431. WHINID. — '' *Tis a common expression in the western counties to call an ill-natured, sour person, vinnid. For vi- newed, vinowed, vinnij^ or vinew (the word is variously written) signifies mouldy. In Troilus and Cressida, act 2d, Ajax speaks to Thersites, ' Thou vinned'st leaven,' i. e. thou most mouldy sour dough. Let this phrase be transplanted from the west into Kent, and they will pronounce it ich'ined'st leaven." — '^ Mr. Theobald reads, you unwinnow'd^st leaven ; others, you iinsalted leaven. But viiined'st is the true readino•, ab An- glo-Sax. j(2/rt?g, mucidus. Wachterus, 'finnen^ sovdes, finttigf mucidus, putridus, finniger speck, lardum foetidum. Idem Anglo-Saxonibus fynig apud Somner et Benson, et inde fynigeaUf mucescere.' This word I met with in Horman's Vulgaria, printed in 1519, folio 162. 'This bredde is olde and venyed : hie panis cariosa est vetustate attactus,' which not a little confirms my correction and explication. '^ — Upton's Critical Observations on Shakespear, p, 213. P. 389. 437. BOND, BOUND. — That the different senses of Bond, Bound, &:c., are to be traced to distinct roots, and are not all of them connected with the word To bind, will appear, for in- stance, from Bond, which now forms a part of the word Hus- band, Husbond, but which was formerly used instead of it. In Somner we have '' Bonba, Paterfamilias, Maritus. The good man of the house : a husband. Vox (forte) origine Danica, hoc enim sensu occurrit apud Olaum Wormium, Monum. Danic. 1. 3. p. 233." Somner cites no authority; but we find the following in the Laws of Canute, Wilkins, 144 (on Intestates, Heriots, &c.). 70. Co7ijux iticolat eandem sedem quam Maritus. Anb pseji \q Bonba \<&ζ uncpyb '3 unbecjiafob, ptte ^ pip 3 'Sa cilb' on ^am ylcan unbepacen. And jip pe Bonba seji he beab psepe, &c. And where the Husband resided undisputed and unquestioned, let the wife remain, and the child in the same spot, without dispute. And if the Husband, ere he were dead, &c. (So in Laws, Hen. I. c. 14. p. 245. " Et ubi Bunda manserit sine calumpnia, sint uxor et pueri in eodem sine querela.") Also, p. 74. Conjux qua furata recepit furti non tenetur. Ne mseg nan pipe hipe Bonban popbeoban ]; he ne mote mco hip cooan jela^ian ^ 'p he pilie. Nor may no wife her husband forbid that he might not into his cot bring Λvhat he will. c XXXIV ADDITIONAL NOTES. Spelman and Skinner have recourse in their etymology to the verb Bmban, to bind ; considering Husband as domus vinculum: and Mr. Bosworth, as '' one bound by rules." Skin- ner, however, also gives huj^ and bonba, Piiterfamilias, after Somner. But Junius^ who has been followed by Jamieson, Webster, and Richardson, rightly refers it to the Saxon and Danish Buenb or Bonde, an inhabitant or occupier; being the present^ participle of Bya, Byan or Bu^ian, habitare, inco- lere ; and rendered by 7?2anens, as Sir Francis Palgrave in- forms us, in the Latin charters. So Wilkins, p. 134, Spa ^am Bunban jy \q\o\X:. As may be best for the inhabitants. The similarity of the Pres. Participle of this Verb to the Past Part, of To Bind, to which it can have no relation, may have occasioned ambiguity and perhaps led to mistakes as to another use of the word Bond, in Ducange, 8vo edit., we have " Bondus, servus obnoxise conditionis, qui alias nativus ex Saxon, honb, ligatus, obligatus." He cites among others Walsingham : " Rus- tici namque quos Natives vel Bondos vocamus." " Servitia bondorum." Mo7iast. Angl. " Bondi regis" in Legibus Forestarum Scoticarum. Bundones in Danish and Swedish historians. In the same work we have also " Bondagium, conditio servilis, vel colonica :" for which also Walsingham is quoted : "manumisimus universos ligeos, &c., comitatus Herefordiee, et ab omni bondagio exuimus, et quietos facimus." "Rus- tic! fuistis et estis, et in bondagio permanebitis." — So also SiDelman, v. Nativus. '' Servos enim, alios bondos dicimus, alios nativos, alios villaiios. — Bondi sunt qui pactionis vinculo se astrinxerint in servitutem (bond, vinculum.) — Nativus, qui natus est servus. Villani glebse ascripti." These passages certainly suggest the verb To Bind as the origin of the words Bond and Bondage : however the author does not neglect to remind us, on the authority of Pontanus, that with the Danes '' Bonde est rusticus, colonus, unde J'ribunder, liberi coloni :" where its union with the adjective y/'ee seems to ren- der the derivation from To Bind inadmissible, and leads us to conclude that Bo7idage is sometimes merely used to express a kind of tenure or occupation. So it is said ''Tenere in Bondagio idem valet quod tenere in Villenagio." It is not at all unlikely, however, that an equivocal etymology may have modified^ the ' Junius refers to Danish Bonde, herus, dominus, which he erro- neously considers as distinct. ^ Richardson says ^jr/si participle, but it is obviously the present. 5 Bond, cultivator: 1. generally; 2. under villenage ; and hence naturally enough confounded with To Bind, ADDITIONAL NOTES. XXXV signification of the word in subsequent use ; as there are cu- rious instances in the history of words of such changes having been effected ; and it may have been used in two different senses, each of them to be referred to a distinct origin. This resemblance to the preterite of Bind has misled Rud- diman and puzzled Jamieson, in the explanation of the word BowN, another of the derivatives of the same word Biian, in its sense of colere or parare ; but which Ruddiman refers to Binban, ligare : ί am bound for such a place, *' metaphora a militibus sumpta, qui, cum ad iter parati sunt, sarcinas omnes habent colligatas, unde Lat. accingi ad iter. '^ *' Do dight and mak jow bone.'' — Hearne's Robert of Brunne, p. 170. Ruddiman, in deriving Bonn from Abunben, (expeditus, Somner,) adds *' hoc vero a verbo binban, ligare : " — and Jamieson remarks that the A. -Sax. abunben, ^* if rightly trans- lated expeditus, appears as an insulated term, not allied to any other words in that language.'' Its allies are no doubt, however, to be found in jebunb, ^ebiin, jebon, derivatives of Buan, colere, parare, as we find in king Alfred's account of Ohthere's voyage : Oros, p. 22. pser lanb ipddy call jebon on o^jie healpe ]?aepe eaj-. ne mette he asja nan jebunb lanb\ The land was all cultivated [or inhabited] on the other side of the water. He had met before with no cultivated land. Da Beopmaj- haepbon j-pi^e pell jebun hypa lanb. The Beormas had exceedingly well cultivated their land. The verb Bo, Bua, Bauan, Βτ/αη, signifying to prepare, to cultivate, to occupy, to build, and the substantive connected with which is Bu, (Scotch boo, bo2v,) a farm, or dwelling, has supplied us wnth several words, which may be thus arranged r Present participle: — A.-S. Bonba, Buenb, an inhabitant, master of the house, husband, farmer : Participial adjective : — A.-S. Gebun, Abunben. Icel Buinn. Scotch and O. Engl. Bowne ; tilled, prepared, ready: Substantive (the agent,): — A.-S. Ijebuji. Germ. Bauer. EngL Boor ; neigh/;oz/r \_Nojf. Bor] : - What was the nature of the x. bonbe-lanb that abbot Beomie let to alderman Cuthbrilit at Swinesheafde, anno 775 ? Saj?. Chron. p. 61. Was it cultivated land; or land held on conditions which the tenant was bound to perform ? XXXVl ADDITIONAL NOTES. Substantive : — Byp, Buji, Bower ; a habitation : — and, with the adjectival termination, Byjiij, or Biipi^ : which would then be referred to Goth. ΚΛΠΚΓδ, Francic hurgj a city ; and not to Β^^ϊΚ-Γ, a hill, the representa- tives of which latter are A.-S. beopj ; Francic, berg, pereg. See p. 437. — The distinction has always been preserved in all the cognate languages : Nih mah burg uuerdan giborgun Ubar berg gisezzita. — Tatian Harm. cap. 25. Nor may a city be hidden, set upon a hill. Thus king Alfred in his Orosius has Alexanbjiia j^asjie byjiij, Romebiiph,Tijium ]^a bup^, binnan f)aepe biipij: butCau- capip ye, beoph^ set ];sem beop^iim Caucapij-, Sthlaii]^ J)asm beop^e. Bergen, beopjan, to hide, keep, defend, al- ways agrees in its characteristic vowels with bairg, beopj, berg, a hill ; hence kornberg, heuberg, and our Barn. The origin of bound in the sense of limit does not seem clear. P. 492, LOOSE and LOSE, however nearly they resemble each other in the present English orthography, have come down to us as representatives of two quite distinct families; and I see no evi- dence of their common parentage. The hasty assumption, that words which are similar in appearance or sound are always to be referred to the same source, will frequently mislead. Truth is to be obtained, not by such conclusions a priori, but by an accurate examination of the facts which appear in the history of any words under examination. It is only in the absence of historical facts that conjecture and hypothesis are to be ad- mitted. There are indeed several instances which seem to countenance the paradoxical opinion of a very profound phi- lologist, the late Mr. William Taylor, that languages are con- fluent ; for some words bearing a near resemblance to each other, instead of having diverged from a common root, appear on the contrary to have converged towards a similarity of orthography and a certain adaptation or confusion even of meaning. Instances are to be found of the tendency of popu- 1 Mr. Daines Barrington translates beophte, "parched by the sun:" p. 4. I have no doubt it means ** mountainous," from beoph. See the context. ADDITIONAL NOTES. XXXVU lar usage to confound words having a resemblance to the ear, by changes in orthography or modifications of their original sense ; and though it would be unreasonable to make the ex- ceptions the rule, yet this tendency should be borne in mind, as sometimes giving the right clue to the truth. The distinct families to which Loose and Lose respectively belong are to be traced from the earliest records of the Teu- tonic languages, each having throughout its appropriate and clearly distinct signification. To begin with Ulphilas : M.Goth. \^tiS(j\t^j Uhe- AlflSA^^i perdere, destruere : rare, solvere : Laus, Fra/man, &c. liher, hdJausyeca, &c. A.Sax. Lef an, Lyj'an, On-lej Suio.G. Losa, Lossa. . . Alam. Losan, Verloosan. Belg. Lossen, Loozen, Adj. Los. an. Leoj'an, Lopan, popleoj-an, pojilopen . lA^di, perdere (Ihre). Forliosan, Firliusan. Liezen, Verliezen, Verlieren : [r for s, as in luas, were ; freeze, frore. Germ. Losen, loste, gelost, Verlieren, Verlor, Verloren : Subst. Auflosen, Adj. Los. . Verliess, (dungeon, oubliette.) (Ten Kate, ii. 267.) Formerly Verleusen and Verlie- sen for Verlieren ; whence still in N. Germany Verlesenfor Verloren. Engl. Loose, Loosen. Lose, lese. Forlorn : Subst. Loss, Lorel, Losel. Mr. Richardson, following his theory of the identity of words that resemble each other, gives Loose and Lose as *' the same word, somewhat differently applied," and this lie supports by the following novel and extraordinary explanation of To Lose : '' To dismiss, to separate, part or depart from ; to give up, to quit, to resign, relinquish, or abandon the hold, property, or possession of ; to dispossess, deprive, to diminish, to waste, to ruin, to destroy ;" which are evidently very wide of the real meaning of the word, and serve only to favour a fancied and erroneous etymology, which derives Loose from liusauj To lose, To destroy ; whereas, on the contrary, the root from which it really comes signifies To free, redeem, regain, and gives the German appellation for our Saviour. A dictionary formed on such principles can only bewilder and mislead. P. 594. MANY.— '^ GQycel meniju."— ilf^r/i 5, 24. P. 607. 610. TRUTH.—'' Many a/a/,s treuihe."—P. PL ed. Whit. v398. XXXVlll ADDITIONAL NOTES. P. 624, '* We apprehend that Home Tooke v/as mistaken in as- signing a verbal origin (as being derived from 3rd pers. sing, indie.) to our abstract substantives in th ; and that they are mostly formed from adjectives. Thus from /o/zg, lengthy &c. — Now this terminative th is as likely to be a coalescence of the article with the adjective, as to be the person of a verb. The long, &c. is a natural expression for length, &c. ; but in order to support Tooke's derivation, we must suppose a verb To long, &c. and define length, that which longeth ; which would be absurd. Though H. T. was not learned in the northern tongues, his sagacity is still admirable when he is pursuing a wrong scent. Another argument against his opinion is, that those substantives in th, which appear to have a verbal origin, assert a passive rather than an active sense. Thus 7nath means the thing mown^ not that which moweth ; so broth, ruth, stealth, and in all these cases the in- finitive in coalescence with the article forms a natural equivalent expression : the mow oi hay, 8cc. We infer that the formative th is a transposed article.'^ — Monthly Review, for Jan. 1817, N. S, vol. Ixxxii. p. 83. In Suio-Gothic the definite article is a suffix. Stealth, how- ever, is the act of stealing, not the thing stolen : birth is either the act of bearing, or the thing borne* For a very full exami- nation of substantives terminating in τ, D, and th, in all the Teutonic languages, see Grimm, ii. pp. 193, 224, 241. P. 639. CHURCH. KIRK. Mr. Tooke adopts without hesitation the common opinion with regard to the Greek origin of the word CHURCH. A friend has suggested, that in order to make this probable, it ought first to be shown that the word κνριακη was in use in that signification among the Greek and Latin ecclesiastical writers, so as that the Teutonic tribes could have borrowed it from them. Walafrid Strabo alleges At\mnO.sii\s, Vit a S. An tonii, as using κυριακον to signify a temple. Ulphilas merely adopts the Greek word ecclesia, Ephes. 5. 25. &c. AiKKAeSQ^. Kirch, therefore, had not been introduced in his time. in the Glossary to Schilter's Thesaurus, v. Chiric, some very ancient forms are given, as, Chirihh, Kirihh, from the prefix chi, or ge, and rihhe, regnum, sc. Christi, as is well suggested ADDITIONAL NOTES. XXXIX by Diecmann in his dissertation on the word ; — others, favour- ing the doctrine of election, refer it to kivj and kiren, eligere ; Lipsius to cirh, circus. — ■ — Wachter gives instances of kilch for church, which he conjectures may be derived from kelik, used for a Tower; and for the chamber where Christ ate the last supper with his disciples. He also refers to Horg, HearJij fanum, delubrum^ common to all the Teutonic tjribes in the times of idolatry, and which he says differs very little from kinchy but thinks it improbable (perhaps without sufficient reason) that the first Christian missionaries among them should have borrowed it. See the Glossary to the Edda, Part II., 1818, V. Havrgr, J^eaji^, epKoc. There is a much stronger objec- tion to this etymology, inasmuch as temple is but a subordinate sense of the word. P. 651. 654. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.— ['' It was formerly known in our language hy the termination -and. It is now known by the termination -ing.^'] The substitution of the Present Participle in ing for the an- tient one in ande or ende has not, I believe, been satisfactorily accounted for. Mr. Tyrwhitt, speaking of the language of Chaucer, says ; '^ the participle of the present time began to be generally terminated in ing, as loving ; though the old form which terminated in ende or ande was still in use, as lovende OY lovandeJ' Mr. Grant, in his excellent Grammar, p. 141, con- jectures that this change may have arisen from the nasal sound given by the Normans to and or ant having led to their being written with a g. But this necessarily supposes the ter- mination ing not to have existed before the Conquest V; whereas it had always been employed in Anglo-Saxon and in other Gothic dialects to form a large class of Verbal Substantives, such as A.-S. piinunj, mansio, woning, Chaucer^ ; Germ, die luohnung; Dutch, wooning ; a dwelling. Instead, therefore, of e?ide being changed into iiig, both these terminations coex- isted in Anglo-Saxon and Old English, as they still do in Dutch and German, the one being used for forming the Present Par- ticiple and the other the Verbal Substantive. 1 Ande should also have disappeared Avhen ing was established. We shall however find both in use together down to the 16th century. - " His wo7iyng was ful fayr upon an heth." — Prologue, 1. 608. Xl ADDITIONAL NOTES. It follows then that what we are often told by grammarians of the Present Participle being used to form Verbal Substan- tives cannot be true' : for substantives in mg had been com- mon in our language for ages before ever the participle had had this termination : and the correspondent verbals in ing or ung in German and Dutch cannot possibly have any relation to the Present Participle, which in those languages has no such ending. Yet Greenwood and others^ tell us that 'Hhis parti- ciple is often used as a substantive/' p. 142 ; and that the participle '' is turned into a substantive." But let us see whether exactly the reverse may not be the true account of the matter, and try whether, instead of the Participle being used as a Substantive, it be not the fact that the Substantive is used as a Preseiit Participle ; and that our antient Participle in eude has been displaced^ and superseded by the Verbal Substantives in ing. Greenwood adds : '^ This Participle is used in a peculiar manner with the verb To Be, &c., as I was writing, &c., and in this case a is often set before the 'participle (participle he must have it) ; as, He was a di/ing, She came here a crying, &c. Dr. Wallis makes this a to be put for at'^, denoting as 1 Mr. Tooke's conjecture, at p. 394, that the Verbal Substantive originated from the Past Participle, as Buildings, q. Buildens, is quite unfounded. ~ " From to begin comes the participle beginning, as I am beginning the worh ', which is turned into a substantive, as. In the beginning," p. 145. "Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives, and are used as such : as, The beginning. Excellent ivriting :" Lindley Murray's Grammar, p. 77. " The present participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive :" Ibid. p. 183. "Terminations of the substantive of the thing, from the Saxon : — itig is obviously the termi- nation of the imperfect participle." — Baldwin's very useful New Guide, [by the late Mr. Godwin,] p. xliii. Dr. Lumsden considers it as a great defect in our language, *' that most of the nouns ending in ing are at once participles and substantive nouns." — Per. Gram. Pre/, xxv. 3 " Replaced" would be the term, in the current jargon of the day, introduced by clumsy translators from the French, who confound re- placer and remplacer, and use Replace as an ugly hybrid to signify in- discriminately either supersede, or reinstate. — ' Wellington, ayant rem- place [succeeded] Melbourne, replarait Peel.' 4 Here Greenwood is inaccurate ; for Wallis says, " valet at, seu in ;" and that it would be a participle if the a were away. *' A-twisting, in torquendo, inter torquendum, torquendo jam occu- patus. A non est hie loci articulus numeralis, sed particula prsepositiva, seu Prsepositio quae in connexione valet at, seu in ; preefigitur verbal! ADDITIONAL NOTES. xU much as luhile ; e. g. a-dying, Sec, i. e. ivhile any one is dying. Perhaps a is here redundant/' p. 143. Supposing his ivriting, and crying, and dying to be indeed participles, he might well consider the a redundant. But they are substantives, and to this the a bears witness. This a, he rightly states, ^' is undoubtedly the remains of the preposition 071 rapidly pronounced/' and gives as instances, a fisschinge, R. Glonc, 186. An huntyng, 199 ; on flep, an ]^lep, asleep, Sax. Chron, Is not dying then the verbal substantive ? He was a-dying, Ille fuit in obitu — a mode of expression, which being in many cases capable of representing the Present Par- ticiple in ende, was used for it, and at length, by a subaudition of the on or a, gradually supplanted it. The following instances, taken from among a number which were collected in an attempt to investigate the subject, may throw some light on the progress of this change : and it will be seen that I have not met with any case of verbals in ing being- employed strictly as Present Participles before the 14th cen- tury^; though in the writers of that period, this use is exceed- ingly prevalent, almost to the exclusion of the participle in ande, which, however, kept its ground in the Scottish and Northern writers to a much later period. 1. Present Participle in ande, ende^. Matt.s.2,2.^Gotuc,\^ Gis MSrArrANclANS rA- twisting a verbo tivist, addita terminatione formativa ing. Si abesset prsefixum a, foret Participium Activum, Agentem innuens, contorquens. Sed, propter prBefixam praepositionem, est hie loci nonien verbale in- nuens Actionem ; quod et Gerundiorum vices supplet ; adeoque expo- nendum erit in torsione existens, seu iri torquendo, aut inter torquendvm ,• innuitque Agentem jam in ipso opere occupatum." — Gram. AngLi^.243. ^ Layamon, however, has since the above was written suiDplied me with instances in the 13th eentury. - " D. est litera participialis, et nota originis ex participio. Solent enim Prisci ex participiis formare substantiva, et terminationem partici- pialem derivatis relinquere, tanquam custodem originis. Heec una litera nos quasi manu ducit ad permulta vocabulorum secreta intelligenda, quse certe suam significandi vim non aliunde habent quam a prsesentis temporis participio a quo oriuntur. Hujusmodi sunt, abend vespera, ab aben deficere ; heiland servator, ab Tieilen servare ; freiind amicus, ^^freyen amare ; fe'md inimicus, a fien odisse ; wind ventus, a wehen flare ; mond luna, a manen monere." — Wachter, Proleg. § vi. See also Lamb, ten Kate, ii. 77 ; and Grimm, vol. iv. p. 64. xlii ADDITIONAL NOTES. ΑίφϋΜ ΪΝ ΙΐΛίΚ^Λ S^eiNG.— ^. -Sa^. Anb his ^a ut^angenbe fejibon on 6a j-pm. — Franco-Th. Sie tho uzgangα;^ί(? fuomn in thiu swin. — Flemish, Antw. 1542. En wten menscen gaewi/e, zy in de cudde der verckenen gegaen. And they going out, went into the swine. Matt.9.2.—^H^ ΑΙΓΚΛ AirANdAN. On bebbe hc^enbe. Liccenbe m bepe. — Durham B. Liggynge in a bed. — Wicl. Bypnenbe j:yji, dedm. 83. burning fire. Tpa men. . . coman pibenb. Chr. Sax. an. 1137. Two men came riding. — iiii wilHs in the abbei ever emend, Hickes, p. 11. Four wells in the abbey ever running. Versions of the Gospels (14th century) ; — " And he prechyde sayande, a stalworther thane I schal come eftar me, of whom I am not worthi downfallai^i?z7z'2'a/2, salutare, enz: enin't A-Sax- isch heeffc men Unge & Ung & Ing ; als A.-S. JVilnunge desiderium, van 't A.-S. Wilnian desiderare ; A.-S. Ceaping & Ceapung emtio, van 't A.-S. Ceapan emere ; A.-S. For-gceging transgressio, van 't A.-S. For-g(Bgean prseterire; A.-S. Inwununge inhabitatio, van 't A.-S. Inivunian inhabitare, enz. En, in 't Hoogd. komt de Ung zoo gemeen als bij ons de ING ; dus in 't H-D., Belokmmg Merces, bij ons Belooning: enz. " Van ouder tijd dan 't A-Saksisch en F-Thuitsch ken ik geene voor- ADDITIONAL NOTES. xliU ^in;^, consecratio ; Cimbpun^, asdiiicatio, aedificium ; Germ, die zimmer- ung ; Dutch, timmeiing, a building. Fr. Th. Yohtungw, pihtun^, regulse ; aolungoYio, j^olunj, passionibus ; zemamiw^ru, manung, admonitionem ; samanww^u, gefomnung, ecclesiis. — Gley, Lift, des Francs. Temptation^ in tlie Lord's Prayer is expressed by the following, in- various dialects : Goth. |ζ}<.^\ΐ8ΤΓΙ15Ν9Λΐ ^ -^^^^• ^^eistm^. Fr. Theot, 'khoxunka, chorunga, inchorww/ca, costunga. Dano-Sax, coj'Cnung, cofCun^, cu]-cnung. Germ, heohoxunge, versuchw^p'. Swiss, fersuoch- img. Augsb. versuacho/z^, fersechung . Fries. Yexsieking. Moikw. voar- siekyw^. Hindelop. bekooriew^. Netherland. hecoii?ighe, versoQckinge. NetherSachs. yersnchung, hekoringe, heaoeri^ige, betherwwp'. Ober- Sachs. Yer&uchung, ^niechtung, Slc. Hampole (14th century) : — *' In the expownrnpf I felogh holi doctors." — Prologue to Psalter. beelden of medegetuigen van dezen uitgang. Bij 't M-Gottisch, en 't Oude Kimbrisch, nogte ook in de Grammatica van het tegenwoordige Yslandsch laet hij zig niet zien. In het Engelsch gaet het Participium Prcesens Adjectiv. op ING in stee van ENDE, dat bij ons en anderen van Duitsche en Kimbrische afl^iomst zig vertoont ; als Eng. Loving bij ons Lievende, in 't H-D. Liebende. Dog voor 't Eng. Love amare, heeft men in't Zweedsch, Deensch, en Ysl. Elska amare, welks Particip. Prces. Activ. is in 't Zweedsch Elskande, in 't Deensch Elskendis, en in 't Ysl. Elskende, amans, enz. Uit welken hoek nu, of uit wat voor een eigen stam, ons INGE gesproten zij, heb ik nog niet tot mijn ge- noegen konnen opspeuren. Zo men 't van ons Lmige intimum, zou willen afleiden, zo blijft de zin nog te geΛvrongen ; behalven dit, zo ken ik geene oudheid daer dit innig in stee van ons ING zig vertoont, niet tegenstaende de voUedigheid onder 't Oude minst gekreukt is. De M-Gottische terminatie ains of bins of ons, als M-G. Libains (Leving), Fodeins (Voeding), en Salbons (Zalving), enz. zijnde van gelijk geslagt gebruik en zin, zou wel met in, of un, of on, of an, beantword schijnen, dog de agterste G ontbreekt 'er dan nog ; en zou 'er sedert in stee van IG moeten bij gekomen zijn ; maer met deze onderstelling' zag ik dit op ons voorgemelde Innig wederom uitdraeijen ; 't gene om de bij ge- bragte rede niet aennemelijk is. Ik stack dan liever het verder gissen, zo lang ik nog niets bedenken kan, dat op een' goeden schijn rust, ofte proeve van overweging' mag uitstaen," — Lamb, ten Kate, ii. 81. See also Grimm's Grammatik, 11.349. 359. Verbal substantives were formed wdth each of these terminations ; but those in end denoted the agent, as f e pielenb, the Saviour ; and those in ing the action, or its effect, as building, the act or Λvhat is produced by it ; chepyng, traffic, or the place appropriated for it. Wachter says, ''actionem RMt passionem rei." Thus we have Cloathing, Coating, Firing, Grating, Paling, Schooling, Sheeting, Stabling, Shavings, Savings. • " Die endung ubnja scheint unser ung zu &eyn."—Adelung's Mithri- dates, ii. 188. See Grimm, ii. 366; Gothic termination in bn. Xliv ADDITIONAL NOTES. "His apparell is souldier-lyke, better knowen by hys fearce doy nges then by hys gay goyng." — R. Ascham, p. 26. " For avoidz'w^ of the playhouse:" — a noun, governing that Avhich follows in the genitive, *' will by the pulling down of the said [Gresham] College be put an end to." — Act, 8th Geo. III. 3. In the following passages both the terminations occur, but each is employed appropriately, — end Ε for the Present Participle, and ing for the Verbal Substantive. Alfred's Bede : — pe ne paef onbpebenbe ^a beotunge psej' ealbop- mannej'. lib. I.e. 7. Nequaquam minas principis metuit. Gospels, Harl. MSS. 5085. Translation in a Northern Dialect (14th century) :— ** This is the testimonmp'e of Ion." " I am a uoice of a ci'iand in desert." " Ther ne is no waspe in this world that wil folloke styngen For stappyw^ on a too of a stjncand frere." — P. Ploughmanes Crede. " . . . such thyngis that are likand Tyll mannys heri/ng ar ples«wc?." — Barb. Bruce, (1357.) b. 1.1. 9. *' Hors, or hund, or othir thing That war -plesand to thar liking." 1. 207. " Full low inclinand to their queen full clear. Whom for their noble nourishmp' they thank." Dunbar: Ellis's Spec. i. 389. Lord Herries (1568) : — " Our sovereign hava;2c? her majesty's pro- mise be writm^ of luiF, friendship," &c. — Robertson's Scotl. App. xxvii. Bishop of St. Androus (1572): — ** jjat ge kermand the faultis and how thai suld be amendit, for pair is na buke sa perfitly prentit, bot sum faultis dois eschaip in the ^xmting thairof." " He plainly for- biddis al scismes and discord in teachm^, sayand, Let na scismes be amang jow." — Catechisme, Pref. p. 2. 4. The following are instances of the itidiscriminate use of ENDE and TNG as terminations of the Present Participle. " herdis of oxin and of fee. Fat and tydy, rakewi? over all quhare. In the rank gers pasturkijr on raw." Gatvin Douglas, b. 3. p. 75. « the tender flouris I saw Under dame Naturis man till lurkyng law. The small fowlis in flokkis saw I fie. To Nature makawc? greit lamentatioun." Sir D, Lyndsay, (1528.) i. 191. " Changyw^ in sorrow our sang melodious, Quhilk we had wont to sing, with gude intent, Resoundawi? to the hevinnis firmament." Ibid. i. 192. ADDITIONAL NOTES. xlv Lord Herries (1568) : — ** Or, failm^ hereof,. . . . that she would per- mit her to return in her awin countrie,. . . . seeand that she was corned in her realm upon her writings and promises of friendship." — Ubi sup. 5. The following are passages from the earliest authors, so far as I have been able^ to find, in whose writings the Present Participles are formed by ing : Hampole (middle of the 14th century) : — " Thou fattide myn heued in oyle; and my chalys drunkenyw^ what is cleer-." — Ps. 23. I sup- pose this to be the participle. The version is from the Vulgate : " Et calyx mens inebrians quam prseclarus est!" and comes remarkably near the Saxon : Άηδ calic min bpuncnenb hu beapht i\. Spelmans Psalt. Piers Plouhman (about 1362) : — Each of the three of which Dr. Whitaker gives specimens has present participles in ing : but he says that in some MSS. both of that poem and of Wichf's Bible the En- glish has been somewhat modernized : *' Thenne a waked Wrathe, whit to white eyen, Whit a njvjlinge nose, nyppywy hus lyppes." MS. A. " Snevelyw^ wip his nose, and his nekke hangyw^." MS. B. " And nyvelynge wij> |>e nose, and his necke hangy^ye." MS. Oriel. " . _« al the foure ordres Frechy nge the peple, for profit of the wombe. And glosynge the godspel, as hem good lykede." Chaucer : — " Alas, I wepy/zy am constrained to begin verse of so- roweful matter, that whilom in florishywi/ studie made delitable ditees. For lo, rendy?z^ muses of the poetes enditen to me thinges, &c." Boet. b. i. I. — " Talky?zy on the way," " hyggyng on the strond." Mar- 1 Further search should be made in the writers of the 12th and 13 th centuries. Should I ever have leisure for a little work which I might cdill Semi- Saxonica, the results of future inquiries may find a place there. The numerous additions made to our sources of information by the printing of the writings of the period referred to will greatly assist such inquiries. The publication of the two texts of Layamon, at the expense of the Society of Antiquaries, under the able superintendence of Sir Frederic Madden, may be looked forward to as a most important con- tribution to the materials for studying English philology. This is a task requiring no small labour and skill, as " MS. Otho C. XIII. is now only a bundle of fragments, having suiFered severely in the fire of 1 731 ." — Thorpe's Anale eta, Prcf.y'm.. Mr. Thorpe's valuable labours are still employed upon the writings of an earlier period ; and it is to be hoped that in due time we shall have an edition of the Ormulum. Mr. Kemble has also done much for the elucidation of the earlier and more difficult Saxon remains. 2 See Mr. Baber's Wiclif, Ixvii. Bib. Reg. 18. D. 1. Xlvi ADDITIONAL NOTES. chanfs 2nd Tale. And so passim. I believe it requires a long search in Chaucer's λυογΙ^β to find a participle in ande^. Wiclif. — In the text printed by Mr. Baber, ing, yng, ynge, are used both for the verbal and the participle : as " Stondy^^e ydel in the chep- yng," — Matt. 20. " John bar witnesszwy and seide, that I seigh the spirit comyjige dovrn as a culvar." — John 1 . And in numerous instances the use of the present participle is avoided by employing the relative and verb : as '' to men that saten at the mete," instead of " to the sit- tande at mete," in the older version — Mark 6. 22. But among the specimens of the MSS. of the version attributed to Wiclif, which Mr. Baber has given, p. Ixx. we find the following variation ; MS. Bib. Reg. I. c. VIII. " precyouse stoonys hangyw^e in the forheed, and chaungywi^e clothis :" Mr. Douce's MS. " jemmes in the frount liimgende and chaung- ing cloths." — Is. 3. 22. Gemmas in fronte pendentes, et mutatoria. Where ί take changing to be a substantive, — clothes for a change, not clothes that change. From all which, it appears that though the use of iyig for the present participle was fully established in the 14th cen- tury, the age of Lungland, Chaucer, and Wiclif, yet the an- tient ande was still occasionally used, both being found in the same writers, and sometimes in the very same sentence ,• and in the North, to the end of the IGth century. This seems to me a convincing proof that the change was not effected by an alteration in the sound or orthography of an inflection ; but by the rivalry and increasing prevalence of a phrase in some cases equivalent to, and which has come at length to be wholly substituted foi', our former participle : as if, for instance, instead of tu recuhaiis sub tegmi?iej•— -thou, lying (licjenb) under the shade,— we should say, tii in oecuhitUj Sic, thou a-lying, &c. 6. I shall now add some instances which may help to ex- plain this change or substitution. It may be superfluous to 1 The following may be added to the instances given in the former edition -.—Layamon (about 1215) : — where the two texts Otho and Ca- lig. furnish abundant opportunities of comparing various forms : Calig.'Ne gRwaindene Yidinde. Otho. 'Ne goijide ne ndtgge. 1.1582. Calig. Heo riden unginge. Otho. ungende. 1. 26946. Calig. ])ecs ti6e)ule hi Averen lse(5e. Otho. ])eos tidinge him were lo])e. 1.1038. Plowman's Tale (if that be Chaucer's) : — "In glitterande golde." 1. 2074 and 2102. It is to be regretted that there exists no critical edition of Chaucer which can be relied on in philological inquiries. ADDITIONAL NOTES. xlvU give instances of verbals with a or an * prefixt ; but as they may perhaps help to throw light on this inquiry^, I shall add a few. " — ^— pat be]> ago to day auyssynge." Rob. Glouc. p. 265. (that are gone to day a-fishing.) it , we have A wyndow a worcheng." P. P/. in Warton, ii. 506. " To morrow ye shall yn huntyng fare." Squire of Low Degree, Warton, 8.vo. 2= 9. " thus shall ye ryde On haukyng by the ryvers syde." Ihid. p. 11. *' And ride an hawkyng by the rivere." — R. of Sir Tliop. v. 3245. '' On huntyng ben they ridden." Knight's Tale, (1689). ^ 1 That the a prefixt to many words is the representative of the an- cient on, sometimes equivalent to in, and not of at as Johnson asserts, appears clearly from the following, written indiiFerently with on, an, or a : alive: — '* The Erie of Salisburye was taken on lyve.'' — Fabyan, 383. aside : — " for hope of life was set on side." — Hall, Hen. VI. fol. 103. aboard: on board : asunder : in sunder. — Ps. 46. 9. asleep .—" With that he fell on slepe." — Holinshed, death of Edw. IV. " Fell on sleep." — Acts 13. 36; in our present bibles. So in Barker's 1585; and in Cranmer's 1553. The Dutch translation has "is ontslapen," A.S. onjdsspan, obdormiscere. awahe, awoke, A.S. onpoc, apoc. — Chr. Sax. MS. Laud. _ In Weber's Romances, iii. 49, we find an-honge ; in Trevisa's Chro- nicle, " This jeer kyng Henry ordeynede that theeves scholde be an hanged:' And in Layamon, 1. 1023, " pat he sculdebeon anhongen, oj^er mid horsen to-drawen." " Al that lyveth other looketh, a londe and a ivater." P. Plouhnan, pass. 4. 1. 29. a7ion, a two : — " It kerueth a two and breaketh a two hem that were made of one iieshe."~C^rmcer, Persons Tale, fol. 115. A?ion is A.S. on an, in one ; Avliile atone is at one. Also, on pxobe, John 21. 3. auisseth, R. Glouc, 264. (a fishing), an honteth. ib. 283, &c. on hepjoj), Chr. Sax. Sometimes a represents of, as in «shamed for ojrpceamob ; thus, athirst, anhungred, Matt. 4. In Piers Plouhman, these are written a fyngred and a fyrste, which Whitaker absurdly explains in his Glossary, " frost-bitten and with aching fingers ; " . . . . " Meny other men, that muche wo suifren Both afyngrede and a furst:" — pass. 10, p. 151, he paraphrases—" both galled in their β ngers with, frost ! " But AndreΛV Borde says of the Cornish man " Fytiger [hunger] iche do abyd ;" and they agree with A.S. op-hmgpian, op-Sippce ; yet the form otwhungred had led me in the last edition to refer them to on. In the phrase " At a Lady," on Lady day, the a is no doubt Our.' ^ Hickes mentions a Dano-Saxon substitute for the Present Participle, Thes. t. i. ρ ,133. ^ ^ Xlviii ADDITIONAL NOTES. •* Thy cryes, Ο baby, set my head on aklng." — Sydn, Arcad. p. 521. *' He was the wretchedst thing when he was yong ; So long a growing." Richard III., act 2, sc. 4. '* The bysshop hadde a faire tour a makyng." — -Glossary to Robert of Gloucester, p. 704. " A knight that had been on hunting." — Prince Arthur, ch. 38. " When I am called from him I fall on weeping." — Aschams Schole -master, fol. 11. b. 1. "And going on huntyng."-— Stow's Summary, p. 10. ** Whilest he is in the anointing." — Prynne*s Signal Loyalty, p. 252. " While these sentences are in reading." — Communion Service, in the Offertory. " Whiles that is in singing." — Coronation of Henry VII. in Ives's Select Papers, p. 115. " Whiles the OfFertorie was in playing at organs." — Ibid. p. 136. " Wbile the flesh was in seething." — 1 Sam. 2. 13. " AVhile the ark was a pre- paring."— 1 Pet. 3. 20. Compare tlie following lines from the description of the pro- cession of Olympias, by Davie, with the corresponding ones by Gower : " There was knyghtis turnyng There was maidenes carolj/mi/ There was champions skyrmyng. Of heom and of other wrastlyng, Of liouns chas, of beore baityng." Warton, ii. 55. Svo. The words in yng here are substantives, tliose which precede them being genitives, [tourneying of knights, caroling of maidens,] as is seen in the last two lines. Gower turns the phrase by employing the participle : " When as she passed by the streate There was ful many a tymbre beate, And many a maide COJuolende. And thus throughout the town plaiende This queue unto the piaiene rode." Warton, ii. 56. Here we have a writer of a later period substituting the Pre- sent Participle for the Verbal Substantive, but retaining the old termination of the former. A greater collection of instances would probably throw fresh light on this change in our language : but enow have been given to prove at least that all speculations founded on the supposed derivation of verbals in ing from the Present Participle resem- ble historical disquisitions in which, facts and dates not being considered of any particular importance, it should be inge- niously argued a priori that Hengist and Horsa were sons of Queen Anne and William the Conqueror. ADDITIONAL NOTES. xlix It is evident, moreover, that if the Present Participle were employed as a substantive, it must signify the agent and not the act. We find in Anglo-Saxon and the kindred dialects IZiselenb, Saviour ; Scyppenb, Creator : Sae-li^enb, sailor ; Ribbenb, knight; Demenb, judge, &c. — and we have even now Friend and Fiend, which are present participles of the Gothic words for To love and To hate. These signify the doer; but how can the active participle possibly signify the thing done ? Make the trial in other languages : *♦ quis fallere possit amantem ?" " Quel ennuy la va consumant D'estre si loing de son amanty After having told us that " the present participle with the definite article the before it becomes a substantive, and must have the preposition o/ after it, as, hy the observing of which,*' Lindley Murrray gravely adds, '* the article an or a has the same effect." — p. 1 83. The example he gives of the parti- ciple, as participating " not only of the properties of a verb, but also of those of an adjective," is singular enough ; *' I am desirous of knowing him." I think it will be difficult to find any property of an adjective here in the word knowing. In the much-vaunted History of European Languages by Dr. Alexander Murray, there is the following account of the Participle : " The participle of the present tense, which was compounded of the verb and two consignificatives, na, work ; and da, do, make ; may be exemplified in waganada, by contraction, waganda and wagand, shaking. In some dialects, ga, go, was used instead of da : Thus, waganga, shaking, wagging ; which is the participial form adopted in modern English." — vol. i. p. 61. Here the student might suppose he would find the means of tracing up the participle in ing to an earlier date, and in various dialects : but Dr. Murray does not condescend to tell us what these dialects are*. All with him is oracular: he seldom gives us the means of satisfying ourselves of the truth of his marvellous assertions, while he relates all the particu- lars of the mode in which languages were formed in the first ages of the world, as if they had been revealed to him super- 1 Could he have meant that waganga is Mceso- Gothic } Without better evidence, we ought not to believe that the word ever existed. Speculations go on very smoothly with those who, like some of our newspaper philosophers, have the manufacturing of their own facts» d ADDITIONAL NOTES» naturally. lie gives abundance of elements and radicals^ in- deed ; but so great a proportion of them are of his own coin- age, or moulded to suit his purpose, that the student has no means of distinguishing what is real from what is fabricated. The burthen of the work is, that the following nine words are the foundations of language: 1. Ag, Wag, Hwag. 2. Bag, Bwag, Fag, Pag. 3. Dwag, Thwag, Twag. 4. Gwag, Cwag. 5. Lag, Hlag. 6. Mag. 7. Nag, Hnag. 8. Rag, Hrag. 9. Swag! — On which (foundation) he says, ''an edifice has been erected of a more useful and wonderful kind than any which have exercised human ingenuity. They were uttered at first, and probably for several generations, in an in- sulated manner. The circumstances of the actions were com- municated by gestures, and the variable tunes of the voice ; but the actions themselves were expressed by their suitable monosyllable."— p. 32. All which is further elucidated in Note P, p. 182, where we learn, that in the primitive universal language, bag wag meant. Bring water; uag, bag, bag! They fought very much : — and that such he considers '' as a just, and not imaginary specimen of the earhest articulated speech." On the subject of verbals in mg he.has another extravagant and ridiculous speculation (vol. i. p. 85.), in which he thus deduces from them our verbals in on, derived from the Latin and French: " Under this title also must be noticed all words terminating in n, except derivatives from the participles in nd, nt, or ng, which by cor- ruption have lost their final letters. Derivatives from the Latin or French, which terminate in on, with a few exceptions, ended in anCx, iNG, or ONG, the sign of a present partieiple^. Indeed there is reason to suspect that they originally stood as follows : reg, to direct, govern : REGiGONGA, a goveming, a region ; . , . . . . relatigong or relatiging, a relating. These harsh hut significative terminations were softened into ON. \_Where or when did they exist P] Such formations are com- mon in the Teutonic dialects, and perfectly agreeable to the established analogies of the language, being similar to the English verbal nouns which end in ing." But I will not tire the reader with more of these absurdities. Considerable learning is indeed brought forward in the work, to which may be applied a maxim for which I have been ac- customed to feel an hereditary respect: "The more learning } In vol. ii. p. 10, he derives the A. -Sax. adverbs in unja, mja, from the present participle ! when no participle in ng existed. ADDITIONAL KOTF.S, any man hath, the more need he hath of a correct and cau- tious judgment to use it well, otherwise his learning will only render him the more capable of deceiving himself and others'.'* I shall conclude this note by presenting the reader with one more empty speculation on the subject of it^ This is from a work which the ingenious author, Mr. Fearn, has named ' Preface to Taylor's Hebrew Concordance, vol. ii. — Dr. Jortin relates the following : — " Somebody said to a learned sim2:)leton. The Lord double your learning, and then — you will be twice the fool that you are now." — Tracts, ii. 533. Dr. Murray's wonderful discoveries are received with great faith by- Mr. Fearn. His system, moreover, is transcribed into Cyclopeedias, and a Grammar founded upon it has been published in Scotland, \vhere pro- posals were circulated for erecting a monument in honour of him. ^ In the present edition, I have to add to these vague speculations of Dr. Murray and Mr. Fearn, some which have appeared in Mr. Rich- ardson's new Dictionary, and which I cannot consider as of any greater value. After informing us, in p. 431 of his Preliminary Essay, that our Present Participle was formerly written ande, ende, &c., and that an is the infinitive termination, as lup-an, Lov-an \ he asserts, but without offering any proof, that " Ed adjoined constitutes our simple verh ad- jective, Lovan-ed, lov-ande. hoving, as it has long been written," he adds, "is composed of the same infinitive Lov-an, ig, of equivalent meaning, having been affixed instead of ed;" \_Lov-en-ig {\ and the e having, as in the former case, been "transposed and finally dropt, en-ig has become in-ge, ing." And, at p. 64, he designates Ing " a compound termination, in-ig, .... having the meaning of en (which, at p. 65, he tells us is "one") augmented by y" [15]. It forms, he says, "the pre- sent participle of verbs ; we have also abundance of nouns in this ter- mination." ΝοΛν all this, which is not proposed as a conjecture, but laid down absolutely, is not only entirely unsupported by evidence, but requires us to shut our eyes to the indisputable fact that ing is found coexisting Avith ende, though serving a diiierent purpose, for at least six centuries before it began gradually, and only in the English language, to supplant it. " Ling," he says elsewhere, " may be the same syllable with / prefixed, / being itself corrupted from c?/e, a deal or division !" The zeal which has carried Mr. Richardson through so considerable an undertaking as his Dictionary is much to be commended ; and the large collection of examples which his industry has brought together, although most injudiciously arranged, (Quarterly Review, vol, Ii. p. 172,) must be serviceable to philologists and to future lexicographers ; but it is to be regretted that he has been very unsuccessful in making use of the store of materials which he has amassed. This may in part be attributed to the erroneous view which he appears to have taken of the proper object of a Dictionary, which should be, to give faithfully the actual meanings of the words of our language, or the senses in Avhich they are or have been in use, and not such as may suit a pre- conceived hypothesis or fancied etymology, thus leading those who may tl 2 ^ ' . lii ADDITIONAL NOTKS. Anti'Tooke ; and which, as coming from a declared opponent, should receive some notice here. •' I am a coming, — means, I exist in space — I on-ing (one-ing) com- ing ; In which instance, as in every other, the pronoun, (or noun,) have to consult it into difficulty and error. Of Johnson's Dictionary Mr. Richardson says " It is needless, and it would be invidious, to ac- cumulate especial instances of failure ; — the whole is a failure :" and ne describes it as " a collection of usages from English authors, ex- plained to suit the quotations." It would have been well if Mr. Richardson had given spch " explanations as suited the quotations,'* and were in accordance with usage ; his sweeping censure would not then hnxe been more applicable to his own work than to Johnson's, the design of which is to give actual and not imputed meanings. After this utter condemnation of his celebrated predecessor, Mr. Richard- son adds, that ** no author is known to have undertaken the com- position of a new work, nor even to have engaged in the less honouF- able, but still arduous and even praiseworthy enterprise of remoulding and reforming the old." His contempt for Mr. Todd's labours he had long ago expressed in his Illustrations : and does he consider as beneath his notice, or can he have been ignorant of the existence of Dr. Web- ster's Dictionary, a work unquestionably much superior to his own, and indeed to every English Dictionary that has yet appeared ? in which, whilst abundance of valuable etymological information is supplied, fide- lity and accuracy in recording the meanings according to actual usage is not sacrificed in order to accommodate them to a preconceived system or to etymological conjecture. As the basis of the theory which it seems to be the object of Mr, Richardson's Dictionary to uphold, and which is to be found in hig Preliminary Essay, he announces " with no assumption of unfelt diffi- dence" the following axioms. That all men, in all ages having had the same organs of speech and sen^e of hearing, every distinct articulate sound had a distinct meaning ; that among all people having written lan- guage, each sound has a corresponding literal sign ; and that "each let- ter was the sign of a separate distinct meaning, — of a word previously familiar in speech," p. 5. His principles must, he indeed informs us, p. 36, "be considered as exoteric doctrines intended only for the scho- lar ('esoteric' he must be supiDosed to mean: but in the Dictionary exoteric is mixed up with exotic^. Whether the philological student will be aided or misled by viewing the subject through such a medium I shall not discuss ; but with regard to those who have to consult a dictionary for the real meaning of words, foreigners for instance, strange indeed will be the perplexities into which some of Mr. Richardson's explanations must lead them. — The safe application of " the great first principle" upon which he states that he has j)roceeded in the ex})lana- tion of words, " that a word has one meaning, and one only, from which all usages must spring and be derived, — and that in the ety- mology of each word must be found this single intrinsic meaning," — involves in each case previous questions not only as to which is this single intrinsic meaning, but as to the unity of the word under con- ADDITIONAL NOTES. Ιϋί which is the sign of the grammatical agent of the adjective action, is, or ought to be, repeated to form the nominative or agent of that action . '• In the small variety of names for beginning actions Λvhich thus ap- pears, there is perhaps not one that is more logical, although at the same time none more vulgar, or debased, than the phrases ' I am a coming,* ' I am a going/ Thus, when children or servants or other dilatory- persons, are called upon to do any thing which they must commence forthwith, but which they have not yet begun, and proceed to do with hesitation or reluctance, the ordinary reply is, Ί am α coming ;'- — ' I am a going to do it.' Now it is agreed among etymologists that a means on, and on means One'. Hence the real import of the phrase I am a coming is — Τ am on — (onning) — {one-ing^ — the Act of coming, — that is {figuratively, and feignedly also,) I am making Myself One with the Act of coming, — which amounts to feigning, * I am coming; This Moment.' "It is equally usual, likewise, to say, He is a fishing. He is a RIDING, — He is a fighting ; even during the continuation of either of these actions : in which case, it is plain, the expression is less figurative, or feigned; because the agent is actually at the moment doing the action» although he cannot be literally One with it."^ — P. 345. Whatever the reader may make of all this, I confess that, of the various ways of treating the subject, I must prefer the Ba- conian mode pursued by Mr. Tooke^ As in Physics, so in Philology, we shall attain truth by an accurate investigation of facts and plisenomena, and not by ingenious and too often absurd conjectures which are independent of, or opposed to, them. Reasonings on language not deduced from the real hi- sideration ; lest what is taken for "a word" should really be two or more distinct words lurking under the appearance of one. And the in- dividuality or identity of a word consists neither in the sound, the spell- ing, nor the sense, — paradoxical though this ma)^ seem, for these all un- dergo modifications, — but in its historical continuity, with regard to which facts must be our guide. — According to Mr. Richardson, Tell and Till are ** the same word," — to raise, the ground, or the voice : so, also. Love and Lift, to pick up : Fear and Fare, to run away. Pref. p. 49. * Mr. Fearn here travels too fast for me to keep pace with him. "^ We are told, hoAvever, by Dr. Murray, that if Mr. Tooke " had not been enisled by some erroneous parts of Locke's philosophy, and the weaker materialism of some unintelligible modern opinions, he would have made a valuable accession to moral as well as grammatical inqui- ries." — Vol. ii. p. 342. For such a writer to bring a charge of " un- intelligible opinions" is ludicrous enough. If Locke's philosophy, and what is here called Materialism, kept Mr. Tooke clear of such airy con- ceits as Dr. Murray's, that at least is something in their favour. See this subject A^ery ably treated in " A Letter on the Immateriality of the Soul, in reply to Mr. Rennel," (Hunter, 1821), ascribed to a clergyman of the Irish chnrch ; also in Wallace's " Observations on Lord Brough- am's Natural Theology," (Fvidgway, 1835.). llV ADDITIONAL NOTES. story of words are of about the same value as speculations in astronomy or chemistry unsupported by an acquaintance with the phsenomena of nature ^ With facts, then, for our guides, we find that we need not have recourse to the remotest ages and to nondescript fictitious dialects in the investigation of the change of termination in our Present Participle and its relation to Verbals in ing ; nor to subtile speculations and extravagant assumptions : but that the field of inquiry may be limited to our own language, and nearly to the period of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries : — and 1 recommend those who have opportunity to note any in- stances prior to the age of Chaucer vs^here a verbal in ing is used strictly and unequivocally as a Present Participle. I trust that these notes, and the few that are scattered through the work, will not be thought foreign to its de- sign, whether they coincide with Mr. Tooke, or propose expkmations differing from those which he has given. it is one of his great excellencies that he always places honestly and fully before the reader all the data from Avhich his deductions are made ; so that even where he may be thought to err he is sure to be instructive. I have nov/ only to acknowledge with thanks the ad- vice and assistance which I have received in the prepa- ration of this edition from my friends Sutton Sharpe, Esq., and Richard Price, Esq., the able editor of Warton's History of English Poetry ; and shall conclude with ex- pressing a wish that the work in its present form may prove acceptable to such as are fond of the studies which it was designed to promote. Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, EICHARD TAYLOR. Sept. 20, 1829. 1 "The wit and mind of man, if it work upon matter, which is the contemplation of the creatures of God, worketh according to the stulf, and is hmited .thereby : but if it work upon itself, as the spider work- eth his web, then it is endless, and brings forth indeed cobwebs of learning, admirable for the fineness of thread and work, bufe of no sub- stance or profit." — Bacon s Adv. of Learning/. ΕΠΕΑ ΠΤΕΡΟΕΝΤΑ, PART I. TO THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE One of her grateful Sons, — who always considers acts of voluntary justice towards himself as Favours^ — dedicates this humble offering. And particularly to her chief ornament for virtue and talent, the Reverend Doctor Beadon, Master of Jesus College. ' Notwithstanding the additional authority of Plato's despicable say- ing— Cwm omnibus solvam quod cum omnibus debeo- — the assertion of Machiavel, that — Nissuno co?ifessera mai haver obligo con uno chi non Toffenda^ — and the repetition of it by Father Paul, that — Mai alcuno si pretende ohligato a chi Thabbi fatto giustitia ; stimandolo tenuto per se stesso difarla'^ — are not true. They are not true either with respect to nations or to individuals : for the experience of much injustice will cause the forbearance of injury to appear like kindness. 2 Senec. de Benefic. lib. vi. ^ Discor. lib. i. cap. xvi. '^ Opinione del Padre Fra Paolo, in qual fnodo debba governarsi la Republica Veneta per haver perpetuo dominioj Non ut laudemur, sed ut prosimus. Equidem sic prope ab adolescentia animatus fui, ut inania famse contemnam, veraque consecter bona. In qua cogitatione ssepius de- fixus, facilius ab animo meo potui impetrare, ut (quamvis scirem sor- descere magis et magis studia Literarum, maximeque ea qu£e proprie artem Grammaticen spectant) nihilominus paulisper, non quidem se- ponerem, sed remissius tamen tractarem studia graviora ; iterumque in manus sumerem veteres adolescentise labores, laboreque novo inter tot Curas divulgarem. — G. J. Vossius. Le grand objet de I'art ^tymologique n'est pas de rendre raison de I'origine de tons les mots sans exception, et j'ose dire que ce seroit un but assez frivole. Cet art est principalernent recommendable en ce qu'il fournit a la philosophic des materiaux et des observations pour Clever le grand edifice de la thέorie generale des Langues. — M. Le President de Brossep. ΕΠΕΑ ΠΤΕΡΟΕΝΤΑ OR THE DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY, INTRODUCTION. B. 1 HE mystery is at last unravelled. I shall no more wonder now that you engross his company at Purley^, whilst his other friends can scarce get a sight of him. This, you say, was President Bradshaw's seat. That is the secret of his attachment to the place. You hold him by the best security, his political prejudices and enthusiasm. But do not let his veneration for the memory of the ancient possessor pass upon you for affection to the present. H.- — Should you be altogether so severe upon my politics ; when you reflect that, merely for attempting to prevent the effusion of brother's blood and the final dismemberment of the empire, I stand the single legal victim during the contest, and the single instance of proscription after it ? But I am well contented that my principles, which have made so many of your way of thinking angry, should only make you laugh. Such however as they are, they need not now to be defended by me : for they have stood the test of ages ; *and they will keep their ground in the general commendation of the world, till men for- get to love themselves; though, till then perhaps, they are not likely to be seen (nor credited if seen) in the practice of many individuals. ^ The seat of William Tooke, esq. near Croydon, Surrey. [The persons of the dialogue are, B. Dr. Beadon, afterwards Bishop of Glocester ; H. the author ; and T. William Tooke, Esq.— Edit.] 2 INTRODUCTION. But are you really forced to go above a hundred years back to account for my attachment to Purley ? Without considering the many strong public and private ties by which I am bound to its present possessor, can you find nothing in the beautiful prospect from these windows ? nothing in the entertainment every one receives in this house ? nothing in the delightful rides and walks we have taken round it ? nothing in the cheerful dis- position and easy kindness of its owner, to make a rational man partial to this habitation ? T. — Sirj you are making him transgress our only standing rules. Politics and compliments are strangers here. We al- ways put them off when we put on our boots ; and leave them behind us in their proper atmosphere, the smoke of London. jB.— Is it possible ! Can either of you — Englishmen and patriots ! — abstain for four-and-twenty hours together from politics ! You cannot be always on horseback, or at piquet. What, in the name of wonder, your favourite topic excluded, can be the subject of your so frequent conversations ? T,- — You have a strange notion of us. But I assure you we find more difficulty to finish than to begin our conversations. As for our subjects, their variety cannot be remembered ; but I will tell you on what we were discoursing yesterday when you came in ; and I believe you are the fittest person in the world to decide between us. He insists, contrary to ray opinion, that all sorts of wisdom and useful knowledge may be obtained by a plain man of sense without what is commonly called Learn- ing. And when I took the easiest instance, as I thought, and the foundation of all other knowledge, (because it is the begin- ning of education, and that in which children are first em- ployed,) he declined the proof of his assertion in this instance, and maintained that I had chosen the most difficult : for he says that, though Grammar be usually amongst the first things taught, it is always one*of the last understood. B. — •! must confess I differ from Mr. H. concerning the difficulty of Grammar; if indeed what you have reported be really his opinion. But might he not possibly give you that answer to escape the discussion of a disagreeable dry subject, remote from the course of his studies and the objects of his in- quiry and pursuit ? By his general expression of — what is com- monly called Learning-— -SLnd his declared opinion of that, I can TNTRODUCTION. 3 pretty well guess what he thinks of grammatical learning in particular. I dare swear (though he will not perhaps pay me so indifferent a compliment) he does not in his mind allow us even the poor consolation which we find in Atheneeus — ei μη ιατροί ήσαν, — but concludes, -without a single exception, ουδέν των Τραμματίκων μωροτερον . I must however intreat him to recollect, (and at the same time whose authority it bears,) that — '^ Qui sapientiee et lite- rarum divortium faciunt, nunquam ad solidara sapientiam per- tingent. Qui vero alios etiam a literariim linguarumque studio absterrent, non antiques sapientise sed novs stultitiae doctores sunt habendi/' ίί.— Indeed I spoke my real sentiments. I think Gram- mar difficult, but I am very far from looking upon it as foolish : indeed so far, that I consider it as absolutely necessary in the search after philosophical truth ; which, if not the most useful perhaps, is at least the most pleasing employment of the human mind. And I think it no less necessary in the most important questions concerning religion and civil society. But since you say it is easy, tell me where it may be learned. B, — If your look and the tone of your voice were less seri- ous, the extravagance of your compliment to grammar would incline me to suspect that you were taking your revenge, and bantering me in your turn by an ironical encomium on my favourite study. But, if I am to suppose you in earnest, I answer, that our English grammar may be sufficiently and easily learned from the excellent Introduction of Doctor Lowth : or from the ^Vsi (as well as the best) English grammar, given by Ben Jonson. H, — True, Sir. And that was my first slight answer to our friend's instance. But his inquiry is of a much larger compass than you at present seem to imagine. He asks after the causes or reasons of Grammar^: and for satisfaction in them I know ' Ov γαρ κακω5 tlvl των εταίρων ημών ελε-χΟη το, et μη ιατροί ήσαν, ovdev αν ην των γραμματικών μωροτερον. — Deipnosoph. lib. 15. - "Duplex Grammatica ; alia civilis, ^Xidi philosophica, *' Civilis, peritia est, non scientia : constat enim ex auctoritate usuque clarorum scrip torum. " Philosophica, vero, ratione constat; et h^c scientiam olet. *' Grammatica civilis habet setatem in qua viget, et illam amplectun- B 2 4 INTRODUCTION. not where to send him ; for, I assure you, he has a trouble- some, inquisitive, scrupulous mind of his own, that will not take mere words in current payment. B. — I should think that difficulty easily removed. Dr. Lowth, in his Preface, has done it ready to your hands. *^ Those,'' he says, '' who would enter more deeply into this subject, will find it fully and accurately handled with the great- est acuteness of investigation, perspicuity of explication, and elegance of method, in a treatise intitled Hermes^ by James Harris, esq. the most beautiful and perfect example of Analysis that has been exhibited since the days of Aristotle." T.— The recommendation no doubt is full, and the authority great ; but I cannot say that I have found the performance to correspond : nor can I boast of any acquisition from its perusal, except indeed of hard words and frivolous or uninteUigible dis- tinctions. And I have learned from a most excellent authority, that *' tout ce qui varie, tout ce qui se charge de termes dou- teux et envelopes, a toujours paru suspect; et non seulement frauduleux, mais encore absolument faux : parcequ'il marque un embarras que la verite ne connoit point ^" jB. — And you, Sir ? jfiT. — I am really in the same situation. B. — Have you tried any other of our Enghsh authors on the subject ? H. — ί believe all of them, for they are not numerous"; but none with satisfaction. tur Grammatici, dicunt enim sub Cicerone et Csesare adultam linguam, &c. At philosophica non agnoscit setatem Hnguae, sed rationalitatem ; amplectiturque vocabula bona omnium tQm.\}OY\iim..''—Campanella. * Bossuet des Variations des Eglises Protestantes. ^ The authors who have written professedly on this subject, in any language, are not numerous. Caramuel, in the beginning of his Gram- matica Audax, says, — " Solus, ut puto, Scotus, et post eum Scaliger et Campanella (alios enim non vidi) Grammaticam speculativam evulga- runt ; vias tamen omnino diversas ingressi. Multa mihi in Scaligero, et plura in Campanella displicuerunt ; et pauciora in Scoto, qui vix afibi subtilius scripsit quam cum de Grammaticis Modis Signiiicandi." The reader of Caramuel (who, together with Campanella, may be found in the Bodleian Library) will not be disappointed in him ; but most egregiously by him, if the smallest expectations of information are excited by the character which is here given of Scotus — whose De Modis Siffnificandi should be intitled, not Grammatica Speculativa, but — an INTRODUCTION. 5 Β, — You must then give up one at least of your positions. For if, as you make it out, Grammar is so difficult tliat a know- ledge of it cannot be obtained by a man of sense from any authors in his own language, you must send him to what is commonly called Learning, to the Greek and Latin authors, for the attainment of it. So true, in this science at least, if not in all others, is that saying of Roger Ascham, that — '^ Even as a hawke fleeth not hie with one wing, even so a man reacheth not to excellency with one tongue.'' H. — On the contrary, I am rather confirmed by this instance in my first position. I acknowledge philosophical Grammar Exemplar of the subtle art of saving apppearances, and of discoursing deeply and learnedly on a subject with which we are totally unac- quainted. Quid enhn suhtilius vel magis tenue, quam quod nihil est ? Wilkins, part 3. chap. 1 . of his Essay towards a Real Character, says, after Caramuel, — " The first of these (i. e. philosophical, rational, uni- versal Grammar) hath been treated of but by few; which makes our learned Verulam put it among his Desiderata. I do not know any more that have purposely written of it, but Scotus in his Grammatica Specu- lativa, and Caramuel in his Grammatica Audax, and Campanella in his Grammatica Philosophica. (As for Scioppius his Grammar of this title, that doth wholly concern the Latin tongue.) Besides Avhich, something hath been occasionally spoken of it by Scaliger in his book De Causis Linguce Latince, and by Vossius in his Aristarchus." So far Wilkins : who, for what reason I know not, has omitted the Minerva of Sanctius β though well deserving his notice, and the declared foundation of Sciop- pius. But he who should confine himself to these authors, and to those who, with Wilkins, have since that time written professedly on this subject, would fall very short of the assistance he might have, and the leading hints and foundations of reasoning Λvhich he might obtain, by reading even all the authors who have confined themselves to particular languages. The great Bacon put this subject amongst his Desiderata, not, as Wilkins says, because " feiv had treated of it;" but because none had given a satisfactory account of it. At the same time, Bacon, though evidently wide of the mark himself, yet conjectured best how this know- ledge might most probably be attained ; and pointed out the most pro- per materials for reflection to work upon. " Ilia demum (says he), ut arbitramur, foret nobilissima Grammaticse species, si quis in linguis plurimis, tarn eruditis quam vulgaribus, eximie doctus, de A-ariis lingua- rum proprietatibus tractaret ; in quibus quseque excellat, in quibus defi- ciat ostendens. Ita enim et linguse mutuo commercio locupletari pos- sint ; et fiet ex lis quae in singulis linguis pulchra sunt (tanquam A^enus Apellis) orationis ipsius quaedam formosissima imago, et exemplar quod- dam insigne, ad sensus animi rite exprimendos."— De Augment. Scient, lib. 6. cap. 1. b INTRODUCTION. (to which only my suspected compliment was intended) to be a most necessary step towards wisdom and true knowledge. From the innumerable and inveterate mistakes which have been made concerning it by the v/isest philosophers and most dili- gent inquirers of all ages, and from the thick darkness in which they have hitherto left it, I imagine it to be one of the most difficult speculations. Yet, I suppose, a man of plain common sense may obtain it, if he will dig for it; but I cannot think that w^hat is commonly called Learning, is the mine in which it will be found. Truth, in my opinion, has been improperly imagined at the bottom of a well : it lies much nearer to the sur- face : though buried indeed at present under mountains of learned rubbish ; in which there is nothing: to admire but the amazing strength of those vast giants of literature who have been able thus to heap Pelion upon Ossa. This at pre- sent is only my opinion, which perhaps I have entertained too lightly. Since therefore the question has been started, I am pleased at this occasion of being confirmed or corrected by you; whose application, opportunities, extensive reading, acknow- ledged abilities, and universal learning, enable you to inform us of all that the ancients have left or the moderns have written on the subject. J5. — Oh ! Sir, your humble servant ! compliments, I per- ceive, are banished from Purley. But I shall not be at all in- ticed by them to take upon ray shoulders a burthen which you seem desirous to shift off upon me. Besides, Sir, with ail your caution, you have said too much now to expect it from me. It is too late to recall what has passed your lips : and if Mr. T. is of my sentiments, you shall not be permitted to explain yourself away. The satisfaction which he seeks after, you say is to he had ; and you tell us the mine where you think it is not to he found. Now I shall not easily be persuaded that you are so rash, and take up your opinions so lightly, as to advance or even to imagine this; unless you had first searched that mine yourself, and formed a conjecture at least concerning the place where you suppose this knowledge is to be found. Instead therefore of making me display to Mr. T. my reading, which you have already declared insufficient for the purpose, is it not much more reasonable that you should communicate to us the result of your reflection ? INTRODUCTION. 7 Η. With all my heart, if you chuse it should be so, and think you shall have patience to hear me through. I own I prefer instruction to correction, and had rather have been in- formed without the hazard of exposing myself; but if you make the one a condition of the other, I think it still worth my ac- ceptance; and will not lose this opportunity of your judgment for a little shame. I acknowledge then that the subject is not intirely new to my thoughts : for, though languages themselves may be and usually are acquired without any regard to their principles ; I very early found it, or thought I found it, impos- sible to make many steps in the search after truth and the nature of human understanding, of good and evil, of right and wrong, without well considering the nature of language, which appeared to me to be inseparably connected with them, I own therefore ί long since formed to myself a kind of system, which seemed to me of singular use in the very small extent of my younger studies to keep my mind from confusion and the impo- sition of words. After too long an interval of idleness and pleasure, it was my chance to have occasion to apply to some of the modern languages ; and, not being acquainted with any other more satisfactory, I tried my system with these, and tried it with success. I afterwards found it equally useful to me with some of the dead languages. Whilst I was thus amusing myself, the political struggle commenced ; for my share in which you so far justly banter me, as I do acknowledge that, both in the outset and the progress of it, ΐ was guilty of two most egregious blunders ; by attributing a much greater portion of virtue to individuals, and of understanding to the generality, than any experience of mankind can justify. After another interval therefore (not of idleness and pleasure) Τ was again called by the questions of our friend Mr. T. (for yesterday is not the first tinie by many that he has mentioned it) to the consideration of this subject. I have hitherto declined attempt- ing to give him the satisfaction he required : for, though the notion 1 had of language had satisfied my own mind and an- swered my own purposes, I could not venture to detail to him my crude conceptions witliout having ever made the least in- quiry into the opinions of others. Besides, I did not at all suspect that my notions, if just, could be peculiar to myself: and I hoped to find some author who might give him a clearer. b INTRODUCTION. fuller, and more methodical account than I could, free from those errors and omissions to which I must be liable. Having therefore some small intervals of leisure, and a great desire to give him the best information ; I confess I have employed some part of that leisure in reading every thing I could easily and readily procure that has been suggested by others. — — I am afraid I have already spoken with too much pre- sumption : But when I tell you that I differ from all those who with such infinite labour and erudition have gone before me on this subject; what apology— ^ — — i?.— Oh ! make none. When men think modestly, they may be allowed to speak freely. Come — Where will you he-- gml~Alpha~— Go on. H. — Not with the organical part of language, I assure you. For, though in many respects it has been and is to this moment grossly mistaken, (and the mistakes might, with the help of some of the first principles of natural philosophy and anatomy, be easily corrected,) yet it is an inquiry more of curiosity than immediate usefulness. B. — You will begin then either with things or ideas : for it is impossible we should ever thoroughly understand the nature of the signsp unless we first properly consider and arrange the things signified. Whose system of philosophy will you build upon ? H. — ^What you say is true. And yet I shall not begin there. Hermes, you know, put out the eyes of Argus : and I suspect that he has likewise blinded philosophy : and if I had not ima- gined so, 1 should never have cast away a thought upon this subject. If therefore Philosophy herself has been misled by Language, how shall she teach us to detect his tricks ? B. — Begin then as you please. Only begin. ΕΠΕΑ ΠΤΕΡΟΕΝΤΑ :c. PART I, CHAPTER I. OF THE DIVISION OR DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGE. H, — The purpose of Language is to communicate our thoughts — B. — You do not mention this, I hope, as something new, or wherein you differ from others ? H. — You are too hasty with me. No. But I mention it as that principle, which, being kept singly in contemplation, has misled all those who have reasoned on this subject. B. — Is it not true, then? Ή. — I think it is. And that on which the whole matter rests. jB. — And yet the confining themselves to this true principle, upon which the whole matter rests, has misled them ! H. — Indeed I think so. B. — This is curious ! H. — Yet I hope to convince you of it. For thus they rea- soned Words are the signs of things. There must there- fore be as many sorts of words, oy parts of speech, as there are sorts of things^. The earliest inquirers into language pro- ceeded then to settle how many sorts there were of things ; and from thence how many sorts of words, or parts of speech. Whilst this method of search strictly prevailed, the parts of 1 " Dictio renim nota : pro rerum speciebus partes quotque suas sor- tietur." — /. C. Scaliger de Causis L. L. 10 OF THE DIVISION OR [PARTI. speech were very few in iiuriiber : but two. At most three, or four. All things, said they, must have names ^ But there are two sorts of things : 1 . Res qu(K permanent. 2. Res qudifluunt. There must therefore be two sorts of words or parts oj speech : viz. 1 . Noted rerum quoi permanent, 2. Notes, rerum quafluunt. Well ; but surely there are words which are neither not(z rerum permanentium, nor yet notes rerum fluentium. What will you do with them? — We cannot tell: we can find but these two sorts in rerum natura : call therefore those other words, if you will, for the present, particles"", or inferior parts of speech, till we can find out what they are. Or, as we see they are constantly interspersed between nouns and verbs, and seem therefore in a manner to hold our speech together, sup- pose you call them conjunctions or connectives^ , This seems to have been the utmost progress that philo- sophical Grammar had made till about the time of Aristotle, when 2i fourth part of speech was added, — the definitive, or article, ' From this moment Grammar quits the day-light ; and plunges into an abyss of utter darkness. " A good convenient name for all the words which we do not under- stand ; for, as the denomination means nothing in particular, and con- tains no description, it will equally suit any short word we may please to refer thither. There has latterly been much dispute amongst Gram- marians concerning the use of this word, particle, in the division and distribution of speech : particularly by Girard, Dangeau, the authors of the Encyclopedie, he. In v.'hich it is singular that they should all be right in their arguments against the use made of it by others ; and all wrong in the use which each of them would make of it himself. Dr. S. Johnson adopts N. Bailey's definition of a particle — " a word un- varied by inflection." And Locke ae^ne^ particles to be — " the words whereby the mind signifies what connection it gives to the several affirmations and negations that it unites in one continued reasoning or narration." 3 The Latin Grammarians amuse themselves with debating whether ΊiVvleσμos should be translated Convinctio Or Conjunctio. The Danes and the Dutch seem to have taken difi'erent sides of the question : for the Danish language terms it Bindeord, and the Dutch Koppelwoord, CH. I.] DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGE. 11 Here concluded the search after the diiFerent sorts of words, or parts of speech, from the difference of things : for none other apparently rational, acknowledged, or accepted difference has been suggested. According to this system, it was necessary that all sorts of words should belong to one of these four classes. For words being the signs of things, their sorts must necessarily follow the sorts of the things signified. And there being no more than four differences of things, there could be but four parts of speech. The difficulty and controversy now was, to determine to which of these four classes each word belonged. In the at- tempting of which, succeeding Grammarians could neither satisfy themselves nor others : for they soon discovered some words so stubborn, that no sophistry nor violence could by any means reduce them to any one of these classes. However, by this attempt and dispute they became better acquainted with the differences of words, though they could not account for them ; and they found the old system deficient, though tliey knew not how to supply its defects. They seem therefore to have re- versed the method of proceeding from things to signs, pursued by the philosophers ; and, still allowing the principle, {viz. that there must be as many sorts of words as of things,) they tra- velled backwards, and sought for the things from the signs : adopting the converse of the principle ; namely, that there must be as many differences of things as of signs. Misled therefore by the useful contrivances of language, they supposed many imaginary differences of things: and thus added greatly to the number of parts of speech, and in consequence to the errors of philosophy. Add to this, that the greater and more laborious part of Grammarians (to whose genius it is always more obvious to re- mark a multitude of effects than to trace out one cause) con- fined themselves merely to notice the differences observable in words, without any regard to the things signified. From this time the number of parts of speech has been va- riously reckoned : you will find different Grammarians contend- ing for more than thirty. But most of those who admitted the fewest, acknowledged eight. This was long a favourite number ,• and has been kept to by many who yet did not include the same parts to make up that number. For those who re- 12 OF THE DIVISION OR, [PART I. jected the article reckoned eight : and those who did not allow the interjection still reckoned eight. But what sort of difference in words should intitle them to hold a separate rank by them- selves, has not to this moment been settled. B. — You seem to forget, that it is some time since words have been no longer allowed to be the signs of things. Modern Grammarians acknowledge them to be (as indeed Aristotle called them, συ^ΐί^ολα παθημάτων) the signs οϊ ideas: at the same time denying the other assertion of Aristotle, that ideas are the likenesses of things \ And this has made a great alteration in the manner of accounting for the difierences of words. H. — That has not much mended the matter. No doubt this alteration approached so far nearer to the truth ; but the nature of Language has not been much better understood by it. For Grammarians have since pursued just the same method with mind, as had before been done with things. The different operations of the mind are to account now for what the different things were to account before : and when they are not found sufficiently numerous for the purpose, it is only supp'osing an imaginary operation or two, and the difficulties are for the time shuffled over. So that the very same game has been played over again with ideas, which was before played with things. No satisfaction, no agreement has been obtained. But all has been dispute, diversity, and darkness. Insomuch that many of the most learned and judicious Grammarians, disgusted with absur- dity and contradictions, have prudently contented themselves with remarking the differences of words, and have left the causes of language to shift for themselves. B. — That the methods of accounting for Language remain to this day various, uncertain, and unsatisfactory, cannot be denied. But you have said nothing yet to clear up the paradox you set out with ; nor a single word to unfold to us by what means you suppose Hermes has blinded Philosophy. H. — I im.agine that it is, in some measure, with the vehicle of our thoughts, as with the vehicles for our bodies. Necessity produced both. The first carriage for men was no doubt in- vented to transport the bodies of those who fiom infirmity, or 1 Εστί μεν υνν τα ev rrj ψωρτ} των er rr] -φνχτ] τταθηματων σύμβολα — και ων ταντα ομοιώματα, πράγματα. — Aristet. de Interjpretat. CH. I.] DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGE. 13 otherwise, could not move themselves : But should any one, desirous of understanding the purpose and meaning of all the parts of our modern elegant carriages, attempt to explain them upon this one principle alone, viz.- — That they were necessary for conveyance ; he would find himself wofully puzzled to account for the wheels, the seats, the springs, the blinds, the glasses, the lining, &c. Not to mention the mere ornamental parts of gilding, varnish, Sec. Abbreviations are the wheels of language, the ivings of Mer- cury. And though we might be dragged along without them, it would be with much difficulty, very heavily and tediously. There is nothing more admirable nor more useful than the invention of signs : at the same time there is nothing more pro- ductive of error when we neglect to observe their complication. Into what blunders, and consequently into what disputes and difficulties, might not the excellent art of Short-hand writing^ (practised almost exclusively by the English) lead foreign phi- losophers ; who not knowing that we had any other alphabet, should suppose each mark to be the sign of a single sound ! If they were very laborious- and very learned indeed, it is likely they would write as many volumes on the subject, and with as much bitterness against each other, as Grammarians have done from the same sort of mistake concerning Language : until per- haps it should be suggested to them, that there may be not only 1 *' The art of Short-hand is, in its kind, an ingenious device, and of considerable usefulness, applicable to any language, much wondered at by travellers that have seen the experience of it in England ; and yet, though it be above threescore years since it was first invented, it is not to this day (for aught I can learn) brought into common practice in any other nation." — Wilkins. Epist. Oedicatory . Essay toivards a Real Cha- racter. " Short-hand, an art, as I have been told, known only in England." — Locke on Education. In the Courier de V Europe, No. 41- November 20, 178,7, is the follow- ing article : *' Le Sieur Coulon de Thevenot a eu I'honneur de presenter au roi sa methode d'ecrire aussi vite que Ton parle, approuvee par I'Academie Royale des Sciences, et dont Sa Majeste a daigne accepter la dedicace. On sait que les Anglois sont depuis tres-long temps en possession d'une pareille methode adaptee a leur langage, et qu'elle leur est devenue ex- tremement commode et utile pour recueillir avec beaucoup de precision les discours publics : la methode du Sieur Coulon doit done etre tres- avantageux a la langue Fran9oise." 14 OF THE DIVISION OR [PART I. signs of sounds ; but again, for the sake of abbreviation, signs of those signs, one under another in a continued progression. B. — I think ί begin to comprehend you. You mean to say that the errors of Grammarians have arisen from supposing all words to be immediateli/ either the signs of things or the signs of ideas : whereas in fact many words are merely abbreviations employed for despatch, and are the signs of other words. And that these are the artificial wings of Mercury, by means of which the Argus eyes of philosophy have been cheated. H. — It is my meaning. B. — Well. We can only judge of your opinion after we have heard how you maintain it. Proceed, and strip him of his wings. They seem easy enough to be taken off: for it strikes me now, after what you have said, that they are indeed put on in a peculiar manner, and do not, like those of other winged deities, make a part of his body. You have only to loose the strings from his feet, and take oiFhis cap. Come — Let us see what sort of figure he will make without them. H,- — The first aim of Language was to communicate our thoughts ; the second, to do it with despatch, (I mean intirely to disregard whatever additions or alterations have been made for the sake of beauty, or ornament, ease, gracefulness, or plea- sure.) The difficulties and disputes concerning Language have arisen almost intirely from neglecting the consideration of the latter purpose of speech : which, though subordinate to the for- mer, is almost as necessary in the commerce of mankind, and has a much greater share in accounting for the different sorts of words'. Words have been called winged; and they well deserve that name, when their abbreviations are compared with the progress which speech could make without these inven- * M. Le President de Brosses, in his excellent treatise De la Formation mechanique des Langues, torn. 2. says — ■" On ne parle que pour etre en- tendu. Le plus grand avantage d'une langue est d'etre claire. Tous les procedes de Grammaire ne devroient aller qu'a ce but." And again — " Le vulgaire et les philosophes n'ont d'autre but en parlant que de s'expliquer clairement." Art. 160. Pour le vulgaire, he should have added — et promptement. And indeed he is afterwards well aware of this : for Art. 173, he says, " L'esprit humain veut aller vite dans son op6ration ; plus empresse de s'exprimer promptement, que curieux de s'exprimer avec une justesse exacte et reflechie. S'il n'a pas I'instru- ment qu'il faudroit employer, il se sert de celui qu'il a tout pret." CH. I.] DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGE. 15 tions ; but compared with the rapidity of thought, they have not the smallest claim to that title. Philosophers have calcu- lated the difference of velocity between sound and light : but w^ho will attempt to calculate the difference between speech and thought ! What wonder then that the invention of all ages should have been upon the stretch to add such wings to their conversation as might enable it, if possible, to keep pace in some measure with their minds. — Hence-chiefly the variety of words. Abbreviations are employed in language three ways : 1. In terms. 2. In sorts of words. 3. In construction. Mr. Locke's Essay is the best guide to the first ; and num- berless are the authors who have given particular explanations of the last. The second only I take for my province at present ; because I believe it has hitherto escaped the proper notice of all. CHAPTER II. SOME CONSIDEBATION OF MR. LOCKE S ESSAY. B.- — I GANNor recollect one word of Mr. Locke's that corre- sponds at all with any thing that you have said. The third Book of his Essay is indeed expressly written — '^ On the Na- ture, Use, a?id Signification of Language." But there is no- thing in it concerning abbreviations. H. — I consider the whole of Mr. Locke's Essay as a philo- sophical account of the^rsi sort of abbreviations in Language. B. — Whatever you may think of it, it is certain, not only from tlie title, but from his own declaration, that Mr. Locke did not intend or consider it as such : for he says, — '' When I first began this discourse of the Understanding, and a good while after, I had not the least thought that any consideration of tvords was at all necessary to it^" ^ Perhaps it was for mankind a lucky mistake (for it was a mistake) which Mr. Locke made when he called his book. An Essay on Human Understanding, For some part of the inestimable benefit of that book 16 SOME CONSIDERATION [PART 1. H. — True. And it is very strange he should so have ima- gined \ But what immediately follows ? — '^ But when, having passed over the original and composition of our ^ ideas, 1 began to examine the extent and certainty of our knowledge ; I found it had so near a connexion with words, that unless iheiv force and manner of signification were first well observed, there could be very little said clearly and pertinently concerning know- ledge : which being conversant about truth, had constantly to do with propositions. And though it terminated in things, yet it was for the most part so much by the intervention of words, that they seemed scarce separable from our general knowledge." And again, — ^' I am apt to imagine that, were the imper- fections of Language, as the instrument of knowledge, more has, merely on account of its title, reached to many thousands more than, I fear, it would have done, had he called it (what it is merely) A Grammatical Essay, or a Treatise on Words, or on Language. The human mind, or the human understanding , appears to be a grand and noble theme ; and all men, even the most insufficient, conceive that to be a proper object for their contemplation : whilst inquiries into the na- ture of Language (through which alone they can obtain any knovv^ledge beyond the beasts) are fallen into such extreme disrepute and contempt, that even those who " neither have the accent of christian, pagan, or man," nor can speak so many words together with as much propriety as Balaam's ass did, do yet imagine words to be infinitely beneath the con- cern of their exalted understanding. 1 " Aristotelis profecto judicio Grammaticam non solum esse Philo- sophice partem, (id quod nemo sanus negat,) sed ne ab ejus quidem cog- nitione dissolvi posse intelligeremus." — /. C. Scaliger de Causis. PrcE/at. " And lastly," says Bacon, " let us consider the false appearances that are imposed upon us by words, which are framed and applied according to the conceit and capacities of the vulgar sort : and although we think we govern our words, and prescribe it well — loquendum ut vulgus, sen- tiendum ut sapientes ;- — yet certain it is, that words, as a Tartar's bow, do shoot back upon the understanding of the wisest, and mightily en- tangle and pervert the judgment. So as it is almost necessary in all controversies and disputations to imitate the wisdom of the mathemati- cians, in setting down in the very beginning the definitions of our words and terms, that others may know how we accept and understand them, and whether they concur with us or no. For it cometh to pass, for Λvant of this, that we are sure to end there where we ought to have begun, which is in questions and diiferences about words." — Of the Advancement of Learning, ~ It may appear presumptuous, but it is necessary here to declare my opinion, that Mr. Locke in his Essay never did advance one step beyond the origin of Ideas and the composition of Terms. CH. II.] OF MR. Locke's essay. 17 thoroughly weighed, a great many of the controversies that make such a noise in the workl would of themselves cease ; and the way to knowledge, and perhaps peace too, lie a great deal opener than it does^'* So that, from these and a great many other passages through- out the Essay, you may perceive that the more he reflected and searched into the human understanding, the mor^ he was con- vinced of the necessity of an attention to Language ; and of the inseparable connexion between words and knowledge. B. — Yes. And therefore he wrote the third Book of his Essay, on — " the Nature, Use, and Signification of Language." But you say, the whole of the Essay concerns Language ; whereas the two first Books concern the Origin and Compo- sition of Ideas: and he expressly declares that it was not till after he had passed over them, that he thought any considera- tion of tfori/s was at all necessary. 7/. — If he had been aware of this sooner, that is, before he had treated of (what he calls) the origin and composition of Ideas ; I think it would have made a great difference in his Essay. And therefore I said, Mr. Locke's Essay is the best Guide to the first sort of Abbreviations. jB. — Perhaps you imagine that, if he had been aware that he was only writing concerning Language, he might have avoided treating of the origin of Ideas; and so have escaped the quan- tity of abuse which has been unjustly poured upon him for his opinion on that subject. H, — No. I think he would have set out just as he did, ^ " This design (says Wilkins) will likewise contribute much to the clearing of some of our modern differences in religion ;" (and he might have added, in all other disputable subjects ; especially in matters of iaw and civil government ;) — " by unmasking many wild errors, that shelter themselves under the disguise of affected phrases ; which, being philosophically unfolded, and rendered according to the genuine and natural importance of words, will appear to be inconsistencies and contradictions. And several of those pretended mysterious, profound notions, expressed in great swelling words, Λvhereby some men set up for reputation, being this way examined will appear to be either non- sense, or very flat and jejune. And though it should be of no other use but this, yet were it in these days well worth a man's pains and study ; considering the common mischief that is done, and the many impostures and cheats that are put upon men, under the disguise of affected, insignificant phrases."-— iJpzsi. Dedicat. 18 SOME CONSIDEKATION [PART I. with the origin of Ideas ; the proper startiag-post of a Gram- marian who is to treat of their sig-ns. Nor is he singular in re- ferring them all to the Senses, and in beginning an account of Lano-uao-e in that manner \ Β. — What difference then do you imagine it would have made in Mr. Locke's Essay, if he had sooner been aware of the inseparable connexion between words and knowledge ; or, in the language of Sir Hugh, in Shakespeare, that '^ the lips is parcel of the mind^^'l 1 " Nihil in intellectu quod non prius in sensu," is, as well as its con- Verse, an antient and well knoΛvn position. " Sicut in speculo ea quee videntur non sunt, sed eorum species ; ita qu9e intelligimus, ea sunt re ipsa extra nos, eorumque species in nobis. Est enim quasi rerum speculum intellectus noster ; cut, nisi per sensum represententur res, nihil scit ipse." — /. C. Scaliger de Causis L. L. cap. Ixvi. " I sensi," says Buonmattei, ** in un certo modo potrebbon dirsi mi- nistri, nunzj, famigliari, ο segretarj dello 'ntelletto. Ε accioche lo esempio ce ne faccia piu capaci, — Imaginianci di vedere alcun principe, ilqual se ne stia nella sua corte, nel suo palazzo. Non vede egli con gli occhi propj, ne ode co' propj orecchi quel che per lo stato si faccia : ma col tenere in diversi luoghi varj ministri che lo ragguagliono di cio che segue, viene a sapere intender per cotal relazione ogni cosa, e bene spesso molto piu minutamente e piu perfettamente degli stessi ministri ; Perche quegli avendo semplicemente notizia di quel che avvenuto sia nella lor citta ο provincia, rimangon di tutto 1 resfo ignoranti, e di facile posson fin delle cose vedute ingannarsi. Dove il principe puo aver di tutto il seguito cognizione in un subito, che servendogli per riprova d' ogni particolar riferitogli, non lo lascia cosi facilmente ingan- nare. Cosi, dico, e Γ intelletto umano ; ilquale essendo di tutte Γ altre potenze e signore e principe, se ne sta nella sua ordinaria residenza riposto, e non vede ne ode cosa che si faccia di fuori : Ma avendo cinque ministri che lo ragguaglian di quel che succede, uno nella region della vista, un altro nella giurisdizion dell' udito, quello nella provincia del gusto, questo ne' paesi dell' odorato, e quest' altro nel distretto del tatto, viene a sapere per mezzo del discorso ogni cosa in universale, tanto piu de' sensi perfettamente, quanto i sensi ciascuno intendendo nella sua pura potenza, non posson per tutte come lo 'ntelletto discorrere. Ε sic- come il principe, senza lasciarsi vedere ο sentire, fa noto altrui la sua volonta per mezzo degli stessi ministri ; cosi ancora Γ Intelletto fa in- tendersi per via de' medesimi sensi." — Buonmattei. Tratt. 2. cap. 2. 2 " Divers philosophers hold that the lips is parcel of the mind." — Merry Wives of Wiiidsor, act 1. scene 4. Rowland Jones agrees with his countryman, Sir Hugh Evans. In his Origin of Language and Nations, Preface, page 17, he says (after others) — *• I think that Language ought not to be considered as mere arbitrary CH. II.] OF MR. Locke's essay. 19 Ή. — Much. And amongst many other things, I thmk he would not have talked of the composition of ideas ; but would have seen that it was merely a contrivance of Language : and that the only composition was in the terms; and consequently that it was as improper to speak of a complex idea, as it would be to call a constellation a complex star : And that they are not ideas, but merely terms, which are general and abstract. I think too that he would have seen the advantage of '' thoroughly weighing" not only (as he says) '^ the imperfections of Lan- guage," but its perfections also : For the perfections of Lan- guage, not properly understood, have been one of the chief causes of the imperfections of our philosophy. And indeed, from numberless passages throughout his Essay, Mr. Locke seems to me to have suspected something of this sort : and especially from what he hints in his last chapter ; where, speak- ing of the doctrine of signs, he says, — -'' The consideration then of Ideas and Words, as the great instruments of know- ledge, makes no despicable part of their contemplation who would take a view of human knowledge in the whole extent of it. And perhaps, if they were distinctly weighed and duly con- sidered, they would afford us another sort of Logick and Critick than what we have hitherto been acquainted with." -B. — Do not you think that what you now advance will bear a dispute ; and that some better arguments than your bare as- sertion are necessary to make us adopt your opinion ? //. — Yes. To many persons much more would be neces- sary ; but not to you. I only desire you to read the Essay over again with attention, and see whether all that its immortal au- thor has justly concluded will not hold equally true and clear, if you substitute the composition, &c. of terms, wherever he has supposed a composition, &c. oi ideas. And if that shall upon strict examination appear to you to be the case, you will need sounds ; or any thing less than a part, at least, of that living soul which God is said to have breathed into man." This method of referring words hnmediately to God as their framer, is a short cut to escape in- quiry and explanation. It saves the philosopher much trouble; but leaves mankind in great ignorance, and leads to great error. — Non dig- nus vindice nodus. — God having furnished man with senses and with organs of articulation, as he has also with water, lime and sand ; it should seem no more necessary to form the words for man, than to temper the mortar, c 2 20 SOME CONSIDERATION [PART i. no other argument against the composition of Ideas : It being exactly similar to that unanswerable one which Mr. Locke him- self declares to be sufficient against their being innate. For the supposition is unnecessary : Every purpose for which the composition of Ideas was imagined being more easily and natu- rally answered by the composition of Terms : whilst at the same time it does likewise clear up many difficulties in which the supposed composition of Ideas necessarily involves us. And, though this is the only argument I mean to use at present, (be- cause I would not willingly digress too far, and it is not the necessary foundation for what I have undertaken,) yet I will venture to say, that it is an easy matter, upon Mr. Locke's own principles and a physical consideration of the Senses and the Mind, to prove the impossibihty of the composition of Ideas. B, — -Well. Since you do not intend to build any thing upon it, we may safely for the present suppose what you have ad- vanced; and take it for granted that the greatest part of Mr. Locke's Essay, that is, all which relates to what he calls the composition, abstraction, complexity, generalization, relation, &c. of Ideas, does indeed merely concern Language, But, pray, let me ask you, if so, what has Mr. Locke done in the Third Book of his Essay, in which he professedly/ treats of the nature, use, and signification of Language ? H, — He has really done little else but enlarge upon what he had said before, when he thought he was treating only οϊ Ideas: that is, he has continued to treat of the composition of Terms. For though, in the passage I have before quoted, he says, that '^ unless the force and manner of signification of words are first well observed, there can be very little said clearly and perti- nently concerning knowledge;" — and though this is the de- clared reason of writing his Third Book concerning Language, as distinct from Ideas ; yet he continues to treat singly, as be- fore, concerning the Force^ of words, and has not advanced one syllable concerning their Manner of signification. The only Division Mr. Locke has made of words, is, into — - Names of Ideas and Particles. This division is not made regu- larly and formally, but is reserved to his seventh Chapter. And ^ The Force of a word depends upon the number of Ideas of which that word is the sign. CH. II.] OF MR. Locke's essay. 21 even there it is done in a very cautious, doubting, loose, uncer- tain manner, very different from that incomparable author's usual method of proceeding'. For, though the general title of the seventh Chapter is, — Of Particles; — yet he seems to chuse to leave it uncertain vv^hether he does or does not include Verbs in that title, and particularly what he calls ^' the Marks of the Mind's affirming or denying.'^ And indeed he himself acknow- ledges, in a letter to Mr. Molyneux, that — " Some parts of that Third Book concerning Words, though the thoughts were easy and clear enough, yet cost him more pains to express than all the rest of his Essay; and that therefore he should not much wonder if there were in some parts of it obscurity and doubtful- ness." Now whenever any man finds this difficulty to express himself, in a language with which he is well acquainted, let him be persuaded that his thoughts are not clear enough : for, as Swift (I think) has somewhere observed, *' When the water is clear you will easily see to the bottom." The whole of this vague Chapter — Of Particles — (which should have contained an account of every thing but Nouns) is comprised in two pages and a half: and all the rest of the Third Book concerns only, as before, the Force of the names of Ideas. B. — How is this to be accounted for ? Do you suppose he was unacquainted with the opinions of Grammarians, or that he despised the subject? H. — No : I am very sure of the contrary. For it is plain he did not despise tbei^feubject, since he repeatedly and strongly recommends it to others : and at every step throughout his Essay, I find the most evident marks of the journey he had himself taken through all their works. But it appears that he was by no means satisfied with what he found there concerning Particles : For he complains that ^^ this part of Grammar has been as much neglected, as some others over-diligently culti- vated." And says, that *^ He who would shew the right use of Particles, and what significancy and force they have," (that is, according to his own division, the right use, significancy, and force of ALL words except the names of Ideas,) ^' must take a little more pains, enter into his own thoughts, and observe nicely the several postures of his mind in discoursing." For these Particles, he says, — *' are all marks of some action or inti- mation of the Mind; and therefore, to understand them rightly, 22 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [PART I. the several views, postures, stands, turns, limitations and ex- ceptions, and several other thoughts of the Mind, /or which we have either none or very deficient names, are diligently to be studied. Of these there are a great variety, much exceeding the number of Particles." For himself, he declines the task, however necessary and neglected by all others : and that for no better reason than — ^' I intend not here a full explication of this sort of signs." And yet he was (as he professed and thought) writing on the human Understanding ; ο.ηά therefore should not surely have left mankind still in the same darkness in which he found them, concerning these hitherto unnamed and (but by himself) undiscovered operations of the Mind. In short, this seventh Chapter is, to me, a full confession and proof that he had not settled his own opinion concerning the manner of signification of Words : that it still remained (though he did not chuse to have it so understood) a Desideratum with him, as it did with our great Bacon before him : and therefore that he would not decide any thing about it ; but confined him- self to the prosecution of his original inquiry concerning the first sort oi Abbreviations, which is by far the most important to knowledge, and which he supposed to belong to Ideas. But though he declined the subject, he evidently leaned to- wards the opinion of Aristotle, Scaliger, and Mess, de Port Royal : and therefore, without having sufficiently examined their position, he too hastily adopted their notion concerning the pretended Copula — '* Is, and Is not.'^ He supposed, with them, that affirming and denying were operations of the Mind; and referred all the other sorts of Words to the same source. Though, if the different sorts of Words had been (as he was willing to believe) to be accounted for by the different opera- tions of the Mind, it was almost impossible they should have escaped the penetrating eyes of Mr. Locke. CHAPTER III. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. B. — You said some time ago, very truly, that the number of Parts of Speech was variously reckoned ; and that it has not to CH. III.] OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 23 this moment been settled, what sort of difference in words should entitle them to hold a separate rank by themselves. By what you have since advanced, this matter seems to be ten times more unsettled than it was before : for you have dis- carded the differences of Things^ and the differences of Ideas, and the different operations of the Mind, as guides to a division of Language. Now I cannot for my life imagine any other principle that you have left to conduct us to the Parts of Speech. H. — I thought I had laid down in the beginning, the prin- ciples upon which we were to proceed in our inquiry into the manner of signification of words. B. — Which do you mean ? H. — The saaie which Mr. Locke employs in his inquiry into the Force of words: viz. — The two great purposes of speech. B. — And to what distribution do they lead you ? H.' — 1. To words necessary for the communication of our Thoughts. And, 2. To Abbreviations, employed for the sake of dispatch. B. — How many of each do you reckon ? And which are they ? H. — In what particular language do you mean ? For, if you do not confine your question, you might as reasonably expect me (according to the fable) '^ to make a coat to fit the moon in all her changes." B. — Why? Are they not the same in all languages? H. — Those necessary to the communication of our thoughts are. B, — And are not the others also ? H, — No. Very different. B. — I thought we were talking of Universal Grammar. Ή., — I mean so too. But I cannot answer the whole of your question, unless you confine it to some particular language with which I am acquainted. However, that need not disturb you : for you will find afterwards that the principles will apply universally. jB. — Well. For the present then confine yourself to the ne- cessary Parts : and exempHfy in the English. ii.' — In English, and in all Languages, there are only two 24 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [PAPtT I. sorts of Words which are necessarj/ for the commimication of our thoughts. B. — And they are? H\ — 1. Noun, and 2. Verb. B, — These are the common names, and I suppose you use them according to the common acceptation. H. — I should not otherwise have chosen them, but because they are commonly employed ; and it would not be easy to dis- possess them of their prescriptive title : besides, without doing any mischief, it saves time in our discourse. And I use them according to their common acceptation, B. — But you have not all this wdiile informed me how many Parts of Speech you mean to lay down. H, — That shall be as you please. Either TtoOj or Twenty, or more. In the strict sense of the term, no doubt both the necessary \¥ords and the Abbreviations are all of them Parts of Speech ; because they are all useful in Language, and each has a diiferent manner of signification. But I think it of great consequence both to knowledge and to Languages, to keep the words employed for the different purposes of speech as distinct as possible. And therefore I am inclined to allow that rank only to the necessary words ^: and to include all the others (which are not necessary to speech, but merely substitutes of the first sort) under the title οϊ Abbreviations, B. — Merely Substitutes ! You do not mean that you can discourse as well without as with them ? H, — Not as well. A sledge cannot be drawn along as smoothly, and easily, and swiftly as a carriage with wheels ; but it may be dragged. B. — Do you mean then that, without using any other sort of word whatever, and merely by the means of the Noun and Verb alone, you can relate or communicate any thing that I can relate or communicate with the help of all the others? Ή.' — Yes. It is the great proof of all I have advanced. And, upon trial, you will find that you may do the same. But, ' " Pves necessarias philosophus primo loco statuit : accessorias autem et vicarias, mox." — /. C. Scaliger de Causis L. L. cap. 110. CH. III.] OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 25 after the long habit and familiar use of Abbreviations, your first attempts to do without them will seem very awkward to you ; and you will stumble as often as a horse^ long used to be shod, that has newly cast his shoes. Though indeed (even with those who have not the habit to struggle against) without Ab- breviations, Language can get on but lamely : and therefore they have been introduced, in different plenty, and more or less happily, in all Languages. And upon these two points — Ab- breviation of Terms f and Abbreviation in the manner of signifi- cation of words — depends the respective excellence of every Language. All their other comparative advantages are trifling. B. — I like your method of proof very well ; and will certainly put it to the trial. But before I can do that properly, you must explain your Abbreviations; that I may know what they stand for, and what words to put in their room. //. — Would you have me then pass over the two necessary Parts of Speech ; and proceed immediately to their Abbre- viations ? JB. — If you will. For I suppose you agree with the common opinion, concerning the words which you have distinguished as necessary to the communication of our thoughts. Those you call necessary, I suppose you allov/ to be the signs of different sorts of Ideas f or of different operations of the mind. H, — Indeed I do not. The business of the mind, as far as it concerns Language, appears to me to be very simple. It extends no further than to receive impressions, that is, to have Sensations or Feelings. What are called its operations, are merely, the operations of Language. A consideration of Ideas, or of the Mind, or of Things (relative to the Parts of Speech), will lead us no further than to Nouns : i. e. the signs of those impressions, or names of ideas. The other Part of Speech, the Verb, must be accounted for from the necessary use of it in communication. It is in fact the com- munication itself: and therefore well denominated 'Pr/^a, Dictum. For the Verb is quod loguimur^ ; the Noun, de quo. jB. — Let us proceed then regularly ; and hear Λvhat you have to say on each of your two necessary Parts of Speech. ^ ^" Alterum est quod loquimur ; alterum de quo loquimur.' Quinctil. lib. 1. cap. 4. 26 OF THE NOUN. [PART I. CHAPTER IV. OF THE NOUN. H.—Of the first Part of Speech•— the Noun, — it being the best understood, and therefore the most spoken of by others, I shall need at present to say little more than that it is the simple or complex, the particular or general sign or name of one or more Ideas. I shall only remind you, that at this stage of our inquiry concerning Language, comes in most properly the considera- tion of the force of Terms : which is the whole business of Mr. Locke's Essay ; to which I refer you. And I imagine that Mr. Locke's intention of confining himself to the con- sideration of the Mind only, was the reason that he went no further than to the Force of Terms ; and did not meddle with their Manner of signification, to which the Mind alone could never lead him. B. — Do you say nothing of the Declension, Number, Case and Gender of Nouns ? ii. — At present nothing. There is no pains-worthy diffi- culty nor dispute about them. B. — Surely there is about the Gender. And Mr. Harris particularly has thought it worth his while to treat at large of what others have slightly hinted concerning it^: and has supported his reasoning by a long list of poetical authorities. What think you of that part of his book ? H, — That, with the rest of it, he had much better have let it alone. And as for his poetical authorities ; the Muses (as I have heard Mrs. Peachum say of her own sex in cases of murder) are bitter bad judges in matters of philosophy. 1 " Pythagorici sexum in cunctis agnoscunt, &c. Agens, Mas ; Patiens, Foemina, Quapropter Deus dicunt masculine ; Terra, foemi- nine : et Ignis, masculine ; et Aqua, foeminine : quoniam in his Actio, in istis Passio relucebat." — Campanella. " In rebus inveniuntur duse proprietates generales, scilicet pro- prietas Agentis, et proprietas Patientis. Genus est modus signiiicandi nominis sumptus a proprietate activa vel passiva. Genus masculinum est modus significandi rem sub proprietate agentis : Genus fcemininum est modus significandi rem sub proprietate patientis."-— ^coiwi Gram. Spec. cap. 16. CH. IV.] OF THE NOUN. 27 Besides that Reason is an arrant Despot ; who, in his own dominions, admits of no authority but his own. And Mr. Harris is particularly unfortunate in the very outset of that — " subtle kind of reasoning (as he calls it) which discerns even in things without sex, a distant analogy to that great natural distinction." For his very first instances, — the sun and the MOON, — destroy the whole subtilty of this kind of reasoning^ For Mr. Harris ought to have known, that in many Asiatic Languages, and in all the northern Languages of this part of the globe which we inhabit, and particularly in our Mother- language the Anglo-Saxon (from which sun and moon are immediately derived to us), sun is Feminine, and moon is Masculine^ , So feminine is the Sun, ['^ that fair hot wench in flame-colour'd taifata^"] that our northern Mythology makes her the Wife of Tuisco. And if our English Poets, Shakespeare, Milton, &c. have, by a famihar Prosopopeia, made them of different genders ; it ^ It can only have been Mr. Harris's authority, and the ill-founded praises lavished on his performance, that could mislead Dr. Priestley, in his thirteenth lecture, hastily and without examination to say " Thus, for example, the sun having a stronger, and the moon a weaker influence over the world, and there being but two celestial bodies so remarkable ; All nations, I believe, that use genders, have ascribed to the Sun the gender of the Male, and to the Moon that of the Female," In the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, German, Dutch, Danish and Swedish, SUN IS feminine : In modern Russian it is neuter. 2 " Apud Saxones, Luna, Mona. Mona autem Germanis superior- ibus Mon, alias Man ; a Mon, alias Man veterrimo ipsorum rege et Deo patrio, quern Tacitus meminit, et in Luna celebrabant. — Ex hoc Lunam masculino (ut Hebrcei) dicunt genere, Der Mon ; Dominamque ejus et Amasiam, e cujus aspectu alias languet, alias resipiscit, Die Son; quasi hunc Lunam, hanc Solem. Hinc et idolum Lunse viri fingebant specie ; non, ut Verstegan opinatur, fceminse." — Spelman's Gloss. Mona. " De generibus Nominum (quae per articulos, adjectiva, participia, et pronomina indicantur) hie nihil tradimus. Obiter tamen observet Lector, ut ut minuta res est. Solemn (Sunna vel Sunne) in Anglo- Saxonica esse foeminini generis, et Lunam (Mona) esse masculini." — G. Hickes. " Quomodo item Sol est virile, Germanicum Sunn, fceminhium, Dicunt enim Die Sunn, non Der Sunn. Unde et Solem Tuisconis uxorem fuisse fabulantur." — G. J. Vossius. 3 First part of Henry IV. 28 OF THE NOUN. [PART I. is only because, from their classical reading, they adopted the southern not the northern mythology ; and followed the pattern of their Greek and Roman masters. Figure apart, in our Language, the names of things without sex are also without gender \ And this, not because our Reasoning or Understanding differs from theirs who gave them gender ; (v/hich must be the case, if the Mind or Reason was concerned in it^,) but because with us the rela- tion of words to each other is denoted by the place or by Prepositions ; which denotation in their language usually 1 " Sexus enim non nisi in Animali, aut in iis quae Animalis naturam imitantur, ut arbores. Sed ab usu hoc factum est; qui nunc mascu- linum sexum, nunc foemininum attribuisset. Proprium autem ge- nerum esse pati mutationem, satis patet ex genere incerto ; ut etiam Armentas dixerit Ennius, quse nos Armenia.'' — /. C. Scaliger de Causis, cap. 79. ' *' Nominum quoque genera mutantur adeo, ut privatim libros super hac re Λ'^eteres confecerint. Alteram argumentum est ex iis quse Duhia sive Incerta vocant. Sic enim dictum est, Hie vel H(ec Dies. Tertium testimonium est in quibusdam : nam Plautus Collum masculino dixit. Item Jubar, Palumbem, atque alia, diversis quam nos generibus esse a priscis pronunciata." — Id. cap. 103. ** Amour qui est masculin au singulier, est quelquefois feminin au pluriel ; de folles amours. On dit au masculin Un Comte, Un Duche ; et au feminin line Comte pairie, Une Duche pairie. On dit encore De bonnes gens, et Des gens malheureux. Par oii vous voyez que le sub- stantif Gens est feminin, lorsqu'il est precede d'un adjectif ; et qu'il est masculin, lorsqu'il en est suivi." — UAbbe de Condillac, part 2. chap. 4. The ingenious author of — Notes on the Grammatica Sinica of M. Fourmont — says, " According to the Grammaire Raisonnee, les genres ont ete inventes pour les terminaisons." But the Mess, du Port Royal have discovered a different origin ; they tell us, that — Arbor est femi- nine, parceque comme une bonne mere elle porte du fruit. — Miratur non sua. How could Frenchmen forget that in their own la meilleure des langues possibles, Fruit-trees are masculine and their fruits feminine ? Mr. Harris has adopted this idea : he might as well have left it to its legitimate parents." — P. 47. 2 " Sane in sexu sen genere physico omnes nationes convenire de- bebunt ; quoniam natura est eadem, nee ad j)lacitum scriptorum mu- tatur. At Poetce et Pictores in coloribus non semper conveniunt. Ventos Romani non solum iinxerunt esse viros, sed et Deos : at He- braei contra eos ut Nymphas pinxerunt. Arbores Latini specie fceminea pinxerunt ; virili Hispani, &c. Regiones urbesque Deas esse A^oluit Gentilium Latinorum Theologia : at Germani omnia hsec ad neutrum rejecerunt. Et quidem in Genere, seu sexus distinctione grammatica, CH. v.] OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. 29 made a part of the words themselves, and was shewn by- cases or terminations. This contrivance of theirs, allowing them a more varied construction, made the terminating gen- ders of Adjectives useful, in order to avoid mistake and misapplication. CHAPTER V. OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. B. — However connected with the Noun, and generally treated of at the same time, I suppose you forbear to mention the Ai'ticles at present, as not allowing them to be a separate Part of Speech ; at least not a necessary Part ; because, as Wilkins tells us, '^ the Latin is without them\'' Notwith- standing which, when you consider with him that " they are so convenient for the greater distinctness of speech ; and that upon this account, the Hebrew, Greek, Sclavonic, and most other languages have them;" perhaps you will not think it improper to follow the example of many other Grammarians : who, though, like you, they deny them to be any part of speech, have yet treated of them separately from those parts which they enumerate. And this you may very consistently do, even though you should consider them, as the Abbe Girard calls them, merely the avant-coureurs to announce the approach or entrance of a Noun'. magna est inter autliores differentia : non solum in diversis unguis, sed etiam in eadem. In Latina, ne ad alias, recurram, aliter Oratores, et aliter Poetse : aliter veteres, et aliter juniores sentiunt, &c. Iberes in Asia florere dicuntur, et linguam habere elegantem, et tamen nullam generum varietatem agnoscunt," — Caramtiel, Ixii. ^ Essay, part 3. chap. 3. ^ J'abandonne Tart de copier des mots dits et repetes mille fois avant moi; puisqu'ils n'expliquent pas les choses essentielles que j'ai dessein de faire entendre a mes lecteurs. Une etude attentive faite d'apres I'usage m'instruit bien mieux. Elle m'apprend que Γ Article est un mot etabli pour annoncer et particulariser simplement la chose sans la nommer : c'est a dire, qu'il est une expression indeiinie, quoique j)osi- tive, dont la juste valeur n'est que de faire naitre I'idee d'une espece subsistente qu'on distingue de la totalite des etres, pour etre ensuite 30 OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. [PART I. H, — Of all the accounts which have been given of the Article, I must own I think that of the very ingenious Abbe Girard to be the most fantastic and absurd. The fate of this very necessary word has been most singularly hard and unfor- tunate. For though without it, or some equivalent invention^, men could not communicate their thoughts at all; yet (like many of the most useful things in this world) from its un- affected simplicity and want of brilliancy, it has been ungrate- fully neglected and degraded. It has been considered, after Scaliger, as otiosum loquocissimce gentis Instrnmentum; or, at best, as a mere vaunt-courier to announce the coming of his master : whilst the brutish inarticulate Interjection^ which has nothing to do with speech, and is only the miserable refuo-e of the speechless, has been permitted, because beautiful and gaudy, to usurp a place amongst words, and to exclude the Article from its well-earned dignity. But though the Article is denied by many Grammarians to be a Part of Speech ; it is yet, as you say, treated of by many, separately from those nominee. Cette definition en expose clairement la nature et le service propre, au quel on le voit constamment attache dans quelque circon- stance que ce soit. Elle m'en donne une idee nette et determinee : me le fait reconnoitre par tout : et m'empecbe de le confondre avec tout autre mot d'espece diiferente. Je sens parfaitement que lorsque je veux parler d'un objet, qui se presente a mes yeux ou a mon imagina- tion, le genie de ma langue ne m'en fournit pas toujours la denomina- tion precise dans le premier instant de I'execution de la parole : que le plus souvent il m'oiFre d'abord un autre mot, comme un commencement de sujet propose et de distinction des autres objets ; ensorte que ce mot est un vrai preparatoire a la denomination, par lequel elle est annoncee, avant que de se presenter elle meme : Et voila Υ Article tel que je I'ai defini. Si cet Avant- coureur diminue la vivacite du langage, il y met en recompense une certaine politesse et une delicatesse qui naissent de cette idee preparatoire et indefinie d'un objet qu'on va nommer : car par ce moyen Γ esprit etant rendu attentif avant que d'etre instruit, il a le plaisir d'aller au devant de la denomination, de la desirer, et de I'at- tendre avant que de la posseder. Plaisir qui a ici, comme ailleurs, un merite flateur, propre a piquer le gout. — Qu'on me passe cette meta- phore ; puisqu'elle a de la justesse, et fait connoitre d'une maniere sen- sible une chose tres-metaphysique." — Disc. 4. 1 For some equivalent invention, see the Persian and other Eastern languages ; which supply the place of our Article by a termination• to those Nouns Avhich they would indefinitely particularize. This circumstance of fact (if there were not other reasons) suffi- ciently explodes Girard's notion of Avant-coureurs, CH. v.] OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. 31 parts which they allow. This inconsistency^ and the cause of it are pleasantly ridiculed by Buonmattei, whose understand- ing had courage sufficient to restore the Article ; and to launch out beyond quelle fatali colonne che gli antichi avevan segnate col — Non plus ultra. ^^ Dodici/' says he, (Tratt. 7. cap. 22, 23.) *' aiFermiamo esser le Parti dell' orazione nella nostra lingua. Ne ci siam curati che gli altri quasi tutti non ne voglion conceder piu d' otto ; mossi, come si vede, da una certa soprastiziosa ostinazione (sia detto con pace e riverenza loro) che gli autori piu antichi hanno stabilito tal numero : Quasi che abbiano in tal modo proibito a noi il passar quelle fatali colonne che gli antichi avevan segnate col — Non plus ultra. Onde perche i Latini dicevan tutti con una voce uni- forme — Partes Orationis sunt octo : — quei che intorno a cent' anni sono scrisson le regole di questa lingua, cominciavan con la medesima cantilena. II che se sia da commendare ο da biasimare non diro : Basta che a me par una cosa ridicolosa, dire — Otto son le parti delF orazione, — e subito soggiugnere — Ma innanzi che io di quelle incominci a ragionare, fa mestiero che sopra gli At^ticoli alcuna cosa ti dica. *' Questo e il medesimo che se dicessimo — Tre son le parti del mondo : Ma prima ch' io ti ragioni di quelle, fa mestiero che sopra I'Europa alcuna cosa ti dica." B. — As far as respects the Article I think you are right. But why such bitterness against tlie Interjection? Why do you not rather follow Buonmattei's example ; and, instead of excluding both, admit them both to be Parts of Speech Ί' ^ What Scaliger says of the Participle may very justly be apphed to this manner of treating the Article. " Si non est Nota, imo vero si nonnullis ne pars quidem orationis ulla, ab aliis separata, judicata est ; quo consilio ei rei, quae nusquam extat, sedem statuunt." — Lib. 7. cap. 140. - " Interjectionem non esse partem orationis, sic ostendo. Quod naturale est, idem est apud omnes : sed gemitus et signa laetitiae idem sunt apud omnes : sunt igitur naturales. Si vero naturales, non sunt partes orationis. Nam eie partes, secundum Aristotelem, ex instituto, non natura, debent constare. Interjectionem Graeci adverbiis adnume- rant, sed falso : nam neque Grsecis Uteris scribantur, sed signa tristitise, aut Isetitise, qualia in avibus, aut quadrupedibus, quibus tamen nee vocem nee orationem concedimus. Valla interjectionem a partibus orationis rejicit. Itaque Interjectionem a partibus orationis excludi- 32 OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. [PART I. /f. — Because the dominion of Speech is erected upon the downfall of Interjections. Without the artful contrivances of Language, mankind would have nothing but Interjections with which to communicate, orally, any of their feelings. The neighing of a horse, the lowing of a cow, the barking of a dog, the purring of a cat, sneezing, coughing, groaning, shrieking, and every other involuntary convulsion with oral sound, have almost as good a title to be called Parts of Speech, as Inter- jections have. Voluntary Interjections are only employed when the suddenness or vehemence of some affection or passion returns men to their natural state ; and makes them for a moment forget the use of speech': or when, from some cir- cumstance, the shortness of time will not permit them to mus : tantum abest, ut earn primam et precipuam cum Caesare Scali- gero constituamus." — Sanctii Minerva, lib. 1. cap. 2. De partibus ora- tio7iis, page 17. Edit. Amst. 1714. ^ The industrious and exact Cinonio, who does not appear ever to have had a single glimpse of reason, speaks thus of ofie interjection : — " I varj aiFetti cui serve questa interiezzione Ah et Ahi, sono piu di venti : ma v' abbisogna d' un avvertimento ; che nell' esprimerli semj^re diversificano il suono, e vagliono quel tanto che, presso i Latini, Ah. Proh. Oh. Vah. Hei. Pape, &c. Ma questa e parte spettante a chi pronunzia, che sappio dar loro Γ accento di quell' aiFetto cui servono ; e sono d' esclamazione. di dolersi. di svillaveggiare. di pregare. di gridare minacciando. di minacciare. di sospirare. di sgarare. di maravigliarsi. d' incitare. di sdegno. di desiderare. di reprendere. di vendicarsi. di raccomandazione. di commovimento per allegrezza. di lamentarsi. di beiFare. et altri varj." Annotaziord alV truttato, delle Particelle, di Cinonio, capitolo 11. CH. v.] OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. 33 exercise it. And in books they are only used for embellish- ment, and to mark strongly the above situations. But where Speech can be employed, they are totally useless ; and are always insufficient for the purpose of communicating- our thoughts. And indeed where will you look for the Inter- jection? Will you find it amongst laws, or in books of civil institutions, in history, or in any treatise of useful arts or sciences ? No. You must seek for it in rhetorick and poetry, in novels, plays and romances. B, — If what you say is true, I must acknowledge that the Article has had hard measure to be displaced for the Inter- jection. For by your declamation, and the zeal you have shewn in its defence, it is evident that you do not intend we should, with Scaliger, consider it merely as otiosiim Instru- meiitum. H, — -Most assuredly not : though ί acknowledge that it has been used otiose by many nations'. And I do not wonder that, keeping his eyes solely on the superfluous use (or rather abuse) of it, he should too hastily conclude against this very necessary instrument itself. B. — Say you so ! very necessarj/ instrument 1 Since then you have, contrary to my expectation, allowed its necessity, I should be glad to know how the Article comes to be so neces- sary to Speech : and, if necessary, how can the Latin language be without it, as most authors agree that it is"? And when 1 •* II seroit a souh alter qu'on supprlmat Γ Article, toutes les fois que les noms sont suffisamment determines par la nature de la chose ou par les circonstances ; le discours en seroit plus vif. Mais la grande habitude que nous nous en sommes faite, ne le permet pas : et ce n'est que dans des proverbes, plus anciens que cette habitude, que nous nous faisons une loi de le supprimer. On dit — Pauvrete η est pas vice : au lieu de dire — La pauvrete' n'est pas iin vice." — Co?idiilac, Gram, part 2. chap. 14. Without any injury to the meaning of the passage, the article might have been omitted here by Condillac, twelve or thirteen times. - 'Qis ^0K€L μοί 7Γ€(0ΐ 'Ρωμαίων Xeyeiv νρω μεΧλο) rvv ομον tl Trarres άνθρωποι 'χ^ρωνται. TvpoQeaeis re yap αφηρηκε, πλην οΧιγων άπασα5, των τε καΧουμβνων άρθρων, ουθεν προσοε)(^€ταί το παραπαν. — ΠλαΓω- νικα Ζητήματα Θ. " Articuliis nobis nuUus et Grsecis superfluus." " Satis constat Graecorum Articulos non neglectos a nobis, sed-eorum usum superiluum." — /. C. Scatiger de Causis L. L. cap. 72, — 131. It is pleasant after this to have Scaliger' s authority against himself, D 34 OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION» [PART I. you have given me satisfaction on those points, you will permit me to ask you a few questions further. ■ H. — You may learnits necessity, if you please, from Mr. Locke. And that once proved, it follows of consequence that I must deny its absence from the Latin or from any other Language \ jB.•— Mr. Locke ! He has not so much as even once men- tioned the Article. H, — Notwithstanding which he has sufficiently proved its necessity ; and conducted us directly to its use and purpose. For in the eleventh chapter of the second book of his Essay, sect. 9, he says,- — ^' The use of words being to stand as out- w^ard marks of our internal ideas, and those ideas being taken from particular things ,• if every particular idea should have a distinct name, names would be endless." So again, book 3. chap. 3. treating of General Terms, he says, — *^ All things that exist being particulars, it may perhaps be thought reason- able that words, which ought to be conformed to things, should be so too ; I mean in their signification. But yet we find the quite contrary. The far greatest part of words that make all languages, are General Terms, Which has not been the effect of neglect or chance, but of reason and necessity. For, first, it is impossible that every particular thing should have a distinct peculiar name. For the signification and use of words depending on that connexion which the mind makes between its ideas and the sounds it uses as signs of them ; it is necessary, in the application of names to things, that the mind and to hear him prove that the Latin not only has Articles ; but even the very identical Article Ό of the Greeks : for he says (and, notwith- standing the etymological dissent of Vossius, says truly) that the Latin Qui is no other than the Greek /ecu o. " Articiilum, Fabio teste, Latinus sermo non desiderat : imo, me judice, plane ignorat."— -G. /. Vossius. " Displeased with the redundance of Particles in the Greek, the Romans extended their displeasure to the Article, which they totally banished." — Notes on the Grammatica Sinica of Mons. Fourmont, p. 54. 1 " LArticle indicatif se supplee sur tout par la terminaison, dans les langues a terminaisons, comme la langue Latine. C'est ce qui avoit fait croire mal-a-propos que les Latins n'avoient aucun Article ; et qui avoit fait conclure plus mal-a-propos encore que I'Article n'^toit pas une partie du discours. "-—CoMri de Gehelin, Gram. XJniverselle, p. 192. The Latin quis is evidently και bs ; and the Latin terminations lis, a, um, no other thau the Greek article bs, η, by. CH, v.] OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. 35 should have distinct ideas of the things, and retain also the peculiar name that belongs to every one, with its peculiar appropriation to that idea. We may therefore easily find a reason why men have never attempted to give names to each sheep in their flock, or crow that flies over their heads ; much less to call every leaf of plants or grain of sand that came in their way by a peculiar name. — Secondly, If it were possible, it would be useless : because it would not serve to the chief end of Language. Men would in vain heap up names of par- ticular things, that would not serve them to communicate their thoughts. Men learn names, and use them in talk with others, only that they may be understood ; which is then only done, when by use or consent, the sound I make by the organs of speech excites in another man's mind who hears it, the idea I apply to it in mine when I speak it. This cannot be done by names applied to particular things, whereof ί alone having the ideas in my mind, the names of them could not be significant or intelligible to another who was not acquainted with all those very particular things which had fallen under my notice." — And again, sect. 1 1. — '^ General and Universal belong not to the real existence of things ; but are the inventions and crea- tures of the Understanding, made by it for its own use, and concern only signs. Universality belongs not to things them- selves, which are all of them particular in their existence. When therefore wq quit Particulars, the Generals that rest are only creatures of our own making • their general nature being nothing but the capacity they are put into of signifying or representing many Particulars." Now from this necessity of General Terms, follows imme- diately the necessity of the Article: whose business it is to reduce their generality, and upon occasion to enable us to employ general terms for Particulars. vSo that the Article also, in combination with a general term, is merely a suhstitute. But then it differs from those substi- tutes which we have ranked under the general head οϊ Abbre- viations : because it is necessary for the communication of our thoughts, and supplies the place of words which are not in the language. Whereas Abbreviations are not necessary for com- munication ; and supply the place of words which are in the language. D 2 36 OF THE ARTICLE AND INTERJECTION. [PART T. B. — As far then as regards the Article, Mr. Harris seems at present to be the author most likely to meet with your approbation : for he not only establishes its necessity, in order *' to circumscribe the latitude of genera and species," and therefore treats of it separately ; but has raised it to a degree of importance much beyond all other modern Grammarians. And though he admits of only two Articles, '* properly and strictly so called," viz. a and the ; yet has he assigned to these two little words full one-fourth part in his distribution of language : which, you know, is into — '* Substantives, Attri- butives, Definitives, and Connectives." ίί.-— If Mr. Harris has not intirely secured my concurrence with his Doctrine of OefinitiveSj I must confess he has at least taken effectual care to place it compleatly beyond the reach of confutation. He says, 1. '' The Articles have no meaning, but when associated to some other word." 2. '' Nothing can be more nearly related than the Greek article Ό to the English article the." 3. ^^ But the article A defines in an imperfect manner." 4. '^ Therefore the Greeks have no article correspondent to our article A." 5. Hovi^ever, ** they supply its place." - — And Ηοιυ, think you ? 6. '' By a Negation^' — (observe well their method of supply) — '^ by a negation of their article *0 ;" (that is, as he well explains himself,)—^' without any thing prefixed, but only the article *0 withdrawn.''' 7. ^^ Even in English, we also express the force of the article A, in plurals, by the same negation of the article the\" ^ " It is perhaps owing to the imperfect manner in which the Article A defines, that the Greeks have no article correspondent to it, but supply its place by a negation of their Article Ό . — 'Ο αρΘρωποί επεσεν, THE man fell ; ανθρωηοχ επεσεν, a man fell ; — without any thing pre- fixed, but only the Article withdrawn." " Even in English, where the Article A cannot be used, as in plurals, its force is exjDressed by the same negation. — Those are the men, means, Those are individuals of which we possess some previous know- ledge. — Those are men, the Article apart, means no more than they are so many vague and uncertain individuals ; just as the phrase, — A man, in the singular, implies one of the same number." Book 2. chap. 1. CH. v.] ADVERTISEMENT. 37 Now here I acknowledge myself to be compleatly thrown out ; and, like the philosopher of old, merely for wantof a firm resting-place on which to fix my machine : for it would have been as easy for him to raise the earth with a fulcrum of ether, as for me to establish any reasoning or argument on this sort 0Ϊ negation. For, ^^ nothing being prefixed,'' 1 cannot imagine in what manner or in what respect a negation of Ό or of the, differs from a negation of Harris or of Pudding. For lack however of the light of comprehension, I must do as other Grammarians do in similar situations, attempt to illustrate by a parallel. I will suppose Mr. Harris (when one of the Lords of the Treasury) to have addressed the Minister in the same style of reasoning. "Salaries, Sir, produce no benefit, unless asso- ciated to some receiver : my salary at present is but an imper- fect provision for myself and family : but your salary as Minister is much more compleat. Oblige me therefore by withdrawing my present scanty pittance ; and supply its place to me, by a negation of your salary." — -I think this request could not reasonably have been denied : and what satisfaction Mr. Harris would have felt by finding his theory thus reduced to practice, no person can better judge than myself; because I have experienced a conduct not much dissimilar from the Rulers of the Inner Temple : who having first inticed me to quit one profession, after many years of expectation, have very handsomely supplied its place to me by a negation of the other. ADVERTISEMENT, The three following chapters (except some small alterations and additions) have already been given to the public in A Letter to Mr. Dunning in the year 1778 : which, though published, was not written on the spur of the occasion. The substance of that Letter, and of all that I have further to com- municate on the subject of Language, has been amongst the loose papers in my closet now upvvards of thirty years ; and would probably have remained there some years longer, and 38 ADVERTISEMENT. have been finally consigned with myself to oblivion, if I had not been made the miserable victim of — Two Prepositions and a Conjunction, The officiating Priests indeed^ were themselves of rank and eminence sufficient to dignify and grace my fall. But that the Conjunction that, and the Prepositions of and concerning (words which have hitherto been held to have no meaning) should be made the abject instruments of my civil extinction, (for such was the intention, and such has been the consequence of my prosecution,) appeared to me to make my exit from civil life as degrading as if I had been brained by a lady's fan. For mankind in general are not sufficiently aware that words without meaning, or of equivocal meaning, are the everlasting engines of fraud and injustice : and that the grimgribber of Westminster-Hall is a more fertile, and a much more formi- dable, source of imposture than the abracadabra of magicians. Upon a motion made by me in arrest of judgment in the Court of King's Bench in the year 1777, the Chief Justice adjourned the decision : and instead of arguments on the merits of my objection, (which however by a side-wind were falsely represented by him as merely literal flaws^) desired that Pre- cedents might be brought by the Attorney General on a future day. None were however adduced, but by the Chief Justice himself,• who indeed produced two. (Thereby depriving me of the opportunity of combating the Precedents and their application, which I should have had if they had been pro- duced by the Attorney General^.) And on the strength of these 1 Attorney General Thurlow — since Chancellor and a Peer. Solicitor General Wedderhurne — since Chancellor and a Peer. Earl Mansfield, Chief Justice. Mr. Buller — since a Judge. Mr. Wallace — since Attorney General. Mr. Mansfield — since Solicitor General and C. J. of the C. Pleas. Mr. Bearcroft — since Chief Justice of Chester. 2 " Lord Mansfield, " If the Defendant has a legal advantage from a Literal flaw, God forbid t\i^t he should not have the benefit of it." —Proceedings in K. B. The King against Home. 3 *' Lord Mansfield, ** I fancy the Attorney General was surprized with the objection." ADVERTISEMENT. 39 two Precedents alone, (forgetting his own description and dis- tinction of the crime to the Jury,) he decided against me^ I say, on the strength of these two precedents alone. For the gross perversion and misapplication of the technical term de bene esse, was merely pour eblouir, to introduce the proceed- ings on the trial, and to divert the attention from the only point in question — the sufficiency of the charge in the Record. — And I cannot believe that any man breathing (except Lord 1 The Attorney General, in his reply, said to the Jury, " Let us a little see what is the nature of the observations he makes. In the first place, that I left it exceedingly short : and the objection to my having left it short, Λvas simply this ; that I had stated no more to you but this, that of imputing to the conduct of the King's troops the crime of murder. Now I stated it, as imputed to the troops, ordered as they were upon the public service." Lord Mansfield to the Jury : " Read the paper. What is it ? Why it is this ; that our beloved American Fellow- subjects — in rebellion against the State — not beloved so as to be abetted in their rebellion." Again, — " What is the em- ployment they (the troops) are ordered upon ? Why then what are they who gave the orders ? Draw the conclusion»" Again, — " The unhappy resistance to the legislative authority of this kingdom by many of our Fellow- subjects in America ; the legislature of this kingdom have avowed that the Americans rebelled : Troops are employed upon this ground. The case is here between a just Government and rebellious subjects." — Again, — " You will read this paper ; you will judge whether it is not denying the Government and Legislative authority of England." And again, — " If you are of opinion that they were all murdered (like the cases of undoubted murders, of Glenco, and twenty other massacres that might be named), why then you may form a different conclusion." And again — " if some soldiers. Without authority, had got in a drunken fray, and murder had ensued, and that this paper could relate to that, it would be quite a different thing from the charge in the information : because it is charged — as a seditious Libel tending to dis- quiet the minds of the People." (See the Trial.) A man must be not only well practised, but even hackneyed in our Courts of Justice to discover the above description of my crime in the Prepositions, of and concerning. Be that as it may : It is evident that the Attorney General and the Chief Justice did not expect the Jury to be so enlightened ; and therefore (when I had no longer a right to open my lips) the}^ described a crime to them in that plain language which I still contend I had a right to expect in the Information; because — " A seditious Libel tending to disquiet the minds of the people," — has been determined to be mere paper and packthread, and no part of the Charge. 40 ADVERTISEMENT. Mansfield) either in the profession or out of it, will think it an argument against the validity of my objection; that it was brought forward only by myself, and had not been alleged before by the learned Counsel for the Printers, This, however, I can truly tell his lordship ; that the most learned of them all (absit invidia)^ Mr. Dunning, was not aware of the objection when I first mentioned it to him ; that he would not believe the inform- ation could be so defective in all its Counts, till I produced to him an Office Copy : when to his astonishment he found it so, he felt no jealousy that the objection had been missed by himself; but declared it to be insuperable and fatal: and bad me rest assured, that whatever might be Lord Mansfield's wishes, and his courage on such occasions, he would not dare to overrule the objection. And when after the close of the first day, ί hinted to him my suspicions of Lord Mansfield's inten- tions by the '' God forbid;'' and by the perverted and misap- plied '' De bene esse/' in order to mix the proceedings on the trial with the question of record ; he smiled at it, as merely a method which his lordship took of letting the matter down gently, and breaking the abruptness of his fall. Strange as it may appear ! One of those Precedents was merely imaginedhj the Chief Justice, but never really existed. And the other (through ignorance of the meaning of the Con- junction that) had never been truly understood; neither by the Counsel who originally took the exception, nor perhaps by the Judges who made the decision, nor by the Reporter of it, nor by the present Chief Justice who quoted and misapplied it. Mr. Dunning undertook to prove (and did actually prove in the House of Lords) the ηοΊΐ -existence of the main precedent. And ί undertook, in that Letter to Mr. Dunning, to shew the real merits and foundation, and consequently Lord Mansfield's misapplication of the other. And I undertook this, because it afforded a very striking instance of the importance of the mean- ing of words; not only (as has been too lightly supposed) to Metaphysicians and School-men, but to the rights and happi- ness of mankind in their dearest concerns—the decisions of Courts of Justice. In the House of Lords these two Precedents (the foundation ofthe Judgment in the Court of King's Bench)were abandoned: OF THE WORD THAT. 41 and the description of my crime against Government was ad- judged to be sufficiently set forth by the Prepositions of and CONCERNING. Perhaps it may make my readers smile ; but I mention it as a further instance of the importance of inquiry into the mean- ino; of words : — that in the decision of the Judo-es in the House of Lords, the Chief Justice De Grey (who found of and con- cerning so comprehensive, clear, and definite) began by declaring that — -"the word Certainty [which the Law requires in the description of Crimes] is as indefinite [that is, as Uii- certain^ as any word that could be used." Now though certainty is so uncertain, we must suppose the word Libel to be very definite: and yet if I were called upon for an equivalent term, I believe I could not find in our language any word more popu- larly apposite than Calumny ; which is defined by Cicero, in his Offices, to be^ — " callida et maliiiosa Juris interpretatio." If there was any Mistake (which however I am very far from believing) in this decision, sanctioned by the Judges and the House of Lords ; I shall be justified in applying (with the sub- stitution of the single word Grammatici for Istorici) what Giannone, who was himself an excellent lawyer, says of his countrymen of the same profession : — ** Tanta ignoranza avea loro bendati gli occhi, che si pregiavano d'essere solamente Legist], e non Grammatici ; non accorgendosi, che perche non erano Grammatici, eran percio cattivi legisti." — 1st. CiviL di Napoli. Intro, CHAPTER VL OF THE WORD THAT. B. — But besides the Articles ^' propeily and strictly so called," ί think Mr. Harris and other Grammarians say that there are some words which^ according to the different manner of using them, are sometimes Articles and sometimes Pro- nouns : and that it is difficult to determine to which class they ought to be referred \ ^ " It must be confessed indeed that all these Avords do not always appear as Pronouns. When they stand by themselves and represent 42 OF THE WORD THAT. [PART I. H, — They do so. And by so doing, sufficiently instruct us (if we will but use our common sense) what value we ought to put upon such classes and such definitions. B, — Can you give us any general rule by which to distin- guish when they are of the one sort, and when of the other ? H. — Let them give the rule who thus confound together the Manne?' of signification of words, and the Abbreviations in their Construction: than which no two things in Language are more distinct, or ought to be more carefully distinguished. I do not allow that Αητ/ words change their nature in this manner, so as to belong sometimes to one Part of Speech, and sometimes to another, from the different ways of using them. I never could perceive any such fluctuation in any word whatever : though I know it is a general charge brought erroneously against words of almost every denomination \ But it appears to me to be all, Error : arising from the false measure which has been taken of almost every sort of words. Whilst the words themselves appear to me to continue faith- fully and steadily attached, each to the standard under which it was originally inlisted. But I desire to wave this matter for the present; because ί think it will be cleared up by what is to follow concerning the other sorts of w^ords ; at least, if that should not convince you, I shall be able more easily to satisfy you on this head hereafter. some Noun, (as when we say — this is virtue, or ^εικτικωε. Give me THAT,) then are they Pronouns. But when they are associated to some Noun, (as when we say — this habit is virtue, or ^εικηκωε, that man defrauded me,) then, as they supply not the place of a Noun, but only serve to ascertain one, they fall rather into the species of Definitives or Articles. That there is indeed a near relation between Pronouns and Articles, the old Grammarians have all acknowledged ; and some words it has been doubtful to which class to refer. The best rule to distin- guish them is this. — The genuine Pronoun always stands by itself, assuming the power of a noun, and supplying its place. — The genuine Article never stands by itself, but appears at all times associated to something else, requiring a noun for its support, as much as Attributives or Adjectives." — Hermes, book 1. chap. 5. i " Certains mots sont Adverbes, Prepositions, et Conjunctions en meme temps : et repondent ainsi au meme temps a diverses parties d'oraison selon que la grammaire les emploie diversement." — Buffier, art. 150. And so say all other Grammarians. CH. VI.] OF THE WOED THAT» 43 B. — I would not willingly put you out of your own way, and am contented to wait for the explanation of many things till you shall arrive at the place which you may think proper for it. But really what you have now advanced seems to me so very extraordinary and contrary to fact, as well as to the uniform declaration of all Grammarians, that you must excuse me, if, before we proceed any further, ί mention to you one instance. Mr. Harris and other Grammarians say that the word that is sometimes an Article and sometimes a Pronoun, However I do not desire an explanation of that [point] : because I see how you will easily reconcile that [difference], by a subauditur or an abbreviation of Construction : and I agree with you there. But what will you do with the Conjunction that ? Is not this a very considerable and manifest fluctuation and difference of signification in the same word? Has the Con- junction THAT, any the smallest correspondence or similarity of signification with that, the Article, or Pronoun ? H, — In my opinion the word that (call it as you please, either Article^ or Pronoun, or Conjunction) retains always one and the same signification. Unnoticed abbreviation in con- struction and difference of position have caused this appearance of fluctuation ; and misled the Grammarians of all languages both ancient and modern : for in all they make the same mis- take. Pray, answer me a question. Is it not strange and improper that we should, without any reason or necessity, employ in English the same word for two different meanings and purposes ? jB. — I think it wrong : and I see no reason for it, but many reasons against it. H. — Well ! Then is it not more strange that this same im propriety, in this same case, should run through all languages? And that they should all use an Article, without any reason, unnecessarily, and improperly, for this same Conjunction ; with which it has, as you say, no correspondence nor similarity of signification ? B. — If they do so, it is strange. H. — They certainly do ; as you will easily find by inquiry. Now does not the uniformity and universality of this supposed mistake, and unnecessary impropriety, in languages which 44 OF THE WORD THAT. [pART I. have no connexion with each other, naturally lead iis to suspect that this usage of the Article may perhaps be neither mistaken nor improper ? But that the mistake may lie only with us, who do not understand it ? B. — No doubt what you have said, if true, would afford ^ ground for suspicion. II. — if true ! Examine any languages you please, and see whether they also, as well as the English, have not a supposed Conjunction which they employ as we do that ; and which is also the same ¥/ord as their supposed Articlej or Pronoun. Does not this look as if there was some reason for employing the Article in this manner? And as if there was some con- nexion and similarity of signification between it and this Con- junct io7i ? jB. — The appearances, I own, are strongly in favour of your opinion. But how shall we find out what that connexion is ? //. — Suppose we examine some instances ; and, still keep- ing the same signification of the sentences, try whether we cannot, by a resolution of their construction, discover what we want. Example. — '^ I wish you to believe that ί would not wil- fully hurt a fiy,'^ Resolution, — ^' I would not wilfully hurt a fly j ί wish you to believe that [assertion].'' Ex.—^^ She knowing that Crooke had been indicted for forgery, did so and so." ResoL — ^^ Crooke had been indicted for forgery ; she, know- ing that [fact], did so and so\" Ex. — ^* You say that the same arm which, when con- tracted, can lift™ ; when extended to its utmost reach, will not be able to raise — . You mean that we should never for- get our situation, and that we should be prudently contented to do good within our own sphere, where it can have an efiΊect : and THAT we should not be misled even by a virtuous benevo- lence and public spirit, to waste ourselves in fruitless efforts beyond our power of influence.'' ResoL' — '* The same arm v/hich, when contracted, can lift- — ; when extended to its utmost reach, will not be able to raise — : 1 King V. Lawley. Strange 's Reports. Easter T. 4 Geo. II. CH. VI.] OF THE WORD THAT» 45 you say that. We should never forget our situation ; you mean that : and we should be contented to do good within our own sphere where it can have an effect j you mean that : and we should not be misled even by a virtuous benevolence and public spirit to waste ourselves in fruitless efforts beyond our power of influence ; you mean that." Ex. — '' They who have well considered that kingdoms rise or fall, and that their inhabitants are happy or miserable, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvan- tages : but accordingly as they are well or ill governed ; may best determine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politics." Resol. — '^ Kingdoms rise or fall, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages, but accord- ingly as they are well or ill governed ; they who have well considered that [maxim], may best determine how far a vir- tuous mind can be neutral in politics. And the inhabitants of kingdoms are happy or miserable, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages, but accordingly as they are well or ill governed ; they who have considered that, may best determine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politics \" ^ " Le despotisme ^crase de son sceptre de fer le plus beau pays du monde : II semble que les malheurs des hommes croissant en proportion des eiforts que la nature fait pour les rendre lieureux." — Savary. " Dans ce paradis terrestre, au milieu de tant de ricliesses, qui croi- roit que le Siamois est peut-etre le plus miserable des peuples ? Le gouvernement de Siam est despotique : le souverain jouit seul du droit de la liberie naturelle a tous les hommes. Ses sujets sont ses esclaves ; cliacun d'eux lui doit six mois de service personnel chaque annee, sans aucun salaire et meme sans nourriture. II leur accorde les six autres pour se procurer de quoi vivre." [Happy, happy England, if ever thy miserable inhabitants shall, in respect of taxation, be elevated to the condition of the Siamois ; when thy Taskmasters shall be contented with half the produce of thy industry !] " Sous un tel gouvernement il n'y a point de loi qui protege les particuliers contre la violence, et qui leur assure aucune propriete. Tout depend des fantaisies d'un prince abruti par toute sorte d'exces, et surtout par ceux du pouvoir ; qui passe ses jours enferme dans un serrail, ignorant tout ce qui se fait hors de son palais, et sur tout les malheurs de ses peuples. Cependant ceux-ci sont livres a la cupidit6 des grands, qui sont les premiers esclaves, et approchent seuls a des jours marques, mais toujours en tremblant, de la personne du despote, qu'ils adorent comme une divinite 46 OF THE WORD THAT* [pART I. Ex, — '^ Thieves rise by night that tbey may cut men's throats/' ResoL — '^ Thieves may cut men's throats {for) that (pur^ pose) they rise by night." After the same manner, I imagine, may all sentences be resolved (in all languages) where the Conjunction that (or its equivalent) is employed : and by such resolution it will always be discovered to have merely the same force and signification, and to be in fact nothing else but the very same word which in other places is called an Article or a Pronoun, ■ — sujette a des caprices dangereux." — Voyages d'un Philosophe \_Mons. Poivre]. Londres, 1769. The above heart-rending reflections which Savary makes at the sight of Egypt, and Mons. Poivre at the condition of Siam, might serve as other examples for the Conjunction in question : but I give them for the sake of their matter. And I think myself at least as well justified (I do not expect to be as well rewarded) as our late Poet Laureat ; who, upon the following passage of Milton's Comus, '' And sits as safe as in a Senate house," adds this flagitious note : *' Not many years after this was written, Milton's Friends shewed that the safety of a Senate house was not inviolable. But when the people turn Legislators, what place is safe against the tumults of inno- vation, and the insults of disobedience ?" I believe our late Laureat meant not so much to cavil at Milton's expression, as to seize an impertinent opportunity of recommending himself to the powers which lie, by a cowardly insult on the dead and persecuted author's memory, and on the aged, defenceless constitution of his country. A critic who should really be displeased at Milton's expression, would rather shew its impropriety by an event which had happened before it was used, than by an event which the poet could not at that time fore- see. Such a critic adverting to the 5th of November, 1605, and to the 4th of January, 1641, might more truly say — '^ Not many years both before and after this was \vritten, Warton's Friends shewed that the safety of a Senate house was not inviolable." With equal impertinence and malignity (pages 496, 538.) has he raked up the ashes of Queen Caroline and Queen Elizabeth ; whose private characters and inoffensive amusements were as little connected with Milton's poems, as this animadversion on Warton is with the sub- ject I am now treating. Perhaps, after all, the concluding line of Milton's epitaph, " Rege sub augusto fas sit laudare Catonem," is artfully made by Mr. Warton the concluding line also of his Notes ; in order to account for his present virulence, and to soften the resent- ment of his readers, at the expence of his patron. CH. VI.] OF THE WORD THAT. Al B, — For any thing that immediately occurs to me, this may perhaps be the case in Enghsh, where that is the only Con- junction of the same signification which we employ in this manner. But your last example makes me believe that this method of resolution will not take place in those languages which have different Conjunctions for this same purpose. And if so, I suspect that your whole reasoning on this subject may be without foundation. For how can you resolve the original of your last example ; where (unfortunately for your notion) UT is employed, and not the neuter Article quod ? " Ut jugulent homines surgunt de nocte latrones." I suppose you will not say that ut is the Latin neuter Article. For even Sanctius, who struggled so hard to withdraw quod from amongst the Conjunctions, yet still left ut amongst them without molestation \ 1 It is not at all extraordinary that tjt and quod should be indiffer- ently used for the same conjunctive purpose : for as ut (originally writ- ten uTi) is nothing but otl : So is quod (anciently v^ritten quodde) merely Kat ottl. " Quodde tuas laudes culpas, nil proucis hilum." — Lucilius» (See Note in Havercamp's and Creech's Lucretius ; where quodde is mistakenly derived from orrtde.) qu, in Latin, being sounded (not as the English but as the French pronounce qu, that is) as the Greek Κ ; Kat (by a change of the character, not of the sound) became the the Latin Que (used only enclitically indeed in modern Latin). Hence Και υττι became in Latin Quotti — Quoddi — Quodde — Quod. Of ΛνΗοΙι if Sanctius had been aware, he would not have attempted a distinction between ut and quod : since the two words, though differently cor- rupted, are in substance and origin the same. The perpetual change of τ into d, and vice versa, is so very familiar to all who have ever paid the smallest attention to Language, that I should not think it worth ΛνΗΙε to notice it in the present instance ; if all the etymological canonists, whom I have seen, had not been remark- ably inattentive to the organical causes of those literal changes of which they treat. Skinner (who was a Physician) in his Trolegomena Etymological speaking of the frequent transmutation of s into z, says very truly " Sunt sane literal sono/ere Ccedem." But in what does that /ere consist ? For s is not nearer in sound to z, than ρ is to b, or than τ is to d, or than f is to v, or than κ is to g, or than th (Θ) in Thing, is to th (D) in That, or than sh is to the French j. (N.B. TH and sh are simple consonants, and should be marked by single letters, j, as the English pronounce it, is a double consonant ; and should have two characters.) 48 OF THE WORD THAT. [PART I. Ή. — You are not to expect from me that I should, in this place, account etymologically for the different words which some languages (for there are others beside the Latin) may sometimes borrow and employ in this manner instead of their own common Article. But if you should hereafter exact it, I shall not refuse the undertaking : although it is not the easiest part of Etymology: for Ahhreviation and Corruption are alwai/s busiest with the words which are most frequentli/ in use* Letters, like soldiers, being very apt to desert and drop off in a long march, and especially if their passage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country \ Yet I doubt not For these seven couple of simple consonants, viz. Β — Ρ With the Compression G — Κ D — Τ Ζ — s D — θ V ~ F J — SH Without the Compression differ each from its partner, by no variation whatever of articulation ; but singly by a certain unnoticed and almost imperceptible motion or compression of or near the Larynx ; which causes what Wilkins calls " some kind of murmur e J" This compression the Welch never use. So that when a Welchman, instead of " I vow, by God, Dat Jenkin iz a Wizzard," pronounces it thus, '' I fow, py Cot, Cat Shenkin iss a Wissart;" he articulates in every other respect exactly as we do ; but omits the compression nine times in this sentence. And for failing in this one point only, changes seven of our consonants : for we owe seven addi- tional letters (i. e. seven additional sounds in our language) solely to the addition of this one compression to seven diiFerent articulations. 1 " Nous avons deja dit, que I'alteration du derive augmentoit a rnesure que le temps I'eloignoit du primitif ; et nous avons ajoute — toutes choses d'ailleiirs egales, — parceque la quantite de cette alteration depend aussi du cours que ce mot a dans le public. II s'use, pour ainsi dire, en passant dans un plus grand nombre de bouches, sur tout dans la bouche du peuple : et la rapidite de cette circulation equivaut a une plus longue duree. Les noms des Saints et les noms de bapteme les plus communs, en sent un exemple. Les mots qui reviennent le plus souvent dans les langues, tels que les verbes etre, faire, vouloir, alter, et tous ceux qui servent a lier les autres mots dans le discours, sent sujets a de plus grandes alterations. Ce sent ceux qui ont le plus be- CH, VI.] OF THE WORD THAT. 49 that, with this clue, you will yourself be able, upon inquiry, to account as easily (and in the same manner) for the use of all the others, as I know you can for υτ ; which is merely the Greek neuter Article οτι^^ adopted for this conjunctive pur- pose by the Latins, and by them originally written υτι : the ο being changed into u, from that propensity which both the antient Romans had^, and the modern Italians still have^, upon many occasions, to pronounce even their own ο like an u. Of which I need not produce any instances'*. The Resolution therefore of the original will be like that of the translation ; " Latrones jugulent homines (Δί) bn surgunt de nocte." soin d'etre fixes par la langue ecrite." — Encyclopedie {Etymologie) par M. De Brasses. ^ " Uti est mutata on." — J. C. Scaliger de Causis L. L. caj). 173. 2 So in the antient form of self-devotion. " VTEI. EGO. AXIM. PRAI. ME. FORMIDINEM. METOM. QUE. OMNIOM. DIRAS. SIC. VTEI. VERBEIS. NONCOPASO. ITA. PRO. REPOPLICA. POPOLI. ROMAN!. QUIRITIOM. VITAM. SALUTEM. QUE. MEAM. LEGIONES. AUXSILIA. QUE. HOSTIOM. MEOM. DIVEIS. MANEBOUS. TELLOURI. QUE. DEVOVEO." So in the laws of Num.a, and in the twelve tables, and in all antient inscriptions, ο is perpetually found where the modern Latin uses u. And it is but reasonable to suppose, that the pronunciation preceded the change of the orthography. 3 " Quant a la voyelle υ pour ce qu'ils (les Italiens) I'aiment fort, ainsi que nous cognoissons par ces mots Ufficio, Ubrigato, &c. je pense bien qu'ils la respectent plus que les autres." — Henri Estiene, de la Precell. de la L. P. '^ '* L'o a stretta amicizia coll' v, usandosi in molte voci scambie- volmente." — Menage. Cambiamenti delle Lettere, page 16. Menage quotes Quinctilian, Festus, Velius Longus, Victorinus, Cas- siodorus, Servius, Priscian, Virgil, Jul. Cses. Scaliger. " La V par die prevalesse ne' primi tempi e piu remoti, quando i Latini, memori della Eolica origine, ο imitando gli Umbri e gli Etrus- chi, literam ν pro ο efferebant * ; e pronunziavano Funtes, Frundes, Acherunte, Humones, e similif. Quindi Ovidio, avendo detto che una volta il nome di Orione era Urion, soggiugne — perdidit antiquum litera prima sonum % . Ne' tempi posteriori si ando all' altro estremo ; e all' antica lettera fu sostituita quasi sempre la o, come vedesi in Novios Plautios, e in altre voci della tavola seconda. Prisciano ne da per ra- gione : quia multis Italice populis ν in usu non erat, sed e contrario ute- hantur ο § : dicendosi verbigrazia, Colpa, Exsoles, per Culpa, Exules, &c.||" — Lanzi Saggio di Lingua Efrusca, torn. i. pag. 124. * Fest. vid. Orcus. f Quinct. 1.4. I Fast. v. § Pag. 554, II Cassiod. 2284. Ε 50 OF THE WORD THAT- [PART I. B. — You have exUicated yourself pretty well out of this scrape with υτ. And perhaps have done prudently, to decline the same sort of explanation in those other languages which, as well as the Latin, have likewise a double Conjunction for this purpose, not quite so easily accounted for, because not ready derived to your hands. But I have not yet done with the English : for though your method of resolution will answer with most sentences, yet I doubt much whether it will with all. I think there is one usage of the conjunction that which it will not explain. H, — Produce an instance. B, — The instances are common enough. But I chuse to take one from your favourite Sad Shepherd : in hopes that the difficulty it may cause you v^^ill abate something of your ex- treme partiality for that piece. Which, though it be — — I . *' such wool As from mere English flocks his Muse could pull," you have always contended obstinately, with its author, is a Fleece To match or those of Sicily or Greece." Example. " I wonder he can move ! that he 's not iix'd ! If that his feelings be the same with mine/ So again in Shakespeare ^ If that the king Have any way your good deserts forgot, He bids you name your griefs." How will you bring out the Article that, when two Con- junctions (for I must still call that a Conjunction, till all my scruples are satisfied) come in this manner together? ADVERTISEMENT. I PRESUME my readers to be acquainted with French, Latin, Italian and Greek ; which are unfortunately the usual boun- daries of an English scholar's acquisition. On this supposi- tion, a friend of mine lamented that, in vay Letter to Mr. Dunning, I had not confined myself to the common English character for the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic derivations. ^ First Part of Henry IV, act. 4. scene 5. CH. VI.] OF THE WORD THAT. 51 In the present publication I should undoubtedly have con- formed to his wishes, if I had not iraagfined that, by inserting the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic characters in this place, I might possibly allure some of my readers to familiarize themselves with those characters, by an application of them to the few words of those languages which are here introduced : and thus lead the way to their better acquaintance with the parent lan- guage, which ought long ago to have made a part of the edu- cation of our youth. And I flatter myself that one of the con- sequences of my present inquiry will be, to facilitate and abridge the tedious and mistaken method of instruction which has too long continued in our seminaries : the time which is at present allotted to Latin and Greek, being amply sufficient for the acquirement also of French, Italian, Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, German, Danish and Swedish. Which will not seem at all extraordinary, when it is considered that the five last men- tioned (together with the English) are little more than differ- ent dialects of one and the same language. And though this was by no means the leading motive, nor is the present object of my inquiry ; yet I think it of considerable importance : although I do not hold the acquisition of languages in so very great estimation as the Emperor Charles the Vth did ; who, as Brantome tells us, '' disoit et repetoit souvent, quand il tomboit sur la beaute des langues, (selon I'opinion des Turcs) — qu'autant de langues que Thomme S9ait parler, autant de fois est-il homme.^' Anglo -Saxon. Moeso-Gothic. . -R a a Ν η η Λ a Ν η Β b b Ο ο Β b R Ε c k Ρ Ρ Ρ ^? # Π Ρ D b d # * * d d α CW e e e R Ρ r e e Κ r F F f S Γ s l^ f s S' η Ζ g Τ t t Γ g τ t β h h DP «> th h h φ th # # # , U U U Θ liw η u I 1 i F ρ w I i V w ^ # # X χ X 9 j and y Χ ch κ k k γ y y κ k # * L I 1 ζ ζ ζ A 1 χ ζ CD m m Μ m Ε 2 52 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [PART I. CHAPTER VII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. " H. — I WAS afraid of some such instances as these, when I wished to postpone the whole consideration of this subject till after we had discussed the other received Parts of Speech. Because, in order to explain it, I must forestall something of what I had to say concerning Conjunctions, However, since the question is started, perhaps it may be as well to give it here. The truth of the matter is, that if is merely a Verb. It is merely the Imperative of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb n)Z/\.N, Dijzan. And in those languages, as well as in the English formerly, this supposed Conjunction was pronounced and written as the common Imperative, purely ΐ*ϊ\ζ, Ι^ψ? GiJ\ Thus My largesse Hath lotted her to be your brother's mistresse GIF shee can be reclaim'd; gif not, his prey^" And accordingly our corrupted if has always the signifi- cation of the English Imperative Give ; and no other. So that the resolution of the construction in the instances you have produced, will be as before in the others. Resolution. — *^ His feelings be the same with mine, give THAT, I wonder he can move," &c. ^' The King may have forgotten your good deserts, give THAT in any way, he bids you name your griefs." And here, as an additional proof, we may observe, that whenever the Datum, upon which any conclusion depends, is a sentence, the Article that, if not expressed, is always un- derstood, and may be inserted after if. As in the instance I have produced above, the Poet might have said, " Gif that she can be reclaimed," &c. For the resolution is — *' She can be reclaimed. Give that ; my largesse hath lotted her to be your brother's mistresse. She cannot be reclaimed. Give that; my largesse hath lotted her to be your brotlier's prey.'' 1 Sad Shepherd, act 2. scene 1 . CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 53 But the Article that is not understood, and cannot be inserted after if, where the Datum is not a sentence, but some Noun governed by the Verb if or give. As, — Example. — '' How will the weather dispose of you to- morrow? if fair, it will send me abroad ; if foul, it will keep me at home.^' Here Vr'e cannot say — '' if that fair it will send me abroad; IF THAT foul it will keep me at home." — Because in this case the verb if governs the Noun; and the resolved construction is, *' GIVE fair weather, it will send me abroad ; give foul wea- ther, it will keep me at home." But make the Datum a sentence, As — '' if it is fair wea- ther, it will send me abroad ; if it is foul weather, it will keep me at home :" And then the article that is understood, and may be inserted after if; As — ''if that it is fair weather, it will send me abroad ; if that it is foul weather, it will keep me at home." The resolution then being, '' It is fair weather, give that ; it will send me abroad ; It is foul weather, give that; it will keep me at home." And this you wnll find to hold universally, not only with if; but with many other supposed Corijunctions, such as, But that, Unless that, Though that, Lest that, &c. (which are really Verbs) put in this manner before the Article that. B. — One word more to clear up a difiiculty which occurs to me concerning your account of if, and I have done. We have in English another word which (though now rather obsolete) used frequently to supply the place of if. As — ''an you had any eye behind you, you might see more detraction at your heels, than fortunes before you\" In this and in all similar instances, what is an ? For I can by no means agree with the account which Dr. S. Johnson gives of it in his Dictionary : and I do not know that any other person has ever attempted to explain it. H. — How does he account for it? B. — He says, — " an is sometimes in old authors a con- traction of And if,'' Of which he gives a very unlucky in- 1 Twelfth Night, act 2. scene 8. 54 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [PART I. stance from Shakespeare^ ; where both an and if are used in the same line. ■ " He cannot flatter. He ! An honest mind and plain : he must speak Truth : An they will take it, — So. if not ; He 's plain." Where, if an was a contraction of and if ; an and if should rather change places. H, — I can no more agree with Dr. S. Johnson than you do. A part of one word only, employed to shew that another word is compounded with it, would indeed be a curious method of con-traction. Though even this account of it would serve my purpose. But the truth v/ill serve it better : and therefore I thank you for your difficulty. It is a fresh proof, and a very strong one in my favour. an is also a Vei^bj and may very well supply the place of if ; it being nothing else but the Im- perative of the Anglo-Saxon verb T^nan, which likewise means to Give, or to Grant. B. — It seems indeed to be so. But, if so, how can it ever be made to signify as if ? For which also, as well as for And if, Johnson says an is a con-traction^. H.—lt never signifies As if: nor is ever a contraction of them. -B.— Johnson however advances Addison's authority for it. . *' My next pretty correspondent, like Shakespeare's Lion in Pyramus and Thisbe, roars an it were any nightingale." ii.— -If Addison had so written, I should answer roundly, that he had written false English. But he never did so write. He only quoted it in mirth and ridicule, as the author wrote it. And Johnson, an Editor of Shakespeare, ought to have known and observed it. And then, instead of Addison's or even Shakespeare's authority, from whom the expression is bor- rowed ; he should have quoted Bottom's, the Weaver : whose language corresponds with the character Shakespeare has given him, — - 1 Lear, act 2. scene 6. ~ This arbitrary method of contraction is very useful to an idle or ignorant expositor. It will suit any thing. S. Johnson also says " An't, a contraction for And it ; or rather And if it ; as — An't please you— that is. And if it please youT It is merely — an it -please you. CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 55 " The shallowest thickskuU of that barren sort, viz. A crew of Patches, rude Mechanicals, That work for Bread upon Athenian Stalls^." ^^ I will aggravate my voice so (says Bottom) that I will roar you as gently as any sucking Dore : I will roar you an 'twere any nightingale ^'' If Johnson is satisfied with such authority as this, for the different signification and propriety of English words, he will find enough of it amongst the clowns in all our comedies; and Master Bottom in particular in this very sentence will furnish him with many new meanings. But, I believe, Johnson will not find AN used for As if, either seriously or clownishly, in any other part of Addison or Shakespeare ; except in this speech of Bottom, and in another of Hostess Quickly — '^ He made a finer end, and went away an it had been any Christom child^" B. — In Enghsh then, it seems, these two words which have been called conditional Conjunctions (and whose force and manner of signification, as well as of all the others, we are directed by Mr. Locke to search after in " the several views, postures, stands, turns, limitations, and exceptions, and several other thoughts of the mind, for which we have either none o/• veri/ deficient names'') are, according to you, merely the original Imperatives of the verbs to Give or to Grant, Now let me understand you. I do not mean to divert you into an etymological explanation of each particular word of other languages, or even of the English, and so to change our conversation from a philosophical inquiry concerning the nature of Language in general, into the particular business of a poly- glot Lexicon. But, as you have said that your principles will apply universally, I desire to know whether you mean that the conditional conjunctions of all other languages are likewise to be found, like if and an, in the original Imperatives of some of their own or derived verbs, meaning to Give ? H. — No. if that was my opinion, I know you are ready instantly to confute it by the Conditionals of the Greek and Latin and Irish, the French, Italian, Spanish, Portugueze and y Midsummer Night's Dream, act 3. scene 2. ■^ Ibid, act 1. scene 2. 3 Henry V. act 2. scene 3. 56 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [PART I. many other Languages. But I mean, that those words which are called conditional co?ij unctions, are to be accounted for in ALL lano'uaoes in the same manner as I have accounted for if and AN. Not indeed that they must all mean precisely as these two do, — Give and Graiit ; but some word equivalent : Such as,— —.Be itj Suppose, Allow, Permit, Put, Suffer, &c. Which meaning is to be sought for from the particular etymo- logy of each respective language, not from some misnamed and un-known *^ Turns, Stands, Postures, &c. of the mind." In short, to put this matter out of doubt, I mean to discard all supposed mystery, not only about these Conditionals, but about all those words also which Mr. Harris and others distinguish from Prepositions, and call Conjunctions of Sentences. I deny them to be a separate sort of words or Part of Speech by them- selves. For they have not a separate manner of signification : although they are not devoid of signification. And the par- ticular signification of each must be sought for from amongst the other parts of Speech, by the help of the particular etymo- logy of each respective language. By such means alone can we clear away the obscurity and errors in which Grammarians and Philosophers have been involved by the corruption of some common words, and the useful Abbreviations of Construction. And at the same time we shall get rid of that farrago of useless distinctions into Conjunctive, Adjunctive, Disjunctive, Suhdis- junctive. Copulative, Negative copulative \ Continuative, Sub- continuative. Positive, Suppositive, Casual, Collective, Effective, Approbative, Discretive, Ablative, Presumptive, Abnegative, Completive, Augmentative, Alternative, Fli/pothetical,. Extensive, Periodical, Motival, Conclusive, Explicative, Transitive, Inter- rogative, Comparative, Diminutive, Preventive, Adequate Pre- ventive, Adversative, Conditional, Suspensive, Illative, Con- ductive. Declarative, &c. &c. &c., which explain nothing; and (as most other technical terms are abused) serve only to throw a veil over the ignorance of those who employ them". 1 " Non, Non, mon minus disjungit, quam Nee, Nee. Quanquam neutrum ego Disjunetivum appello, sed eojiulativum])ou\x?> negativum." — Aristarchus Anti-Bentleia?ms. Pars secunda. Pag. 12. - Technical terms are not invariably abused to cover the ignorance only of those who employ them. In matters of law, politicks, and Government, they are more frequently abused in attempting to impose CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 57 B. — You mean, then, by what you liave said, flatly to con- tradict Mr. Harris's definition of a Conjujiction ; which he says, is — '^ a Part of Speech devoid of signification itself, but so formed as to help signification, by making two or more signi- ficant sentences to be one significant sentence." H. — I have the less scruple to do that, because Mr. Harris makes no scruple to contradict himself. For he afterwards acknov/ledges that some of them — '^ have a kind of obscure signification when taken alone ; and appear in Grammar, like Zoophytes^ in nature, a kind of middle Beings of amphibious character; which, by sharing the attributes of the higher and the lower, conduce to link the whole together." Now I suppose it is impossible to convey a Nothing in a more ingenious manner. How much superior is this to the oracular Saw of another learned author on Language (typified by Shake- speare in Sir Tojjaz") who, amongst much other intelligence of equal importance, tells us with a very solemn face, and ascribes it to Plato, that — ''Every man that opines, must opine some- thing: the subject of opinion therefore is not nothing." But the fairest way to Lord Monboddo is to give you the whole passage. " It was not therefore without reason that Plato said that the subject of opinion was neither the το ov, or the thing itself, nor was it the το μη ov, or nothing ; but something betwixt these two. This may appear dii first sight a little mysterious, upon the ignorance of others ; and to cover the injustice and knavery of those who employ them. ^ These Zoophytes have made a wonderful impression on Lord Mon- boddo. I believe (for I surely have not counted them) that he has used the allusion at least twenty times in his Progress of Language ; and seems to be always hunting after extremes merely for the sake of introducing them. But they have been so often placed between two stools, that it is no wonder they should at last come to the ground. ^ " As the old Hermit of Prague, that never saw pen and ink, very wittily said to a niece of king Gorboduc, — That that is, is .• So I being Master Parson, am Master Parson. For what is that, but that ? And is, but is?" — Tioelfth Night, act 4. scene 3. John Lily's Sir Tophas monboddizes in the same manner. " Sir Tophas. Doest thou not know Λvhat a poet is ? Epiton. No. Sir Tophas. Why, foole, a poet is as much as one should say — a poet." — Endimion, act 1. scene 3. 58 JOF CONJUNCTIONS. [PART I. and difficult to be imderstood ; but, like other things of that kind in Plato, when examined to the bottom, it has a veri/ clear meaning, and explains the nature of opinion vcjy well^: for, as he says. Every man that opines, must opine something ; the subject of opinion therefore is not nothing. At the same time it is not the thing itself^ but something betwixt the two^." His 1 " Lucinde. Qu'est-ce que c'est que ce galimatias?. Front in. Ce galimatias I Vous n'y comprenez done rien ? Lucinde. Non, en verite. Frontin, Ma foi, ni moi non plus : je vais pourtant vous I'expliquer si vous voulez. Lucinde. Comment m'expliquer ce que tu ne comprends pas ? Frontin. Oh ! Dame, j'ai fait mes etudes, moi." — UAmant de lui- meme. (Rousseau,) scene 13. ^ Origin and Progress of Language, vol. 1. p. 100. " II possede I'antiquite, comme on le pent voir par les belles remarques qu'il a faites. Sans lui nous ne scaurions pas que dans la ville d'Athenes les enfans pleuroient quand on leur donnoit le fouet. — Nous devons cette decou- verte a sa profonde erudition." But his lordship's philosophical writings are full of information, ex- planations and observations of equal importance. Vol. 1. p. 136, he informs us, that — Porphyry, the greatest 'pliiloso'plier as well as best tvriter of his age, " relates that crovi^s and magpies and parrots vi^ere taught in his time not only to imitate human speech, but to attend to vi^liat was told them and to remember it ; and many of them, says he, have learned to inform against those whom they saw doing any mischief in the house. And he himself tamed a partridge that he found somewhere about Car- thage to such a degree, that it not only played and fondled with him, but answered him when he spoke to it in a voice different from that in Λvhich the partridges call one another : but was so well bred, that it never made this noise but when it was spoken to. And he maintains, that all animals who have sense and memory are capable of reason : and this is not only his ojiinion, but that of the Pythagoreans, the greatest philosophers in my opinion that ever existed, next to the masters of their master, ί mean the Egyptian priests. And besides the Pythagoreans, Plato, Aristotle, Empedocles, and Democritus, were of the same opi- nion. One thing cannot he denied, that their natures may be very much improved by use and instruction, by which they may be made to do tilings that are really Vi^onderful and far exceeding their natural power of instinct." — -So far we are obliged to the greatest of all philosophers that ever existed. And thus far the judgment of the extract can alone be called in question. Now for the further confirmation of this doc- trine by their illustrious disciple. — " There is a man in England at pre- sent, who has practised more upon them and with greater success than any body living:" — (I suspect his Lordship means the owner of the learned Pig) — " and he says, as I am informed," — (Ay, Right, my lord, Be cautious how you take an assertion so important as this, upon your CH. VII.] ' OF CONJUNCTIONS. 59 Lordship, you see, has explained it very clearly ; and no doubt must have sweated much to get thus to the bottom. But Mr. Harris has the advantage of a Simile over this gen- tleman : and though Similes appear with most beauty and pro- priety in works of imagination, they are frequently found most useful to the authors of philosophical treatises : and have often helped them out at many a dead lift, by giving them an ap- ,pearance of saying something, when indeed they had nothing to say : For Similes are in truth the bladders upon which they float ; and the Grammarian sinks at once if he attempts to swim without them. As a proof of which, let us only examine the present in- stance ; and, dismissing the Zoophytes^ see what intelligence we can draw from Mr. Harris concerning the nature of Con- junctio7is. First he defines ά Word to be a ^' sou?id significant^ .'" Then he defines Conjunctions to be words (i. e. sounds significant) ^' devoid of signification.^^ — Afterw^ards he allows that th*ey have — ''a kind of signification.^^ But this kind of signification is — ^' obscure, ^^ (i.e. a sig- nification unknown) : something I suppose (as Chillingworth couples them) like a secret Tradition, or a silent Thunder : for it amounts to the same thing as a signification which does not signify: an obscure or unknown signification being no signi- fication at all. But, not contented with these inconsistencies, which to a less learned man would seem sufficient of all con- science, Mr. Harris goes further, and adds, that they are a — own authority ! "Well, He says ? What ?) — " That, if they lived enough, and pains sufficient were taken upon them," — (Well, what then ?) — " it is impossible to say to what lengths some of them wleJit be carried." Now if this, and such stuff as this, be Philosophy ; and that too, of the greatest philosophers that ever existed ; I do most humbly mtreat your Lordship, if you still continue obstinate to discard Mr. Locke, that I may have my To7n Thumb again. For this philosophy gives to my mind as much disgust, though not so much indignation, as your friend and admirer Lord Mansfield's law. [Were Mr. Tooke ηοΛν living, he might have a chance of seeing a revival of Tom Thumb, if we may judge from some things that have lately been said of Mr. Locke at Cambridge and else\vhere. — Ed.] 1 And (page 329) he defines a word to be " a voice articulate, sig- nificant by compact." 60 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [pART I. '' kind of 7niddh beings^' — (he must mean between signification and no signification) — ^^ sharing the Attributes of both^^ — (i. e. of signification and no signification) and — ^^ conduce to link them both'' — (i. e. signification and no signification) ^'together J* It would have helped us a little, if Mr. Harris had here told us what that middle state is. between signification and no sig- nification^ ! What are the attributes of no signification ! And how signification and no signification can be linked together ! Now all this may, for aught I know, be " read and admired as long as there is any taste ϊοϊ fine writing in Britain^." But ' If common reason alone was not sufficient to keep Mr. Harris and Lord Monboddo from this middle state between the το ov and the το μη ov, and between signification and no signification ; they should at least have listened to what they are better acquainted with, Authority. " Όσα ^e των εναιτιωι^ τοιαύτα βστίν, ώστε ev ols τνβφνκε γιρεσϋαι, η ων κατηγορείται, αναγκαιον αυτών θατερον ντταργειν ; — τούτων ον^εν εστίν ατα μέσον." — Aristot. Categ. " Inter affirmationem et negationem nullum medium existit." — /. C Scaliger, lib. 5. cap. 114. [" When a man is conscious that he does no good himself, the next thing is to cause others to do some. I may claim some merit this way, in hastening this testimonial from your friends above-vmting : their love to you indeed wants no spur, their ink wants no pen, their pen wants no hand, their hand wants no heart, and so forth, after the man- ner of Rahelais ■ ivhich is hetivixt some meaning and no meaning ; and yet it may be said, when present thought and opportunity is wanting, their pens want ink, their hands want pens, their hearts want hands, &c., till time, place, and conveniency concur to set them a- writing, as at pre- sent, a sociable meeting, a good dinner, warm fire, and an easy situation do, to the joint labour and pleasure of this epistle. — Humble servant, A. Pope." — ParnelVs Works.'] - " The truly philosophical language of my worthy and learned friend Mr. Harris, the author of Hermes, a work that will be read and ad- mired as long as there is any taste for philosophy'' and fine writing in Britain." — Oy^ig. and Prog, of Language, vol. 1. p. 8. " But I can hardly have the same indulgence for the philosopher, especially one who pretended, like Mr. Locke, to be so attentive an observer of what passed in his own mind, and has written a whole book upon the subject. — If Mr. Locke would have taken the trouble to study what had been discovered in this matter by the antients, and had not resolved to have the merit of inventing himself a whole system of phi- losophy, he would have known that every material object is composed of matter nndform.^—Id. vol. I. p. 38. " Mr. Locke wrote at a time Λvhen the old philosophy, I mean the scholastic philosophy, was generally run down and despised, but no other come in its place. In that situation, being naturally an acute man, CH. VII.] Of CONJUNCTIONS. 61 with such unlearned and vulgar philosophers as Mr. Locke and his disciples, who seek not Taste and elegance, but truth and common sense in philosophical subjects, I believe it will never pass as a ^^ perfect Example of Analysis ;'' nor bear away the palm for " acuteness of' investigation and perspicuiti/ of explica- tion.^' For, separated from the Fine Writings (which however I can no where find in the book) thus is the Conjunction ex- plained by Mr. Harris. — A sound significant devoid of signi- fication, Having at the same time a kind of obscure signification ; And yet having neither signification nor no signification ; But a middle something between signification and no signi- fication, Sharing the attributes both of signification and no significa- tion ; And linking signification and no signification together. If others, of a more elegant Taste for Fine Writing, are able to receive either pleasure or instruction from such truly philo• sophical language^, I shall neither dispute with them nor envy and not a bad writer, it was no wonder that his Essay met with great applause, and was thought to contain wonderful discoveries. And I must allow that I think it was difficult for any man, without the as- sistance of books, or of the conversation of men more learned than him- self, to go further in the philosophy of mind than he has done. But now that Mr. Harris has opened to us the treasures of Greek philo- sophy, to consider Mr. Locke still as a standard book of philosophy, would be, to use an antient comparison, continuing to feed on acorns after corn was discovered." — Or. andPr. of Lang. vol. 1. p. 53. " It was the misfortune of us in the western parts of Europe, that after we had learned Greek, and got some taste of the Greek philosophy, we immediately set up as masters ourselves, and would needs be invent- ors in philosophy, instead of humble scholars of the antient masters. In this way Descartes philosophized in France, Mr. Hobbes and Mr. Locke in England, and many since their time of less note. I would fain hope, if the indolence and dissipation that prevail so generally in this age would allow me to think so well of it, that Mr. Harris would put a stop to this method of philosophizing without the assistance of the antients, and revive the genuine Greek philosophy among us." — Id. vol. 1. page 54. 1 "^ Clarus ob obscuram linguam magis inter inanes Quamde graveis inter Graios, qui vera requirunt. Omnia enim stolidi magis admirantur amantque Inversis quee sub verbis latitantia cernunt ; 62 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [parti. them : But can only deplore the dullness of my own appre- hension, who, notwithstanding the great authors quoted in Mr. Harris's treatise, and the great authors who recommend it, cannot help considering this "perfect example of analysis,'' as — An improved compilation of almost all the errors which Grammarians have been accumulating from the time of Ari- stotle down to our present days, of technical and learned affec- tation ^ B. — I am afraid, my good friend, you still carry with you your old humour in politics, though your subject is now dif- ferent. You speak too sharply for Philosophy. Come, Con- fess the truth. Are not you against Authority, because Au- thority is against you ? And does not your spleen to Mr. Harris arise principally from his having taken care to fortify his opi- nions in a manner in which, from your singularity, you cannot? H. — I hope you know my disposition better. And I am persuaded that I owe your long and steady friendship to me, to the conviction which an early experience in private life afforded you, that — Neminem libenter nominem, nisi ut laudem ; sed nee peccata reprehenderem, nisi ut aliis prodessem. — Indeed you have borne your testimony for me in very trying situations, where few besides yourself would have ventured so much ho- nesty. At the same time, I confess, I should disdain to handle any useful truth daintily, as if I feared lest it should sting me ; and to employ a philosophical inquiry as a vehicle for interested or cowardly adulation. I protest to you, my notions of Language were formed be- fore I could account etymologically for any one of the words Veraque constituunt, quse belle tangere possunt Aures, et lepido quse sunt fucata sonore." . Lucretius, lib. 1. 640. * I must however do Mr. Harris and Dr. Lowth the justice to acknow- ledge, that the Hermes of the former has been received with universal approbation both at home and abroad ; and has been quoted as unde- niable authority on the subject by the learned of all countries. For which however I can easily account ; not by supposing that its doctrine gave any more satisfaction to their minds who quoted it than to mine ; but because, as Judges shelter their knavery by precedents, so do scholars their ignorance by authority : and when they cannot reason, it is safer and less disgraceful to repeat that nonsense at second hand, which they would be ashamed to give originally as their own. CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 63 in question, and before I was in the least acquainted with the opinions of others. I addressed myself to an inquiry into their opinions with all the diffidence of conscious ignorance; and, so far from spurning authority, was disposed to admit of half an argument from a great name. So that it is not my fault, if I am forced to carry instead of following the lantern : but at all events it is better than walking in total darkness. And yet, though I believe I differ from all the accounts which have hitherto been given of Language, I am not so much without authority as you may imagine. Mr. Harris himself and ail the Grammarians whom he has, and whom (though using their words) he has not quoted, are my authorities. Their own doubts, their difficulties, their dissatisfaction, their contradictions, their obscurity on all these points are my au- thorities against them^: for their system .and their difficulties vanish together. Indeed unless, with Mr. Harris, I had been ^ " Profecto in Grammaticorum prope omnium commentis, quae αγροίκοί immensum extollunt, pene ovhei^ vyies ; cum paginse singuiss saepe plures contineant errores, quam Sicinius ille Dentatus vulnera toto habuit corpore." — G. J. Vossii Aristarchus, lib. 3. cap. 2. Lxxiv. " Capienda etiam sunt signa ex incrementis et progressibus philosophiarum et scientiarum. Qu^ enim in natura fundata sunt, crescunt et augentur : quae autem in opinione, A^ariantur ; non augen- tur. Itaque si istse doctrinse plane, instar plantse, a stirpibus suis revulsse non essent, sed utero naturae adhaererent, atque ab eadem ale- rentur, id minime eventurum fuisset quod per annos bis mille jam fieri videmus : nempe, ut scientiae suis haereant vestigiis, et in eodem fere statu maneant, neque augmentum aliquod memorabile sumpserint." Lxxv. " Etiam aliud signum capiendum est (si modo signi appellatio huic competat ; cum potius testimonium sit, atque adeo testimoniorum omnium validissimum) hoc est, propria confessio auctorum quos homi- nes nunc sequuntur. Nam et illi, qui tanta fiducia de rebus pronun- ciant, tamenper intervalla cum ad se redeunt, ad querimonias de naturce suhtilitate, rermn obscuritate, humani ingenii infirmitate se convertunt. Hoc vero si simpliciter fieret, alios fortasse qui sunt timidiores ab ulte- riori inquisitione deterrere, alios vero qui sunt ingenio alacriori et magis fidenti ad ulteriorem progressum acuere et incitare possit. Verum non satis illis est de se confiteri, sed quicquid sibi ipsis aut magistris suis incognitum aut intactum fuerit, id extra terminos possibilis ponunt : et , tanquam ex arte, cognitu aut factu impossibile pronunciant : Summa superbia et invidia suorum inventorum infirmitatem, in naturae ipsius calumniam et aliorum omnium desperationem vertentes. Hinc schola Academise novae, quae Acatalepsiam ex professo tenuit, et homines ad sempiternas tenebras damnavit." — Novum Oi'ganu?n. 64 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [PART I. repeating what others have written, it is impossible I should quote any direct authorities for my own manner of explanation. But let us hear Wilkins, whose industry deserved to have been better employed, and his perseverance better rewarded with discovery ; let us hear what he says. — '^ According to the true philosophy of speech, I cannot conceive this kind of words" (he speaks of Adverbs and Con- junctions) '^ to be properly a distinct part of speech, as they are commonly called. But until they can be distributed into their proper places, I have so far complied with the Grammars of instituted languages, as to place them here together." — And again, " For the accurate effecting of this [i. e. a real character^ it would be necessary that the theory itself [i. e. of language] upon whicfi sUch a design were to be founded, should be exactly suited to the nature of things. But upon supposal that this theory [viz. of language] is defective, either as to the fulness or the order of it; this must needs add much perplexity to any such attempt, and render it imperfect. And that this is the case with that common theory already received, need not much be doubted." It appears evidently therefore that Wilkins (to whom Mr. Locke was much indebted) was well convinced that all the accounts hitherto given of Language were erroneous. And in fact, the languages which are commonly used throughout the world, are much more simple and easy, convenient and philo- sophical, than Wilkins's scheme for a real character; or than any other scheme that has been at any other time imagined or proposed for the purpose. Mr. Lockers dissatisfaction with all the accounts which he had seen, is too well known to need repetition. Sanctius rescued quod particularly from the number of these mysterious Conjunctions, though he left υτ amongst them. And Servius, Scioppius, G. J. Vossius, Perizonius, and others, have explained and displaced many other supposed Adverbs and Conjunctions. Skinner (though I knew it not previously) had accounted for IF before me, and in the same manner; which, though so palpable, Lt/c confirms and compliments. Even S. Johnson, Cli. Vll.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 65 though mistakenly, has attempted and; and would find no difficulty with therefore. In short, there is not such a thing as a Conjunction in Λ712/ Language, which may not, by a skilful Herald, be traced home to its own family and origin; without having recourse to con- tradiction and mystery with Mr. Harris : or, with Mr. Locke, cleaving open the head of man, to give it such a birth as Minerva's from the brain of Jupiter. B. — Call you this authority in your favour, — when the full stream and current sets the other way, and only some little brook or rivulet runs with you ? You know very well that all the authorities which you have alleged, except Wilkins, are upon the whole against you. For though they have explained the meaning, and traced the derivation of many Adverbs and Conjunctions; yet (except Sanctius in the particular instance of QUOD, — whose conjunctive use in Latin he too strenuously denies) they all acknowledge them still to be Adverbs or Co?i' junctions. It is true, they distinguish them by the title of reperta or iisurpata. But they at the same time acknowledge (indeed the very distinction itself is an acknowledgment) that there are others which are rea/, jyrimigenia, nativa, pura, H. — True. Because there are some, of whose origin they were totally ignorant. But has any Philosopher or Gram- marian ever yet told us what a real j original y native, pure Adverb or Conjunction is? or which of these Conjunctions of Sen- tences are so? Whenever that is done, in any language, I may venture to promise you that I will show those likewise to be repertas and iisurpatas, as well as the rest. And till then I shall take no more trouble about them. I shall only add, that though Abbreviation and corruption are always busiest with the words which are most frequentlij in use ; yet the words most frequently used are least liable to be totally laid aside. And therefore they are often retained, — (I mean that branch of them which is most frequently used) — when most of the other words (and even the other branches of these retained words) are, by various changes and accidents, quite lost to a Language. Hence the difficulty of accounting for them. And HENCE (because only one branch of each of these decli- nable words is retained in a language) arises the notion of their being indeclinable ; and a separate sort of words, or Part of F 66 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [pAR Τ I. Speech by themselves. But that they are not indeclinable, is sufficiently evident by what I have already said. For Gip, Άη, &c. certainly conld not be called indeclinable, when all the other branches of those Verbs, of which they are the regular Imperatives, were likewise in use. And that the words IF, AN, &c. (which still retain their original signification, and are used in the very same manner and for the same pur- pose as formerly) should now be called indeclinable, proceeds merely from the ignorance of those who could not account for them ; and who therefore, with Mr. Harris, were driven to say that they have neither meaning nor inflection : whilst notwith- standing they were still forced to acknowledge (either directly, or by giving them diiFerent titles of conditional, adversative, &c.) that tliey have a *^ kind of obscure meaning\'' How much more candid and ingenuous would it have been, to have owned fairly that they did not understand the nature of these Conjunctions; and, instead of wrapping it up in my- stery, to have exhorted and encouraged others to a further search ! B. — You are not the first person who has been misled by a fanciful etymology. Take heed that your derivations be not of the same ridiculous cast with theirs who deduced Constanti- nople from Constantine the noble, — Breeches from bear-riches, ' — Donna from dono,- — Honour from hon and aurum, — and King Pepin from οσπερ'^. ^ *' Et quelle idee est excitee dans I'esprit en entendant prononcer les particules et, ausst ? On voit bien que ces mots signifient une espece de connexion ; mais quelque peine qu'on se donnat a decrire cette connexion, on se serviroit d'autant d'autres mots, dont la signifi- cation seroit aussi difficile a expliquer : et voulant expliquer la signifi- cation de la particule et, je me servirois plusieurs fois de cette meme particule." — Lettres ci une Princesse (TAllemagne, by Eider, letter 101. ■2 " Then this Constantyne removed the emjDeryall see unto his cytye of Constantyne the noble : and there for the more partye kepte his em- jjeryall honoure ; and other emperours in lyke wyse after hym. By reason whereof the emperours were longe after called emperours of Constantyne noble." — Fabians Chron. ch. 69. " Hed. But why Breeches now ? Pha. Breeches, quasi bear-riches ; when a gallant bears all his riches in his breeches." — B. Jonson, Cynthia's Revels, act 4. scene 3. *' Placano i Doni il ciel ; placan Γ inferno. Ε pur non son le Donne CH. VII.] • OF CONJUNCTIONS. 67 Ή, — If I have been misled, it most certainly is not by Ety- mology : of which I confess myself to have been shamefully ignorant at the time when these my notions of language were first formed. Though even tliat previous ignorance is 7iow a circumstance which confirms me much in my opinion concern- ing these Conj mictions : For I knew not even the character of the language from which my particular proofs of the English conjunctions were to be drawn. And (notwithstanding Lord Monboddo's discouraging Sneer') it was general reasoning a Men avare che il cielo, Piu crude che Γ inferno. II Do7i, credimi, il Dono Gran ministro d' amore, anzi tiranno Egli e, che a suo voler impetra e spetra, Non sai tu cio ch' Elpino, II saggio Elpino dicea ? Che fin cola nella primiera etade, Quand' anco semplicetti Non sapean favellare Che d' un linguaggio sol la lingua e Ί core, Allor le amanti Donne altra canzona Non s' udivan cantar che — Dona, Dona. Quindi Γ enne addoppiando Perche non basta un Don, — Donna fu detta." — Guidohaldo de* Bonarelli. " On connoit le jeu de mots d'Oiuen, assez mauvais, mais qui ren- ferme un grand sens : Divitias et opes, Hon lingua Hebrsea vocavit : Gallica gens, Aurum-or; indeque venit Honor." — Miraheau, Essai sur le Despotisme. " Όσπερ — ηττερ — orrep — Diaper — Napkin— Nipkin — Pipkin — Pippin-king — King Pepin." I forget my merry author of this etymology ; but it is altogether as plausible as even Menage's derivation of chez from Apud, ^ " Nov7 as I am not able from Theory merely, and a priori, to form the idea of a perfect language, I have been obliged to seek for it in the study of the Greek. — What men of superior Genius may do in such speculations, I cannot tell ; but I know \vell that ordinary men, with- out the study of some model of the kind, would be as unable to con- ceive the idea of a perfect language,, as to form a high taste in other arts, such as sculpture and painting, without having seen the best works of those kinds that are to be found. — It v/ould be doing injustice to those superior minds who have in themselves the standard of perfection in all the Arts, to judge of them by myself ; but I am confident that my idea of perfection in language would have been ridiculously imperfect, F 2 68 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [pART I, jyriori, that led me to the particular instances ; not particular instances to the general reasoning. This Etymology, against whose fascination you would have me guard myself, did not occur to me till many years after my system was settled : and it occurred to me suddenly, in this manner; — '^ If my reason- ing concerning these conjunctions is well founded, there must then be in the original language from which the English (and so of all other languages) is derived, literally such and such words bearing precisely such and such significations." — I was the more pleased with this suggestion, because I was entirely ignorant even of the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic characters: and the experiment presented to me a mean, either of disabusing myself from error (which I greatly feared) ; or of obtaining a confirmation sufficiently strong to encourage me to believe (what every man knowing any thing of human nature will always be very backward in believing of himself), that I had really made a discovery. For, if upon trial I should find in an unknown language precisely those very words both in sound, and signification, and application, which in my perfect igno- rance I had foretold ; what must I conclude, but either that some DoBmon had maliciously inspired me with the spirit of true prophecy in order the more deeply to deceive me ; or that my reasoning on the nature of language was not fantastical ? The event was beyond my expectation : for I instantly found, if I had known no other language than the modern languages of Eu- rope."— Or^m aiid Progress of Language, vol. 2, p. 183. Read this, Mr. Burgess, and then complain of illiberality to Lord Monboddo : who places himself ansatus in cathedra, and thus treats all other men in advance. Whoever, after his lordship, shall dare to reason on this subject a jmori, must assume then, it seems, — to have in his own superior mind the standard of perfection in All the Arts ! — ■ Do you, Mr. Burgess, acquiesce to this condition ? If it Avere possible (which I am very far from believing) that the same sentiments should pervade any considerable part of the very learned and respectable body to which you belong ; I should be sorrowfully compelled to join in the exclamation, — 0/ aurita ArcadiiE pecora! qui, Romse, hujus cuculi vocem veluti lusclniold melos, in aures adtnittere sustinetis ! And perhaps Mr. Burgess himself may have reason hereafter to regret, that (with all his real or pretended admiration of Lord Monboddo's writings) he neg- lected to avail himself of the only useful lesson to be drawn from them : viz. To be at least as well bred as Porphyry's partridge ; and to have forborne his noise, until he was himself spoken to. CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 69 upon trial, all my predictions verified. This has made me presumptuous enough to assert it univei^ally. Besides that I have since traced these supposed unmeaning, indechnable Conjunctions with the same success in many other languages besides the English. And because I know that the generality of minds receive conviction more easily from a number of par- ticular instances, than from the surer but more abstracted arguments of general proof; if a multiplicity of uncommon avocations and engagements (arising from a very peculiar situation) had not prevented me, I should long before this have found time enough from my other pursuits and from my en- joyments (amongst which idleness is not the smallest) to have shown clearly and satisfactorily the origin and precise meaning of each of these pretended unmeaning, indeclinable Conjunc- tions, at least in all the dead and living languages of Europe. 5.-— Men talk very safely of what they may do, and what they might have done. But, though present professions usually outweigh past proofs with the people, they have never yet passed current with philosophers. if therefore you would bring me over to your opinion, and embolden me to quit the beaten path with you, you must go much beyond the example of Henry Stephens, which v/as considered by Mer. Casaubon as the ne plus ultra on this subject^, and must do Vvhat Wilkins required before he would venture to differ from the Grammars of instituted languages : that is, you must distribute all our English Conjunctions at least into their proper places. And if it should seem unreasonable in me thus to impose upon you a task which- — ** no man, however learned or sagacious, has yet been able to perform';" — you must thank yourself for it, and 1 " Henricus Stephanus (author immortalis operis, quod Thesaurus Linguae Gicecse indigitavit) ita omnes oratioiiis particulas (quarujn quanto in omni lingua difficH'ior, tanto utilior observation omnes idiotis- mos excussit, eruit, explicavit, similia cum similibus comparavit, ut exemplum quidem in hoc genere aliis ad imitandum reliquerit absolu- tissimum ; sed quod pauci sint assecuturi." — Mer. Cas. de Lingua Sax- onica. 2 " The Particles are, among all nations, applied with so great latitude, that they are not easily reducible under any regular scheme of explication : this difficulty is not less, nor perhaps greater, in En- glish than in other languages. I have laboured them with diligence, I hope with success : such at least as can be expected in a task which no 70 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [part I. the peremptory roundness of your assertion. Besides, I do really think that after• you have professed so much of all the languages of Europe, I may fairly expect you to perform a little in your own. H. — ^If it must be so, thus then : I say that If An Unless Eke Yet Still Else Tho' or Though But But Without FvH^-utan Pyji^an-iitan To Be-out. And Tin-ab 7inan-ab P^'^. ''''■ I geriem. Lest is the past participle Lej'eb of Leran, To Dismiss. u I• CIS fGir Ί Άη Onlef Gac (Jl Get: 0) Strell i> T^lej- 1 Dap ■h τη or CD it Dapij But: ^ Be-utan Ο Pyji^-utan Άη -ab J _ Eripan ^nan To Give, To Grant. Onle^an eacan To Dismiss. To Add. Getan To Get. Stellan To Pat. Slepan To Dismiss. Dapian or >To Allow. Dapijan Botan J To Boot. Beon-iitan To Be-out. Since < Si^^an Syne Seanb-er Si^^e or > is the participle of Seon, To See. Sm-ep That is the Article or Pronoun Dat. These, I apprehend, are the only Conjunctions in our lan- guage which can cause any difficulty ; and it would be imper- tinent in me to explain such as^ — Beso(^). Beit. Albeit (^). man, however learned or sagacious, has yet been able to perform." — Pref. to S. Johnson s Diet. (^) " Set forth (quod she) and tell me how. Shew me thy sekenes euery dele. Madame, that can I do v^ele : Be so my lyfe therto woU laste." Gower, lib. 1. fob 8. p. 2. col. 1. CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 71 Albeit so(*^). Set(^). Notwithstanding. Neverthe- less. Save that(^). Saving that. Except that, Ex- " For these craftes (as I finde) A man maie do by waie of kinde ; Be so it be to good entent." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 134. p. 2. col. 1. " For suche men that ben vilayns The lawe in suche a wise ordeineth. That what man to the lawe pleyneth, Be so the judge stande upright, He shall be serued of his right." Gower, lib. 7. fol. 159. p. 1. col. 1. " The mast to-brake, the sayle to-roofe. The ship upon the wawes droofe. Till that thei see the londes coste. Tho made a vowe the leste and moste Be so thei mighten come alonde," Gower, lib. 8. fol. 177. p. 1. col. 2. (^) " Saturne anon, to stynten stryfe and drede, Al be it that it be agayne his kynde, Of all this strife he can remedy fynde." Chaucer, Knyghtes Tale, fol. 8. p. 2. col. 1. " The quhilk Juno nowthir lang dayis nor jeris. Nor nane diuyne sacrifice may appeis ; Sche restis neuir, nor may sche leif at eis, Albeit the power and charge of Jupiter Resistis sche wat, and fatis war hir contrare." Douglas, 5th booke, p. 154. " Freynd serly not, na cause is to compleyne, Albeit thy wit grete god may not atteyne." Douglas, Prol. to 10th booke, p. 309. (^) " Another remedy is that a man eschewe the companye of hem by whiche he douteth to be tempted : for albeit so that the dede is wythstonde, yet is there greate temptacyon." — Chaucer, Persons Tale, fol. 115. p. 2. col. 2. " Al be it so that of your pride and high presumpcion and folye, ye haue misborne you, yet for as mikell as I se and beholde your greate humilyte, it constrayneth me to do you grace and mercy." — Tale of Chaucer, fol. 83. p. 1. col. 1. (^) " Bot sen I am compeilid the to translait. And not onlie of my curage, God wate. Durst I interprise sic outragious folic, Quhare I offend, the lesse reprefe serf I, And that je knaw at quhais instance I tuke For to translate this maist excellent buke, I mene Virgillis volum maist excellent. Set this my werk full febill be of rent." Douglas, Pre/, p. 4. 72 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [PARTl. CEPTiNG that. Bating that. If case(^). In case(S). Put case(^0. Set case(0. I pose(^). Because. To Sic plesand Avordes carpand, he has forth brocht. Sett his mynd troublit mony greuous thocht." Douglas, 1st booke, p. 19. Betwix gude hope and drede in doute they stude, Quhither thay war lewand, or tholit extreme dede al, Thay ansuerit not, set thay oft plene and cal." Douglas, 1st booke, p. 19. And SET it be not louable nor semely thocht To punys ane woman, but schamefuU hir to sla, Na victory, but lak following alsa, ^it netheles I audit louit to be, Vengeaunce to take on hir deseruis to de." Douglas, 2d booke, p. 58. Virgin is full of sentence ouer all quhare. His hie knaAvlege he schawis, that euery sorte Of his ckiusis comprehend sic sentence, Thare bene thereof, set thou think this but sporte. Made grete ragmentis of hie intelligence." Douglas, Prol. to 6th booke, p. 158. To name the God, that Λvar ane manifest lee, Is but ane God, makar of euery thing : Set thou to Vulcane haue ful grete resembling." Douglas, Prol. to 6th booke, p. 161. Thare suld na knicht rede but ane knichtly tale. Quhat forcis him the bussart on the brere ? Set wele him semes the falcone heroner." Douglas, Prol. to 9th booke, p. 271. Turnus, behald on cais reuoluit the day, And of his fre wyl sendis the perfay Sic auantage and oportunite, And SET thou wald haif askit it, quod sche. There was neuer ane of al the goddis ding Quhilk durst have the promittit sic ane thing." Douglas, 9th booke, p. 273. Set our nature God has to him unyte. His godhcde incommyxt remanis perfite." Douglas, Prol. to 10th booke, p. oOS. Angeliis, seheiphardis, and kingis thy godhede kend. Set thou in crib betuix twa beistis was laid." Douglas, Prol. to 10th booke, p. 310. Drances, forsoith, quod he, euer has thou bene Large and to mekil of speche, as M^il is sene, Bot not with wourdis suld the court be fyllyt. Set thou be grete tharin, and ful euill wyllit." Douglas, 11th booke, p. 376. CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 73 WIT. FoRSEEiNG thati}). Foreseen thatQ"^). Provided that. Being that. Sec. Which are evident at first sioht. " I put the cats set the EthoHanis List not to cum in our help nor supple ; git than the hald Messapus wele wylle." Douglas, 11th booke, p. 378. ** With stout eurage agane him wend I will, Thocht he in proues pas the grete Achill, Or SET in cats sic armour he weris as he Wrocht be the handis of God Vulcanus sle." Douglas, 11th booke, p. 378. " Bot Juno tho doun from the hicht, ί wys. Of the mountane that Albane clepyt is Now in our dayis (set then this hillis down Had nouther name, honour, nor renowne) Scho did behald amyd the feildis plane." Douglas, 12th booke, p. 411. " For SET we preis us fast to speike out braid, Ne voce, nor wourdis followis nocht is said." Douglas, 12th booke, p. 446. " And SET that empty be my brane and dull, I haue translatit ane volume wounderfull." Douglas, 13th booke, p. 483. " Fra tyme I thareto set my pen to wryte. It was compilyt in auchtene monethis space : Set I feil syith sic twa monethis in fere Wrate neuir ane wourd, nor micht the volume stere." Douglas, p. 484. (^) " Saufe onely that I crie and bidde, I am in tristesse all amidde." — Gower, lib. 4. fol. 82. p. 2. col. 1. " Almoste ryght in the same wise the phisiciens answerd, Saue that they sayden a fewe wordes more." — Tale of Chaucer, fol. 74. p. 1. col. 2. " Tyl she gan asken him ho we Hector ferde That was the townes wal, and Grekes yerde. Ful wel I thanke it God, sayde Pandarus, Saue in his arrne he hath a l3^tle Avounde." Chaucer, 2d booke of Troylus, fol. 164. p. 1. col. 1. " Behynd thame for uptaking quhare it lay Mony bricht armoure rychely dycht thay left, Sauf that Eurialus Avith him tursit avv'ay The riall trapouris, and mychty patrellis gay." Douglas, 9th booke, p. 288. " Bot al this time I bid na mare, I wys, Saif that this wensche, this vengeabil pest or traik. Be bet doun dede by my wound and scharp straik." Douglas, 11th booke, p. 393. 74 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [PAKT I. B. — Well. Whether you are right or wrong in your con- jectures concerning Conjunctions, I acknowledge that this is " All the air a solemn stillness holds ; Save that from yonder ivy-mantled bower The moping owl does to the moon complain."— G^r«y'^ Elegy. (^) " I do not like these paper-squibs, good master, they may undo your store — ί mean of credit, and fire your arsenall ; if case you do not in time make good those outer works, your pockets." — B. Jonson, Staple of News, act 1.. scene 3. Chaucer also uses if cage. (&) " The dignite of king John wold have distroyed al Englande, therfore mokel Λvisedome and goodnes both, nedeth in a person, the malyce in dignite slyly to bridell, and with a good byt of arest to with- draw, IN case it wold praunce otherwise than it shuld." — Chaucer, Testament of Loue, 2d boke, fol. 317. p. 2. col. 1. ** Forsoith, in cais the auenture of battal Had bene doutsum ; wald God it war assale." Douglas, 4th booke, p. 121. C») •' And PUT the cais that I may not optene From Latyne land thaim to expell all clene, ^it at leist thare may fall stop or delay In sa grete materis for ane gere or tway." Douglas, 7th booke, p. 217. Put case, though now out of fashion, was frequently used by Chii- lingworth and other good authors. " Put the case the Pope, for a reward of your service done him in writing this book, had given you the honour and means of a cardinal, would you not have professed, that you have not merited such a re- ward.^" — Chilling worth, chap. 4, p. 211. § 36. Q) " He is worthy to lose his priuylege, that misuseth the might and power that is giuen hym. And I sette case ye might enioyne hem that payne by right and lawe, whiche I trowe ye may not do : I saye ye might not put it to execution."— Th/e of Chaucer, fol. 82. p. 2. col. 2. " Yet sette I CASE ye haue lycence for to venge you, I saye that there ben full many thinges that shall restrayne you of vengeaunce t-akyngr—Ibid. fol. 79. p. 2, col. L (^) " Auauntour and a Iyer, al is one, As thus. I POSE a Avoman graunt me Her loue, and sayth that other wol she none. And I am sworne to holden it secre. And after I tel it two or thre ; I wys I am auauntour at the leest And Iyer eke, for I breke my beheest." Chaucer, 3d boke of Troylus, fol. 174. p. 1. col. 2. " Sone after this, she to him gan rowne. And asked him if Troylus were there : He swore her nay, for he was out of towne, CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 75 coining to the point : and is fairer than shuffling them over unnoticed, as the greater part of grammarians have done ; or than repeating after others, that they are not themselves any parts of language, but only such accessaries as salt is to meat, or water to bread ; or that they are the mere edging or sauce of language ; or that they are like the handles to cups, oy plumes to helmets, or binding to books, or harness for horses ; or that they are 'pegs and nails and nerves and joints, and ligaments and glue, and pitch and lime, and mortar, and so forth \ In And sayd, Nece : 1 pose that he were there You durst neuer haue the more feere." Chaucer, od boke of Troylus, fol. 175. p. 2. col. 1. Q) " It may be ordered that i i or ii i of our owne shippes do see the sayde Frenche soldiers wafted to the coast of France ; forseing that our sayd shipj^es entre no hauen there." — Queen Elizabeth to Sir W. Cecil and Dr. Wotton, Lodge's Illustrations, vol. 1. p. 339. ^m^ << ^han he made any ordinary judges, advocates or proctoures, he caused them to be openly named, requirynge the people and gy vynge them courage, if there were cause to accuse them, to prove the cryme by open wytnesse ; foresene if they dyd not sufficiently prove it, and that it semed to be maliciouse detraction, the accusour shulde forth- with be beheaded." — Sir T. Elliott, Image of Governaunce, chap. 17. 1 " Pour quoy est-ce que Platon dit, que i'oraison est temperee de noms et de verbes ? — Mais advisons que nous ne prenions autrement les paroles de Platon que comme il les a dittes : car il a dit que I'oraison estoit temperee De ces deux parties, non Par ces deux parties ; que nous ne fagions la faulte que feroit celuy qui calomnieroit un autre pour avoir dit, que un oignement seroit compose de cire et de galba- num, alleguant qu'il auroit obmis a dire le feu et le vase, sans lesquels on ne sgauroit mesler lesdites drogues : aussi semblablement si nous le reprenions pour autant qu'il auroit obmis a dire les conjunctions, les prepositions, et autres telles parties. Car le parler et I'oraison n'est compose De ces parties la, mais Par icelles, et non sans elles. Car comme celuy qui prononceroit battre, ou esti'e hattu ; ou d'ailleurs So- crates et Pythagoras, encore donneroit-il aucunement a entendre et a penser quelque chose : mais celuy qui profereroit Car ou De simplement et seulement, on ne pourroit imaginer qu'il entendist aucune chose ny aucun corps, ains s'il n'y a quelques autres paroles qui soient proferees quant et quant, elles ressembleront a des sons et des bruits vains sans aucune signification ; d'autant que ny a par elles ny avec d'autres sem- blables, elles ne peuvent rien signifier. Mais a fin que nous conjoignons ou meslions et assemblions tout en un, nous y adjoustons des preposi- tions, conjonctions, et articles, voulans en faire un corps de tout. — Comment done pourra dire quelqu'un, ces parties-la ne servent-elles de rien a I'oraison ? Quant a moy, je tiens qu' elles y servent autant comme le Set a la viande, et Veau a faire le Pain. Evenus souloit dire que le 76 OF CONJUNCTIONS. [pART I. which kind of pretty simiUes Philosophers and Grammarians seem to have vied with one another ; and have often endea- voured to amuse their readers and cover their own ignorance, by very learnedly disputing the propriety of the similie, instead of explaining the nature of the Conjunction, But, pray, have you any authority for the derivation of these vv^ords? Are not ail former etymologists against you? H, — Except in if, and jjut (in one of its meanings), I be- lieve they are all against me. But I am persuaded that all future etymologists, and perhaps some philosophers, will ac- Feu estoit la meilleure Sauhe du Monde ; aussl sont ces Parties I'assai- sonnement de nostra langage, ne plus ne moins que le feu et le Sel des breuvages et viandes, dont nous ne nous scaurions passer ; excepte que nostre parler n'en a j)as toujours necessairement a faire : comme Ton pent dire du langage des Remains, duquel aujourd'huy tout le monde presque use ; car il a oste presque toutes les prepositions excepte bien peu ; et quant aux articles que Ton appelle, il n'en recoit pas un tout seul, ains use de noms sans hordure, par maniere de dire ; et ne s'en fault pas esmerveiller, attendu qu'Homere a peu de noms prepose des articles, comme si c'etoient arises a des vases qui en eussent besoign, ou des pennaches sur des morions. — Or que les Dialecticiens aient plus besoign de conjonctions, que nuls autres hommes de lettres, pour la liaison et tissure de leurs propositions, ou les disjonctions d'icelles, ne plus ne moins que les cochers ont besoign d'attelages pour atteler de front leur chevaux ; ou comme Ulysses avoit besoign d'oziej- en la caverne de Cyclops pour lier ses moutons ; cela n'argue ni ne preuve pas que la conjonction soit autrement partie d'oraison, mais bien un outil propre a conjoindre selon qu'elle en porte nom, et a contenir et assembler non pas toutes choses, ains seulement celles qui ne sont pas simplement dites : si Ton ne vouloit dire que la Chorde ou courr^oye dont une balle seroit liee fust partie de la balle : ou la colle d'un papier ou d'un livre qui est colle ; et les donnees et distributions des deniers partie du gou- vernement : comme Demades disoit que les deniers que Ton distribuoit manuellement par teste a cliasque citoyen d'Athenes, pour veoir les jeux, estoient la colle du gouvernement de I'estat populaire. Et quelle est la conjonction qui face de plusieurs propositions une, en les cousant et liant ensemble, comme le marbre fait le fer quand on le fond avec lui par le feu ; mais pour cela le marbre n'est pas pourtant, ny ne I'appelle Ion pas partie de fer ; combien que ces clioses-la qui entrent en une composition et qui sont fondues avec les drogues que Ton mesle, ont accoustume de faire et de souifrir ne s^ay quoi de commun, compose de tons les ingrediens. — Quant aux prejDositions on les peult accomparer aux pennaches ou autres Ornemens que Ion met au dessus les habiile- mens de Testes, ou bien aux bases et souhassement que Ion met au des- soubs des Statues ; pour ce qu'elles ne sont pas tant parties d'oraison, comme alentour des parties." — Plutarch, Platonic Questions. — 9th. Amyot, CH. VII.] OF CONJUNCTIONS. 77 knowledge their obligation to me. For these troublesome conjunctions, which have hitherto caused them so much mis- taken and unsatisfactory labour, shall save them many an error and many a weary step in future. They shall no more expose themselves by unnatural forced conceits to derive the English and all other languages from the Greek, or the He- brew ; or some imaginary primseval tongue. The Particles of every language shall teach them whither to direct and where to stop their inquiries: for wherever the evident meaning and origin of the Particles of any language can be found, there is the certain source of the whole. B. — Without a moment's reflection, every one must per- ceive that this assertion is too general and comprehensive. The mixture which is found in all cultivated languages ; the perpetual accession of new words from affectation as well as from improvement, and the introduction of new Arts and Habits, especially in learned nations ; and from other circum- stances ; forbid the deduction of the wliole of a language from any one single source. H. — Most certainly. And therefore when I say the whohy I must beg to be understood with those exceptions. And, that I may not seem to contradict myself when w^e shall here- after come to treat of them, I beg you likewise to remember, that I by no means include in my assertion, the Abbreviations of language : for they are always improvements superadded by language in its progress ; and are often borrowed from some other more cultivated langaiages. Whereas the original Mo- ther-tongue is always rude and tedious, without those advan- tages of Abbreviation. And were he once more in being, I should not at all doubt of being able to convince even Junius himself (who with many others could so far mistake the course and progress of speech, as to derive an uncultivated from a cultivated language) that, instead of referring the Anglo-Saxon to his favourite Greek as its original, he must seek out (and I suppose he would easily find) a Parent for the latter. But, I beg pardon, this is rather digressing from my pur- pose, ί have nothing to do with the learning of mere curi- osity^ : nor am any further concerned with Etymology, than ^ *'I1 y a un point, passe lequel les recherches ne sent plus que pour 78 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. as it may serve to get rid of the false philosophy received con- cerning language and the human understanding. If you please, therefore, I will return to the Conjunctions I have de- rived ; and, if you think it worth the while, we will examine the conjectures of other persons concerning them ; and see whether I have not something better than the authorities you ask after in my favour. B. — I should be glad you would do so. CHAPTER VIII. ETYMOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. IF. H.> — If and an may be used mutually and -indifferently to supply each other's place. Besides having Skinner's authority for if, I suppose that the meaning and derivation of this principal supporter of the Tripod of Truth\ are so very clear, simple, and universally allowed, as to need no further discourse about them. Skinner says — *^ If (in agro Line. Gif) ab A. S. Erip, si. Hoc a verbo Iripan, dare, q. d. Dato." Lye, in his edition of Junius, says — ^^ Hand inscite Skin- nerus, qui deduxit ab A. S. Ijipan, dare q. d. Dato." Gif is to be found not only, as Skinner says, in Lincoln- shire, but in all our old writers. G. Douglas almost always uses Gif: once or twice only he has used If; once he uses la curiosite. Ces verites ingenieuses et inutiles ressemblent a des etoiles, qui, placees trop loin de nous, ne nous donnent point de clarte." - — Voltaire, Swr la Societe Roy ale et sur les Academies. 1 See Plutarch liept τον EI τον ei^ AeX^ois. El•- de AiciXeKTiicr] ^η ττον μεγιστην €γει Ζνναμιν 6 cvvutttlkos οντοσι σνν^£σμο5, άτε ^η το Χυγικωτατορ σγΎ}ματιζων αξίωμα. — Το γαρ τεκνικον και λογικον, ώσπερ αρηται, γνωσιε ακοΧονθιαί, την de προσΧη^φιν η αι- σθησιε τω Χογω ^ίύωσΐ}'. όθεν ei και αίσγ^ρον enrew, ονκ αττοτ ρ έπομαι τοντο eivai τον τη5 αΧηθειαε τρίποδα τον Χογον^ δν την τον Χεγοντο5 irpos το ττροηγονμβνον ακολονθίαν θεμενο5, είτα ττροσΧαβων την ντταρζιν, επάγει το συμπέρασμα τηε αττο^ειΣ,εωε. Ύον ονν ΐίνθιον ει ^η μουσική τε ηΟεται, και κύκνων ψωναιε και KiOapas ^o^ois^, τι θανμαστον εστί ΑιαΧεκτικηε CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 79 GEWE, and once giffis, and sometimes in case and in cais for GIF. *' GiF luf be vertew, than is it leful thing ; GiF it be vice, it is jour undoing." Douglas, Prol. to 4th boke, at p. 95. " Thocht sum wald swere, that I the text haue waryit, Or that I haue this volume quite myscaryit, Or threpe planelie, I come neuer nere hand it. Or that the werk is werst that euer I fand it. Or git GEWE Virgil stude wele before, As now war tyme to schift the werst ouer skore." Douglas, Pre/, p. 11. " Be not ouer study ous to spy ane mote in myn e. That in jour awin ane ferrye bot can not se. And do to me, as ge wald be done to ; Now hark schirris, thare is na mare ado : Quha list attend, gyffis audience and draw nere^" Douglas, Pref. jd. 12. Chaucer commonly uses if ; but sometimes yeue, yef, and YF. " Lo here the letters selid of thys thyng That I mote beare in all the haste I may ; Yeue ye woll ought unto your sonne the kyng, I am your seruaunt bothe nyght and day." Chaucer, Man of Lawes Tale, fol. 22. p. 1. col. 2. " And therfore he of full auisement Nolde neuer write in non of his sermons Of suche unkynde abhominacions, Ne I ne wol non reherce, yef that I may." Chaucer, Man of Lawes j^toL fol. 18. p. 2. col. 1. " She was so chary table and so pytous She wolde wepe yf that she sawe a mous Caught in a trappe, if it Λvere deed or bledde." Prol. to Canterbury Tales. Prioresse. And it is to be observed that in Chaucer and in other old ψίΧια TOVTO αστταζεσθαι τον λογού το μ€ρο5 και αγατταϊ^, ώ μαΧιστα και Ίτλειστω '7Γροσ'χρωμ€νον5 δρα tovs φιλοσοφονε. ' [In this instance, however, it is plain that giffis is not used con- junctively : " Give audience and draw near." For information upon the Gothic, Teutonic, and Norse representatives of i/ and Gif, see Ad- ditional Note. — Ed.] 80 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. writers, the verb to give suffers the same variations in the manner of writing and pionouncing it, whether used con- junctively or otherwise : as does also the Noun derived from it. ** And after on the daunce went Largesse, that set al her entent For to ben honorable and free, Of Alexanders kynne was she. Her most joye was ywis Whan that she yafe, and sayd : Haue this. Not Auarice the foule caytyfe Was halfe to grype so ententyfe As Largesse is to yeue and spende, And God alway ynowe her sende. So that the more she yaue awaye The more ywis she had alwaye : Great loos hath Largesse, and great prise. For both wyse folke and unwyse Were wholy to her bandon brought. So wel with yeftes hath she wrought." Chaucer, Romaunt of the Rose, f. 125. p. 2. c. 1. *' A wyfe is Goddes yefte verely ; Al other maner yeftes hardely As londes, rentes, pasture, or commune. Or mouables, all ben yeftes of fortune That passen, as a shadowe on a wall ; But dred nat, yf playnly speke I shall, A wyfe wol laste and in thyn house endure Wel lenger than the lyst parauenture." Chaucer, Marchaiintes Tale, fol. 28. p. 2. col. 2. " FoRGiFF me, Virgill, gif I thee offend." Douglas, Pre/, p. 11. " GiF us thy ansueir, quharon we sal depend." Douglas, 3d booke, i^. 70. '' And sufEr Tyrianis, and all Liby land Be GIF in dowry to thy son in hand." Douglas, 4th booke, p. 103. " In the mene tyme, of the nycht wache the cure AVe GIF Messsi-pus."— -Douglas, 9th booke, p. 280. In Henry the Vllth's will, dated 1509, you will also find CH. VIII.] ENGLISir CONJUNCTIONS. 81 Υ EVE used where we now employ give ; and in the time of Queen Elizabeth it was written in the same manner. *' Yeoven under our signet." — Lodge s Illustrations. The Queen to Sir W. Cecil and Dr. Wotton, vol. i. p. 343. " Yeven under our seale of our order, the first day of April 1566, the eight year of our reign." — Lodge s Illustrations. Queue Elizabeth to the Erie of Sheroivshury, vol. 1. p. 362. GiN^ is often used in our Northern counties and by the Scotch, as we use if or an : which they do with equal pro- priety and as little corruption : for gin is no other than the participle Given, GVen, Gi'u. (As they also use Gie for Give^ and Gieri for Given, when they are not used conjunctive ίί/.) And Hoc dato is of equal conjunctive value in a sentence with Ώα hoc. " Then wi' his spear he turn'd hir owre, Ο GIN hir face was wan ! He turn'd her owre and owre again, Ο GIN hir skin was whyte." Percy's Reliques, vol. i. Edom o* Gordon, Even our Londoners often pronounce Give and Given in the same manner : As, ** Gi' me your hand." " I have Gin it him well." So Wycherly, Love in a Wood, act 5. ** If my daughter there should have done so, I wou'd not have gi'n her a groat." AN. -^ I do not know that an has been attempted by any one, except S. Johnson : and, from the judicious distinction he has made between Junius and Skinner^, I am persuaded that he ^ Ray says — " Gin, Gif, in the old Saxon is Gif ; from whence the word If is made per apharesin liters G. Gif, from the verb Gipan, dare ; and is as much as Dato." ^ " Junius appears to have excelled in extent of learning, and Skinner in rectitude of understanding. Junius was accurately skilled in all the northern languages ; Skinner probably examined the antient and re- moter dialects only by occasional inspection into dictionaries : But the learning of Junius is often of no other use than to shew him a track by which he may deviate from his purpose ; to which Skinner always presses forward by the shortest Avay. Skinner is often ignorant, but G 82 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [pART 1. will be the first person to relinquish his own conjecture^: espe- cially when he notices his own self-contradiction : for after having (under the article an) told us that *' an is a contraction of Aijd if'^' and given the following instance, " Well I know The clerk will ne'er wear hair on 's face that had it. — —He will an' if he live to be a man — " he very truly (under the article and) says — " In And if, the And is redundarit ; and is omitted by all later writers.'' As " I pray thee, Launce, An' if thou seest my boy, bid him make haste." The author of '' Criticisms on the Diversions of Pnrle^^/^ who publishes under the feigned name of Cassander, (I suppose, because he was born in the island of Cadsan, in Dutch Flan- ders) and who is a Teacher and Preacher in the City of Nor- wich, thus elegantly amuses his readers. Pages 36, 37, 38. *' ί have knov^^n a public speaker who would now and then take a survey of his audience, and call out (if he espied any drooping noddles or falling jaws) — Brethren, I will tell you a stori/.—K^ I think this an excellent method of rousing the at- tention of a reader or hearer, for ever inclined to grow drowsy when the subject is so, I shall not scruple to make use of it upon this occasion. ^' It is well known that the Boors in Friesland, one of the United Provinces, have so far retained ancient customs, as to be, in dress, language, and manners, exactly the same people which they w^re five hundred years ago ; a circum.stance that induced Junius the son to pay them a visit, and to pass a few months among them. In a tour I made to that country some never ridiculous : Junius is ahvi^ays full of knowledge ; but his variety distracts his judgment, and his learning is very frequently disgraced by his absurdities." — Preface to Dictionary. 1 Immediately after the publication of my letter to Mr. Dunning, I was informed by Mr. S. (an intimate friend of Dr. Johnson) that I was not mistaken in this opinion; Dr. Johnson having declared, that if he lived to give a new edition of his Dictionar3^ he should certainly adopt my derivations. '2 [The late Rev. John Bruckner, for many years the much-esteemed minister of the Dutch church and of the Walloon or French church in Norwich. See Additional Notes.— Ed.] CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 83 years ago, I was at a gentleman's house^ from which I made frequent excursions into the inner part of the province. In one of these I was obhged to take the first sheltering place in my way, being overtaken by a violent shower. It was a farm house, where I saw several children : and / shall never forget the speech which one of them, an overgrown babe, made to his mother. He was standing at her breast ; and after he had done with one, I heard him say to her, — 'Trientjen, yan my fooTj — ^i. e. Kate, give me t'other.— J little thought at the time, I should have so good an opportunity of making use of the story as I have at present." This story of the babe, he says, is certainly in my favour. I think it is decisively. But the Critic proceeds — ^' But we should not fancy that words exist, or must have existed, because, having adopted a certain method of finding out origins, we cannot possibly do without them. I have been looking out with some anxiety for the Anglo-Saxon verb Άηαη, but can get very little informa- tion about it. I find, indeed, in King Alfred's Will the follow- ing article : — SEpij^t ic an Eabpapbe mmum elbpa pma. — First I give to Edward my eldest son, — And from the expres- sion Ic an, it should seem as if there really existed such a verb in the Anglo-Saxon as Άηαη. But as this is the only sign of life it has given, as one may say, for these thousand years, Τ am inclined to look upon that sign as being rather equivocal, and suspect that the true reading of the Will is, not Ic an, but Ic iin, from Unnan, cedere, concedere ; this last verb being- common in the Anglo-Saxon, and nothing more easy than to mistake an u for an a, in that language, as well as in English. However, as I have not seen hitherto any manuscript, on whose authority I can ground the justness of my conjecture, I do not give it you as any thing certain ; and if you persist in giving the preference to the old reading, the story of the babe is cer- tainly in your favour ; for there is as little difference between Άη and Yan, as between Un and Άη. With me it will remain a matter of doubt, whether there ever existed such a verb as Άnan, the Fame in signification, and yet different in origin, with Gipan. It is by no means probabley that a people, who had hardly a conveyance for one idea in a thousand, should G 2 84 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART T. have procured two such noble conveyances for one single idea. This is a piece of luxury, which even the most civilized nations seldom allow themselves \" ΊΌ this I answer^ that Άnan, Snnan, and Unnan, are all one and the same word differently spelled (as almost all the Anglo-Saxon and old English words are) because differently pronounced. But '^ he has been looking for ^nan, he says, vv^ith some anxiety, and can get very little information about it." If he looks so carelessly when he is anxious, we may pretty well guess with how much accuracy he looks upon other occasions. I will relieve his anxiety. I know he has Lye's collection of Anglo-Saxon words before him ; (for he quotes it in his 66th page) let him put on his spectacles and open the book : he will there find Tinan, and Snnan, with references to places where they are used. And if, after that, he should still continue anxious, I will furnish him with more. "Nothing, he says, is more easy than to mistake an u for an a, in that language, as well as in the English." — It is not so easy to mistake the Anglo-Saxon character U for Ά, or u for a ; as it is to mistake the vmtten English character u for a. It is not true that any people are now, or ever were, in the condition he represents the Anglo-Saxons ; viz. of having '' hardly a conveyance for one idea in a thousand ;" unless he means to include in his expression, of one idea, each man's particular perception. No. Cheer up, Cassander : your lot is not peculiar to yourself: for the people who have the poorest and scantiest language, have yet always many more words than ideas. And I leave the reader to judge whether to have two words for one idea, be ^' a piece of luxury which even the most civilized nation seldom allows itself." UNLESS. Skinner says — ^^ Unless , nisi, prseter, pristerquam, q. d. ^ Reprehensor audaculus verborum — qui perpauca eademque a vulgo protrita legerat, habebatque nonnullas disciplinae grammaticse inaudi- tiunculas, partim rudes inchoatasque, partim non probas ; easque quasi pnlvereni ob oculos, quum adortus quemque fuerat, adspergebat ; — neque rationem verbum hoc, inquit, neque auctoritatem habet. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. ' 85 One-iesSy i. e. uno clempto seu excepto : vel potius ab Onlej^aii, dimittere^ liberare, q. d. Hoc dlmisso." It is extraordinary, after his judicious derivation of if, that Skinner should have been at a loss about that of unless ; especially as he had it in a manner before him ; For Οπίει*, dimitte, was surely more obvious and immediate than Onlereb^ dimisso. — As for One-less, i. e. uno dempto seu excepto, it is too poor to deserve notice. So low down as in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, this con- junction was sometimes written Oneles and Onelesse. And this way of spelling it, which should rather have directed Skinner to its true etymology, might perhaps contribute to mislead him to the childish conjecture of One less, uno dempto. — But in other places it is written purely onles : and sometimes onlesse. Thus, in the Trial of Si?- John Oldcastle, An. 1413, " It was not possible for them to make whole Christes cote without seme, onlesse certeyn great men were brought out of the way." So Thomas Lupset, in the early part of Henry the Vlllth's reign ; " But alway, sister, remembre that charitie is not perfect onles that it be burninge." — Treatise of Charitie, p. 8. " This peticion cannot take effect onles man be made like an aungel." — Ihid. p. 6G. " Fayth cannot be perfect, onles there be good workes.'* — Λ com- pendious Treatise teachynge the Waye of Diynge well, p. 160. '' The more shamfully that men for the most parte feare to die, the greater profe there is, that such extreme poyntes of feare against all shame shuld not in so many dayly appere, whan death approcheth, ONLES hi natur some just feare were of the same." — Ihid. p. 166. In other places Lupset spells it oneles and onlesse. So in The Image of Governance by Sir T, Elliott, 1541, ** Men do feare to approche unto their soverayne Lorde, oneles they be called." " This noble empire is lyke to falle into extreme ruyne and perpe- tuall infamye, onelesse your moste excellent wysedomes wyll dilygently and constantly prepare yourselfes to the certayne remedy." So in — A ISecessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Chris- 1 [Mr. Bruckner says " it is not susceptible of this sense: it is solvere." — En.] 86 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART 1. ten Man, set furthe by the Kynges Majestie of Englande. 1543. *' Onles ye beleve, ye shall not understande." •' No man shall be crowned, onles he lawfully fight." " Neyther is it possible for any man, onelesse this holy spirite shall first illumine his hart." " True honour shall be gyven to none, oneles he be worthy." " Who can have true penance, onles he beleve stedfastly that God is?" " Who so ever doth forsake his lawful wyfe, oneles it be for adultery, commytteth adultery e in so doynge." " They be bound so to do, onles they se reasonable cause to the contrary." " The soule waxeth feble, onlesse the same be cherished." " In vayne, onlesse there were some facultie." " It cannot begynne, onelesse by the grace of God." So in the '' Supplication to King Henry VIII." by Barnes. " I shall come to the councell when soever I bee called, onles I be lawfully let." So in the ^^Declaration against Joye/' by Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. " No man commeth to me, onlesse my father draweth hym." " Can any man further replye to this carpenter, onles a man wolde saye, that the carpenter Λvas also after the thefe hymselfe ?" " For ye fondely improve^ a conclusion which myght stande and be ^ To improve (i. e. to censure, to impeach, to blame, to reprove). A word perpetually used by the authors about Shakespeare's time, and especially in religious controversy. — " AVhereas he hath spoken it by his own mouth, that it is not good for man to be alone, they have m~ proved that doctrine and taughte the contrarye." — The Actes of English Votaries hy Ihon Bale. Dedicated to Edward the 6th. 1550. " A wonderful thyng, that this shoulde be cryed lawful in their ca- thedrall church with ryngyng, syngynge, and sensynge, and in their yelde halle condemned for felony and treason. Ther did they worshyp it in their scarlet gownes with cappe in hande, and here they improved it with scornes and with mockes, grennyng upon her lyke termagauntes in a playe." — Actes of English Votaries. The word is taken by us from the French, who used it and still con- tinue to use it in the same meaning. — " EUes croient que le corps et le sang sont vraiment distribues k ceux qui mangent ; et improuvent ceux qui enseignent le contraire." — Bossuet des Variat. des Eglises Prot. " lis sont indignes de jamais comprendre ces sortes de beautes, et CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 87 true, with your fonde paradox of only fayth justifieth, onlesse in teach- ing ye wyl so handel the matter, as, &c." " We cannot love God, onles he prepareth our harte and geve us that grace ; no more can we beleve God, onlesse he giveth us the gift ofbelefe." " In every kynde the female is commonly barren, onlesse it con- ceyveth of the male ; so is concupyscence barren and voyde of synne, ONLESSE it conceyve of man the agreymente of his free wyll." " We may not properly saye we apprehend justification by fayth, ONLESSE we wolde call the promisse of God, &c." " Such other pevisshe wordes as men be encombred to heare, onles they wolde make Goddes worde the matter of the Devylles strife." " Who can wake out of synne, without God call him ; and onlesse God hath given eares to heare this voyce of God ? How is any man beyng lame with synne, able to take up his couche and w^alke, onlesse God sayeth, &c ?" So in the '^ Answeare to Fekenham touchinge the Othe of the Supremacif,'' by Home, Bishop of Winchester. " I coulde not choose, oneles I woulde shawe myselfe overmuch un- kinde unto my native countrey, but take penne in hande and shape him a ful and plaine answeare, without any curiositie," " 'i'he election of the pope made by the clergie and people in those dales, was but a vaine thing, onles the emperour or his lieutenant had confirmed the same." sont condamnez au malheur de les improuver, et d'etre improuvez aussi des gens d'esprit." — Lettres de Bussy Rabutin, torn. 4, p. 278. " La bourgeoisie de Geneve a droit de faire des representations dans toutes les occasions ou elle croit les loix lesees, et ou elle improuve la conduite de ses magistrats." — Rousseau, vol. 2, p. 440. " Je ne pouvois en eiFet me dissimuler qu'en improuvant les travaux qu'on venoit de faire ; ceux qui les aA^oient ordonnes en rejetteroient le blame sur les deux architectes."—Mewi o/re^ du Baron de Tott, tom. 2, p. 123. " Arretons-nous sur les inculpations faites a Roland dans cette acte d'accusation, qui sera la honte du siecle et du peuple qui a pu, ou I'approuver, ou ne pas hautement Vimprouver." — Observations par Amar. The expression in Hamlet (act 1, sc. 1.) — "Of unimproved mettle hot and full" — ought not to have given Shakespeare's commentators any trouble : for unimproved means unimpeached ; though Warburton thinks it means "unrefined;" Edwards, " miproved ;" and Johnson (with the approbation of Malone) " not regulated nor guided by know- ledge or experience :" and in his Dictionary he explains it to be " not taught, not meliorated by instruction." 88 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I " The pope would not consecrate the elect bishop, onles he had first license therto of the emperour." " No prince, no not the emperour himselfe should be present in the councell with the cleargie, onles it were when the principall pointes of faith were treated of." ** He sweareth the Romaines that they shall never after be present at the election of any pope, onles they be compelled thereunto by the emperour." *' Who maketh no mencion of any priest there present, as you un- truely report, onles ye will thinke he meant the order, whan he named the faction of the Pharisees." *' So that none should be consecrate, onlesse he were commended and investured bishop of the kinge." " And further to commaunde the newe electe pope to forsake that dlgnitie unlawfully come by, onlesse they woulde make a reasonable satisfaction." " That the pope might sende into his dominions no legate, onlesse the kinge shoulde sende for him." " What man, onlesse he be not well in his wittes, will say that, &c." *' To exercise this kinde of jurisdiction, neither kinges nor civill magistrates may take uppon him, onlesse he be lawfully called." " That from hencefoorth none shoulde be pope, onelesse he were created by the consent of the emperour." " Ye cannot finde so muche as the bare title of one of them, onelesse it be of a bishoppe." So in the '' Whetstone of WittCy'' by Robert Recorde, 1557. *' I see moare menne to acknowledge the benefite of nomber, then I can espie willyng to studie to attaine the benefites of it. Many praise it, but fewe dooe greatly practise it ; onlesse it bee for the vulgare practice concernyng Merchaundes trade." ** Yet is it not accepted as a like flatte, onles it be referred to some other square nomber." I believe that William Tyndall, our immortal and matchless translator of the Bible, was one of the first who wrote this Vv'ord with an υ ; and, by the importance and merit of his works, gave course to this corruption in the language ^ ' Shakespeare, in Othello, act 2, sc. 3, writes, " AVhat's the matter. That you Unlace your reputation thus. And spend your rich opinion for the name Of a night brawler ,'' " CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 89 " The scripture was geven, that Λνε may apply e the medicine of the scripture, every man to his ΟΛνη sores, unlesse then we entend to he idle disputers and braulers about vaine wordes, ever gnawyng upon the bitter barke without, and never attayning unto the sweete pith within, &c." — Prol. before the ο b. of Moses. " My thoughts have no veines, and yet unles they be let blood I shall perish." — Endimion. By John Lilly, act 1. sc. 1. " His frendes thought his learning theire sufficient (unles he should proceed Doctor and professe some one studie or science." — Lord Burley's Life in Peck's Desiderata Curiosa, vol. 1. pag. 4. " No man's cattell shall be questioned as the companies, uxles such as have been entrusted with them or have disposed of them without order." — Articles signed and sealed by the Commissioners of the Councill of State for the Commonwealth of England the twelveth day of March, 1651. I do not know that Onlej^ is employed coiijunctively by the Anglo-Saxon writers, as we use Unless ; (though I have no doubt that it was so used in discourse ;) but instead of it, they frequently employ nym^e or nem^e : (which is evidently the Imperative nym or nem of nyman or neman, to which is subjoined ^e, i.e. That\) And nym^e — Takeaicay that, — • may very well supply the place of — Onlej" (^e expressed or understood) — Dismiss that, Les, the Imperative of Lej-an (which has the same mean- ing as Onlej^an), is likewise used sometimes by old writers instead of unless. " And thus I am constrenit, als nere as I may. To hald his verse, and go nane uthir way; Les sum historic, subtell worde, or ryme, Causis me mak degressioun sum tyme." G. Douglas. Preface. In ά note on this passage S. Johnson says — " Slacken or loosen. Put in danger of dropping ; or, perhaps, strip of its ornaments." And in his Dictionary he says, — " To make loose ; to put in danger of being lost. — Not in use." But he gives no reason Λvhatever for this inter- pretation. I believe that Unlace in this passage means — " You unless or onles your reputation," from the same verb Onle]-an. 1 It is too singular to be left unnoticed, that the ancient Romans used Nemut, instead of Nisi. For which Festus cites Cato de Potestate Trib.; but the passage is lost. 90 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART L• Gifhe Commyttis any tressoun, suld he not de ; Les than his prince of grete humanite Perdoun his fault for his long trew service." G. D. Prol. to 10th book. " SteriF the behuffis, les than thou war unkynd As for to leif thy brothir desolate." G. D. jEnead, 10th book. In the same manner it is used throughout Ben Jonson. " Less learn'd Trebatius Censure disagree." — Poetaster. " First hear me — Not a syllable, less you take." Alchymist, act 3. scene 5. " There for ever to remain Less they could the knot unstrain." — Masque. " To tell you true, 'tis too good for you, Less you had grace to follow it." — Barthol. Fair. " But will not bide there, less yourself do bring him." Sad Shepherd ' . ^ It is this same Imperative les, placed at the end of nouns and coalescing with them, which has given to our language such adjectives as hopeless, restless, deathless, motionless, &c. i.e. Dismiss hope, rest, death, motion, &c. The two following lines of Chaucer in the Reve's Tale, in Wyllyam Thynne's edition, " And when the horse was lose, he gan to gon Towarde the fen, there wylde mares rynne" — are thus printed in Mr. Tyrwhit's edition, " And whan the hors was laus, he gan to gon Toward the fen, ther wilde mares renne." I am to suppose that Mr. Tyrwhit is justified for this reading by some manuscript ; and that it was not altered by himself merely for the sake of introducing "Laus, Island, and the Consuetud. de Beverley," into his Glossary. " Laus (says Mr. Tyrwhit) adj. Sax. Loose. 4062. Laus, Island. Solutus. This is the true original of that termination of adjectives so frequent in our language, in les or less. Consuetud. de Beverley. M.S. Harl. 560. — Hujus sacrilegii emenda non erat determinata, sed dicebatur ab Anglis Botalaus, i.e. sine emenda. — So Chaucer uses Boteles, and other words of the same form ; as Detteles, Drinkeles, Gilteles, &c." I think, however, there will be very little doubt concerning this de- rivation, when it is observed that we say indiiFerently either sleep-less, or ivithout -sleep, &c. i. e. Dismiss sleep or Be-out sleep, &c. And had not these words les and without been thus convertible, Shakespeare would have lost a pun.—" Thrice have I sent him (says Glendower) CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 91 " You must no more aim at those easie accesses. Less you can do't in air." Beaumont and Fletcher, Beggars Bush, act 5, sc. 2. You wiil please to observe that all the languages which have a correspondent conjunction to Unless, as well as the manner in which its place is supplied in the languages which have not a conjunction correspondent to it, ail strongly justify my derivation. The Greek Et μη. The Latin Nisi. The Italian Se non. The Spanish Sino, The French Si non. All mean Be it not. And in the same manner do we some- times supply its place in English either by But, Without, Be it not, But if, &c. Aveather-beaten home, and bootless back." " Home ivithout boots (re- plies Hotspur) and in foul weather too ! How scapes he agues in the Devil's name ?" So, for those words where we have not by habit made the coalescence, as the Danish Folkelos and Halelos, &c. we say in English Without people. Without a tail, &c. But any one may, if he pleases, add the termination less to any noun : and though it should be unusual, and heard for the first time, it will be perfectly understood. Between Wimborn-minster and Cranbourn in Dorsetshire, there is a wood called Harley : and the people in that country have a saying per- fectly intelligible to every English ear.- — " When Harley is hare-less, Cranbourn lohore-less and V^'imborO. poor -less, the world Λνϋΐ be at an end." And it is observable, that in all the northern languages, the ter- mination of this adjective in each language varies just as the cor- respondent verb, Λvhose imperative it is, varies in that language. Termination. Infin. of the Verb. Goth AAns AAnsQAN A.S Leaf Leofan* Dutch Loos* Lossen German Los Losen Danish Los Loser. Swedish Los Losa. I must be permitted here to say, that I sincerely lament the principle on which Mr. Tyrwhit proceeded in his edition of Chaucer's tales. Had he given invariably the text of that manuscript which he judged to be the oldest, and thrown to the bottom the variorum readings with their authority ; the obligation of his readers (at least of such as myself) would indeed have been very great to him : and his industry, care, and fidelity would then have been much more useful to inquirers, than any skill which he has shown in etymology or the northern languages, were it even much greater than it appears to me to have been. "^ [Mr. Bruckner states, that Mr. Tooke changes lefan for leofan and that the Dutch imperative is not loos, but loss. — Ed.] 92 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. " Without profane tongues thou canst never rise, Nor be upholden. Be it not with lies." M. Drmjton. Leg. of R. D. of Normandy. " That never was there garden of such pryse, But yf it were the very paradyse." — Frankeleyns Tale. " That knighte he is a foul Paynim, And large of limb and bone ; And But if heaven may be thy speede. Thy life it is but gone." — Sir Cauline. Percy's Reliques, Though it certainly is not worth the while, I am tempted here to observe the gross mistake Mr. Harris has made in the Force of this word ; which he calls an ^* Adequate Pre- ventive,'^ His example is — *' Troy will be taken, unless the Palladium be preserved," ^^ That is (says Mr. Harris) This alone is sufficient to pre- serve it."• — According to the oracle, so indeed it might be ; but the word unless has no such force. Let us try another instance. '* England will be enslaved unless the House of Com- mons continues a part of the Legislature." Now, ί ask, is this alone sufficient to preserve it? We who live in these times, know but too well that this very house may be made the instrument of a tyranny as odious and {perhaps) more lasting than that of the Stuarts. I am afraid Mr. Harris's adequate Preventive will not save us. For, though it is most cruel and unnatural ; yet we know by woful experience that the Kid may be seethed in the mother's milk, which Providence appointed for its nourishment; and the liberties of this country be destroyed by that very part of the Legislature, which was most especially appointed for their security. An instance has been already given wliere if is used as a preposition. In the following passage of Dryden, unless is also used as a preposition ; *' The commendation of Adversaries is the greatest triumph of a writer; because it never comes unless extorted." EKE. Junius says, — '* Eak, etiam. Goth. jVllK. A.S. 6ac. Al. Anch, D. Og. B. Ook, Viderentur esse ex inverso και ; CH* νίΠ.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 93 sed rectius petas ex proxime sequent! ^ΓΙΚΛ^^ (Isl. Auka)» A. S. ecan. eacan. lean. Al. Auchon. J).Oge. B. Oecken. Gacan vero, vel Auchon, sunt ab «e^qt»^, vel av^eiv addere, ad- jicere, augere." Skinner says — '^ Eke. ab A.S. Gac. Ereac. Belg. Oock, Teut. Audi. Fr. Th. Ouch. Dan. Oc. etiam.'' Skinner then proceeds to the verb, "ToEKE,ab A.S. Gacan. Erei can. lecan. augere, adjicere. Fr. Jun. suo more, deflectit a Gr. αυ'ξειν. Mallem ab Gac, iterum, quod vide : quod enim augetur, secundum partes suas quasi iteratur et de novo fit." In this place Skinner does not seem to enjoy his usual su- periority of judgment over Junius. And it is very strange that he should chuse here to derive the verb Gacan from the con- junction Gac (that is, from its own imperative); rather than the conjunction (that is, the imperative) from the verb. His judgment was more awake when he derived if or gif from Gipan, and not Uripan from Gip ; which yet, according to his present method, he should have done. Perhaps it may be worth remarking, as an additional proof of the nature of this conjunction ; that in each language, where this imperative is used conjunctively, the conjunction varies just as the verb does. In Danish the conjunction is og, and the verb oger. In Swedish the conjunction is ochf and the verb oka. In Dutch the conjunction is ooky from the verb oecken. In German the conjunction is auchy from the verb auchon. In Gothic the conjunction is jlIlK, and the verb Λ^ΙΚ^Ν". As in English the conjunction is Eke or Eak, from the verb Gacan. YET. STILL. I put the conjunctions yet and still here together; because (like If and An) they may be used mutually for each other without any alteration in the meaning of the sentences : a circumstance which (though not so obviously as in these in- stances) happens likewise to some other of the conjunctions; and which is not unworthy of consideration. According to my derivation of them both, this mutual inter- change will not seem at all extraordinary : for yet (which is 94 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. nothing but the imperative Ei-et or Gyt, of Eretan or Erytail, obtinere) and still (which is only the imperative Stell or Steall, of Stellan or Steallian^, ponere) may very well supply each other's place, and be indifferently used for the same purpose. Algate and even algates, when used adversatively by Chaucer, I suppose, though so spelled, to mean no other than All-get^. " For ALBEIT tarieng be noyful, algate it is not to be reproued in yeiiynge of iugement, ne in vengeaunce takyng." — Tale of Chaucer, fol. 74. p. 2. col. 1. " A great waue of the see cometh somtyme with so great a vyolence, that it drowneth the shyppe: and the same harme dothe sometyme the small dropes of water that entreth through a lytell creueys, in to the tymbre and in to the botome of the shyppe, yf men be so negligente that they discharge hem not by tymes. And therfore all though there be a difference betwixt these two causes of drowning, algates the shyppe is drowned 3." The verb To get is sometimes spelled by Chaucer geate. But ί will repeat to you the derivations which others have given, and leave you. to chuse between us. Mer. Casaubon says — ^' Ετί, adhuc. Yet." Junius says — '^ Yet, adhuc. A.S. Hryt. Cymraeis etwa^ ettOy significat, adhuc, etiam, iterum ; ex ert vel αυθκ;." Skinner says — '^ Yet, ab A.S. Eiet, Ereta, adhuc, modo. Teut. Jetzt, jam, mox." Again he says — '^ Still, assidue, indesinenter, incessanter. Nescio an ab A.S. Till, addito tantum sibilo; vel a nostro et, credo, etiam A.S. As, ut, sicut, (licet apud Somnerum non oc- currat) et eodem Til, usque, q.d, usque, eodem modo." 1 Though this verb is no longer current in English, except as a Con- junction, yet it keeps its ground in the collateral languages. In German and Dutch it is Stellen In the Swedish, ... Stalla And in the Danish Stiller. - [Skinner says, " Algates, semper, omnino, nihilominus, ab All & Gate, via, q. d. omnibus viis :" which explanation seems best to accord with the sense of various passages in which the word occurs, and is no doubt to be preferred to that which Mr. Tooke supposes. ■ — En.] 3 [i.e. " In anyway, — in either case, — w? a// 2i?ay5, the ship is drown- ed :" — " toujours le vaisseau est abime." — En.] CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 95 ELSE. This word else, formerly written Alles, Ali/Sj Alyse, ElleSj Elhis, Ellis, Ells, Els, and now Else ; is, as I have said, no other than Kley or Άΐγρ the imperative of Άle]-anorΆly}-all, dimittere. Mr. Warton, in his History of English Poetry , vol. 1. p. 191 (without any authority, and in spite of the context, which evidently demands Else, and will not admit of Also) has ex- plained ALLES in the following passage by Also. " " The Soudan ther he satte in halle ; He sent his messagers faste with alle. To hire fader the kyng. And seyde, hou so hit ever hi falle, That mayde he wolde clothe in palle And spousen hire with his ryng. And ALLES 1 I swere withouten fayle I chuU hire winnen in pleye ^ battayle With mony an heih lordyng." The meaning of which is evidently, — •'' Give me your daughter, else I will take her by force.'' It would have been nonsense to say, — '' Give me your daughter, also I will take her by force." *' To hasten loue is thy nge in veine. Whan that fortune is there ageine. To take where a man hath leue Good is : and elles he mote leue." Gower, lib. 2. fol. 57. p. 1. col. 1. " Withouten noyse or clatteryng of belles Te Deum was our songe, and nothyng elles." Chaucer, Sompners Tale, fol. 43. p. 1. col. 1. " Eschame joung virgins, and fair damycellis, Furth of wedlok for to disteyne ^our kellis ; Traist not all talis that wantoun wowaris tellis, gou to defloure purposyng, and not ellis." Doiiglas, Prol. to 4th boke, p. 97, " And, bycause the derthe of things be suche as the soldyors be not able to lyue of theyr aecustomed wages, \¥hich is, by the day, six pence * [The readings are elles ; — pie5ai : in Ritson's collection. The ex- tracts from old English poems in the first edition of Warton are so inaccurate that no reliance can be placed in them. In the subsequent 8vo. editions they have been collated and corrected by Mr. Price, and SirF. Madden.—En.] 96 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. the foteman and nine pence th' liorsman ; therfor we beseche your lord- ships to be meanes to the Queene's majestic, that order may be taken, eyther for th' encreace of theyr wages by the day, the foteman to eight- pence, and th' horsman to twelve pence, or ells to allow that at the pay daise they may, by their captems or otherwise, haue some re- warde to counteruaill the like somme," — The Council in the North to the Privy Council, 4th of Sept. 1557. Lodge's Illustrations. N.B. " Wheat at this time was sold for four marks per quarter. Within one month after the harvest the price fell to five shillings.'* '* And eury man for his partie A kyngdome hath to iustifie. That is to sein his owne dome. If he misrule that kyngdome. He leseth him selfe, that is more, Than if he loste ship and ore. And all the worldes good with alle. For what man that in speciall Hath not him selfe, he hath not els, No more the perles than the shels. All is to him of ο value." Gower, lib. 8. fol. 185. p. 2. col. 2. " Nede has no pere. Him behoueth serue himselfe that has no swayn. Or ELS he is a fole, as clerkes sayn." Chaucer, Reues Tale, fol. 16. p. 1. col. 2. Junius says — ^^ Else, aliter, alias, alioqui. A.S. QWey. Al. Alles, D. Ellers.'' Skinner says- — 'ΈLSE, ab A.S. eilej", alias, alioquin. Minshew^ et Dr. Thomas Hickes putant esse contractum a Lat, Alias y vel Gr. Αλλωο, nee sine verisimilitudine." S. Johnson says — ^' Else, Pronoun, (Gllep Saxon) other, one besides. It is applied both to persons and things.'^ He says again — '' Else, Adverb.^ 1. Otherwise. 2. Be- sides; except that mentioned." THOUGH, Tho', though, thah^ (^r, as our country-folks more purely pronounce it, thaf, thauf, and thof) is the imperative Daj: ' See a ballad written about the year 1264, in the reign of Henry the third ; " Richard thah thou be ever trichard, Tricthen shalt thou never more." Percy's Reliques, vol, 2, p. 2. en. νίΠ.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 97 or Dapij of the verb Dapia^n or Dapi^an ; to allow, permit, grant, yield, assent: And Dapij becomes Thah, Thonghy Thoug (and Thoch, as G. Douglas and otliGr Scotch authors write it) by a transition of the same sort, and at least as easy, as that of Hawk from J^apiic. And it is remarkable, that as there were originally two ways of writing the verb, either with the guttural G (Dapijan) or without it (Dapian): so there still continues the same difference in writing and pronouncing the remaining imperative of this same verb, with the guttural G {Though), or without it {Tho'). In English the diiference is only in the characters ; but the Scotch retain in their pro- nunciation, the guttural termination. In the earlier Anglo-Saxon the verb is written je^apijan. In a charter of William the conqueror it is written — ic nolle je^ajcian. And in a charter of Henry the flrst it is also writ- ten — ic nelle ^e^apian. But a charter of Henry the second has it — ic nelle je^auian. — See the Preface to Hickes's Thesaurus, p. 15, 16. So that we thus have a sort of proof, at what time the ρ was dropped from the pronunciation of Kaplan ; (namely, about the reign of Henry the second;) and in what manner thatig became thaf, and thaf became thau or tho'. I reckon it not a small confirmation of this etymology, that our antient writers often used All be. All be it. All had. All should. All were. All give. How be it. Set. Suppose, &c. instead oi Although. " But AL BE that he was a philosophre. Yet had he but lytel golde in cofre." Chaucer, Prol. to Canter ο . Tales. " Ye wote your selfe, she may not wedde two At ones, though ye fyghten euer mo ; But one of you, all be him lothe or lefe, He mote go pype in an yue lefe." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 5. p. 2. col. 2. See also another ballad written in the year 1307, on the death of Edward the first. " Thah mi tonge were mad of stel. Ant min herte yzote of bras. The godness m^dit y never telle That with kyng Edward was." Percy's ReUqueS) vol. 2. p. 10. il 98 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. ** Albeit originally the King's Bench be restrained by this Act to hold plea of any real action, yet by a mean it may ; as when removed thither, &c." — Lord Coke. " — ^I shal yeuen her sufficient answere, And all women after for her sake. That though they ben in any gylte itake. With face bolde they shullen hem selue excuse, And here hem doun that wold hem accuse ; For lacke of answere, non of hem shull dyen ; All had he sey a thyng Λί /ith both his eyen. Yet shuld we women so visage it hardely. And wepe and swere and chyde subtelly. That ye shal ben as leude as gees." Chaucer, Marchaimtes Tale, fol. 33. p. 1. col. 2. *' But rede that boweth down for euery blaste Ful lyghtly cesse v/ynde, it wol aryse ; But so nyl not an oke, whan it is caste It nedeth me nought longe the forvyse. Men shal reioysen of a great emprise Atcheued wel, and stant withouten dout, Al haue men ben the lenger there about." 2d boke of Troylus, fol. 170. p. 2. col. 1. " For I wol speke, and tel it the Al shulde I dye." RomavMt of the Rose, fol. 152. p. 2. col. 1. ** And I so loued him for his obeysaunce And for the trouthe that I demed in his hert. That if so were, that any thyng him smert Al were it neuer so lyte, and I it wyst, Methought I felt deth at my hert twist." Squiers Tale, fol. 27. p. 2. col. 1. *' Allgyf England and Fraunce were thorow saught." — -Skelton. *' The Moor, eowbeit that ί endure him not, Is of a constant, loving, noble nature." — Oi hello, Rct. 2. sc, 1. " No wonder was, suppose in mynde that he Toke her fygure so soone, and Lo now why The ydol of a thyng in case may be So depe emprynted in the fantasy That it deludeth the Λvyttes outwardly." Compla.ynt of Creseyde, fol. 204. p. 1. col. 2. ^' In sere placis throve the ciete with thys The murmour rais ay mare and mare, I wys^ CII, VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 99 And clearar wax the rumour, and the dyn, So that, suppois^ Anchises my faderis In "With treis" about stude secrete by the way. So bustuous grew the noyis and furious fray And ratling of thare armoure on the strete, AfFrayit I glisnit of slepe, and sterte on fete." Douglas, boke 2, p. 49. ** Eurill (as said is) has this iouell hint. About his sydis it brasin, or he stynt ; Bot all for nocht, suppois the gold dyd glete." Doucjlas, boke 9. p. 289. " That sche might haue the copies of the pretendit writingis giuen in, quhilkis they haue diuerse tymes requirit of the Queue's maiestie and hir counsel, suppois thay haue not as git obtenit the samin." — Mary Queen of Scots. N.B. — In the year 1788 I saw the same use of suppose for THOUGH, in a letter written by a Scotch officer at Guern- sey, to my most lamented and dear friend the late Lieutenant General James Murray. The letter in other respects was in very good and common English. " I feel exceedingly for Lord W. M. suppose ί have not the honour of being personally acquainted with him." I believe that the use of this word suppose for though is still common in Scotland. The German uses Dock; the Dutch Dock and Dog; the Danish Dog and Endog ; and the Swedish Dock; as we use Though: all from the same root. The Danivsh employs Skwnt and Endskiondt ; and the Swedish Anskontj for Though: from the Danish verb Skionner ; and the Swedish verb, Skionja, both of which mean, to perceive^ discern, imagine, conceive, suppose, understand. As the Latin Si {if) means Be it : and Wisi and Sine {imless and without) mean Be not : so Etsi {although) means And he it^. The other Latin Conjunctions which are used for Al~ Anchisse domus.' - — '^ QuANQUAM secreta parentis ^ It may not be quite needless to observe, that our conjunctions if and THOUGH may very frequently supply, each other's place, as — - " Though an host of men rise up against me, yet shall not my heart be afraid ;" or, '* If an host of men, &c." So " Though all men Η 2 100 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I, thoughf (as, Qiiam-viSf Licetj Quant um-viSf Qunm-Uhet,) are so uncori'Lipted as to need no explanation. Skinner barely says• — *^ Though, ab A.S. Deab. Belg. Dock, Belg. & Teut. Dock, etsi, quamvis^" BUT, it was this word, but, which Mr. Locke had chiefly in view, when he spoke of Conjunctions as marking some '^ Stands, Turns, Limitations, and Exceptions of the mind." And it was the corrupt use of this One word (but) in modern English, for Tivo words (boT and but) originally (in the Anglo-Saxon) very difl'erent in signification, though (by repeated abbreviation and corruption) approaching in sound, which chiefly misled him. " But (says Mr. Locke) is a Particle, none more familiar in our language; and he that says it is a discretive Conjunction, and that it answers sed in Latin, or mais in French^, thinks he has sufficiently explained it. But it seems -to me to inti- mate several relations the mind gives to the several propositions or parts of them, which it joins by this monosyllable. *' First,• — But to say no more: '' Here it intimates a stop of the mind, in the course it was going, before it came to the end of it. '^ Secondly, — I saw but two plants. '^ Here it shews, that the mind limits the sense to what is expressed, with a negation of all other. should forsake you, yet will not I ;" or, '' If all men should forsake you, &c." 1 Though this word is called a conjunction of sentences, it is con- stantly used (especially by children and in low discourse) not only at the beginning, and between, but at the end of sentences. " Pro. Why do you maintain your poet's quarrel so with velvet and good clothes ? We have seen him in indiiferent clothes e're now himself. •' Boy. And may again. But his clothes shall never be the best thing about him, though. He will have somewhat beside, either of humane letters or severe honesty, shall speak him a man, though he went naked." [Relative to the word Though, see Grimm, iii. 177, 285, &c., and Additional Notes. — Ed.] 2 It does not answer to Sed in Latin, or Mais in French ; excejot only where it is used for Bat, Nor will any one word in any Language answer to our English but : because a similar corruption in the same instance has not happened in any other language. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 101 '^ Thirdly, — You j)ray ; but it is not that God would bring you to the true religion : *' Fourthly, — But that he ivould confirm you in your oivn. '^ The first of these buts intimates a supposition in the mind of something otherwise than it should be : the latter shews that the mind makes a direct opposition between that and what goes before it. '^ Fifthly, — All animals have sense, but a dog is an animal, ^^ Here it signifies little more, but that the latter proposition is joined to the former, as the Minor of a Syllogism. " To these, I doubt not, might be added a great many other significations of this particle, ifi it were my business to examine it in its full latitude, and consider it in all the places it is to be found ; which if one should do, I doubt whether in all those manners it is made use of, it would deserve the title of dis- cretive which Grammarians give to it. " But / intend not^ here a full explication of this sort of signs. The instances I have given in this one, may give occa- sion to reflect upon their use and force in language, and lead us into the contemplation of several actions of our minds in discoursing, which it h^s found a way to intimate to others by these Particles, some wheieof constantly, and others in certain constructions, have the sense of a whole sentence contained in them." Now all these difficulties are very easily to be removed without any eflOrt of the understanding : and for that very reason I do not much wonder that Mr. Locke missed the explanation : for he dug too deep for it. But that the Ety- mologists (who only just turn up the surface) should miss it, does indeed astonish me. It seems to me impossible, that any man who reads only the most common of our old English authors should fail to observe it. Gawin Douglas, notwithstanding he frequently confounds the two words, and uses them often improperly, does yet ^ " Essentiam finemque conjurictionum satis apte explicatum puto : nunc earum originem materiamque videamus. Neque vero Sigillatim percurrere omnes in Animo est." — /. C. Scaliger. The constant excuse of them all, whether Grammatists, Grammarians or Philosophers ; though they dare not hazard the assertion, yet they would all have us understand that they can do it 5 but non in animo est. And it has never been done. 102 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. (without being himself aware of the distinction, and from the mere force of customary speech) abound with so many in- stances, and so contrasted, as to awaken^, one should think, the most inattentive reader. *' BoT thy werke shall endure in laude and glorie. But spot or fait condigne eterne memorie." — Pre/, p. 3. " Thoch Wylliame Caxtoune had no compatioun Of Virgin in that buk he preyt in prois, Clepand it Virgill in Eneados, Quhilk that he sayis of Frensche he did translait. It has nathing ado therwith, God wate. Nor na mare like than the Deuil jind sanct Austin, Haue he na thank tharfore, bot lois his pyne ; So schamefully the storie did peruerte, I reid his werk with harmes at my hert. That sic ane buk^ but sentence or ingyne, Suld be intitulit eftir the poete diuine."— Pr^/*. p. 5. '* I schrink not anys correkkit for to be. With ony wycht groundit on charite. And glaidlie wald ί baith inquire and lere. And to ilk cunnand wicht la to myne ere ; BoT laith me war, but uther offences or cryme, Ane rural body suld intertrik my ryme." — Pref. p. 11, *' BoT gif this ilk statew standis here wrocht, "War with gour handis into the ciete brocht. Than schew he that the peopil of Asia * But ony obstakill in fell battel suld ga."— J5oo^e 2. p. 45. ** This chance is not but Goddis willis went. Nor it is not leful thyng, quod sche, Fra hyne Creusa thou turs aΛvay Λvyth the. Nor the hie governoure of the heuin aboue is Will suffer it so to be, bot the behuffis From hens to wend full fer into exile. And ouer the braid sey sayl furth mony a myle. Or thou cum to the l^nd Hisperia, Quhare with soft coursis Tybris of Lydia E-ynnis throw the riche feildis of pepill stout ; Thare is gret substance ordanit the but dout."— 5oo^e2. p.64. '* Vpoun sic wise vncertanlie we went Thre dayes wilsum throw the mysty streme, Aad als mony nychtes but sterneys leme. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 103 That quhidder was day or nycht vneth wist we. BoT at the last on the ferd day we se On fer the land appere, and hillis ryse, The smoky vapoure up casting on thare gyse. Doun fallis salis, the aris sone we span But mare abaid." — Booke 3. p, 74. "BoT gif the faits, but pleid. At my plesure suiter it me life to leid. At my fre wil my \vorkis to modify."— ^oo^e 4. p. 111. " BoT sen Apollo clepit Gryneus Grete Italic to seik commandis us, To Italie eik oraclis of Licia Admonist us but mare delay to ga Thare is my lust now and delyte at hand." — Booke 4. p. 111. ** Thou wyth thyr harmes ouerchargit me also, Quhen I fell fyrst into this rage, quod sche, BoT so to do my teris constrenyt the. Was it not lefuU, allace, but cumpany, To me BUT cryme allane in chalmer to ly ?" — -Booke 4. p. 119. " Ane great eddir slidand can furth thraw, Eneas of the sycht abasit sum deile, BoT sche at the last with lang fard fare and vv^ele Crepis amang the veschell and coupis ail, The drink, and eik the offerandis grete and small, Snokis and likis, syne ful the altaris left, And BUT mare harme in the graif enterit eft."- — Booked, p. 130. " Thare hartis on iiocht, smytin vv^ith shame sum dele, BoT glaid and ioly in hope for to do wele, Rasis in thare breistis desyre of hie renowne : Syne but delay at the first trumpis soune From thare marchis attanis furth thay sprent/' — Booke 5. p. 132. '' Ane uthir mache to him \vas socht and sperit; BoT thare Avas nane of all the rout that sterit, Na durst presume mete that man on the land. With mais or burdoun, to debate hand for hand. Ioly and glaid therof baith all and sum. Into bargane Λvenyng for to ouercum, Before Eneas feite stude, but delay." — Booke 5. p. 140. " The tothir answerd, Nowthir for drede nor boist, The luf of wourschip nor honoure went away is BoT certanly the dasit blude now on dayis 104 ETYMOLOGY OF THE (ViVRT I. Waxii? dolf and dull throw myne unweildy age, The cald body has mynyst my curage : BoT war I now as umquhile it has bene ging as gone wantoun woistare so Strang thay wene, ge had I now sic goutheid, traistis me. But ony price I suld all reddy be : Na lusty bul me till induce suld nede. For nouthir I suld haue crauit wage nor mede. Quhen this Avas said he has but mare abade Tua kempis burdouns brocht, and before tliaym laid." Boohe 5. p. 140. " And fyrst to hym ran Acestes the hyng. And for compassioun has uphynt in feild His freynd Entellus unto him euin eild. BoT noΛvthir astonist nor abasit hereon. Mare egirly the vailjeant campion Agane to bargane went als hate as fyre : And ardently with furie and mekle boist Gan Dares cache, and driue ouer al the coist : Now with the richt hand, now with the left hand he Doublis dyntis, and but abade lete ile ; The prince Eneas than seand this dout. No langar sufBr wald sic wraith procede, Nor feirs Entellus mude thus rage and sprede. BoT of the bargane maid end, but delay." — Boohe 5. p. 143. : In nowmer war they but ane few menge, BoT thay war quyk, and valjeant in melle."- — Booked, p. 153, " Blyn not, blyn not, thou grete Troian Enee, Of thy bedis nor prayeris, quod sche : For BOT thou do, thir grete durris, but dred, And grislie gettis sail neuer warp on bred."—5oo7fe 6. p. 164. "' On siclike Λvise as thare thay did with me, Grete goddis mot the Grekis recompens, Gif I may thig ane uengeance but offens. Bot say me this agane, freind, all togidder, Quhat auenture has brocht the leuand bidder ?" Booke 6. p. 182. " How grete apperance is in him; but dout, Tyll be of proues and ane vailgeant knycht: Bot ane blak sop of myst als dirk as nycht Wyth dreiy schaddow bylappis his hede."~~^oo/ce 6. p. 197, CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 105 " Nor mysknaw not the condiciouns of us Latyne pepyll and folkis of Saturnus, Unconstrenyt, not be law bound thertyll, BoT be our inclinacioun and fre wyll luste and equale, and but offensis ay, And reulit eftir the auld goddis way." — Boohe 7. p. 2Γ2. *'BoT sen that Virgil standis but compare." Prol. to Booke 9. p. 272. " Quhidder gif the goddis, or sum spretis silly Mouis in our myndis this ardent thochtful fire. Or gif that euery mannis schrewit desyre Be as his god and genius in that place, I wat neuer how it standis, bot this lang space My mynd mouis to me, here as I stand, Batel or sum grete thyng to tak on hand : I knaw not to quhat purpois it is drest, Bot be na way may I tak eis nor rest. Behaldis thou not so surelie but affray gone Rutulianis haldis thaym. glaid and gay."~-i5oo/te9.p. 281. "His feris lukis about on euery side. To se quharfra the groundin dart did glide. Bot lo, as thay thus wounderit in eiFray, This ilk Nisus, wourthin proude and gay. And baldare of his chance sa Λvith him gone, Ane uthir takill assayit he anone : And with ane sound smate Tagus but remede." Booke 9, i\ 291, " Agane Eneas can Tarquitus dres. And to recounter Enee inflamyt in tene, Kest hym self in ; bot the tothir but fere Bure at hym mychtely wyth ane lang spere." Booke 10. p. 337. " Sic wourdis vane and unsemelie of sound Furth warpis wyde this Liger fulichelie ; Bot the Troiane baroun unabasitlie Na wourdis preisis to render him agane ; Bot at his fa let fle ane dart or flane, That hit Lucagus quhilk fra he felt the djnit. The schaft hinging in to his schield, but stynt Bad driue his hors and chare al fordwert streicht." Booke 10. p. 338. " Bot quhat awalis bargane or Strang melle. Syne jeild the to thy fa, but ony why." Prol. to Booke 11. p. 356. 106 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I, ^' Than of his speich so wouiiderit war thay Kepit thare silence, and wist not what to say, BoT athir towart nthir turnis but mare. And can behald his fallow in ane. stare." — Booke 11. p. 364, Lat neuir demyt be The bustiiousnes of ony man dant the, BoT that thy dochter, Ο thou fader gude. Unto gone v/ourthy prince of gentill blude Be geuin to be thy son in law, I wys, As he that wourthy sic ane wedlok is ; And knyt up pece but mare disseuerance. With all eternall band of alliaunce." — Booke 11. p. 374. " Turnus and thy cheif ciete haue ί saue, Sa lang as that the fatis suiFerit me. And quliil werde sisteris sa tholit to be : BoT now I se that joung man haist but fale To mache in feild wyth fatis inequale."-— J?oo^e 12. p. 412. " On euery syde he has cassin his Ε ; And at the last behaldis the ciete, Saikles of batal, fre of all sic stryife. But pane or trauel, at quiet man and wyiFe. Than of ane greter bargane in his entent All suddanly the fygure dyd emprent. And on ane iitill mote ascendit in hye, Quhare sone forgadderit all the Troyane army. And thyck about hym flokkand can but baid, BoT novvthir scheild nor wappinnis doun thay laid." Booke 12. p. 430. — ''lia! I-Iow, Sa grete ane storme or spate of felloun ire. Under thy breist thou rollis liait as fyre ? Bot wirk as I the byd, and do away That wraith consauit but ony caus, I pray." — ϋοοΑ'^12.ρ.442. The Glossarist of Douglas contents himself with explaining BOT by BUT. The Glossarist to Urry's Edition of Chaucer says, — -^^ Βοτ for BUT is a form of speech frequently used in Chaucer to denote the greater certainty of a thing." — This is a most inexcusable assertion : for I believe the place cited in the Glossary is the only instance (in this edition of Chaucer) where bot is used ; and there is not the smallest shadow of reason for forming even a coDJecturc in favour of this unsa- CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONj^UNCTIONS. 107 tisfactory assertion: unsatisfactory, even if the fact had been so ; because it contains no explanation : for why should bot denote greater certainty ? And here it may be proper to observe, that Gawin Doug- las's language (where bot is very frequently found), though written about a century after, must yet be esteemed more ancient than Chaucer's : even as at this day the present English speech in Scotland is, in many respects, more ancient than that spoken in England so far back as the reign of Queen Elizabeth ^ So Mer. Casaubon (De vet. ling. Aug.) says of his time — -''Scotica lingua Anglica hodierna purior." —Where hy purior, he means nearer to the Anglo-Saxon. So G. Hickes, in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, (Ch. 3.) says — '* Scoti in multis Saxonizantes," But, to return to Mr. Locke, whom (as B. Jonson says of Shakespeare) ^' I reverence on this side of idolatry ;" in the five instances which he has given for five different meanings of the word but, there are indeed only two different meanings^: nor could he, as he imagined he could, have added any other significations of this particle, but what are to be found in bot and BUT as I have explained them^ ^ This will not seem at all extraordinary, if you reason directly con- trary to Lord Monboddo on this subject; by doing Avliich you will generally be right, as well in this as in almost every thing else which he has advanced. " " You must answer, that she Λvas brought very near the fire, and as good as thrown in ; or else that she was provoked to it by a divine inspiration. But, but that another divine inspiration moved the be- holders to believe that she did therein a noble act, this act of her's might have been calumniated," &c. — Donne's Βιαθανατοε, part 2. di- stinct. 5. sect. 8. In the above passage, which is exceedingly aukward, but is used in both it's meanings close to each other : and the impropriety of the cor- ruption appears therefore in it's most oifensive point of view. A care- ful author would avoid this, by placing these two buts at a distance from each other in the sentence, or by changing one of them for some other equivalent word. Whereas had the corruption not taken place, he might without any inelegance (in this respect) have kept the con- struction of the sentence as it now stands : for nothing would have offended us, had it run thus — " Bot, butan that another divine inspira- tion moved the beholders," &c. 3 S. Johnson in his Dictionary has numbered up eighteen different significations (as he imagines) of but : which however are all reducible to EOT sma Be-utan. 108 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. But, in thejij^st, tliirdy fourth , and β /th instances, is cor- rujttly put for bot, the imperative of Botan : In the second instance only it is put for Bute, or Butan, or Be-utan^ In i\iQ first instance, — -'' To say no more,'' is a mere paren- thesis : and Mr. Locke has unwarily attributed to but, the meaning contained in the parenthesis : for suppose the instance ^ " I saw BUT two plants." Not or Ne is here left out and understood, which used formerly to he inserted, as it frequently is stilL So Chaucer, " Tel forth your tale, spareth for no man, And teche us yong men of your practike. Gladly (quod she) if it may you lyke. But that I pray to all this company. If that I speke after my fantasy. As taketh not a grefe of that I say, For myn entent is not but to play." — Wife of Bathes Pro! . " I ne usurpe not to haue founden this werke of my lahour or of myne engyn, I nam but a leude compylatour of the lahoure of olde astrologiens, and haue it translated in myn englysshe."•— /wiro(/MCiio/i to Conclusyons of the Astrolahye. " Forsake I wol at home myn herytage, And as I sayd, ben of your courte a page, If that ye vouchesafe that in this place Ye graunte me to haue suche a grace That I may haue nat but my meate and drinke, And for my sustynaunce yet wol I swynke." " Yet were it better I were your wyfe, Sithe ye ben as gentyl borne as I And haue a realme nat but faste by." Ariadne, fol. 217. p. 1. col. 1. and 2. We should now say— my intent is but to jilay, — / am but a com- piter, &c. [Webster says that the common people in America usually retain the negative in such cases. Lye erroneously explains Butan by solum, tantum, in Oros. 1. 1. J?s&p nsejion butan tpegen. It should rather have been rendered by nisi; — Non erant nisi duo. It is true, indeed, that the negative and Butan together are equivalent to solum. The expres- sions " can but" and " cannot hut," there evidently diifer in significa- tion. For Biutan, &c. (sine), see Grimm's Grammatik, iii. 263. — Ed.] This omission of the negation before but, though now very common, is one of the most blameable and corrupt abbreAaations of construction which is used in our language ; and could never have obtained, but through the utter ignorance of the meaning of the word but. " There is not (says Chillingworth) so much strength required in the edifice as in the foundation : and if but wise men have the ordering of the build- CH. VIII.] EiiGLISH CONJ UN CTiONS. 109 had been this, — ^^ but to proceed,'' — Or this, — ^' but, to go fairli/ through this matter." — Or this, — " but, not to stop.'' Does BUT in any of these instances intimate a stop of tlie mind in the course it was going? The truth is, that but itself is the furthest of any word in the language from ^'intimating a ing, they will make it much a surer thing, that the foundation shall not fail the building, than that the building shall not fall from the foundation. And though the building be to be of brick or stone, and perhaps of wood ; yet it may be possibly they λυϊΙΙ have a rock for their foundation ; whose stability is a much more indubitable thing, than the adherence of the structure to it." It should be Λvrίtten — " If 7ioiie but wise men." — But the error in the construction of this sentence will not excuse the present minister, if he neglects the matter of it. The blessings or execrations of all posterity for ever upon the nam-C of Pitt, (pledged as he is) will depend intirely upon his conduct in this particular. The reader of this edition is requested to observe, that the above note is not inserted apres coup ; hut icas published in the first edition of this volume in 1786 ; ichen I was in possession of the following solemn, public engagement from Mr. Pitt, made to the JFest?7iinster Oelegxtes in 1782. " Sir, " I am extremely sorry that I was not at home when you and the other gentlemen from the Westminster Committee did me the honor to call. May I beg the favor of you to express that I am truly happy to find that the motion of Tuesday last has the ai:>probation of such zealous friends to the public, and to assure the Committee that my exertion^ shall never be wanting in support of a measure, which I agree with- them in thinking essentiall}- necessary to the independence of Parlia- ment, and to the liberty of the people. I have the honor to be, Λνΐίΐι great respect and esteem, Sir, your most obedient and Lincoln's-Inn, most humble Servant, I\iay 10. W. PITT." Although I had long hnoivn the old detestable maxim of political adven- turers, (for Philip teas no other) — " To amuse boys with playthings and men with oaths" — yet, I am not ashamed to coif ess, I, at that time, placed the firmest i-eliance on his engagement : and in consequence of my full faith and trust, gave to him and to his admi7iistration, most especially when it tottered and seemed overthrown {at the time of the Regency Bill in 1788) a support so zealous and effectual, as to draw repeatedly from himself and his friends the warmest acknowledgments. This letter was produced by me upon my trial at the Old Bailey in the year 1794: %chen fidelity to the sentiments it contains was seriously and vnblushingly imjmted to me as High Treason. The original of this letter Mr. Pitt, upon his oath, to my astonishment acknowledged to be in his own handwriting ; although every trace of Delegation loas totally efaced from his memory. 110 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [pART I. stop,^' On the contrary it always intimates something more^, something to follow : (as indeed it does in this very instance of Mr. Locke's; though we know not what that something is, because the sentence is not completed.) And therefore when- ever any one in discourse finishes his words with but, the question always follows — but what! So that Shakespeare speaks most truly as well as poet- ically, when he gives an account of but, very diiFerent from this of Mr. Locke: " Mess. Madam, he 's well. Cleo: Well said. Mess. And friends with Csesar. Cleo. Thou art an honest man. Mess. Caesar and he are greater friends than ever. Cleo. Make thee a fortune from me. ^ In the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and several other dead and living languages, the very word more is used for this conjunction but. The French antiently used mais, not only as they now do for the conjunction mais ; but also as they now use plus or d'avantage. — Υ puis-je Mais ? Je n'en puis Mais, are still in use among the vulgar peo^Dle; in both which expressions it means more. So Henry Estienne uses it ; " Sont si bien accoustumez a ceste syncope, ou plutost apocope, qu'ils en font quelquesfois autant aux dissyllabes, qui n'en peuvent MAIS." — H. E, cle la Precellence du La?igage Francois, p. 18. " Μ MS v'lent de magis (y entens mais pour d'avantage.") — Id. p. 131. " Helas ! il n'en pouvoit mais, le pauvre prince, ni mort, ny vivant." — Brantome. *'Enfin apres cent tours aiant de la maniere Sur ce qui n'en pent mais decharge sa colere." Moliere, Ε cole des Femmes, a. 4. sc. 6. In the same manner the Italians ; "lo t' ho atato, quanto ho potuto : si ch' io non so, ch' io mi ti possa piu atare : Ε pero qui non ha ma che uno compenso, Comincia a piangere, e io piangeroe con teco insieme." — Cento Novelle. Nov. 35. ** Fue un signore, ch' avea uno giullare in sua corte, e questo giullare Γ adorava sicome un suo Iddio. Un altro giullare vedendo questo, si gliene disse male, e disse : Or cui chiami tu Iddio } Elli non e ma che ηηο."-— Cento Novelle. Nov. 18. In the same manner also the Spanish language employs mas both for But and More. " Es laverdadla que mas importa a los principes, y la que rnenos se halla en los palacios."• — Saavedra. Corona Goihica, '' Obra de mas novedad, ν mas estudio."— M CH. νΐΐί.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. Ill Mess, But — yet— Madam, — - Cleo. I do not lil^e but — yet. — It does allay The good precedent. Fie upon but, — yet. — But — YET — is as a jaylour, to bring forth Some monstrous malefactor." — Antony and Cleopatra, act 2. so. 5. where you may observe that yet (tho' used elegantly here, to mark more strongly the hesitation of the speaker) is merely superfluous to the sense; as it is always when used after EOT: for either bot or yet alone has the very same effect, and will always be found (especially bot) to allaj/ equally the Good or the Bad^ precedent; by something more^^ that follows. For Botan means — to boot^, i. e. to superadd^ 1 " Speed. Item, She hath more hairs than wit, and more faults than hairs ; but more wealth than faults. Laun. Stop there. She ΛYas mine, and not mine, twice or thrice in that article. Rehearse that once more. Speed. Item, She hath more hair than wit. Laun. What 's next ? Speed. And more faults than hairs. Laun. That 's monstrous ! Ο that that were out ! Speed. But more wealth than faults. Laun. Why that word makes the faults gracious." Two Gent, of Verona, act 3. sc. 1. Here, the word but allays the Bad precedent ; for which, without any shifting of its own intrinsic signification, it is as well qualified as to allay the Good. 2 So Tasso, — " Am. Oh, die mi dici ? Silvia m' attende, ignuda, e sola } Tir. Sola, Se non quanto v' e Dafne, ch' e per noi. Am. Ignuda ella m' aspetta ? Tir. Ignuda: μλ — Am, Oime, che ma .? Tu taci, tu m' uccidi." Aminta, att. 2. sc. 3. where the difference of the construction in the English and the Italian is worth observing ; and the reason evident, why in the question con- sequent to the conjunction, what is placed after the one, but before the other. Boot what .^1 Γ ¥/hat more } i.e.> S '' ^' But v/hat ? J L Che ma ? ^ S. Johnson and others have mistaken the expression — To Boot — (which still remains in our language) for a substantive ; which is indeed the Infinitive of the same verb, of w^hich the conjunction is the Imperative. As the Dutch also still retain Boeten in their language, with the same meaning. 4 " Perhaps it may be thought improper for me to address you on this subject. But a moment, my Lords, and it will evidently appear, that you are equally blameable for an omission pf duty here also/' 112 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PARTI. to supply, to substitute, to atone for, to compensate with, to remedy with, to make amends with, to add something more in order to make up a deficiency in something else. So likewise in the third and fourth instances (taken from Chillingworth) ^ Mr. Locke has attributed to but a meaning which can only be collected from the words which follow it. But Mr. Locke says,- — '^ If it were his business to examine it (hut) in its full latitude." — And that he ^' intends not here a full explication of this sort of signs." And yet he adds, that — " the instances he has given in this one (but) may lead us into the contemplation of several actions of onr 7ninds in dis- coursing, which it h^sfounda ivay to intimate to others by these particles." And these, it must be remembered, are Actions, or as he before termed them thoughts of our minds, for which he has said, we have ^^ either none or very deficient names.'^ Now if it had been so, (which in truth it is not) it was surely for that reason, most especially the business of an Essay on Human Understanding, to examine these Signs in iheivfull latitude; and to give ?i full explication of them. Instead of which, neither Here, nor elseiOhere, has Mr. Locke given Any explication whatever. This may be supposed an abbreviation of construction, for *'But indulge me with a moment, my Lords, and it will," &c. But there is no occasion for such a supposition. 1 Knott had said, — " How can it be in us a fundamental error to say, the Scripture alone is not judge of controversies, seeing (notwith- standing this our belief) we use for interpreting of Scripture all the means which they prescribe ; as prayer, conferring of places, consulting the originals," &c. To which Chillingworth replies, You pray, but it is not that God would bring you to the true religion, but that he would confirm you in your own. You confer places, but it is, that you may confirm or colour over with plausible disguises your erroneous doctrines ; not that you may judge of them and forsake them, if there be reason for it. You consult the originals, but you regard them not when they make against your doctrine or translation." In all these places, but (i. e. bot, or, as we now pronounce the verb, boot) only directs something to be added or supplied, in order to make up some deficiency in Knott's expressions of "prayer, conferring of places," &c. And so far indeed as an omission of something is improper, but (by ordering it's insertion) may be said " to intimate a supposition in the mind of the speaker, of something otherwise than it should be." But that intimation is only, as you see, by consequence; jmd not by the intrinsic signific^^tion of the word but, CH. νίΠ.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 113 Though I have said much, I shall also omit much which might be added in support of this double etymology of but : nor should I have dwelt so long upon it, but in compliment to Mr. Locke ; whose opinions in any matter are not slightly to be rejected, nor can they be modestly controverted without very strong arguments. None of the etymologists have been aware of this corrupt use of one word for two^, Minshew, keeping only one half of our modern but in con- templation, has sought for its derivation in the Latin imperative Puta. Junius confines his explanation to the other half; which he calls its ^' primariam significationem." And Skinner, willing to embrace them both, found no better 1 Nor have etymologists been any more aware of the meaning or true derivation of the words corresponding with but in other languages. Vossius derives the Latin conjunction at from arajo ; and ast from at, '' inserto s." (But how or why s happens to be inserted, he does not say.) Now to what purpose is such sort of etymology ? Suppose it was derived from this doubtful word αταρ ; what intelligence does this give us^? Why not as well stop at the Latin word at, as at the Greek word arap ? Is it not such sort of trifling etymology (for I will not give even that name to what is said by Scaliger and Nunnesius concerning sed) which has brought all etymological inquiry into disgrace ? Vossius is indeed a great authority ; but, when he has nothing to justify an useless conjecture but a similarity of sound, we ought not to be afraid of opposing an appearance of Reason to him. It is contrary to the customary progress of corruption in words to derive ast from at. Words do not gain but lose letters in their pro- gress ; nor has unaccountable accident any share in their corruption ; there is always a good reason to be given for every change they re- ceive : and, by a good reason, I do not mean those cabalistical words Metathesis, Epenthesis, &c. by which etymologists Λvork such miracles ; but at least a probable or anatomical reason for those not arbitrary operations. Adsit, Adst, Ast, At. — This conjecture is not a little strengthened both by the antient method of writing this conjunction, and by the rea- son which Scaliger gives for it. — "At fuit ad; acccssionem emmaicit.''* — De C. L. L. cap. 173. I am not at all afraid of being ridiculed for the above derivation, by any one who will give himself the trouble to trace the words (cor- responding with but) of any language to their source : though they should not all be quite so obvious as the French Mais, the Italian Ma, the Spanish Mas, or the Dutch Maar. 114 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [pART I. method to reconcile two contradictory meanings, tlian to say hardily that the transition from one ^ to the other^ was — '^ levi FLEXU !" Junius says — ^' But, Chaucero T» C. v. 194. bis positum pro Sine. Primus locus est in summo columnee^ — ' but tem- peratince in teiie.' — Alter est in columnse medio, * This golden carte with firy hemes bright Foure yoked stedes, full different of hew. But baite or tiring through the spheres drew.' ubi, tamen perperam, primo bout pro but reposueram : quod iterum delevi, cum (sub finem ejusdem poematis) incidissem in hunc locum,— * But mete or drinke she dressed her to lie In a darke corner of the hous alone ' — atque adeo exinde quoque observare ccepi frequentissimam esse banc particulse acceptionem. In ^neide quoque Scotica pas- sim occurrunt ' but spot orfalty 3. 53. — ^ but ony indigence, 4. 20. — ' BUT sentence or ingyne, 5. 41. — * principal poet BUT^ere,' 9. 19.— atque itaporro. But videtur dictum quasi Be-iit, pro quo Angli dicunt without: unde quoque, hujus derivationis intuitu, prtesens hujus Particulee acceptio videbitur ostendere banc esse primariam ejus signijicationem." The extreme carelessness and ignorance of Junius in this article is wonderful and beneath a comment. Skinner says, — '' But, ut ubi dicimus None but he ; — ab A.S. Bute, Butan, prater, nisi, sine ; Hinc, levi flexu, postea ccepit, loco antiqui Anglo-Saxomci ac, Sed designare. Bute autem et Butan tandem deflecti possunt a prsep. Be, circa ; vel Been, esse, et Ute vel Ut2in,foris." Mr. Tyrvvhit in his Glossary says — *' But. prep. Sax, Without. Gloss. Ur.— I cannot say that I have myself ob- served this preposition in Chaucer, but I may have overlooked it. The Saxons used it very frequently ; and how long the Scottish writers have laid it aside I am doubtful." It occurs repeatedly in Bp. Douglas.'' Knowing that no Englishman had yet laid this prepositioti ' Id est, a direction to leave out something, 2 Id est, a direction to superadd something. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 115 aside, I was curious to see how many sentences Mr. Tyrwliit himself had written without the use of this preposition; and I confess I was a httle disappointed in not meeting with it till the fourth page of his preface : where he says — '^ Passages which have nothing to recommend them to credit, but the single circumstance of having been often repeated." So in Chaucer throughout—'^ Hys study was but lytel on the Byble." But Mr. Tyrwhit was not aware that, in all such instances, but is as much 2^. preposition as any in the language. WITHOUT, But (as distinguished from Bot) and without have both exactly the same meaning, that is, in modern Enghsh, neither more nor less than — Be-out. And they were both originally used indiiFerently either as Conjunctions or Prepositions. But later writers liaving adopted the false notions and distinctions of language maintained by the Greek and Latin Grammarians, have successively endea- voured to make the English language conform more and more to the same rules. Accordingly without, in approved modern speech^, is now intirely confined to the office of a Preposition ; and but is generally though not always used as a Conjunction. In the same manner as Nisi and Si}ie in Latin are distributed ; which do both hkewise mean exactly the same, with no other difference than that, in the former the negation precedesj and in the other it folloivs the verb. Skinner only says, — ''Without, ab A.S. wi^iitan. Extra.'* S. Johnson makes it a Preposition, an Adverb, and a Con- junction ; and under the head of a Conjunction, says, " With- out, Conjunct. Unless; if not ; Except — Not in use.''* Its true derivation and meaning are the same as those of but (from Butan). It is nothing but the Imperative pyp^utan, from the Anglo- 1 It is however used as a Conjunction by Lord Mansfield in Home's Trial, p. 56. " It cannot be read, without the Attorney General consents to it." And yet, if this reverend Earl's authority may be safely quoted for any thing, it must be for Words. It is so unsound in matter of law, that it is frequently rejected even by himself. 1 2 118 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. derstand. — Conjunctions, it seems, are to have their deno- mination and definition from the use to which they are applied : per accidenSf essentia7n. Prepositions connect words ; but — ^' the Conjunction connects or joins together sentences ; so as out of two to make one sentence. Thus— ^ You and I and Peter, rode to London V is one sentence made up of three," &c. Well ! So far matters seem to go on very smoothly. It is, ^^ You rode, I rode, Peter rode." But let us now change the instance, and try some others, which are full as common, though not altogether so con- venient. Two AND two are four. AB AND BC AND CA form a Triangle. John AND Jane are a handsome couple. Does AB form a triangle, BC form a triangle ? &c. — Is John a couple? Is Jane a couple? — Are two four? If the definition of a Conjunction is adhered to, I am afraid that AND, in such instances, will appear to be no more a Con- junction (that is a connecter of sentences) than Though in the instance I have given under that word : or than Butp in Mr. Locke's second instance : or than Else, when called by S. Johnson a Pronoun : or than Since, when used for Sithence or for Syne, In short, I am afraid that the Grammarians will scarcely have an entire Conjunction left : for I apprehend that there is not one of those Vv'ords which they call Conjunctions, which is not sometimes used (and that very properly) without connecting sentences"» ^ '^ Petrus et Paulus disputant : id est, Petrus disputat et Paulus dis- putat," — Sanctii Minerva, lib. 1. cap. 18. So again, lib. 3. cap. 14. : *' Cicero et filius vcdent, Figura Syllepsis est: ut, valet Cicero, et valet filius J" Which Perizonius sufficiently con- futes, by these instances — * Emi librum χ draclimis et iv. obolis.' ' Saulus et Paulus sunt iidem.' 2 [Dr. Jamieson diifers from Mr. Tooke with regard to the con- junction AND, referring its origin to the Teutonic preposition and, ant, int, unt, &c, Hermes Scythicus, p. 17. — See also Grimm, who con- siders it as related to the Latin at and et : Grammatik, vol. iii. p. 255- and 271.— EdO CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 119 LEST. Junius only says — '' Lest, least , minimus, v. little,** Under Least, he says — '' Least, lest, minimus. Contractum est ex ελαχιστοα. v. little, parvus." And under Little, to which he refers us, there is nothing to the purpose. Skinner says — ■" Lest, ab A. S. Lasjr, minus, q. d. quo minus hoc fiat.** S. Johnson says, — '' Lest, Conj. (from the Adjective Least) That not,** This last deduction is a curious one indeed ; and it would puzzle as sagacious a reasoner as S. Johnson to supply the middle steps to his conclusion from Least (which always how- ever means some) to ^' That not** (which means 7ione at all). It seems as if, when he wrote this, he had already in his mind a presentiment of some future occasion in which such reason- ing would be convenient. As thus, — '^ The Mother Country, the seat of government, must necessarily enjoy the greatest share of dignity, power, rights, and privileges : an united or associated kingdom must have in some degree a smaller share; and their colonies the least share ;" — that is, (according to S. Johnson^) None of any kind. ^ Johnson's merit ought not to be denied to him ; but his Dictionary is the most imperfect and faulty, and the least valuable of any of his productions; and that share of merit which it possesses, makes it by so much the more hurtful. I rejoice however, that though the least valuable, he found it the most profitable : for I could never read his Preface without shedding a tear. And yet it must be confessed, that his Grammar and History and Dictionary of what he calls the English language, are in all respects (except the bulk of the latter) most truly contemptible performances ; and a reproach to the learning and industry of a nation, which could receive them with the slightest approbation. Nearly one third of this Dictionary is as much the language of the Hottentots as of the English ; and it would be no difficult matter so to translate any one of the plainest and most popular numbers of the Spectator into the language of that Dictionary, that no mere English- man, though well read in his own language, would be able to compre- hend one sentence of it. It appears to be a work of labour, and yet is in truth one of the most idle performances ever offered to the public : compiled by an author who possessed not one single requisite for the undertaking, and, being a publication of a set of booksellers, owing its success to that very cir- cumstance which alone must make it impossible that it should deserve success. 120 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. It has been proposed by no small authority (Wallis fol- lowed by Lowth) to alter the spelling of lest to Least ; and vice versa. '^ Multi/' says Wallis, *' pro Lest scribunt Least (ut distinguatur a Conjunctione Lest, fie, ut non) : Verum oninino contra analogiam GrammaticaB. Mallem ego Adjec- tivum lest J Conjunctionem least scribere." ^^ The superlative Least," says Lowth, '^ ought rather to be written without the a; as Dr. Wallis has long ago observed. The Conjunction of the same sound might be written with the A, for distinction." S. Johnson judiciously dissents from this proposal, but for no other reason but because he thinks '^ the profit is not worth the change." ]Mow though they all concur in the same Etymology, I will venture to affirm that Lest for Lesed (as blest for blessed, &.C.) is nothing else but the participle past of Lej-an, dimittere ; and, with the article That (either expressed or understood) means no more than hoc dwiisso or quo dimisso^. And, if this explanation and etymology of lest is right, (of which I have not the smallest doubt,) it furnishes one caution more to learned critics, not to innovate rashly : Lest, whilst they attempt to amend a language, as they imagine, in one trifling respect, they mar it in others of more importance ; and by their corrupt alterations and amendments confirm error, and make the truth more difficult to be discovered by those who come after. Mr. Locke says, and it is agreed on all sides, that — ^' it is in the right use of these" {Particles) "that more particularly consists the clearness and beauty of a good style :" and that, ^^ these words, which are not truly by themselves the names of any id^as, are of constant and indispensable use in language ; and do much contribute to men's well expressing themselves." Now this, I am persuaded, would never have been said, had ^ As LES the Imperative of Lefan is sometimes used for unless, as has been already shewn under the article Unless : so is the same Im- perative LES sometimes used instead of the participle lest. *' I knew it was past four houris of day, And thocht I wald na langare ly in May ; Les Phoebus suld me losingere attaynt." G, Douglas, Prol. to the I2th book of Eneados. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 121 these Particles been understood ; for it proceeds from nothing but the difficulty of giving any rule or direction concerning their use ; and that difficulty arises from a mistaken sup- position that they are not '* hy themselves the names of any ideas ;" and in that case indeed I do not see how any rational rules concerning their use could possibly be given. Bat I flatter myself that henceforward, the true force and nature of these words being clearly understood, the proper use of them will be so evident, that any rule concerning their use will be totally unnecessary : as it would be thought absurd to inform any one that when he means to direct an addition, he should not use a word which directs to take away. I am induced to mention this in this place, from the very improper manner in which lest (more than any other Con- junction) is often used by our best authors ; those who are most conversant with the learned languages being most likely to make the mistake. — *^ You make use of such indirect and crooked arts as these to blast my reputation, and to pos- sess men's minds with disaffection to my person ; lest per- adventure, they might with some indifference hear reason from me." — ChilUngivorth's Preface to the Author of Charity main- tained, &c. Here lest is well used — '^ You make use of these arts :" — = Why? The reason follows, — '^ Lej-eb that," i. e. Hoc dimisso — '^ men might hear reason from me. — Therefore, — you use these arts." Instances of the improper use of lest may be found in almost every author that ever wrote in our language ; because none of them have been aware of the true meaning of the word ; and have been misled by supposing it to be perfectly correspondent to some Conjunctions in other languages; which it is not. Thus King Henry the Eighth, in A Necessary Doctrine, S^c, sixte petition, says, — '' If we suffer the fyrste suggestion unto synne to tarry any whyle in our hartes, it is great peryll lest that consent and dede wyll folowe shortly after." Thus Ascham^ in his Scholemaster, says, — ^^ If a yong jen- tleman will venture himselfe into the companie of ruffians, it is over great a jeopardie, lest their facions, maners, thoughts, taulke, and dedes will verie sone be over like." 122 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. Any tolerable judge of English will immediately perceive something aukward and improper in these sentences ; though he cannot tell why. Yet the reason will be very plain to him, when he knows the meaning of these unmeaning particles (as they have been called) : for he will then see at once that lest has no business in the sentences ; there being nothing dimisso, in consequence of which something else would follow : and that, if he would employ lest, the sentences must be arranged otherwise. As, — *' We must take heed that the first suggestion unto sin tarry not any while in our hearts, lest that," &c. " A young gentleman should be careful not to venture him- self," &c., " lest,'' &c. ^' il est bon quelquefois (says Leibnitz) d'avoir la com- plaisance d'examiner certaines objections : car, outre que cela pent servir a tirer les gens de leur erreur, il pent arriver que nous en profitions nous-memes. Car les paralogismes spe- cieux renferment souvent quelque ouverture utile, et donnent lieu a resoudre quelques difficultes considerables. C'est pour- quoi j'ai toujours aime des objections ingenieuses centre mes propres sentiments, et je ne les ai jamais examinees sans fruit^" I shall, in this instance, be more complaisant than Leibnitz; and will descend to examine objections which are neither specious nor ingenious : and the rather because (before their publication) the substance of the Criticisms on the Oiversioiis of Purley was, with singular industry and a characteristical affectation, gossiped by the present precious Secretary at War^, in Payne the bookseller's shop; the cannibal commencing with this modest observation, that — ^^ I had found a mare's nest^." ^ Essais de Theodicee. Discows de la conformite de la foi avec la fatsoYi 2 The Rt. Hon. W. Windham. Edit. 3 This malignant and false observation was heard with an appear- ance of satisfaction λυΗοΙι prudence dictated to the hearer ; and com- municated with that disgust which a liberal royalist always feels at Renegado illiberality. " No, (said my antipolitical communicating friend) I will never descend with him beneath even a Japanese : and I remember what Voltciire remarks of that country ; — Le Japon etait partage en plusieurs sectes, quoique sous un roi Pontife. Mais toutes CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 123 I shall examine them in this place, because one fourth part of these Criticisms (20 pages out of 79) is employed in objections to the derivation of unless, else, and lest: which have all three one meaning (viz. of Separation), and are all, as I contend, portions of the same verb Lej'an. i. e. of On-Iej-an. Ti-Iej-an, Lepn. My Norwich critics^for I shall couple them) blame me, 1. For the obscurity of my Title-page. Pag. 2^ 2. For the matter of my Introduction. Pag. 3. 3. For the place of my Advertisement. Pag. 21. 4. For a very strong propension towards inaccuracy. Pag. 2. 5. For having '^introduced one of the champions for intolerance,'' by quoting a Roman catholic bishop. Pag. 4. 6 For the imperfection of my Anglo-Saxon alphabet. Pag. 22. 7. And finally, For my politics. Pag, 32^. All these I willingly abandon to their mercy and discretion; although they have not shewn any symptoms of either. But ί should be sorry if any of my readers were hastily misled by them to beheve, les sectes se reunissaient dans les memes princij)es de Morales. Ceux qui croiaient la metempsycose, et ceux qui n'y croiaient pas, s'abste- naient, et s'abstiennent encore aujourdhui, de manger la chair des animaux qui rendent service ά I'homme." 1 [See Additional Notes.] - "Vix plane a me impetrare possum, quin exemplum sequar Petri Francisci GiambuUarii, qui librum suum de linguae Florentinae origine scriptum, a Johannis Baptistce Gellii, viri sibi amicitia et studiis con- junctissimi, cognomine, quern in scribendo socium et consiliarium habuit, II Gello nuncupari voluit. Perinde quidem et mihi Thwaitesii nomine librum nostrum inscribendo, si per modestiam ejus liceret, nobis faciendum esset." — G. Hickes. 3 Mr. Secretary and his secretary will not be surprised that their disapprobation does not move me ; when they consider that, as far as corrupt and unbridled power has been able to enforce the decree, I have, on account of these politics, been, for the last thirty years, robbed of the fair use of life, interdictus aqua et iyni : and, by what I can prognosticate, ί suppose I am still to lay down my life for them. I might have quitted them, as Mr. Secretary has done, and have received the reward of my treachery. But my politics λυιΙΙ never be changed, nor be kept back on any occasion : and whilst I have my life, it Λνϋΐ neither be embittered by any regret for the past, nor fear for the future. 124 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. 1st. That '^Grammar was one of the First arts which pro- bably engaged the attention of the curious." P^ig. 4. For the contrary is not a matter of conjecture, but of his- torical fact: and whoever pleases may know at what precise period Grammar, as an art, had its commencement in every nation of Europe. Or 2dly. That '^ The desire which arises in the mind, next to that of communicating thought, is certainly to use such signs as will convey the meaning clearly and precisely." Pag. 19. For a desire of comiyiunicating thought j and a desire of con- veying our meaning clearly and precisely (though expressed by different words), are not two desires, but one desire: for «s far as our meaning is not conveyed clearly and precisely, it is not conveyed at all ; so far there is no communication of thought. Or 3dly. That ''This desire of conveying our meaning clearly and precisely naturally leads to the use of abbrevia- tions : and that abbreviations seem to bear a much stronger affinity to the desire of perspicuity than to that of dispatch." Pag. 20. For, to satisfy himself that the desire of clearness and per- spicuity does not lead to the use of abbreviations, (which are substitutes,) any person needs only to consult the legal instru- ments of any civilized nation in the world : for in these instruments, perspicuity or clearness is the only object. Now these legal instruments have always been, and always must be, remarkably more tedious and prolix than any other writings, in which the same clearness and precision are not equally im- portant. For abbreviations open a door for doubt ; and, by the use of them, what we gain in tim.e we lose in precision and certainty. In common discourse we save time by using the short substitutes he and she and they and it; and (with a little care on one side and attention on the other) they answer our purpose very well ; or if a mistake happens, it is easily set right. But this substitution will not be risqued in a legal instrument; and the drawer thinks himself compelled, for the sake of certainty, to say- — he (the said John A.) to him (the said Thomas B.) for them (the said William C. and Anne CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 125 D.) as often as those persons are mentioned \ And for the same reason he is compelled to employ many other prolixities of the same kind. ¥ Or 4thly. That 'Ά desire of variety gave birth to Pronouns in language, which otherwise would not have appeared in it." Pag. 20. For Pronouns prevent variety. Or 5thly. That ''Articles and Pronouns are neither Nouns nor Verbs." Pag. 26. For I hope hereafter to satisfy the reader that they are no- thing else, and can he nothing else. Or 6thly. That Johnson considered Skinner as so ignorant that his authority ought not to be regarded. Pag. 39 ^ For Johnson speaks of him as one whom '' he ought not to mention but with the reverence due to his instructor and bene- factor," and to whom he was chiefly indebted for his northern etymologies^. Or 7thly. That I have myself represented Junius as a ''very careless and ignorant" writer. Pag. 51^^. For (under the article an) I have noticed "the judicious distinction which Johnson has made between Junius and Skinner." And when I had occasion (under the article but) to say that he was careless and ignorant concerning that par- ticular word, I mentioned it as ^^wondeiful." But thus these * Abbreviations and substitutes undoubtedly cannot safely be trusted in legal instruments. But it is an unnecessary prolixity and great absurdity which at present prevails, to retain the substitute in these writings at the same time with the principal, for which alone the substi- tute is ever inserted, and for which it is merely a proxy. He, she, tiiev, IT, WHO, WHICH, &c. should have no place in these instruments, but be altogether banished from them. And I know a Solicitor of eminence who, at my suggestion, near twenty years ago, did banish them. 2 Skinner, indeed, translates Onlefan, or rather Klefan, to dismiss. " But Skinner is often ignorant," says Dr. Johnson. ' "For the Teutonic etymologies I am commonly indebted to Junius and Skinner, the only names which I have forborn to quote when I copied their books : not that I might appropriate their labours or usurp their honours, but that I might spare a perpetual repetition by one general acknowledgement. These I ought not to mention but with the reverence due to instructors and benefactors." — Johnson's Preface. '^ " You have here, however, the authority of Junius, who puts down these verbs as being the origin ; but I have yours to say, that he was sometimes very careless and ignorant,"-=-Page 51 of the Criticisms. 124 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. 1st. That '^Grammar was one of the First arts which pro- bably engaged the attention of the curious." P^g• 4. For the contrary is not a matter of conjecture, but of his- torical fact: and whoever pleases may know at what precise period Grammar, as an art, had its commencement in every nation of Europe. Or 2dly. That '^ The desire which arises in the mind, next to that of communicating thought, is certainly to use such signs as will convey the meaning clearly and precisely/' Pag. 19. For a desire οϊ communicating thought, and a desire οΐ con- vei/ing our meaning clearly and precisely (though expressed by different words), are not two desires, but one desire: for «s far as our meaning is not conveyed clearly and precisely, it is not conveyed at all ; so far there is no communication of thought. Or 3dly. That *'This desire of conveying our meaning clearly and precisely naturally leads to the use of abbrevia- tions : and that abbreviations seem to bear a much stronger affinity to the desire of perspicuity than to that of dispatch." Pag. 20. For, to satisfy himself that the desire of clearness and per- spicuity does not lead to the use of abbreviations, (which are substitutes,) any person needs only to consult the legal instru- ments of any civilized nation in the world : for in these instruments, perspicuity or clearness is the only object. Now these legal instruments have always been, and always must be, remarkably more tedious and prolix than any other writings, in which the same clearness and precision are not equally im- portant. For abbreviations open a door for doubt ; and, by the use of them, what we gain in time we lose in precision and certainty. In common discourse we save time by using the short substitutes he and she and they and it; and (with a little care on one side and attention on the other) they answer our purpose very well ; or if a mistake happens, it is easily set right. But this substitution Λνϋΐ not be risqued in a legal instrument; and the drawer thinks himself compelled, for the sake of certainty, to say- — he (the said John A.) to him (the said Thomas B.) for them (the said William C, and Anne CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 125 D.) as often as those persons are mentioned ^ And for the same reason he is compelled to employ many other prolixities of the same kind. ¥ Or 4thly. That 'Ά desire of variety gave birth to Pronouns in language, which otherwise would not have appeared in it.'' Pag. 20. For Pronouns prevent variety. Or 5thly. That ''Articles and Pronouns are neither Nouns nor Verbs." Pag. 26. For I hope hereafter to satisfy the reader that they are no- thing else, and can he nothing else. Or 6thly. That Johnson considered Skinner as so ignorant that his authority ought not to be regarded. Pag. 39 ^ For Johnson speaks of him as one whom *' he ought not to mention but with the reverence due to his instructor and bene- factor," and to whom he was chiefly indebted for his northern etymologies^. Or 7thly. That I have myself represented Junius as a ''very careless and ignorant" writer. Pag. 51*. For (under the article an) I have noticed '^ the judicious distinction which Johnson has made between Junius and Skinner." And when I had occasion (under the article but) to say that he was careless and ignorant concerning that par- ticular word, I mentioned it as ^^wondeifiilJ' But thus these Ϊ Abbreviations and substitutes undoubtedly cannot safely be trusted in legal instruments. But it is an unnecessary prolixity and great absurdity which at present prevails, to retain the substitute in these writings at the same time with the principal, for which alone the substi- tute is ever inserted, and for which it is merely a proxy. He, she, they, IT, WHO, WHICH, &c. should have no place in these instruments, but be altogether banished from them. And 1 know a Solicitor of eminence who, at my suggestion, near twenty years ago, did banish them. 2 Skinner, indeed, translates Onlefan, or rather Slefan, to dismiss. " But Skinner is often ignorant," says Dr. Johnson. ' *'For the Teutonic etymologies I am commonly indebted to Junius and Skinner, the only names which I have forborn to quote when I copied their books : not that I might appropriate their labours or usurp their honours, but that I might spare a perpetual repetition by one general acknowledgement. These I ought not to mention but with the reverence due to instructors and benefactors." — Johnson s Preface. ■* " You have here, however, the authority of Junius, who puts down these verbs as being the origin ; but I have yours to say, that he was sometimes very careless and ignorant. "=— Page 51 of the Ciiticisms. — -■L'^JiJill, 126 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [pART I. critics meanly attempt to mislead their readers : catching at the word ignorant (which when applied to a person in a par- ticular instance, means only that he did not know that parti- cular thing,) in order fraudulently to fasten an imputation of* general ignorance. Or 8thly. That those who have spelled less with a single s, were not '^civilized people^:'' i. e. (I suppose) not capable of the accustomed relations of peace and amity. Or 9thly. That '^The blemishes of Johnson's Dictionary are not of the kind quas incuria fudit, but the result of too much nicety and exactness/^ Pag. 46. — But of this in another place : for it is of more consequence than any thing which relates to these Norwich critics. Or lOthly. That it requires much practice in the Anglo- Saxon or old English writers, and much attention to the cir- cumstance, to observe ''the various spellings of one and the same word in the language ^" For not only are almost all the words spelled diiferently by different authors; but even by the same author, in the same book, in the same page, and frequently in the same line. Or lltbly. That I '^desire to pass my sentiments upon others, as articles of faith." Pag. 76^ My critics commence with a solemn protestation, that they '' aim at nothing but a fair representation of the truth." Pag. V. 1 " The orthography of this word, I presume to say, is less. And it should seem as if civilized people had no other way of spelling it." — Page 40. 2 " My taste for the Anglo-Saxon has never induced me to attend to the various spelUngs of one and the same word in the language."— Page 51 of the Criticisms. 3 This groundless apprehension is not unnatural in 07ie of my critics. He startles at his own expression — an article of faith. But fear not me, Cassander. I pay the same regard to a sickly conscience that I do to a sickly appetite: and I have known those who, like some honest sectaries, have fainted at the smell of roast beef. No, I shall never wish to impose articles of faith on others, though I am not scared at their imposition upon me. I am a willing conformist to all that is not fatal. I would surely reject poison, i. e. povv^er in the priesthood, and despotism any where ; but otherwise I am not dainty ; and can feed heartily upon any wholesome food, both in the church and out of it ; although it might happen to be coarse and not overpleasing to my palate. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS, 127 Yet twice in the 7th page, and twice in the 8th page, and again in the 25th page of the Criticisms , they pretend to quote my words; and falsely, to serve their own purpose, insert a word of their own. My words are — '^Abbreviations employed for the sake of dispatch.'' They, five times repeat- edl}", assert that my words are— 'Svords necessary for dis- patch." In their 8th page they twice assert that I ''rank Articles, Prepositions, and Conjunctions , under the title of Abbrevia- tions i" and in their 11th page they assert, that I have made ''Abbreviations the principal object of the work" I have pub- lished, i. e. of the first edition of this volume. I hope 1 have there spoken with sufficient clearness to make it impossible for any attentive reader to fall into such an error; or to suppose that I have hitherto spoken one word about those Abbreviations which compose my second class. It is evident however that my Critics made no such mistake, but falsified the matter willfully: for, in their 35th page, they contradict their own previous statement, and acknow- ledge the fact. — "Conjunctions in your system (say they) are not separate parts of speech, but words belonging to the species either of Nouns or Verbs." I hardly think it necessary to inform the reader, that I have hitherto spoken little of the Noun, nothing of the Verb, and nothing of the Abbreviations ; but have chiefly employed my- self to get rid of the false doctrine concerning Conjunctions, Prepositions and Adverbs. The method I have taken may perhaps be injudicious : indeed I have been told so : I may perhaps have begun at the wrong end : but I did it not wan- tonly or carelessly, but after the most mature reflection, and with the view of lessening the difficulties and sparing the la- bour of those who may chuse to proceed with me in this inquiry. Perhaps, when we come to the close of it, my readers will feel with me (they will hardly feel so forcibly as ί do) the justness of the following reflection of Mr. Necker — '' Je reviens a mon triste travail. On aura peine, je le crains, a se former une idee de son etendue; car, en resultat, tout devient simple : et Pun des premiers efFets de la methode, c'est de cacher les diffi- cultes vaincues : aussi dans les plus grandes choses comme '<=f.'WS«»*rt-<(»»5J 128 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. dans les plus petites, tous ceux qui jouissent de Tordre n'en connoissent pas le mente\" In their 13th page, they say, that '^ It is evident from my words, that, in my opinion, Mr. Locke was no better than in a mist when he wrote his famous Essay." In their 12th page, they represent me (who have denied any abstract or complex ideas) as affirming — '^ that, in my opinion, it is the terra that gives birth to the abstract idea." Because I have, in the 255th page of my first edition, ob- served that ^' it is contrary to the customary progress of cor- ruption in words to gain letters ;" and in the 131st page, that ^' Letters, like soldiers, are very apt to desert and drop off in a long march :"— they twice, in their 41st page, represent me as denying the possibility that any word should ever gain a letter^, or be written by any succeeding author with more letters than by his predecessor. Because I have in the 218th page of my first edition, given the corresponding Terminations in the other northern lan- guages ; which terminations I suppose likewise, as well as less (which is not a modern English imperative) to have been originally the imperatives of their verbs ; they, in their 44th page, and again in their 46th page, charge me with ^^ contend- ing" that Loos (so written) is the present modern imperative in Dutch. In their 55th page, though I call Douglas (in the very place alluded to by them) '^ one of the most common of our old English authors ;" they would make their readers believe that I produce him '^ as an Anglo-Saxon writer." In the conclusion of their Criticisms they say—'' Professor Schultens was the first philologist who suspected Prepositions, Conjunctions, Particles in general to be no more than Nouns or Verbs, and refused therefore to make separate classes of them, among those that comprehend the Parts of Speech. But he confined himself in the application of this truth to the learned languages. You are the first who applied it to those which are called modern." 1 Nouveaux Eclaircissemens sur le Comte Rendu. 2 I had given instances in Unles, Whiles, Atniddes, Amonges, which afterwards became Unless^ Whilst, Amidst, Amongst. CH. νΐΐϊ.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. ]29 These are the gentlemen who commence with .a solemn pro- testation, that they '^aim at nothing but a fair representation of the truth.*' And yet, in the above extract, there is not a single proposition that does not convey more than one willful falsehood. I will here insert the whole which Schultens has said upon the subject. '^ Sectio v. lxv. Partes orationis Hebrseis e^dem quie Graecis, Latinis, omnibus populis. Ad tres classes concinne satis omnes illse partes revocari solent, Verbum, Nomen^ P^r- ticulam, Ab Arabibus distinctionem banc hausere primi grammatici Hebrteorum. In Gjarumia habes, Partes orationis tres sunt, Nomen, et Verbum, et Particula, quse venit in sig- nificationem. Apud Rabbinos similiter Nomen, Actio, id est Verbum, et Vox, sive Particula. Veteres Stoici quatuor classes fecere. Alii plures, alii pauciores adhuc, solo Nomine et Verbo contenti. Optima divisio Theodectis, et Aristotelis, apud Dion. Halic. in Ονόματα^ Υηματα^ Έυν^βσμουο. Earn laudat unice Quintil. Nomina, Verba, et Convinctiones_, red- dens : ut nomina exhibeant materiamj verba vim sermonis, in convinctionibus autem complexus eorum indicetur. Consulendus de hisce G. J. Vgss, qui dubium censet utrum Orientales hac in re imitati sint Grsecos, an Grseci potius secuti sint exemplum Orientalium. Mihi Arabes ex Aristotele hausisse, planissume liquet.'' The above is a mere transcript from Vossius, to whom Schultens very fairly refers us^ He then proceeds to apply 1 " De numero partium orationis diu est, quod tribus grammaticse controversantur. Antiquissima eorum est opinio, qui tres faciunt classes. Estque hsec Arabum quoque sententia, quibus hee classes vo- cantur Nomen, Verbum, et Particula. Hebrsei quoque (qui cum Arabes grammaticam scribere desinerent, artem earn demum scribere coeperunt; quod ante annos contigit circiter quadringentos) Hebrsei, inquam, hac in re secuti sunt magistros sues Arabes Imo vero trium classium numerum alise etiam Orientis linguse retinent. Dubium, utrum ea in re Orientales imitati sint antiques Grsecorum : an hi potius secuti sint Orientalium exemplum. Utut est, etiam veteres Grsecos tres tantum partes agnovisse, non solum autor est Dionysius : sed etiam Quinctilia- nus testatur, ubi hanc Aristotelis ipsius, ac Theodectis sententiam fuisse docet. Idemque de veteribus Greecis testatur Rabbinus iste qui, &c. Κ 130 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. this doctrine in the Hebrew language alone. — '' Idem dixerim de methodo grammaticam texendi seciuidum has orationis partes. Arabes et Judsei a Verbo incipere solent, quod tan- qiiam radix sit, unde Nomina et Particulse propagentiir. ** Verba nempe tanquam radices sunt iinde Nomina /jrope- gcmtur, varus formis, et terminationibiis : itemque Particulse ; sub quibus Pronomina, Adverbia, Praspositiones, Conj unctiones, et Interjectiones continentur. Et harum densa ilia sylva a Nominibus ferme succrevit, qnin ad classem Nominum maximam partem referenda.'^ ^' Sectio VI. xci. A Nomine pergimus ad Particulas. Eas rectedividuntin separataset inseparabiles. Minus comraodadi- stinctio cl. Altingii inier particulas declinabiles etindeclinabiles. Ad priores refert pronomina. Ad posteriores adverbia, prse- positiones, conj unctiones^ et interjectiones : Atqui et pronomina qusedam non declinantur, et bona pars adverbiorum ac prsepo- sitionum patitur declinationem, quippe quse maximam partem sunt No?niimf vel Suhstantiva, vel Adjectiva. Hoc si perspexis- sent primi graramatici, multo felicius naturam, vim, mutationem, et constructionem particularum expedire valuissent." ^^ xcvi. Particulas reliquas^ sub quibus adverbia, prsepo- sitiones, conj unctiones, et interjectiones comprens^, minus rite indeclinabiles vocari, quod re vera declinentur, prd^sertim ad- verbia et prsepositiones ', utpote veri nominis suhstantiva vel adjectiva, maximam partem, Rectius in separatas et insepara- biles dirimuntur. Separatarum classes distinctius subnotabo : atque sub singulis specimina qusedam exhibebo. — Sic reliqua sunt origims vel suhstantiva vel adjectiva. Horum enucleatio ampliora exigit spatia. NonnuUa infra tavgenttir. " Atque ex Arabibus grammaticis eandem sequitur Giarmnim autor Muhamed Sanliagius. Postea autem antiquissimi Stoicorum quatuor classes fecerunt.. ..... Imo nee defuere, qui alias asserendo divisiones ampliorem facerent numerum Partium Orationis. Quorum omnium autor nobis Dionysius Halicarnassensis. Addam et insignem locum Quinctiliani, — * Veteres, quorum fuerunt Aristoteles quoque, atque Theodectes, Verba modo et Nomina et Convinctiones tradiderunt. Vi- delicet, quod in verbis vhn sermonis, in nominibus tnateriam, in con- vinctionibus autem coynplexiim eorum esse judicaverunt.' — Sed ut omnis hsec disputatio melius intelligatur, non abs re erit, si quc8 a Dionysio et Prisciano scribuntur accuratius expendamus. Dues sunt principes partes, Nomen et Verbum : de quibus solis iccirco Aristoteles agit libro Ilept €ρμηΐ'€ία$."—0. J. Vossins De Arte Gram, lib. 3. cap. 1. CH. VTII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 131 '^ Apud Latinos quoque conjunctiones multiR a nominibus oriund(E, ut Veric?n. Vero. Verum Enimvero. Quemadmodmn. Quamquam. Additum et verbum in Quamlibet. Quolibet. Quovis, Merum verbum est Licet, &c. De adverbiis et prse- positionibus idem submonitum velim.'' Thus it appears that Schultens, without reasoning at all upon the subject, took the old division of language exactly as he found it ; and, with his predecessors on the Oriental tongues^ considered and ranked the Particles as a distinct part of speech. But he condemns the subdivision of particles into de- clinable and indeclinable^ and proposes to divide them into separate and inseparable. In my opinion neither of these distributions is blameable in the grammar of a particular language, whose object is only to assist a learner of that lano-uao-e : but the one subdivision is just as unphilosophical as the other. If the Particles are all merely Nouns or Verbs, they are equally so whether used separately or not. The term inseparable, instead of not separated, is likewise justifiable in Schultens, who confined himself to a dead language ; and who did not intend to con- sider the nature of general speech : for, in a dead language, authority is every thing ,• and those words wdiich cannot be found to have been used separately by those who bequeathed it, are to us (speaking or writing it) not only not separate but inseparable. But Schultens no where asserts that these particles are all nouns or verbs ; nor does he adduce a single argument on the subject. He evidently supposes that there might be particles which were neither nouns nor verbs : for, besides the separate rank which he allows them, his words are always carefully coupled when he speaks of these particles. He confines them to Nouns, substantiva vel adjectiva (he never adds Verba, which my Critics have modestly slipped in for him) • but even then he always scrupulously repeats — bona pars, inultd. maximam partem, ferme. pr&sertim. orginis. oriundce. propagantnr. re^ ferenda. specimina qncBdatn. Nonnulla tangentur. Horum enucleatio ampliora exigit spatia. — In which (so far from being *^ the Jirst vv^ho suspected it") he carefully and closely adopts the qualifying expressions of very many grammarians (espe- cially Latin grammarians) who had used the same long before κ 2 132 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. him. Many of these I have cited, v/ho went much further in the doctrine than he has done : for it surely was not my busi- ness to sink them ; but to avail myself of their partial au- thority, and to recommend my ge//ercZ doctrine by their par- tial hints and suspicions. But my Critics, who say that Schultens suspected, in five lines further impudently convert this suspicion into a Truths which they represent him as having demonstrated, or at least asserted : and with equal effrontery they tell us, he apphed it to the dead languages; and that I applied his Truth to those which are called modern » It is however of little consequence to the reader from what quarter he may receive a discovered truth ; or (if it be a dis- covery) whose name it may bear ; nor do I feel the smallest anxiety on the subject. But bear with my infirmity, reader, if it be an infirmity. — The enemies of the established civil li- berties of my country have hunted me through life, without a single personal charge against me through the whole course of my life ; but barely because I early descried their conspiracy, and foresaw and foretold the coming storm, and have to the utmost of my power legally resisted their corrupt, tyrannical and fatal innovations and usurpations : They have destroyed my fortunes : They have illegally barred and interdicted my usefulness to myself, my family, my friends, and my country : They have tortured my body*: They have aimed at my life and honour :— Can you wonder that, whilst one of these critics takes a cowardly advantage (where I could make no defence) to brand me as an acquitted Felon, I am unwilling (where I can make a defence) that he should, in conjunction with his anony- mous associate, exhibit me as a convicted plagiary and impos- tor? But no more of these cowardly assassins. 1 consign 1 The antient legal and mild imprisonment of this country (mild both in manner and duration, compared to what we now see) was always held to be Torture and even civil death. What would our old, honest, uncorrupted lawyers and judges (to whom and to the law of the land the word close was in abhorrence), what would they have said to seven 7nonths of close custody, such as I have lately suiFered, without a charge, Λvithout a legal authority (for their own monstrous law, which arbi- trarily suspended the Habeas Corpus, did not authorize close custody), and without even the most flimsy pretence of any occasion for it ? CH. νΠΙ.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 133 them to the lasting contempt they have well earned, and which no future Title wall ever be able to obliterate from the name of Windham. It may however be useful to examine the objections to my explanation of unless, else, and lest ; which are to be found in pages 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 67, 6^, 69, 70, 71, 72, of The Criticisms on the Dive)'" sions of Pnrlei/. Four instances are produced, and only four, in which it is contended that my solution cannot be admitted. ^^ I have already observed" (say the Critics, page 53) '^ that it [T^lej^an] is not susceptible of the signification you have all along affixed to it as its primary one ; but let us suppose it to signify Dismiss, and nothing besides ; we shall find many phrases in which else will hardly bear to be resolved into Hoc dimisso^ : witness the following. Nothing else. Ηοιυ else. What else. Where else.'' To have a proof of the solidity or futility of this objection, we must have corapleat sentences. Example 1. Nothing else. You shall have a fool's cap for your pains ; and Nothing ELSE. Resolution.' — You shall have a fool's cap for your pains * and Nothing but a fool's cap. i. e. But for Be-out. You shall have a fool's cap for your pains ; and Nothing ex- cept a fool's cap. You shall have a fool's cap for your pains• and, if not a fool's cap, Nothing. You shall have a fool's cap for your pains; and, dismiss the fool's cap. Nothing. Example 2. TIoiv else. If a nation's liberties cannot be secured by a fair represent- ation of the people ; How else can they be secured ? ResoL — if a nation's liberties cannot be secured by a fair 1 I have said that else is the Imperative of Slefau, and means Dimitte^ but they give Avhat they please as my words. 134 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. representation of the people ; without it, How can they be secured ? i. e. Without for Be-out. If a nation's liberties cannot be secured by a fair represent- ation of the people; except by a fair representation of the people, How can they be secured ? If a nation's liberties cannot be secured by a fair represent- ation of the people; dismiss it, (i. e. a fair representation of the people,) Ηοιυ can they be secured ? Example 3. What else. You have shewn impotence and malice enough ; What else have you shewn ? HesoL—You have shewn impotence and malice enough ; What have you shewn but impotence and malice ? Or, What but them have you shewn? You have shewn impotence and malice enough ; except them, (i. e.' impotence and malice,,) What have you shewn? You have shewn impotence and malice enough ; dismiss them, What have you shewn ? Example 4. Where else. Honour should reside in the breast of a king ; although it might not be found any Where else. Resol. — Honour should reside in the breast of a king ; al- though, except in the breast of a king, it might not be found any where. Honour should reside in the breast of a king ; although, DISMISS (i. e. Leave out, Take avjay^ &c.) the breast of a king, it might not be found any where. Having thus, as I trust, satisfactorily resolved the only in- stances they have produced as irreconcileable with my etymo- logy ; I will proceed to consider their other objections. I.— They say — '^ The Latin, the Italian, the French, make use here [that is, where the English use unless] of the word Except.'' P. 38. The Latin commonly employs Ni si. i. e. iVe sit, the negative preceding the verb : the Italian, Se non, and the French, Siiie^ i. e. Sit non, Sit ne, the negative following the verb : Instances have been already given of the same conjunctive use of -Be not, or Be it not, in English. The Italians sometimes use Jnfuorif CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 135 Senza die; and, if they please, the participle Eccetto : the French also sometimes use Si non que, Si ce n^est que^ A moins que, A moins de ; and, if they please, the imperative Eicep- tez, or the participle Excepte. And any word or words di- recting SEPARATION (and none other) in our own, or in any otlier language, will always be equivalent to unless. And, instead of being an objection, I think this circumstance strongly enforces my etymology. II. — ^^ If there be such a verb [as Onlejran] in the Anglo- Saxon, it must be the same as OnlejOn, a compound of On and Lefan." P. 39. Why it should be doubted that there is any such verb as Onlej^an in the Anglo-Saxon, I cannot imagine; but if any one, beside my Critics, should entertain such a doubt, it may easily be removed by opening Lye's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary ; where both Onlej^an and Onlyj^an will be found, wnth various references to the places where they are used. But that Onle- j^on should be preferred by the Critics to Onlej^an, is truly extraordinary ; Άη beina; the common termination of the Anglo° Saxon Infinitives. III. — ^^Lej'an in the Anglo-Saxon does not signify to Dis- miss. Lej'an in its primary signification means to unbind; in its secondary, to redeem, to unload, to set at liberty. Solvere, redimere, liberare, says the dictionary. In the first sense it answers to the English to Loosen, i.e. to make loose.'^ P. 39. ^'It is possible that les should be the Imperative of Lej^an ; but LESS can have no pretensions to it." P. 40. '^ No sooner has the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb Lej^an shewn itself with you in one form, than it appears in another. In the very next article to that we are upon here, you suppose it to be, not les, but leas. But it will be said, how can Leaj' be the imperative of Lej'an ? — Certain it is, that the verb Lej^an is here all of a sudden transformed into Leo- j^an, in consequence of which its alliance with the affix Leaj' becomes unquestionable. But Leoj^an signifies perdere. and is the same verb with the English to Lose.'" P. 41. If the reader will cast his eye over the following column, he will find that no transformation has been suddenly made by me; and that the alteration of a letter in the spelling of les, 136 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [pAUT I. LESS and LEAS, will be no reasonable objection to the etymo- logy. AAtlSgAN. M. Goth. Imperat. AAllS. Lopjan Lopan Loepan Leopan Leo|^an Imperat. Lcey. Lej-an . , . . . Imperat. Lep Leyy, Leyye, Lij^an Lyj^an Ά -Iej-an .... Imperat. Kley, Ά-Ιιγαη A-Iyj^an Foji-leopn Fop-lyfan On-lej^an .... Imperat. Onlej-. On-lyj-an. Under all these shapes this word appears in the Anglo-Saxon language : for I take them all to be one and the same verb, dif- ferently pronounced, and therefore differently spelled. And from this Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb, I imagine, proceed not only the conjunctions, as they are called, unless, else, and lest, and the privative termination less, together with less the adjective, as it is called, and the comparative less, and the superlative least ; but also To Lose Lost. A Loss. To Loose .... Loose. To Un- loose To Loosen To XJu-hosen To Lessen To Lease .... A J^ease, To He-lease. . .A Release ^ A Lease and Hclease. To go a Leasing^. ^ Leasing, i. e. Loosing, i. e. picking up that which is Loose (i. e. Loosed) separate (i. e. separated) or detached {detache') from, the sheaf.* * Sheaf, (A.S, j-ceap. Dutch Schoof,) which we call a substantive, is CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 137 And however this word (for they are all one) may be now differently spelled, and diiferently used and applied in modern English; the reader will easily perceive that separation is always invariably signified in every use and application of it\ I will give a few instances, out of very many, to shew how variously our old English writers spelled and used this same word. '"' Pardoun and life to thir teris gif we, (Quod Priamus) and mercy grantis fre. And first of all the mannakillis and hard bandis Chargeit he lous of this ilk mannis handis. Bot than the tothir wicht. Full weil instrukkit of Grekis art and slicht, LousiT and laitlye fred of all his bandis. Unto the sternis heuit up his handis." Douglas, booke 2. p. 43. '* Bewalit thair feris losit on the flude." booke 1. p. 19. *' That we thy blud, thy kinrent, and ofspring Has LOSIT our schippis." booke 1. p. 20. " The grete lois of Anchises regreting sare. And altogidir gan to wepe and rare," booke 5. p. 148. " For neuir syne with ene saw I her eft. Nor neuer abak, fra sche was loist or reft, Blent I agane." booke 2. p. 63. *' His nauy loist reparellit I but fale. And his feris fred from the deith alhale." booke 4. p. 112. Clavumque affixus et haerens Nusquam A-mittehat. JEneis, lib. 5. He never sent from his hand. He never parted v/ith. He neΛ^er missed his hold. He never let go his hold. He never lost his hold. He never loosed his hold. He never let go. no other than the past participle fceap (or jTcapb) from the verb fcu- pan ; \vhich past participle in modern English we write shove (or shoved). Sheaf melius, that Λvhich is shovd together. N.B. The past participle in the Anglo-Saxon is usually formxcd by adding ob (which we now write ed) to the prseterperfect ; but the prseterperfect itself is often used (both in Anglo-Saxon and in English) for the past participle, with- out the termination ob or ed. Nom^ the prseterperfect of j-cupan is j-ceap. Shaft (A.S. pceaft), which seems to us so different a word from Sheaf, is yet no other than the same past participle pceajzob, pceapb, pceapt. - Shaft means that which is shovd. 138 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. " Bewaland gretelye in his mynde pensife. For that his freynd was fall, and loist his life." booke 5. p. 157. ** Desist, Drances, be not abasit, I pray. For thou sail neuer leis, schortlie I the say. Be my wappin nor this rycht hand of myne Sic any peuishe and cative saule as thine." booke 11. p. 377. " But yet LESSE thou do worse, take a wyfe : Bet is to wedde, than brenne in worse wyse." Dreame of Chaucer, fol. 259. p. 2. col. 2. '* And on his way than is he forthe yfare In hope to ben lessed of his care." Chaucer, Frankeleyns Tale, fol. 54. p. 1. col. 1. " Now let us stynt of Troylus a stounde. That fareth lyke a man that hurt is sore, And is som dele of akyng of his wounde Ylessed well, but heled no dele more." Troylus, boke 1. fol. 163. p. 1. col. 1. '' And gladly lese his owne right. To make an other lese his." Gower, lib. 2. fol. 28. p. 2, col. 2. ** Lo wherof sorcerie serueth. Through sorcerie his loue he chese ; Through sorcerie his life he lese." lib. 5. fol. 137. p. 1. col. 1. " For unto loues werke on night Hym lacketh both will and might. No wondre is in lustie place Of loue though he lese grace." lib. 7« fol. 143. p. 1. col. 2. " It fit a man by v/ey of kynde To loue, but it is not kinde A man for loue his wit to lese." lib. 7. fol. 167. p. 1. col. 2. " Wyne maketh a man to lese wretchedly His mynde, and his lymmes euerychone." Chaucer, Sompners Tale, fol. 44. p. 1. col. 1. *' There may nothing, so God my soule saue, Lykyng to you, that may displese me ; Ne I desire nothyng for to haue, Ne dred for to lese, saue onely ye." Clerke of Oxenfordes Tale, fol, 48. p. 1. col. 1. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 139 " Him neded none heli^e, if he ne had no money that he myght LESE." — Boecius, boke 3. fol. 233. p. 1. col.l. '' Al shulde I dye, I wol her herte seche I shal no more lesen but my speche." Troylus, boke 5. fol. 194. p. 2. col. 2. *' If so be that thou art myghtye ouer thy selfe, that is to sayne, by tranquyllyte of thy soule, than haste thou thynge in thy power, that thou noldest neuer lesen." — Boecius, boke 2. fol. 227. p. 2. col. 2, " The maister leseth his tyme to lere Whan the disciple Λνοί not here." Romaunt of the Rose, fol. 130. p. 1. col. 1, " Ha, how grete harme, and skaith for euermare That child has caucht, throw lesing of his moder." Douglas, booke 3. p. 79. IV. — " Skinner, Minshew and Johnson agree in deriving it [else] from the Greek αλλωα or the Latin alias. There is indeed as much reason to suppose that the Greeks and Latins borrowed the word from the Germans, as that these borrowed it from them. — Al and el may be said to convey the same idea as the Greek αΧλωα and the Latin alias; and, if so, why should we have recourse to the verb T^Iej^an to find their origin?"-— p. 52. This is truly curious: else from αλΧωα or alias ; although there is as much reason to suppose that the Greeks and Latins borrowed the word from the Germans, as that these borrowed it from them. But al and el convey the same idea as άλλως and alias: — What is that idea ? This is a question which my Critics never ask themselves; and yet it is the only rational object of ety- mology. These gentlemen seem to think that translation is explanation. Nor have they ever yet ventured to ask them- selves what they mean, when they say that any word comes from, is derived from, produced from, originates from, or gives birth to, any other word. Their ignorance and idleness make them contented with this vague and misapplied metaphorical language : and if we should beg them to consider that words have no locomotive faculty, that they do not flow like rivers, nor vegetate like plants, nor spiculate like salts, nor are gene- rated like animals ; they would say, we quibbled with them ; and might perhaps in their fury be tempted to exert against us *^ a vigour heyond the Ιαιυ.^' And yet, untill they can get 140 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [ PART I. rid of these metaphors from their mindsy they will not them- selves be fit for etymology, nor furnish any etymology fit for reasonable men. V. — '^ As there is an equivalent in the French of the word UNLESS, very much resembling it in turn, it is somewhat ex- traordinary that it should never have occurred to you, that possibly the one is a translation, or at least an imitation of the other. This equivalent is A moins que. What word more likely to have given birth to unless; if we may suppose the latter to be a compound of on and less V P. 39. ^' You add in a note—' It is the same imperative les, placed at the end of nouns and coalescing Vv'ith them, which has given to our language such adjectives as Hopeless, Rest- less, &c.' — These words have been all along considered as compounds οϊ Hope, Restj &c. and the adjective Less, Anglo- Saxon Leaj", and Dutch Loos : and this explanation is so natural, so clear and satisfactory, that it is inconceivable how a man, who has any notion of neatness and consistency in ety- mological disquisitions, could ever think of their being com- pounds of a noun, and the imperative of the verb Ley^an. Leas and Loos are still extant, this in the Dutch, and that in the Anglo-Saxon language : and both answer to the Latin solutus in this phrase solutns cura. — '' Multa adjectiva formantur ex substantivis addendo affixiim negativum Leaj" vel Leaj^e. Hinc apud nos Care- lease, 8ic. Sciendum vero est Leaj' Anglo-Saxonicum deduci a M. Gothico Laus, quod significat liber, solutus, vacuus, et in compositione privationem vel defectum denotat. Hickes, A.S. Gram. p. 42. '^ Dr. Johnson gives us, in his Dictionary, the following deduction of the word lest;- — * Lest, conjunction from the adjective least. That not.'" P. 70. ''Your improvement upon Dr. Johnson is, Lezed^ that, i. e. Hoc dimisso. Is it 1 " Lezed." — They misrepresent my words just as it suits their pur- pose. I have said lesed, not lezed. They have not introduced the ζ here by accident ; for the change is important to the etymology. We could never arrive at lest from lezed : for (when the vowel between them is removed) ζ must be followed hy d in pronunciation, as s by τ. — Take the word Greased for an instance : if you remove the vowel, you must either pronounce it Greaz'd, or Greas't. CH. VIII.] EiXGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 141 not astonishing that a man should plume himself on having substituted this strange and far-fetched manner of speaking, for the easy and natural explanation which precedes ?" P. 7 1 . ^' Lest, in the sense of That not, or the Ne emphaticmn of the Latin, is generally written in the ancient language thus, LffiST. And as Laep is used also in the Anglo-Saxon for the comparative of lytel, parvus, it is evident that f lasj" answers to the modern the, or that less, f \3eyt, to that least, supple, OF ALL things." p. 72. I may answer them in the language of Shakespeare, " merely ye are death's fools ; For him ye labour by your flight to shun, And yet run toward him still." They contend that the conjunction unless, and the pri- vative termination less, come from the adjective less ; and the conjunction lest, from the superlative least. Well : And what is the adjective less ? What is the comparative less ? and what is the superlative least ? I say, What are they ? for that is the rational etymological question ; and not, whence do they come, — ^It is with words as with men : Call this Squire, my Lord ; then he will be comparative : Call him by the new-fangled title of Marquis, or call him Duke ; then he will be superlative : And yet whosoever shall trust him, or have to do with him, will find to their cost that it is the same individual Squire Windham still. So neither is the substance or meaning or real import or value of any word altered by its grammatical class and denomination. The adjective Less and the comparative Less^ are the impe- rative of Lej^an ; and the superlative Least is the past par- ticiple. The idle objections of these Critics have brought me to mention this etymology out of its due course : and I do not intend to pursue its consequences in this place. But the reader will see at once the force of this adjective as used by our ancestors, when, instead of nineteen and eighteen, they said, 1 Parvnm — Comparative Minus. Little or Small — Comparative Less. The reader will not be surprised at the irregularity (as it is called) of the above comparisons, Λvhen he considers the real meaning and import of Minus and Less, 142 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. Kn Isej^ tpentij— Tpa Isej- tpentij. i. e. Twenty, Distniss (or Take awa^) one. Twenty, Dismiss (or Take away) two. We also say, — " He demanded twenty : I gave him two Less." i. e. I gave him twenty. Dismiss two. The same method of resolution takes place, when we speak of any other quantity besides bare numbers ; nor can any instance of the use of Less or Least be found in the language, where the signiiication of Dismissing, Separating, or Taking away, is not conveyed. Vi.- — ^^ Lest for lesed, say you, as blest for blessed. — This is the whole of what you tender for our deference to your opinion : and small as the consideration is, it is made up of bad coin. Lesan and blesstan cannot, whatever you may think of the matter, be coupled together, as belonging to one and the same order of verbs ; the one has a single, the other a double consonant before the termination of the infinitive mood : that forms a long, this a short syllable in the participle pas- sive ; and consequently, though the latter will bear the con- traction, it does not follow that the former will bear it likewise. And thus much for the bad coin with which you attempt to put us off.'^ P. 68. The change of the terminating d to τ in the past participles (or in any other words) does not depend either upon single or double consonants, or upon the length or shortness of the syllables ; but singly upon the sonnd of the consonant which precedes it. There is an anatomical reason and necessity for it, which I have explained in pages 130 and 402 of the first edition of this volume. But, without the reason, and without the explana- tion, the facts are so notorious and so constantly in repetition, that they had only to open their eyes, or their ears, to avoid so palpable an absurdity as this rule about double consonants and long syllables, which they have, for the first time, conjured up. What then? Should I not speak common English, if I should say to Mr. Windham, *' Thou hast Fac^t many things; Face not me." '* You have FleecH the people, and Splic't a rope for your own neck''? Here are no double consonants ; and there are long syllables. But, if they will not believe their eyes and their ears, let them CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 143 try their own organs of speech ; and they will find, that with- out a vowel between s and d (or an interval equal to the time of a vowel) they cannot follow the sound s with the audible sound D ; and that, if they will terminate with d, they must change the preceding s to a z. All this would be equally true of the sound, even if the spelling had always continued with a D, and that no writer had ever conformed his orthography to the pronunciation \ But we have very numerous written au- thorities to dumbfound these critics". I shall give them but two ; believing they are two more than they wish to see. " None other wise negligent Than I you saie, haue I not bee. In good feith sonne wel me quemeth. That thou thy selfe hast thus acquite Toward this, in whiche no Λvight Abide maie, for in an houre He LEST all that he maie laboure The long yere." — Goiver, de Conf. Aman. fob 68. p. 1. col. 2. " In the towne of StaiForde Avas (William of Cantorbury saith, Ihon Capgraue confirminge the same) a lustye minion, a trulle for the nonce, a 23ece for a prince, with whome, by report, the kinge at times was very familiare. Betwixte this wanton damsel or primerose pearlesse and Becket the chancellor, wente store of presentes, and of loue tokens plenty, and also the louers met at times, for when he resorted thidre, at no place would he be hosted and lodged, but wher as she held resi- dence. In the dedde tyme of the night (the story e saithe) was it her generall custome, to come alone to his bedchambre with a candle in her hand, to toy and trifle Avith him. Men are not so folish, but they can wel conceiue, what chastity was obserued in those prety, nice, and wanton metinges. But they say, he sore amended whan he was once consecrated archbishop of Cantorbury, and least^ well his accustomed embracinges after the rules of loue, and became in life relygious, that afore in loue Λvas lecherous." — lohi Bale. Actes of English Votaries. Dedicated to hjng Edwarde the syocte. 1550. • ' Da haljan faule jrjiam Sam benbum Ssej' hchoman onlyfbe. Bed. 3. 8. Onlyfbe instead of onlyj'eb ; the e being removed from between the ]' and b, this word must be pronounced onlyfte. — " D literam ratio poscit, aures magis audiunt s." - Satis hoc potuit admonendi gratia dixisse, praeter agrestes quosdam et indomitos certatores, qui nisi auctoritatibus adhibitis non compri- muntur. ^ He dismissed. He put away. He relinquished. 144 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [pART I. SINCE. Since is a very corrupt abbreviation ; confounding together different words and different combinations of words : and is therefore in modern Enghah improperly made (like but) to serve purposes which no one word in any other language can answer ; because the same accidental corruptions, arising from similarity of sound, have not happened in the correspondent words of any other language. Where we now employ since was formerly (according to its respective signification) used, Sometimes, 1. Seo^^an, Sio^^an, Se^^an, Si^^an, Sr^^en, Si- then, Sithence, Sithens, Sithnes, Sithns : Sometimes, 2. Syne, Sine, Sene, Sen, Syn, Sin : Sometimes, 3. Seand, Seeing, Seeing that. Seeing as. Sens, Sense, Sence. Sometimes, 4. Si^^e, Si^, Sithe, Sith, Seen that. Seen as. Sens, Sense, Sence. Accordingly since, in modern English, is used four ways. Two, as a Preposition; connecting (or rather affecting) words: and Two, as a Conjunction; affecting sentence \ When used as a Preposition, it has always the signification either of the past participle Seen joined to thence, (that is, see)i and thenceforward:) — or else it has the signification of the past participle seen only. When used as a Conjunction, it has sometimes the signifi- cation of the present participle Seeing, or Seeing that; and sometimes the signification of the past participle Seen, or Seeti that. ^ It is likewise used adverbially: as when we say-— It is a year since ; i. e. a year seen. In French— une annee passee. In Italian— w/^ anno fa : i.e.fatfo. CH. Vlll.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 145 As a Preposition, 1. Since (for Si^^an, Sithence, or Seen and thencefor- ward,) as, " Such a system of government as the present has not been ventured on by any King since the expulsio)i of James the Second.*' 2. Since (for Syne, Sene, or Seen,) as, ^^ Did George the Third reign before or since that ex- ample?*' As a Conjunction, 3. Since (for Seanb, Seeing, Seeing as, or Seeing that,) as, . ^^ If I should labour for any other satisfaction, but that o/ my own mind, it would be an effect of phrensy in me, not o/ hope; since it is not truth, but opinion that can travel the world without a passport,*' 4. Since (for Si^^e, Sith, Seen as, or Seen that^) as, ''Since Death in the end takes from all, whatsoever For- tune or Force takes from any one; it were a foolish madness in the shipwreck of worldly things, where all sinks but the sor- row, to save that\" Junius says, — ''Since that Time, exinde. Contractum est ex Angl. Sith thence, q. d. sero post: ut Sith illud ori- ginem taxerit ex illo 8ΘΐφΙ1, Sero, quod habet Arg. Cod." Skinner says, — "Since, a Teut. Sint. Belg. Sind. Post, Postea, Postquam. Doct. Th. H. putat deflexum a nostro Sithence. Non absurdurn etiam esset declinare a Lat. Exhinc, Ε et Η abjectis, et χ facillima mutatione in s transeunte.'^ Again he says,— -"Sith ab A.S. Si^^an, Sy^^an. Belg. Seyd, Sint. Post, Post ilia, Postea." After the explanation I have given, I suppose it unneces- sary to point out the particular errors of the above derivations. Sithence and Sith, though now obsolete, continued in good use down even to the time of the Stuarts. * Vu, the French past participle of Voir, to See, is used in the same conjunctive manner in that language. ** Dis nous pourquoi Die α I'a permis, Veu qu'il paroit de ses amis?" L 146 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. Hooker in his writings uses Sithence, Sith, Seeing, and Since» The two former he always properly distinguishes; using Sithence for the. true import of the Anglo-Saxon Si^^an, and Sith for the true import of the Anglo-Saxon Si^^e. Which is the more extraordinary, because authors of the first credit had very long before Hooker's time confounded them together; and thereby led the way for the present indiscrimi- nate and corrupt use of since in all the four cases mentioned. Seeing Hooker uses sometimes, perhaps, (for it will admit a doubt ^) improperly. And since (according to the corrupt custom which has now universally prevailed in the language) he uses indifferently either for Sithence, Seen, Seeing, or Sith. THAT. There is something so very singular in the use of this Con- junction, as it is called, that one should think it would alone, if attended to, have been sufficient to lead the Grammarians to a knowledge of most of the other conjunctions, as well as of itself. The use I mean is, that the conjunction that generally makes a part of, and keeps company with, most of the other conjunctions. — If that. An that, Unless that, Though that, But that. Without that, Lest that. Since that, Save that, Except that, 8cc. is the construction of most of the sentences where any of those conjunctions are used. Is it not an obvious question then, to ask, why this Con- junction alone should be so peculiarly distinguished from all the rest of the same family ? And why this alone should be able to connect itself with, and indeed be usually necessary to, almost all the others ? So necessary, that even when it is com- 1 Such is the doubtful use of it by Shakespeare in the following passage : " Of all the wonders that I yet have heard. It seems to me most strange that men should fear; Seeing that death, a necessary end. Will come when it will come." For it may either be resolved thus ; — It seems strange that men, SEEING that death will come when it will come, should fear ; Or — Strange that men should fear; it being seen that death will come when it will come, CH, Vni.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 147 pounded with another conjunction, and drawn into it so as to become one word, (as it is with sith and since,) we are stiJl forced to employ again this necessary index, in order to pre- cede, and so point out the sentence which is to be aiFected by the other Conjunction? B. — De, in the Anglo-Saxon, meaning that, I can easily perceive that sith (which is no other than the Anglo-Saxon Si^^e) includes that. But when since is (as you here con- sider it) a corruption for Seeing-as and Seen-as ; how does it then include that? — In short, what is as? For I can gather no more from the Etymologists concerning it, than that it is derived either from ώ^ or from als^: But still this explains nothing : for what tjc is, or als, remains likewise a secret. H. — The truth is, that as is also an article; and (however and whenever used in English) means the same as It, or That, or Which. In the German, where it still evidently/ retains its original signification and use, (as so^ also does,) it is written —Es, ^ Junius says, — " As, ut, stent, Grsecis est ws." Skinner, whom S. Johnson follows, says — "As, a Teut. Ah, sicut; eliso scil. propter euphoniam intermedio l." 2 The German so and the English so (though in one language it is called an Adverb or Conjunction, and in the other an Article or Pronoun) are yet both of them derived from the Gothic article S^, S^ ; and have in both languages retained the original meaning, viz. It, or That. Mr. Tyrwhitt indeed (not perceiving that Al-es and Also are dif- ferent compounds) in a note on the Canterbury Tales, v. 7327, says — *' Our AS is the same with Als, Teut. and Sax. It is only a further corruption of Also." But the etymological opinions of Mr. Tyrwhitt (who derives For the Nones from Pro nunc) merit not the smallest attention. Dr. Lowth, amongst some false English which he has recommended, and much good English which he has reprobated, says — '' So-as, was used by the writers of the last century to express a consequence, instead of so-THAT. Swift, I believe, is the last of our good writers who has frequently used this manner of expression. It seems improper, and is deservedly grown obsolete." But Dr. Lowth, when he undertook to write his Introduction, with the best intention in the world, most assuredly sinned against his better judgment. For he begins most judiciously, thus, — " Universal Gram- mar explains the principles which are common to All languages. The Grammar of any particular language applies those common principles to that particular language." And yet, with this clear truth before his L 2 148 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. It does not come from Als ; any more than Though^ and Be4t, and If {ov Gif), &c. come from Although, and Albeit, and Algify &c. — For Als, in our old English, is a contraction of Al, and es or as : and this J./ (which in comparisons used to be very properly employed before the first es or as, but was not employed before the second,) we now, in modern English, sup- press : As we have also done in numberless other instances ; where All (though not improper) is not necessary. Thus, " She glides away under the foamy seas As swift AS darts or feather'd arrows fly." That is, *' She glides away (witji) that swiftness, (with) which feather'd arrows fly." eyes, he boldly proceeds to give a particular grammar ; without being himself possessed of one single principle of Universal Grammar. Again : he says, — " The connective parts of sentences are the most important of all, and require the greatest care and attention : for it is by these chiefly that the train of thought, the course of reasoning, and the whole progress of the mind, in continued discourse of all kinds, is laid open ; and on the right use of these, the perspicuity, that is the first and greatest beauty of style, principally depends. Relatives and Con- junctions are the instruments of connection in discourse : it may be of use to point out some of the most common inaccuracies that writers are apt to fall into with respect to them ; and a few examples of faults may perhaps be more instructive, than any rules of propriety that can be given." And again, — " I have been the more particular in noting the proper uses of these conjunctions, because they occur very frequently ; and, as it was observed before of connective words in general, are of great im- portance with respect to the clearness and beauty of style. I may add too, because mistakes in the use of them are very common." After which he proceeds to his examples of the proper and improper use of these connectives : — without having the most distant notion of the meaning of the w^rds whose employment he undertakes to settle. The consequence was unavoidable : that (having no reasonable rule to go by, and no apparent signification to direct him) he was compelled to trust to his own fanciful taste (as in the best it is), and the uncertain authority of others ; and has consequently approved and condemned without truth or reason. " Pourquoi (says Girard) apres tant de siecles et tant d'ouvrages, les gens de lettres ont-ils encore des idees si informes et des expressions si confuses, sur ce qu'ils font profession d'etudier et de traiter ? Ou s'ils ne veulent pas prendre la peine d'approfondir la matiere, comment osent-ils en donner des lecons au public .'' C'est ce que je ne concois pas." CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS, 149 When in old English it is written, " Sche Glidis away under the fomy seis Als swift as gan3e or fedderit arroΛV fleis :" Douglas, booke 10. p. 323. then it means, " With ALL THAT s\viftness with which, &c." After what I have said, you w-ill see plainly why so many of the conjunctions may be used almost indiiFerently (or with a very little turn of expression) for each other. And without my entering into the particular minutiae in the use of each, you will easily account for the slight differences in the turn of expres- sion, arising from different customary abbreviations of construc- tion. I will only give you one instance, and leave it with you for your entertainment : from which you will draw a variety of arguments and conclusions. ** And soft he sighed, lest men might him hear. And soft he sigh'd, that men might not him hear. And soft he sighed, else men might him hear. Unless he sighed soft, men might him hear. , But that he sighed soft, men might him hear. Without he sighed soft, men might him hear. Save that he sighed soft, men might him hear. Except he sighed soft, men might him hear. OuTCEPT he sighed soft, might might him hear. OuT~TAKE he sighed soft, men might him hear. If that he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear. And AN he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear. Set that he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear. Put CASE he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear. Be it he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear." -B. — According to your account then. Lord Monboddo is extremely unfortunate in the particular care he has taken to make an exception from the general rule he lays down, of the - Verbs being the Parent word of all language, and to caution the candid reader from imputing to him an opinion that the Conjunctions w^re intended by him to be included in his rule, or have any connexion whatever with Verhs^, 1 " This so copious derivation from the verb in Greek, naturally 150 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [PART I. H»—la my opinion he is not less unfortunate in his ΐΊΐΙα than in his exception. They are both equally unfounded : and yet as well founded, as almost every other position which he has laid down in his two first volumes. The whole of which is perfectly worthy of that profound politician and philosopher, who esteems that to be the most perfect form, and as he calls it — -^' the last stage of civil society^,'' where Government leaves nothing; to the free-will of individuals ; but interferes with the domestic private lives of the citizens, and the education of their children ! Such would in truth be the last stage of civil so- ciety, in the sense of the lady in the comedy, whose lover having ofFered--— ^^ to give her the last proof of love and marry her,"— she aptly replied, ^^ The last indeed j for there's an end of loving/' Ή. — ^But what say you to the bitter irony with which Mr. Harris treats the moderns in the concluding note to his doc- trine of Conjunctions? Where he says, — ^*' It is somewhat surprising that the politest and most elegant of the Attic writers, and Plato above all the rest, should have their works leads one to suspect that it is the 'Parent word of the whole language : and indeed I believe that to be the fact : for I do not know that it can be certainly shewn that there is any Avord that is undoubtedly a pri- mitive, which is not a verl• ; I mean a verh in the stricter sense and common acceptation of the word. By this the candid reader will not understand that I mean to say that prepositions, conjunctions, and such like words, which are rather the Pegs and Nails that fasten the several parts of the language together than the language itself, are derived from verbs or are derivatives of any kind." — Vol. 2. part 2. b. 1. ch. 15. Court de Gebelin is as positive in the contrary opinion, — ^' II a fallu necessairement," says he, " que tons les autres mots vinssent des noms. II n'est aucun mot, de quelqu'espece que ce soit, et dans quelque langue que ce soit, qui ne descende d'un nom." — Hist, de la Parole, p. 180. ^ " But the private lives of the subjects under those Governments are left as much to the free wdll of each individual, and as little subjected to rule, as in the American Governments above mentioned ; and every man in such a State may with impunity educate his children in the worst manner possible ; and may abuse his own person and fortune as much as he pleases; provided he does no injury to his neighbours, nor attempts any thing against the State. The last stage of civil society, in which the progression ends, is that most perfect form of polity which, to all the advantages of the Governments last mentioned, joins the care of the education of the youth, and of the private lives of the citizens ; neither of which is left to the will and pleasure of each individual ; but both are regulated by public wisdom." — Vol, 1. p. 243. CH. VIII.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 151 filled with Particles of all kinds and with Conjunctions in par- ticular; while in the modern polite works, as well of ourselves as of our neighbours, scarce such a word as a Particle or Con junction is to be found. Is it that where there is connection in the meaning, there must be words had to connect ; but that where the connection is little or none, such connectives are of little use ? That houses of cards without cement may well answer their end ; but not those houses where one would chuse to dwell ? Is this the cause ? Or have we attained an ele- gance to the antients unknown ? * Venimus ad summam fortunae,* " &c. What will you say to Lord Monboddo, who holds the same opinion with Mr. Harris^? H. — I say that a little more reflection and a great deal less reading, a httle more attention to common sense^, and less bhnd prejudice for his Greek commentators, would have made Mr. Harris a much better Grammarian, if not perhaps a Phi- losopher. — What a strange language is this to come from a man, who at the same time supposes these Particles and Con- junctions to be words without meaning! It should seem, by this insolent pleasantry, that Mr. Harris reckons it the per- fection of composition and discourse to use a great many words without meaning! — If so, perhaps Master Slender's language would meet with this learned Gentleman's approba- tion: '* I keep but three men and a boy T/et, till my mother be dead ; but what though yet I live a poor gentleman born." ' " This abundance of Conjunctions and Particles," says he, vol. 2. p. 179. " is, in my opinion, one of the greatest beauties of the Greek language, &c. For I am. so far from thinking that that disjointed composition and short cut of style, which is so much in fashion at pre- sent, and of which Tacitus among the antients is the great model, is a beauty, that I am of opinion it is the affectation of a deformity ; nor is there, in my apprehension, any thing that more disfigures a style, or ' makes it more offensive to a man of true taste and judgement in writing,'' &c. *' I shall only a,dd at present, that one of the greatest difficulties of composing in English appears to me to be the vjant of such connecting particles as the Greeks have," &c. 2 The author would by no means be understood to allude to the com- mon SENSE of Doctors Oswald, Reid, and Beattie ; which appears to him to be sheer nonsense. 152 ETYMOLOGY OF THE [pART I. Now here is cement enough in pioportion to the building. It is plain, however, that Shakespeare (a much better phi- losopher by the bye than most of those who have vi^ritten philosophical Treatises) was of a different opinion in this matter from Mr. Harris. He thought the best way to make his Zany talk unconnectedly- and nonsensically was to give him a quantity of these elegant words tvitJioiit meaning which are such favourites with Mr. Harris and Lord Mon- boddo. B. — This may be raillery perhaps, but I am sure it is neither reasoning nor authority. This instance does not affect Mr. Harris : for All cement is no more fit to make a firm building than no cement at all. Slender's discourse might have been made equally as unconnected without any particles, as with so many particles together. It is the proper mixture of particles and other words which Mr. Harris would recom- mend ; and he only censures the moderns for being too sparing of Particles. H. — Reasoning ! It disdains to be employed about such conceited nonsense, such affected airs of superiority and pre- tended elegance. Especially when the whole foundation is false ι for there are not any useful connectives in the Greek, which are not to be found in modern languages. But for his opinion concerning their employment, you shall have authoriti/, if you please ; Mr. Harris's favourite authority : an Antient, a Greek, and one too writing professedly on Plato's opinions, and in defence of Plato ; and which if Mr. Harris had not forgotten, I am persuaded he would not have contradicted. Plutarch says — '' II n'y a ny Beste, ny instrument, ny armeure, ny autre chose quelle qu'elle soit au monde, qui par ablation ou privation d'une siene propre partie, soit plus belle, plus active, ne plus doulce que paravant elle n'estoit ; la ou I'oraison bien souvent, en estans les conjunctions toutes ostees, a une force et eihcace plus affectueuse, plus active, et plus esmouvante. C'est pourquoy ceulx qui escrivent des figures de Retorique louent et prisent grandement celJe qu'ils appel- lent deHee ; la oii ceulx qui sont trop religieux et qui s' as- subjettissent trop aux regies de la grammaire, sans ozer oster une seule conjonction de la commune fagon de parler, en sont a bon droit blasmez et repris ; comme faisans un stile enerve, CH. νΐΐΐ.] ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS. 153 sans aucune pointe d'afFection^ et qui lasse et donne peine a oiiir," 8cc.^ I will give you another authority, which perhaps Mr. Harris may value more, because I value it much less. ^' II n'y a rien encore qui donne plus de mouvement au dis- cours que d'en oter les liaisons. En eiFet, un discours que rien ne lie et n'embarasse, marche et coule de soymeme, et il s'en faut peu qu'il n'aille quelquefois plus vite que la pensee meme de I'orateur." Longinus then gives three examples, from Xenophon, Homer, and Demosthenes; and concludes• — " En egalant et applanissant toutes choses par le moyen de liaisons, vous verrez que d'un pathetique fort et violent vous tomberez dans une petite aifeterie de langage qui n^aura ni pointe ni eguillon ; et que toute la force de votre discours s'eteindra aussi-tost d'elle-mesme. Et comme il est certain, que si on lioit le corps d'un homme qui court, on lui feroit perdre toute sa force ; de meme si vous allez embarasser une passion de ces liaissons et de ces particules imitiles, elle les souffre avec peine ; vous lui otez la liberie de sa course, et cette impetuo- site qui la faisoit marcher avec la mesme violence qu'un trait lance par une machine"." Take one more authority, better than either of the foregoing on this subject. '' Partes orationis similes nexu indigent, ut inter se uni- antur; et iste vocatur Co7ijunctio, quse definitur vocula inde- clinahilis qnce "partes orationis colligit. Alii earn subintelligi malint, alii expresse et moleste repetunt: illud, qui attentiores sunt rebus ; hoc, qui rigorosius loquuntur. Omittere fere omnes conjunctiones Hispanorum aut vitium aut character est. Plurimse desiderantur in Lucano, plurim^ in Seneca, multse in aliis authoribus. Multas omitto; et, si meum genium sequerer, fere omnes. Qui rem intelligit et argumentum penetrat, per- cipit sibi ipsis cohserere sententias, nee egereparticulis ut con- nectantur; quod, si interserantur voculse .connexivis, scopae dissolutae illse sunt; nee additis et multiplicatis conjunctionibus cohserere poterunt. Hinc patet quid debuisset responderi Cali- gulai, Senecse calamum vilipendenti. Suetonius: Leniiis comp- 1 Platonic Questions, Amyot's Translation. 2 Boileau's Translation. 154 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. tiiisqiie scribendi genus adeo contempsit, lit Senecaniy turn maxime placentenif commissiones 77ieras componerej et An ε nam SINE cALCEj diceretJ" — '^ Caligulse hoc judicium est, iiiquit Lipsius in judicio de Seneca; nempe illius qui cogitavit etiam de Homeri carminibus abolendis, itemque Virgilii et Titi Livii scriptis ex omnibus bibliothecis amovendis. Respondeo igitur meum Senecam non vulgo nee plehi scripsisse, nee omni viro docto, sed illi qui attente eum legeret. Et addo, iibi lector- 7nente Senecam seqiiitiu^, sensum adsequi: nee inter sententias, suo se prementes et consolidantes pondere, conjimctionem majorem reqidriJ' — Caramuel, cxlii. And I hope these authorities (for I will offer no argument to a writer of his cast) will satisfy the ^Urue taste and judge- ment in writing" of Lord Monboddo; who with equal affec- tation and vanity has followed Mr. Harris in this particular; and who, though incapable of writing a sentence of common English, {defaerunt enim illi et usus pro duce et ratio pro sua- sore,) sincerely deplores the decrease of learning in Ejigland^; whilst he really imagines that there is something captivating in his own style, and has gratefully informed us to whose assistance we owe the obhgation. CHAPTER IX. OF PREPOSITIONS. B. — Well, Sir, what you have hitherto said of the Con- junctions will deserve to be well considered. But we have not yet entirely done with them: for, you know, the Prepositions were originally, and for a long time, classed with the Con- junctions: and when first separated from them, were only distinguished by the name of Prepositive Conjunctions^. 1 See Mr. BosweWs Tour to the Hehrides, p. 473. - The philosophers of Hungary, Turkey and Georgia at least were in no danger of falling into this absurdity ; for Dr. Jault, in his preface to (what is very improperly, though commonly, called) Menage s Dic- tionary, tells us — " Par le frequent commerce que j'ai eu avec eux [les Hongrois'] pendant plusieurs annees, ayant tache de penetrer a fonds ce que ce pouvoit etre que cet idiome si different de tons les autres d'Eu- rope, je les ai corivaincus qu'ils etoient Scythes d'origine, ou du moins CH. iX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 155 H. — Very true, Sir. And these Prepositive Conjunctions, once separated from the others, soon gave birth to another subdivision^; and Grammarians were not ashamed to have a class of Posfpositive Prepositives, — ^^ Dantur etiam Postposi- tiones (says Caramuel) ; quse Prcepositiones postpositive^ solent dici, nulla vocabulorum repugnantia : vocantur enim Pr Deur. Door. (^ Door. Dore. J German ^l^l^'.' Thor. } ^"'•<^''• 1 " Than Cometh ydelnesse, that is the yate of all harmes. This ydlenesse is the Thorruke of all wyclced and vylayne tlioughteii."— Chaucer, Persons Tale, fol. 3. p. 1. col. 2. 2 "So in an antient roll in verse, exhibiting the descent of the family of the lords of Clare in Suffolk, preserved in the Austin Friary at Clare, and written in the year 1356. " So conioyned be Ulstris armes and Glocestris thurgh and thurgh, As shewith our wyndowes in houses thre." Wartoiis Hist, of Engl. Poetry, vol. 1. p. 302. " Releued by thynfynyte grace and goodness of our said lord thurgh the meane of the. mediatrice of mercy." — The Dictes and Sayinges of the Philosophers. I'^n . 3 The Greeks abbreviated in the same manner as the English : and as we use Thro for Thorough, so they used Qpa for Θύρα. Thus \ve find Ουρήθρα, the Urethra, or imne passage, compounded of OfjOoj' and θι^ρα, and by abbreviation θρα. •^ Eij: hipan heopa cypicean mape Seapp hcsbben, healb hnie mon on o])pum hu]-. anb ]7at nsebbe Sonne ma Supa Sonne peo cypice Ά Eljrpebej' se. cap. 5. Lambard. Αρχ^αωνομια, fcl. 29. 182 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part u Substantive. Preposition. {Thurah. rThurub. Thurah. Thur. Thor. lura. Dura. Dure. Thur. Duruch. Duruc. Duruh. LDurch. Durh. Thouo:h it is not from Asia or its confines, that we are to seek for the origin of this part of our language ; yet is it worth noticing here, that the Greek (to which the Gothic has in many particulars a considerable resemblance) employs the word θύρα for Door. And both the Persian (which in many particulars resembles the Teutonic^) and the Chaldean, use Thro for Door. You will observe, that the Teutonic uses the same word Thurah both for the substantive {Door), and for what is called the preposition {Thorough), The Dutch, which has a strong antipathy to our Th, uses the very word Door for both. The Anglo-Saxon, from which our language immediately de- scends, employs indifferently for Door either Dure or Thure, The modern German (directly contrary to the modern English) uses the initial Th {Thur) for our substantive {Door), and the initial D {Durcli) for our preposition {Thorough): and it is remarkable, that this same difference between the German and the English prevails in almost all cases where the two languages employ a word of the same origin having either of those initials. Thus Distel iind Dorn — in German — are Thistles and Thorns in English. So the English Dear, Dollar, Deal, are in German Theur, Thaler, TheiL Minshew and Junius both concur that Door, &c. are de- rived from the Greek θύρα : Skinner says, perhaps they are all from the Greek θύρα : and then without any reason (or rather as it appears to me against all reason) chuses rather uselessly to derive the substantive Door from the Anglo- Saxon preposition Thor, Thruh, Thurh. But I am persuaded that Door and Thorough have one and the same Gothic origin 1 " On n'est pas etonne de trouver du rapport entre YAnglois et le Persan : car on syait que le fond de la langue Angloise est Saxon ; et qu'il y a une quantite d'exemples qui raontre une aiiinite marquee entre TAUemand et le Persan." — Form, Median, des Langues, torn. 2. art. 166. CH. IX.] OF PEEPOSITIONS. 183 dl)VnK^> mean one and the same thing; and are in fact one and the same word. B, — There is an insuperable objection, which, I fear, you have not considered, to this method of accounting for the Pre- positions : for if they were really and merely, as you imagine, common Nouns and Verbs, and therefore, as you say, the names of real objects, how could any of them be employed to denote not only different ^ but even contrary relations ? Yet this is universally maintained, not only by Mr. Harris, but by Messrs. de Port Royal^, by the President de Brosses, and by all those writers whom you most esteem ; and even by Wilkins^ and Locke. ISTow if these words have a meaning, as you contend, and are constantly used according to their meaning, which you must allow, (because you appeal to the use which is made of them as proof of the meaning which you attribute to them); how can they possibly be the names of real and unchangeable objects^ as common nouns and verbs are ? I am sure you must see the necessity of reconciling these contradictory ap- pearances. H,- — Most surely. And I think you will as readily acknow- ledge the necessity of first establishing the facts, before you call upon me to reconcile them. Where is the Preposition to be found which is at any time used in contrary or even in dif- ferent meanings ? ^.— -Very many instances have been given ; but none ^ '• Certains mots sont Adverbes, Prepositions, et Conjonctions en meme temps. Et repondent ainsi en meme temps a diverses parties d'oraison, selon que la Grammaire les employe diversement." — Buffier, art. 150. 2 " On n'a suivi en aucune langue, sur le sujet des prepositions, ce que la raison auroit desire : qui est, qu'un rapport ne fut marque que par une preposition ; et qu'une preposition ne marquat qu'un seul rap- port. Car il arrive au contraire dans toutes les langues ce que nous avons vu dans ces exemples pris de la Francoise ; qu'un meme rapport est signifie par plusieurs prepositions : et qu'une meme preposition marque divers rapports." — MM. de Port Royal. 3 " Some of these prepositions are absolutely determined either to mo- tion or to rest, or the Terminus of Motion. Others are relatively appli- cable to both. Concerning which this rule is to be observed : that those which belong to motion cannot signify rest ; but those which belong to rest may signify motion in the terminus." ^—WiiiKi^s,, part 3, chap. 3. 184 OF PREPOSITIONS. [pAPtT I. stronger tlian those produced by Mr. Harris of the Preposi- tion FROM ; wliicli he shews to be used to denote three very different relations, and the two last in absolute contradiction to each other. '^ From/' he says, '' denotes the detached relation of Body; as when we s'dy— These Figs came from Turkey, — So as to Motion and Kest, only with this diiFerence, that here the pre- position varies its character loith the Verb. Thus if we say — That lamp hangs from the deling — the preposition from assumes a character of quiescence. But if we say — That lamp is falling from the cielingy — 'the preposition in such case assumes a character of ??2oi/o;/." Now I should be glad you would shew me what one Noun or Verb can be found of so versatile a character as this prepo- sition: what name of any one real object or sign of one idea, or of one collection of ideas, can have been instituted to con- vey these different and opposite meanings ? H. — Truly, none that I know of. But I take the word FROM {preposition, if you chuse to call it so) to have as clear, as precise, and at all times as uniform and unequivocal a meaning, as any word in the language. From means merely BEGINNING, and nothing else. It is simply the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun Fpum, frK-HM, Beginning, Origin, Source, Foiintain, Author^. Now then, if you please, we w'lW apply this meaning to Mr. Harris's formidable instances, and try whether we cannot make from speak clearly for itself, with- out the assistance of the interpreting Verbs ; who are sup- posed by Mr. Harris, to vai^y its character at will, and make the preposition appear as inconsistent and contradictory as himself. Figs came from Turkey. lu^m^ falls from Cieling. Lamp hangs from Cieling. Came is a complex term for one species of motion. Falls is a complex term for another species of motion. Hangs is a complex term for a species of attachment. ^' Ne psebb je e δβ on fpumman pojihce. he poplite peepman anb pipman." That is, Annon legistis, quod qui eos in principio creavit, creavit eos marem et foeminam ? St. Matt. xix. 4. [See Grimm's Grammatik, ii. 732. iii. 265. for the word/r«m. — Ed.] CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 185 Have we occasion to communicate or mention the com- mencement or BEGINNING of thesc motions and of this attachment; and the place where these motions and this attachment commence or begin ? It is impossible to have complex terms for each occasion of this sort. What more natural then, or more simple, than to add the signs of those ideas, viz. the word beginning (which will remain always the same) and the name of the place (which will perpetually vary) ? Thas, '^ Figs came — beginning Turkey. Lamp f;dls — beginning Cieling. Lamp hangs — beginning Cieling." That is Turkey the Place of beginning to come. Cieling the Place of beginning to fall. Cieling the Place of beginning to hang. B. — You have here shown its meaning when it relates to place ; but Wilkins tells us, that *' from refers primarily to place and situation: and secondarily to time." So that you have yet given but half its meaning. — ** From morn till night th' eternal larum rang." — There is no place referred to in this line. H. — From relates to every thing to which beginning re- lates^, and to nothing else : and therefore is referable to Time ' Is it unreasonable to suppose that, if the meaning of this word FROM, and of its correspondent prepositions in other languages, had been clearly understood, the Greek and Latin Churches would never have differed concerning the Eternal Procession of the Holy Ghost FROM the Father, or from the Father and the Son ? And that, if they had been determined to separate, they would at least have chosen some safer cause of schism ? " Apelles. I have now, Campaspe, almost made an end. Campaspe. You told me, Apelles, you would never end. Ap. Never end my love : for it shall be Eternal. Cam. That is, neither to have Beginning nor ending." Campaspe by John Lilly, act 4. sc, 4. ■ " Eternal sure, as without end Without Beginning."' Paradise Regained, book 4, line 391, 186 OF PREPOSITIONS. . [part I. as well as to motion : without which indeed there can be no Time. '' The larum rang beginning Morning :" i.e. Morning being the time of its beginning to ring. JB,— Still I have difficulty to trust to this explanation. For Dr. S. Johnson has numbered up twenty/ different meanings of this Preposition from. He says, it denotes, 'M. Privation. 2. Reception. 3. Descent or Birth. 4. Transmission» 5. Abstraction. " To say that Immensity does not signify boundless space, and that Eternity does not signify duration or time ivithout Beginning and end ; is, I think, affirming that ΛVords have no meaning." — Dr. Sam. Clarke's fifth Reply to Leibnitz's fifth Paper, sect. 104-106. Is it presumptuous to say, that the explanation of this single prepo- sition would have decided the controversy more effectually, than all the authorities and all the solid arguments produced by the wise and honest bishop Procopowicz ? and thus have withheld one handle at least of reproach, from those who assert — " Que Ton pourroit justement deiinir la theologie — L'art de composer des chimeres en combinant ensemble des qualites impossibles a concilier." — Systeme de la Nature, tom. 2, p. 55. [In order to see how far this reproach is applicable to some of the theology of the present day, take the following : " But, alas ! here proud men, by attempting to explain what is inex- plicable, h^scwe rendered it necessary for the Church to be more explicit." — p. 18. " The Church is now compelled, by the perverseness of dis- puters, to state plainly what has been revealed to her. . . . Still, observe, that the Church is not attempting to explain. She only asserts." — p. 15. And again, *' This verse is not added as an explanation of an inexpli- cable mystery, but simply to sheiu what the ChMXchmeans, Slc."• — p. 22. — Letter on the Athanasian Creed, by Walter Farquhar Hook, D.D. 1838. Thus, she can "shew Avhat she means" without '' explanation," — can " mean" that which is " inexplicable,"— οάώ. be " explicit" with- out "explaining," — and " state plainly " that which she does "not attempt to explain." " She only asserts" what is " inexplicable," (and therefore unintelligible,) but without which " it is impossible to understand Scripture ;" — p. 8.: i. e. Scripture cannot be understood but in a sense that is unintelligible. — The " proud men," and " perverse dis- puters," are doubtless such as lack " ihdit prostration oi th.Q understand- ing and will, which are indispensable in Christian instruction." See the Charge delivered at his Primary Visitation, 1815, by his Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury. — Ed.] CH. IX.] . OF PREPOSITIONS. 187 6. Succession. 7. Emission. 8. Progress from premises to inferences, 9. Place or Person from whom a message is brought, 10. Extraction, 11. Reason or Motive, 12. Ground or Cause, 13. Distance, 14. Separation or Recession, 15. Exemption or Deliverance, 16. ^&5ewce. 17. Derivation, 18. Distance from the past, 19. Contrary to, 20. Removal:' To these he adds twenty-two other manners of using it. And he has accompanied each with instances sufficiently numerous, as proofs \ 7J. — And yet in all his instances (which, I believe, are above seventy) from continues to retain invariably one and the same single meaning. Consult them : and add to them as many more instances as you please; and yet (if J have explained myself as clearly as I ought, and as I think I have done) no further assistance of mine will be necessary to enable you to extract the same meaning of the word from from all of them. ^ Greenwood says — " From signifies Motion from a place ; and then it is put in opposition to το. "2. It is used to denote the Beginning of time. "3. It denotes the Original of things. "4. It denotes the Order of a thing. (" And in these three last senses it is put before Adverbs.") " 5. It signifies Of." The caprice of language is worth remarking in the words Van (the Dutch From) and Rear, both of which we have retained in English as Substantives, and therefore they are allowed with us to have a meaning. But being only employed as Prepositions by the Dutch, Italian and French, our philosophers cannot be persuaded to allow them any trans- marine meaning. — Animam mutant qui trans mare currunt. And thus Van in Holland, Von in Germany, Avanti in Italy, and Avant and Der- riere in France, are merely des petits mots inventes pour 4tre mis avant les Noms, or, iix the van of Nouns. 188 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. And you will plainly perceive that the '^ characters of quies- cence and of motion,^'' attributed by Mr. Harris to the word FROM, belong indeed to the words Hang and Fall^ used in the different sentences. And by the same manner of transferring to the preposition the meaning of some other word in the sen- tence, have all Johnson's and Greenwood's supposed different meanings arisen. B. — You observed, some time since, that the Prepositions WITH and without v^^ere directly opposite and contradictory to each other. Now the same opposition is evident in some other of the prepositions : And this circumstance, I should imagine, must much facilitate and sliorten the search of the etymologist: For having once discovered the meaning of one of the adverse parties, the meaning of the other, I suppose, must follow of course. Thus — Going το a place, is directly the contrary of — Going from a place. — If then you are right in your explanation of from ; (and I will not deny that ap- pearances are hitherto in your favour ;) since from means Conwie η cement or Beginning, το must mean Bnd or Termina- tion. And indeed I perceive that, if we produce Mr. Harris's instances, and say, ^^ These figs came from Turkey το England* The lamp falls from the deling το the ground. The lamp hangs from the deling το thefioor;'' as the word from denotes the commencement of the motion and hanging; so does the word το denote their termination : and the places where they end or terminate, are respectively En- gland, Ground, Floor. And since we have as frequently occasion to mention the termination, as we have to mention the commencement of motion or time ; no doubt it was as likely that the word denoting End should become a particle or preposition, as the word which signified Beginning. But in the use of these two words το and from, I observe a remarkable difference. From seems to have t2vo opposites ; which ought therefore to mean the same thing : and, if meaning the same, to be used indifferently at pleasure. We aUvays use from (and Fro7n only) for the be- ginning either of time or motion : but for the termination, we CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 189 apply sometimes το and sometimes till : το, indiiFerently either to place or time; but till to time only and never to place. Thus, we may say, " From mom το 7iight tli eternal larum rang." or, From morn till night, &c. But we cannot say,— iVo/?i Turkey till England. H, — The opposition of Prepositions, as far as it reaches, does undoubtedly assist us much in the discovery of the mean- ing of each opposite. And if, by the total or partial extinction of an original language, there was no root left in the ground for an etymologist to dig up, the philosopher ought no doubt to be satisfied with reasoning from the contrariety. But I fear much, that the inveterate prejudices which I have to encounter, and which for two thousand years have universally passed for learning throughout the world, and for deep learning too, would not easily give way to any arguments of mine a priori. I am therefore compelled to resort to etymology, and to bring for- ward the original wOrd as well as its meaning. That same etymology will very easily account for the peculiarity you have noticed : and the difficulty solved, like other enemies subdued, will become an useful ally and additional strength to the con- queror. The opposition to the preposition from, resides singly in the preposition το^ Which has not perhaps (for I am not clear that it has not) precisely the signification of End or Termination, but of something tantamount or equivalent. The preposition το (in Dutch written toe and tot, a little nearer to the original) is the Gothic substantive X^fll or TjlnhTS, i.e. Act, Efft^ecty Result, Consummation. Which Gothic substantive is indeed itself no other than the past par- ticiple TAnid or T/iHiaS, of the verb TAHQAN' agere. And what is doiie, is terminated^ ended, finished^, ^ [^Till seems to be the Scandinavian form. See Ihre : — also Grimm, iii. 257.— Ed.] - [See Grimm, ii. 722. iii. 254 : du, tu, zu, ze, zi, to. — Ed,] 3 In the Teutonic, this verb is written Tuan or Tuon, whence the modern German Thun, and its preposition (varying like its verb) Tu. [Zu.] In the Anglo-Saxon the verb is Teogan, and preposition To. '^ *' Dativus cuicunque orationi adjungi potest, in qua acquisitio vel 190 OF PREPOSITIONS. [pART I. After this derivation, it will not appear in the least myste- rious or wonderful that we should, in a peculiar manner, in English, prefix this same word το to the infinitive of our verbs. For the verbs, in English, not being distinguished, as in other languages, by a peculiar termination, and it being sometimes impossible to distinguish them by their place, when the old termination of the Anglo-Saxon verbs was dropped, this word TO (i. e. Act) became necessary to be prefixed, in order to distinguish them from nouns, and to invest them with the verbal character : for there is no difference between the noun, Lovej and the verb, to Love, but what must be comprised in the prefix το. The infinitive, therefore, appears plainly to be, what the Stoics called it, the very verb itself; pure and uncompounded with the various accidents of mood, of number, of gender, of person, and (in English) of tense ; which accidents are, in some languages, joined to the verb by Y2ir'iety οι termination ; and in some, by an additional word signifying the added circumstance. And if our English Grammarians and Philosophers had trusted something less to their reading and a little more to their own reflection, I cannot help thinking that the very awkwardness and imperfection of our own language, in this particular of the infinitive, would have been a great benefit to them in all their difficulties about the verb : and would have led them to un- derstand and explain that which the perfection of more arti- ficial and improved languages contributed to conceal from others. For I reckon it a great advantage which an English philosopher has over those who are acquainted with such lan- guages only which do this business by termination. For though I think ί have good reasons to believe, that all these Terminations may likewise be traced to their respective origin ; and that, however artificial they may now appear to us, they were not originally the eff'ect of premeditated and deliberate art, but separate words by length of time corrupted and coa- lescing with the words of which they are now considered as the Terminations : Yet this was less likely to be suspected by others. And if it had been suspected, they would have had ademtio, commodum aut incommodum, aut finis, quern in scliolis Logici Finem cui dicunt, significatur." — Scioppii Gram. Philosoph, p. xiii» CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 191 much further to travel to their journey's end, and through a road much more embarrassed ; as the corruption in those lan- guages is of much longer standing than in ours, and more complex. And yet, by what fatality I know not, our Grammarians have not only slighted, but have even been afraid to touch, this friendly clue : for of all the points which they endeavour to shuffle over, there is none in which they do it more grossly than in this of the Infinitive. Some are contented to call το, a rnark of the infinitive mood^ But how, or why, it is so, they are totally silent. Others call it a Preposition. Others, a Particle» Skinner calls it an Equivocal Article^, And others^ throw it into that common sink and repository of all heterogeneous unknown corruptions, the Adverb, And when they have thus given it a name, they hope you will be satisfied : at least they trust that they shall not be arraigned for this conduct; because those who should arraign them, will need the same shift for themselves. There is one mistake however, from which this Prefix το ought to have rescued them : they should not have repeated the error, of insisting that the Infinitive was a mere Noun"^ : ^ Lowth (page QQ) says — '* The Preposition το placed before the Verb makes the Infinitive Mood." Now this is manifestly not so : for TO placed before the Verb lovetli, will not make the Infinitive Mood. He would have said more truly, that το placed before some Nouns makes Verbs. But of this I shall have occasion to speak hereafter, when I come to treat of the Verb. ~ " Melius iniinitiva sua Anglo- Saxones per term, an, quam nos hodie cequivoco illo articiilo, το praemisso, seepe etiam omisso, distinxerunt." — Canones Etymologici. 3 S.Johnson sa5'-s — "To, advert [co, Saxon; Te, Dutch,]" And then, according to his usual method, (a very convenient one for making a bulky book without trouble) proceeds to give instances of its various significations, viz. "1. A particle coming between tΛvo verbs, and noting the second as the object of the first. 2, It notes the intention. 3. After an adjective it notes its object. 4. Noting fiuturiti/ ." ^ " The words Actiones and Lectiones (Wilkins says) are but the plural number of Agere, Legere." However, it must be acknovvdedged that Wilkins endeavours to save himself by calling the Infiinitive, not a mere noun, but a Participle Substantive. — " That which is called the Infinitive Mode should, according to the true analogy of speech;, be styled 192 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part Γ. since it was found necessary in English to add another word (viz.) TO, merely to distinguish the Ii]fimtwe from the Noun, after the Infinitive had lost that distinguishing Termination which it had formerly \ B. — I do not mean hastily and without further considera- tion absolutely to dissent from what you have said, because some part of it appears to me plausible enough. And had you confined yourself only to the Segnacaso or Preposition, I should not suddenly have found much to offer in reply. But when instead of the Segnacaso (as Buonmattei classes it), or the Preposition (as all others call it), or the mark of the Infinitive (as it is peculiarly used in English), you direct me to consider it as the necessary and distinguishing sign of the VERB, you do yourself throw difficulties in my way which it will be incumbent on you to remove. For it is impossible not to observe, that the Infinitive is not the only part of our English verbs, which does not differ from the noun : and it rests upon you to explain why this necessary sign of the Verb should be prefixed only to the Infinitive^ and not also to those other parts of the verb in English which have no distinguish- ing Termination. H. — The fact is undoubtedly as you have stated it. There are certainly other parts of the English verb, undistinguished &, Participle Substmitive. There hath been formerly much disjmte among some learned men, whither the notion called the Infinitive Mode ought to be reduced according to the philosophy of speech. Some would have it to be the prime and jjrincipal verb ; as signifying more directly the notion of action : and then the other varieties of the verb should be but the inflexions of this. Others question vi'hether the infinitive Mode be a verb or no, because in the Greek it receives articles as a noun. Scahger concludes it to be a vei^h, but will not admit it to be a Mode. Vossius adds, that though it be not Modus in Actu, yet it is Modus in Potentia. All which difficulties will be most clearly stated by asserting it to be a Substantive Participle." Real Character, part 4, chap. 6. Mr. Harris without any palliation says, — "These Infinitives go fur- ther. They not only lay aside the character of Attributives, but they also assume that of Substantives." — Hermes, book 1, chap. 8. • [It should be noted that in Anglo-Saxon the sign to had always been prefixed to the Future Infinitive : and Lye adds, '' interdum, re- dundanter tamen, puris, i.e. primitivis Infinitivis : ut. To Sepian, ser- vire, Chron. Sax. U8. 10, &c/'— See Additional Notes.—ED.] cri. ixj οί• PtiEPosiTioNs* 193 from the noun by termination ; but this is to me rather a circumstance of confirmation than an objection. For the truth is, that to them also (and to those parts onlj/ which have not a distinguishing termination) as well as to the Infini- tive, is this distinguishing sign equally necessary, and equally prefixed. Do (the aumliary verb as it has been called ') is derived from the same root, and is indeed the same word as TO. The difference between a τ and a d is so very small, that an Etymologist knows by the practice of languages, and an Anatomist by the reason of that practice, that in the 1 "The verb to do (says Mr. Tyrwhitt, Essay, Note 37) is con- sidered by Wallis and other later grammarians, as an auxiliary verb. It is so used, though very rarely, by Chaucer. It must be confessed that the exact power which do, as an auxiliary, now has in our lan- guage, is not easy to be defined, and still less to be accounted for from Analogy," In Chaucer's time the distinguishing terminations of the verb still remained, although not constantly employed; and he availed himself of that situation of the language, either to use them or drop them, as best suited his purpose, and sometimes he uses both termination and sign. Thus, in the Wife of Bathes Tale, he drops the Infinitive termi- nation ; and uses το. " My liege lady : generally, quod he. Women desyren το have soveraynte As well over her husbondes as her love." And again a few lines after, he uses the infinitive termination, ex- cluding TO. "In al the court nas there wife ne mayde Ne widow, that contraried that he saide, But said, he was worthy han his lyfe." So also, " I trowe that if Envye, iwys, Knewe the best man that is On thys syde or beyonde the see, Yet somwhat lacken him wold she." Romauat of the Rose. The same may be shewn by innumerable other instances throughout Chaucer. B. Jonson, in his Grammar, says — "The Persons plural keepe the termination of the first person singular. In former times, till about the reigne of King Henry the Eighth, they were wont to be formed by adding en. But now (whatsoever is the cause) it hath quite growne out of use, and that other so generally prevailed that I dare not pre- sume to set this afoot againe." This is the reason why Chaucer used both TO and no more rarely than we use them at present, 194 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I, derivation of words it is scarce worth regarding \ And for the same reason that το is put before the Infinitive, do used formerly to be put before such other parts of the verb which hkewise were not distinguished from the noun by termination. As we still say — / do Ιονβ^- — instead of — I love. And 1 DOED or DID love — instead of I loved. But it is worth our while to observe, that if a distinguishing termination is used, then the distinguishing do or did must be omitted, the Ter- mination fulfilling its office. And therefore we never find — / DID loved ; or He doth loveth. But I did love; He doth love. It is not indeed an approved practice at present, to use do before those parts of the Verb^ they being now by custom sufficiently distinguished by their Place: and therefore the redundancy is now avoided, and do is considered, in that case, as unnecessary and expletive. However it is still used, and is the common practice, and should be used, whenever the distinguishing P/«ce is disturbed by hiterrogation^ or by the insertion of a Negation, or of some other words between the nominative case and the verb. As, — - He DOES not love the truth. Does he love the truth? He does at the same time love the truth. And if we chuse to avoid the use of this verbal Sign, do, we must supply its place by a distinguishing termination to the verb. As,— He loveth not the truth. Loveth he the truth ? He at the same time loveth the truth. Or where the verb has not a distinguishing termination (as in plurals)—-' They DO not love the truth ; Do they love the truth ? They DO at the same time love the truth- — Here, if we wish to avoid the verbal sign, we must remove the negative or other intervening word or w^ords from between the 1 See the Note, page 47. CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 195 nominative case and the verb ; and so restore the distinguishing Place. As, — They love not the truth. Love they the truth ? At the same time they love the truth ^ And thus we see that, though we cannot, as Mr. Tyrwhitt truly says, account for the use of this verbal sign from any Analogy to other languages, yet there is no caprice in these methods of employing το and do, so differently from the practice of other languages : but that they arise from the peculiar method which the English language has taken to arrive at the same necessary end, which other languages attain by distinguishing Termination» B. — I observe, that Junius" and Skinner and Johnson have not chosen to give the slightest hint concerning the derivation of To^. Minshew distinguishes between the preposition το, and the sign of the Infinitive το. Of the first he is silent, and of the latter he says — '' το, as to make, to walk^ to do, a Grseco articulo ro ; idem est ut το ττοιβιν, το πβριπατβιν, το ττραττειν.^^ But Dr. Gregory Sharpe is persuaded that our language has taken it from the Hebrew. And Vossius derives the correspondent Latin Preposition ad from the same source. H, — Yes. But our Gothic and Anglo-Saxon ancestors were not altogether so fond of the Hebrew, nor quite so well acquainted with it, as Dr. Sharpe and Vossius were. And if Boerhaave could not consent, and Voltaire^ thought it ridi- culous, to seek a remedy in South America for a disease which was prevalent in the North of Europe, how much more would they have resisted the etymology of this pretended Jewish ^ It is not however uncommon to say — " They, at the same time, love the truth." Where the intervening words {at the same time) are considered as merely parenthetical, and the mind of the speaker still preserves the connexion of place between the nominative case and the verb. - ['* Zu, ad. Goth, at and du ; Franc, za, ze, and az, &c. Omnia aiiinia Latino ad. Nam ad et to se mutuo producunt per anastro- phen." — Wachter. Grimm supposes that to and at may be identical, and have the same origin with the Latin ad. Grammat. iii. p. 253, 254.— Ed.] 3 '' La Quinquina, seul sp^cifique contra les iievres intermittentes, o2 196 OF PREPOSITIONS* [ρΛίΙΤ 1. Preposition ! For my own part, I am persuaded that the correspondent Latin Preposition ad has a more natural origin, and a meaning similar to that of το. It is merely the past participle of Agere\ (Which past participle is likewise a Latin Substantive.) C UGOUm flGD AD agitum-agtum< or — or — or [^acTiim — «ct — at. The most superficial reader of Latin verse knows how easily the Romans dropped their final um: for their poets would never have taken that licence, had it not been previously jus- tified by common pronunciation. And a little consideration of the organs and practice of speech, will convince him how easily Agd or Act would become ad or at', as indeed this preposi- place par la nature dans les montagnes du Perou, tandis qu'elle a mis la fievre dans le reste du monde." — Voltaire, Hist. Gemrale, " II meurit h Mocha dans le sable Arabique Ce caiFe necessaire aux pays des frimats ; II met la fievre en nos climats, Et le remede en Amerique." Voltaire, Lettre au Roi de Prusse. ^ My much valued and valuable friend Dr. Warner, the very inge- nious author of Metronariston, or a ?ieiu pleasure reconunended, in a dissertation upon Greek and Latin prosody, has remarked that — " C and G were by the Romans always pronounced hard, i. e. as the Greek Κ and Γ, before all vowels : which sound of them it w^ould have been well if we had retained ; for, had this been done, the inconvenience of many equivocal sounds, and much appearance of irregularity in the language, would have been avoided." — Perhaps it may seem superfluous to cite any thing from a book which must assuredly be in every classical hand : but it is necessary for me here to remind the reader of this cir- cumstance ; lest, instead of Aggere and Aggitvm he should pronounce these words Adjere and Adjitum, a,nd be disgusted with a derivation which might then seem forced and unnatural. 2 If the reader keeps in mind the note to page 47, he will easily per- ceive how actum became the irregular participle of agere, instead of agitum or agtum. For it depended entirely on the employment or omission of the compression there noticed. And it is observable, that in all languages (for the natural reason is the same) if two of the letters (coupled in that note) come together, in one of which the compression should be employed and in the other omitted, the speaker for his own convenience will either employ the compression in both, or omit it in both ; and that without any regard to the written character. Thus (amongst innumerable instances) an Englishman pronounce^-— oBzerve — CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 197 tion was indifferently written by the antients. By the mo- derns the preposition was written ad with the d only, in order to distinguish it from the other corrupt word cdWed the co7ij line- tion, AT ; which for the same reason was written with the τ only, though that likewise had antiently been written, as the preposition, either ad or at\ B. — You have not yet accounted for the different employ- ment of TILL and το. Η. — That TILL should be opposed to from, only when we are talking of Time, and upon no other occasion, is evidently for this reason, (viz.) that till is a word compounded of το and While, i. e. Time. And you will observe that the coales- cence of these two words, To-hpile, took })lace in the language long before the present wanton and superfluous use of the article the, which by tlie prevailing custom of modern speech is now interposed. So that when we say — *' From morn Tihi night," — it is no more than if we said — *' From morn το time 7iight^." When we say — " Fro)n morn το night," the word Time is omitted as unnecessary. So we might say — -'' From Turkey το the place called England ;" or ''το place Eng" land," But we leave out the mention of Place, as superfluous, and say only — '* το England" B, — You acknowledge then that the opposition of preposi- tions is useful, as far as it reaches. But, besides their opposi- and a Frenchman — ovserver. So we learn from Quinctilian (lib. 1. cap. 7.) that the Romans pronounced ovtinuit, though they wrote OBtinuit. — " Cum dico ohtimdt, secundam β literam ratio poscit ; aures magis audiunt r." — In the same manner a Roman Λvoυid pronounce the ΛΥΟΓά either aGOum or acTum, that he might not, in two letters coming close together, shift so instantly from the emjiloyment to the omission of the compression. 1 "Ad et At, non tantum ob significationem, sed et originem diversam, diversimode scribere sativs est." — G. J. Vossius, Etymol. Ling. Lat. ~ It is not unusual with the common people, and some antient authors, to use While alone as a preposition ; that is, to leave out το, and say — I ivill stay λΧΆΐι^Έ Evening. Instead of — Ίΐι,τ, Evening ; or, TO AVHiLE Evening. That is — I ivill stay time Evening, — instead of — TO TIME Evening. Thus — " Sygeberte wyth hys two bretherne gave backe whyle they came to the ryver of Sigoune." — *' He commaunded her to be bounden to a Avylde horse tayle by the here of her hedde and so to be drawen avhyle she were dede." 198 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. tion and absolute contradiction ^ I should imagine that the marked and distinguished manner also, in which different pre- positions are sometimes used in the same sentence, must very- much tend to facilitate the discovery of their distinct significa- tions. " Well! His e^en so ! I have got the London disease they call Love, I am sick of my husband, and for my gallant^.'' Love makes her sick of, and sick for. Here of and for seem almost placed in opposition ; at least their effects in the sentence are most evidently different ; for, by the help of these two Prepositions alone, and without the assistance of any other words, she expresses the two contrary affections of Loath- ing and Desire. H. — No. Small assistance indeed, if any, can be derived from such instances as this. I rather think they tend to mis- lead than to direct an inquirer. Love was not here the only disease. This poor lady had a complication of distempers ; she had two disorders : a sickness of Loathing — and a sick- ness OF Desire, She was sick for Disgust, and sick for Love. Sick OF disgust for her husband. Sick OF love for her gallant. Sick FOR disgust of her husband. Sick FOR love of her gallant. Her disgust was the offspring of her hushdcna, proceeded from her husband, was begotten upon her by her husband. Her gallant was the cause of her love. I think I have clearly expressed the meaning of her declara- tion. And I have been purposely tautologous, that by my indifferent appHcation of the two words of and for — both to her disgust and to her love, the smallest appearance of oppo- sition between these prepositions might be done away. Indeed, the difference between them (thus considered) appears to be so small, that the author, if it had pleased him, might have used OF, where he has put for. And that he might so have done, the following is a proof. Wycherley's Country Wife. CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 199 '^ Marian, Come, Amie, you HI go with us. " Amie. I am not well. ^^ Lionel. She 's sick of the young shep'ard that bekist her':' In the same manner we may, with equal propriety, say — '' We are sick of hunger/' — or, ^' We are sick for hunger." And in both cases we shall have expressed precisely the same thing. B, — 'Tis certainly so in practice. But is that practice jus- tifiable? For the words still seem to me to have a very different import. Do you mean to say that the words of and for are synonymous. H. — Very far from it. I beheve they differ as widely as CAUSE and consequence. I imagine the word for (whether denominated Preposition, Conjunction, or Adverb) to be a Noun, and to have always one and the same single signifi- cation, viz. CAUSE, and nothing else. Though Greenwood attributes to it eighteen, and S. Johnson forty-six different meanings : for which Greenwood cites ohove forty , and John- son above tivo-hundred instances. But, with a little attention to their instances, you will easily perceive, that they usually attribute to the Preposition the meaning of some other words in the sentence. Junius (changing ρ into f, and by metathesis of the letter r) derives For from the Greek Tlpo^. Skinner from the Latin Pro. But I believe it to be no other than the Gothic substantive fr/ilKl^fA? cause. I imagine also that Of (in the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon jlj: and TYp) is a fragment of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon ΛΙ^ΛΚΛί posteritas, &c. Tipopa, proles, &c^ That it is a 1 Sad Shepherd, act 1. sc. 6. - [Dr. Jamieson adheres to this opinion ; and gives the Gothic faur, and Isl./yrer, as having the same origin.-^Hermes Scythicus, p. 95. See also Grimm, iii. 256. — En.] 3 " Of, a, ab, abs, de. A.S. Op. D. Jf. B. A/. Goth. ^]z. Exprimunt Gr. ano, ab, de : prsesertim cum αττο ante vocabulum ab adspiratione incipiens, fiat αφ'." Junius. Minshew and Skinner derive of from the Latin ab, and that from the Greek απο. 200 OF PREPOSITIONS. [pART 1. noun substantive, and means always co?isequence, offsprings successor , folloiver , Sic. And I think it not unworthy of remark, that whilst the old patronymical termination of our northern ancestors was son, the Sclavonic and Russian patronymic was of. Thus whom the English and Svv^edes named Peterson, the Russians called Pe- terhof. And as a polite foreign affectation afterwards induced some of our ancestors to assume Fils or Fitz (i. e. Fils or Filiiis) instead of son ; so the Russian aflrectation in more modern times changed of to Vitch (i. e. Fitz, Fils or Filius) and Ρ elerhof became Petrovitch or Petrowitz. So M. de Brosses (torn. 2. p. 295.) observes of the Ro- mans — '^ Remarquons sur les noms propres des families Ro- maines qu'il n'y en ^ pas lui seiil qui ne soit termine en ius : desinence fort semblable a Γ vioq des Grecs, c'est a dire flius\'' B, — Stop, stop, Sir. Not so hasty, I beseech you. Let us leave the Sw^edes, and the Russians, and the Greeks, and the Romans, out of the question for the present ; and confine yourself, if you please, as in the beginning you confined my enquiry, to the English only. Above tivo hundred instances, do you say, produced by Johnson as proofs of at \e'astJOrti/~ six different meanings of this one preposition for, when Harris will not allow one single meaning to all the prepositions in the world together ! And is it possible that one and the same author, knowing this, should in the same short preface, and in the compass of a very few short pages, acknowledge the former to be '^ the person best qualified to give a perfect Grammar'^, ^^ and yet compliment the grammar of the latter, as the standard of accuracy, acuteness and jierfection^ ! FL, — Oh, my dear Sir, the wise men of this world know full well that the family of the Blandishes"^ are universal favourites. ^ " Et quamvis nunc dierum habeant quidem, ad Anglorum imita- tionem, familiarum nomina ; sunt tamen ea jjlerumque mere patrony- mica : sunt enim Price, Powel, Bowel, Bowen, Pugh, Parry, Pemy, Prichard, Probert, Proger, &c. nihil aliud quam Ap Rhys, Ap Howel, Ap Owen, Ap Hugh, Ap Harry, Ap Henry, Ap Pvichard, Ap Robert, Ap Roger, &c ap, hoc est mab, filius." Wallis, Preface. 2 See A Short Introduction to English Gram. Preface, p. 6. 3 See id. p. 14. ** See the Heiress, (one little morsel of false moral excepted,) the CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 201 Good breeding and policy direct us to mention the living onljr with praise; and if we do at any time liazard a censure, to let it fall only on the dead. jB. — Pray, which of those qualities dictated that remark ? H. — Neither. But a quality which passes for brutality and ill-nature : and which, in spite of hard blows and heavy burdens, would make me rather chuse in the scale of beings to exist a mastiff or a mule, than a monkey or alapdog. But why have you overlooked my civility to Mr. Harris ? Do you not perceive, that by contending for only one meaning to the word FOR, I am forty-five times more complaisant to him than Johnson is ? B. — He loves every thing that is Greek, and no doubt therefore will owe you many thanks for this Greek favour. — - Danaos donaferentes. — But confirm it if you please; and (if you can) strengthen your doubtful etymology (which I think wants strengthening) by extracting your single meaning of FOR from all Greenwood's and Johnson's numerous instances. ii. — That would be a tedious task ; and, I trust, unneces- sary; and for that reason only I have not pursued the method you now propose, with all the other particles which I have before explained. But as this manner of considering the Prepositions, though many years familiar to me, is novel to you, I may perhaps suppose it to be easier and clearer than it may at first sight appear to others. I will risque therefore your impatience, whilst I explain one single instance under each separate meaning attributed to for. Greenwood says — ^' The Preposition for has a great many significations, and denotes chiefly for what purpose, end, or use, or for whose benefit or damage any thing is done ; As — Christ died for 7 Cause of the accusation. Luxunancy of verse J So also in Mr. Tyrwhitt's instances, though their construc- tion is aukward and faulty, and now out of use, yet is the mean- ing of for equally conspicuous. The Cause of putting on the ρ 2 212 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. Habergeon, of the advice not to open the gate, of sowing the sack — being respectively — that the heart might not be pierced, that the rose might not be stolen, that the wheat might not be shed. B. — I will trouble you with only one instance of my own. How do you account for this sentence—" To the disgrace of common sense and common honesti/, after a long debate concern- ing the RohillaSf a new tvrit was moved for for Old Sarum: and every orator was tongue-tied. Although it is as much the duty of the House of Commons to examine the claim of repre- sentation, as of the other House to examine the claim of peer- age.^' Is the repetition of for tautologous, or only aukward ? H, — Only aukward. For here are two Causes mentioned. The Cause of the writ, and the Cause of the motion. By a small transposition of the words you may remove the aukward- ness and perceive the signification of the phrase. — '* A motion was made for a new writ for Old Sarum.'^ [i. e. A new writ - — Cause of the motion. Old Sarum, or a vacancy at Old Sarum — Cause of the writ.] And you will perceive that for may be repeated in a sentence as often as you mean to indicate a Cause; and never else. As, *' A motion was made for an order for a writ for the election of a burgess for to serve in parliament for the borough of Old Sarum,*' ' 1 . An order — Cause of the motion. 2. A writ — Cause of the order. 3. Election of a burgess — Cause of the writ. 4. To serve in Parliament — Cause of the election. 5. Borough of Old Sarum — Cause of the service in Parlia- ment. So in these lines of Butler, '* The Devil 's master of that office Where it must pass, if t be a drum; He '11 sign it with Cler. Pari. Dom. Com.. To him apply yourselves, and he Will soon dispatch you for his fee.*' i. e. his fee the Cause, -B.— But if the words for and of differ so widely as you say ; if the one means Cause and the other means Consequence ; by what etymological legerdemain will you be able to account for that indifFerent use of them which you justified iu the in- stances of CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 213 " Sickness of hunger; and Skkness for hunger." ** Sickness of love ; and Sickness for love." H, — Qualified as it is by you, it is fortunate for me that I shall not need to resort to Etymology for the explanation. Between the respective terms " Sickness — Hunger, Sickness • Love" it is certainly indifferent to the signification which of the two prepositions you may please to insert between them ; whether OF or for: this being the only difference, — that if you insert OF, it is put in apposition to Sickness; and Sickness is an- nounced the Consequence : — if you insert for, it is put in ap- position to Hunger or to Love ; and Hmiger or Love is an- nounced the Cause\ B. — I do not well understand how you employ the term Apposition. Scaliger, under the head Appositio, (Cap. clxxvii. de caussis) says — " Caussa propter quam duo substantiva non ponuntur sine copula, e philosophia petenda est. Si aliqua substantia ejusmodi est, ut ex ea et alia, unum intelligi queat; earum duarum substantiarum totidem notse (id est 7iomina) in oratione sine conjunctione cohserere poterunt." H. — What Scaliger says is very true. And this is the case with all those prepositions (as they are called) which are really substantives. Each of these — ejusmodi est, ut ex ea et alia (to which it is prefixed^ posffixed, or by any manner attached) unum intelligi queat. B. — If it be as you say, it may not perhaps be so impos- sible as Lord Monboddo imagines, to make a Grammar even for the most barbarous languages : and the Savages may pos- sibly have as complete a syntax as ourselves. Have you con- ^ The Dutch are supposed to use Van in two meanings ; because it sup- plies indifferently the places both of our of and from. Notwithstanding Λvhich Van has always one and the same single meaning, viz. Beginning. And its use both for of and from is to he explained by its different op- position. When it supplies the place of from, Van is put in apposition to the same term to which from is put in apposition. But when it supplies the place of of, it is not put in apposition to the same term to which OF is put in apposition, but to its correlative. And between two correlative terms, it is totally indifferent to the meaning which of the two correlations is expressed. 214 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. sidered what he says upon that subject, vol. 1. book 3. of his Origin and Progress of Language*? H. — I could sooner believe with Lord Monboddo, that there are men with tails like cats, as long as his lordship pleases^; and conclude with him, from the authority of his ^ " The last thing I proposed to consider was, the expression of the relation or connexion of things, and of the words expressing them : which makes what we call Syntax, and is the principal part of the grammatical art." " Now let ever so many words be thrown together of the most clear and determinate meaning, yet if they are not some way connected, they will never make discourse, nor form so much as a single proposi- tion. This connexion of the parts of speech in languages of art is either by separate words, such as prepositions and conjunctions, or by cases, genders, and numbers, in nouns, &c. But in less perfect lan- guages the most of them are denoted by separate words. " Now as every kind of relation is a pure idea of intellect, which never can be apprehended hy sense, and as some of those relations, particularly such of them as are expressed by cases, are very abstract and metaphy- sical, it is not to be expected that savages should have any separate and distinct idea of those relations. They will therefore not express them by separate words, or by the variation of the same word, but will throw them into the lump with the things themselves. This will make their syntax wretchedly imperfect. — There are only three barbarous languages, so far as I know, of which we have any particular account published that can be depended upon,— the Huron, the Galibi, and the Caribbee ; of which we have Dictionaries and Grammars also, so far as it is possible to make a Grammar of them. With respect to sjmtax, the Hurons appear to have none at all : for they have not prepositions or conjunctions. They have no genders, numbers, or cases, for their nouns; nor moods for their verbs. In s^ort, they have not, so far as I can discover, any way of connecting together the words of their dis- course. Those savages therefore, though they have invented words, use them as our children do when they begin to speak, without connecting them together : from which we may infer, that Syntax, which, com- pletes the work of language, comes last in the order of invention, and perhaps is the most difficult part of language. It would seem, however, that persons may make themselves understood without syntax. And there can be no doubt but that the position of the word will commonly determine what other word in the sentence it is connected with." 2 As his Lordship (vol. 1. p. 238) seems to wish for further authori- ties for human tails, especially of any tolerable length, I can help him to a tail of a foot long, if that will be of any service. " Avant que d'avoir vu cette ile, j'avois souvent ouy dire qu'il y avoit des hommes a longues queues comme les betes ; mais je n'avois jamais pu le croire, et je pensois la chose si eloignee de notre nature, que j'y eus encore de la peine, lorsque mes sens m'oterent tout lieu d'en douter par une avanture assez bizarre. Les habitans de Formosa CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 215 famished friend, that human flesh (even to those who are not famished) is the sweetest of all viands to the human taste, than etant accoutumez a nous voir, nous en usions ensemble avec assez de coniiance pour ne rien craindre de part ni d'autre ; ainsi quoy qu'e- trangers nous nous croyons en seurete, et marchions souvent sans escorte, lorsque I'experience nous fit connoitre que c'etoit trop nous hazarder. Un jour quelques uns de nos gens se promenant ensemble, un de nos ministres, qui etoit de la compagnie, s'en eloigna d'un jet de pierre pour quelques besoins naturels ; les autres cependant marchoient toujours fort attentifs a un recit qu'on leur faisoit ; quand il fut fini ils se souvinrent que le ministre ne revenoit point, ils I'attendirent quelque temps ; apres quoy, las d'attendre, ils allerent vers le lieu ou ils crurent qu'il devoit etre : Ils le trouverent mais sans vie, et le triste etat ou il etoit fit bien connoitre qu'il n'avoit pas langui long- temps. Pendant que les uns le gardoient, les autres allerent de divers cotez pour de- couvrir le meurtrier : ils n'allerent pas loin sans trouver un homme, qui se voyant serre par les notres, ecumoit, hurloit, et faisoit comprendre qu'il feroit repentir le premier qui rapprocheroit. Ses manieres desespe- rees firent d'abord quelqu'impression ; mais enfin la frayeur ceda, on prit ce miserable qui avoiia qu'il avoit tue le ministre, mais on ne put sgavoir pourquoy. Comme le crime etoit atroce, et que I'impunite pouvoit avoir de facheuses suites, on le condamna a etre brule. II fut attache a un poteau ou il demeura quelques heures avant I'execution ; ce fut alors que je vis ce que jusques-la je n'avois pu croire ; sa queue etoit longue de plus d'un pied toute couverte d'un poil roux, et fort semblable a celle d'un boeuf. Quand il vit que les spectateurs etoient surpris de voir en lui ce qu'ils n'avoient point, il leur dit que ce defaut, si e'en etoit un, venoit du climat, puisque tous ceux de la partie meri- dionale de cette ile dont il etoit, en avoient comme lui." — Voyages de Jean Struys, An. 1650. tom. 1. chap. 10. The meek, modest, sincere"^, disinterested, and amiable Doctor Horsley, Lord bishop of Rochester, could have furnished the other Lord with an authority for Tails nearer home, in his own metropoHtan city : — '' Ex hujus modi vocibus, fuerunt improbi nonnulli, quibus visa est occulta voluntas regis esse, ut Thomas e medio tolleretur ; qui prop- terea velut hostis regis habitus, jam tum coepit sic vulgo negligi, contemni ac in odio esse, ut cum venisset aliquando Strodum, qui vicus situs est ad Medveiam flumen, quod flumen Rocestriam alluit, ejus loci accolse cupidi bonum patrem ita despectum ignominia aliqua afiiciendi, non dubitarint amputare caudam equi quern ille equitaret ; seipsos perpetuo probro ob- ligantes ; nam postea, nutu dei, ita accidit, ut omnes ex eo hominum genere, qui id facinus fecissent, nati sint instar brutorum animalium caudati." — As this change of shape may afford a good additional rea- son why such fellows should have " nothing to do with the laws, but to obey them," the bishop perhaps will advise to sink what Polydore kindly adds in conclusion, — " Sed ea infamise nota jam pridem, una ^ [Mr. Baron Maseres used to relate, that he had often known the bishop to make a jest of doctrines which he strenuously defended in his writings. — Ed.] 216 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I• admit that '' every kind of relation is a pure idea of intellect, which never can be apprehended by sense ; and that those par- ticularly which are expressed by cases are more abstract and metaphysical than the others/' But his lordship and his fautors will do well to contend stoutly and obstinately for their doctrine of language, for they are menaced with a greater danger than they will at first ap- prehend : for if they give up their doctrine of language, they will not be able to make even a battle for their Metaphysics : the very term Metaphysic being nonsense ; and all the systems of it, and controversies concerning it, that are or have been in the world, being founded on the grossest ignorance of words and of the nature of speech. As far as relates to Prepositions and Conjunctions, on which (he says) Syntax depends, the principal and most difficult part (as he calls it) of the Grammatical art, and which (according cum gente ilia eorum hominum qui peccarint, deleta est." — Polyd. Virg, Urb. Angl. Hist. fol. 218. ** But Avho considers right will find indeed, 'Tis Holy Island parts us, not the Tweed. Nothing but Clergy could us two seclude ; No Scotch was ever like a Bishop's feud. All Litanys in this have wanted faith. There 's no — Deliver us from a Bishop's wrath. Never shall Calvin pardon'd be for sales ; Never for Burnet's sake, the Lauderdales ; For Becket's sake Kent always shall have tales." The Loyal Scot. By A. Marvell. " lohan Capgrave and Alexander of Esseby sayth, that for castynge of fyshe tayles at thys Augustyne, Dorsett Shyre menne hadde tayles ever after. But Polydorus applieth it unto Kentish men at Stroud by Rochester, for cuttinge of Thomas Becket's horses tail. Thus hath England in all other land a perpetuall infamy of tayles by theyr wrytten legendes of lyes, yet can they not well tell, where to bestowe them truely." — p. 37. And again, p. 98. — " The spirituall sodomites in the legendes of their sanctified sorcerers have diiFamed the English posterity with tails, as I have shewed afore. That an Englyshman now cannot travayle in an other land, by way of marchandyse or any other honest occupyinge, but it is most contumeliously thrown in his tethe, that al Englishmen have tailes. That uncomly note and report have the nation gotten, without recover, by these laisy and idle lubbers the Menkes and the Priestes, which could find no matters to advance their canonised gains by, or their saintes as they call them, but manifest lies and knaveries." — lohan Bale. Actes of English Votaries. CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 217 to him) is the last in order of i7iventioti, and completes the work of language : As far as relates to these prepositions and conjunctions, I hope it is by this time pretty evident that, in- stead of invention, the classes of them spring from corruption ; and that, in this respect, the Savage languages are upon an equal footing with the languages (as they are called) of art, except that the former are less corrupted : and that Savages have not only as separate and distinct ideas of those relations as we have, but that they have this advantage over us (an ad- vantage in point of intelligibility, though it is a disadvantage in point of brevity), that they also express them separately and distinctly. For our Prepositions and Conj mictions , like the language of the Savages, are merely — ** so many words of the most clear and determinate meaning thrown together,'' or, (as he afterwards strangely expresses it) " throtvn into the lump with the things themselves ^" ^ What Lord Monboddo has delivered concerning Syntax, he has taken, in his own clumsy way, from the following erroneous article of M. de Brosses. — 147. Fabrique des Syntaxes harhares. — "Dans son origine, elle n'a d'abord eu qu'un amas confus de signes epars appliques selon le besoin aux objets a mesure qu'on les decouvroit. Peu a pen la necessite de faire connoitre les circonstances des idees jointes aux circon- stances des objets, et de les rendre dans I'ordre ou I'esprit les place, a, par une logique naturelle, commence de fixer la veritable signification des mots, leur liaison, leur regime, leurs derivations. Par I'usage re^u et in- vetere, les tournures habituelles sont devenues les preceptes de I'art bons ou mauvais, c'est a dire bien ou mal faits selon le plus ou le moins de logique qui y a preside : et comme les peuples barbares n'en ont gueres, aussi leurs langues sont elles souvent pauvres et mal con- struites : mais a mesure que le peuple se police, on voit mieux Tabus des usages, et la syntaxe s'epure par de meilleures habitudes qui de- viennent de nouveaux preceptes. Je n'en dis pas davantage sur I'eta- blissement des syntaxes ; et meme si j'y reviens dans la suite, ce ne sera qu'en peu de mots. C'est une mature immense dans ses details, qui demanderoit un livre entier pour la suivre dans toutes les opera- tions mechaniques du concept, qui en general la rendent necessaire en consequence de la fabrique du sens interieur, mais tres arbitraire dans ses petits details, par le nombre infini de routes longues ou courtes, droites ou tortues, bonnes ou mauvaises, que Ton pent prendre pour parvenir au meme but. Au surplus toutes ces routes bien ou mal faites servent egalement dans I'usage lorsqu'elles sont une fois frayees et con- nues." This mature immense, as M. de Brosses imagines it, is in truth a very small and simple business. The whole of cultivated languages, as well as of those we call barbarous, is merely " un amas de signes epars appliques selon le besoin aux objets." 218 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. B. — Well, Sir, after this tedious investigation of for, (one half of which I think might have been spared,) let us now, if you please, pause for a moment, and consider the ground which we have beaten. The Prepositions if, unless, but, WITHOUT, SINCE, you had before explained amongst the Con- junctions, To these you have now added the prepositions WITH, SANS, THROUGH, FROM, TO, WHILE, TILL, OF, and FOR. Though we have spent much time, we have made but little progress, compared with what still remains to be done : at least if our language is as fertile in prepositions as Buffier supposes the French to be. H. — I rather think we have made great progress. And, if you have nothing to object to my derivations and explanations, I must consider the battle as already won. For I am not here writing a dictionary {ivhich yet ought to he done, and of a very different kind indeed from any thing ever yet attempted any tuhere), but only laying a foundation for a new theory of language. However, though the remaining prepositions are numerous, the greater part require but little, and many of them no explanation. By. By (in the Anglo-Saxon written Bi, Be, B13) is the Impe- rative^ By^ of the Anglo-Saxon verb Been, to be. And our ancestors wrote it indifferently either be or by. '' Damville BE right ought to have the leading of the army, but, BYcause thei be cosen germans to the Admirall, thei be mistrusted." 1568. See Lodgers lUustrationSy vol. 2. p. 9. This prepo- sition is frequently, but not always, used with an abbreviation of construction. Sabauditur, instrument, cause, agent, &c. Whence the meaning of the omitted word has often been im- properly attributed to by. With (when it is the imperative ' [Byi) is the third person singular of the optative, present and future ; Elstob and Pvawlinson give it as the Imperative, but• not Rask. It would seem to be an objection to Mr. Tooke's opinion, that Μ or be is also a common prefix to verbs. " par Brutus bi-feng Al J)at him bi-foren wes."— L«yem. v. 329. — Ed.] CH. IX.] 0F,PREP03ITI0NS. 219 of pyji^an) is used indifFerently for Bj/^ (when it is the impe- rative of Beon) and with the same subaudtiur and imputed meaning: As — ^'He was slain by a sivord, or, he was slain WITH a sword,^^ — '' Kenwalcus was warre^d with the King of Britons." Walhs, confounding together the imperative of pyji'San with the imperative of ^Ιφ^νΝ", says — *^ With indicat instrument um, ut Latinorum ablativus instrumenti ; atque etiam concomitantiam, ut Latinorum cum»'' By was also formerly used (and not improperly nor with a different meaning) where we now employ other prepositions, such as For, In, During, Through, As; — - ** Aboute the xviii yere of the reygne of Ine dyed the holy by shop Aldelme. Of him it is vrritten, that when he was styred by his gostly enymy to the synne of the flesh, he to do the more torment to himselfe and of hys body, wolde holde within his bedde by hym a fayre mayden BY so long a tyme as he myght say over the hole sauter." Fabian LXXVI. " The which by a longe time dwelled in warre." xlv. ** To whom the fader had by hys lyfe commytted him." lxxii. " He made Clement by his lyfe helper and successour." lv. " Whom Pepyn by his Ijrfe hadde ordeyned ruler of Guian." LXXXIII. *' Sleynge the people without mercy by all the wayes that they passyd." lxxviii. So also OF was formerly used, and with propriety, where we now employ by with equal propriety. " These quenes were as two goddesses Of arte magike sorceresses 1 In compound prepositions also, the Anglo-Saxon uses indifferently either ^ϊ6 or Be ; as, pi^-seffcan Be-t)e}:Can pi'S-popan Be-popan piS-geonban Be-geonban pi^-mnan Be-mnan pii5-neoi5an Be-neo^an prS-upan Be-upan piiS-ucan Be-utan pi^-hmban Be-hmban though the modern English has given the preference to Be : having retained only two of the above prepositions commencing with pi^, and dropped only two commencing with Be. 220 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. Thei coutlie muche, he couthe more : Thei shape and cast ayenst hym sore. And wrought many a subtile wile. But yet thei might hyrfl not begyle. Such crafte thei had aboue kynde, But that arte couth thei not fynde. Of whiche Ulisses was deceived." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 135. p. 1. col. 2. Between. Betwixt^ Between (formerly written Twene, Attvene, Bijtwene) is a dual preposition, to which the Greek, Latin, Italian, French, &c. have no word correspondent; and is almost peculiar to ourselves, as some languages have a peculiar dual number. It is the Anglo-Saxon Imperative Be, and Tpejen or twain. Betwixt (by Chaucer written Bytwyt'^) is the imperative Ββ) and the Gothic X^5?S, or two : and was written in the Anglo-Saxon Betpeohs, Betpeox, Betpux, Betpyx, and Betpyxt. Before, Behind, Below, Beside, Besides. These Prepositions are merely the imperative be, com- pounded with the nouns fore, hind, low, side, which re- maining still in constant and common use in the language ; as — The fore part, the hind part, a low place, the side, — require no explanation^. Beneath. Beneath means the same as Below. It is the imperative Be compounded with the nonn, Neath. Which word Neath (for any other use but this of the preposition.) having slipped away from our language, would perhaps have given some trouble, had not the nouns, Nether and Nethermost (corrupted from Neo^emept, Ni^emsept), still continued in common ^ Grimm's Grammat. iii. 269. - " Thy wife and thou mote hange fer atAvynne, For that Bytivyt you shall be no synne." — Miller's Tale. 3 [These and the like are what Grimm classes as substantive-prepo- sitions, as being compounded with nouns ; the prefix, hoM^ever, being itself a preposition, and not, as Mr. Tooke supposes, a verb ; this class including such ΛVords as again, anciently also to-gen (Layam.), among, A.S. on-jemang, &c. See Additional Notes. — Ed.] CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 221 use\ The word Nether is indeed at present fallen into great contempt, and is rarely used but in ridicule and with scorn : and this may possibly have arisen from its former application to the house of commons, anciently called (by Henry VIIL) '^ The NETHER house of parliament^, '^ That the word should thus have fallen into disgrace is nothing wonderful : for in truth this Nether end of our parliament has for a long time past been a mere sham and mockery of representation, but is now become an impudent and barefaced usurpation of the rights of the people. Neath, Neo^an, Neo^e, (in the Dutch Neden, in the Danish Ned, in the German Niedere^ and in the Swedish Nedre and Neder) is undoubtedly as much a substantive, and has the same meaning as the word nadir ; which Skinner (and after him S. Johnson) says, we have from the Arabians. This etymology (as the word is now applied only to astronomy) I do not dispute ; but the word is much more antient in the northern languages, than the introduction of that science amongst them. And therefore it was that the whole ser- pentine class was denominated ΝΛΛ-Κ in the Gothic, and Nebjie in the Anglo-Saxon. If we say in the English,— '' From the top to the uottom,'' — the nouns are instantly acknowledged : and surely they are to the full as evident in the collateral Dutch, " Van boven tot beneden. — beneden stady^ 8cc. Under. Under (in the Dutch Onder), which seems by the sound yet higher than their tops The verd'rous wall of paradise up sprung : Which to our general Sire gave prospect large Into his NETHER empire neighb'ring round." Par. Lost, book 4. ver. 445. " among these the seat of men. Earth with her nether ocean circumfus'd Their pleasant dwelling place." — Ibid, book 7. v. 624. '^ in yonder nether world where shall I seek His bright appearances, or foot-step trace ?" Ibid, book 11. v. 328. - " Which doctrine also the lordes bothe spirituall and temporall, with the nether house of our parliament, have both sene, and lyke very wel.'' — A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christen Man, Setfurthe by the Kynges maiestie of Englande. 1543. 222 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. to have very little connexion vv^ith the word Beneath, is yet in fact almost the same, and may very well supply its place ^ : for it is nothing but On neder, and is a Noun. " Nor engine, nor device polemic, Disease, nor Doctor epidemic. Though stor'd with deletory med'cines (Which whosoever took is dead since) E'er sent so vast a colony To both the under worlds, as He." — Hudib. can. 2. v. 320. Beyond. Beyond (in the Anglo-Saxon pi^jeonban, Bijeonb, Bejeonb) means be passed. It is the imperative Be, com- pounded with the past participle ^eonb, ^eoneb, or ^oneb, of the verb Gan, Π an jan, or rronjan, to go, or to pass. So that — ^'Beyond 6r??y p/«ce,'' means — Be passed that place, or, Be that place passed. Ward. Ward, in the Anglo-Saxon J^ajib or feapb, is the impe- rative of the verb pajibian or peajibian, to look at-, or to direct the view. It is the same word as the French garder^ : and so Chaucer uses it, where it is not called a preposition. ** Take REWARDE of [i. e. Pay regard to, or Look again at] thyn owne valewe, that thou ne be to foule to thy selfe."• — Parson's Tale, fol. 101. p. 2. col, 2. " And yet of Danger cometh no blame In REWARD [i. e. in regard"] of my doughter shame." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 135. p. 2. col. 1. ^ lUnter, onder, in some cases also represents inter, both alone and in compounds : e. g. Ger. unterhrechen, interrupt ; Dutch, ondermengen, intermingle ; " onder weghen, inter eundum;" Kilian, under way; A.S. Unbep ^sem, interea ; unbep beop^en, among (?) hills, Layam. 20854. — Wachter considers this sense to have been brought in by early trans- lators, " ea: affectatione Latinismi." Haltaus says it is also sometimes confounded with Hinder. These show the occasional tendency of lan- guage to be confluent ; and that words which appear alike, or even the several senses of the same word (if same it can be called) are not always to be traced to one source. To this cause may perhaps be referred the relation between the words, undertake and entreprendre, understand (yer- staen) and intelligere. — Ed.] 2 " Literarum g et w frequentissima est commutatio," &c. — Wallis's Preface. " Galli seniper g utuntur pro Sax. p. id est, prow." — Spelmun Gloss. (Garantia). CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 223 " This shuld a rigtwise lord haue in his thoujt And nat be like tirauntes of Lombardy That han no rewarde [i. e. regard'] but at tyranny." Legende of good Women, fol. 206. p. 2. col. 2. ** Wherfore God him self toke reward to the thynges, and theron suche punyshment let fal." — Testament of Loue, boke 2. fol. 322. p. 2. c. 1. Our common English word To reward^, which usually, by the help of other words in the sentence, conveys To recGmpetice^ To benefit in return for some good action done ; yet sometimes means very far from benefit : as thus, — ^' Reward them after their doings" — where it may convey the signification of pu- nishment ; for which its real import is equally well calculated : for it is no other than Regarder^ i.e. To look again, i. e. To remember, to reconsider ; the natural consequence of which will be either benefit or the contrary, according to the action or conduct which we review. In a figurative or secondary sense only, Garder means to protect, to keep, to watch, to vmrd, or to guard. It is the same in Latin : Tutus, guarded, looked after, safe, is the past participle of Tueor, Tuitus, Tutus. So Tutor, he who looks after. So we say either, — Guard him well, or. Look well after him. In different places in England, the same agent is very properly called either a Looker, a Warden, a Warder, an Overseer, a Keeper, a Guard, or a Guardian. Accordingly this word ward may with equal propriety be joined to the name of any person, place, or thing, to or from which our view or sight may be directed. " He saide, he came from Barbaric To Romewarde." Gower, lib. 2. fol. 34. p. 1. col. 1. 1 Skinner says — "Reward q. d. Re Award (i. e. contra sen vicissim assig-nare, ab A.S. peapb, versus, erga. v. award." And under Award, he says — " Award, apart, initiali otiosa a, et A.S. peapb, versus, erga. q. d. erga talem (i. e.) tali addicere, assignare." S. Johnson says " reward [2?e and Award] to give in return. Skinner." Which is the more extraordinary because under the article Award, Johnson says, that it is " derived by Skinner, somewhat im- probably, from peapb Sax. towards." I suppose AWARD to be a garder, i. e. a determination ά qui c'esf a garder the thing in dispute ; i. e. to keep it — not custodire, as Spelman imagined ; but to have or hold it in possession : for garder in French is used both ways, as keep is in English, and in both properly. 224 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I* " This senatour repayreth with victory e To Romewarde." Chaucer, Man of Lawes Tale, fol, 23. p. 2. col. 1. " Kynge Demophon whan he by ship To Troiewarde with felauship Seyland goth upon his weie." — Gower^ lib. 4. fol. 67. p. 1. col. 1. ** Agamemnon was then in waye To Trokvarder—Ibid. lib. 5. fol, 119. p. 1. col. 1. — — '' He is gon to Scotlondwarde.'* Chaucer, Man of Lawes Tale, fol. 22. p. 1. col. 1. *' The morow came, and forth rid this marchant To Flaunder sward, his prentes brought him auaunt Til he came to Bruges." — Shypmans Tale, fol. 70. p. 1. col. 1. ** His baner he displayed, and forth rode To Thebeswarde." — Knyghtes Tale, fol. 1. p. 2. col. 1. ** And certayne he was a good felawe ; Ful many a draught of wine had he drawe From Burdeuxward, while the chapmen slepe." Chaucer, Prol. to Cant. Tales. " That eche of you to shorte with others way In this viage, shal tel tales tway To Canterbury war de I meane it so. And Homwardes^ he shall tel tales other two." Ibid. and forth goth he To shyppe, and as a tray tour stale away Whyle that this Ariadne a slepe lay, ^ And to his countreywarde he sayleth blyue." Ariadne, fol. 217. p. 2. col. 1. " Be this the son went to, and we forwrocht Left desolate, the wyndis calmit eik : We not bekend, quhat rycht coist mycht we seik. War warpit to Seywart by the outwart tyde." Douglas, booke 3. p. 87. ** The mone in till ane wauerand carte of licht Held rolling throw the heuynnis middilwarde." Ibid, booke 10. p. 322. " The Landwart hynes than, bayth man and boy. For the soft sessoun ouerflowis ful of ioy." Ibid, booke 13. p. 472. 1 [This genitive termination should lead us rather to consider ward as a substantive, than as the imperative of a verb. See Needs, and Add, Notes,— Ed.] CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 225 . " Lo Troylus, right at the stretes ende Came ryding with his tenthe somme yfere Al softely, and thyderioarde gan bende There as they sate, as was his way to wende To Paleyswarde." Chaucer, Troylus, boke 2. fol. 169. p. 2. col. 2. *' As she wold haue gon the way forth right Towarde the garden, there as she had hight. And he was to the Gardenwarde also." Frankeleyns Tale, fol. 55. p. 2. col. 1. *' And than he songe it wel and boldely Fro worde to worde according to the note, . Twise a day it passeth through his throte To Scolewarde, and Homioarde when he went." Prioresses Tale, fol. 71. p. 2. col. 1, " To Metvarde bare he right great hate." Romaiint of the Rose, fol. 138. p. 1. col. 1. ** He hath suche heuynesse, and suche Λvrathe to uswarde, bycause of our offence." — Tale of Chaucer, fol. 82. p. 1. col. 1. *' But one thing I wolde wel ye wist That neuer for no ΛVorldes good Myne hert unto hirioarde ?,tooa. But onely right for pure loue." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 97. p. 2. col. 2. " But be he squier, be he knight Whiche to my Ladyewarde pursueth, The more he leseth of that he seweth, The more me thinketh that I Λvynne." lUd. lib. 2. fol. 28, p. 2. col. 2. " Wheras the Poo, out of a wel small Taketh his first spring and his sours That Estwarde euer increseth in his cours To Emelleioard, to Ferare, and to Venyse." Chaucer, Gierke of Oxenf. Tale, fol. 45. p. 1. col. 2. " If we turned al our care to Godward, we shuld not be destitute of such things as necessarili this presente lyfe nedeth." — Tho. Lupset, Of diynge well, p. 203. " It is hard for a man in a welthy state to kepe his mind in a due order to Godioard." — Ibid. p. 205. " The which is with nothing more liurted and hyndered in his way to Gracewarde than with the brekinge of loue and charitie." — Lvpset, Exhortacion to yonge Men. So we may bid the hearer look at or regard either the End 226 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. or Beginning of any action or motion or time. Hence the compound Prepositions toward and fromward, and Adverbs of this termination without number: in all of which, ward is always the imperative of the verb, and always retains one single meaning ; viz. Regard^ Look at, See, Direct yoiirvieiu, Minshew, Junius, and Skinner, though they are very clear that WARD and garder are, on all other occasions, the same word; (and so in Warden and Guardian, &c.) yet concur that WARD the Affix ov postpositive preposition, is the Latin Versus : Skinner, with some degree however of doubt, saying ' — '^ A.S. autem peajib, si a Lat. Vertere deflecterem, quid sceleris esset ?" — -Surely none. It would only be an eriOr to be corrected. The French preposition Vers, from the Italian Verso, from the Latin Versus (which in those languages supply the place of the English ward, as Adversus also does of To-ward) do all indeed derive from the Latin verb Vertere, to turii ; of which those prepositions are the past participle, and mean turned. And when it is considered that in order to direct our view to any place named, we must turn to it; it will not seem extraordinary, that the same purpose should in different languages be indifferently obtained by words of such different meanings, as to look at, or, to turn to. Athwart. Athwart (i.e. Athweort, or ilitoeoWeiZ), wrested, twisted, curved, is the past participle of Dpeopian, To wrest. To twist; flexuosum, sinuosum, curvum reddere ; from the Gothic verb TtlXVeQKAN. Whence also the Anglo-Saxon Dpeop, Dpeoph, the German Zwerch, Zwar, the Dutch Dtuars, Ziverven, the Danish Tverer, Tvert, Tver, the Swedish Twert, and Sivarfwa, and the English Thwart, Swerve, and Veer^. Among, Amongst, Ymell. Minshew says- — ''ex Belg. Gemoigt, i.e. mixtus." Skinner says— '' ab A.S. Ijemanj, hoc a verbo Ere- menjan^" ^ Junius derives Stverve from the Hebrew. And all our Etymologists Veer from the French Virer. - in the Dutch Mingen, Mengen, Immengen, German Mengen. Danish M(enger, Swedish Menga, CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 227 Junius says — '' Manifeste est ex A.S. Msenjan^ Menjian, miscere." Here all our Etymologists are right in the meaning of the word, and therefore concur in their etymology. Mr. Tyrwhitt alone seems to have no notion of the word. For he says — " / suspect the Saxon Ijeman^ had originally a termination in an,^' But Mr, Tyrwhitt must not be reckoned amongst Etymologists. Emonge', amonge^, amonges, amongest^, amongst, AMONG, is the past participle Ere-msenc^eb, rfe-menc3eb,(or, as the Dutch write it, Ge?}iengd, Gemerigt ; and the old En- glish authors, Mei/nt^ ,) οι the Anglo-Saxon verb ITremasncjan, Eremencjan, and the Gothic verb rA^Ali^QAi^• Or rather, it is the prseterperfect Eremanj, Γίειηοη^, Gemunj, or Amang, Among, Amung, (of the same verb Masnjan, Menjan) used as a participle, without the participial termina- tion ob, ab, or eb : and it means purely and singly Mixed, Mingled. It is usual with the Anglo-Saxons (and they seem " The kynge with all his hole entent Then at laste hem axeth this. What kynge men tellen that he is Emonge the folke touchinge his name, Or it be price, or it be blame." Gower, lib. 7. fol. 165. p. 1. col. 2. '' And tho she toke hir childe in honde And yafe it souke ; and euer amonge She wepte, and otherwhile songe To rocke with her childe aslepe." lib. 2. fol. 33. p. 2. col. 1. * I stonde as one amongest all Whiche am oute of hir grace /a//." lib. 8. fol. 187. p. 2. col. 1. ' Warme milke she put also therto With hony meynt, and in suclie wise She gan to make hir sacrifice." lib. 5. fol. 105. p. 2. col. 1 . " That men in eueryche myght se Bothe great anoye, and eke swetnesse. And ioye meynt with bytternesse, Nowe were they easy, nowe were they wood." Chaucer, Rom. of the Rose, fol. 130. p. 1. col. 1. ** For euer of loue the sickenesse Is meynt with swete and bitternesse." Ibid, fol. 130. p. 2. col. 2 q2 228 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part 1. to be fond of it) to prefix especially to their past participles Ά, M, Be, Fop, Ώβ\ Chaucer uses this participle amonges in a manner which, I suppose, must exclude all doubt upon the subject; and where it cannot be called a preposition. " Yf thou castest thy seedes in the feldes, thou shuldest haue in mynde that the yeres bene amonges, otherwhyle plentuous, and other- whyle bareyn." — Seconde Boke of Boecius, fol. 225. p. 2. cob 2. This manner of using the prseterperfect as a participle, without the participial termination ed or en, is still very com- mon in English ; and was much more usual formerly^. In the similar verbs. To sink Ije-pncan, To drink Ge-bjiencan, To stink" ne-j^tencan, To hang J^enjan, To spring Ά- f pjiin^an, To swing Spenjan, To ring Rinjan, To shrink Ά -j^cjiincan, To sting Stmjan, and in very many others, the same word is still used by us, both as prgeterperfect and participle ; Siink^ D?-unk, Stunk, Hung, Sprung, Sivung, Bung, Shrunk, Stu?ig, All these were formerly written with an ο (as Among still continues to be), Sonk, Dronk (or A- dronk), Stonk, Hong (or A-hong^), Sjjrong (or Y-sprong), Swong, Rong, Slironk, Stong, But the ο having been pro- nounced as an u, the literal character has been changed by the moderns in conformity with the sound. And though Among (by being ranked amongst prepositions, and being un- suspected of being a participle like the others) has escaped the change, and continues still to be written with an o, it is always sounded like an υ ; Amung, Amunkst, In the Reve's Tale, Chaucer uses the Preposition ymell instead oi among. ^ [Also On, of which A is frequently the representative. So On- man;^, and On jeman^^ ; Gemanje as a substantive meaning a company. —Ed.] 2 Doctor Lowth is of a different opinion. He says — ''This abuse has been long growing upon us, and is continually making further incroachments," &c. But Doctor Lowth was not much acquainted with our okl English authors, and still less with the Anglo-Saxon. It is not an abuse, but coseval with the language, and analogous to the other parts of it : but it must needs have been highly disgusting to Doctor Lowth, who was excellently conversant with the learned lan- guages, and took them for his model. 3 \_An-honge, Weber's Romances, iii. 49 ; an-hongen, Layamon, 1020.— Ed.] CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 229 *' Herdest thou ever slike a song er now ? Lo whilke a complin is ymell hem alle." But this will give us no trouble, but afford a fresh con- firmation to our doctrine : for the Danes use Mellem, Imellem, and Iblandty for this preposition Among, from their verbs Megler, Melere?^, (in the French Mesler or Mtler), and Iblaiider, To mix. To blend ; and the Swedes Ihland, from their verb Blanda, To blend. Ymell means y-7nedled, i. e. mixed, mingled. A medlei/ is still our common word for a mixture. Ymeddled, ymelled, and ymellhy the omission of the participial termination, than which nothing is more common in all our old English writers. ** He drinketh the bitter with the swete, He MEDLETH sorowe with likynge And liueth so, as who saieth, diynge." Goiver, lib. 1. fob 17. p. 1. col. 2. " Ο mighty lorde, toward my vice Thy mercy medle Λvith justice." lib. 1. fob 24. p. 2. col. 2. " But for all that a man male finde NoΛve in this tyme of thilke rage Full great disease in mareiage, Whan venim medleth Λvith the sugre. And mariage is made for lucre." lib. 5. fob 99. p. 1. col. 1. ** Thus medleth she with ioye Λνο, And with her sorowe myrth also." lib. 5. fob 116. p. 1. col. 1. ** Whan wordes medlen with the songe. It doth plesance well the more." lib. 7. fob 150. p. 1. col. 2. " A kinge whiche hath the charge on honde The common people to gouerne If that he wil, he male well lerne Is none so good to the plesance Of God, as is good gouernance. And euery gouernance is due To pitee, thus I male argue. That pitee is the foundemente Of euery kynges regimente. If it be MEDLED with Justice, The; two remeuen all vice, And ben of vertue most vailable To make a kinges roylme stable." lib. 7. fob 166. p. 2. cob 1. 230 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. *' But he whiche hath his lust assised With MED LID loue and tyrannie." Goiver, lib. 7. fol. 170. p. 2. col. 1. ** And MEDLETH sorowe with his songe." lib. 8. fol. 182. p. 2. col. 2. *' We haunten no tauernes, ne hobelen abouten, Att markets and miracles we medeley us neuer." Pierce Plowmans Crede. " There is nothyng that sauoureth so wel to a chylde, as the my Ike of his nouryce, ne nothyng is to him more abhomynable than the mylke, whan it is medled with other meate." — Chaucer, Persons Tale, fol. 101. p. 2. col. 1. *' His garment was euery dele Ypurtrayed and ywrought with floures By dyuers medelyng of coloures." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 124. p. 1. col. 2. '* Ο God (quod she) so worldly selynesse Whiche clerkes callen false felicite Ymedled is with many a bytternesse Ful anguyshous."— TVoy/w^, boke 3. fol. 177. p. 1. col. 1. ** Some on her churches dwell Apparailled porely, proude of porte. The seuen sacramentes they done sell. In cattel catchyng is her comfort. Of eche matter they woUen mell." Ploivmans Tale, fol. 97. p. 2. col. 1. '* Amang the Grekis mydlit than went we." Douglas, booke 2. p. 52. "And reky nycht within an litil thraw Gan thikkin ouer al the cauerne and ouerblaw. And with the mirknes mydlit sparkis of fire." Ibid, booke 8. p. 250. " Syne to thare werk in manere of gun powder, Thay MYDLIT and they mixt this fereful souder." Ibid, booke 8. p. 257. " And stedis thrawand on the ground that weltis, Mydlit with men, quhiik geild the goist and sweltis." Ibid, booke 11. p. 387. " With blyithnes mydlit hauand paneful drede." Ibid, booke 11. p. 394. ** Quhil blude and brane in haboundance furth schede Mydlit with sand under hors fete was trede." Ibid, booke 12. p. 421. CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 231 " Above all utheris Dares in that stede Thame to behald abasit Λνοχ gretumly Tharwith to mell refusing aluterlie." DoM^^/a^, booke5. p. 141. *' Quhen Turnus all the chiftanis trublit saw, And Eneas sare woundit hym withdraw ; Than for this hasty hope als hate as fyre To MELL in fecht he caucht ardent desyre." Ibid, booke 12. p. 420. Against. Against (in the Anglo-Saxon Onjejen^) is derived by Junius from jeoiib. '^ Dr. Mer. Casaubonus mirabiliter (says Skinner) deflectit a Gr. KaraJ' Minshew derives it from κατεναντι. I can only say that I believe it to be a past participle, de- rived from the same verb (whatever it be, for I know it not) from which comes the collateral Dutch verb Jegenen, To meet, rencontrevj To oppose, &c. And I am the more confirmed in this conjecture, because in the room of this preposition the Dutch employ Jegeiis from Jegenen: and the Danes Mod and Imodj from their verb M'odev of the same meaning : and the Swedes Emot from their verb Mota of the same meaning. The Danish and Swedish verbs from the Gothic MJ^TQA^f ; whence also our verb, to meet^ and the Dutch Moeten, Gemoeten. Amid or Amidst. These words (by Chaucer and others written Amiddes) speak for themselves. They are merely the Anglo-Saxon On-mibban, On-mibbep in medio : and will the more easily be assented to, because the nouns Mid, Middle (i. e. GQib-bsel), and Midst, are still commonly used in our language. Along. On long, secundum longituclinem, or On length: " And these wordes said, she streyght her On length (i. e. she stretched herself along) and rested awhile." — Chaucer y Test, of Lone ^ fol. 325. p. 1. col. 2. The Italians supply its place by Lungo : " Cosi Lungo I'amate rive andai." — Petrarch. 1 [A.S. also Onjean and To-jeanej' ; Flem. Teghen. — Ed.] 232 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part 1. And the Frencli by the obvious noun and article Le Long: " Joconde la dessus se remet en chemin Revant a son raalheur tout LeLong du voyage." — La Fontaine. So far there is no difficulty. But there was another use of this word formerly; now to be heard only from children or very illiterate persons : " King James had a fashion, that he would never admit any to near- ness about himself, but such an one as the queen should commend unto him, and make some suit on his behalf ; that if the queen afterwards, being ill treated, should complain of this Dear one, he might make his answer — ' It is long of yourself, for you were the party that com- mended him to me.'" — Archbishop Abbot's narrative; in Rushivorth's Collections, vol. 1. p. 456. The Anglo-Saxon used two words for these two purposes, ^nblan^, Tinblon^, Onblonj, for the first ; and Celanj for the second : and our most antient English writers observed the same distinction, using endlong for the one, and along for the other. ' *' She slough them in a sodeine rage Endelonge the horde as thei ben set." Goiver, lib. 2. fol. 31. p. 1. col. 2. ** Thys kynge the wether gan beholde, And wist well, they moten holde Her cours endlonge the marche right." lib. 3. fol. 53. p. 1. col. 1. " That nigh his house he lette deuise Endelonge upon an axell tree To sette a tonne in suche degree That he it might tourne about." lib. 3. fol. 54. p. 1. col. 1. " And euery thyng in his degree Endelonge upon a bourde he laide." lib. 5. fol. 100. p, 2. col. 2. *' His prisoners eke shulden go Endlonge the chare on eyther honde." lib. 7. fol. 155. p. 1. col. 1. " Than see thei stonde on euery side Endlonge the shippes borde." lib. 8. fol. 179. p. 1. col. 2. " Loke what day that endelong Brytayne Ye remeue all the rockes, stone by stone. That they ne let shyppe ne bote to gone. Than wol I loue you best of any man." Chaucer, Frankeleyns Tale, fol. 53. p. 1. col. 2. CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 233 " This lady rometh by the clyiFe to play With her meyne, endlonge the stronde." Hypsiphile, fol. 214. p. 1. col. 2. " I sette the point ouer endelonge on the label." Astrolahie, fol. 286. p. 2. col. 1. '* I sette the poynte of f, endelonge on my labell." lUd. fol. 286. p. 2. col. 2. " We slyde in fluddes endlang feill coystes fare." Douglas, booke 3. p. 71. ** Syne eftir endlangis the sey coistis bray Up sonkis set and desis did array." booke 3. p. 75. " Endlang the coistis side our nauy rade." booke 3. p. 77. " Bot than the women al, for drede and affray. Fled here and there, endlang the coist away." booke 5. p. 151. ** In schawis schene endlang the wattir bra." booke 7. p. 236. ** Endlang the styll fludis calme and bene." booke 8. p. 243. '* For now thare schippis full thik reddy standis, Brayand endlang the coistis of thar landis." booke 8. p. 260. " The bront and force of thare army that tyde Endlang the wallis set on the left syde." booke 9. p. 293. •* Endlang the bankis of flude Minionis." booke 10. p. 320. ** The bankis endlang al the fludis dynnys." booke 11. p. 372. " Before him cachand ane grete flicht or oist Of foulis, that did hant endlang the coist," booke 12. p. 416. " For euer whan I thinke amonge, "^ ΗοΛνε all is on my selfe alonge, I saie, Ο foole of all ioolQ^J'—Gower, lib. 4. fol. GQ. p. 2. col. 1, " I wote well ye haue long serued. And God wote what ye haue deserued, But if it is alonge on me. Of that ye unauanced be. Or els if it be longe on you, The soth shall be preued nowe." lib. 5. fol. d6. p. 1. col. 2. " And with hir selfe she toke such strife, That she betwene the deth and life Swounende lay full ofte amonge : And all was this on hym alonge, Whiche was to loue unkinde so." lib. 5. fol. 113. p. 1. col. 2. 234 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. '' But thus this maiden had wronge Whiche was upon the kynge alonge. But ageyne hym was none apele." Gower,\i^. 7.fol.l72.p.2.c.l. " Ye wote your selfe, as wel as any wight Howe that your loue al fully graunted is To Troylus, the Avorthyest wyght One of the worlde, and therto trouth yplight. That but it were on him alonge, ye nolde Him neuer falsen, Λvhyle ye lyuen sholde." . Chaucer, Troylus, booke 3. fol. 176. p. 2. col. 2. Once indeed (and only once, ί believe) Gower has con- founded them, and has used along for both purposes : '* I tary forth the night alonge. For it is nought on me alonge To slepe, that I soon go." — lib. 4. fol. 78. p. 2. col. 1. Ttnblaii^ or endlong is manifestly On long; But what is Iielan^^ or along ? S. Johnson says it is— "^ a word now out of use, but truly English.'' He has no difficulty with it : according to him it is — '^ Iielanj, a fault, Saxon." — -But there is no such word in Saxon as Er elan j, a fault. Nor is that, at any time, the meaning of this word long (or along, as I have always heard it pronounced). Fault or not Faulty always depends upon the other words in the sentence : for instance, ^^ Thanks to Pitt : it is along of him that we not only keep our boroughs, but get peerages into the bargain." ^* Curses on Pitt : it is along of him that the free consti- tution of this country is destroyed.'' ί suppose that Lord Lonsdale, Lord Elliot and the father of Lady Bath, would not mean to impute ^nj fault to the minister in the former of these sentences: though the people of Eng- 1 [Mr. Tooke has clearly pointed out the distinction between these two senses of Along ; but I suspect that he has missed of the complete explanation of the latter, Celanj, which, I believe, is not to be referred, to any root signifying Length ; but to an entirely distinct one, whence comes our \vord Belong, and v/hich it is singular that so acute an ob- server as Mr. Tooke should have overlooked. It is pointed out by Wachter (v. Langen), of Λvhose invaluable work he does not appear to have availed himself. Mr. Richardson, in his Dictionary, however, has consulted Wachter upon this word, but to no purpose, as he makes very light of his authority, alleging that he here " has several unneces- sary distinctions Γ See Additional Notes,— Ed.] CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 235 land do certainly impute an inexpiable crime and treachery to him in the latter. But Johnson took carelessly what he thought he found, without troubling himself about the fact or the meaning ; and he was misled by Skinner^ : as he was also concerning the verb To Long. I mention the verb To laong, because it may possibly assist us in discovering the meaning of the other word. — '" To Long," says Skinner, ^' valde desiderare, ut nos dicimus, to think the time long till a iuan has a thing,'' The word long is here lugged in by head and shoulders, to give something of an appearance of connexion between the verb and the noun. But when we consider that we have, and can have, no way of expressing the acts or operations of the mind, but by the same words by which we express some cor- responding (or supposed corresponding) act or operation of the body : when (amongst a multitude of similar instances) we consider that we express a moderate desire for any thing, by saying that we incline (i. e. Bend ourselves) to it ; will it sur- prise us, that we should express an eager desire, by saying that we LONG, i. e. Make long, lengthen, or stretch out our- selves after it, or for it ? especially when we observe, that after the verb To incline we say To or Towards it ; but after the verb To Long we must use either the word For or After, in order to convey our meaning. Lenjian in the Anglo-Saxon is To Long, i. e. To make long, To lengthen. To stretch out. To produce, Extendere, pro- tendere. ^' Lanja]? ^e apuht, Tibam, up to Erobe.'' i. e. Longeth you, Lengtheneth you, Stretcheth you up to God. Lanj or Long is the prseterperfect of Lenjian. The Anglo-Saxon and old English writers commonly use the pr8s- terperfect as a participle, especially with the addition of the prefixes a or ^e. — '^ Nota secundo," says Hickes, '' has praepositiones saepe in vicem. commutari, prsesertim Ce^ Be, et Ά,'' — May we not 1 Skinner says — " Long ab A.S. Lrelanj, causa, culpa, ut dicimus It is LONG of him." Which were evidently intended by Skinner to be understood causa, culpa. So Lye says — " lielan^, Long of : Opera, causa, impulsu, culjDa cu- jusvis. — set Se γγ upe lyfe gelanj, ut Anglice dici solet. It is long of thee that we live," Here is no Fault. 236 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. then conclude that lie-lanj or A-long is the past participle of Lenjian, and means Produced ? Round, Around : Whose place is supplied in the Anglo-Saxon by J^peil and On-hpeiP. In the Danish and Swedish by Omkring. In Dutch by Om-ring ; and in Latin by Circum^ a Gr. KipKoc, of which circulus is the diminutive. Aside, Aboard, Across, Astride, require no expla- nation. During. The French participle Our ant ; from the Italian; from the Latin. The whole verb Oare was some time used commonly iiVour language. " And al his luste, and al his besy cure Was for to loue her while his lyfe mai dure/' Chaucer, Man of Latves T. fol. 19. p. 1. col. 2. ** How shuld a fyshe Avithouten water dure." Troylus, boke 4. fol. 186. p. 2. col. 1. " — - — — » Elementes that bethe discordable Holden a bonde, perpetually duryng, That Phebus mote his rosy day forthbring And that the mone hath lorship ouer the nightes." Ibid, boke 3. fol. 172. p. 1. col. 1. " Euer their fame shall dure." Testament of Loue, boke 2. fol. 315. p. 1. col. 1. ** This affection, with reason knytte, dureth in eueryche trew herte."•— /δίί/. boke 3. fol. 331. p. 1. col. 1. " Desyre hath longe dured some speking to haue." Ihid. boke 1. fol. 306. p. 1. col. 2. Pending. The French participle Pendant; from the Italian; from the Latin. Opposite. The Latin participle Oppositus. MoiENING. The French participle Moyennant ; from the Italian Me- diant e ; from the Low Latin. » [Qw. pp^eb On-hp^l.^— Ed.] CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 237 Save. The imperative of the verb. This prepositive manner of using the imperative of the verb To save, afforded Chaucer's Sompnour no bad equivoque against his adversary the Friar; " God save you all, save this cursed Frere." OUTCEPT. The imperative of a miscoined verb, whimsically composed of Out and caperey instead of Ex and capere. "\ 'Id play hun 'gaine a knight, or a good squire, or gentleman of any other countie i' the kingdome — outcept Kent : for there they landed all Gentlemen." — B. Jonson, Tale of a Tub, act 1. sc. 3. OUTTAKE, OUTTAKEN. The imperative, and the past participle, speak for tliem- selves ; and were formerly in very common use. " Problemes and demaundes eke His wisedome was to finde and seke : Whereof he wolde in sondrie wise Opposen them that weren wise. But none of them it might beare Upon his Avorde to yeue answere OuTTAKEN one, whiche was a knight." Goiuer, Con/. Am. fol. 25. p. 1. col. 2. '' And also though a man at ones Of all the world e within his Avones The treasour might haue euery dele : Yet had he but one mans dele Towarde hymselfe, so as I thynke, Of clothynge, and of meate and drinke. For more (outtake vanitee) There hath no lorde in his degree." — Ibid. fol. 84. p. 2. c. 2. " For in good feith yet had I leuer, Than to coueite in suche aweye, To ben for euer till I deye As poore as Job, and loueles, OuTTAKEN one." Ibid. lib. 5. fol. 97. p. 1, col. 2, '* There was a clerke one Lucius, A courtier, a famous man, Of euery witte somwhat he can. 238 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. OuTTAKE that hym lacketh rule, His owne estate to guyde and rule." Goicer, Conf. Am. lib. 5. fol. 122. p. 2. col. 2. '* For as the fisshe, if it be drie, Mote in defaute of water die : Right so without aier on Hue No man, ne beast, might thriue. The whiche is made of ilesshe and bone. There is not, outtake of all none." I^ic?. lib. 7. fol. 142. p. 1. col. 2. " Whiche euery kynde made die That upon middel erthe stoode, Outtake Noe, and his bloode." Ihid. lib. 7. fol. 144. p. 1. col. 1, '' All other sterres, as men fynde, Ben shinende of her owne kynde : Outtake onely the moone light, "Whiche is not of him selfe bright." IbidAih. 7. fol. 145. p. 1. col. L• '' Till that the great water rage Of Noe, whiche was saide the flood. The worlde, whiche than in synne stood. Hath dreinte, outtake Hues eight." Ibid. lib. 8. fol. 174. p. 1. col. 1, " And ye my mother, my soueraigne plesance, Ouer al thing, outtake Christ on lofte." Chaucer, Man of Lawes T. fol. 19. p. 2. col. 2. " But yron was there none ne stele, For all was golde, m.en myght se, Outtake the fethers and the tre." Romaunt of the Rose, fol. 124. p. 2. col. 1. '' Sir, say den they, we ben at one By euen accorde of eueryche one, Outtake rychesse al onely." Ibid, fol, 147. p. 2. col. 2. '' And from the perrel saif, and out of dout Was al the navy, outtake four schippis loist." Douglas, booke 5. p. 151, " And schortly euery thyng that doith repare In firth or feild, flude, forest, erth or are, Astablit lyggis styl to sleip and restis, Be the small birdis syttand on thare nestis, Als wele the wyld as the tame bestiall. And euery uthir thingis grete and small ; CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 239 OuTTAK the meiy nychtyngale Philomene, That on the thorne sat syngand fro the splene." Douglas, prol. to booke 13. p. 450. " And also I resygne all my knyghtly dygnitie, magesty and crowne, with all the lordeshyppes, powre and pryuileges to the foresayd kingely dygnitie and crown belonging, and al other lordshippes and posses- syons to me in any maner of wyse pertaynynge, what nams and con- dicion thei be of; outtake the landes and possessions for me and mine obyte purchased and boiighte."— Fa^zajz'^ Chronicle, Richard the Second. Nigh. Near. Next. NiCxH, Near is the Anglo-Saxon adjective Nih, Nch, Neah, Neahj, vicinus. And Next is the Anglo-Saxon su- perlative Neahjej-t, Nehj^t. " Forsoth this prouerbe it is no lye. Men say thus alway, the nye slye Maketh the ferre loue to be lothe." Chaucer, Myllers Tale, fol. 13. p. 1. col. 1. " Lo an olde prouerbe alleged by manye wyse : Whan bale is great- est, than is bote a nye bore." — Test, of Loue, boke 2. fol. 320. p. 2. c. 2. Mr. Tyrwhitt in his Glossary says well — ^' Hext, Sax. highest. Hegh. Heghest. Hegst. Hext. In the same manner Next is formed from Negli." — But he does not well say that — ^' Next generally means the highest following^ but some-' times the 7iighest preceding." For it means simply the Highest, and never implies either folloiving or preceding. As, ^^ To sit next.'^ &c. Instead. From the Anglo-Saxon On j^tebe, In j-tebe, i. e. In place. In the Latin it is Vice and Loco. In the Italian In luogo. In the Spanish Έη lugar. i\nd in French An lieu. In the Dutch it is either In stede or In plaats. In the German On statt* In the Danish Istccden. And in the Swedish (as we either Home stead or Home stall) it is Istaellet. Our oldest English writers more rarely used the French word Place, but most commonly the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon word STA^S, Steb, Stebe. The instances are so abun- dantly numerous that it may seem unnecessary to give any. 240 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. " But take this lore into thy wit, That all thyng hath tyme and stede : The churche serueth for the bede. The chambre is of an other speche." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 124. p. 1. col. 1. " GeiFray, thou wottest wel this. That euery kyndely thynge that is Hath a kyndely stede there he May best in it conserued be." Chaucer, Fame, boke 2. fol. 295. p. 2. col. 2. " Furth of that stede I went." Douglas, boke 2. p. 59. " But je, unhappy men, fle fra this stede." Ibid, boke 3. p. 89. The substantive stead is by no means obsolete, as S. John- son calls it ; nothing being more common and familiar than — ^^ You shall go in their stead." It is likewise not very luicommon in composition ; as Homestead, Bedstead, Road- stead^, Girdlestead^f Noonsted^, Steadfast, Steady, &c. 1 We often meet with the word Roadstead in Voyages, and I suppose it is still a common term with all seafaring men. — " On Thursday Captain Fauchey arrived at Plymouth. The purport of his dispatches, we conceive, can only be a representation of the necessity of evacua- ting L'Isle Dieu ; as it produces nothing, has no good Roadsted, and is not tenable, if not protected by a ueet."— Morning Chronicle, Octo- ber 19, 1795. " Extract of a letter from Plymouth. The Anson man of war, of 44 guns, rode out the storm like a duck, without the least damage, in the Sound; which, though an open Roadstead, has most excellent holding ground." — Morning Chronicle, January 27, 1796. " In consequence of having received information on Wednesday night at eight o'clock, that three large shijiis of war and a lugger had anchored in a small Roadsted upon the coast, in the neighbourhood of this town." — London Gazette Extraordinary, February 27, 1797. ~ " His nose by mesure wrought ful right, Crispe was his heere, and eke ful bryght, His shulders of large brede. And smalyshe in the Gyrdelstede ." Chaucer, Rom. of the Rose, fol. 123. \). 2. col. 2. '* For hete her clothes down she dede, Almost to her Gerdylstede Than lay she unco vert." See Wartons Hist, of Engl. Poetry, 4to. vol. 3. p. xxxv. '* Divide yourself into two halfs, just by the Girdle-stead ; send one half with your lady, and keep t' other to yourself." — B, Jonson, East- ward Hoe, act 3. CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 241 One easy corruption of this word sted, in composition, has much puzzled all our etymologists. Becanus thinks that Step mother is quasi Stiff mother' j from Stief, durus ; and so called because she is commonly ^^ dura, scEva, immitis,rigida/' Vossius on the contrary thinks she is so called, quasi falcieus mateVj as a stiff and strong support of the family ; *' quia fulcit domum cum nova hsereditate." Junius, observing that there is not only Stepmother, but also Stepchild, Stepson, Stepdaughter, brother, sister, &c. to all of whom this impu- tation of severity cannot surely belong, (neither can they be said fulcire domum cum nova hcereditate,) says Stepmother is so called, quasi orphanorum mater : ^' nam Stepan Anglo- Saxonibus, et Stiufaii Alamannis videntur olim nsurpata pro orbare.'* S. Johnson, neither contented with any of the fore- going reasoning, nor yet with the videntur olim nsurpata, determined also to try his hand (and a clumsy one BMt'^ i1^^pfiB»'it is) at an etymology; but instead of it produced a Pun. Stepmother, according to him, is — *^a woman who has stepped into the place of the true mother." But in the Danish collateral language, the compounds remain uncorrupted ; and there they are, with a clear and unforced meaning applicable to all — Stedfader, Stedmoder, Stedbroder, Stedsoster, Stedbarn, Stedson, Steddotter, i. e. Vice, Loco, in the place of, instead of, a father, a mother, a brother, &c. About. Spelman, ^'Abuttare, occurrere, vergere, scopum appe 3 " Should all hell's black inhabitants conspire. And more unhear'd of mischief to them hire, Such as high heav'n were able to affright, ■ And on the Noonsted bring a double night." Drayton s Mooncalf. " It was not long ere he perceiv'd the skies Settled to rain, and a black cloud arise. Whose foggy grossness so oppos'd the light, As it would turn the Noonsted into night." Ibid. " She by her spells could make the moon to stay. And from the East she could keep back the day. Raise mists and fogs that could eclipse the light, And with the Noonsted she could mix the night." Ibid. *' With all our sister nymphs, that to the Noonsted look." Poly-olbion, First Song. R 242 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part Ϊ, tere, finem exerere,terminare. A Gallico abutter , sen ahouter; hsec eadem significant. — La Bout enim finem, terminum, vel scopum designat : Iiide Angl. a But pro meta ; et about, pro circa rem vel scopum versare. Vox feodalis, et agri men- soribus nostris frequentissima, qui prsediorum fines (quos ipsi capita vocant, Marculfus frontes, Galli bouts) abuttare dicunt in adversam terram ; cum se illuc adigant aut proten- dant. Latera autem nunquam aiunt abuttare^: sed terram proximam adjacere/' — La Coustume rtformee de Normandie, cap. 556,^ — '' Le Serjeant est tenue faire lecture des lettres, et obligations, et declaration, par Bouts et costes des dites terres saisies." Junius. ^^ But, Scopus. G. But. Fortasse desumptum est nomen ab illis monticellis, qui in limitibus agrorum ab Agrimensoribus constituebantur, atque ab iis Bodories sive Botones nuncupabantur, et ad quos, artem sagittandi exercentes, tela sua veluti ad scopum dirigebant." Skinner, ''About, ab A.S. Tibiitan, Ymbiitan, Cir- cum, illud, quantum ad priorem syllabam, a prsep. Ab, hoc a prsBp. Ymb, quod a praep, loquelari, Lat. Am, Gr. Αμφι, ortum ducit, utr. secundum posteriorem syllabam ab A.S. Ute vel Utan, Foris, Foi^as, Extremus, item Extremitas, unde et defluxit Belg. Bui/ten, quod idem sonat ; quod enim aliud ambit partes ejus exteriores, i. e. extimam superficiem attingit et obvolvif '' Abutt, a Fr. Aboutir. Vergere, confinem esse, ubi scilicet ager unus in, vel versus^ alium protenditur, et ei con- terminus est : hoc a nom. Bout, Extremitas, Terminus : quod satis manifeste a prsep. Lat. Ab, et A.S. Ute, Foras, Foris, ortum trahit; q. d. quod foras protuberat vel extuberat.'' '' But, a Fr. G. Bout, ExtremitaSj Finis, Punctum, Aboutir, ad finem tendere, accedere, acuminari. But etiam in re nautica Extremitatem alicujus rei signat, manifeste Franco- GallicDe originis." Menage. '' Bute—Botto et Botontinus se trouvent en cette signification. Faustus et Valerius dans le receuil des autheurs qui ont escrit De limitibus agrorum, p. 312. — ^ In 1 I hardly venture to say that I beheve the correct and exact Spel- man is here mistaken. CH. IX.] OF PHEPOSITIONS. 243 limitihus uhi raiiores terminos constituimus, monticellos plant a- vimus de terra, quos botontinos appeilavimus.'" Le juris- consulte Pauliis livre V. de ces sentences titre 22. — '^ Qui terminos effodiunt vel exarant arboresve terminales evertunt, vel qui conveUuni bodones, &c." Ciijas sur ce lieu: *^ bo- DONEs, sic nno exemplari scriptum legimus, cujus nobis copiam fecit Pithseus noster. Bodones sive Botones vicem terminorum prsesiant. Vox est Mensorum, vel eorum qui de agrorum et limitum conditionibus scripserunt\" Spelman, Junius, Skinner and Menage^ all resort to Franco- Gall, for their etymology. As for boto and its diminutive BOTONTiNUs (which have been quoted), they are evidently the translation of a Gothic word common to all the northern na- tions : which word, as it still remains in the Anglo-Saxon dialect, was by our ancestors written Boba (whence our Eng- lish To BODE and many other words), and means the first outward extremity or boundary of any thing. Hence Onboba^, Onbuta, Tibuta, about. After, After (Goth. AJ^T^Kj?. A.S. /Bptep. Dutch Agter, ο Achter. Danish Efter, Bag. Swedish Efter, Atra, Achter,) is used as a noun adjective in Anglo-Saxon, in English, and in most of the Northern languages. ί suppose it to be no other than the comparative of the noun aft (A.S. /Bpt): for the retention of which latter noun in our language v/e are probably obliged to our seamen. Hind, Aft, and Back, have all originally the same meaning. In which assertion (although aft had not remained in our language) I should think myself well justified by the authority, ^ So, Vitalis de Limit. " Hi non sunt semper a ferro taxati, et circa Botontinos conservantur." Innocent, de Ccis. Litter. " Alius fontanas sub se habens, super se montem, in trivio tres Botontinos." Auctor de Agrim. " Si sint Botontini terrse ex superis prohibeo te sacramentum dare." 2 [ No such word occurs in the Anglo-Saxon dictionaries. For Onbuta, &c. read On-butau, Abutan. — Ed.] [In the Additional Notes to the last Edition I mentioned that I " could not imagine where Mr. Tooke had got " the word Onboba : Mr. Richard- son, however, in his Dictionary persists in retaining it, without giving any authority ; and even analyses into Λvords which also, so far as I know, have no existence in Anglo-Saxon. See Addit. Notes.—ED.] r2 I 244 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. or rather the sound judgement, of M. de Brosses; who says well — ^^ Quelquefois la signification primitive nous est derobee, faute de monuments qui I'indiquent en la langue, Alors ce- pendant on la retrouve parfois en la recherchant dans les langues meres ou coUaterales.'* In the Danish language they express the same meaning by, For og Bagy which we express by Fore and Aft, or, Before and Behind. And in the Anglo- Saxon they use indifferently Behinban^Beaeptan, and Onbaec. Down, Adown. In the Anglo-Saxon Dun, Ttbiin. Minshew and Junius derive it from Δυι/ω, subeo. Skinner says — ** Speciose alludit Gr. Δυι^ω." Lye says, — '^ Non male referas ad Arm. Doun, profundus." S. Johnson, in point of etymology and the meaning of words, is always himself. Adown, the adverb, he says, is ''from A, and Downf^ and means — '' Ou the ground.'' Adown, the preposition, means — '' Towards the ground." But though adown comes from A, and Down, — Dow^n, the preposition, he says, comes from Tibuna, Saxon : and means; " 1st. Along a descent; and 2dly. Towards the mouth of a river.'' Down, the adverb, he says, means — '' On the ground." But Down, the substantive, he says, is from bun, Saxon, a hill; but is used now as if derived from the adverb : for it means, '' 1st. A large open plain or valley." And as an instance of its meaning a valley, he immediately presents us with Salisbury Plain. " Oil the Downs as we see, near Wilton the fair, A hast'ned hare from greedy greyhound go." Arcadia, by Sir Ph. Sydney. He then gives four instances more to shew that it means a valley ; in every one of which it means hills or rising grounds. To compleat the absurdity, he then says, it means, " 2dly. A hill, a rising ground^ and tliat, This sense is very rare." Although it has this sense in every instance he has given for a contrary sense : nor has he given, nor could he give, any instance v/here this substantive has any other sense than CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 245 that which he says is so rare,— But this is hke all the rest from this quarter ; and I repeat it again, the book is a dis- grace to the country. Freret, Falconer, Wachter and De Brosses, have all labo- riously and learnedly (but, I think, not happily) considered the word Dun. From what Camden says of the antient names (Danmonii or Dunmoniiy and Dobuni) of the inhabitants of Cornwal and Gloucestershire, and of the two rivers (Daven or Dan or Dim or Don) in Cheshire and in Yorkshire ; it seems as if he sup- posed that our English word doavn came to us from the Britons. Solinus, he observes, called the Cornish men Dunmoini ; *' which name seems to come from tlieir dwelling there under hills. For their habitation all over this country is low and in vallies ; which manner of dwelling is called in the British tongue Danmunith. In which sense also the province next adjoining is at this day named by the Britons Diiffneint, that is to say, Low vallies.^' Of the Dobuni he says, — '^ This their name, I believe, is formed from Duffen, a British word ; because the places where they planted themselves, were for the most part low and lying under the hills/' Speaking of the river in Cheshire, he says, — '^ Then cometh this Dan or more truly Daven, to Davenport^ commonly called Dariport.'^ Of the river in Yorkshire, he says,• — '^ The river Danus, commonly called Don or Dune, so termed, as it should seem, because it is carried in a channel low and sunk in the ground: for so much signifieth Dan in the British language \" 1 " Regionem illam insederunt antiquitus Britanni, qui Solino Dtin- monii dicti. Quod nomen ab habitatione sub montibus factum videatur. Inferius enim, et convallibus passim per banc regionem habitatur, quod Danmunith Britannice dicitur : quo etiam sensu proxima provincia Duffneint, i. e. depressae valles, a Britannis hodie vocatur." — P. 133. Folio Edit. 1607. " Dohunos videamus, qui olim, ubi nunc Glocestershire et Oxford- shire, habitelrunt. Horum nomen factum a Bvffen Britannica dictione credimus ; quod maxima ex parte loca jacentia et depressa sub coUibus insidebant."— P. 249. 246 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. Selden, in his notes on the first song of Drayton's Polyol- bion, gives full assent to Camden's etymology. He says, — '^ Duffneint, i. e. low valleys in British, as judicious Camden teaches me." Milton, I doubt not on the same authority, calls the river '* the gulphy dun.'' ** Rivers arise ; whether thou be the son Of utmost Tweed, or Oose, or gulphy Dun." And Bishop Gibson concurs with the same ; translating, without any dissent, the marginal note, ** Diiffen Britannice profundum sive depressum," in these words, ^' Duffen, in British, deep or low." How then, against such authorities, shall I, with whatever reason fortified, venture to declare, that I am far from think- ing that the Anglo-Saxons received either the name of these rivers, or their word Dun, Tibim (which is evidently our word DOWN, A DOWN, differently spelled), in any manner from the British language ? And as for Duffen (from which, with Camden, I think the words proceeded), we have it in our own language, the Anglo-Saxon, and with the same meaning of sunk, depressum, deep or low. If, with Camden, we can suppose the Anglo-Saxon bun to have proceeded through the gradations of J) f ^ Duven, Duvn, Dun, Don, Down ; •^ \ Daven, Davn, Dan ; I should think it more natural to derive both the name of the rivers^ and the preposition from Diipen", the past par- ticiple of the Anglo-Saxon verb Dujzian, mergere. To sinky To plunge, To dive, To dip. And the usual prefix to the Anglo- Saxon participles, Ά, in Άόιιη, strongly favours the suppo- " Dan vel Daven e montibus &c. fertur ad &c. Deinde Davenport, vulgo Danport accedit."-~P. 461. " Danus, vulgo Don et Dune, ita, ut videtur, nominatus, quod pres- siori et inferiori in solum labitur alveo ; id enim Da7i Britannis sig- nificat."— P. 562. 1 ί suppose the river Dove in Staffordshire to have its denomination from the same word, and for the same reason. - The Anglo-Saxons use indifferently for the past participle of Dupan # CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 247 sition ^ In most of the passages too in which the preposition or adverb down is used in EngHsh, the sense of this participle is clearly expressed ; and, without the least straining or twist- ing, the acknowledged participle may be put instead of the supposed preposition : although there may perhaps be some passages in which the preposition down is used, where the meaning of the participle may not so plainly appear. Upon. Up. Over. Bove. Above. These prepositions have all one common origin and signi- fication, Upon. Upan. Upa. In the Anglo-Saxon Upa. Upepa. Upemaept. are the nouns, altuSf alitor, altissimus. Upon, Upan, Upa. Altus (Fr. Th. Uph.) upon, up. Upejia, Opejie, Opeji, Altior. over or upper. Upemaspt. Altissimus. upmost, uppermost, upperest, OVEREST. Be-upan or Bupan. bove. On-bupan. above. The use of these words in English as adjectives is very either Dujreb, or Dupen or Dopen. I suppose this same verb to have been variously pronounced, Dopian Ί Γ Dopen. Doven. Dovn. Doun. down. don. Dupian > Hence < Dupen. Duven. Duvn. dun. dune. Dapian J L D^pen. Daven. Davn, dan. Dypian or Dypan ^ [See Lamb, ten Kate, Anleiding S^c. v. Duiken, ducken, sese demit- tere, vol. 2. p. 171 ; and v. Duiv, do/en, gedofen, mergere, ih. p. 625. Ten Kate considers these as cognate roots. But Mr. Richardson (Illustrations of Engl. Philology) observes that Mr. Tooke does not seem confident in this etymology : and I shall take the liberty to suggest that down, ad own, is a contraction of Op-bune, off ox from hill, downhill, proclivis. See Lye v. " Op-bune. Deorsum." — Also, under the words Dun, mons, and Op, Lye refers to A.S. au- thorities for the expression " op bune. Downward, down. Deorsum." — See Additional Notes. — Ed.] [Subsequent investigation has fully confirmed this conjecture ; so that there now remains no doubt upon the subject. — Ed.] I To Dii 248 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I• common ; as it is also in all the northern languages : for the same words aie used in all of them'. " Aboue his liede also there hongeth A fruite Avhiche to that peine longeth : And that fruite toucheth euer in one His OVER lippe." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 85. p. 2. col. 2, *' Her OVER lyp wyped she so clene That in her cup was no ferthynge sene." Prol. to Cant, Tales. Prioresse. " Ful thredbare was his over courtpy." Ihid. Gierke of Oxenf. *' That of his wurship recketh he so lyte Hys ovEREST sloppe is not worth a myte." Prol. to Chan. Yeman's Tale. " By which degrees men myght climben from the neytherest letter to the UPPEREST." — Boec'ms, boke i. fol. 221. p. 1. col. 1. *' Why suiFreth he suche sly ding chaunges, that mysturnen suche noble thynges as ben we men, that arne a fayre persell of the erth, and holden the upperest degree under God of benigne thinges." — Test, of Loue, fol. 312. p. 1. col. 1. It is not necessary for my present purpose, to trace the Particles any further than to some Noun or Verb of a deter- minate signification ; and therefore I might here stop at the Anglo-Saxon noun Upan, altus. But I believe that Upon, Upa, upon, up, means the same as Top or Head, and is ori- ginally derived from the same source. Thus, '' — ΕθΛνΗη685 is young ambition's ladder. Whereto the climber Upwards turns his face ; But Avhen he hath attain'd the Topmost round. He then unto the ladder turns his back." Where you may use indifferently either Upward, Topward, or TJeodward ; or Topmost, Upmost, or Headmost. Some etymologists nave chosen to derive the name of that part of our body from the Scythian Ha, altus ; or the Icelandic Had, altitudo ; or the Gothic ll)\Hll, altus ; or (with Junius) 1 Germ. Aif. Auber. Danish. Oven. Over. Overste. Ohen. Oher. Oherste. Ober. ° "^ Dutch. Op. Opper. Opperste. Swedish. Ujjpe. Ofwer. Ofwerste. ο Boven. Over. Overste. Up. Ofre. Ypperst. CH. IX.] OF PREPOSITIONS. 249 from the Greek vwutoc, ; or Theot. Hon ; or the Anglo- Saxon I^eah. But our English words Head and Heaven are evidently the past participles Heaved and Heaven of the verb To Heave: as the Anglo-Saxon J^eapob, J^eapb, caput, and J^eojren, l^eapen, ccelum, are the past participles of the verb I^eapan, J^eopan, to heave, to lift up. Whence Upon also may easily be derived, and with the same signification. And I believe that the names of all abstract relation (as it is called) are taken either from the adjectived common names of objects, or from the participles of common verbs. The re- lations of place are more commonly from the names of some parts of our body ; such as, Head, Toe, Breast, Side, Back, Womb, Skin, &c. Wilkins seems to have felt something of this sort, when he made his ingenious attempt to explain the local prepositions by the help of a man's figure in the following Diagram. But confining his attention to ideas (in which he was followed by Mr. Locke), he overlooked the etymology of words, which are their signs, and in which the secret lay. '* For the clearer explication of these local prepositions (says he) I shall refer to this following Diagram. In which HLTo ^> ώΐΑϋΙ .?^ίΡΞ(^11Γί1 [g/Ig»?-< 7>.--III g] Off 250 OF PREPOSITIONS. [part I. by the oval figures are represented the prepositions deter- mined to motion, wherein the acuter part doth point out the tendency of that motion. The squares are intended to signify rest or the term of motion. And by the round figures are represented such relative prepositions, as may indifferently refer either to motion or rest.'' In all probabiHty the Abbe de I'Epee borrowed his method of teaching the prepositions to his deaf and dumb scholars from this notion of Wilkins. '' Tout ce que je puis regarder directement en Face, est Devant moi : tout ce que je ne peux voir sans retourner la tete de I'autre cote, est Derriere moi. " S'agissoit-il de faire entendre qu'une action etoit passee ? II jettoit au hasard deux ou trois fois sa main du cote de son epaule. Enfin s'il desiroit annoncer une action future, il faisoit avancer sa main droite directement devant lui/' — Des Sourds et Muets, 2 edit. p. 54. You will not expect me to waste a word on the prepositions touching, concerning, regardiYig, respecting, relating to, saving, except, excepting, according to, granting, allowing, considering, notwithstanding, neighbouring, &c., nor yet on the compound prepositions In- to, Un-to, Vn-till, Out-of, Through-out, From- #, &c. B. — I certainly should not, if you had explained all the simple terms of which the latter are compounded. I acknow- ledge that the meaning and etymology of some of your prepositions are sufficiently plain and satisfactory : and of the others I shall not permit myself to entertain a decided opinion till after a more mature consideration. Pedetentim progredi, was our old favourite 4notto and caution, when first we began together in our early days to consider and converse upon philosophical subjects ; and, having no fanciful system of my own to mislead me, I am not yet prepared to relin- quish it. But there still remain five simple prepositions, of which you have not yet taken the smallest notice. How do you account for In, Out, On, Off, and At ? H. — Oh ! As for these, I must fairly answer you with Martin Luther, — -^* Je les defendrois aisement devant le Pape, mais je ne scais comment les justifier devant le Diable." With the common run of Etymologists, I should make no bad figure by repeating what others have said concerning them ; but I CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 251 despair of satisfying you with any thing they have advanced or I can oiFer, because I cannot altogether satisfy myself. The explanation and etymology of these words require a degree of knowledge in all the antient northern languages, and a skill in the apphcation of that knowledge, which I am very far from assuming : and, though I am almost persuaded by some of my own conjectures concerning them^, I am not willing, by an apparently forced and far-fetched derivation, to justify your imputation of etymological legerdemain. Nor do I think any further inquiry necessary to justify my conclusion concerning the prepositions ; having, in my opinion, fully intitled myself to the application of that axiom of M. de Brosses (Art. 215.)— '^ La preuve connue d'un grand nombre de mots d'une espece, doit etablir une precepte generale sur les autres mots de meme espece, a Torigine desquels on ne pent plus remonter. On doit en bonne logique juger des choses que Ton ne pent connoitre, par celles de meme espece qui sont bien connues ; en les ramenant a un principe dont Γ evidence se fait appercevoir par tout ou la vue peut s'etendre." CHAPTER X. OF ADVERBS. B. — The first general division of words (and that which has been and still is almost universally held by Grammarians) is into Declinable and Indeclinahle. All the IndecUnables except the Adverb, v/e have already considered. And though Mr. Harris has taken away the Adverb from its old station amongst the other Indeclinables, and has, by a singular whim of his own, made it a secondary class of Attributives, or (as he calls them) Attributes of Attributes', yet neither does he nor any other Grammarian seem to have any clear notion of its nature and character. 1 In the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, IHNJV., inna, means uterus, viscera, venter, interior pars corporis. (Inna, nine, is also in a secondary sense used for cave, cell, caver?i.) And there are some etymological reasons which make it not improbable that out derives from a word originally meaning skin. I am inclined to believe that in and out come originally from two Nouns meaning those two parts of the body. 252 OF ADVERBS. [PART T. B. Jonsou^ and Wallis and all others, I tliink, seem to con- found it with the Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. And Servius (to whom learning has great obligations) advances something which almost justifies you for calling this class, what you lately termed it, the common sink and repository of all heterogeneous, unknown corruptions. For, he says, — - " Omnis pars orationis, quando desinit esse quod est, migrat in Adverbium^" H, — I think I can translate Servius intelligibly — -Every woid, quando desinit esse quod est, when a Grammarian knows not what to make of it, migrat in Adverhium, he calls an Adverb. These Adverbs however (which are no more a separate part of speech than the particles we have already considered) shall give us but little trouble, and shall waste no time : for I need not repeat the reasoning which I have already used with the Conjunctions and Prepositions. All Adverbs ending in ly (the most prolific branch of the family) are sufficiently understood: the termination (which alone causes them to be denominated Adverbs) being only the word LIKE corrupted ; and the corruption so much the more easily and certainly discovered, as the termination remains more pure and distinguishable in the other sister languages, the German, the Dutch, the Danish, and the Swedish; in which it is written Uch, lyk, lig, liga. And the F^nci^clopaedia Britanfiica informs us, that — '* In Scotland the word Like is at this day frequently used instead of the English termination Xy. As, for a goodly figure, the common people say, ΐί good- like figure." Adrift is the past participle Adrifed, Adrif'd, Adrift, of the Anglo- Saxon verb Djiipan, Ά^ριραη, To Drive. ' *' Prepositions are a peculiar kind of Adverbs, and ought to be referred thither." — B, Jonson's Grammar. " Interjectio posset ad Adverbium reduci ; sed quia majoribus nostris placuit illam distinguere ; non est cur in re tarn tenui hcereamus." — Caramuel. " Chez est plutot dans ijotre langue un Adverbe qu'une Particule." — De Brasses. - " Recte dictum est ex omni adjectivo fieri adverbium." — Campa- nella. CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 253 ** And quhat auenture has the hiddir driffe ?" Douglas, booke 3. p. 79. i. e. Driffed or Driffen, Aghast, Agast, may be the past participle Agazed. *' The French exclaim'd— The Devil was in arms. All the whole army stood agazed on him." First Part of Henry 6, act 1. sc. 1. Agazed may mean, made to gaze : a verb built on the verb To gaze . In King Lear (act 2. sc. 1.) Edmund says of Edgar, " Gasted by the noise I made. Full suddenly he fled." Gasted, i. e. made aghast : which is again a verb built on the participle aghast. This progressive building of verb upon verb is not an uncommon practice in language. In Beaumont and Fletcher's Wit at several Weapons, (act 2.) '* Sir Gregory Fopp, a witless lord of land,'' says of his clown, " If the fellow be not out of his λγ'ιίΒ, then will I never have any more wit whilst I live ; either the sight of the lady has gastered him, or else he 's drunk." I do not bring this word as an authority, nor do I think it calls for any explanation. It is spoken by a fool of a fool ; and may be supposed an ignorantly coined or fantastical cant word • or corruptly used for Gasted. An objection may certainly be made to this derivation: because the word agast always, I believe, denotes a consider- able degree of terror ; which is not denoted by the verb To Gaze: for we may gaze with delight, with wonder or admira- tion, without the least degree of fear. If I could liave found written (as I doubt not there was in speech) a Gothic verb formed upon the Gothic nouns /VPlS, which means Fear and Tremhling (the long-sought etymology of our English word Ague^); I should have avoided this objection, and with full 1 Junius says — " Ague, febris. G. Aigu est acutus. Nihil nempe usitatius est quam acutas dicere febres." 254 OF ADVERBS. [PART I. assurance have concluded that agast was the past participle of AriSAN, i.e. AnSea, AriS'd, AriST, i.e. made to shudder, terrified to the degree of trembling. There is indeed the verb AI^QA-^^^? timere ; and the past participle AriAS, territus ; and it is not without an appearance of probability, that, as Whiles, Amoiiges, Sec. have become with us Whilst J Amongst J &c. so ΑΓΙΛ.8 might become Agidst, Agist, Agast ; or ^Tldi.S might become Agisd, Agist, Agast. And the last seems to me the most probable etymology. Ago. Goj Ago, Ygo, Gon, Agon, Gone, Agone, are all used in- discriminately by our old English writers as the past participle of the verb To Go\ But Skinner, a medical man, was aware of objections to this deriva- tion, which Junius never dreamed of. He therefore says — " Fortasse a Fr. Aigu, acutus. Quia {saltern in paroxysmo) acutus (quodammodo^ morbus est, et acutis doloribus exercet : licet a medicis, durationem magis quam vehementiam hujus morbi respicientibus, non inter acutas, sed chronicas febres numeretur." But Skinner's qualifying paroxysmo, quodammodo, acutis doloribus, by which (for want of any other etymology) he endeavours to give a colour to the derivation from Aigu, acutus, will not answer his pur- pose : for it is not true (and I speak from a tedious experience) that there are any acute pains in any period of the ague. Besides, S. Johnson has truly observed, that — -" The coldnt is, in popular language, more particularly called the Ague ; and the hot, the fever." And it is commonly said — " He has an Ague and fever." I believe our word Ague to be no other than the Gothic word ^VlS, /ear, trembling, shuddering: 1. Because the Anglo-Saxons and English, in their adoption of the Gothic substantives (most of which terminate in s), always drop the terminating s. 2. Because, though the English word is Λvritten Ague, the common people and the country people always pronounce it Aghy, or Aguy. 3. Because the distinguishing mark of this complaint is the trem- bling or shuddering ; and from that distinguishing circumstance it w^ould naturally take its name. 4. Because the French, from whom the term Aigu is supposed to have been borrowed, never called the complaint by that name. 1 " Questi e un cavaliere Inglese che ho veduto la scorsa notte alia testa di hallo."— Go?i/owi, La Vedova Scaltra, vol. 5. p. 98. CH. Χ.] OF ADVEBBS. 255 Go. ** But netheles the thynge is Do, This fals god was soone go With his cleceite, and held him close." Gower, lib. 6. fol. 138. p. 2. col. 2. " The daie is go, the nightes chaunce Hath derked all the bright sonne." IbidAih. 8. fol. 179. p. 1. col. 2. " But soth is sayed, go sithen many yeres. That feld hath eyen, and wode hath eres." Chaucer, Knyghtes Tale, fol. 4. p. 1. col. 2. *' How ofte tyme may men rede and sene The treson, that to women hath Be Do : To what fyne is suche loue, I can not sene. Or where becometh it, whan it is go." Ihid. Troylus, boke 2. fol. 167. p. 1. col. 2. Ago. " Of louers now a man maie see Ful many, that unkinde bee Whan that thei haue her wille Do, Her loue is after soone ago." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 111. p. 2. col. 2. " As God him bad, right so he dede And thus there lefte in that stede With him thre hundred, and no mo. The remenant was all ago." — Ibid, lib. 7. fol. 163. p. 2. col. 2. " Thus hath Lycurgus his wille : And toke his leue, and forth he went. But liste nowe well to what entent Of rightwisnesse he did so. For after that he was ago. He shope him neuer to be founde." Ibid. lib. 7. fol. 158. p. 2. col. 1. " For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo, God wotte, worldely ioye is soone ago." Chaucer, Nonnes Priest, fol. 90. p. 1. col. 1. " For if it erst was well, tho was it bet A thousande folde, this nedeth it not enquere, Ago was euery sorowe and euery fere." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 181. p. 2. col. 1. ^56 OF ADVERBS. [PART I. " That after whan the storme is al ago Yet wol the water quappe a day or tvvo." Lucrece,, fol. 215. p. 2. col. 1. " Ful sykerly ye wene your othes last No lenger than the wordes ben ago." La Belle Dame, foL 267. p. 2. col, 2. " Trouth somtyme was wont to take auayle In euery matere, but al that is ago." Assemble of Lady es, fol. 277. p. 1. col. 1. Ygo. " A clerke there was of Oxenforde also That unto Logike had longe Ygo." Proh to Cant. Tales. " To horse is al her lusty folke Ygo." Chaucer, Dido, fol. 212. p. 2. col. 2. GoN. " Thou wost thy selfe, whom that I loue parde As I best can, gon sythen longe whyle." Troyliis, boke 1. fol. 161. p. 1. col. 1. Agon. *' And euermore, whan that hem fell to speke Of any thinge of suche a tyme agon." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 180. p. 1. col. 1. " Thou thy selfe, that haddest habundaunce of rychesse nat longe AGON."— 5omM5, boke 3. fol. 232. p. 2. col. 2. ** Ful longe agon I might haue taken hede." Annelyda, fol. 273. p. 1. col. 1. Gone. *' I was right nowe of tales desolate, Nere that a marchant, gone is many a yere, Me taught a tale, which ye shuUen here." Man of Lawes Tale, fol. 19. p. 1. col. 1. " But sothe is said, gone sithen many a day, A trewe wight and a thefe thynketh not one." Squiers Tale, fol. 28. p. 1. col. 2. Agone. " Of suche ensamples as I finde Upon this point of tyme agone I thinke for to tellen oXie."—Goiver, lib. 5. fol. 87. p. 1. col. 1. CH. Χ.] OF ADVEEBS* 257 " But erly whan the sonne shone, Men sigh, that thei were agone. And come unto the kynge, and tolde, There was no worde, but out, alas, She was ago, the mother wepte. The father as a wood man lepte." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 104. p. 2. col. 2. " Whan that the my sty vapoure was agone. And clere and fay re was the mornyng." Chaucer J Blacke Knyght, fol. 287. p. 1. col. 1. ** For I loued one, ful longe sythe agone With al myn herte, body and ful might." Ibid. fol. 289. p. 1. col. 2» " And many a serpent of fell kind. With wings before and stings behind, Subdu'd ; as poets say, long agone, Bold Sir George, Saint George did the dragon." Hmlibras, part 1. col. 2. " Which is no more than has been done By knights for ladies, long agone." Ibid, part 2. col. 1. Tillotson, in a Fast sermon on a thanksgiving occasion, 31st January, 1689, says, " Twenty years agone." Asunder is the past participle 7?j"unbpen or Tij^iinbjieb, separated (as the particles οϊ sand are), of the verb Sonbjiian, Sunbjiian, Synbpian, ΆJ^unbJllan, &c. To separate. " In vertue and holy almesedede They liuen all, and neuer asonder wende Tyll deth departeth hem." Chaucer, Squiers Tale, fol. 24. p. 2. col. 1. " And tyl a wicked deth him take Hym had leuer asondre shake And let al his lymmes asondre ryue Than leaue his richesse in his lyue." Ibid. Rom. of the Rose, fol. 145. p. 2. col. 2. *' These ylke two that bethe in armes lafte So lothe to hem asonder gon it were.'' Ibid. Troylus, boke 3. fol. 179. p. 2. col. 2. " This yerde was large, and rayled al the aleyes And shadowed Avel, with blosomy bowes grene s 258 OF ADVERBS. [PART I. And benched newe, and sonded all the wayes In which she walketh." Chaucer, Troylus, boke 2. fol. 167. p. 2. col. 1. This word (in all its varieties) is to be found in all the northern languages ; and is originally from A.S. Sonb, i. e. Sand, Astray is the past participle T^j-tjiasjeb of the Anglo-Saxon verb Stjisejan, spargere, dispergere, To Strai/y To scatter, " This prest was drunke, and goth astrayde." Gower, lib. 4. fol. 84. p. 2. col. 1. " And ouer this I sigh also The noble people of Israel Dispers, as shepe upon an hille Without a keper Unaraied : And as they wenten about astraied I herde a voyce unto hem seyne." Ibid.lih, 7. fol. 156. p. 2. col. 1. *' Achab to the batayle went. Where Benedad for all his shelde Him slough, so that upon the felde His people goth aboute astraie." Ibid lib. 7. fol. 156. p. 2. col. 2. S. Johnson says— To Stray is from the Italian Straviare from the Latin extra viam. But STKAVA^^^ Stpeapian, Stjieopian, Stpepian, Stjiejian, Stjisejian : and Stpap, Stpeop, Stpieo, Stpiea, Stjie, were used in our ov/n mother tongues, the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, long before the exist- ence of the word Straviare, and the beginning of the corrupted dialect of the Latin called Italian, and even of the corrupted dialect of the Greek called Latin. And as the words To Sunder and Asunder proceed from Sonb, i. e. Sand; so do the words To Stray, To Straw, To Strow, To Strew, To Straggle, To Stroll, and the well-named Straioherry (i. e. Straiu'd'berry, Stray-herry), all proceed from Straw, or, as our peasantry still pronounce it, Strah\ And Astray, or ι '* Me lyst not of the chaiFe ne of the Stree Make so longe a tale, as of the corne." Chaucer, Man of Lawes Tale, fol. 22, p. 1. col. L GliPx,] OF ADVERBS. 259 Astray^ d, means Strawed, scattered and dispersed as the Straw is about the fields. "Reaping where thou hast not sown, and gathering where thou hast not strawed." — St. Matthew, chap, xxv, ver. 24. Atwist, The past participle Ije-tpij-eb, Tftpij-eb, Titpij-b, of the verb Tpijran, Tpyj^an, Eje-tpyj^an^ torquere : Tpij^an from Tpa, Tpas, Tpi, Tpy, Tpeo, two. Awry. The past participle Tfppy^eb, Tippy ^b of the verb Ppy^an, Ppi^an, To Writhe. In the late Chief Justice Mansfield's time, for many years I rarely listened to his doctrines in the Court of King's Bench without having strong cause to repeat the words of old Gower ; *' Howe so his mouthe be comely His worde sitte euermore awrie." Lib, 1. fol. 29. p. 2. col. 2. Askew. In the Danish, Skmv is wry, crooked, oblique. Skiaver^ To twist. To wrest. SkicBvt, twisted, wrested. " And with that worde all sodenly She passeth, as it were askie, All cleane out of the ladies sight." Gower, lib. 4. fol. 71. p. 1. col. 1. Askant. Askance. [Probably the participles Aschuined, Aschuins,^ In Dutch, Schuin, wry, oblique. Schuinen, To cut awry. Schuhis, sloping, wry, not straight. AswooN. The past participle Ά)"uanb, 'KyuonO of the verb Suaniail, ^j^punan, deficere animo. " Whan she this herd, aswoune down she falleth For pitous ioy, and after her swounyng She both her yong children to her calleth." Gierke of Oxenfordes Tale, fob 51. p. 1. col. 1. s2 260 OF ADVERBS. [pART I. " And with that word she fel aswoune anon, And after, whan her swounyng was gon She riseth up." Doctour of Phisikes Tale, fol. 65. p. 1. col. 1. Astound. The past participle Estoime [Estonned] of the French verb Estonner (now written Etonner), To astonish. " And with this worde she fell to grounde Aswoune, and there she laie astounde." Gotver, lib. 4. fol. 83. p. 1. col. 2. Enough. In Dutch Genoeg, from the verb Genoegen, To content. To satisfy. S. Johnson cannot determine whether this word is a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb ; but he thinks it is all three. '' It is not easy," he says, '^ to determine whether this word be an adjective or adverb ; perhaps, when it is joined with a substantive, it is an adjective, of which Enoiv is the Plu?al\ In other situations it seems an adverb ; except that, after the verb To have or To' be, either expressed or under- stood, it may be accounted a substantive," According to him, it means, — '^ In a sufficient measure, so as may satisfy, so as may suffice. 2. Something sufficient in greatness or excellence. 3. Something equal to a man's jpower or abilities. 4. In a sufficient degree. 5. It notes a slight augmentation of the positive degree. 6. Sometimes it notes Diminution! 7. An exclamation noting fuhiess or satiety." In the Anglo-Saxon it is Hrenoj or Erenoh : and appears to be the past participle llrenojeb, multiplicatum, manifold^ of the verb Erenojaii, multiplicare. Fain. The past participle Fasjeneb, Faejen, Faejn, l8etus, of the verb Fse^enian, Fse^nian, gaudere, Isetari. ^ In his Grammar, he says, — " Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable ; having neither case, gender, nor number ; being added to Substantives, in all relations, without any change." CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 261 "Of that men speken here and there. How that my lady beareth the price. How she is faire, how she is wise, How she is womanliche of chere : Of all this thing whan I maie here What wonder is though I be γαινε." Goiver, lib. 1. fol. 23. p. 1. col. 2. '' For which they were as glad of his commyng As foule is faine whan the sonne upryseth." Chaucer, Shypmans Tale, fol. 69. p. 1. col. 1. " Na uthir wyse the pepyl Ausoniane Of this glade time in hart λυοχ wounder fane." Douglas, boke 13. p. 472. Ltef. Liever. Lievest. Leop, Leopjie, Leopej-t. " I had as lief not be, as live to be in awe Of such a thing as I myself." — Shakespeare's Julius Casar. No modern author, I believe, would now venture any of these words in a serious passage : and they seem to be cau- tiously shunned and ridiculed in common conversation, as a vulgarity. But they are good English words, and more fre- quently used by our old English writers than any other word of a corresponding signification. Leop (Leopeb, or Liijzab, or Liijrob or Lup) is the past participle of Liipian, To love; and always means beloved^, " And netheles by dales olde, Whan that the bokes were leuer, Writyng was beloued euer Of them that weren vertuous." Gower, Prol. fol. 1. p. 1. col. 1, " It is a unwise vengeance ΛVhiche to none other man is lefe And is unto him selfe grefe." — lib. 2. fol. IS. p. 1. col. 2, " And she answerd, and bad hym go, And saide, howe that a bed all warme Hir LiEFE lay naked in hir arme." — lib. 2. fol. 41. p. 1. col. 2. 1 " The Fader Almychty of the heuin abuf. In the mene tyme, unto luno his luf. Thus spakj and sayd-^" — Douglas, booke 12. p. 441. 262 OF ADVERBS. [PART I. " Thre pointes whiche I fynde Ben LEUEST unto mans kynde ; The first of hem it is dehte, The two ben worship and profite." Goiver, lib. 5. fol. 84. p. 2. coL 2. " For euery thyng is wel the leuer Whan that a man hath bought it dere," lib. 5. fol. 109. p. 2. col. 1. " Whan Rome was the worldes chiefe, The sooth sayer tho was leefe, Whiche wolde not the trouth spare, But with his worde, playne and bare, To themperour his sothes tolde." lib. 7. fol. 154. p. 2. col. 2. *' Of other mens passion Take pitee and compassion And let no thyng to the be leef Whiche to an other man is grefe."— lib. 8. fol. 190. p. 2. col. 1. ** They lyued in ioye and in felycite For eche of hem had other lefe and dere." Chaucer > Monkes Tale, fol. 85. p. 1. coL 2. '* In the swete season that lefe is." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 120. p. 2. col. 1. *' His leefe a rosen chapelet Had made, and on his heed it set." Ibid. fol. 124. p. 1. col. 1. " And hym her lefe and dere hert cal." Troylus, boke 3. fol, 176. p. 2. col. 2. '* Had I hym neuer lefe ? By God I wene Ye had neuer thyng so lefe (quod she)." Ihid. boke 3. foL 177. p. 1. coL 2. ** Ye that to me (quod she) ful leuer were Than al the good the sunne aboute go the." Ibid, boke 3. fol. 178. p. 2. col. 1. " For as to me nys leuer none ne lother." Leg. of Good Women, Prol. fol. 205. p. 2. col. 2. *' Remembrand on the mortall anciant were That for the Grekis to hir leif and dere, At Troye lang tyme sche led before that day." Douglas, booke 1. p. 13. CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 263 " Gif euir ony thanke I deseruit toward the Or ocht of myne to the was leif, quod sche." Douglas, booke 4, p. 110» " Ο thou nymphe, wourschip of fludis clere, That to my saul is hald maist leif and dere." Ihid. booke 12. p. 410= Adieu. Farewell. The former from the French a Dieu, from the Italian Addio: the latter the imperative of Fajian, To go, or To fare. So it is equally said in English — How fares it? or, How goes it? The Dutch and the Swedes also say, Vaarwel, Farwdl: The Danes Lev-vel, and the Germans Leb^t-wohl. Halt means — Hold, Stop, (as when we say — Hold your hand,) Keep the present situation, Hold still. In German Still halten is To halt or stop ; and Halten is To Hold. In Dutch Still houden. To halt or stop ; and Hou- den. To hold. Menage says well — ='' Far Alto, proprio di quel fermarsi che fanno le ordinanze militari : Dal Tedesco Halte, che vale, Ferma la; dimora la; imperativo del verbo Halten, cioe, ar- rest ar si," The Italians assuredly took the military term from the Germans. Our English word halt is the imperative of the Anglo- Saxon verb J^ealban, To hold ; and Hold itself is from j^eal- ban, and was formerly written halt. " He leyth downe his one eare all plat Unto the grounde, and halt it fast." Goiver, lib. 1. fol. 10. p. L col. 2. " But so well HALTE no man the plough, That he ne balketh otherwhile." — lib. 2. fol, 50. p. 1. col. 1. " For what thing that he maie enbrace, Of gold, of catell, or of londe, He let it neuer out of his honde, But gette hym more, and halt it fast." *' To seie howe suche a man hath good. Who so that reasone understoode, 264 OF ADVERBS. [pART I. It is unproperliche sayde : That good hath hym, and halt him taide." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 83. p. 2. col. 2 ; fol. 84. p. 1. col. 1. " — Euery man, that halt him Avorth a leke. Upon his bare knees ought all hys lyfe Thanken God, that him hath sent a wyfe." Chaucer, Marchauntes Tale, fol. 29. p. 1. col. 1. " For euery wight, whiche that to Rome went, Halte not ο pathe, ne ahvay ο manere." Troylus, boke 1. fol. 163. p. 1. col, 2. " Loue, that with an holsome alyannce Halte people ioyned, as hym lyste hem gj^'e." Ihid. boke 3. fol. 182. p. 1. col. 1. Lo. The imperative of Look, So the common people say cor- ruptly, — ** Lo' you there now " — -^^ La you there." Where we now employ sometimes look and sometimes lo, with discrimination ; our old English writers used indifferently Lo, LoKE, LoKETii, for this imperative. Chaucer, in the Pardoner's Tale, says " — Al the souerayne actes, dare I say. Of victories in the Olde Testament Were don in abstynence and in prayere ; LoKETH the Byble, and there j^e mowe it lere." " Loketh' Attyla the great conquerour Dyed in his slepe, Avith shame and dishonour." " Loke' eke howe to kynge Demetrius The king of Parthes, as the boke sayth us. Sent him a payre of dyce of golde in scorne." " Beholde and se that in the first table Of hye Gods hestes honourable, Howe that the seconde heste of him is this. Take not my name in ydelnesse amys. Lo, he Rather" forbyddeth suche swering Than homicide, or any other cursed thing." Fol. QQ. p. 2. col. 2; fol. 67. p. 1. col. 1. 1 In both these places a modern writer would say Lo. ^ Sooner, earlier. — He forbids such swearing Before he forbids homi- cide ; i. e. in 'aforegoing part of the table. ί'Η. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 265 So Β. Jonson. (Alcht/mist, act 2. sc. 3.) " For LOOK, how oft I iterate the work, So many times I add unto his virtue." Here, if it had pleased him, he miglit have said — Lo how oft, &c. And again " Subtle. Why, rascall — Face. Lo you here, sir." Here, if it had pleased him, he might have said — Look you here. The Dutch correspondent adverb is Sietf from Sieii, To look or see. The German Siehe, or Sihe, from SeheHy To see. The Banish »See, from -Seer, To look or see. The Swedish Si, or Si der, from Se, To look. Needs. Need-is\ used parenthetically. It was antiently written Nedes and Nede is. Certain is was used in the same manner, equivalently to certes. " And certaine is (quod she) that by gettyng of good, be men maked good." " I haue graunted that nedes good folke moten ben myghty." — Boecius, boke 4. fol. 24 L p. 1. col. 1, 2. " The consequence is false, nedes the antecedent mote ben of the same condicion." — Test, of Loue, boke 2. fol. 316. p. 1. col. 2. " None other thynge signifyeth this necessite but onelye thus ; That shal be, may nat togider be and not be. Euenlyche also it is sothe, loue was, and is, and shal be, nat of necessyte ; and nede is to haue be al that was, and nedeful is to be al that is." — Test, of Loue, boke 3. fol. 328. p. 1. col. 1-. ^ [Mr. Tooke does not seem to have been aware of the formation of adverbs from the genitive absolute, Avhich prevails in the Teutonic lan- guages ; otherwise he Avould probably have given a different account of this word. Needs, genitive of Need, of necessity; as in Straighttcays, and in German Nachts, by night, Theils, partly, &c. See the account of Once, Tivice, &c. in the present chapter (page 288) ; Grimm's Grammat. iii. 132, (where a large collection of such adverbs will be found) ; Boucher's Glossary, v. Anes ; and the Additional Notes. — Ed.] - Necesse — nee esse aliter potest. 266 OF ADVERBS. [PART I, Often, -er, -est. ί pray thee. Prithee, TowiT, though it is the infinitive of pitan, does not mean To Knoiv, as Skinner^ and S. Johnson have supposed ; but To Be kn.own. Sciendum. For so (for want of Gerunds^ as they are most absurdly called) our ancestors used the Active Infaii- tiveSj as v^ell of other verbs as of pitan*. Similar adverbs are 1 [Skinner is not chargeable with any error, as he is speaking merely of the obsolete verb wit, and not of the adverbial expression το- wit. Mr. Tooke's account of this word is somewhat defective : it is not the simple infinitive pitan, which in A. Saxon is never preceded by το, but the derivative or future infinitive terminating in nne and always preceded by το, and which in Anglo-Saxon, as well as in Francic, answers to gerunds, supines, and future participles. Nor is it neces- sarily Passive. Somner has " hit ij' to pitanne, sciendum est ; it is to wit, or to be knowne :" also if eac to pitanne '^.—Heptateuch. Prcefat. JElf)\ p. 5. ed. Thwaites. Thus we say, The house is yet to build. Lye gives the following instances : eop ip gepealb to pitanne. Vobis datum est ad sciendum. Mar. 4. 11. ]?a com hit to pitenne ; ubi evenit id cognoscendum. Chr. Sax. 165. 26. And adds, " Ab hac voce pitan, speciatim vero ab infinitivo derivativo. To pitanne, phrasis ista, / do you to wit, q. d. Ic bo eop to pitanne, Facio vos scire ; Scire licet ; Videre licet : unde contractiores istse scribendi formulae tam Anglorum quam Latinorum, To wit ; Scilicet, videlicet." See Additional Note on the Infinitive Future. — Ed.] ^ " False fame is not το drede, ne of wyse persons το accepte."— - Test, of Loue, boke 1. fol. 308. p. 2. col. 2. Instances of this use of the Active Infinitives in English are very- numerous ; but the reason of it appears best from old translations. " Quod si nee Anaxagor^ fugam, nee Socratis venenum, nee Zenonis tormenta novisti ; at Canios, at Senecas, at Soranos scire potuisti. Quos nihil aliud in cladem detraxit, nisi quod nostris moribus instituti, studiis improborum dissimillimi videbantur. Itaque nihil est quod admirere, si in hoc vitee salo circumflantibus agitemur procellis, quibus hoc maxime propositum est, pessimis dispUcere. Quorum quidem tam- etsi est numerosus exercitus, spernendus tamen est." — Boethius de Consol. lib. 1. prosa 3. Thus translated by Chaucer : " If thou hast not knowen the exilynge of Anaxagoras, ne the en- poysoning of Socrates, ne the turmentes of Zeno ; yet mightest thou haue knowen the Senecas, the Canios, and the Soranos. The whiche men nothing els ne brought to the deth, but only for they Avere enformed of my maners and semeden most unlyke to the studies of Avicked folke. And forthy thou oughtest not to wondren, though that CH. Χ,] OF ADVEKBS. 267 those of the Latin and French, Videlicet, scilicet, a scavoir. And it is worth noting, that the old Latin authors used the abbreviated Videlicet for Videre licet, when not put (as we call it) adverbially \ Perchance. Par-escheant , Par-escheance, the participle of Escheoir, Echeoii', Echoir, to fall. Percase. Per-casum, participle of cadere, Antiently written Parcas, Parcaas. Peradventure. Antiently Peraunter, Paraunter, Inaunter, Inaventure, Maybe. Mayhap. In Westmoreland they say and write Mappeu, i.e. ηιατ/ happen, Habnab. Hap ne hap — happen or not happen. " Philautus determined hab nab to send his letters." EupJiues. By John Lilly, p. 109. Perhaps. Uphap. By or through Haps. Upon a Hap. " The HAPPES ouer mannes hede Ben honged with a tender threde." Goioer, lib. 6. fol. 135. p. 2. col. 2, " In heuen to bene losed with God hath none ende, but endelesse endureth : and thou canste nothynge done aryght, but thou desyre the rumoure therof be healed and in euery wightes eare ; and that dureth but a pricke, in respecte of the other. And so thou sekest rewarde of I in the bitter see be driuen with tempestes blowing aboute. In the which thyB is my moste purpose, that is to sayne, to displesen Avicked men. Of whiche shrewes al be the hooste neuer so great, it is το DispisE."~Fol. 222. p. 1. col. 1. Pam. Λ^IDELICEτ parcum ilium fuisse senem, qui dixerit : Quoniam ille illi poUicetur, qui eum cibum poposcerit. Ant. Videlicet fuisse ilium nequam adolescentem, qui illico, Ubi ille poscit, denegavit se dare granum tritici." m Plautus, Stichus, act 4. sc. 1. 1 tt 268 OF ADVETIBS. [PART I. folkes smale worcles, and of vayne praysyiiges. Trewely therein thou lesest the guerdon of vertue, and lesest the grettest valoure of con- scyence, and uphap thyrenome euerlastyng." — Chaucer, Test, of Loue, boke l.fol. 311. p. 1. col. 1. Belike. This word is perpetually employed by Sir Philip Sydney, Hooker, Shakespeare, B. Jonson, Sir W. Raleigh, Bacon, Milton, &c. But is now only used in low language, instead oi perhaps. In the Danish language Li/kke, and in the Swedish Lycka, mean Luck, i.e. chance, hazard. Hap, fortune, adventure. " Oionysius, He thought belike, if Damon were out of the citie, I would not put him to death." — Damon and Pythias. By R. Edivards. — " Brutus and Cassius Are rid like madmen through the gates of Rome. Ant. Belike they had some notice of the people How I had moved them." — Julius Casar, act 3. sc. 2. *' How 's that ? Your's, if his own ! Is he not my son, except he be his own son } Belike this is some new kind of subscription the gallants use." — Every Man in his Humour, act 3. sc. 7. " Than she, remembering belike the continual and incessant and confident speeches and courses that I had held on my lord's side, be- came utterly alienated from me."• — Sir F. Bacon s Apology. " Will he, so wise, let loose at once his ire. Belike through impotence, or unaware. To give his enemies their wish ?" Paradise Lost, book 1. v. 156. Al GOT. " Many a freshe knight, and many a blisful route On horse and on fote, in al the felde aboute." Chaucer, Annelida, fol. 270. p. 2. col. 1. " Sum grathis thame on fute to go in feild. Sum hie montit on horsbak under scheild." Douglas, booke 7. p. 230. Of the same kind are the adverbs Foot to foot. Vis a vis. Petto a petto. Dirimpetto. The Hand and Foot, being the principal organs of action and motion, afford a variety of allu- sions and adverbial expressions in ail languages ; most of CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 269 which are too evident to require explanation : as when, of our blessed senators, we say, with equal truth and sorrow, — They assume the office of legislation illotis pedibus, and proceed in it with dirti/ hands. So FOOT hot; which Mr. Warton has strangely mistaken in page 192 of his first volume of the Historic of English Poetry : [8vo. edit. vol. ii. p. 25.] " The table adoune rihte he smote, 111 to the floore foote hot." Misled by the vf ova foot, Mr. Warton thinks that foote HOT means ^' Stamped.'' So that he supposes the Soudan here to have fallen upon the table both with hands and feet : i. e. first he smote it with his fist ; and then he stamped upon it, and trampled it under foot. But FOOT HOT means immediately , instantaneously j without giving time for the foot to cool : so our court of Pie Poud?'e, pied poudrG ; in which matters are determined before one can wipe the dust off one's feet. So Ε vestigio, &c. " There was none eie that might kepe His heade, whiche Mercurie of smote, And forth with all anone fote hote He stale the cowe whiche Argus kepte. Gower, lib. 4. fol. 81. p. 2. col. 1. " And Custaunce han they taken ano7i fotehot." Chaucer, Man of Laives Tale, fol. 20. p. 2. col. 1. " Whan that he herde ianglyng He ran anon as he were wode To Bialacoil there that he stode. Which had leuer in .this caas Haue ben at Reynes or Amyas, For FOTE HOTE in his felonye ί To him thus said Jelousye." Ibid. Rom. of the Rose, fol. 138. p. 1. col. 2. " And first Ascaneus, As he on hors playit Λvith his feris ioyus, Als swyft and feirsly spurris his stede fute hote. And but delay socht to the trublit flotei." Douglas, booke 5. p. 150. Primus et Ascanius, cursus ut laetus equestres Ducebat, sic acer equo turbata petivit Castp." Virgil. 270 OF ADVERBS. [PART I. " I sail declare all and reduce fute hate'^ From the beginning of the first debate." Douglas y booke 7. p. 205. " The self stound amyd the preis fute hote^ Lucagus enteris into his chariote." Ihid, booke 10. p. 338. *' Wyth sic wourdis scho ansueris him fute hate^." Ibid, booke 12. p. 443. " All with ane voice and hale assent at accorde, Desiris the as for thare prince and lord ; And ioyus ar that into feild fute hate * Under thy wappinis Turnus lyis doun bet." Ihid. booke 13. p. 468. Aside. «« Now hand to hand the dynt lichtis with ane swak, . ΝοΛν bendis he up his burdoun with ane mynt, On syde he bradisfor to eschew the dynt." Douglas, booke 5. p. 142. I suppose it needless to notice such adverbs as Aback, Abreast, Afront, Ahead, At hand, Beforehand, Behindhand, &c. Ablaze. '' That casten fire and flam aboute Both at mouth and at nase So that thei setten all on blase." Gower, lib, 5. fol. 102. p. 2. col. 2. Aboard. '' This great shyp on anker rode : The lorde cometh forth, and when he sigh That other ligge on borde so nighe." Goiver, lib. 2. fol. 33. p. 2. col. 2. Ϊ " Ex-pedi-am : et primae revocabo exordia pugnse." Virgil. Notice Ex-ped-ire. ~ Intevesi.— Virgil. 3 Talibus occurrit dictis. — Ibid. t There is no word in the original of Maphseus to explain or justify the FUTE HATE of Douglas in this passage : he barely says, " Turnumque sub armis Exultant cecidisse tuis." But the acer petivitf expediam, and occurrit dictis of Virgil are sufiScient. CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 271 " What helpeth a man haue mete. Where drinke lackethe on the borde." Gower, lib. 4. fol. 72. p. 2. col. 1. " And ho we he loste hys steresman Whiche that the sterne, or he toke kepe, Smote over the borde as he slepe." Chaucer, Fame, boke 1. fol. 294. p. 1. col. 2. " We war from th^ns aiFrayit, durst nocht abide, Bot fled anon, and within burd has brocht That faithful Greik." Douglas, hooke 3. p. 90. " The burgeonit treis on burd they bring for aris." Ibid, booke 4. p. 113. " The stabill aire has calmyt wele the se, And south pipand windis fare on hie Challancis to pas on bord, and tak the depe." Ibid, booke 5. p. 153. Abroad. " The rose spred to spannishhynge, To sene it was a goodly thynge. But it ne was so sprede on brede That men within myght knowe the sede." Chaucer, Rom. of the Rose, fol. 137. p. 1. col. 2. " Als fer as his crop hie on brede Strekis in the are, as fer his route dois sprede." Douglas, booke 4. p. 115. " — ^ — his baner quhite as floure In sing of batel did on brede display." Ibid, booke 8. p. 240. Adays\ " But this I see on daies nowe." Goiver, lib. 4. fol. 72. p. 2. col. 1. •' Thus here ί many a man compleine. That nowe on daies thou shalte finde At nede few frendes kinde." Ibid.Vih. 5. fol. 110. p. 1. col. 1. " But certanly the dasit blude now on dayis Waxis dolf and dull throw myne unweildy age." Douglas, booke 5. p. 140, ^ [This and the following, from their termination, should probably be refeiTed to the genitive singular, like Needs, &c. See Additional Note.— Ed.] 272 OF ADVERBS. [PART I. Anights. " He mot one of two tliynges chese, Where he woll haue hir suche on night. Or els upon dates Hght ; For he shall not haue both two." Gower, lib. 1. fol. 17» p. 2. col. 2r " For though no man wold it alowe. To slepe leiier than to wowe Is his maner, and thus on nightes When he seeth the lusty knightes Reuelen, where these women are Αλνβγ he sculketh as an hare." Ibid.lih. 4. fol. 78. p. 1. col. 1. " For though that wiues ben ful holy thinges. They must take in patience a nyght Suche maner necessaryes as ben plesinges To folke that ban wedded hem with ringes, And lay a litell her holynesse asyde." Chaucer, Man of Lawes Tale, fol. 22. p. 1. col. 1. " Madame, the sentence of this Latyn is. Woman is mannes ioye and his blis. For when I fele on nyght your soft syde, Al be it that I may not on you ryde, For that our perche is made so narowe, alas, I am full of ioye and solas." Ibid. No?ines Priest , fol. 89. p. 2. col. 2. Afire. " Turnus seges the Troianis in grete yre. And al thare schyppis and nauy set in fyre." Dougias^hooke 9. p. 274. Alive. On live, i. e. In Life\ " For as the fisshe, if it be drie. Mote in defaute of water die : Right so without aier, on liue No man ne beast might thriue." Gower, lib. 7. fol. 142. p. 1. col. 2. 1 In the first book of the Testament of Love, fol. 305. p. 1. col. 1, Chaucer furnishes another adverb of the same kind, to those who are admirers of this j9iiri of speech.-— " Wo is hym that is Aioue." CH. Χ,] OF ADVERBS. 273 " For prouder woman is there none on lyue." Chaucer, Troylus, boke 2. fol. 143. p. 2. col. 2. " The verray ymage of my Astyanax ging : Sic ene had he, and sic fare handis tua. For al the warld sic mouth and face perfay : And gif he war on life quhil now in fere. He had bene euin eild with the, and hedy pere." Douglas, booke 3. p. 84. Aloft. Oh Lofty On Lnftf On Lyftj i. e. In the Lujt or Li/ft: or, (the superfluous article omitted, as was the antient custom in our language, the Anglo-Saxon) In Lyft, in Luft, In Loft. " The golde tressed Phebus hygh on lofte." Chaucer, Troylus, boke 5. fol. 196. p. 2. col. 1. " Bot, lo anone (ane wounder thing to tell) Ane huge bleis of flambys brade doun fel, Furth of the cluddys at the left hand straucht. In manere of an lychtning or fyre flaucht : And did alycht richt in the samyn stede, Apoun the croun of fare Lauinias hede ; And fra thine hie up in the lyft agane It glade away, and tharein did remane." Douglas, booke 13. p. 476. " With that the dow Heich IN the lift full glaide he gan behald, And with her wingis sorand mony fald." Ibid, booke 5. p. 144. In the Anglo-Saxon, LypC is the Air or the Clouds. In St. Luke — ** 111 lypte cummenbe" — coming in the clouds. In the Danish, Luft is air, and " At spronge i luften^' — To blow up into the air, or Aloft. In the Swedish also Luft is air. So in the Dutch, Oe loef hehhen^ To sail before the wind ; loeven, To ply to windward ; loefy the weather gage ; &c. From the same root are our other words, Lofty Lofty^ To Luffy LeCy Leeward y To Lfty &c. Anew. *' The battellis war adionit now of new, Not in manere of landwart folkis bargane. But with scharp scherand wappinnis made melle." Douglas, booke 7. p. 225. τ 274 OF ADVERBS. [PART 1. " Was it honest ane godly diuine wycht With ony raortall straik to wound in iicht ? Or lit ganand the swerd loist and adew To rendir Turnus to his brand of new. And strength increscis to thame that vincust be?" Douglas, booke 12. p. 441. Arow. " And in the port enterit, lo, we see Flokkis and herdis of oxin and of fee. Fat and tydy, rakand ouer all quhare, And trippis eik of gait but ony kepare, In the rank gers pasturing on raw." Ibid, booke 3. p. 75. " The pepil by him vincust mycht Ihou knaw, Before him passand per ordour all on raw." Ibid, booke 8. p. 270. ASLEEP^ •' Whan that pyte, Avhich longe on slepe doth tary, Hath set the fyne of ai my heuynesse." Chaucer, La belle dame, fol. 269. p. 1. col. 1. " Apoun the earth the uthir beistis al, Thare besy thochtis ceissing grete and smal, Ful sound on slepe did caucht thare rest be kind." Douglas, booke 9. p. 283. " In these provynces the fayth of Chryste was all quenchyd and in BLETE.''— Fabian. Awhile. A time. Whil-es, i. e. Time, that or which. Whilst is a corruption ; it should be written as formerly. Whiles'. " She died, my lord, but whiles her slander liv'd." Much Ado about Nothing. Aught, or Ought. The Anglo-Saxon J^pit : a whit, or ο ivhit. N. B. Ο was formerly written for the article A, or for the numeral one. So Naught or Nought: Na whit, or No whit. ^ [*' For David— fell on sleep, and was laid unto his fathers," Acts, 13, 36.~Ed.] 2 [This has the genitive form; see Grimm, iii. 134.— Ed.] ch. χ.] of adverbs. 275 Forth. *' Againe the knight the olde wife gan arise And said ; Sir knight, here forth lyeth no way." Chaucer, Wife of Bathes Tale, fol. 3S. p. 2, coL 2. " Alas (quod he) alas, that euer I beheyght Of pured gold a thousande pounde of weight Unto this phylosopher ! howe shall I do ? I se no more but that I am fordo ^ : Myn herytage mote I nedes sell. And ben a beggar, here may I no lenger dwell." Frankeleyns Tale, foL 55, p. 2. col. 2, " Loke out of londe thou be not fore'^ And if suche cause thou haue, that the Behoueth to gone out of countre, Leaue hole thyn hert in hostage." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 132. p. 2. col. 2, From the Latin Fores, Foris, the French had Fors (their modern Hors). And of the French Fors, our ancestors (by their favourite pronunciation of Th) made poji^, forth : as from the French Asses or Assez, they made asseth, i. e. enough f sufficient. " Rychesse ryche ne maketh nought Hym that on treasour sette his thought : For rychesse stonte in suffysaunce, And nothyng in haboundaunce : For suffysaunce al onely Maketh menne to lyue rychely. For he that hath mytches tweyne Ne value in hys demeyne, Lyueth more at ease, and more is rlche, Than dothe he that is chiche And in his barne hath, soth to sayne. An hundred mauis of whete grayne, Though he be chapman or marchaunt, And haue of golde many besaunt : ' For-do, i. e. Forth-done, i. e. Done to go forth, or caused to go forth, i. e. Out of doors. In modern language, turned out of doors. — [It should rather be explained in connection with other verbs com* pounded with for; see Additional Notes. —Ed.] 2 Fore, i. e. Fors or forth. — [Rather the past participle of fare, to go,— Ed.] τ 2 276 OF ADVERBS, [PART I. For in the gettyng he hath suche wo, And in the kepyng drede also. And sette euermore his besignesse For to encrese, and nat to lesse. For to augment and multiply e, And though on heapes that lye him by. Yet neuer shal make rychesse AssETH unto hys gredynesse^." Roin. of the Rose, fol. 146. p. 2. col. 2. The adverbs Outforth, Inforthy Withoutforth, Withinforth (which were formerly common in the language), have ap- peared very strange to the moderns ; but with this explanation of FORTH, I suppose, they will not any longer seem either unnatural or extraordinary. '* Within the hertes of folke shall be the biting conscience, and with- outforth shal be the worlde all brenning." — Chaucer, Persons Tale, fol. 102. p. 1. col. 2. '' Whan he was come unto his neces place, Where is my lady, to her folke (quod he) ; And they him tolde, and Inforth in gan pace, And founde two other ladyes sit and she." Troylus, boke 2. fol. 163. p. 2. col. 1. " And than al the derkenesse of his misknowing shall seme more evidently to the sight of his understandyng, than the sonne ne seemeth to the sight Without fort he." — Boecius, boke 3. fol. 238. p. 2. col. 2. '' Philosophers, that hyghten Stoiciens, wende that y mages and sen- sibilities war emprinted into soules fro bodies Withoutforth" — Ibid, boke 5. fol. 250. p. 2. col. 2. " There the vaylance of men is demed in riches Outforth, wenen men to haue no proper good in them selfe, but seche it in straunge thinges."— Te^if. of Loue, boke 2. fol. 316. p. 2. col. 2. 1 I have been compelled to make the above long extract, that my reader's judgement may have fair play ; and that he may not be misled by the interpretation given of asseth in the glossary of Urry's edition of Chaucer; where we are told, that asseth means — "Assent, to Answer ; from the Anglo-Saxon A^fet^ian, affirmare" When the reader recollects the suffysaunce which is spoken of in the first part of the ex- tract, he will have little difficulty, I imagine, to perceive clearly what ASSETH here means : for the meaning of the whole passage is — suffisance alone makes riches ; which suffisance the miser's greediness will never permit him to obtain. CH. X.J OF ADVEKBS. 277 " The goodnesse (quod she) of a person raaye not ben knowe Outforth, but by renome of the knowers." — Test, of Lone, boke 2. fol. 319. p. 1. col. 2. " But he that Outforth loketh after the waj'cs of this knot, connyng •with which he shuld knowe the way Inforth, slepeth for the tyme ; Mdierfore he that wol this way know, must leave the lokyng after false wayes Outforth, and open the eyen of his conscyence and unclose his herte."— /JiW. boke 2. fol. 322. p. 1. col. 2. " Euery herbe sheweth his vertue Outforthe from wythin." — Ibid. boke 2. fol. 323. p. 1. col. 1. " Loue peace Withoute forth, loue peace Withiiforth, kepe peace with all men." " There is nothinge hid from God. Thou shalte be found gilty in the judgmentes of God, though thou be hid to mens judgementes : for he beholdeth the hert, that is Withh?forth." — Tho. Lupset, Gathered Counsails. Gadso. Cazzo, a common Italian oath (or rather obscenity, in lieu of an oath), first introduced about the time of James the First, and made familiar in our language afterwards by our affected travelled gentlemen in the time of Charles the Second. — See all our comedies about that period. Ben Jonson ridiculed the affectation of this oath at its com- mencement, but could not stop its progress. " These be our nimble-spirited Catso's, that ha' their evasions at pleasure, will run over a bog like your wild Irish ; no sooner started but they '11 leap from one thing to another, like a squirrel. Heigh ! dance and do tricks in their discourse, from fire to water, from water to air, from air to earth : as if their tongues did but e'en lick the four ele- ments over and away." — Every Man out of his Humour, act 2. sc. 1. Much. More. Most. These adverbs have exceedingly gravelled all our etymo- logists, and they touch them as tenderly as possible. Much. Junius, and Skinner (whom Johnson copies), for much, irrationally refer us to the Spanish Muc/io. More. Under the article more (that he may seem to say something 278 OF ADVERBS. [pART I. on the subject), Junius gives us this so little pertinent or edifying piece of information : — *' Anglicum interim more est inter ilia, quee Saxonicum a in ο convertunt; sicuti videmus usu venisse in ban, bone, os, ossis ; hal, whole^ integer, sanus ; ham, home, domus, habitatio ; j^tan, stone, lapis," &c. Skinner says—'' More, Mo, ab A.S. CDa, CQajia, CQsejie, CDajie, &c. Quid si omnia a Lat. Major ?" S. Johnson finds more to be adjective, adverb, and sub- stantive. The adjective, he says, is — *' The comparative of Some or Great J' The adverb is—'' The particle that forms the comparative degree. '^ — •" Perhaps some of the examples which are adduced under the adverb, should be placed under the substantive.''—-" It is doubtful whether the word, in some cases be noun or adverb.'' Most. Junius says, untruly, — " Most : Ex positivo nempe maepej fuit comparativus masppe, et superlativus masjiej^t:, et con-^ tracte masj^t." Skinner—" Teut. Meist fehciter alludit Gr. μειστον, plu- rimum, maximum, contr. a /χεγιστομ." S. Johnson again finds in most an adjective, an adverb, and a substantive. Of the adverb he says, it is — " The par- ticle noting the superlative degree." Of the substantive he says — " This is a kind of substantive, being according to its signification, singular or plural.'' And he gives instances, as he conceives, of its plurality and singularity. 1 have wasted more than a page in repeating what am.ounts to nothinty. ο Though there appears to be, there is in reality no irregu- larity in MUCH, MORE, MOST : nor indeed is there any such thing as capricious irregularity in any part of language. In the Anglo-Saxon the verb GQapan, metere, makes regularly the prEeterperfect GQop, or ClQope (as the prseterperfect of Slajan is Sloh), and the past participle Mowen or CDeopen, by the addition of the participial termination en, to the pree- terperfect. Omit the participial termination en (which omis- sion was, and still is, a common practice through the whole language, with the Anglo-Saxon writers, the old English writers, and the moderns), and there will remain GQope or CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS, 279 Mow ; which gives us the Anglo-Saxon OQope and our modern Enghsh word Mow : which words mean simpli/ — • that which is Mowed or Mown. And as the hay, &c. which was mown, was put together in a heap ; hence, figurativeli/ f GQope was used in Anglo-Saxon to denote any heap : although in modern English we now confine the application of it to country produce, such as Hay-mow, Barley-mow j &c/. This participle or substantive (call it which you please; for,, however classed, it is still the same word, and has the same signification) Mow or Heap, was pronounced (and therefore written) with some variety, GQa, ClQse, GQo, GQope, Mow; which, being regu- larly compared, give OQa . . ,Ma-e7• (i. e. majie) . . .Ma-est (i. e. maej-t) GQae. . .McB-e?^ (i. e. msejie) . . .McB-est (i. e. msej-t) COope. .Mow-er(i. e. mope) . . .Mow-est (i. e. mopr) Mo . . .Mo-er (i. e. more) . . ,Mo-est (i. e. most). I have here printed in the Anglo-Saxon character, those words which have come down to us so written in the Anglo- Saxon writings : and in Italics, the same words in sound ; but so written, as to show the written regularity of the com= parison : and in capitals, the words which are used in what we call English; though indeed it is only a continuation of the Anglo-Saxon, with a little variation of the written cha- racter. Mo (mope, acervus, heap), which was constantly used by all our old English authors, has with the moderns given place to MUCH^: which has not (as Junius, Wormius, and Skinner 1 Gawin Douglas uses the word Mowe, for a heap of Λνοοά, or a funeral pile. " Under the oppin sky, to this purpois. Pas on, and of treis thou mak an bing To be ane f3rre, &c. Tharfore scho has hir command done ilk dele. But quhen the grete bing was upbeildit wele Of aik treis, and fyrren scliidis dry Wythin the secrete cloys under the sky, Aboue the mowe the foresaid bed was maid." •Booke4, p. 117. - [But GOa or Mo is never found except as the comparative ; thus mycle ma, much more, ma Sonne, more than : while GOsepa, COsejie, 280 OF ADVERBS. [pAKT I. imagined of M'lckle) been boirowed from /ιιεγαλοο, but is merely the diminutive of mo, passing through the gradual changes of Mokei, M^kel, Moch'il, Muchel (still retained in Scotland), Moche, much. " Yes certes (quod she) Who is a frayler thynge than the fleshly body of a man, ouer whiche haue often tyme flyes, and yet lasse thynge than a flye, mokel myght in greuaunce and anoyenge." — Chaucer, Test, of Loue, boke 2. fob 319. p. 1. col. 1. " Opinion is Avhile a thinge is in non certayne, and hydde frome mens very knowlegyng, and by no parfyte reason fully declared, as thus : yf the Sonne be so mokel as men wenen, or els yf it be more than the erth."— 75«(/. boke 3. fol. 325. p. 2. col. 2. ** A lytel misgoyng in the gynning causeth mykel errour in the end."— /o«W. boke 2. fol. 315. p. 2. col. 1. " Ο badde and strayte bene thilke (richesse) that at their departinge maketh men teneful and sory, and in the gatheryng of hem make men nedy. Moche folke at ones mowen not togider moche therof haue." — /όίί/. boke 2. fol. 316. p. 2. col. 1. " Good chylde (quod she) what echeth suche renome to the con- science of a wyse man, that loketh and measureth hys goodnesse not by sleuelesse wordes of the people, but by sothfastnesse of conscience : by God, nothynge. And yf it be fayre a mans name be eched by moche folkes praysing, and fouler thyng that mo folke not praysen." — Ibid. boke 2. fob 319. p. 2. coL 1. " Also ryght as thou were ensample of moche folde errour, righte so thou must be ensample of manyfolde correctioun." — Ibid, boke 1. fol. 310. p. 1. col. 2. Nevertheless. In our old authors written variously, Na-the-Ies, Ne-the-les, Nocht~the-les, Not-lhe-ies, Neve?-the-later : its opposite also was used, Wel-the-loter. " Truely I sa^^ for me, sythe I came thys Margarit to serue, durst I neuer me discouer of no maner disease, and wel the later hath myn herte hardyed such thynges to done, for the great bounties and worthy magnus, is positive, answering to the Teutonic Mar, Mer, and the Cel- tic Maivr. With regard to Mickle, it constantly occurs in all the ear- liest I'eutonic dialects : — Goth. MiKi AS. Francic Mihhil, A.iS. Micel, Isl. Mikle, Su. G. Ma^/c— Ed.] CH. χ.] OF ADVERBS. 281 refreslimentes that she of her grace goodly without anye desert on my halue ofte hath me rekened." — Test, of Loue, boke 3. fol. 332. p. 2. col. 1. " Habyte maketh no monke, ne Λvearynge of gylte spurres maketh no knyghte : neuerthelater in conforte of thyne herte, yet wol I otherΛvyse answere." — Ibid, boke 2. fol. 322. p. 2. col. 2. Rather. In English we have ΙΙαίΙι, Rathej-, Rathest ; which are simply the Anglo-Saxon Ra^, Ra^op, Ra^oj-t. celer, velox. Some have derived this English word rather from the Greek ; as Mer. Casaubon from opOpoc, '^ quod sane (says Skinner) longius distat qiiam mane a vespere :" and otiiers, with a little more plausibility, from 'Pa^ioc. The Italians have received this same word from our North- ern ancestors, and pronounce it Ratio, with the same mean- ing : which Menage derives either from Raptus or from Rapi- dus, '^ RapduSf Rapdo, Raddo, Ratto.^' Skinner notices the expressions Rath fruit, and Rath wine^ from the Anglo-Saxon Ra^ ; of which, after Menage^ he says — *' Nescio an contract, a Lat. Rapidus." Minshew derives rather from the Lat. Rat us. Ray has a proverb — " The Rath sower never borrows of the late." S. Johnson cites Spenser (except himself, the worst possible authority for English words) — " Thus is my harvest hasten'd all to Rathe." And May — " Rath ripe and purple grapes there be." " Rath ripe are some, and some of later kind." And Milton — " Bring the Rathe primrose that forsaken dies." And he adds most ignorantly — '* To have Rather. This I think a barbarous expression, of late intrusion into our lan- guage ; for which it is better ίο say — tvi/l rather/' Dr. Newton, in a note on Li/cidas, says of the word Rathe — '^ This word is used by Spenser, B. 3. cant. o. st. 28.- — ' Too Rathe cut off by practice criminal.' '* And Shepherd's Calendar, ' The Rather lambs been starved with cold.' " δ82 OF ADVERBS. [PART I. T. Warton, in his note on the same passage of Miiton, says, — '* The particular combination of, Rathe primrose, is perhaps from, a pastoral called a Palinode by E. B. (probably Edmond Bolton,) in England's HeUcon, edit. 1614. signat. B. 4. * And made the Rathe and timely primrose grow.' '* In the West of England, there is an early species of apple called the Rathe-ripe, We have — ' Rathe and late ' — in a pastoral, in Davison's Poems, edit. 4. London, 1621. p. 177. In Bastard's Epigrams, printed 1598, I find— ' The Rashed primrose and the violet." Lib. i. epigr. 34. p. 12, 12mo. Perhaps Rashed is a provincial corruption from Rathe:' By the quotations of Johnson, Newton, and Warton, from Spenser, May, Bolton, Davison, and Bastard, a reader would imagine that the word rathe was very little authorized in the language ; and that it was necessary to hunt dihgently in ob- scure holes and corners for an authority. " And netheles there is no man In all this woride so wise, that can Of loue temper the measure : But as it falleth in auenture. For witte ne strength maie not helpe And whiche els wolde him yelpe, Is RATHEST throwen under foote." Gowcr, lib. 1. foL 7. p. 2. coL 2. " Some seyne he did well enough, And some seyne, he did amis. Diuers opinions there is. And commonliche in euery nede The werst speche is rathest herde." lib. 3. fol. 59. p. L col. L ** That euery loue of pure kynde Is fyrst forth drawe, well I fynde : But netheles yet ouer this Deserte dothe so, that it is The RATHER had in many place."— lib. 4. fol. 72. p. 1. col. 1 . — " Who that is bolde. And dar travaile, and undertake The cause of loue, he shall be take The RATHER unto loues grace."- — lib, 4. fol. 75. p. 1. col. 2. CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 283 ** But fortune is of suche a sleyght, That whan a man is most on height. She maketh hym rathest for to falle." Gower, lib. 6. fol. 135. p, 2. col. 2. " Why ryse ye so rathe ? Ey, benedicite, What eyleth you ?" — Chaucer, Myllers Tale, fol. 15. p. L col. 1. " Ο dere cosyn, Dan Johan, she sayde. What eyleth you so rathe to a ryse ?" Shypmans Tale, fol. 69. p. 1. col. 2. ** For hym my lyfe lyeth al in dout But yf he come the rather out." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 141. p. 2. col. i. " They wolde eftsones do you scathe If that they myght, late or rathe." — Ibid. fol. 152. p. 1. col. I. " And haue my trouth, but if thou finde it so, I be thy bote, or it be ful longe, To peces do me drawe, and sythen honge. Ye, so sayst thou } (quod Troylus) alas : But God wot it is naught the rather so." Troylus, boke 1. fol. 161. p. 2. col. L " Loke up I say, and tel me what she is Anon, that I may gon about thy nede, Knowe iche her aught, for my loue tel me this. Than wold I hope rather for to spede." Ibid, boke 1. fol. 16L p. ^. col. ^. " And with his salte teeres gan he bathe The ruby in his signet, and it sette Upon the wexe delyuerlyche and rathe." Ibid, boke 2. fol. 169. p. 1. col. 1. " But now to purpose of my rather speche." Ibid, boke 3. fol. 179. p. 2. col. 2. " These folke desiren nowe delyueraunce Of Antenor that brought hem to mischaunce. For he was after traytour to the toun Of Troy alas ; they quitte him out to rathe.*' Ibid, boke 4. fol. 183. p. 2. col. 1. " But he was slayne alas, the more harme is, Unhappely at Thebes al to rathe." Ibid, boke 5. fol. 195. p. 2. col. 1. ** Yf I (quod she) haue understonden and knowen utterly the causes and the habite of thy malady, thou languyshest and art defected for desyre and talent of thy rather fortune. She that ylke fortune onelye 284 OF ADVERBS. [pART 1. that is chaunged as thou faynest to thewarde, hath perverted the clerc- nesse and the estate of thy corage," — Boeciiis, boke 2. fol. 225. p. 1, col. 2. " Whylom there was a man that had assayed \vith stryuynge wordes an other man, the which not for usage of very vertue, but for proude vayne glorye, had taken upon him falsely the name of a phylosophre. This RATHER man that I spake of, thought he wold assay, wheder he thilke were a phylosophre or no." — Ibid, boke 2. fol. 230. p. 2. col. 2. " Diuyne grace is so great that it ne may not ben ful praysed, and this is only the maner, that is to say, hope and prayers. For which it semeth that men μόΙ speke with God, and by reson of supplycacion bene conioyned to thylke clerenesse, that nys nat approched no rather or that men seken it and impetren it." — Ibid, boke 5. fol. 249. p. 2, col. 1. " Graunt mercy good frende (quod he) I thanke the, that thou woldest so ; But it may neuer the rather be do, No man may my sorowe glade." Drearne of Chancer, fol. 256. p. 1. col. 1. " The rather spede, the soner may we go. Great coste alway there is in taryenge, And longe to sewe it is a Λvery thynge." Assemble of Lady es, fol. 275. p. 2. col. 2. " Thilke sterres that ben cleped sterres of the northe, arysen rather than the degree of her longytude, and all the sterres of the southe, arysen after the degree of her longytude." — Astrolabye, fol. 280, p. 2. col. 1. " But lesynges with her iiatterye. With fraude couered under a pytous face Accept be nowe rathest unto grace." Blacke Knyght, fol. 289. p. 2. col. 2. " That shal not nowe be tolde for me, For it no nede is redily, Folke can synge it bet than I, For al mote out late or rathe." Fame, boke 3. fol. 302. p. 1. col. 2. '* Who was ycroAvned } by God nat the strongest, but he that rathest come and lengest abode and continued in the iourney and sjDared nat to trauayle." — Test, of Loue, boke 1. fol. 307. p. 1. col. 2. " Euery glytteryng thinge is not golde, and under colour of fayre speche man}'^ vices may be hyd and conseled. Therfore I rede no wight to trust on you to rathe, mens chere and her speche right guyleful is ful oiler— Ibid, boke 2. fol. 314. p. 2. col. 2. CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 285 "Veryly it is proued that rychesse, dygnyte, and power, been not trewe waye to the knotte, but as rathe by suche thynges the knotte to be unbound." " Than (quod she) wol I proue that shrewes as rathe shal ben in the knotte as the good." — Test, of Lone, boke 2, fol. 319. p. 1. col. 1. '' Ah, good nyghtyngale (quod I then) A lytel haste thou ben to longe hen. For here hath ben the leude cuckowe And songen songes rather than hast thou." Cuckowe and Nyghtyngale, fol. 351. p. 1. col. 2. " His feris has this pray ressauit eaith, And to thare meat addressis it for to graith." Douglas, booke 1. p. 19. " Quhen Paris furth of Phryge, the Troyane bird Socht to the ciete Laches in Sparta, And thare the douchter of Leda stal awa. The fare Helene, and to Troy tursit raith." Ibid, booke 7. p. 219. " And sche hir lang round nek bane bowand raith. To gif thaym souck, can thaym culze bayth." Ibid, booke 8. p. 266. " The princis tho, quhilk suld this peace making, Turnis towart the bricht sonnys uprisyng. With the salt melder in thare handis raith." Ibid, booke 12. p. 413. Fie ; The imperative of the Gothic and Anglo=Saxon verb, Ϊ^ΙΛΝ, Fian, To hate. Quickly. Quick-like: from Epic, cpicu, cpicob, vivus, (as we still oppose the Quick to the Dead). Epic is the past participle of Epiccian, vivificare. Quickly means, in a life-like or lively manner; in the manner of a creature that has life. Scarce. The Italians have the adjective Scarso: " Queste parole assai passano il core Al tristo padre, e non sapea che fare 286 OF ADVEBBS, [pART I. Di racquistar la sua figlia e I'onore, Perche tutti i rimedj erano scarsi." IlMorgante, cant. 10. st. 128. which Menage improbably derives from Exparcus, The same word in Spanish is written Escasso. Both the Italian and the Spanish words are probably of Northern origin. In Dutch Skaars is, rare, mifrequent. It is still commonly used as an adjective in modern English ; but anciently was more common. " Hast thou be scarse or large of gifte Unto thy loue, whom thou seruest ? And saith the trouth, if thou hast bee Unto thy loue or scarse or free." Gower, Hb. 5. fob 109. p. 1. col. 2. " What man that scarse is of his good. And wol not gyue, he shall nought take." Ibid. fol. 109. p. 2. col. 1. " That men holde you not to scarce, ne to sparyng," Tale of Chaucer, fol. 80. p. 2. col. 1. " Loke that no man for scarce the holde, For that may greue the manyfolde." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 131. p. 1. col, 1. Seldom. ' ' I me reioyced of my lyberte That selden tyme is founde in manage." Gierke of Oxenf, Tale, fol. 46. p. 1. col, 1. The Dutch have also the adjective Zelden, Selten: The Germans Selten : The Danes Seldsom : The Swedes Sellsynt : - — rare, unusual, uncommon. Stark. According to S. Johnson this word has the following signi- iications' — Stiff, strovg, rugged, deep, full, mere, simple, plain, gross. He says, ''It is used to intend or augment the sig- nification of a word : as. Stark mad, mad in the highest de- gree. It is now little used but in low language." In the Anglo-Saxon Stapc, Steapc, German Starck, CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 287 Dutch Sterk, Danish Stterk, Swedish Stark, as in the English, all mean Strong. It is a good English word ; common in all our old writers, still retaining its place amongst the moderns, and never had an interval of disuse. " And she that helmed Avas in starke stoures, And wan by force townes stronge and toures." Chaucer, Monkes Tale, fol. 85. p. 2. col. 2. " But unto you I dare not lye. But myght I felen or espye That ye perceyued it nothyng. Ye shulde haue a starke leasyng." Rom. of the Rose, foL 154. p. 2. coL 2, *' This egle, of which I haue you tolde, Me ilyeng at a swappe he hente, And with his sours agayne up wente Me caryeng in hys clawes starke As lyghtly as I had ben a larke." Fame, boke 1. fol. 294. p, 2. col. 2. " The folio wand wynd blew sterk ε in our tail." Douglas, hooke 3. p. 71. " So that, my son, now art thou souir and sterk. That the not nedis to haue ony fere." Ibid, booke 8. p. 265, " Turnus ane litil, thocht he was stark and stout, Begouth frawart the bargane to Avithdraw." Ibid, booke 9. p. 306. " Sa thou me saif, thy pissance is sa stark, The Troianis glorie, nor thare victorye Sail na thing change nor dymynew tharby." Ibid, booke 10. p. 336, ** And at ane hie bahi teyt up sche has With ane loupe knot ane stark corde or lace, Quharewith hir self sche spilt with shameful dede." Ibid, booke 12. p. 432, " As fast lock'd up in sleep, as guiltless labour. When it lies starkly in the traveller's bones." Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, act 4. sc. 2. " 1 Boor. Come, English beer, hostess. English beer, by th' belly. " '2 Boor. Stark beer, boy : stout and strong beer. So. Sit down, lads, and drink me upsey-dutch. Frolick and fear not." — Beaumont and Fletcher. ■ Beggars Bush, act 3. sc. 1. 288 OF ADVERBS. [pART 1. Very; Means True. " And it is clere and open that thilke sentence of Plato is very and sothe."— Chaucer. Boecius, boke 4, fol, 241. p. 2. col. 2. It is merely the French adjective Vrai, from the Italian, from the Latin. When this word was first adopted from the French, (and long after,) it was written by them, and .by us, VERA γ ; which they have since corrupted to Vraiy and the English to very. " For if a kynge shall upon gesse Without Λ^ΕΕΑΥ cause drede. He maie be liche to that I rede." Goiver, lib. 7. fol. 162. p. 2. col. 2. " Constantyne thensample and myrrour To princes al, in humble buxumnesse To holy churche ο veray sustaynour." Prologue to Cant. Tales. " But as Christe was, whan he was on lyue, So is he there verament " — (vraiment). Plowmans Tale, fol. 99. p. 2. col. 1. " Ο thou, my chyld, do lerne, I the pray, Vertew and veray labour to assay." Douglas, booke 12. p. 425. " Disce, puer, virtutem ex me Veriivfique laborem : Fortunam ex aliis ^" — Virgil. Once. At once. Twice. Thrice. Antiently written anes, anis, anys, ones, onys, twies, ' The word Aliis in this passage, should in a modern version be translated Lord Grenville, Mr. Rose, Mr. Dundas, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Pitt, Lord Liverpool, &c. — Avho only assert modestly (what our pilfer- ing stewards and bailiffs will shortly tell us), that they hold their emoluments of office by as good a title, as any man. in England holds his private estate and fair-earned property ; and immediately ?StQX prove to us, that they hold by a much better title. — Their proof is, for the present only a triple or quadruple (they may take half or two thirds of our income next year) additional assessment upon our innocent pro- perty ; whilst their guilty emoluments of office (how earned we know) remain untouched. CM. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 289 TWYis, TWYisE, THRiES,THRYis, &c. are merely the Genitives^ of Άηβ, Άη, Τ\;Λΐ, Tpa, Tpej, Tpi^, Djii, Djiy, 8cc. i. e. O/ze, Two, Three (The substantive TzV^ze, Tarn, &c. omitted). The Itahaii and French have no correspondent adverb : they say Uiie fo'is, deux /ois, Una volta, due volte, &c. The Dutch have Eens for the same purpose ; but often forgo the advantage. ** For ONES that he hath ben bUthe He shal ben after sorie thries." Gower, \\h. b.iol. 111. ^. \. cq\. \. " For as the wylde wode rage Of wyndes maketh the sea sauage. And that was caulme bringeth to wawe. So for defaut and grace of lawe The people is stared all at ones." Ibid. lib. 7. fol. 166. p. 1. col. 1. " Ye wote yovr selfe, she may not wedde two At ones." — Knyghtes Tale, fol. 5. p. 2. col. 2. " Sythen Christ went neuer but onys To weddyng."— IFy/e of Bathe, Prol. fol. 34. p. 1. col. 1. ** And first I shrew myself, both blode and bones. If thou begyle me ofter than ones." Nomies Priest, fol. 91. p. 1. col. 1. "Sen Pallas myclit on Grekis tak sic wraik, To birn thare schyppis, and all for anis saik Droun in the seye." — Douglas, booke 1. p. 14. " My faddir cryis, How ! feris, help away, Streik airis attanis with al the force je may." Ibid, booke 3. p. 8. " The feblit breith ful fast can bete and blaw, Ne gat he lasare anys his aynd to draw." — Ibid, booke 9. p. 307. "■ Thries she turned hir aboute And thries eke she gan downe loute." Goiver, lib. 5. fol, 105. p. 1. col. 1. 1 [See Mr. Price's note (^^) in p. 493 of his Edition of Warton's His- tory of English Poetry, 8vo. Λ^οΐ. ii. Appendix ; and Mr, Stephenson's note in Boucher's Glossary, v. Anes, Atwyx, &c. Grimm points out a distinction between the genitival eines and the abstract einst, ' olim,' of the old German, still existing in the Swiss dialect, and probably in our provincial one'st, yanst. See Grammat. iii. 227, 228 ; Zahlad- verbia ; and Additional Notes.— Ed.] υ 290 OF ADVERBS. [PAKT I. " She made a cercle about hym thries, And efte with fire of sulphur twies." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 105. p. 2. col. 2. " That hath been twyse hotte and twyse colde." Chaucer, Cokes Prol. fol. 17. p. 2. col. 2. *' For as Senec sayth : He that ouercometh his hert, ouercometh TWisE." — Tale of Chaucer, fol. 82. p. 2. col. 2. " In gold to graif thy fall twyis etlit he, And TWYisE for reuth failjeis the faderis handis." Douglas, booke 6. p. 163. " He sychit profoundlye owthir twyis or thryis." Ibid, booke 10. p. 349. Atwo. Athree. On tpa. On ^py. In Uvo ; In three. The Dutch have Intween ; the Danes Itii. " And Jason swore, and said ther, That also wis God hym helpe. That if Medea did hym helpe, That he his purpose might wynne, Thei shulde neuer part atwynne^" Gower, lib. 5. fol. 102. p. 2. col. 1. " That death us shulde departe atwo." lUd. lib. 4. foL 84. p. 1. col. 1. " And eke an axe to smyte the corde atwo." Myllers Tale, fol. 14. p. 1. col. 1. " Ne howe the fyre was couched fyrst with Stre, And than with drye stickes clouen athre." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 11. p. 1. col. 1. Alone. Only. All-one, One-like, in the Dutch, Een is one : All-een, alone: and AU-een-lyhj only. "So came she to him priuely, And that was, wher he made his mone, Within a gardeine all him one." Goiver, lib. 1. fol. 25. p. 2. col. 1. " The sorowe, doughter, which I make. Is not ALL onely for my sake. But for the bothe, and for you all." Ibid. lib. 1. fol. 25. p. 2. col. 2. * ["Thevailof the temple was rent Μ twain."— M&,tth, xxvii, 51.• — Ed.] CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS. 291 *' All other leches he forsoke, And put him out of auenture Alonly to God's cure." — Goiver, lib. 2. fol. 45. p. 2. col. 2. " And thus full ofte a dale for nought (Saufe ONLICHE of myn owne thought) I am so with my seluen wroth." — Ibid. lib. 3. fol. 47. p. 2. col. 1. " Thre yomen of his chambre there All only for to serue hym were." Ibid. lib. 6. fol. 137. p. 1. col. 2. " For ALL ONELYCHE of gcntiU loue My courte stont all courtes aboue." Ibid. lib. 8. fol. 187. p. 1. col. 2. " Thou wost well that I am Venus, Whiche all onely my lustes seche." Ibid. lib. 8. fol. 187. p. 2. col. 1. Anon. Junius is right. Anon, means In one (subauditur instant j moment f minute). " For I woll ben certayne a wedded man, And that anon in all the hast I can." Marchauntes Tale, fol. 29. p. 1. col. 2. " Than Dame Prudence, without delay or tarieng, sent anone her messanger." — Tale of Chaucer, fol. 82. p. 1. col. 2. All our old authors use anon, for immediately^ imtantly, Mr. Tyrwhitt, vol. 4. note to verse 381 {ProL to Canterb. Tales), says — '' From Pro finnc, 1 suppose, came For the nunc; and so, For the Nonce^. Just as from Ad nunc came anon.'' — I agree with Mr. Tyrwhitt, that the one is just as likely as the other. In the Anglo-Saxon, Άη means One, and On means In : which word On we have in English corrupted to A?i before a vowel, and to A before a consonant ; and in writing and speak- ing have connected it with the subsequent word : and from this double corruption has sprung a numerous race of Adverbs ; 1 [The reader is referred to Mr. Price's explanation of this phrase in his Appendix to Vol. ii. of Warton, 8vo edition, p. 496 ; where he shows it to be " for then aenes," " for the once," by transference of the final consonant of the article in the oblique case theii to the initial vowel of the following word, — as in " at the nende," " at the nale," for " at than (the) end," &c. See also Grimm, iii. 107, in ein : and Boucher's Glossary, v, Atten. — Ed.] u 2 292 OF ADVERBS. [ PART I. which (only because there has not been a similar corruption) have no correspondent adverbs in other languages ^ Thus from On bsej, On niht, On lenje. On bp^be, On haec, On lanbe, On lipe, On mibban, On jiihte, On tpa, On pej; we have Adai/, Anight, Along, Abroad, Aback, Aland, Alive, Amid, Aright, Atwo, Aivay : and from On Άη, ANON. Gower and Chaucer write frequently In one : and Douglas, without any corruption, purely on ane. " Thus sayand, scho the bing ascendis on ane." Douglas, booke 4. p. 124. In a Trice. Skinner, not so happily as usual, says — " In a Trice, fort, a Dan. at reyse, surgerc, se erigere, attollere, q. d. tantillo temporis spatio quanto quis se attollere potest." S. Johnson — ^' believes this word coQies from Trait Fr. corrupted by pronunciation. A short time, an instant, a stroke,'' The etymology of this word is of small consequence; but, I suppose, we have it from the French" Trois : and (in a manner similar to anon) it means- — in the time in which one can count Three — One, Tivo, Three and away. — -Gower writes it Treis. ' " All sodenly, as who saith Treis, Where that he stode in his paleis. He toke him from the mens sight. Was none of them so ware, that might Set eie where he become." — Gower, lib. 1. fol. 24. p. 2. col. 1. The greater part of the other adverbs have always been well understood : such as, Gratis, Alias, Amen, Alamode, indeed, in fact^, Methinks^, Forsooth, Insooth, &c. ^ [Here Mr. Tooke appears to be in error. A collection of them is given by Grimm, under the head (V.) Prcspositionale suhstantivische adverhia ; such as, i?i rihti, omhte, etnvege, d hraut, &c. — Grammat. iii. 144. 155.— Ed.] " But see Grimm, iii. 232-3. 3 [_Met]iinks: — 'it appears to me': Germ, 'mich diinkt." It is the verb impersonal, governing the prefixed pronoun, as Webster correctly says, in the dative : " Dampnith and savith as him thinker — Ploivman's Tale, 2164. The explanation in Richardson's Dictionary, " It thinketh or cau- seth me to think," is absurd, Wachter distinguishes between dunken CH. Χ .] 'OF ADVERBS. Β. — -But I suppose there are some adverbs which are merely cant words ; belonging only to the vulgar ; and which have therefore no certain origin nor precise meaning ; such as SPICK and span, See. Spick, Span. IL — I will not assert that there may not be such ; but I know of none of that description. It is true So Johnson says of Sjyick and Span, that " he should not have expected to find this word authorized by a polite writer." '' Span neiv/' he says, "is used by Chaucer^ and is supposed to come from j^paiinan. To stretch, Saj\ expandere, Lat. whence span. Span neiv is therefore originally used of cloth, new extended or dressed at the clothier's : and spick and span neiv, is, newly extended on the spikes or tenters, it is, how- ever, a low word." in spick and spa?i, hov/evei', there is nothing stretched upon spikes and tenters but the etymolo- gist's ignorance. In Dutch they say Spikspelder-nieuiu. And spyker means a warehouse or magazine. Spil or Spel means a spindle, schiet-spoel, the weaver's shuttle ; and spoelder the and dcnken, which he says Junius has confounded. Is this one of those Avhich Mr. Richardson terras Wachter's " unnecessary distinctions :" See Additional Notes. — Ed.] 1 Chaucer uses it, in the third book of Troylus, fol. 181. p. 2. col. 1. " This is a WOrde for al, that Troylus Was neuer ful to speke of this matere. And for to praysen unto Pandarus The bounte of his right lady dere, And Pandarus to thanke and maken chere. This tale was aye span newe to begynne, Tyl that the nyght departed hem aiwynne." But I see no reason why Chaucer should be blamed for its use ; any more than Shakespeare for using Fire-neio, on a much more solemn occasion. *' Maugre thy strength, youth, place and eminence, Despight thy victor sword, and Fire-new fortune. Thy valour and thy heart, — thou art a traitor," King Lear, act 5. sc. 3. [" Armado is a most illustrious wight, A man oi fire-neiv words, fashion's own knight." Love's Labour's Lost, act i. sc. 1. '^ Ύολχν fire -new stamp of honour is scarce current." Richard III. , act 1. sc. 3.] 294 OF ADVERBS. [PART i. shuttle-thrower. In Dutch, therefore, Spik-spelder-nieuw meB.nSj new from the warehouse and the loom. In German they say — Span-neu and Funckel-neu. Spange means any thing shining; as Fiinckel xiXQdcn^ To glitter or sparkle. In Danish, Funkcehiye, In Swedish, Spitt spangande ny. In English we say Spick and Spari'fiew, Fire-new, Brand- new. The two last Brand and Fire speak for themselves. Spick and Span-new means shining new from the warehouse. Aye. Yea. Yes. B, — You have omitted the most important of all the Ad- verbs — AYE and NO. Perhaps because you think Greenwood has sufficiently settled these points — ^' -^y/' he says, ^' seems to be a contraction of the Latin word Aio, as iV^j/ is of Nego, For our Nay, Nay ; Ay, Ay ; is a plain imitation of Terence's Negat qiiis ? Nego. Ait ? Aio.'' Though I think he might have found a better citation for his purpose — '^ An nata est sponsa praggnans ? Vel ai, vel nega.'' H, — I have avoided aye and no^ because they are two of the most mercenary and mischievous words in the language, the degraded instruments of the meanest and dirtiest traffic in the land. I cannot think they were borrowed from the Ro- mans even in their most degenerate state. Indeed the Italian, Spanish and French' affirmative adverb, Si, is derived from the Latin, and means Be it (as it does when it is called an hypothetical conjunction). But our Aye, or Yea, is the Im- perative of a verb of northern extraction ; and means — -Have it, possess it, enjoy it. And yes, is Ay~es, Have, possess, enjoy that. More immediately perhaps, they are the French singular and plural Imperative Aye and Ayez ; as our cor- ^ The French have another (and their principal) affirmative adverb. Old : which, Menage says, some derive from the Greek ουτοσι, but which he believes to be derived from the Latin Hoc est, instead of which was pronounced Hoce, then Oe, then Oue, then Oi, and finally Ouy. But (though rejected by Menage) Out is manifestly the past participle of Ouir, to hear : and is well calculated for the purpose of assent; for when the proverb says — "Silence gives consent," — it is always understood of the silence, not of a deaf or absent person, but of one who has both heard and noticed the request. CH. Χ.] OF ADVERBS, 295 rupted 0-yes of the cryer, is no other than the French Impe- rative Oyez, Hear, Listen \ Danish, Ejer, To possess, have, enjoy. Eja, Aye or yea. Eje, possession. Ejer, possessor. Swedish, Ega, To possess. Ja, aye, yea. Egare, pos- sessor. German, Ja, aye, yea. Eigener, possessor, owner. Eigen, own. Dutch, Eigenen, To possess. Ja, aye, yea. Eigenschap, Eigendom, possession, property. Eigenaar, owner, proprietor. Anglo-Sax. ^ijen, own. T^jenbe, proprietor, Ά^εη- nyj-j-e, property. Not, No. As little do I think, with Greenwood, that not, or its ab- breviate NO, was borrowed from the Latin ; or, with Minshew, from the Hebrew; or, with Junius, from the Greek. The in- habitants of the North could not wait for a word expressive of dissent, till the establishment of those nations and languages ; and it is itself a surly sort of word, less likely to give way and to be changed than any other used in speech. Besides, their derivations do not lead to any meaning, the only object which can justify any etymological inquiry. But we need not be any further inquisitive, nor, I think, doubtful concerning the origin and signification of not and no, since we find that in the Danish Nodig, and in the Swedish Nodigj and in the Dutch Noode, Node, and No, mean, averse, iimvillhig'^. ι " And after on the daunce went Largesse, that set al her entent For to ben honorable and free. Of Alexander's kynne was she, Her most ioye was ywis. Whan that she yafe, and sayd : Haue this." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 125. p. 2. col. 1. Which might, with equal propriety, have been translated " When she gave, and said yes." 2 M. L'Eveque, in his " Essai sur les rapports de la langue des Slaves avec celle des anciens habitans du Latium," (prefixed to his History of Russia,) has given us a curious etymology of three Latin adverbs ; Avhich I cannot forbear transcribing in this place, as an addi- 296 OF ADVERBS. [PART 1. And ί hope I may now be permitted to have done with Ety- mology : for though, like a microscope, it is sometimes useful to discover the minuter parts of language which would other- tional confirmation of my opinion of the Particles. — " Le changement de I'o en a doit a peine etre regarde comme une alteration. En eifet ces deux lettres ont en Siavon tant d' affinite, que les Russes pronon- cent en a le tiers an moins des syllabes qu'ils ecrivent par un o. " Le mot qui signifioit auparavant (before Terra Λvas used) la surface de la terre ; ce mot en Siavon est pole ; qui par I'affinite de I'o avec Γα, a pu se changer en pale. Ce qui me fait presumer que ce mot se trouvoit aussi en Latin, c'est qu'il reste un verbe qui paroit forme de ce substantif ; c'est le verbe palo ou palaee, errer dans le campagne : FALANS, qui erre de cote et d' autre, qui court les champs. L'adverbe palam tire son origine du meme mot. II signifie manifestement, a de- couvert. Or, qu'est ce qui se fait a decouvert pour des hommes qui habitent des tentes ou des cabannes ? • C'est ce qui se fait en plein champs. Ce mot palam semble meme dans sa formation avoir plus de rapport a la langue Slavonne qu' a la Latine. II semble qu'on disc PALAM pour poLAMi par les champs, a travers les champs. Ce qui me confirme dans cette idee, c'est que je ne me rappelle pas qu'il y ait en Latin d'autre adverbe qui ait une formation semblable, si ce n'est son oppose, clam, qui veut dire secrttement, en cachetic ; et qui me paroit aussi Siavon. Clam se dit pour kolami, et par une contraction tres conforme au genie de la langue Slavonne, klami, au milieu des Pieux : c'est a dire dans des cabannes qui etoient formees de Fieux revetus d'ecorces, de peaux, ou de brarichages. " J'oubliois l'adverbe coram, qui veut dire Devant, en presence. — ' II diifere de palam (dit Ambroise Calepin) en ce qu'il se rapporte seulement a quelques personnes, et palam se rapporte a toutes : il entraine d'ailleurs avec lui I'idee de proximite.' — II a done pu marquer autrefois que Taction se passoit en presence de quelqu'un dans un lieu circonscrit ou ferme. Ainsi on aura dit coram pour korami, ou, Mejdou Korcmii; parce que la cloture des habitations ^toit souventfaite d'ecorce, Kora." I am the better pleased with M. L'Eveque's etymology, because he had no system to defend, and therefore cannot be charged with that jDartiality and prejudice, of which, after what I have advanced, I may be reasonably suspected. Nor is it the worse, because M. L'Eveque appears not to have known the strength of his own cause : for clam was antiently Avritten in Latin calim : (though Festus, who tells us this, absurdly derives clam from clavibus, " quod his, quse celare vo- lumus, claudimus") and cala was an old Latin word for wood, or logs, or stakes. So Lucilius (quoted by Servius), " Scinde, jDuer, Calam, ut caleas." His derivation is also still further analogically fortified by the Danish correspondent adverbs : for in that language Geheim, geheimt, I Hemmelighed, (from Hiem home,) and / enrum (i. e. in a room) sujiply the place of Clam, and Fordagen (or, in the face of day) supplies the place of Falam. en, χ.] OF ADVERBS. 297 wise escape our sight ; yet is it not necessary to have it always in OUT hands, nor proper to apply it to every object. B. — If your doctrine of the Lideclinables (which I think we have now pretty well exhausted) is true, and if every word in all languages has a separate meaning of its own, why have you left the conjunction that iindecyphered ? Why content yourself with merely saying it is an Article, whilst you have left the Articles themselves unclassed and unexplained ? H. — I would fain recover my credit with Mr. Burgess, at least upon the score of Viherality. For the freedom (if he pleases, harshness) of my strictures on vaj ^^ predecessors on the subject of language" I may perhaps obtain his pardon, when he has learned from Montesquieu that — ^' Rien ne recule plus le progres des connoissances, qu'un ma^ivais ouvrage d'un auteur celebre : parcequ'avant d'instruirCj il faut de- tromper :" or from Voltaire, that' — ^' La faveur prodiguee aux mauvais ouvrages, est aussi contraire aux progres de I'esprit, que le dechainement contre les bons." But Mr. Burgess him- self has undertaken to explain the Prouoinis : and if I did not leave the field open to him (after his undertaking) he might perhaps accuse me of illiberality towards niy folloiuers also. I hope the title will not offend him ; but I vv^ill venture to say that, if he does any thing with the pronouns, he must be con- tented iofoUoiD the etymological path which I have traced out for him. Now^ the Articles, as they are called, trench so closely on the Pronouns^ that they ought to be treated of to- gether : and I raiher chuse to leave one conjunction unex- plained, and my account of the Articles imperfect, than fore- stall in the smallest degree any part of Mr. Burgess's future discovery. There is room enough for both of us. The garden of science is overrun with weeds ; and whilst every coxcomb in literature is anxious to be the importer of some new exotic, the more humble, though (at this period of human knowledge especially) more useful business of sarculation (to borrow an exotic from Dr. Johnson) is miserably neglected. B. — If you mean to publish the substance of our conversa- tion, you will probably incur more censure for the subject of your inquiry, than for your manner of pursuing it. It will be said to be virep ovov σκιάς, Η. — I know for what building I am laying the foundation: ' 298 OF ADVERBS. [pART 1. and am myself well satisfied of its importance. For those who shall think otherwise, my defence is ready made ; ** Se questa materia non e degna. Per esser piu leggieri, D' un huom che voglia parer saggio e grave, Scusatelo con questo ; che s' ingegna Con questi van pensieri Fare il suo tristo tempo piu suave : Perche altrove non have Dove voltare il viso ; Che gli e stato interciso Mostrar con altre imprese ultra virtuteJ" END OF THE FIRST PART. ΕΠΕΑ ΠΤΕΡΟΕΝΤΑ, PART Π. το MESSIEURS JAMES HAYGARTH. THOMAS HARRISON. EDWARD HALE. THOMAS DRANE. MATTHEW WHITING. NORRISON COVERDALE. ROBERT MAIRIS. WILLIAM COOKE. CHARLES PRATT. MATTHIAS DUPONT. WILLIAM HARWOOD HENRY BULLOCK. } To you, Gentlemen of my Jury, I present this small portion of the fruits of your integrity ; which decided in my favour the Bill of Chancery filed against my life^ ; And to my learned Counsel, THE HON. THOMAS ERSKINE. VICARY GIBBS, Esq. ; And their Assistants, HENRY DAMPIER, Esq. FELIX VAUGHAN, Esq. JOHN GURNEY, Esq. 1 [These three were challenged hy the Attorney- General.] 2 The fears of my printer* (which I cannot call unfounded, in the present degraded state of the press) do not permit me to expose (as ought to he done) the circumstances producing, preceding, accompany- ing, and following my strange trial of six days for High Treason ; or to make any remarks on the important changes which have taken place in our criminal legal proceedings ; and the consequent future (inse- curity) of the lives of innocent English suhjects. [* Mr, Deodatus Bye. — Ed.] ''De moy \Oyant n'estre faict aulcun prix cligne d'oeuvre, et consi- derant par tout ce tres-noble royaulme iing chascun aujourd'huy soy instamment exercer et travailler, part a la fortification de sa jDatrie, et la deffendre i i^art au repoulsement des ennemis, et les oifendre — le tout en police tant belle, en ordonnance si mirificque, et a proufit, tant Evident pour Fadvenir. Par doncques n'estre adscript et en ranc mis des nostres en partie offensive, qui m'ont estime trop imbecille et im- potent : de I'aultre qui est defFensive n'estre employe aulcunement : ay impute a honte plus que mediocre, estre veu spectateur ocieux de tant vaillans, diserts et chevalereux personaiges qui en veue et spectacle de toute Europe jouent ceste insigne Fable et Tragique- come die, ne m'esver- tuer de moy-mesme, et non y consommer ce rien mon tout, qui me restoit." — Rabelais, Prol. to 3rd book : edit. Du Chat. 1741. *' The better please, the worse despise, I aske no more." Last line of the Epilogue to the Shepheards Calender. ΕΠΕΑ ΠΤΕΡΟΕΝΤΑ, PART Π. CHAPTER I. RIGHTS OF MAN. F\ But your Dialogue, and your Politics, and your bitter Notes- jff. — -Cantantes, my dear Burdett, minus via leedit. F, — Cantantes, if you please ; but bawling out the Rights of Man, they say, is not singing. H. — To the ears of man, what music sweeter than the Rights of man? F. — Yes. Such music as the whistling of the wind before a tempest. You very well know what these gentlemen think of it. You cannot have forgotten '* Sir, Whenever I hear of the word rights, I have learned to consider it as preparatory to some desolating doctrine. It seems to me, to be productive of some wide spreading ruin, of some wasting desolation."- — Canning's Speech. And do you not remember the enthusiasm with wdiich these sentiments were applauded by the House, and the splendid rewards which immediately followed this declaration? For no other earthly merit in the speaker that CEdipus himself could have discovered. H. — It is never to be forgotten. Pity their ignorance. F. — Punish their wickedness. II. — We shall never, I believe, differ much in our actions, 1 [The persons of the dialogue : H, the author ; F. Sir Francis Bur - dett, Bart,— Ed.] 302 RIGHTS OF MAN. [PART II. wishes or opinions. I too say with you — Punish the wicked- ness of those mercenaries who utter such atrocities : and do you, with me^ pity the ignorance and folly of those regular go- vernments who reward them : and who do not see that a claim of RIGHTS by their people, so far from treason or sedition, is the strongest avowal they can make of their subjection : and that nothing can more evidently shew the natural disposition of mankind to rational obedience, than their invariable use of this word right, and their perpetual application of it to all which they desire, and to every thing which they deem excel- lent. F. — I see the wickedness more plainly than the folly ; the consequence staring one in the face : for, certainly, if men can claim no rights, they cannot jz^si/y complain of any wrongs. H, — Most assuredly. But your last is almost an identical proposition ; and you are not accustomed to make such. What do you mean by the words right and wrong? F. — What do I mean by those words ? What every other person means by them. H. — And what is that ? F, — Nay, you know that as well as I do. H. — Yes. But not better : and therefore not at alL F. — Must we always be seeking after the meaning of words ? FI, — Of important w^rds we must, if vv^e wish to avoid im- portant error. The meaning of these words especially is of the greatest consequence to mankind ; and seems to have been strangely neglected by those who have made the most use of them. F. — The meaning of the word right ? — Why — It is used so variously, as substantive, adjective, and adverb; and has such apparently different significations (i think they reckon between thirty and forty), that I should hardly imagine any one single explanation of the term would be applicable to all its uses. We say— A man's right. A right conduct. A right reckoning. A right line. The right road. To do RIGHT. To be in the right. CH. I.] RIGHTS OF MAN, 303 To have the right on one's side. The RIGHT hand. Right itself is an abstract idea: and, not referring to any sensible objects, the terms which are the representatives of abstract ideas are sometimes very difficult to define or explain. H. — Oh ! Then you are for returning again to your conve- nient abstract ideas ; and so getting rid of the question. F. — No. I think it worth consideration. Let us see how Johnson handles it. He did not indeed acknowledge any rights of the people ; but he was very clear concerning Ghosts and Witches, all the mysteries of divinity, and the sacred, indefeasible, inherent, hereditary rights of Monarchy, Let us see how he explains the term. Right ■ Right Right- No. He gives no explanation^:• — Except of right hand. H, — How does he explain that ? F. — He says, right hand means -^' Not the Left.^' H. — You must look then for left hand. What says he there ? F. — He says — left- ^^ sinistrousy Not right.'* H. — Aye. So he tells us again that right is — '^ Not wrong/' and w^rong is — '' Not right^.'' But seek no further for intelligence in that quarter; where nothing but fraud, and cant, and folly is to be found— mis- * Johnson is as bold and profuse in assertion, as he is shy and sparing in explanation. He says that right means — ** True." Again, that it means — "passing true judgment," and — "passing a judgment according to the truth of things." Again, that it means — "Happy." And again, that it means — " Perpendicular." And again, that it means — " In a great degree." All false, absurd, and impossible. - Our lawyers give us equal satisfaction. Say they—" Droit est, ou lun ad chose que fuit tolle d'auter per Tort ; le challenge ou le claim de luy que doit aver ceo, est terme droit." " Right is, where one hath a thing that was taken from another wrongfully ; the challenge or claim of him that ought to have it, is called right." — Termes de la Ley. [See how Dr. Taylor sweats, in his chapter of law and right, in his Elements of Civil Law. " Jus is an equivocal word, and stands for many senses according to 304 RIGHTS OF MAN. [pART II* leading, mischievous foliy ; because it has a sham appearance of labour, ieaniino;, and piety. Right is no other than UECΎ-um (Regifum), the past par- ticiple of the Latin verb Regere\ Whence in Italian you have RiTTo ; and from Oirigerej diritto, dritto : whence the French have their antient droict, and their modern droit. The Italian dritto and the French droit being no other than the past participle Direct-nm^. its different use and acceptation. Some la\vyers reckon up near forty. From whence it follows that the Emperor and his lawyers, who begin their works with definition, would have done better, if they had pro- ceeded more philosophico, and distinguished before they had defined. " Therefore in this great ambiguity of signification, what relief can be expected, must be had from the most simple and natural distribu- tion ; and this is what I am endeavouring." — Taylor's Elements of Civil Law, p. 40. " Jum operam daturam, prius nosse oportet, unde nomen Juris descendat." — lb. p. bo. " Jus generale est : sed Lex juris est species. Jus ad non scripta etiam pertinet. Leges ad Jus scriptum." So says Servius, ad Virg. 1. JEaM. 511. In this Dr. Taylor thinks Servius mistaking. I think the Doctor greatly mistaking, and Servius a good expositor.] 1 It cannot be repeated too often, that, in Latin, g should always be pronounced as the Greek Γ ; and c as the Greek K. If Regere had been pronounced in our manner, i. e. Redjere; its past participle would have been Redjitum, RetcJitum, not Rectum. And if Facer e, instead of Fakere, had been pronounced Fassere ; its past participle would have been Fassitum, Fastwn ; not Fakitum, Faktum. [^XEIP, Manus. Xeip-€iv — Xeip-epe, i. e. Ger-ere. Rem, or Res- gerere, Re-gerere — Re-gere. So Gerere — Gessi — Re-gessi, Regsi, Rexi. " Et quidem, initio civitatis nostree, populus, sine Lege certa, sine Jure certo, primum agere instituit ; omniaque manu a regibus guber- nabantur." Lis. lib. 1. Tit. 2. lex 2. § 1. " Manus (says Dr. Taylor) is generally taken for power or author- ity, for an absolute, despotic, or unlimited controul. So Cicero (pro Quintio) — ' Omnes quorum in alterius manu vita posita est, seepius iliud cogitant, quod possit is, cujus in ditione et potestate sunt, quam quid debeat, facere.' And Seneca (iii Controv.) — * Nemo potest alium in sua manu habere, qui ipse in aliena est.' To bring home the word therefore, and to our purpose, manus, when api^lied to govern- ment, is that arbitrary kind of administration, which depends rather upon the Avill of one, than the consent of many." — Taylor's Elements of Civil Law, p. 6.] [The following are from ^Ifric's glossary : " Fas, Gobej^ jiiht. Jus, manifc piht. Jus naturale, Gecynbe piht. Jus publicum, Ealbojimanna piht. Jus Quiritum, ]7eala j-unbeji piht." — En.] 3 This important word Rectum is unnoticed by Vossius, And of CH. I.] RIGHT3 OF MAN. 305 In the same manner our English word just is the past participle of the vevhjiibere^, the etymology of Justum he himself hazards no opinion. What ho collects from others concerning Rego and Jus, will serve to let the reader know what sort of etymology he may expect from them on other occasions. " Rego, et Rea^ (quod ex Regis contractum) quibusdam placet esse a ρεζω, id est, facio. Isidorus Regem ait dici a recte agendo. Sed hiec Stoica est allusio. Nam planum est esse a Rego. Hoc Caninius et Nunnesius non absurde pro Rago dici putant : esseque id ab «/^χω, κατά μεταΰεσιν. Sed imprimis assentio doctissimo Francisco Junio, qui suspicatur Rego, omniaque ejus conjugata, venire a nomine Rag, quod Babyloniis Regem notabat, &c. " Jus forense a juvando aut jubendo dici putant. Alii jus quidem culinariuni ΐΐ juvando deducunt ; forense autem ^juhendo. Recentiores quidam mirificas originationes commenti sunt. Sane Franciscus Co- nanus jus civile dici ait a juxta ; quia/w^-ia legem sit, et ei adsequetur et accommodetur, veluti suae regulae : quod etiam etymon adfert Jod. de Salas. At Galeotus Martins et Franciscus Sanctius tradunt, jus prima sua significatione signare olera aut pultem : sed quia in ccnviviis pares unicuique partes dabantur, ideo metaphorice jus vocatum, quod suum unicuique tribuit. Scipio Gentilis scribit — cum prisci in agris viverent, SEepeque infirmiores opprimerentur a potentioribus, eos qui aiEcerentur, ad misericordiam excitandam lov ιω solitos exclamare. Vult igitur ab lov, Jous (ut veteres loquebantur) dictum esse ; quia infir- miotics ?iil nisi jus cupiant atque expostulent. *' Alteram quoque ετυμολογία)/ idem adfert ; ut a Jove sit jus ; quem- admodum Grsecis ^ίκη (ut aiunt) quasi Aios κονρη, Jovis filia. Sane verisimilior haec etymologia, quam prior ; quam et ii sequuntur, qui iows dici volunt quasi Jovis Os ; quia nempe id demum justimi sit, quod Deus sit profatus." 1 [" Quod si populorum Jussis, si principum decretis, si sententiis judicum Jura constituerentur." — Cicero de Leg. lib. 1. 5. " Quiperniciosaetinjusta populis Jussa descripserint." — Ibid. 1. 16. *' The old Romans used iusa [i. e. lussa] for what we now write jura. Quinctilian, 1 — 7, says the same." See Dr. Taylor, Civil Law, p. 42. " Nel principio del mondo, sendo li habitatori rari vissono un tempo dispersi a similitudine delle bestie : dipoi multiplicando la generazione, si ragunorno insieme, et per potersi megiio difendere, cominciarno a riguardare fra loro, quello che fusse piu robusto et di maggior' cuore, et fecionlo come capo, et I'obedivano. Da questo nacque la cognizione delle cose honeste et buone, differenti dalle pernitiose et ree : perche veggendo che se uno noceva al suo benefattore, ne veniva odio et com- passione tragli huomini, biasmando gli ingrati et honorando quelli che fussero grati, et pensando ancora che quelle medesime ingiurie potevano essere fatte a loro ; per fuggire simile male, si riducevano a fare leggi, ordinare punizioni a chi contra facesse ; donde venne la cognizione della Justitia."-~-MaccIiiavelli, Discorsi sopra Tito Livio, lib. 1. cap. 2.] X 306 RIGHTS OF MAN. [PART II. Decree, edict, statute, institute, mandate, pre- cept, are all past participles. F. — What then is LAW ? H- — In our antient books it was written Laughj Lagh, Lage, and Ley ; as Inlaughj Utlage, Hinidred-Lagh, &c. It is merely the past tense and past participle Laj or Lsej^, of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb λ/ΐΓ^Λ^? Lecjan, ponere : and it means (something or any thing. Chose, Cosa, Aliquid) Laid down — as a rule of conduct. Thus, When a man demands his right ; he asks only that which it is Ordered he shall have. A RIGHT conduct is, that which is Ordered, A RIGHT reckoninp' is, that which is Ordered. A RIGHT line is, that which is Ordered or directed — (not a random extension, but) the shortest between two points. The RIGHT road is, that Ordered or directed to be pursued (for the object you have in view)^. To do RIGHT is, to do that which is Ordered to be done. To be in the right is; to be in such situation or circum- stances as are Ordered, To have right or law on one's side is, to have in one's favour that which is Ordered or Laid dotuu. A right and just action is, such a one as is Ordered and commanded. A JUST man is, such as he is commanded to be — qui Leges Juraque servat^ — who observes and obeys the things Laid dow7i and commanded. 1 [On ^am pip bocum (5e GQoypep appac Leuiticup ip peo Spibbe. Nu- mepup peoji^e. peo pipte yp gehacen Deutepionomium. ^xt yp o^ep LAEU. — jElfric. De Veteri Testamento.'] - [" All keepe the broad high way, and take delight With many rather for to goe astray, And be partakers of their evill plight, Then with a few to walke the rightest way." Spenser s Faerie Queene, booke 1. canto 10. stanza 10.] 3 It will be found hereafter that the Latin Lex (i. e. Legs) is no other than our ancestors' past participle Lsej. But this intimation (though in its proper place here) comes before the reader can be ripe for it. In the mean time he may, if he pleases, trifle Avith Vossius, concern- ing Lex : ** Lex, ut Cic. 1 de Leg. et Varro, v, de L. L, testantur, ita dicta ; CH. I.] RIGHTS OF MAN. 307 The RIGHT hand is, that which Custom and those who have brought us up have Ordered or directed us to use in preference, when one hand only is employed : and the left hand is, that which is Leaved^ ILeav'd, Left ; or, which we are taught to Leave out of use on such an occasion. So that LEFT, you see, is also a past participle. P.— But if the laws or education or custom of any country should order or direct its inhabitants to use the left hand in preference ; how would your explanation of right hand apply to them ? And I remember to have read in a voyage of De Gama's to Kalekut, (the first made by the Portuguese round Africa,) that the people of Melinda, a polished and flourish- ing people, are SiW Left-kaiided\ H. — With reference to the European custom, the author describes them truly. But the people of Mehnda are as Right-handed as the Portuguese : for they use that hand in quia Legi soleat, quo omnibus innotescat. Sunt quibus a Legendo quidem dici placeat ; sed quatenus Legere est Eligere. Augustinus, sive alius, in qusest. Novi Testam. ' Lex ab Electione dicta est, ut e multis quod eligas sumas.' Aliqui etiam sic dici volunt, non quia populo Legeretur, cum ferretur : — quod verum etymon putamus : — sed quia scriberetur, Legendaque proponeretur. At minime audiendus Thomas, qusest. xc. art. 1. ubi legem dici ait a Ligando. Quod etymon plerique etiam Scholasticorum adferunt." [" Lex (says Dr. Taylor in his Civil Lcm) is a general term, inclu- ding every law enacted by a proper authority." — p. 146. The Greek words No/.ios and Qea^os have similar derivations from Nejuw, rego ; and Ύίθημι, pono. In page 147, Dr. Taylor says — " Lex, in the large idea of it, in- cludes every law enacted by a proper authority, and is applicable to the Law of Nature, as well as the Civil Law ; and to customary, or unwritten law, with the same propriety, as to written. It means a Rule, a Precept, or Injunction : a number or system of which, as we have seen above, gives us the idea of Jus." " Hac LEGE tibi meam adstringo uaem."— Terence, Eunuch. " Ea LEGE atque omine, ut, si te inde exemerim, ego pro te molam." Terence, Andr. See Dr. Taylor, how he boggles, p. 151.] 1 [" When the Grecians write, or calculate with counters, they carry the hand from the left to the right ; but the -^Egyptians, on the con- trary, from the right to the left : and yet pretend, in doing so, that X 2 308 BIGHTS OF MAN. [PART II. preference which is Ordered by their custom, and Leave out of employ the other ; which is therefore their left hand ^ F. — Surely the word right is sometimes used in some their line tends to the right, and ours to the left.'' — Littlebury's Trans- lation of Herodotus, Euterpe, hook 2. p. 158. ** Boys crown'd the beakers high With wine delicious, and from right to left Distributing the cups, served ev'ry guest." Cowpers Iliad, vol. 1. ed. 2. p. 29. ** -He from right to left Rich nectar from the beaker drawn alert Distributed to all the powers divine." Ibid. vol. 1. ed. 2. p. 35. " Then thus Eupithes' son Antinoiis spake. From right to left, my friends ! as wine is given, Come forth, and in succession try the bow." Cowpers Odyssey, vol. 2. book 21. p. 230.] ^ [In the 8th canto of the 1st book of the Faerie Queene, Spenser in the 10th stanza tells us, that Arthur, in his combat with the giant, '' smott off his left arme." *' ' With blade all burning bright He smott off his left arme, which like a block Did fall to ground." — Faerie Queene, booke 1. canto 8. st. 10. After which he tells us, in the 17th and 18th stanzas, that this same giant, " -all enraged with smart and frantick yre, Came hurtling in full fiers, and forst the knight retyre. The force, which wont in two to be disperst, In one alone left hand he now unites. Which is through rage more strong than both were erst." Ibid, booke 1. canto 8. st. 18. This force in the left hand, after the left arme had been smitten off, puzzled the editors of Spenser ; accordingly in four editions, kight hand is substituted for left. On this last passage Mr, Church says, — " So the first and second editions, the folio of 1609, and Hughes's first edition, read: which is certainly wrong ; for it is said, st. 10, ' He smott off his left arme ' — I read with the folios 1611, 1679, and Hughes's second edition, — • RIGHT HAND." On Λvh^ch Note Mr. Todd says,—" Mr. Church, I believe, has fol- lowed too hastily the erring decision of those editions Avhich read — RIGHT HAND. The poet means left as a participle : the giant has now but one single hand left ; in which, however, he unites the force of CH. Ir] RIGHTS OF MAN. 309 other sense. And see, in this Newspaper before us*, M. Portalis, contending for the Concordat, says — '^ The multitude are much more impressed with what they are commanded to obey, than what is proved to be right and just." This will be complete nonsense, if right and just mean Ordered and commanded. H. — I will not undertake to make sense of the arguments of M. Portalis. The whole of his speech is a piece of wretched mummery employed to bring• back again to France the more wretched mummery of Pope and Popery. Writers on such subjects are not very anxious about the meaning of their words. Ambiguity and equivocation are their strong holds. Explana- tion would undo them. F. — Well, but Mr. Locke uses the word in a manner hardly to be reconciled with your account of it. He says — *' God has a RIGHT to do it, we are his creatures." H. — It appears to me highly improper to say, that God has a RIGHT : as it is also to say, that God is just. For nothing- is Ordered, directed or commanded concerning God. The ex- pressions are inapplicable to the Deity ; though they are com- mon, and those who use them have the best intentions. They are applicable only to men ; to whom alone language belongs, and of whose sensations only Words are the representatives ; to men who are by nature the subjects of Orders and com- mands^, and whose chief merit is obedience. F. — Every thing then that is Ordered and commanded is RIGHT and just ! two. Mr. Upton's edition, and Tonson's of 1758, follow the original reading — In one alone left hand." Mr. Todd has well explained the meaning of the passage ; but is not at all aware that left is equally a participle in both its applica- tions. But Mr. Todd no where shows himself a Conjurer.] 1 Morning Chronicle, Monday, April 12, 1802. 2 What Ariosto fabled of his horses, is true of mankind : *' Si che in poche ore fur tutti montati, Che con sella e confreno erano nati." Orl. Fur. canto 38. st. 34. 310 RIGHTS OF MAN. [PART II. H, — -Surely. For that is only affirming that what is Or* dered and commanded, ϊ^— Ordered and commanded . F. — Now what becomes of your vaunted rights of man? According to you, the chief merit of men is obedience : and whatever is Ordered and commanded is right and just ! This is pretty well for a Democrat ! And these have always been your sentiments ? H, — Always. And these sentiments confirm my demo- cracy. jP.— These sentiments do not appear to have made you very conspicuous for obedience. There are not a few passages, I believe, in your life, where you have opposed v/hat was Or- dered and commanded. Upon your own principles, was that right? if.— Perfectly. P. — How now ! Was it Ordered and commanded that you should oppose what was Ordered and commcmded Ί Can the same thing be at the same time both right and w rong ? H, — ^Travel back to Melinda, and you will find the diffi- culty most easily solved. A thing may be at the same time both right and wrong, as well as right and left^ It may be commanded to be done, and commanded not to be done. The Law, Lagj, La^, i.e. That which is I^aid doicn, may be different by different authorities. ^ [Dr. Taylor, in his Elements of Civil Laio, erroneously condemns Ulpian's Definition of the Law of Nature. The Doctor's error springs from his not having been aware of the meaning of the words jus, rec- tum, LEX. " Jus naturale est quod Natura omnia animalia docuit." Digest, book 1. tit. 1. law 1. parag. 3. Instead of docuit, he might have said jussit.] 2 In an action for damages the Counsel pleaded,—" My client was travelling from Wimbledon to London : he kept the left side of the road, and that was right. The plaintiff was travelling from London to Wimbledon : he kept the right side of the road, and that was WRONG." " The rule of the road is a paradox quite. In driving your carriage along. If you keep to the left, you are sure to go right ; If you keep to the right^ you go wrong." CH. II.] OF ABSTRACTION. 311 I have always been most obedient v/hen most taxed with disobedience. But my right hand is not the right hand of Mehnda. The right I revere is not the right adored by sycophants; the Jus vagiim, the capricious command of princes or ministers. I follow the law of God (what is Laid down by him for the rule of my conduct) when I follow the laws of human nature ; which, without any human testimony, we know must proceed from God: and upon these are founded the RIGHTS of man, or what is ordered for man. I revere the Constitution and constitutional laws of England ; because they are in conformity with the laws of God and nature : and upon these are founded the rational rights of Englishmen. If princes or ministers or the corrupted sham representatives of a people, order, command, or lai/ down any thing contrary to that which is ordered, commanded or laid down by God, human nature, or the constitution of this government ; I will still hold fast by the higher authorities. If the meaner authorities are offended, tliey can only destroy the body of the individual ; but can never affect the right, or that which is ordered by their superiors \ CHAPTER II. OF ABSTRACTION. F. — Well, Well. I did not mean to touch that strincr which vibrates with you so strongly : I wish for a different sort of 1 ['* Qusedam juka non scripta, sed omnibus scriptis certiora." — Seneca (the father) I. Controv, 1. quoted by Dr. Taylor in his Elements of Civil Law, p. 241. Custom. " Ante Legem Moysi scriptam in tabuHs lapideis, legem fuisse con- tendo non scriptam, quse naturaliter intelligebatur ; et a patribus custo- diebatur." — Tertullian. adversus Judceos, edit. Rigalt. p. 206.— Also quoted by Dr. Taylor. " No custom: can prevail against right reason, and the Ιαιυ of nature." ■ — Dr. Taylor, Elements of Civil Law, p. 245. Again, p. 246 : " The will of the people is the foundation of custom. But if it be grounded not upon reason, but error, it is not the will of the people. Quoniam non velle videtur, qui erravit."] 312 OF ABSTEACTION. [PART II. information. Your political principles at present are as much out of fashion as your clothes. H. — I know it. I have good reason to know it. But the fashion must one day return, or the nation be undone. For without these principles, it is impossible that the individuals of any country should long be happy, or any society prosperous. F, — I do not intend to dispute it with you. I see evidently that, not He who demands rights, but He who abjures them, is an Anarchist. For, before there can be anything rect-m^^j, there must be Reg-em^ R^g'^j Rex^ i. e. Qui or Quod Reg-it, And I admire more than ever your favourite maxim of — Rex, Lex loquens^; Lex, Rex 7mitus. I acknowledge the senses he has given us — the experience of those senses — and reason (the eiFect and result of those senses and that experience) — to be the assured testimony of God : against which no human testi- 37iony ever can prevail. And I think I can discover, by the help of this etymology, a shorter method of determining dis- putes between well-meaning men, concerning questions of RIGHT : for, if right and just mean ordered and commanded, we must at once refer to the order and command; and to the authority which ordered and commanded. But I wish at present for a different sort of information. Is this manner of explaining right and just and law and droit and dritto peculiarly appHcable to those words only, or will it apply to others ? Will it enable us to account for what is called Ahstraction, and for abstract ideas, whose existence you deny ? H. — 'I think it will : and, if it must have a name, it should rather be called subaudition than abstraction : though I mean not to quarrel about a title. * The following lines have more good sense than metre : " Dum Rex a regere dicatur nomen habere, Nomen habet sine re, nisi studet jura tenere." So Judicans. — Judic's. Judix. Judex. Vindicans. — Vindic's. Vindix. Vindex. Ducens. — Due's. Dux. Indicans. — Indie's. Indix. Index. S'implicans. — SimpHc's. Simplix. Simplex. Duplicans. — Duplic's. Duplix. Duplex. Sup-plicans. — Supplic's. SuppHx. Supplex, &c. - [Buchanan, De Jure Regni apud Scotos.'] CH. II.] OF ABSTRACTION. 313 The terms you speak of, however denominated in construc- tion, are generally (I say generally) Participles or Adjectives used without any Substantive to which they can be joined ; and are therefore, in construction^ considered as Substantives. An Act — (ahquid) Act-wm. A Fact — (aliquid) Fact-wm, A Debt — (aliquid) Debit-iuji. Rent — (ahquid) Rendit-um. rcdditum. Tribute — (aliquid) Tribut-wm.. An Attribute — (aliquid) Attribut-xim. Incense - — (aliquid) Incens-\xxi\. An Expanse — (aliquid) Expans-nm. &c^ Such words compose the bulk of every language. In Eng- lish those which are borrowed from the Latin, French, and Italian, are easily recognized ; because those languages are sufficiently familiar to us, and not so familiar as our own : those from the Greek are more striking ; because more un- usual : but those which are original in our own language have been almost wholly overlooked, and are quite unsuspected. These words, these Participles and Adjectives, not under- stood as such, have caused a metaphysical jargon and a false morality, which can only be dissipated by etymology. And, when they come to be examined, you will find that the ridicule which Dr. Conyers Middleton has justly bestowed upon the Papists for their absurd coinage of Saints, is equally applicable to ourselves and to all other metaphysicians ; whose moral deities, moral causes, and moral qualities are not less ridicu- lously coined and imposed upon their followers. Fate Providence Spirit Destiny Prudence True Luck hmocence False Lot Substance Desert Chance Fiend Merit Accident Angel Fault Lleaven Apostle &c. &c. Hell Saint 1 It will easily be perceived, that we adopt the whole Latin word, omitting only the sequent Latin Article ; because we use a jwecedent Article of our οΛνη. For a similar reason we projDerly say — The Coran, and not the A I- coran. 314 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART H. as well as just, right and wrong ^, are all merely Participles poetically embodied^ and substantiated by those who use them. So Church^, for instance, (Do7ninicum^ aliquid) is an Ad- jective ; and formerly a most wicked one ; whose misinterpre- tation caused more slaughter and pillage of mankind than all the other cheats together. F. — Something of this sort I can easily perceive ; but not to the extent you carry it. I see that those sham deities Fate and Destiny- — aliquid Fatiim, quelque chose Destime — are merely the past participles of Fari and Destiner^, ^ [" These two Princes beyng neighbours, the one at Milan the other at Parma, shewed smal frendshyp the one to the other. But Octavio was evermore wrong to the worse by many and sundry spites."— i?. AscJiams Letters, p, 12,] 2 [KvpiaK-os, -ov> -ol : edifice, or sect, or clergy, &c.] 3 [" Quid enim aliud est fatum, quam quod de unoquoque nostrum Deus Fatus est." — Minucius Feliw, Octavnis. " Id actum est, mihi crede, ab illo, quisquis formator universi fuit ; sive ille Deus est potens omnium ; sive incorporalis Ratio, ingentium operum artifex ; sive divinus spiritus per omnia maxima ac minima sequali intentione diiFusus ; sive fatum et immutabilis caussarum inter se cohserentium Series." — Senecce Consolatio ad Helviam, edit. Lipsii, 4to. 1652. p. 77. . '* On FATE alone man's happiness depends, To parts conceal'd fate's prying pow'r extends : And if our stars of their kind influence fail. The gifts of nature, what will they avail ! " Dry den s Juvenal, Sat, 9. ** 'Tis FATE that flings the dice ; and, as she flings, Of kings makes pedants, and of pedants, kings." — Ihid. Sat, 7. *' And think' st thou Jove himself with patience then Can hear a pray'r condemn'd by wicked men ? That, void of care, he lolls supine in state, And leaves his bus'ness to be done by fate ? " Drydens translation of Persius, Sat. 2. — — — — *' Ε pure Trovasi ancor chi, per sottrarsi a' Numi, Forma un Nume del caso : e vuol cli'il mondo Da una mente immortal retto non sia." Metastasio, Giro riconosciuto, att. 2. sc. 2. " I can giue no certaine iudgement, whether the aff'aires of mortall men are gouerned by fate and immutable necessitie, or haue their course and change by chance and fortune." " Others are of opinion thate fate and destiny may well stand with the course of our actions, yet nothing at all depend of the planets and CH. II.] OF ABSTRACTION. 315 That Chance^ (''high Arbiter^" as Milton calls him) and his twin-brother Accident, are merely the participles of Es- cheoir, Cheoir, and Cadere, And that to say — '^ It befell me by CHANCE, or by accident/'- — is absurdly saying — " It fell by faUing." And that an incident, a case, an escheat, DECAY, are likewise participles of the same verb. 1 agree with you that providence, prudence, inno- cence, SUBSTANCE, and all the rest of that tribe of qualities (in Ence and Ance) are merely the Neuter plurals of the pre- sent participles of Videre, Nocere, Stare, &c. &c. That ANGEL, SAINT, SPIRIT are the past participles of ayyeWeiv, Sanciri, Spirare^. starres ; but proceed from a connexion of natural! causes as from their beginning." — Annales of Tacitus, translated by Greenwey. 1 622. 6 booke. p. 128. ** Oh I come spesso il mondo Nel giudicar delira, Perche gli eifetti ammira, Ma la cagion non sa. Ε chiama poi fortuna Quella cagion che ignora ; Ε il suo difetto adora Cangiato in Deita." Metastasio,IlTempio delV Eternita.'] ' Chance — (Escheance). " The daie is go, the nightes chaunce Hath derked all the bright sonne." Gower, lib. 8. fol. 179. p. 1. col. 2. 2 — " Next him, high Arbiter Chance governs all." — Paradise Lost, book 2. [*• Some think that chance rules all, that nature steers The moving seasons, and turns round the years." Juvenal, Sat. 13. 5y Creech. " Sunt qui in fortun^e jam casibus omnia ponant, Et nuUo credant mundum rectore moveri, Natura solvente vices et lucis et anni." — Juv, Sat. 13. " Queste gran maraviglie falsamente Son state attribuite alia fortuna. Con dir, che in questa cosa ell' e potente Sopra quelle, che son sotto la luna." Orlando Innamorato (da Berni), cant. 8. st. 4.] 3 In the same manner Animus, Anima, Uyevpa, and Ψνχη, are par- ticiples. " Anima est ab Animus. Animus vero est a Graeco Αν€μο$, quod dici volunt quasi Αεμο$, ab Αω, sive Ae^i, quod est Uveo) : et Latinis a 316 OF ABSTRACTION* [PART If. I see besides that adult ^ apt^, and adept are the past participles of Adoleo and Apio. That CANT, CHAUNT, ACCENT, CANTO, CANTATA, are the past participles of CanerCj Cantare and Chanter. That the Italian Ciicolo, a cuckow, gives us the verb To Cucolf (without the terminating d,) as the common people rightly pronounce it, and as the verb was formerly and should still be written. " I am cuckolled and fool'd to boot too." B. and Fletcher, Women pleas' d. " if he be married, may he dream he 's ciickoVdy Ibid. Loyal Subject, To Cucol, is, to do as the cuckow does : and Ciicol-ed, CucoVd, Cucold, its past participle, means Cuckow-edj i. e. Served as the cuckow serves other birds^. spirundo, Spir'itus. Imo et 'Ψνχη est a Ψνχω, quod Hesychius exponit ΤΙνεω. " Animam pro vent ο accipit Horat. * Impellunt Anima; lintea Thraciae.' " Pro Halitu accipit Titinius ; * Interea foetida Anima nasum oppugnat.' " Et Plautus — Asin. act. 5. sc. 11. * Die, amabo, an fcetet Anima uxoris tuEe.' " A posteriori hac significatione interdum bene maleve animatus dicitur, cui Anima bene maleve olet. Sic sane interpretantur quidam illud Varronis, Bimargo : " Avi et atavi nostri, cum allium ac coepe eorum verba olerent, tamen optime animati erant." — Vossii Etym. Lat. " " Adolere proprie est crescere, ut scribit Servius ad Eel. viii. Unde et Adultum pro Adolimn, sive AdoUtum." — Vossii Etym. Lat. - " Apio, sive Apo, antiquis erat Adligo, sive vinculo comprehendo : prout scribit Festus in Apex. Servius ad x. JEn. Isidorus, lib. xix. cap. XXX. Confirmat et Glossarium Arabico-Latinum ; ubi legas — Apio, Ligo. Ab xipio quoque, Festo teste, Aptiis is dicitur, qui convenienter alicui junctus est, &c. " Ah Apio estAjnscor: nam qu?e Apimus, id est, comprehendimus, ea Apiscimur. Ab Apisci, Adipisci, &c." — Vossii Etym. Lat. 3 Nothing can be more unsatisfactory and insipid than the labours (for they laboured it) of Du Cange, Mezerai, Spelman, and Menage, concerning this Avord. Chaucer's bantering etymology is far preferable. •' that opprobrous name cokold ; Ransake 5^et Λνβ wolde if we might Of this worde the trewe ortography. The very discent and ethymology ; ClI. II.] OF ABSTRACTION. 317 A DATE is merely the participle Datum, which was written by the Romans at the bottom of their Epistles. As DEBT [i.e. Debit] is the past participle οι Debere ; so DUE is the past participle of Devoir, and value of Valoir. [" Like as (0 captaine) this farre seeing art Of lingring vertue best beseemeth you, So vigour of the hand and of the hart Of us is lookt, as debet by us dew." Godfrey of Bulloigne, cant. 5. st. 6. translated by R. C. Esq. printed 1594.] Ditto (adopted by us together with the Italian method of The Λνβΐ and grounde of the first inuencion To knowe the ortography we must deryue. Which is COKE and cold, in composycion, By reason, as nyghe as I can contryue, Than howe it is written we knowe belyue, But yet lo, by what reason and grounde Was it of these two wordes compounde. " As of one cause to gyue very iudgement Themylogy let us first beholde, Eche letter an hole worde dothe represent, As c, put for colde, and o, for olde, K, is for knaue, thus diuers men holde. The first parte of this name we haue founde, Let us ethymologise the seconde. " As the first finder mente I am sure C, for Calot, for of, we haue o, L, for Leude, d, for Oemeanure, The crafte of the enuentour ye may se, lo, Howe one name signyfyeth persons two, A colde olde Knaue, cokolde him selfe wening, And eke a Calot of leude demeanyng." Remedye of Loue, fol. 341. p. 2. col. 1. Junius, Vossius and Skinner were equally wide of the mark. *' Inepte autem Celtse, eosque imitati Belgee, cuculum vocant ilium qui, uxorem habens adulteram, alienos liberos enutrit pro suis : nam tales Currucas dicere debemus, ut patet ex natura utriusque avis, et contrario usu vocis cuculi apud Plautum." — Vossii Etym. Lat. " Hi plane confuderunt cuculum et Citrrucam." — Junius. " Certum autem est nostrum cuckold, non a Cuculo ortum duxisse : tales enim non Cuculi sunt, sed Currucce : non sua ova aliis supponunt ; sed e contra, aliena sibi supposita incubant et fovent." — Skinner. The whole difficulty of the etymologists, and their imputation upon us of absurdity, are at once removed by observing, that, in English, we do not call them cuculi, but ciiculati (if I may coin the word on this occasion), i. e. We call them not Cuckoivs but cuckoived. 318 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Bookkeeping), dttty (in imitation of the Italian verses), ban- DITE, BANDETTO, BANDITTI, EDICT, VERDICT, INTERDICT, are past participles of Dicere and Dire. " No savage fierce, bandite, or mountaneer Will dare to soil her virgin purity."— ComM5, ver. 426. ," A Roman sworder and bandetto slaue Murder'd sweet Tully."-^2dPart of Henry VI. Istfol. p. 138. Alert (as well as Erect) is the past participle of Erigere, now in Itahan Ergere : ΑΙΓ erecta, Alt ercta, Alt erta. [*' Rinaldo stava all' erta, attento e accorto." Orlando Innamorato {da Berni), lib. 1. cant. 5. st. 9. ** Fra se pensando il modo e la maniera Di salir sopra al scoglio erto e villano." Ibid. lib. 1. cant. 5. st. 73. " Veggonsi in varie parti a cento a cento Quel, che per Γ alta disastrosa strada Salir Γ eccelso colle anno talento. La difficile impresa altri non bada, Ma tratto dal desio s' inoltra, e sale, Onde avnen poi che vergognoso cada : Altri con forza al desiderio uguale Supera Γ erta." Metastasio, La Strada delta Gloiia, edit. Parigi. 1781. vol. 8. p. 317. " Tu rendi sol la maesta sicura Di sorte rea contro Γ ingiurie usate, Non le fosse profonde, ο Γ erte mura." Metastasio. Edit. 1781. La Puhhtica Felicita, torn. 9. p. 321.] ** II palafren, ch'avea il demonio al iianco, Porto la spaventata Doralice, Che non pote arrestarla fiume, e manco Fossa, bosco, palude, erta, ο pendice." Orlando Furioso, cant. 27. st. 5. " Tu vedrai prima a l' erta andare i fiumi, Ch' ad altri mai, ch' a te volga il pensiero." Ibid. cant. 33. st. 60. ** Chi mostra il pie scoperto, e chi gambetta, Chi colle gambe all' erta e sotterrato." Morgante, cant. 19. st. 173. CH. II.] OF ABSTRACTION. 319 " Or ritorniamo a Pagan, clii stupiti Per maraviglia tenean gli occhi all' erta." Morgante, cant. 24. st. 114. AW ercta (by a transposition of the aspirate) became the French AVherte, as it was formerly written ; and (by a total suppression of the aspirate) the modern French Alerte. S. Johnson says — ^' Alert, adj. [^Alerte Fr. perhaps from Alacris; but probably from A Vart, according to Art, or rule.] '' 1. In the military sense, on guard, watchful, vigilant, ready at a call. *^ 2. In the common sense, brisk, pert, petulant, smart ; implying some degree oi censure and contempt. ^^ By what possible means can any one extract the smallest degree of censure or contempt from this word ? Amyot, at least, had no such notion of it ; when he said — *' C'est une helle et bonne chose que la prevoyance, et d'estre touiours A therte,^' (KaXou δε -η πρόνοια /cai το ασφαλεβ.) most appositely translating ciachaXeQy i.e. not prostrate, not supine, by A Phn..'^ i. e. In an erect posture. See Morales de Plutarque. De I'esprit familier de Socrates. I see that post — aliquid posiT-um (as well as its com- pounds Apposite, Opposite, Composite, Impost, Compost, De- posit, Depot, Repose, and Pause), however used in English, as substantive, adjective, or adverb, As— — ^A POST in the ground, A military post, To take post, A POST under government, The POST for letters. Post chaise or post horses. To travel post, is always merely the past participle of Ponere. And thus, in our present situation, intelligence of the landing of an enemy will probably be conveyed by post : for, whether positis equis, or positis hominibus, or positis ignibus, or positis telegraphs or beacons of any kind ; All will be by Posit or by post. I agree with Salmasius, Vossius, Ferrarius, and Skinner (though Menage feebly contests it), that poltroon and Pal- try are likewise past participles. ** lidem imperatores (scil. Valentinianiis et Valens) statue- 320 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART IT» runt flaminis ultricibiis comburendum eum, qui, ad fugienda sacramenta militiiie, truncatione digitorum damnum, corporis expetisset. IMulti enim illo tempore, quia necessitate ad hel- ium cogebantur, prse ignavia sibi Pol/ices truncabanty ne mili- tarent. Inde Pol/ice truncos hodieque pro ignavis et imbecil- libus dicimus; sed truncata voce poltrones." Similar times, similar practices. We too have many pol- troons in this country ; qui sacramenta militiie fugiunt* for want of rational motive, not want of courage. In October 1795\ '^ One Samuel Caradise, who had been committed to the house of correction in Kendal, and there confined as a vagabond untill put on board a King's ship, agreeable to the Late Act, sent for his Wijef the evening be- fore his intended departure. He was in a Cell, and she spoke to him through the Iron Door. After which he put his hand underneath, and she with a mallet and chissel, concealed for the purpose, struck oft' a finger and thumb, to render him un- fit for his Majesty's service^." I see that close^ a close^ with its diminutive a closet^, a CLAUSE^ a RECLUSE^ a SLUICE, are past participles of Claudere and Clorre, [" The thirty horse should face the house on that side next Notting- ham ; and the foote should march a private way through the closings." — Life of Colonel Hutchinson, pag. 206. The Editor, in a note, says — " Vulg. Notts, closen."] " He rose fro deth to lyfe in his sepulture close." ■^3{A of 0^^' Lady, by Lydgate, p. 59. ' [The Times.'] • There was some affection between this able bodied vagabond and his wife. — (Able bodied was the crime which by the operation of a Late Act, cast him into this Cell with the Iron door.) — To avoid separation they both suhjected themselves to very severe treatment. Some law- yers maintained that they were both liable to death, under the Coven- try Act. The husband and wife w^ould have thought it merciful " To take them both, that it might neither wound." Such a sentence however, in such a case, has not yet, I believe, been put in execution. For a similar performance now, upon a husband in his Majesty's service — (I submit it to the Attorneys general) — might not a wife, by a still Later Act, be condemned to death for this new method of seduction ? Or will a new Statute be necessary (it would soon be made, and may be expected) flammis uitricibus comburendum eum— et earn ? CH. 11.] OF ABSTRACTION. 321 ** And whan the angell from her departed was. And she alone in her tabernacle, Right as the sonne percssheth thorowe the glasse, Thorowe the cristall, berall, or spectacle. Without harme, right so by myracle Into her closet the fathers sapyence Entred is, withouten vyolence Or any wemme unto her maydenhede On any syde, in party or in all." Lyfe of our Lady, by Lydgate, p. 54. Duct, aqueduct, conduct, produce, product, con- duit, of Ducere and Conduire, Fact, effect, defect, prefect, perfect, fit, a fit, PEAT, a FEAT, DEFEAT, COUNTERFEIT, SURFEIT, FORFEIT, BENEFIT, PROFIT, of Faceve and Faire, " Fay the withoute the feate is right nothing worth." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 2. fol. 7. p. 2, Minute and a minute, oi Minuere, There was antiently in our language a minute of money, as well as a minute of time ; and its value was half a Farthing, '^ Ihesu sittinge agens the tresorie bihelde hou the cumpany castide money in to the tresorie, and many riche men castiden manye thingis : sotheli whanne ο pore widewe hadde come, she sente twey mynutis, that is, a FerthingP — Mark xii. 42. '^ Tpejen j-tycas, ^at if, peoji^unj peninjep" " Duo stycae, id est, quadrans denarii.'^ So that a farthing is also a participle, and means merely Fourthing^ or dividing into four parts ^ . And, as there was a minute of money as well as a minute of time ; so was there also a farthing of land, as well as a farthing of money. In our antient Law books a Farding-deale of land means the fourth part of an acre. Whose rent was, in Richard the second's time, so restrained, that for a Farding-deale of land they paid no more than one penny. — Walsingham, p. 270. Promise, compromise, committee, premisses, remiss, surmise, demise, οι Mitt ere. 1 [In the Swedish language Fjerdedcl or Fjerding, means a quaner or di fourth part; viz. of a pound, of an hour, of a mile, &c.J Υ 322 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. An EPISTLE, an apostle and a pore, of Εττ^στελλω, Αττο- στβΧλω and ΤΙβφω. Sect and insect, of Secure ; as tome and atom of Ύβμνω. Point (formerly Poinct), of Pungere. Prompt, exempt, of Promere, Eocimere. Rate, of Reor» Remorse, morsel, of Mordere. Alley, entry, monster, muster {Mostra), army {Ar- mata, Armee), jury, jurat, levy, levee, ally, alliance, liege and allegiance; as well as junto, manifesto, in- cognito, PUNTo, PROVISO, ΜΕΖΖΟΤΙΝΤΟ, COMRADE [Came- rata), favourite (Favorito), and vista, declare themselves at first sight. So tract, extract, contract, abstract, track, trace, TRAIT (formerly Traict), portrait (formerly Pourtraict), TREAT, TREATY, RETREAT, ESTREAT, are the participles of Trahere and Traire. Pulse, impulse, appulse, repulse, of Pe/Zere. Price, PRIZE, CULPRIT, ENTERPRIZE, MAINPRIZE, REPRIZE, SUR- PRISE, REPRIEVE, of Prendre. Event, convent, advent, venue, avenue, revenue, COVENANT, of Venire and Venir. Saute, assault, assailant, insult, result, somerset, of Salire. - — — " put his folke to flyght, And at a saute he wan the cyte after." — Knyghtes Tale, [ " Let him (quoth Godfrey) fetch his sault, And brawles beare other where ; nor I intend. That you more seede here of new quarrels sow. Ah no (for-god) let old strifes also go." Godfrey of Bulloigne, cant. 5. st. 59. tt^anslated hy R. C. Esq. 1594.] Soprasalto, called also Salt ο mortale : i. e. {^' voltando la per- sona sotto sopra senza toccar terra colle mani, ο con altro.^^ Delia Crusca.) which the French haΛ^e corrupted to Soubresaulty and the English to Sumersault, Somersalt, Summersaut, and then to Somerset, ' — " What a soMERSALT, ** When the chair fel, she fetch'd, with her heels upward." B, and Fletcher, Tamer tam'd. CH. II.] OF ABSTRACTION. 323 " Here when the labouring fish doth at the foot arrive, And find that by his strength but vainly he doth strive, His tail takes in his teeth, and bending like a bow That's to the compass drawn, aloft himself doth throw : Then springing at his height, as doth a little wand. That bended end to end, and flirted from the hand. Far off itself doth cast, so doth the salmon vaut. And, if at first he fail, his second summersaut He instantly assays." Poly-olbion, song 6. " Now I will only make him break his neck in doing a somerset, and that's all the revenge I mean to take of him," B. and Fletcher. Fair Maid of the Inn. [" He was the first that more desir'd to haue One then another ; first that ere did craue Loue by mute signes, and had no power to speake ; First that could make Loue faces, or could do The valters sombersalts, or us'd to wooe "With hoiting gambols, his owne bones to breake To make his mistresse merry." — Dr. Donne, p. 24.] QUEST^ INQUEST, REQUEST, CONQUEST, ACQUEST, EXQUI- SITE, REQUISITE, PERQUISITE, of Quccvere. Suit, sute, suite, pursuit, lawsuit, οι Suivre, Strict, district, strait, streights, street, restraint, constraint, of Btringere, Tent, intent, extent, portent, subtense, intense, of Tendere. Succinct, precinct, of Cingere. Verse, rea^erse, converse, universe, traverse, a- verse, adverse, inverse, perverse, transverse, divers, diverse, convert, of Vertere. Ballad, ballet, of Ballare^. Access, recess, excess, process, success, precedent, of Cedere. View, review, interview, counterview, purview, SURVEY, of Voir, Collect, elect, select, intellect, neglect, oi Leg ere. Lash (French Lasche) of a Avhip, i. e. that part of it Avhich is 1 *' Le Ballate dette cosi, perche si cantavano a ΒαϊΙο." Bemho, Volcj. Ling., lib. 2, p. 74. Edit. Venez. 1729. γ 2 324 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. let loose, let go, cast out, thrown out ; the past participle of Fr. Lascher, Ital. Lasciare, " There was dayly pilled fro good men and honest, gret substaunce of goodes to be lashed oute among unthriftes." Sir T. More, Richarde the thirde, p. 62. [" Tindall sawe well also that any thing that his maister Martin Luther layde and lashed out against the kinges hyghnes, &c." Sir T. More's Workes, p. 513. " As among the seuerer sort Vitellius was thought base and demisse, so his fauourers termed it curtesie and godnesse ; because without measure or iudgement he gaue out his owne, lasht out other mens, construing vices for vertues." Historie of Corn. Tacitus, translated by Greenwey, p. 82.] To these may be added Quit, quite, quittance» Poise, (peser)^ Spouse, response. Expert. Merit. False, Fault {fallito), default. Fruit {fruict), Relique, relict, derelict. Vow, vote, devout. Demur {demeurer). Tally. Aspect, respect, prospect, circumspect, retrospect. Suspense. Correct, direct, insurgent. Tenet, content, contents, continent, detinue (Writ of), retinue. ["I gesse that from another head there came The cause of all these stops, and concord torne. Namely, th' authoritie in many wits. And many men that equall peyzed sits." Godfrey of Bulloigne, translated by R. C. 1594. ** Reco ad un' altra originaria fonte La cagion d' ogni indugio, e d' ogni lite, A quella autorita, che in molti, e vari D' opinion, quasi librata, έ pari." Gierusalemme liberata, cant. 1.] ch. ii.] of abstraction• 325 Crucifix, affix, prefix. Decree, discreet, secret. Lapse, relapse. Script^, manuscript, rescript, prescript, exscript, transcript. Conscript, postscript, proscript, nondescript. Use, misuse, disuse, abuse. Course, discourse, concourse, recourse, inter- course. Conceit, deceit, receipt, precept. Finite, infinite, definite, fine. Flux, afflux, influx, conflux, superflux, reflux. Subject, object, abject, project, traject. Degree, graduate, ingress, regress, egress, pro- gress. Legate, delegate, legacy. Instinct, distinct, extinct. Advocate. Visit. Convict. Abstruse. Intrigue, intricate. Transit, exit, circuit, issue. (Fr. Issh\ Ital. Escire, Lat. Eocire.) Roast. Toast. Statute, institute, destitute, prostitute, substi- tute. Tint, taint. Text, context, pretext. Trite, contrite. Tact, contact. Tacit. Illicit. Sense, nonsense, assent, dissent, consent. Assize, assizes. Excise^, concise, precise. 1 " Do you see this sonnet, this loving script ?" B. and Fletcher, A Wife for a Moneth. 2 [" Surely this charge which I put upon them, I know to bee so 326 of abstraction. [part 11. Repute, dispute. pRESSj, IMPRESS^ EXPRESS, Esteem. Private, privy. Import, export, report, transport, support. Polite. Applause. expence, recompence. Plea. Residue. Remnant. Pact, compact, peace. Appetite. Repast. Immense. Quadrant. Jubilee. Fosse. Conflict. Credit, credence, miscreant. Debate, combat. Exact. All the French participles in ee ; as mortgagee, assignee, committee, &c. And, besides these which I have thus taken at random, a great multitude of others ; Avhich if I had sworn to try your patience to the utmost, I would go on to enumerate. CHAPTER III. the same subject continued. i/.— It gives me pleasure that you have so far noticed this, in the words which we have adopted from the Greek, Latin, reasonable, as that it will not much he felt ; for the Port townes that have benefit of shipping may cut it easily off their trading, and Inland townes of their corne and cattle ; as wee see all the townes of the Low- Countryes doe cut upon themselves an excise of all things toAvards the maintenance of the warre that is made in their behalfe." — Spenser's View of the State of Ireland, Todd's edit. 1805. p. 472.] CH. 111.] OF ABSTRACTION. 327 Italian and French : for you will be inclined the more readily to concur with me, that the same thing is equally observable in those words which are original in our own language. Thus — Brand — in all its uses, whether Fire-brandy or a brand of infamy (i. e. Stigma, itself a participle of Στίζω) or brand-new, (i. e. newly burned,) is merely the past participle Bren-ed, Bren'd\ of the verb To Bren ; which we now write To Biirn. Sir T. More wrote the word indifferently Bren and Burn, — '* At St. Waleries here in Picardy there is a faire abbey, where saint Walery was monke. And upon a furlonge of, or two, up in a wood is there a chapel, in which the saint is specially sought unto for the Stone ; not only in those partyes, but also out of England. Now was there a yonge gentilman which had maried a marchantes wife ; and having a littel wanton money, which hym thought brenned out the bottom of hys purs, in the firste yere of hys wedding toke hys wife with hym and went ouer the sea for none other erand, but to se Flaunders and France, and ryde out one somer in those countrees. And hauing one in hys company that tolde by the waye many straunge thinges of the pilgrimage, he thought he wold go somewhat out of his way, either to se it, if it were trew, or laughe at his man if he founde it false ; as he veryly thought he should have done in dede. But when they came in to the chapell they founde it all trewe. And to beholde they founde it fonder than he had tolde. For like as in other pilgrimages ye se hanged up legges of waxe or armes or suche other partes, so was in that chapell al theyr oiFringes that honge aboute the walles, none other thinge but mens gere and womans gere made in waxe. Then was there besides these, two rounde ringes of siluer, the one much larger than the other : through which euery man did put his prevy membres at the aulters ende^. Not euerye man thorough bothe, but ' [" And blow the fire which them to ashes brent." Faerie Queene, booke 1. cant. 9. st. 10.] - [" The author reports that, in crossing the forests of Westrogothia on horseback, they stopped a while at Lincopen, to look upon a column of stone, wherein there was a hole, designed for a use which cannot decently be expressed in vulgar language ; but here is the Latin of it — ' Vestrogoticis silvis equitantes inducti, Lincopise, ob loci religionem 328 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II• some thorough the one and some thorough the other. Then was there yet a monke standing at the aulter that holowed cer- teine thredes of Venice golde : and them he dehuered to the pilgrimes, teching them in what wise themselfe or theyr frendes should use those thredes agaynst the Stone : that they should knitte it aboute their gere, and say I cannot tel you what praiers. As this gentylman and his wife wer kneling in the chaj3el, there came a good sadde woman to him, shewing him that one speciall poincte used in the pilgrimage and the surest against the Stone, she wist nere whither he were yet advertised of. Which if it were done she durst laye her lyfe, he shoulde neuer haue the Stone in his life. And that was, she would haue the length of his gere, and that should she make in a waxe candel whiche should liREN up in the chapell, and certaine praiers shoulde ther be sayd the while. And thys was against the Stone the very shote anker. Whan he had hard her (and he was one that in earnest fered the Stone) he went and askid his wife counsel. But she like a good faithful! christen woman loued no suche supersticions. She could abide the remenant wel ynough. But when she herde ones of brenning up the candell, she knit the browes, and earnestly blessing her : — Beware in the vertue of God what ye do, quod she, Burn ε up, quoth-a ! Marry, God for- bede. It would waste up your gere, upon paine of my life. I praie you beware of such witchcraft." — Sir Thomas Morels Workes. A Dialogue made in the y ere 1528, p. 195. Odd — -Is the participle Owed, Ow'd. Thus, when we are counting by couples or by pairs ; we say — One pair, two pairs, &c. and one Owed, Ow'd, to make up another pair. It has the same meaning when we say — An odd man, or an odd action: it still relates to p«?V/??i>• ; and we mean — without a fellow, unmatched, not such another, one Oived to make up a couple'. non omittendse, tantillum substitimus : ibi cippus lapideus, pertusus, explorandse maritorum membrositati ; qui pares foramini, approbantur, impares excluduntur connubiali toro : inde matrimonia aut stant aut cadunt, pro modulo peculii/ " — Bayles Dictionary, 2d edit. vol. 2. Article Francis Blondel, p. 30. Note Α.] ' [Odds and ends ; probably opb anb enbe, ' beginning and end': see Ccedmon, 225, 30. Thorpe's Edition.— Ed.] CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 329 " So thou that hast thy loue sette unto God, In thy remembraunce this emprint and graue. As he in soueraine dignitie is odde, So will he in loue no parting felow^es haue." Sir T. Move's Workes, Rules of Picus, p. 28. Head — Is Fleaved, Heavd, the past participle of the verb To Heave : (As the Anglo-Saxon J^eapob was the past par- ticiple of l^eapan) meaning that part — (of the body — or, any thing else) which is Heav'dy raised, or lifted upj above the rest\ In Edward the third's time, it was written Heved. " And I say an other strong aungel comyng down fro Heuene, keuerid or clothid with a cloude, and the reyn bow in his Heued."• — Aijocalyps., chap. 10. (verse 1.) " The Heuedes of holy churche, and they holy were, Christe calleth hem salt." Vision of P, Ploughnan, fol. 84. p. 1. " Persons and priests that Heueds of holy kyrke ben." Ihid. passus 16. fol. 84. p. 2. Wild — is Willed, WilVd (or self-willed) in opposition to those (whether men or beasts) who are tamed or subdued (by reason or otherwise) to the will of others or of Societies. Flood — is Flowed, Flow'd. " And sens it rayned, and al was in a Flode." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 176. p. 1. col. 1. Loud — is the past participle of the verb To Low, or To Bellow (l^lopan, Behlopan) Lowed, Low'd. To Bellotv, (i. e. To Be-loiv) differs no otherwise from To Loiv, than as Besprinkle differs from Sprinkle, &c. What we now write LOUD, was formerly, and more properly, written low'd. Skinner mistakingly says — ^' Low^i), melius loud, ab A. S. l^lub." — Not perceiving that J^lub is the past participle of J^lopan : and Skinner's authority perhaps contributed to mis- lead those who followed him, to alter the spelling to loud. " And with low'd larums welcome them to Rome." Tit. Andron. fol. 1. p. 32. " Who calls so low'd ?"• — Romeo and Juliet, p. 74. ["The first, to which we nigh approched, was An high headland thrust far into the sea." Spenser, Colin Clouts come home again.^ 330 OF ABSTRACTION. [ΡΑΚΤ II. " The large Achilles (on his prest-bed lolling) From his deepe chest laughes out a lowd applause." Troylus and Cressida. *' Honor, loue, obedience, troopes of friends, I must not looke to haue ; but, in their stead. Curses, not lowd, but deepe." — Macbeth, p. 149. " Why, what would you .'' Make me a willow cabane at your gate. Write loyail cantons of contemned loue, And sing them lowd euen in the dead of night : Hollow your name to the reuerberate hilles. And make the babling gossip of the aire Cry out — Oliuia."- — Twelfe Night, p. 259. — — -'' Do but start An eccho with the clamor of thy drumms. And euen at hand a drumme is readie brac'd That shall reuerberate all as lowd as thine. Sound but another, and another shall (As LOWD as thine) rattle the welkin's eare And mocke the depe-mouth'd thunder." — King John, p. 20. " That she may boast, she hath beheld the man Whose glory fills the world Avith lowd report." 1st part of Henry VI. p. 102. ["Of love and lustihead tho maist thou sing. And carrol loavde, and leade the millers rounde." Shepheard's Calender, October, " If these reedes sing my shame so lowd, will men whisper it softly V — Midas (by Lily), act 5. sc. 1. " The reason why we are so often lowder than the players, is, because we think we speak more wit ; nay so much, that we find fault even with their bawdy upon the stage, whilst we talk nothing else in the Pit as lowd." — Wycherley, Country Wife, act 3. sc. 1. edit. 4to. 1675. " The governor, fearing his enemies might not beare such testimo- nies of love to him without griefe, sent into the towne to desire them to forbeare their kind intentions of giving him so lowd a wellcome."— Life of Colonel Hutchinson, p. 237.] Shred") — Each of them the past participle of the verb Sherd J j^cyjian, To Sheer, or to cut off: thus, Shered, Shared : Shered, Sher'd. Field. —This word, by Alfred, Gower, Chaucer, &c., was always written pelb, Feld. It is merely the past participle Felled, FelTd, of the verb To Fell (psellan, bejceellan)^ CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 331 and is so universally written Feld by all our old authors, that I should be ashamed to produce you many instances. Field- land is opposed to Wood-land ; and means — Land where the trees have been Felled. " In woodes, and in feldes eke, Thus robbery goth to seke ΛVhere as he male his purchas finde. And robbeth mens goodes aboute In woode and felde, where he goth oute." Gower, fol. 116. p. 2. col. 2. " In woode, in felde, or in citee, Shall no man stele in no wise." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 122. p. 1. col. 1. " Maple, thorne, beche, ewe, hasel, whipulere, Howe they were felde shal not be told for me." Chaucer, Knyghtes Tale, p. 2. col. 2. *' My blysse and my myrthe arne felde, sickenesse and sorowe ben alwaye redy." — Testament of Loue, boke 1. fol. 306. p. 2. col. 1. In the collateral languages, the German, the Dutch, the Danish and the Swedish, you will find the same correspond- ence between the equivalent verb and the supposed sub- stantive ^ German Felleii — Feld. Dutch Vellen — Veld. Danish Fc^lder — Felt. Swedish Falla — Felt. Cub. — To chew the cud, i. e. To chew the Chew'd. This change of pronunciation, and consequently of writing, from CH to κ and from κ to ch, is very common and frequent in our language ; and you will have more than one occasion hereafter to notice what obscurity, difficulties and errors it has caused to our etymologists. [" In some coole shadow from the scorching heat. The whiles his flock their chawed cuds do eate." Spenser, Virgils Gnat. [} Meidinger connects ^eZi? with the Swedish ^'<«M, \ύ. fi^ll, a moun- tain side, also " portio agri;" see Ihre. Thus in the north of England they say "the cattle are in the upper, or lower, fells." In this view, field might be used as distinguished from meadow. The words, if not of the same origin, seem at least to have been confounded : and Henry of Huntingdon, in his version of the Victory of Athelstan, renders jrelb bennabe by " colles resonuerunt." — Ed.] 332 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. A QUID, e. g. of Tobacco, the same as cud.] Dastard— i.e. Territus, the past participle of baj^tjiijan, abaj-tpijan, Terr ere. Dastriged, Dastrii/ed, Dastried, Das- tredj Oastr'd. Coward — i.e. Coivred, Cowered, Cower'd, One who has coiver'd before an enemy. It is of the same import as Supplex. " Ille humilis Siipplexque, oculos clextramque precantem Protendens, — Vicisti, et victum tendere palmas Ausonii videre." SuppleXf i. e. Suh-plicanSy SuppUcans, Suppliers, Supplix, So Suppliant and Supple, i. e. Sous-pliant. Coward is the past participle of the verb To Coivre or To Cower ; a word formerly in common use. " Her heed loueth all honour And to be worshypped in worde and dede, Kynges mote to hem knele and οοΛνκΕ." Chaucer, Ploimnans Tcde, part 1. fob 94. p. 1. c. 2. " And she was put, that I of talke, Ferre fro these other, up in an halke ; There lurked, and there coured she." Romaimt of the Rose, fol. 122. p. I. col. 1. " Winter with his rough winds and blasts causeth a lusty man and woman to coure and sit by the fire." — Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, chap. 142. " They spake all with one voice, Sir Launcelot, for Christs sake let us ride out with Sir Galihud, for we beene neuer Λvont to coure incas- tels nor in townes."• — Ibid. 3d part, chap. 160. "They coΛv'R so o'er the coles, their eies be bler'd with smooke." — Gammer Gurtons Needle. " The king is served with great state. His noblemen never look him in the face, but sit coΛVRING upon their buttocks, with their elbows upon their knees, and their hands before their faces ; nor dare lift up their eyes, until his majesty commands them." — Voyage to Benin, by Thomas Windham i, 1553. HaMuyt, vol. 2. " The splitting rockes cowr'd in the sinking sands. And would not dash me with their ragged sides." 2d Part Henry VI. p. 134. " Mistress, do you know the French knight that cov/ers i' the hams V — Pericles, act 4. sc. 4. 1 This Thomas Windham was a Norfolk gentleman : and a curious account is given in this voyage of his usurping and cruel conduct, and of his mean, violent, selfish and tyrannical character. CH. in.] OF ABSTRACTION. 333 " CowRiNG and quaking at a conqu'ror's sword, But lofty to a lawful prince restor'd." D}yden, Absalom and Achitophel. [" He in his chariot with his body bent Sat cow'ring low." Cowper's Iliad, vol. 2. p. 142. book xvi. " As thus he spake, each bird and beast behold Approaching two and two ; these co wring low With blandishment, each bird stoop'd on his wing." Paradise Lost, book 8, *' You durst not meet in temples T' invoke the gods for aid, the proudest he Who leads you now, then coavr'd, like a dar'd lark." Dryderis CEdipiis, act 1. sc. 1.] M. lault (Art. couard) repeats much childishness of the French etymologists concerning this word, which I will spare you. '^ Codardo, says Menage, Da Coda, Codarus, Codardiis : quia post principia lateat, et in extrema acie, quse veluti Cauda agminis est, dice il S*" Ferrari." ^' Dalla Coda che fra le gambe portano i cani paurosi ; di- cono gli altri.'' Junius thinks it is ''cow-herd, Bubulcus.'^ Some will have it '' cow-heart, or Cow-hearted.^' Skinner leaves us to choose amongst 1. Cauda — '' Chi a tutto il suo ardire nella Coda : et nos dicimus — He has his heart in his heels :— vel q. d. ampla Cauda prseditus ; quod physiognomis timiditatis signum est : vel q. d. qui Caudam crebro ostendit.'^ 2. *' Cowherd.'' 3. ^' Sin malis a vernacula origine petere, a nostro Coiv et Germ. Aerd, Ard. natura. — q. d. Indole sen ingenio vaccino prseditus : nihil enim vacca timidius." 4. ''Ab Hisp. Cueva, antrum, specus : quia sc. pusillani- mus Latibula quserit. Cueva autem, satis mani Teste, a Lat. Cava, pro Caverna, defluxit." Mr. Tyrwhitt says — *' I think the opinion of Twysden and Somner much the most probable, who derive it from the Barb. Lat. Culmn vertere ; to turn tail, or run away. See Dii Cange, in v. Culverta, and Culvertagiiim, Culvert (as it 334 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. is written in the oldest and best French mss. that I have seen) might easily be corrupted, according to the French mode of pronunciation, into couart and couard.'* Blind. — Blined, Blind, is the past participle of the old English verb To BUn (A. S. Blmnan) To Stop'. " So may they eke her prayer blynne Whyle that they werke her mete to wynne." Rom. of the Rose, fo\. 151. p. 2. col. 2. " Easy syghes, suche as ben to lyke That shewed his affection withinne. Of suche syghes coulde he not blynne." Troylus, boke 3. fob 179. p. 2. col. 2. " Ye that list of your palyardry neuer blyn." Douglas. Prol. to Booke 4. p. 96. *' He sent them worde he should not blyn tyll he had destroyed them." — Fahian, p. 152. " My teares shall neuer blin To moist the earth in such degree That I may drowne therein." Songes and Sonets by the Earle of Surrey, &c. fob 72. p. 2. In the French tongue they use Borgne and Aveugie ; but in order to make the same distinction we are compelled to. say — Blind of one eye (stopped of one eye) or blind of both eyes, or totally blind, i. e. the sight totally stopped. In this sense, I suppose, the word Stopped is used in Beau- mont and Fletcher's Pilmm. ο " Do you blush at this, in such as are meer rudeness. That have stopt souls, that never knew things gentle ? And dare you glorifie worse in yourself?" Bread — is the past participle of the verb To Bray, (French Broi/er,) i. e. To pound, or To beat to pieces : and the subau- ditnm (in our present use of the word bread) is Corn, or Grain, or any other similar substances, such as Chestnuts, ^ l" And Sisyphus an huge round stone did reele Against an hill, ne might from labour lin." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 5. st. 35.] [By the addition of this example, Mr. Tooke doubtless considered lin as connected with Blmnan, from which Skinner derives it. — Ed.] CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 335 Acorns, &c. or any other Substitutes^ which our blessed mini- sters may appoint for us in this blessed reign. To Bray, though now obsolete, was formerly very common in our language. - — -" And whan he comet therat And sigh his doughter, he to-BRAiDE His clothes, and wepende he saide." Gower, lib. 4. fol. 71. p. 2. col. 1. " Take camomel &c. braye them together &c." *' Take of the bloudestone &c. beate and be a ye all these together SLc."—Byrth of Mankynde, fol. 34. p. 1. fol. 36. p. 2. '' The sedes (of sorrell) braied and drunke with wine and Λvater is very holsome agaynst the colyke." " What auncient physition is there, that in his workes commendeth not ptysane, whiche is none other than pure barley, braied in a mor- tar, and sodden in water ?" *' The sedes of melons brayed &c." — Castel of Helth, fol. 27. fol. 34. fol. 81. " I, now it heats. Stand, father. Pound him to dust. Nay, if he take you in hand. Sir, with an argument. He '11 BRAY you in a mortar. — Pray you. Sir, stay. Rather than I '11 be brayed. Sir, I '11 believe." — Alchemist. 1 Substitute is in England the natural oifspring of Prostitute. In con- sequence of virtual being substitute for real representation ; we have innumerable commissioners of diiFerent descriptions substitute for our antient Juries : Paper substitute for money : IVIartial Law substitute for the antient law of the land : Substitutes for the Militia, for an army of Reserve, for Quota-men. But the worst of all these Substitutes (and I fear its speedy recurrence) is a Substitute for Bread ; the harbinger of wide- spreading putrefaction, disease, and cruel death. It was at- tempted not long since (by those who should least have done it) to blast the character of my excellent friend the late Dr. Addington, by (falsely, as I believe) adducing his authority to prove that Bran was more nutritive than Meal : I take this opportunity to rescue his memory from that disgrace ; by asserting that he well knew that — ' ' Bread of fine flour of wheat, having no leaven, is slow of digestion and makes slimy humours, but it nourishes much. If it be leavened, it digests sooner. Bread, having much Bran, fills the belly with excrements, and nourishes little or nothing, but shortly descends from the Stomach, &c." And this same doctrine will every intelligent medical man now de-. clare ; unless he shall chuse to substitute his interest for his character and conscience, 336 OF ABSTRACTION. [PAIlT II. " Thou hast made me mad : and I will beat thee dead. Then BRAY thee in a mortar, and new mold thee." " I will rectifie and redeem eithers proper inclination. Or BRAY 'em in a morter, and new mold 'em." B. and Fletcher's Martial Maid. Sir John Davies (an Attorney General, whom Messrs. Pitt and Dundas have evidently consulted) in a little treatise called •- — ^^ A Discoverie of the true causes S^c.^' — speaking of Ire- land, says—- — " Whereupon the multitude, who ever loved to bee followers of sueh as could master and defend them, admyring the power of the crowne of England, being brai'd (as it were) in a mortar, with the sword, fa- mine, and pestilence altogether, submitted themselves to the English government." F. — Thus it is always with you etymologists. Whilst you chuse your own instances, your explanations run upon all fours ; but they limp most miserably, when others quote the passages for you. H, — I can only give such instances as occur to me. I wish others w^ere to furnish them : and the more hostile they were, the better I should be pleased. F, — What say you then to this passage in All's well that ends lotll? "^ — " Since Frenchmen are so braide. Marry that will, I live and die a maid." Dr. Johnson, Mr. Steevens, and Mr. Malone, are all agreed, that — '^ BRAID signifies crafty or deceitfuU.'^ H,- — I wish you had separated Mr. Steevens (for he has really done some good service) from the names of such (com- mentators I cannot call them) as Johnson and Malone. I think however that, upon a little reflection, you will have no difficulty to agree with me, that braide has here the same meaning that it has in the Proverbs, chap. 27. ver. 20. '' Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar among vv^heat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart from him." The expression here alludes to this Proverb : — Diana does not confine herself merely to his craft or deceit ; but includes also all the other bad qualities of which she supposes Bertram CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 337 to be compounded ; and which would not depart from him, though bray'd in a mortar. F. — By the words which you have attempted to explain, Brandt Odd, Head, Wild, Flood, Loud, Shred, Sherd, Field, Cud, Dasiard, Coward, Blind and Bread, you seem to liave been led to these conjectures by the participial termination ed or 'd. 1 suppose therefore that the word fiend, which you lately mentioned, is also a past participle. //. — No. It is (what I must in conformity with custom call) a present participle; anb, for which we now use ing, was in Anglo-Saxon the termination of the participle present : and Fiend — i. e. frlA^f^S, pianb, the present participle of frlA^^j pian, To Hate^, means (subaudi Some one, Any one) Hating, In the same manner, Friend — i. e. pjiianb, ppeonb, the present participle of jTjiian, pjieon, To Love, means (subaudi Any one, Some one) Loving", " For he no more than the pende Unto none other man is frende But all toward hym selfe alone." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 113. p. 2. col. 1. F, — Why do you say that, in conformity with custom, you must call it a present participle ? Ή. — Because I do not allow that there are ^ny present par- ticiples, or any present tense of the verb. But we cannot ^ [Spa opt ]'pa hi poplecon i5one lipenban Gob Sonne pujibon hi je- hepjobe anb co hoppe gebonne pjiam hseSenum leobum Se him abutan eapbobon. βρε ^onne hi clipobon on eopnoft to Gobe mib foSpe bsebbote Sonne penbe he him pultum Suph f umne beman Se piSpette heopa FGONDUGO anb hi alipbe op heopa YRCDDe.— ^//nc. ofe Veteri Testamento, p. 12. U Isle s Monuments, 4to. 1638. Snb he betsehte hi^ on haeSenpa hanbum. anb heopa FYND poSlice hsepbon heopa jepealb. anb hig ppiSe ge bpehton i5a bepienbhca FYND. —Id. p. 23.] ~ [The following is the foolish derivation of Menage, which he spells ill to get nearer to his etymology : — " Friant de frigente, ablatif de frig ens, "t^wcuci^q, de frigere, — Charles de Bouvelles : Friant ; id est, delicatus ; vel incertse originis est, vel dictus a verbo Frigo, frigis : a quo FrixurcE, ciborum deliciee : quod ejusmodi frixuras is amet quern Λ'ulgus FRIANT appcUat." It is the same Anglo-Saxon ppianb. See also Johnson's foolish derivation of Friend from the Dutch.] ζ 338 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. enter into that question now. A proper time will arrive for it. Nor would I meddle with it at all ; but that some foolish me- taphysics depend upon it. jP. — There is a word in Shakespeare, ending with a d, which has exceedingly troubled all his editors and commentators. I wish much to know whether your method will help us on this occasion. In Troylus and Cressida, Ajax, speaking to Ther- sites, says (according to the first Folio) " Speake then, thou whinid'st leauen, speake." Not knowing what to make of this word Whinidf subsequent editors have changed it to Unsalted. And thus Mr. Malone alters the text, with the Quarto editions, ** Speak then, thou unsalted leaven, speak." //.—The first Folio, in my opinion, is the only edition worth regarding. And it is much to be wished, that an edition of Shakespeare were given literatim according to the first Folio : which is now become so scarce and dear, that few persons can obtain it. For, by the presumptuous licence of the dwarfish commentators, who are for ever cutting him down to their own size, we risque the loss of Shakespeare's genuine text ; which that Folio assuredly contains ; notwithstanding some few slight errors of the press, which might be noted, without altering. This is not the place for exposing all the liberties which have been taken with Shakespeare's text. But, besides this unwarrantable substitution of unsalted for tvJiinid'st^ a passage of Macbeth (amongst innumerable others) occurs to me at pre- sent, to justify the wish I have expressed. " Approach thou like the rugged Russian beare. The arm'd rhinoceros, or th' Hircan tiger. Take any shape but that, and my firme nerues Shall neuer tremble. Or be aliue againe. And dare me to the desart with thy sworde, If trembling I Inhabit then, protest mee The baby of a girle." Pope here changed Inhabit to Inhibit. Upon this correc- tion Steevens builds another, and changes Then to Thee. Both which insipid corrections Malone, with his usual judgment, inserts in his text. And there it stands ** If trembling I inhibit thee," CH . III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 339 '' The emendation Inhibit (says Mr. Malone) was made by- Mr. Pope. I have not the least doubt that it is the true read- ing. By the other slight but happy emendation, the reading Thee instead of Then, which was proposed by Mr. Steevens, and to which I have paid the respect that it deserved by giving it a place in the text, this passage is rendered clear and easy.'^ But for these tasteless commentators, one can hardly sup- pose that any reader of Shakespeare could have found a dif- ficulty ; the original text is so plain, easy and clear, and so much in the author's accustomed manner. " Dare me to the desart with thy sworde," ^' If I inhabit then''' — — i. e. If then I do not meet thee there : if trembling I stay at home, or within doors, or under any roof, or within any habitation : If, when you call me to the desart, I then House me, or, through fear, hide myself from thee in any dwelling ; " If trembling I do House me then — Protest me &c." But a much stronger instance of the importance of such a strictly similar edition (in which not a single lette?' or supposed misprint should be altered from the original copy) offers itself to me from the two following passages : " He blushes, and 'tis hit." All's ivell that ends well, p. 253. col. 1. Mr. Malone has altered the text to ■'* He blushes, and 'tis it." And he adds the following note ; '' The old copy has — 'tis hit,- The emendation was made by Mr. Steevens. In many of our old chronicles I have found HIT printed instead of it. Hence probably the mistake here." " Stop up th' accesse and passage to remorse, That no compunctious visitings of nature Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between Til' effect and πιτ:'— Macbeth, p. 134. Upon this passage Mr. Malone (having again altered the text, from hit to it) says, '^ The old copy reads — Between the eiFect and hit — the correction was made by the editor of the third Folio.'' The Correcter and the Adopter deserve no thanks for their ζ 2 340 OF ABSTRACTION. [PAIIT II, mischievous alteration : for mischievous it is ; although no al- teration can, at first sight, appear more trivial. I can suppose one probable mischief to have resulted from it to my former castigator, Mr. Burgess, — (Ϊ beg his pardon, the present Lord Bishop of St. David's). It is possible that he may not have seen the first Folio, and may have read only the corrected text of Shakespeare. If so -y by this alteration he may have missed one chance of a leading hint; by which, if followed, he might have been en- abled to fulfill his undertaking, concerning an explanation of the Pronouns, which he promised : no unimportant part in the philosophy or system of human speech. For I can easily sup- pose that, with his understanding and industry, (for I have heard a very favourable mention of him, in all respects) he might have been struck with this hit in Shakespeare : and might, in consequence, have travelled backward ; and have found that, not only in our old chronicles, but in all our old English authors, down to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the word was so written ; and that it was not, as poor Malone ima- gined, any 7nistake of the Printer. *' And whan the bisshop aright hym bethoughte, He gan remembre playnly in his mynde That of disdayne and wylful necligence The yerde of Joseph was left behynde ; Wherby he knewe that he had done offence. And gan alone to brynge hit in presence, And toke hit Joseph deuoutely in his honde.** Lydgate. Lyfe of our Lady, p, 27. " The bisshoppe hath the cuppe fyrste directe Unto Joseph, and hym the parell tolde. And manly he gan it holde And dranke het up, and chaunged nat his chere." — Ibid. p. 91. ** Whiche ordinaunce of Moses was afterward established in the citie of Athens, and from thens the Romaines receiued hit." — Dr. Martins Confutation of Poynett, chapiter 4. " Not that matrimonie is of the church abhorred, for the churche doeth reuerence and alowe hit." — Id. chap. 7. " He useth not the onely tearrae of womanne by hit selfe." — Id. chap. 13. •' I geue mi regall manyer called Wie, with al thappertenaunces longinge to my regall crowne, witli al liberties priuilegies and regal CH. Ill .] OF ABSTRACTION. 341 customes as fre and gayet as I hadde hit fyrste." — -The true Dyfferences of Regall Power. By Lord Stafford. [" Much in his glorious coniiuest sufFred hee : And hell in vaine hit selfe opposde." Godfrey of Bulloigne, translated by R. C. Esq. p. 2. " Molto soiFri nel glorioso acquisto : Ε in van Γ Inferno a ]ui s' oppose."- — Gierus. Uberata, cant. 1. ** Wheregainst when Persians passing number preast, In battaile bold they hit defended thanne." — God. of Bull. p. 5. " L'havea poscia in battaglia incontra gente Di Persia innumerabile difesa." " And in this course he entred is so farre, That ought but that, hit seemes of nought he weyes." — Ibid. p. 6. ** Ε cotanto internarsi in tal pensiero, Ch' altra impresa non par, che piu rammenti." '* His shape unseene Λvith aire he doth inuest. And unto mortall sence hit subject makes." — Ibid. p. d. *' La sua forma inuisibil d' aria cinse, Et al senso mortal la sottopose." " But he her warlike image farre in hart Preserued so as hit presents aliue." — Ibid. p. 26. ** Ma Γ imagine sua bella e guerriera Tale ei serbo nel cor, qual essa e viva." ** He past th' Egean sea and Greekish shore. And at the campe arriues, where far hit stayes."— /oiW. p. 33, " Sarco Γ Egitto, passo di Grecia i liti, Giunse ne Γ campo in region remote." " On that chast picture seyz'd in rau'ning wise. And bare hit to that church, whereof offence Of fond and Avicked rites prouokes the skyes." Ibid. p. 53. cant, 2. st. 7, ■ " e irreverente II casto simuiacro indi rapio ; Ε portollo a quel tempio, ove sovente S' irrita il ciel col folle culto e rio." " Th' aduised chieftaine with a gentle bit Guideth, and seconds their so bent desire, To turne the course more easie seemeth hit Of winding wane that rouls Caribdis nire. Or Boreas when at sea he ships doth slit." Godfrey of Bulloigne, p. 9§, cant. 3. st. 2. 342 OF ABSTRACTION. [ PART 11. " Where is the kyngedome of the dyuelle, yf hit be not in warre ?" ■ — Bellum Erasmi, by Berthelet, 1534. p. 15. " In warre if there happen any thynge luckely, hit perteyneth to verye fewe : and to theym, that are nnworthye to haue it." — Ibid. p. 19. '' Fyrste of all consider, howe lothelye a thynge the rumour of warre is, when hit is fjrrste spoken of. Then howe enuious a thing hit is unto a prince, whyles with often demes and taxes he pilleth his sub- jectes." — Ibid. p. 19. 2 ; and in eighteen other places in this very small treatise of thirty-nine small pages. " For myself, gracious Soveraigne, that if hit mishappe me, in any thinge heerafter that is on the behalfe of your Commons in your high presence to be declared." — Life of Syr Thomas More, by Mr. Roper, p. 35.] I must suppose that when he had noticed innumerable such iristances, he would then have gone still further back, to our original language : and there he would have found this same word written ftit, ftyt, and J^aet: : which might perhaps have plainly discovered to liim^ that this pronoun was merely the past participle of the verb h/\lT*j\.iSi, J^setan, nominare\ And, upon application, he would have found this meaning, viz, nominatum, i. e. The Said, perfectly to correspond with every use of the word it in our language. Having observed this, he would have smiled at our grammatical arrangements ; and would not have been in the least shocked to find (as he would often find) the word it used in the following manner, " The greate kynge, it whiche Cambyses Was bote." — Gower, lib. 7. fob 158. p. 1. col. 1. '* When King Arthur had scene them doe all this, hee asked Sir Launcelot what were those knights and that queene. Sir, said Laun- celot, I cannot shew you no certaintie, but if Sir Tristram or Sir Palo- 1 '' And so befel that in the taas they founde Two yonge knyghtes lyeing by and by Both in armes same, wrought full rychely. Of whiche two, Arcyte hight that one. And that other hight Palamon." — Knightes Tale, fob 1 , p. 2. col. 2. Mr. Tyrwhitt in his note upon this word Hight, says, " It is difficult to determine precisely what part of speech it is ; but, upon the whole, I am inclined to consider it as a word of a very singular form, a verb active with a passive signification." It is the same past tense, and therefore past participle of Jl^IT*AN ; and has the same meaning as hit or it. CH . III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 343 mides. Wit yee well of a certaine it beene they and la beale Isond." — Historie of Prince Arthur, 3d part, chap. 98. For he would be well aware, that ιτ_, (or The Said) is (like all our other participles) as much masculine as feminine [or neuter J and as plurally applicable as singularly ^ And from this small inlet^ perhaps, (if from no other quarter) the nature of all the other pronouns might instantly have rushed upon his mind, and have enabled him to perform satisfactorily his con- tract with the pubHc. F, — I have often remarked, amongst all our old writers, a similar use of the word that; which, as well as it, is applied by them indifferently to plural nouns and to singular. For instance ; in that Traictise you have quoted, by Dr. Martin, (who wrote accurately and was no mean scholar) we meet with such sentences as the following ; *' Patrones elected many into that holy ordres, neither of age, nor of learnyng, nor of discretion, woorthie to take so high a function."-— p. 2. " The temporall menne at that dayes did much extolle and mayn- taine chastitie." — p. 47. " The midwife, christenyng the child, added not that solemne wordes, nor any man promised the same for him." — p. 113. " There was a statute or ii deuysed to take away that peines of the church, that were before alwaies ordeined and used against maried priestes." — p. 140. •' To the entente they might the more fully and frely repose them selues in that unspeakeble joyes with which Christe feedethe them." —p. 284. So, in the Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, chap. 98. " And so three of them were come home againe, that were Sir Gawaine, Sir Ector, and Sir Lionell." 1 [" My powers are cressent, and my auguring hope Sayes it will come to th' full." Antony and Cleopatra, p. 345. col. 1. Malone has altered the text, and adopts Theobald's reading and note. " My power 's a crescent," &c. " What (says Mr. Theobald) does the relative it belong to } It can- not in sense relate to hope ; nor in concord to powers." '* Is your gold and siluer ewes and rams ? I cannot tell, I make it breede as fast." Merchant of Venice, p. 166. col. 2.] 344 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Sir Thomas More uses it in the same manner. " This pleasure undoubtedly farre excelleth all that pleasures that in this life male be obteined." — Life of Picus, p. 12. ** That euyll aungels the deuilles." — P. 386 of his Worhes. Now I have always hitherto supposed this to be a careless and vicious manner of writing in our antient authors^ ; but I begin to suspect that they were not guilty of any false concord in this application of the word. When treating formerly of the Conjunctions, I remember, you left that unexplained. I thought it not very fair at the time ; and you gave but a poor reason for the omission. Will you oblige me now, by inform- ing me whether you think the etymology and meaning of that will justify this antient use of the word ? H. — In my mind, perfectly. For that (in the Anglo-Saxon Oset, i. e. Deab, Beat) means Taken, Assumed; being merely ίΐΐβ past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Dean, Dejan, Dion, φΐΗΛΝ, Dicjan, Dijian ; sumere, assumere, acci- pere ; To the, To Get, To Take, To Assume. " 111 mote he the That caused me To make myselfe a frere."• — Sir T. More's Workes, p. 4. [" Wyse men alway aiFyrme and say That best is for a man diligently for to apply the business that he can, and in no wyse to enterpryse an other faculte ; for he that Λvyll and can no skyll, isneucr lyke to the.'* — >SzV T, Mores Workes, p. 1. "Well mote yee thee, as M'ell can wish your thought/' Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 1. st. 33. *' Fayre mote he thee, the prowest and most gent. That ever brandished bright Steele on hye." Ihid. book 2. cant. 11. st. 17.] ^ [For a similar use of that, see Fabian : " of that partyes," page iiii. 69, 98. " at that dayes," xi. xxiiii. xxxiii. xxxix. xli. xlvi. 248, 374. " by THAT costes," xci. "that artycles," 60. "in that countres," 232. " THAT disguysers," 363. " Of the ferther maner this examples or questyons be." — The thre hookes of Tullyes Offyces lately translated hy Roherte Whytinton, poete laureate. Fyrst booke. By Wynkyn de Worde, 1534. " Man that hatb the use of reason wherby he seeth that thynges that folowe." — Id. Fyrst booke. - " Of THIS four places wherin we haue deuyded the nature and the vertue of honesty." — Id. Fyrst booke. "For THIS consyderacions," dic.—ld. Fyrst booke (pag. 68).] CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 345 It and that always refer to some thing or things, person or persons, r^/ce?/, Assumed, or Spoken of before; such only being the meaning of those two words. They may therefore well supply each other's place : as we say indifferently, and with the san^e meaning, of any action mentioned in discourse ; either — '' it is a good action ;" or, ^^ that is a good action.'' i. e. The Said (action) is a good action ; or. The Assumed {dicuon) is a good action ; or. The action. Received in discourse, is a good action. The (our Article, as it is called) is the Imperative of the same verb Dean : which may very well supply the place of the correspondent Anglo-Saxon article ye, which is the Impe- rative of j^eon, videre : for it answers the same purpose in discourse, to say — See man, or, Take man. For instance ; "The man that hath not musicke in himselfe Is fit for treasons," &c. Or, "That man is fit for treasons," &c. TAKE man (or see man) ; taken man hath not musicke, &c. SAID man, or taken man is fit for treasons, &c. This analysed method of speech must, I know, seem strange and aukward to you at first mention ; but try it repeatedly, as I have done for years ; apply this meaning frequently on every occasion where the and that are used in the language ; and I fear not your conviction. But if the experiment should fail, and leave you in the smallest doubt, we will then enter further into the subject : for we must hereafter return to it. F. — All this may be as you have represented it ; and the Bishop perhaps may not be displeased at the intelligence. But you have lost sight of my original question. "What say you to this monstrous alteration οϊ unsalted for Whiiiid'st? II. — I say, that a man must either have no ears, or very long ears, not to perceive that this was never Shakespeare's lan- guage. Metre is not confined to Verse : there is a tune in all good prose ; and Shakespeare's was a sweet one. If unsalted is to be adopted instead of Whinid ; to keep his tune, you must omit one of the two monosyllables, either then or thou. In behalf of the word Whinid, Mr. Steevens has well noted that, Francis Beaumont in his letter to Speght, on his edition of Chaucer's works, 1602, says — '^ Many of Chaucer's words 346 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. are become, as it were, vineiu^d and hoarie with over long lying." And Mr. Justice Blackstone, on the same side, has observed that- — " In the preface to James the first's bible, the transla- tors speak of Fenowed (i. e. Vinew'd or mouldy) traditions." And Mr. Malone himself acknowledges that- — '^ In Dorset- shire they at this day call cheese, that is become mouldy, Vinny cheese." F. — But why it is called Whinid, or Vineiv^d, or Fenowed, or Vinni/, does not any how appear : and its meaning is only to be conjectured from the context, where the word is found. Now I wish to know^ whether Whinid is also a participle : and, if a participle, of what verb. H. — Whinid — Vinew^d, Fenowed, Yinny^ or pinie, is a past participle : and of the verb Fynijean, To corrupt, To decay, To wither, To fade. To pass away. To spoil in any manner. Finie hlap, ip Anglo-Saxon is a corrupted or spoiled loaf, whether by mould or any other means. ''^\^^2βΧ: ^a ^a Erabanij^cean ^amenlice jisebbon. Άnb mib jeaplicpe pape fzepbon to loj-ue. Namon him ealbe Je}'cy^ anb iinojinlic j^cpiib. anb pinie hlapaj^." Joshua, ix. 3-5. F. — It seems probable enougli : and it is not at all surpri- sing that this Anglo-Saxon verb, pynijean, should have been overlooked ; since it has left behind it no other traces of its former existence, but barely this solitary expression. H. — I beg your pardon : It has left a numerous issue. No European etymologist can do without it. Whither else can he turn, without exposing himself, for the French Faner, Se fener, Evanouir, and Fange ; for the Italian Affannoj Affannare, and Fango ; for the Latin Vanus^ and Vanesco ; for the German Pfinnig; and for the English faint, and fen j and many other words", with which I forbear at this time to pester you ? jP.— And yet they have done very well without it. ' [Galbe gefcy. Old shoes. — Shoe is the past participle of fcyan— je~]-cyaii, sub-ponere. Shoe, is, suppositum.^ 2 ['* Per essa il re Agrican quasi vaneggia Ε la sua vita non stima uri danaio." Orlando Innamorato {da Berni), lib. 1. cant. 10. st. 18.] [See below, ch. iv. v. Faint : — also the quotation from Upton, in the Additional Notes. — Ed.] CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 347 H. — They have done, it is true : How well, yourself shall judge. Junius says — '* Faint, languidus, pusillanimus, ignavus, periculo cedens,' est a Gallico Feindrej non audere, subducere se discrimini : solent nempe timidi atque imbelles formidinem suam pluribus vanissimorum obtentuum figmentis tegere." Minshew — '' Faint, a Gallico Faner, a Lat. Vanescere." Skinner — '^ Faint, a Fr. G. Faner, Feiier ; deficere, deflo- rescere, flaccescere, emori." Menage, Orig. Franc. — "Faner, comme ce mot vient de F(Enum, quand on le dit dans le sens propre, en parlant d'une prairie que Ton Fane ; je crois qu'il en vient pareillement quand il signifie Se flttrir, Se seeker : car corame le foin, quand on le fane, se fletrit et devient pale ; de meme on dit, dans le sens figure, Se Faner, de tout ce qui perd sa premiere couleur, sa beaute, son air vif." Menage, Orig. Ital. — ''Affannare, affanno. Da Afa, che vale quell' affanno cagionato da gravezza d' aria, ο da gran caldo : detto dagli Spagnuoli Afan; e Ahan da i Fran- cesi. Vuole il Monosini, sia Afa, voce Ebrea." ''Fango- — da Fimiis : in questa maniera : Fimiis, Fimi, Fimicus, Femcus, Fencus, Fengus, Fangus, Fango : e per me- taplasnio Fanga : onde il Francese Fange,'' F. — Enough, and too much of this. I will have nothing to do with Afa, voce Ebrea ; nor with Fimicus, Fencus, &g. I will rather accept your Anglo-Saxon derivation. 1 under- stand you then to say that faint (as well as Fennowed, &c.) is the past participle of pyni^ean : yet it does not terminate in ED or 'd. H, — In English nothing is more common than the change of the participial terminating d to τ. Thus, Joint — is Joined, Joined, Joint, Feint — is Feigned, Feign' d, Feint. Gift — is Gived, Giv'd, Gift. Ill FT — is Rived, Biv'd, Rift, " The shippe droue unto a castle and was al to riven." Historic of Prince Arthur, part 1st. chap. 25, "Warres 'twixt you twaine would be As if the world should cleaue, and that slaine men Should sodder up the rift."— Antomj and Cleopatra, p. 353. 348 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. The clouds From many a horrid rift abortive pour'd Fierce rain with light'ning mix'd." Paradise Regain' d, book 4. v. 4.1 1. ["He pluckt a bough : out of whose rifte there came Smal drops of gory bloud, that trickled down the same." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 2. st. 30. " Into a cloven pine ; within which rift Imprison'd, thou didst painfully remain A dozen years." — Tempest. ~\ Cleft Ί Clift > — is Cleaved f Cleav'd, Cleft. Cliff J " Adowne he shofth his hand to the clyfte In hope to fynde there some good gyfte." Somp?ier's Tale, fol. 44. p. 2. col. 1. " But yet this clifte Avas so narrowe and lyte It was nat sene." — Tysbe, fol. 210. p. 2. col. 1. *' And romyng on the cleuis by the see." Hypsiphile, fol. 214. p. 1. col. 1. " This lady romethby the clyffe to play." Ibid. fol. 214. p. 1. col, 2. " In tyme of Crystus passyon the veyl of the Jewes temple to rente and CLEEF in two partes." — Dines and Pauper, thyrde Comm. cap. 3. '* She founde that money e hangynge in the craueyses and clyftes of the half bushel." — Ibid, fourth Comm. cap. 4. " Loue led hym to his deth and cleef his hert atwo." Ibid, tenthe Comm. cap, 3. " Rob Doner's neighbouring cleeves of sampyre." Poly-olbion. Song 18. [ " As an aged tree, High growing on the top of rocky clift, "Whose hart-strings with keene Steele nigh hewen be ; The mightie truncke halfe rent with ragged rift Doth roll adowne the rocks, and fall with fearefull drift." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 8. st. 22. " So downe he fell, as an huge rocky clift. Whose false foundacion waves have washt away. With dreadfuil poyse is from the mayneland rift, And, rolling downe, great Neptune doth dismay." Ibid, book 1. cant. 11, st. 54. CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 349 *♦ Whiles sad Celeno, sitting on a clifte, A song of bale and bitter sorrow sings, That hart of flint asonder could have rifte." Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 7. st. 23.] Thrift — is Thrived, Thrived, Thrift. Shrift — is Shrived, Shriv'd, Shrift. Drift — is Drived, Driv'd, Drift. " Be plaine, good son, rest homely in thy drift, lUdling confession findes but ridling shrift." Romeo a?id Juliet, p. 61. ** It could no more be hid in him Than humble banks can go to law with waters That DRIFT winds force to raging." B. and Fletcher, Two Noble Kinsmen. " Some log perhaps upon the waters swam An useless drift, which, rudely cut within. And hollow'd, first a floating trough became." Dry den, Annus mirabilis, st. 156. Theft— is Theved, Thev'd, Theft. Weft— is Weved, Wev'd, Weft. Heft — is Heved, Hevd, Heft. ' " There may be in the cup A spider steep'd ; and one may drinke, depart. And yet partake no venome (for his knowledge Is not infected) ; but if one present Th' abhor'd ingredient to his eye, make knowne How he hath drunke, he cracks his gorge, his sides. With violent hefts." — Winter s Tale, p. 282. '* In the hert there is the Hefde, and the hygh wyll." Vision of Pierce Ploughman, fol. 7. p. 1. [" Inflam'd with wrath, his raging blade he hefte, And strooke so strongly, that the knotty string Of his huge taile he quite asonder clefte." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 11. st. 39. " The other halfe behind yet sticking fast Out of his head-peece Cambell fiercely reft. And with such furie backe at him it heft." Ibid, book 4. cant. 3. st. 12.] Haft-^is Haved, Hav'd, Haft. The haft, of a knife or poniard, is the Haved part; the part by which it is Haved. 350 OF ABSTRACTION. [PAKT II. *' But yet nefond I nought the haft Whiche might unto the blade accorde." Gower, lib. 4. fol. QQ. p. 1, col. 1. [" Forgo th' advantage which thy arms have won. Or, by the blood which trembles through the heart Of her whom more than life I know thou lov'st, I '11 bury to the haft in her fair breast This instrument of my revenge/' — JDrydens Oedipus, act 5. sc. 1.] Hilt — is Heldy Helt, Hilt. The hilt of a sword is the Held part, the part which is Held. [" If Tindall saye, nay : let him shew me which olde holy Popes were they, that euer hild that the sacramentes of the Auter is suche a bare simple signe." — Sir T. Move's Workes, p. 471. '' And in her other hand a cup she hild, The which was with Nepenthe to the brim upfild." Faerie Queene, book 4. cant. 3. st. 42. " But what do I their names seeke to reherse. Which all the world have with their issue fild .-* How can they all in this so narrow verse Contayned be, and in small compasse hild ?" Faerie Queene, book 4. cant. 11. st. 17.] Tight— is Tiedy TVd, Tight, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Tian, vincire, To Tie. *' To seie ho we suche a man hath good Who so that reasone understoode It is unproperlicke sayde : That good hath hym, and halt him taide That he ne gladdeth nought withall, But is unto his good a thrall." — Gower, fol. 84. p. 1. col. 1, [** And in the midst of them he saw a knight. With both his hands behinde him pinnoed hard, And round about his necke an halter tight. And ready for the gallow tree prepard." Faerie Queene, book 5. cant. 4. st, 22. " Therewith he mured up his mouth along, And therein shut up his blasphemous tong. And thereunto a great long chaine he tight. With which he drew him forth, even in his own despight." Ihid. book 6. cant. 12. st. 34.] Deseet— — is Deserved, Deserved, Desert, Fart, a very innocent word, (the Egyptians thought it CH. III.] OF ABSTRACTION. 351 divine^) Fared, Fard, Fart, i. e. Fared, Gone; the past parti- ciple of papan, To Fare, or To Go. The meaning of this word appears to have been understood by those who introduced the vulgar country custom of saying upon such an occasion, ''And joy go with you." Twist — is Twiced, Twic'd, Twist. Quilt — is Quilled, Qitiird, Quilt, Want — is Waned, Wan'd, Want, the past participle of panian, decrescere, To Wane, To fall away. Gaunt — is Ge-waned, Gewan^d, Gewant, G'want, Gaunt; the past participle of Ije-panian, To Wane, To decrease^ To fall away. Ge is a common prefix to the Anglo-Saxon verbs. Gaunt was formerly a very common word in English. *' As GANT as a greyhound." — Ray' s pi^overbial Similies. . " How is't with aged Gaunt ? Oh how that name befits my composition : Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old : Within me greefe hath kept a tedious fast. And who abstaynes from meate, that is not gaunt ? For sleeping England long time haue I watcht. Watching breeds leannesse, leannesse is all gaunt. The pleasure that some fathers feede upon Is my strict fast, I mean my childrens lookes, And therein fasting hast thou made me gaunt. Gaunt am I for the graue, gaunt as a graue. Whose hollow wombe inherits nought but bones." Richard the Second, p. 28. , , '' This man. If all our fire were out, would fetch down neAv Out of the hand of Jove ; and rivet him To Caucasus, should he but frown : and let His own GAUNT eagle fly at him, to tire.'' — B. Jonson, Catiline. 1 " Crepitus ventris pro numinibus habendos esse docuere." Clemens Romanus. v. Recognit. " lidem ^gyptii cum plerisque vobiscum non magis Isidem quam ceparum acrimonias metuunt; nee Serapidem magis quam strepitus, per pudenda corporis expresses, extremiscunt." — Minucius Felix, Oc- tavius. ' \_" Elegant er Demetrius noster solet dicere, Eodem loco sibi esse voces imperitorum, quo ventre redditos crepitus. Quid enim, inquit, mea refert, sursum isti an deorsum sonent V— Seneca, Epist. xcii. edit. 4ta. Lipsii. p. 583, 584.] 352 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART ϊί. " Two mastiffs gaunt and grim her flight pursu'd. And oft their fastened fangs in blood embru'd. And first the dame came rushing through the wood. And next Uie famish' d hounds." — Dry den, Theodore and Honoria, Draught — the past participle of Djiajan, To Draught (now written To Draiv) Draughedj Draugh'dy Draught, Rent — Bended, Rend'd, Rent ; of the verb To Rend, [- " But thou, viper, Hast cancell'd kindred, made a rent in nature." Dry den, Don Sebastian, act 2. sc. 1.] Bent — A person's Bent or Inclination, Bended, Bended, Bent. Tilt — of a boat or waggon : the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon, verb Tilian, i.e. To raise, or To lift up. To Till the ground, is, To raise it, To turn it up. Atilt is well said of a vessel that is raised up ; but we ought to say To Till, and not To Tilt a vessel. " Many wynter men lyued, and no meate ne tiliden." Vision of Pierce Ploughman, pass. 15. fol. 72. p. 2. *^ Turned upsidowne, and ouer tilt the rote." Ibid. pass. 21. fol. 112. p. 1. " He garde good fayth flee, and false to ahyde. And boldly bare downe with many a bright noble Much of the wit and wisedome of Westminster hal. He justled tyll a justice, and iusted in his eare And ouertilt al his truth/' Ibid, pass. 21. fol. 113. p. 2. " Ο hye God, nothyng they tell, ne howe, But in Goddes worde telleth many a balke.'^ Chaucer, Ploughmans Tale, fol. 95. p. 2. col. 2. [The old Fjench verb Attiltrer (used by Amyot' and others, and whose signification is mistaken by Cotgrave), means susciter. To excite. To raise up : it is derived /rom the A.-S. Tlllan^] F. — What is MALT ? if.- — Mould and Malt, though now differently pro- nounced, written, and applied by us, are one and the same ' [Plutarch's Life of Pericles.] 2 [So the Till of a shop ; so the Thill horse : and so perhaps a Tile. Query, may it not be from Tegola, Italian ? [Tejh from Lat. Tegula. — Ed.] Consider also the French Tilleid,'] CH. Πι.] OF ABSTRACTION. 353 French word Μοιιίίίέ ', the past participle of the verb ΜοιιιΙΙβν^ To wet or To moisten. Mon'iUe^ anglicized, becomes Moidlled, Mouiird, Mould: then Moult, Mault, Malt. Wetting or moistening of the grain is the first and necessary part of the process in making what we therefore well term malt. ** He had a cote of christendome as holy kyrke beleueth And it was moled in mani places." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 14. fol. 68. p. 2. *' Shal neuer chest bymolen it, ne mough after byte it." Ibid. pass. 15. fol. 71. p. 2. " This leper loge take for thy goodly bour And for thy bed, take nowe a bunch of stro, For wayled wyne and meates thou hadst tho. Take MouLED breed, pirate, and syder sour." Complaynt of Creseyde, fol. 204. p. 1. col. 1. " And with his blode shall wasshe undefouled The gylt of man with rust of synne ymouled." Lydgate (1531). Lyfe of our Lady, boke 2. p. 45. *' Whan mamockes was your meate With MOULD bread to eat." Skelton. (Edit. 1736.) p. 197. F, — En, as well as ed, is also a common participial termi- nation, and our ancestors affixed either indifferently to any word. Sir Thomas More appears to have had a predilection for EN, and he writes JJnderstanden (^Works, vol. 2. p. 550.) whilst his contemporary Bishop Gardner preferred ed, and therefore wrote Uudcrsta?idea : We have deserted both, and now use the past tense Understood instead of the participle. But will not a final en or 'n likewise direct us to some of these concealed participles ? H. — Surely, to many. After what we have noticed in Poltroon, Dastard, and Coivard, we cannot avoid seeing, that Craven— is one who has craved or craven his life from bis antagonist — dextramque precantem protendens. Leaven — is from the French Lever, To raise; i.e. That by which the dough is raised. So the Anglo-Saxons called it J^apen, the past participle of their own verb J^eapan, To raise. Heaven— (subaud. some place, any place) [feav-eu or Heav-ed, 2 A 354 OF ABSTRACTION, [PART II. " They say that this word heuen in the article of our foyth, ascendit ad coelos, signifietli^ no certaine and determinat place. Som tyme it signifieth only the suppre place of creatures." — Λ Declaration of Christe, cap. 8. by Johan Hoper. 1547. Bacon — is evidently the past participle of Bacan, To Bake, or To dry by heat. " Our brede was newe baken, and now it is hored, our hotels and our wyne Averen newe, and now our hotels be nygh brusten." — Dines and Pauper, 2d Comm. cap. 20. "And there they dranke the wine and eate the venison and the foules BAKEN." — Hist, of Prince Arthur, 1st part, chap. 133. " As Abraham was in the play η Of Mamre where he dwelt, And BEAKT himselfe agaynst the sunne Whose parching heat he felt." Genesis, chap. 18. fol. 34. p. 1. By W. Hunnis. 1573. " Crane, beinge rosted or baken, is a good meate." Castel ofHelth, fol. 21. p. 1. By Syr Thomas Elyot. *' Whosoeuer hath his mynd inwardly ameled, baken, and through fyred with the loue of God." Lupsefs Workes, Of Charite, p. δ. Barren — i. e. Barr-ed, stopped, shut, strongly closed up, which cannot be opened, from which can be no fruit nor issue. " God shall make heuen and the ayer aboue the, brasen ; and the erthe byneth the, yreny ; that is to saye, bareyne, for defaute of rayne." ■ — Dines and Pauper, 10th Comm. cap. 8. " For God thus plagued had the house Of Bimelech the king, The matrix of them all were stopt. They might no issue bring." — Genesis. By W. Hunnis. " For the Lord had fast closed up all the wombs of the house of Abimelech." — Genesis, chap. 20. v. 18. So, in an imprecation of barrenness, in Beaumont and Fletclier's Woman Belter^ act 5. sc. 2 : " Mayst thou be quickly old and painted ; mayst thou dote upon some sturdy yeoman of the Wood-yard, and he be honest ; mayst thou be larrd the lawful lechery of thy coach, for want of instruments ; and last, be thy womb zmopend." Stern — Ster-en, /SVerV/, i. e. Stirr^cL It is the same word and has the same meaning, whether we say~a stern CH. ΠΙ.] OF ABSTRACTION. 355 countenance, i. e. a moved countenance, moved by some pas- sion : or the stern of a ship, i. e. The moved part of a ship, or that part by which the ship is moved. It is the past par- ticiple of the verb j'typan, j^tijian, movere ; which we now in EngHsh write differently, according to its different appli- cation, To Stii'y or To Steer. But which was formerly writ- ten in the same manner, however applied. '* The STERNE wynde so loude gan to route That no wight other noyse might here." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 176. p. 2. col. 1. " There was no more to skippen nor to praunce, But boden go to bedde with mischaunce, If any wight steryng were any where And let hem slepen, that a bedde were." Ibid, boke 3. fol. 176. p. 1, col. 2. " And as the newe abashed nightyngale That stynteth first, whan she begynneth syng, " Whan that she hereth any heardes tale. Or in the hedges any wight steryng." Ibid, boke 3. fob 179. p. 1. col. 2. " She fell in a grete malady as in a colde palsey, so ferforth that she myght neyther stere hande nor fote." — Nychodemus Gospell, chap. 8. *' Whan I sawe the sterynges of the elementes in his passyon, I byleued that he was Sauyour of the worlde." — Ibid. chap. 17. " He dyd se as he thought oure blessed lady brynge to hym fayre mylke in a foule cuppe, and stered hym to ete of it." — Myracles of our Lady, p. 10. (1530.) '' Yf the chylde steare not ne moue at suche tyme." Byrthe of Mcmhjnde, fol. 15. p. 2. (1540.) ** Warne the Λvoman that laboureth to strre and moue herselfe." — • Ibid. fol. 23. p. 2. " I suiFre, and other poore men lyke unto me, am many a tyme steryd to grutche and to be wery of my lyfe.''— Dines and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 1. " Yf a man wyll styre well a shyp or a bote, he may not stande in the myddes of the shyp, ne in the former ende ; but he muste stande in the last ende, and there he may styre the shyp as he wyl." — Ibid. 9th Comm. cap. 8. " This bysshop sterith up afreshe these olde heresies." Gardners DecL against Joye, fol. 25. p. 1. (1546.) *• He sterid against himselfe greate wrath and indignation of God." —Dr, Martin. Of Priestes unlawful Marriages, q\\, B, 2 A 2 356 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. " It is yourselfes that steire your ileash." Dr. Martin. Of Priestes unlawful Marriages, ch. 11. " Let the husbande geue hys wyfe hir dutie, that is if she craue for it, if they feare otherwise that Sathan wyll stiere in them the deuileshe desyre to line incontinentlie." — Ibid. ch. 11. " Let hym that is angry euen at the fyrste consyder one. of these thinges, that lyke as he is a man, so is also the other, with whom he is angry, and therefore it is as lefull for the other to be angry, as unto hym : and if he so be, than shall that anger be to hym displeasant, and STERE hym more to be angiye. "—-Castel of Helth, by Syr T. E, fol. 63. p. 1. '' Rough deeds of rage and sterne impatience." \st Part Henry 6. p. 113, " The sea, with such a storme as his bare head In Hell-blacke night indur'd, would have buoy'd up And quench'd the stelled fires. Yet, poore old heart, he holpe the heauens to raine. If wolues had at thy gate howl'd that sterne time. Thou should'st haue said, good porter turne the key." Lear, p. 300. *' He that hath the stirrage of my course Direct my sute." Romeo and Juliet, \). SI . *' Tread on a w^orm and she will steir her tail." Rafs Scottish Proverbs. [" Goe we unto th' assault, and selfe instant, Before the rest (so said) first doth he steare." Godfrey of Bulloigne, translated by R. C. Esq. Windet 1594. p. 122. cant. 3. st. 51. " His steed was bloody red, and fomed yre, AVhen with the maistring spur he did him roughly stire." Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 5. st. 2.] Dawn — is the past participle of Dalian, lucescere. ** Tyll the daye dawed these damosels daunced." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 19. fol. 103. p. 2. " In the dawynge and spryngyng of the daye, byrdes begynne to synge." — Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 28. " And on the other side, from whence the morning daws." Poly-olbion, song 10. Born — is the past parliciple oFBeapan, To bear : formerly written boren, and on oilier occasions now written borne. Born is, Bonie into life or into the world. Bear Ν (For a child) is also the past participle of Beajiaii, CH. ΠΙ.] OF ABSTRACTION. ^ 357 To bear ; witli this only diiference : that Born or Bor-en is the past tense Bore with tlie participial termination en : and Β EARN is either the past tense BarCj or the indicative Bear, with the participial termination en. *' For Maris loue of heuen That BARE the blisaful barne' that bought us on the rode." Vision of P. P. pass. 3. fol, 8, p. 1. [Bad and Good. To Bai/, i. e. To vilify, To bark at, To reproach, To express abhorrence, hatred, and defiance, &c. Bai/ed, Baed, i. e. Bay^dj Ba'd, abhorred, hated, defied, i. e. bad. BayeUj Bay'n, Baeii, write and pronounce bane. Ahbaiare, It. Ahhoyer, Fr. Abbaubare, Lat. &c. Greek, Βοαω. When the Italians swarmed in the French court, not being able to pronounce the open sound of Oy or 01, they changed the ο into A ; as in Fra??^aisj Anglais, See Henri Etienne. So also ISiivernais. Abayer. To Ban, i. e. to curse. Bas, Fr. Base. Ge-owed perhaps Goived, written and pronounced Good, which the Scotch pronounce and write gude.] Churn- — (Chyren, Chyr'n, Cliyrn) is the past participle of Ij-ypan, agitare, vertere, revertere, To move backwards and forwards. Yarn — is the past participle of Iryjipan, Hrypian, To prepare. To make ready. In Antony and Cleopatra, p. 367. • — ^'Yare, yare, good Iras" — is the Imperative of the same verb ; the Γτ and 3 of the Anglo-Saxons, however pronounced by them, being often (indeed usually) softened by their de- scendants to Y. When' Valeria in Coriolanus, page 4, says — '^ You would be another Penelope : yet they say, all the yearn ε she spun in Ulysses absence did but fill Athica full of mothes," — Yearne (i. e. Yaren) means Prepared (subaud. Cotton, Silk, or Wool) by spinning. ^ [" The A.S. has two similar M^ords which have been confounded : Beopn, masc. 'a chieftain/ pi. beopnaf ; and Beapn, neut, 'a child/ sing, and pi. alike."— -Kembte's Glossary/ to Beowulf . 2 358 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. F. — Is BRAWN one of these participles? //.—Ed and en are Adjective as well as Participial ter- minations : for Vi^hich, by their meaning (for all common ter- minations have a meaning, nor would they otherwise be com- mon terminations) they are equally qualified. Thus we say — GoldeUy Brazen J Wooden, Silken, Woolen, &c. and for- merly were used Silver-en, Stouten, Treen-en, Ros-en, Glas- en, &c. " Thei worshipiden not deuelys and symylacris, goldun, silueren, and BRASONE, and stonen, and treenen ; the whiche nether mown se nether here nether wandre." In the modern translation, " That they should not worship Devils and Idols of gold, and silver, and brass, and stone, and of wood ; which neither can see nor hear nor walk." — Apocalips, ch. 9. v. 20. " And I saw as a glasun see meynd with iier, and hem that ouer- camen the beest and his ymage, and the noumbre of his name stondynge aboue the glasun sse." In the modern translation, " And I saw as it were a sea of glass mingled with fire : and them that had gotten the victory over the beast, and over his image, and over his mark, and over the number of his name, stand on the sea of glass." — Ibid. ch. 15. v. 2. " Whan Phebus the sonne begynneth to sprede hys clerenesse with ROSEN charlottes." — Chaucer, Boecitis, boke 2. fol. 227. p. 1. col. 1. " The day the fayrer ledeth the rosen horse of the sonne." Ibid, boke 2. fol. 231. p. 2. col. 2. " That er the sonne tomorrov/e be rysen newe And er he haue ayen rosen hewe." Chaucer, Blacke Knyght, fol. 291. p. 1. col. 1. " In their time thei had treen chalices and golden prestes, and now haue we golden chalices and treen prestes."- — Sir T. Mores Works. Dialogue &c. p. 114. " Sir Thomas Rokesby being controlled for first suffering himselfe to be serued in treene cuppes, answered — These homely cups and dishes pay truely for that they containe : I had rather drinke out of CH. 111.] OF ABSTRACTION. 359 TREENE, and pay gold and siluer, than drinke out of gold and siluer, and make wooden payment." — Camdens Remains, p. 241. [Strawen. " Let him lodge hard, and lie in straaven bed. That may pull downe the courage of his pride." Faerie Qiieene, book δ. cant. 5. st. 50. EUGHEN. " Or els by wrestling to wex strong and heedfull. Or his stiife armes to stretch with eughen bowe." Spenser, Mother Huhberds Tale.'] Our English word boar is the Anglo-Saxon Baji, which they pronounced broad as Bawr ; and so our Northern countrymen still call it, and formerly wrote it. So they wrote Rary and pronounced Rawr, what we now write and pronounce Roar. " The bersit baris and beris in thare styis Raring all wod." Douglas, booke 7. p. 204. "Or with loud cry folowand the chace Efter the fomy bare." Ibid, booke 1. p. 23. So th s Anglo-Saxor ι Bat " Boat ^ ^ Bawt Ban Bone Baivn J^am Home Haivm Sbab which we Abode are still pro- Abcuvd Balb y now call < Bold > no u need in < Baivld Dpan and write Drone the North Drcncu Scan Stone St aw η La^ Loth Laiuth Fam _ ^ Foam _ lawm i^n - - -" — - — Caw/d. Bar-e η or Bawr-en , Brnvr^iif was the antient adjective of Bar, Baivr ; and, by the transposition of R, Bawrn has be- come brawn. Brawn therefore is an Adjective, and means Boar-en or Boar's (subaud.) Flesh. F. — Is not this a very singular and uncommon kind of transposition ? 360 OF ABSTRACTION. [part II, //.—By no means. Amongst many others, what we noi call and write Gers^ A;-S. Casi Grass Bright Profile Brothel To Thresh Threshold Thrilled Wright Nostril &c. was formerly ^ called and <' wiitten Ital. Porfilo Bordel - Byjiht Thirled Neisthyrl &c, Depj-cian Depj^colb Pyj-iht Grass. " His uthir wechty harnes, gude in nede, Lay on the gehs besyde him in the mede." Douglas, booke 10. p. 350. ** The grene gers bedewit was and wet." Ibid, booke 5. p. 138. " Unto ane plesand grund cumin ar thay. With battil gers, fresche herbis and grene swardis." Ibid, booke 6. p. 187. Brothel. " One Leonin it herde telle, AVhiche maister of the bordel was." Goiver, lib. 8. fol. 181. p. 2. col. 2, ^ [To the instances given aboΛΈ of the transposition of the r, as in Gers for Grass, may be added Kerse for Cress : — whence the harm- less sayings "Not worth a Kerse'' (cress)—"! don't care a Kerse," have been first changed for " 1 don't care a Curse," &c. and then whim- sically metamorphosed into "I don't care a Damn" — " Not worth a Damn oiF a common." " ΛVysdom and wytt now is nat worthe a kerse." Pierce Ploughman, Doivell, pass. 2. " I sette not a straw by thy dreminges." Chaucer, Nonnes Preesies Tale. " Of paramours ne raught he not a kers." — Milleres Tale. So also " ne raughte not a bene," ibid., is used in the same sense: — and "nought worth ix pease," Spenser, Shep. Cal. Octob., — where note, ih^t pease is the true singular, (like riches, richesse ; bellows, baleise,) pea being formed on a misconception. The ancient ^\\\.τ?ι\ peasen was long preserved, probably to avoid the cacophony of the second s, as in housen, hosen, still in use in Norfolk : so Daniel iii. 21, " bound in their hosen and hats." — Ed.] CH. ΠΙ.] OF ABSTRACTION 361 " He hatli hir fro the bordell take." Gower, lib. 8. fol. 182. p. 1. col. 2. These harlottcs that haunte bordels of these foule women." Chaucer, Parsons Tale, fol. 114. p. 2. col. 1. " She Avas made naked and ledde to the bordell house to be de- fouled of synfull wretches." — Dines and Pauper, 4th Comm. cap. 23. Thrill. " Quhare as the swelth had the rokkis thirllit." Doucjlas, booke 3. p. 87. "The cald drede tho gan Troianis inuaide, Thirlland throAvout hard Banis at euery part." Ibid, booke 6. p. 164. " The prayer of hym that loweth hyra in his prayer thyrleth the clowdes." — Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 5Q. " It is a comon prouerbe, that a shorte prayer thyrleth heuen." — Ibid. 1st Comm. cap. 56. Nostril. *' At thare neisthyrles the fyre fast snering out." Douglas, booke 7. p. 215. \_" Flames of fire he threw forth from his large nosethrill." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 11. st. 22.] And what we now write and call Burnt Bird Third Thirty Thirst Burst Thorp S)X. were formerly written called and Brent Brid Thrid Thritti Thrust Brast Thrope S^c. 9. Burn. " Forsothe it is beter for to be weddid than for to be brent." Corinthies, ch. 7, v, " The great clamour and the weymentyng That the ladyes made at the brennyng Of the bodyes." KnygJites Tale, fol. 1. p. 2. col. 2. " By the lawe, canone 26, suche Avytches sholde be heded and brente." — Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 34. " God hath made his aroΛves bote with bbennynge thynges, for they that ben brente Avith synne shall brenne Avith the fyre of helle." — Ibid. 8th Comm. cap. 15. 362 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. " But would to God these hatefull bookes all Were in a fyre brent to pouder small/' — Sir T. Mores Workes. Bird. *' Foxis han Borwis or dennes, and briddis of the eir han nestis." — ■ Mattheu, ch. 8. (ver. 20.) " Whan euery brydde upon his laie Emonge the grene leues singeth." Gowcr, lib. 7. foL 147. p. 1. col. 1. " Houndes shall ete thy wyfe lesabell, and houndes and bryddes shall ete thy bodye." Diues and Pauper, 9th Comm. cap. 4. Third. " He wente efte and preiede the thridde tyme." Mattheu, ch. 26. (v. 44.) Thirty. ** Thei ordeyneyde to him thritty plates of siluer.'* Mattheu, ch. 26. (v. 15.) " Judas solde Cryste, Goddes Sone, for thrytty pens." Diues and Pauper, 9th Comm. cap. 4. Thirst. *' ί hungride and ye gauen not to me for to ete ; I thristide, and ye gauen not to me for to drinke. — Lord, whanne saien we thee hun- gringe, ether thristinge .^"—ϋf«^^Mf?^ί, ch. 25. (v. 35. 37.) " He that bileueth in me shal neuer thriste." — John, ch. 6. (v. 35.) " There spronge a welle freshe and clere, Whiclie euer shulde stonde there To thrustie men in remembrance." Goiver, lib. 6. fol. 129. p. 2. col. 2. " Neither hunger, thrust, ne colde." Parsons Tale, fol. 118. p. 1. col. 2. " Tantalus that was distroyed by the woodenesseof longe thruste." — Boecius, boke4. fol. 240. p. 1. col. 1. " And in deserte the byble bereth wytnesse The ryuer made to renne of the stone The THRISTE to staunche of the people alone." Lydgate, Lijfe of our Lady, p. 65. •' The THRISTE of Dauid to staunche." Ibid. p. 164. " They gaaf mete to the hungrye, dr)rnke to the thrustye." Diues and Pauper, Of holy Pouerte, cap. 11. " ί hadde thryste, and ye gaue me drynke." Ibid. 8th Comm. cap. 17. CH. 111.] OF ABSTRACTION. 363 '* Ther shal be no wejDynge, no cryeng, no hongre, no thrust." Diues and Pauper, 10th Comm. cap. 10. " Their thrust was so great They asked neuer for meate But drincke, still drynke." Skelton, p. 132. [" His office was the hungry for to feed, And THRisTY give to drinke." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 10. st. 38. " Is this the ioy of armes ? be these the parts Of glorious knighthood, after blood to thrust ?" Ibid, book 2. cant. 2. st. 29.] Burst. " All is to Β rust thy Ike regyon." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 10. p. 1. col. 1. " The teares braste out of her eyen two." Doctour of Physickes Tale, fol. 65. p. 1. col. 1. *• Haue here my trueth, tyl that my hert breste." Frankelyns Tale, fol. 52. p. 1. col. 2. *' And in his brest the heaped woe began Out bruste." Troylus, boke 4. fol. 183. p. 2. col. 1. " Brosten is mine herte." Dido, fol. 213. p. 1. col. 2. " And with that worde he brest out for to wepe." Lydgate, Lyfe of our Lady, p. 78. ^" The great statue Fell to the erthe and braste on peces smale." Ibid. p. 139, *' The false idolis in Egipte fell downe And all to braste in peces." Ibid. p. 147. '* Wherefore his mother of very tender herte Out braste on teres." Ibid. p. 167. " The blood braste out on euery syde." Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 2. *' Our hotels and our wyne weren newe, and now our hotels be nygh BRUSTEN." — Ibid. 2d Comm. cap. 20. " Sampson toke the tv/o pylers of the paynims temple, which bare up all the temple, and shooke them togydre v/ith his armes tyl they BROSTEN, and the temple fell downe."- — Ibid. 5th Comm. cap. 22. " Esau hym met, embraced hym And frendly did him kysse. They both brast forth with teares and wept." Genesis, ch. 33. fol. 83. p. 2. 364 OF ATJSTRAGTION. [pART II. " Here ye wyll clap your handes and extoile the strength of truth, that BRESTETH out, although we Pharisais (as ye Saduces call us) wolde oppresse it." — Gardners Declaration S^c. against Joye, fol. 122. p. 2. ** The doloure of their heart braste out at theyr eyen." Sir T. More, llycharde the Thirde, p. 65. *' Such mad rages runne in your heades, that forsaking and brust- ING the quietnesse of the common peace, ye haue heynously and tray- torously encamped your selfe in lielde." — Sir Jolm Cheke. Hurt of Sedition. [" No gate so strong, no locke so firme and fast. But Avith that percing noise flew open quite, or brast." Faerie Qiieene, book 1. cant- 8. st, 4. " Still, as he fledd, his eye M^as backward cast. As if his feare still followed him behynd : Als flew his steed, as he his bandes had brast." Ibid, book 1. cant. 9. st. 21.] Thorp, '' There stode a thrope of syght ful delectable In whiche poore folke of that village Hadden her beestes." — Gierke of Oxevf. Tale, fol. 46. p. 1. col. 2. *' As we were entring at the thropes ende." Parsons Prol. fol. 100. p. 2. col. 1. So of Φρβνβτικοο, the Italians made Farnetico ; and of Far- iietico we make Fraiitick ; and of Chermosino we make Crim- son^, In all languages the same transposition takes place ; as in the Greek Kap^ia and Κραδιι?, &c. And the Greeks mio'ht as well have imagined these to be two different words, as our etymologists have supposed board and broad to be ; though there is not the smallest difference between them, ex- cept this metathesis of the letter r : the meaning of board and BROAD being the same, though their modern application is different. F. — Well. Be it so. I think your account of brawn 1 [So in Italian : Ghirlanda, Grillanda. — Orlando, Roldano, Rolando. " How my blood cruddles!" — Dryden. (Edipus, act 1. sc. 1.] [" I will not be crubbed." — Col. Wilson, in the House of Commons." " Crulle was his here." — Millers Tale, 3314. — Ed.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 365 has an advantage over Junius and Skinner^: for your journey is much shorter and less embarrassed. But I beg it may be understood, that I do not intirely and finally accede to every thing which I may at present forbear to contest. CHAPTER IV. THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. F. — I SEE the etymological use you would make of the finals d, t, and n. But you said, early in our conversation, that WRONG was a past participle, as well as right ; yet WRONG does not fall within any of those three classes. //. — True. It belongs to a much more numerous and less obvious class of participles ; which I should have been sorry to enter upon, till you had been a little seasoned by the foregoing. Wrong — is the past participle of the verb To Wring, Ppm^an, torquere. The word answering to it in Italian is 2 Junius says — " Brawn, callum ; inde Brawn of a hoar est callum aprugnum. Videntur autem βεαλυν istud Angli desumpsisse ex ac- cusativo Gr. ttwjOos, callus ; ut ex τνωρυν, per quandam contractionem et literae r transpositionem, primo fuerit ττρων, atque inde brawn." Skinner says — " Brawn, pro Apro, ingeniose deilectit amicus qui- dam doctissimus a Lat. Api'ugjia, supple Caro ; rejecto initiali a, ρ in Β mutato, G eliso, et a finali per metathesin rov υ premisso. " 2 Brawn autem pro callo declinari posset a Gr. πωρωμα, idem sig- nante ; ττ in /3 mutato, ω priori propter contractionem eliso, ω poste- riori in au, et μ in ν facillimo deflexu transeunte. "3. Mallem tamen brawn, pro Apro, a Tent. Braiisen, fremere ; vel a Brummen, murmurare. Sed neutrum placet. " 4. Brawn etiam sensu vulgatissimo callum aprugnum signat. Vir rev. deducit a Belg. Beer, aper, et Rauw, Rouw, in obliquis Rauwen, Rouwen, crudus : quia exteri omnes hujus cibi insueti (est enim Angliie nostrce peculiaris) carnem banc pro crudo habent ; ideoque modo co- quunt, modo assant, modo frigunt, modo pinsunt. Sed obstat, quod nullo modo verisimile est, nos cibi nobis peculiaris, Belgis aliisque gentibus fere ignoti nomen ab insuetis sumsisse. " 5. Possit et deduci (licet nee hoc plane satisfaciat) ab A.-S. Bap, aper, et pun, contr. pro jiunnen vel je-punnen, concretus, q. d, Barrun (i. e.) pars Apri maxime concreta, pars durissima," 366 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. Torto, the past participle of the verb Torquere ; whence the French also have Tort. It means merely Wrung, or Wrested from the right or Ordered —Wwo, of conduct. -F. — If it means merely Wruiigj the past participle of To Wring, why is it not so written and pronounced ? Doctor Lowth, in his account of the English verbs //. — O, my dear Sir, the bishop is by no means for our present purpose. His Introduction is a very elegant little treatise, well compiled and abridged for the object which alone he had in view ; and highly useful to Ladies and Gen- tlemen for their conversation and correspondence ; but afford- ing no assistance whatever to reason or the human under- standing : nor did he profess it. In the same manner an intelligent tasty milliner, at the court end of the town, may best inform a lady, what the fashion is, and how they wear the things at present ; but she can give her little or no account perhaps of the materials and manufacture of the stuffs in which she deals ; — nor does tlie lady wish to know. The bishop's account of the verbs (which he formed as well as he could from B. Jonson and Wallis) is the most trifling and most erroneous part of his performance. He was not himself satisfied with it; but says, — ^'^This distribution and account, if it he just." He laid down in the beginning a false rule : and the con- sequent irregularities, with which he charges the verbs, are therefore of his own making. Our ancestors did not deal so copiously in Adjectives and Participles, as we their descendants now do. The only me- thod which they had to make a past participle, v/as by adding ED or EN to the verb' : and they added either the one or the other indifferently, as they pleased (the one being as regular 1 [" Being a people very stubborne and untamed, or if it were ever tamed, yet now lately having quite shooken off their yoake." — Spenser's View of the State of Ireltmd. Todd's Edit. 1805. p. 303. " The shepheards boy (best knowen by that name)." S'penser. Colin Clouts come home agen, 1st line. " That every breath of heaven shared it."— jP. Queene, b. 1 . c. 4. st. 5. " Who reapes the harvest sowen by his foe, SowEN in bloodie field, and bought with woe." — Ibid.h. 1 . c. 4. st.42. •' Old loves, and warr^s for ladies doen by many a lord." Ibid, book 1. cant, 5, st. 3, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 367 as the other) to any verb which they employed : and they added them either to the indicative mood of the verb, or to the past tense. Shak-ed or Shak-en, Smi/tt~ed or Smytt-eiiy Grow-ed or Grow-en, Hoid-ed or Hold- en, Stung-ed or Stung- en, Buyld-ed or Buyld-en, Stand-ed or Stand-en, Moiu-ed or Moiv-en, Know-ed or Knoiv-e}{, Throw-ed or Throw-en, Solv- ed or Soiv-en, Com-ed or Com-en, were used by them in- differently. But their most usual method of speech v/as to employ the past tense itself, without parficipializmg it, or making a participle of it by the addition of ed or en. So likewise they commonly used their Substantives without ad- jectiving them, or employing those adjectives which (in imita- tion of some other languages and by adoption from them) we now employ. Take as one instance (you shall have more hereafter) the verb To Heave, J^eapan. By adding ed to the Indicative, they had the par- ticiple . . Heaved By changing υ to τ, mere matter of pronunciation . Heafl By adding en, they had the participle .... Heaven Their regular past tense v/as (I^ap nop) . . . Hove By adding ed to it, they had the participle . . , Hoved By adding en, they had the participle .... Hoven And all these they used indifferently. The ship (or any thing else) was Heaved or Heav'd 1 λ i i I And these have left behind them in our modern Ian- Heafl Heaven Hove Hoved or Hov\l Hoven : J >guage, the suppo-< sed substantives, but really unsus- pected Participles Head Hefl Heaven Hoof, Huff] and the diminutive Hovel Howve or Hood, Hal, Hut ^ Haven, Oven. " Thou wouldst have heard the cry that wofuU England made; Eke Zelands piteous plaints, and Hollands toren heare." Spenser. The MGurning Muse of Thestyiis, ** That kiss went tinghng to my very heart. When it Avas gone, the sense of it did stay ; The sweetness cling'd upon my lips all day." Dry den's Marriage A-la-Mode, act 2. sc. L] 368 OF ABSTRACTION. [PAUT IT. You will observe that this past tense J^ap, J^op, Hove, was variously written, as Heff] Hcife, lloivve, " Whan Lucifer was heff in heuen And ought moste haue stonde in euen." Gower, fol. 92. p. 2. col. 2. "And Arcite anon his honde up hafe." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 8. p. 2. col. 1. " Yet hoved ther an hundred in howves of silke Sergeaunts yt besemed that seruen at the barre." Vision of F. Floiighman, fol. 4. j). 1. " Nowe nece myne, ye shul wel understonde, (Quod he) so as ye women demen al, That for to holde in loue a man in honde And hym her lefe and dere hert cal, And maken hym an iiowue aboue a call, I mene, as loue another in this mene whyle, She doth herselfe a shame, and hym a gyle." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 176. p. 2. col. 2. " Nowe, sirs, quod this Oswolde the Reue, I pray you al, that ye not you greue That I answere, and som dele set his houfe For lefull it is with force, force of shoufe." ReuesFrol. fol. 15. p. 2. col. 1. N.B. In some copies, it is written Howue, To set his Houfe or Hoiviie, is equivalent to what the Miller says before, " For I woll tell a legende and a lyfe Both of a carpenter and hys wyfe, Howe that a clerke set a imyghtes cappe." Millers Tale, fol. 12. p. 1. col. 1. " In this case it shal be very good to make a j^erfume underneth of the houe of an asse." — Byrth of Mankynde, fol. 30. p. 1. "Also fumigation made of the yes of salt fy&shes, or of the houe of a horse." — Ihid. fol. S3, p. 1. " Strewe the pow^der or asshes of a calfes houe burnt." Ihid. fol. 5^. p. 2. " The stone iioued ahvays aboue the water." Historie of Prince Arthir, 1st part, cli. 44. " Menkes and chanones and suche other that use grete ouches of syluer and golde on theyr copes to fastene theyr hodes ayenst the wynde."— Χ)ίΜί5 and Fauper, 7th Comm. cap. 12. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 369 If you should find some difficulties (I cannot think they will 136 great) to make out to your satisfaction the above derivations; it will be but a wholesome exercise; and 1 shall not stop now to assist in their elucidation ; but will return to the word w^rong. I have called it a past participle. It is not a participle. It is the regular past tense of the verb To Wring. But our ancestors used a past tense, where the languages with which we are most acquainted use a participle : and from the gram- mars of the latter (or distribution of their languages) our present grammatical notions are taken : and I must there- fore continue with this word (and others which I shall hereafter bring forward) to consider it and call it a past par- ticiple. In English, or Anglo-Saxon (for they are one language), the past tense is formed by a change of the characteristic letter of the verb. By the characteristic letter I mean the vowel or diphthong which in the Anglo-Saxon immediately precedes the Infinitive termination an, ean, lan ; or jan, ^ean, ^lan. To form the past tense of Pjiin^an, To Wring (and so of other verbs), the characteristic letter i or γ was changed to a broad. But, as different persons pronounced differently, and not only pronounced differently, but also used different written characters as representatives of their sounds ; this change of the characteristic letter was exhibited either by a broad, or by o, or by u. From Alfred to Shakespeare, both inclusively, ο chiefly prevailed in the South, and a broad in the North. During the former part of that period, a great variety of spelling ap- pears both in the same and in different writers. Chaucer complains of this : " And for there is so greate diuersyte In Englyshe, and in writynge of our tonge." Troylus, boke 5. fol. 200. p. 1. col. 1. But' since that time the fashion of writing in many instances has decidedly changed to ou and υ ; and in some, to oa and GO and Ai. But, in our inquiry into the nature of language and the meaning of words, what have we to do with capricious and 2b 370 OF ABSTRACTION, [PART ΙΪ. mutable fashion? Fashion can only help us in our commerce with the world to the rule (a necessary one I grant) of Loquendum nt vulgus. But this same fashion, unless we watch it well, will mislead us widely from the other rule of Sentiendum ut sapientes. JP.— Heretic ! What can you set up, in matter of language, against the decisive authority of such a writer as Horace ? _ . " Usus, Quern penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi." H. — I do not think him any authority whatever upon this occasion. He wrote divinely : and so Vestris danced. But do you think our dear and excellent friend, Mr. Cline, would not give us a much more satisfactory account of the influence and action, the power and properties of the nerves and muscles by which he performed such wonders, than Vestris could ? who, whilst he used them with such excellence, did not perhaps know he had them. In this our inquiry, my dear Sir, we are not poets nor dancers, but anatomists. F. — Let us return then to our subject. H. — To the following verbs, whose characteristic letter is i, the present fashion (as Dr. Lowth truly informs us) continues still to give the past tense in o. Abide — — Abode Drive — Drove^ Ride • Rode Rise — Rose Shine — Shone Shrive — Shrove Smite " Smote Stride Strode Strive Strove Thrive Throve Write — — Wrote Win Won [" What franticke fit, quoth he, hath thus distraught Thee, foolish man, so rash a doome to give ? What iustice ever other iudgement taught. But he should dye, who merites not to live ? None els to death this man despayring drive But his owne guiltie mind, deserving death." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 9. st. 38. Todd's Edit. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 371 To which he properly adds (though no longer in fashion) Chide Chode And Climb Clomb *' Jacob CHODE with Laban." — Genesis xxxi. 36. •• And the people chode with Moses." — Numb. xx. 3. " And shortly clomben up all thre." Millers Tale, fol. 14. p. 1. col. 2. ** Sens in astate thou clomben were so hye." Monhes Tale, fol. 87. p. 2. col, 1. " The Sonne he sayde is clombe up to heuen." Tale of Nonnes Priest, fol, 90. p. 1. col. 1. " So eifated I was in wantonnesse. And clambe upon the iychell whele so hye." Testam. of Creseyde, fol. 204. p. 2. col. 1. " Up I clambe with muche payne." MBoke of Fame, fol. 297. p. 2. col. 1. " High matters call our muse ; inviting her to see As well the lower lands, as those where lately she The Cambrian mountains glome." -^Poly-olMoii, song 7. " It was a Satyr's chance to see her silver hair Flow loosely at her back, as up a cliiF she clame." — Ibid, song 28. ['* Who, well them greeting, humbly did requight, And asked, to what end they clomb that tedious hight }" Faerie Queene, hook 1. cant. 10. st. 49, •* Which to behold he clomb up to the bancke." Ibid, book 2. cant. 7. st. 57. *' Tho to their ready steedes they clombe full light." Ibid, book 3. cant. 3. st. 61. ** She to her waggon clombe : clombe all the rest. And forth together went." Ibid, book 3. cant. 4. st. 31. ** Then all the rest into their coches clim." Ibid, book 3. cant. 4. st. 42, " And earely, ere the morrow did upreare His deawy head out of the ocean maine. That the bold prince was forced foote to give To his first rage, and yeeld to his despight : The whilest at him so dreadfully he drive. That seem'd a marble rocke asunder could have rive." Faerie Queene, book 5. cant. 11. ist. 5.} 2 b2 372 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. He up arose, as lialfe in great disdaine, And CLOMBE unto his steed." — Faerie Queene, hook 3. cant.4. st.61 . " Unto his lofty steede he clombe anone." Ibid, book 4. cant. 5. st. 46. " Thence to the circle of the moone she clambe. Where Cynthia raignes in everlasting glory." Ibid. Two cantos of Mutabilite, cant. 6. st. 8.] You will please to observe that the past participles of the above verbs Abides Drive, Shrive, and Ride, besides the sup- posed substantives drift, shrift, (which we before noticed) furnish also the following; viz. Abode, i. e. Where any one has Abided. Drove, i. e. Any number of animals Driven. Shrove — As Shrove-tide. i. e. The time when persons are Shrived or Shriven. Road. i. e. Any place Ridden over. This supposed sub- stantive ROAD, though now so written, (perhaps for distinction sake, to correspond with the received false notions of language) was formerly written exactly as the past tense. Shakespeare, as well as others, so wrote it. '' The martlet Builds in the weather, on the outward wall, Euen in the force and rode of casualtie." Merchant of Venice, (1st Folio) p. 172. *' Here I reade for certaine that my ships Are safelie come to rode." — Ibid. p. 184. '* A theeuish lining on the common robe.''— -As you like it, p. 191. *' I thinke this is the most villanouse house in al London rode for fleas."— l5i Part Henry 4. p. 53. " Neuer a man's thought in the world keepes the RODE-way better than thine." — 2d Part Henry 4. p. 80. *' This Dol Tearesheet should be some rode, I warrant you, as com- mon as the way betweene S. Alban's and London."— /ά. p. 81. " I haue alwaye he thy beest, and thou haste alwaye roden on me, and I serued the neuer thus tyll now." Dines and Pauper, 9th Comm. cap. 5. '* They departed and road into a valey, and there they met with a squier that roade upon a hackney." Historie of P. Arthur^ 3d part, ch. ββ. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 373 [" Now, strike your sailes, yee iolly mariners. For we be come unto a quiet rode." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 12. st. 42. *' Such was that hag which with Duessa roade." Ihid. book 4. cant. 1. st. 31.] But, together with the unfashionable Clomb and Chode, the bishop should also have noticed, that by a former (and gene- rally not more distant) fashion, the following verbs also (though now written with a, u, ou, or i short) gave us their past tense in o\ Beghi Bid Forbid Bind Bite Cling Drink Find Fling my Give Glide King Rive \_Shi?ie Shrink Sing Begon Bod Forhode Bond Bote Clonge Dronk Fond Flong Flovj Gove Glode Rong Rove Shone'\ Shronk Song Sink Slide Slins[ Spin Spring Stick Sting Stink Strike Swim Swing Sivink Will Wind Wit Wring Yield — Sonk — Slode Slono: Spon Sprong Stoke, Stock Stong Stonk Stroke Sworn Swong Sivonk Woll Wond Wot Wrong Yold, Begin. An hyne that had hys hyre ere he begonne." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 15.fol. 74. p. 1 [Mr. Tooke has added the following in the margin ; — Hear, Hard; Oread, Drad ; Drip, Drop, or Dripped ; Eat, Ate ; Bylban ; String ; Thring. Also To Mete. " For not by measure of her owne great mynd And wondrous worth, she mott my simple song." Spenser, Colin Clouts come home again.'] 374 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART H "The mightie God, Avhich unbegonne Stont of hymselfe, and hath begonne All other thinges at his wilV—Gower, lib. 8. fol. 183. p. 2. col. 2. "' His berde Λναβ well begonne for to spring." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 7. p. 1. col. 2. " ΝοΛν I praye the for Goddes sake for to perfourme that thou haste BEGONNEN.*' — Diues and Pttuper, 4th Comm. cap. 1. " This doctrine for priestes marriages tendeth to the ouerthrowe of Christes relligion &c. And bothe this and all other lyke newe fangled teachynges be now euidently knowen, to haue begon with lecherie, to haue continued with couetise, and ended in treason."— Z)r. Martin, De- dication to Queene Marie. " The temple of God in Hierusalem was begon by Dauyd and fynyshed by Salomon." — Ti^ue Dyfferences, S^c. By Lord Stafforde. '' Folow this godd worke begon." A Declaration of Christe, By Johan Hoper, cap. 13. " God will, as he hath begon, continue your hignes in felicitie." An Epitome of the Kynges Title 8iC. (1547.) [ — — — — " But this same day Must end that worke the Ides of March begun ^" Julius Ccesar, p. 128, col. L] BidI *' Whan Christe himselfe hath bode pees And set it in his testament." — Goiver, ProL fol. 2 p. 1. col. 2. " He was before the kynges face Assent and boden." — Ibid. lib. 1. fol. 24. p. 1. col. 1 '' And saith, that he hymselfe tofore Thinketh for to come, and bod therfore That he him kepe."— JMc/. lib. 2. fol. 32. p. 1. col. 1. " Whan Loue al this had boden me." Horn, of the Rose, fol. 133. p. l.col. 1. " He ete of the forboden tree." Lydgate, Lyfe of our Lady, boke 2. p. 37. " Hadde he bode them stone hyr, he hadde sayd ayenst his owne prechynge." — Diues and Pauper, 6th Comm. cap. 6. 1 [To this passage the sapient Malone subjoins the following note : " Our authour ought to have written — Began. For this error, I have no doubt, he is himself answerable."] - [Bod is used as the preterite in Norfolk. — Ed. J CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 375 " For couetyse Nachor was stoned to deth, for he stalle golde and clothe ayenst Goddes forbode." — Diues and Pauper, 9th Comm. cap. 4. " But yet Lots wife for looking backe Which was to her forbod Was turnde into a pyller salt By mightie worke of Goa.'*— Genesis, ch. 19. fol. 39. p. 1. "' Up is she go And told hym so As she was bode to say." — Sir T. Mores Workes. [" So piercing through her closed robe a way. His daring thought to part forbodden got." Godfrey of Bulloigne, translated by R. C. Esq. 1594. cant. 4. st. 28.] Bind. "But Jupiter, which was his sonne. And of full age, his father bonde."— -G^ozi;er, fol. 88. p. 1. col. 1. " He caught hir by the tresses longe With the whiche he bonde both hir armes." Ibid. lib. 5. fol. 114. p. 2. col. I. " And with a chayne unuisible you bonde Togider bothe twaye." Chaucer, Blacke Knyghte, fol. 290. p. 2. col. 2. " The fende holdeth theym full harde bounde in his boundes as his chatties and his thralles." — Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 35. " Moche more it is nedeful for to unbynde this doughter of Abraham in the sabbat from the harde bounde in the whiche Sathanas had holden her BOUNDEN xviii yere longe." — Ibid. 3d Comm. cap. 14, " Onely bodely deth may departe them, as ayenst the bounde of wedloke. Goostly deth breketh that bounde." Ibid. 6th Comm. cap. 7. " God bonde man to haue cure of woman in hyr myschief." Ibid. 6th Comm. cap. 24. " The moneye that thou hydest in the erthe in waste is the raunsome of the prysoners and of myscheuous folke for to delyuere them out of pryson and out of boundes, and hel^De them out of woo." Ibid. 7th Comm. cap. 12. " He hath leifte us a sacrament of his blessid body the whiche we are bond to use religiously." A Declaracion of Christe. By Jolian Hoper, cap. 8. [" Upon a great adventure he was bond. That greatest Gloriana to him gave." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 3. Todd's Edit. 376 OF ABSTRACTION. [PAKT II. ** Therefore since mine he is, or free or bond. Or false or trew, or living or else dead." Faerie Queene, b. I.e. 12. st. 28.] *' And I Avill make m}^ band wyth him, An euerlasting band, And wyth his future seede to come That euermore shall stande." — Genesis, ch. 17. fol. 33. p. 1. " Sister, proue such a wife. As my thoughts make thee, and as my farthest band Shall passe on thy approofe."— ^?zio;?y and Cleopatra, p. 352. " Tell me, was he arrested on a band ?" ''Not on a band, but on a stronger thing — a chain." " I, Sir, the sergeant of the band ; he that brings any man to answer it, that breakes his band." — Comedy of Errors, p. 94. Bite. " He BOTE his lips, And wringing with the fist to wrek himself he thought." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 6. fol. 21. p. 2. *' Whan Adam of thilke apple bote, His swete morcell was to hote." Goiver, lib. 6. fol. 127. p. 1. col. 2. " Whan a mannes sone of Rome sholde be hanged, he prayed his fader to kysse hym, and he bote of his faders nose." Diues and Pauper, 7th Comm. cap. 7. " The hart went about the table round, as he went by other hordes the white brachet bote him by the buttocke and pulled out a peece." — Historie of Prince Arthur, 1st part, chap. 49. " Bartopus was hanged upon a galos by the waste and armys, and by hym a mastyfe or great curre dogge, the Avhyche as soon euer he was smytten, bote uppon the sayde Bartopus, so that in processe he all to rent hym." — Fabian, fol. 156. p. 2. col. 2. " He frowned as he wolde swere by cockes blode. He bote the lyppe, he loked passynge coye." Skelton, p. 68. (Edit. 1736.) " The selfe same hounde Might the confound That his own lord bote Might bite asunder thy throte."— -Ibid. p. 224. Cling. *' And than the knyghtes dyde upon hym a cloth of sylke whiche for haboundaunce of blode was so clonge to hym that at the pullynge of it CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 377 was an hondred folde more payne to hym than was his scourgynge." — Nychodemus Gospell, ch. 6. Drink. " But with stronge wine which he dronke Forth with the trauaile of the daie Was Dronke." — Gower, lib. 2. fol. 33. p. 1. col. 1. ** And thus full ofte haue I bought The lie, and dronke not of the wyne." Ibid. lib. 3. fol. 52. p. 1. col. 2. " They nolde drinke in no maner wyse No drinke, that dronke might hem make." Sompners Tale, fol. 43. p. 1. col. 2. " Noe dranke wyne soo that he was dronke, for he knewe not the myght of the %vyne." — Dines and Pauper, 4th Comm. cap. 1. "Mylke newe mylked dronke fastynge." Castel ofHelth, fol. 14. p. 2. Find. " Thus was the lawe deceiuable. So ferforth that the trouth fonde Rescous none." — Goioer,\\h. 2. fol. 37. p. 1. col. 1. " Among a thousande men yet fonde I one, But of all Avomen fonde I neuer none." Marchauntes Tale, fol. 33. p. 1. col. 2. [" Thence shee brought into this Faery lond, And in an heaped furrow did thee hyde ; Where thee a ploughman all unweeting fond." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 10. st. Q6. Todd's edit.] Fling. *' And made him blacke, and reft him al his songe And eke his speche, and out at dore him flonge Unto the ά^ΜΟΪ."— Manciples Tale, fol. 92. p. 2. col. 2. " Matrons flong gloues, ladies and maids their scarifes." Coriolanus, p. 11. And Duncan's horses Beauteous and swift, the minions of their race, Turn'd wilde in nature, broke their stalls, flong out. Contending 'gainst obedience." — Macbeth, p. 138. [** At last Avhenas the Sarazin perceiv'd How that straunge sword refusd to serve his neede, But, when he stroke most strong, the dint deceiv'd ; He flong it from him." — Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 8. st. 49. 378 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " So when the lilly-handed Liagore .... .... whereof wise Ρεεοη sprong, Did feele his pulse, shee knew there staied still Some little life his feeble sprites emong ; Which to his mother told, despeyre she from her flong." Faerie Queene, book 3. cant. 4. st. 41. " A dolefull case desires a dolefull song, Without vaine art or curious complements ; And squallid fortune, into basenes flong, Doth scorne the pride of wonted ornaments," Spenser, Teares of the Muses.'] Fly. " And the fowles that flowe forth." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 44. p. 1. " But this Neptune his herte in vayne Hath upon robberie sette. The Brid is flowe, and he was let. The fayre maide is hym escaped." Gower, lib. 5. foL 117. p. 1, col. 2. " But I dare take this on honde, If that she had wynges two. She wolde haue flowen to hym tho." /i/c?.lib.o.fol. 104.p. l.col. 1. " He FLOΛVE fro us so swyfte as it had ben an egle." Nychodemus Gospell, ch. 15. Give. " Hadde suifrid many thingis of ful manye lechis, and hadde goue alle hir thingis, and hadde not profited eny thing." Mark, ch. v. (v. 26.) '' Forsoth the traitour hadde goue to hem a signe." Ihid. ch. xiv. (v. 44.) *' He seide to hem it is gouun to you to knowe the misterie, ether priuyte, of the rewme of God." — Ihid. ch, iv. (v. 11.) " Forsothe it shal be gouun to him that hath." Ibid. ch. iv. (v. 25.) '' The kynge counsailed in the case, Therto hath youen his assent/' G Giver, lib. 1. fol. 14. p, 1. col. 1. " With that the kynge, right in his place, An erledome, whiche than of Eschete W'as late falle into his honde. Unto this knight, with rente and ionde, Hath youe." . Jbid. lib. 1. fol. 26. p. 2. col. 2. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 379 " Pallas whiche is the goddesse And wife to Mars, of whom prowesse Is YouE to these ΛVorthy knightes." Gower, lib. 6. fol. 1 17. p. 1. col. i. " " The high maker of natures The worde to man hath youe alone." Ihid.Mh. 7.fol. 169.p. 2.C0I. 2. Glide. " She GLODE forth as an adder doth." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 105. p. 1. col. 1. " The vapour, which that fro the erthe glode Maketh the sonne to seme ruddy and brode." Squiers Tale, fol. 26. p. 2. col. 1. [ " Fiercely forth he rode, Like sparke of fire that from the andvile glode." Faerie Queene, book 4, cant. 4. st. 23.] Ring. *' If he maie perce hym Λvith his tonge. And eke so loude his belle is ronge." Gotver, lib. 2. fol. 49. p. 2. col. 2. ** The rynges on the temple dore they ronge." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 8. p. 2. col. 1. *' A fooles belle is soone ronge." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 145. p. 1. col. 2. " They wyll not suiFre theyr belles be rongen but they haue a cer- tayn moneye therfore." — Diues and Pauper, 7th Comm. cap. 23. " Be man or woman deed and doluen under claye, he is soone for- geten and out of mynde passed a waye. Be the belles ronge and the masses songe he is soone forgeten." — Ibid. 8th Comm. cap. 12. " The great Macedon, that out of Persie chased Darius, of whose huge power all Asia rong. In the rich arke Dan Homers rimes he placed. Who fained iestes of heathen princes song." Earl of Surreys Songes and Sonets, fol. 16. p. 1. ** Than shall ye haue the belles rong for a miracle." Sir T. Mores Works. A Dialogue &c. p. 134. [" It is said, the evill spirytes that ben in the regyon of thayre, doubte moche when they here the belles rongen : and this is the cause why the belies ben rongen when it thondreth, and when grete tempeste and outrages of weather happen." Golden Legend, by W. de Worde.'] 380 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Rive. " And for dispayre, out of his witte he sterte And ROUE hymselfe anon throughout the herte." Leg. of Good Women, Cleopatra^ fol. 210. p. 1. col. '2. *' Therewith the castle roue and Λvalls brake, and fell to the earth." — Historie of Pr. Arthur, 1st part, ch. 40. " He ROUE himselfe on his οΛνηε sword." — Ibid. ch. 42. " The thick mailes of their halbeards they carued and roue in sun- der." — Ibid. 1st part, ch. 54. " The boore turned him sodainely and roue out the lungs and the heart of Sir Launcelots horse, and or euer Sir Launcelot might get from his horse the boore roue him on the brawne of the thighe up to the huckle bone."- — Ibid. 3d part, ch. 17. Shrink. ** Her lippes shronken ben for age." Gower, lib. 1. fol. 17. p. 1. col. 1. " Somtyme she constrayned and shronke her seluen lyke to the commen mesure of men : and somtyme it seemed that she touched the heuen with the hight of her hed. And whan she houe her heed hyer, she perced the selfe heuen." Chaucer, Boecius, boke 1. fol. 221. p. 1. col. 1. " Because the man that stroue with him Did touch the hollow place Of Jacob's thighe, wherein hereby The SHRONKEN syneAve vi?i^.'"— Genesis, ch. 32. fol. 83. p. 1. *' A nother let flee at the lorde Standley which shronke at the stroke and fel under the table, or els his hed had ben clefte to the tethe : for as shortely as he shranke, yet ranne the blood aboute hys eares." — Sir T. More. Rycharde the thirde, p. 54. Sing. " And therto of so good measure He songe, that he the beastes wilde Made of his note tame and milde." Goiver, Prol. fol. 7. p. 1. col. 2, '' On whiche he made on nyghtes melody So swetely, that all the chambre rong And Angelus ad virginem he song. And after that he songe the kynges note." Myllers Tale, fol. 12. p. 1. col. 2. *' So loude sai^ge that al the woode rong." Blacke Knyght, fol, 287. p. 2. col. 2. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 381 " Some SONGE loude, as they had playned." CucTiOtve and Nyghtingale, fol. 351. p. 1. col. 1. " For here hath hen the leude cuckoΛve And soNGEN Songes rather than hast thou." Ibid. fol. 351. p. 1. col. 2. " The Abbot songe that same daye the hye masse." Myracles of our Lady, p. 7. (1530.) ** Euery note so songe to God m the chirche is a prayeynge to God." — Dines and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 59. " By this nygtyngale that syngeth soo swetely, I understande Cryste, Goddes sone, that songe to mankynde songes of endeles lone." Ibid. 9th Comm. cap. 4. " Which is SONG yerly in the chirch." Declaracion of Christe, By Johan Hoper, cap. 5. (1547.) " If Orpheus had so play'd, not to be understood. Well might those men have thought the harper had been wood ; Who might have sit him down, the trees and rocks among. And been a verier block than those to whom he song." Poly-olbion, song 21. ['' And to the maydens sownding tymbrels song In well attuned notes or ioyous lay." ^ Faerie Qiieene, book 1. cant. 12. st. 7.] Sink. " They soNKEN into hell." Vis. of P. Ploughnan, pass. 15. fol. 72. p. 2. " And all my herte is so through sonke." Gower, lib. 6. fol. 128. p. 1. col. 1. '• And wolde God that all these rockes blacke Were sonken in to hell for his sake." Franlieleyns Tale, fol. 52. p. 2. col. 2. *' His eyen drouped hole sonken in his heed." Test, of Creseyde, fol. 202. p. 2. col. 1. ** The trees hath leaues, the Boices done spread, new changed is the yere. The water brookes are cleane sonke downe, the pleasant banks appere." Songes and Sonets by the Earle of Surrey S^c. fol. 62. p. 2. (1587.) " Our ship is almost sonke and lost." Ibid. fol. 91. p. 2. Slide. " The sword slod downe by the hawberke behinde his backe." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 1st part, ch. 14. " His sword slode down and kerued asunder his horse necke." Ibid. 2d part, ch. 59. 382 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " In hys goynge oute of his shyp, and takying the land, hys one fote SLODE, and that other Stacke faste in the sande." Fabian, fol. 139. p. 2. col. 1. Sling. *' This Pandarus came leapyng in at ones And sayd thus, who hath ben wel ybete To day with swerdes and slong stones." Troylus, boke 2. fol. 168. p. 1. col. 1. Spin. *' Ο fatall sustren, whiche or any clothe Me shapen was, my destyne me sponne, So helpeth to thys werke that is Begonne." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 176. p. 2. col. 1. ** Or I was borne, my desteny was sponne By Parcas systerne." Blacke Knyght, fol. 300. p. 1. col. 1 . '* Thende is in hym or that it be Begonne, Men sayne the wolle, whan it is wel sponne. Doth that the clothe is stronge and profitable." Ballade to K. Henry 4. fol. 350. p. 1. col. 1. "If that thy \vicked wife had sponne the threade, And were the weauer of thy wo." Songes and Sonets by the Earle of Surrey, &>€. fol. 93. p. 2. [" With fine small cords about it stretched wide, So finely sponne, that scarce they could be spide." Spenser s Muiopotmus, st. 45.] Spring. " Out of the flint spronge the floud that folke and beastes Dronke." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 15. fol. 72. p. 2. " And thus is mankind or manhode of matrimony s prong." Ibid. pass. 17. fol. 90. p. 1. ** Tho might he great merueile see, Of euery toth in his degree Sprong up a knight with spere and shelde." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 103. p. 2. col. 2. *' Anone there sprong up floure and gras." Ibid. fol. 106. p. 1. col. 1. ** Thou shalt eke consider al the causes from whence they be sprong." Tale of Chaucer, fol. 76. p. 2. col. 2. *' Out of his graue spronge a fayre lyly." Myracles of our Lady, p. 22. (1530.) CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 383 ** From these three sonnes that Noah left, And others of their bloud, Haue SPRONGE all nacions on the earth." Genesis, ch. 10. fol. 19. " Happy it was that these heretiques spronge up in his dayes." Gardner s Declaration S^c. fol. 25. p. 1. ** With our new religion new logicke is spkong furth of late." Dr. Martin of Priestes imlauftd Mariages, chapitre 5. p. 52. " Where loue his pleasant traines hath soAven Her beautie hath the fruites opprest. Ere that the buddes were sprong and blowen." Songes &;c. hy the Earle of Surrey S^c. fol. 3. p. 2. " Of lingring doubts such hope is sprong." Ibid. fol. 18. p. 1. ** ΛVherupon newe war sprong betwene them and us." Epitome of the Title 8^c. (1547.) " From v/hence all knightly deeds and brave atchievements sprong." Poly-olbion, song 3. [" For both the lignage, and the certein sire From which I sprong, from mee are hidden yitt." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 9. st. 3. " Sweete Love devoyd of villanie or ill, But pure and spotles, as at first he sprong Out of th' almighties bosom, where he nests." Spejiser, Teares of the Mvses. " Surely I Avould you had your wish : for then should not I now nede to bungle up yours so great a request, when presently you should haue sene with much pleasure, which now peraduenture you shall read with some doubt, lesse thynges may encrease by writyng which were so great in doyng, as I am more afrayd to leaue behind me much of the matter, than to gather up more than hath sprong of the trouth!' Roger Ascham's letter to John Astely, p. 4. " He said; and, mantled as he was, sprang forth, And seiz'd a quoit in bulk and weight all those Transcending far, by the Phieacians used. Swiftly he swung, and from his A^ig'rous hand Dismiss'd it." Cowpers translation of Homer's Odyssey, p. 208.] Stick. *' Thei haue anone the coffi'e stoke." Gower, lib. 8. fol. 180. p. 1. col. 2. ** This coffer in to his chamber is brought Whiche that thei finde faste stoke." Ibid. p. 2, col. 1, 384 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 1!. " In the midest thereof was an anuile of Steele, and therem stooke a faire sworde naked by the point." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 1st part, ch. 3. " There to abyde stocked in pryson." Lydgate, Lyfe of our Lady, boke 2. p. 35. (1531.) Sting. '* As thoughe he stongen were to the herte." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 2. p. 1. col. 1. " If cowe or calfe, shepe or oxe swel That any worme hath eaten or hem stonge Take water of this wel." Pardoners ProL fol. Qd. p. 2. col. 1. " I suffered to beten and bound, to be spateled and despysed, to be nayled to the crosse, crowned with thornes, stongen to the herte with a spere." — Diues and Pauper, 8th Comm. cap. 14. " The fende Λvhich appered in the lyknes of an adder to Eue and STANGE her full euyl." — Ibid. 10th Comm. cap. 3. " With serpents full of yre Stong oft with deadly payne." Songes &;c. by the Earle of Surrey &;c. fol. 84. p. 1. " Who so euer was stong or venemyd with the poyson of the ser- pentes, if he lokyd upon the serpent of brasse might be helyd." Dedaracion of Chi-iste, By Johan Hoper, cap. 7. *' The people Avere stong with serpentes." — Ibid. cap. 7. [" For hardly could be hurt, who was already stong." Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 1. st. 3. *' I saw a wasp, that fiercely him defide. And bad him battaile even to his iawes ; Sore he him stong, that it the blood forth drawes." Spenser, Visions of the worldes vanitie.'] Stink. " Badde wedes whiche somtime stonken." Testament of Loue, boke 1. fol. 313. p. 1. col. 2. [" That, through the great contagion, direful deadly stonck." Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 2. st. 4.] Strike. " Thou shalt strike a stroke the most dolorous that euer man STROKE." — Hist, of Prince Arthur, 1st part, ch, 33. " Drew out his sword and strok him such a buffet on the helmet." Ibid. ch. 111. " They lashed together with their swords, and somtime they stroke and somtime they foined."— /έ^ί?. 3d part, ch. 13. CH. JV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 385 ** And when this man might not preuayle Jacob to ouerthrow, He Jacob stroke under the thigh." Genesis, ch. xxxii. fol. 82. p. 1. " Frets call you these, (quoth she) He fume with them : And with that word she stroke me on the head." Taming of a Shrew, p. 216. " Myselfe am strooke in yeeres I must confesse." Ibid. p. 217. *' He haue an action of battery against him, if there be any law in Hlyria: though I stroke him first, yet it's no matter for that." Twel/e Night, p. 270. " With endless grief perplext her stubborn breast she strake." Poly-olbion, song 7. [" Stroken this knight no strokes againe replyes." Godfrey of Bulloigne, translated hy R. C. Esq. Windet 1594. p. 110. cant. 3. st. 24. " Lifts up his hand as at her baeke he ran, And where she naked show'd, stroke at her there." Godfrey of Bulloigne, p. 113. cant. 3. st. 28. " Methinks these holy walls, the cells, the cloysters. Should all have strook a secret horror on you." Dry den. Love in a Nunnery, act 5. sc. 1. '' And, as from chaos, huddled and deform'd. The God strook fire, and lighted up the lamps." Dryden, (Edipus, act 1. sc. 1.] Swim. " Sweare then how thou escap'dst. SwoM ashore (man) like a ducke." Tempest, p. 10. " You neuer swom the Hellespont." Tico Gent, of Verona, act 1. sc. 1. " Put myself to mercy of the ocean, and swom to land." B. and Fletcher, Knight of Malta. " Fish under Λvater Wept out their eyes of pearle, and SΛV00M blind after." Camdens Remains, p. 338. [" 'I'he Norman usurper, partly by violence, partly by falshood, layd here the foundation of his monarchic in the people's blood, in which it hath SAVOM about 500 yeares." — Lyfe of Mrs. Lucy Hutchinson, p. 4. " Don Constantine de Braganza was now viceroy of India ; and Camoens, desirous to return to Goa, resigned his charge. In a ship, freighted by himself, he set sail, but was shipwrecked in the gulph near 2 c 386 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. the mouth of the river Mehon on the coast of Chma. All he had ac- quired was lost in the waves : his poems, which he held in one hand, while he swimmed with the other, were all he found himself possessed of, when he stood friendless on the unknown shore." Enc. Brit. vol. iv. p. 63.] Swing ^ " The fiery Tihalt, with his sword prepar'd, Which, as he breath'd defiance to my eares. He swoNG about his head, and cut the windes." Romeo and Juliet, p. 54. SwiNK. " Some put hem to the ploughe, pleden full selde. In settynge and sowynge swonken full harde." Vision of Pierce Ploughman, fol. 1. p. 1. '' Thei had that thei han beswonke." Gower, lib. 1. fol. 22. p. 2. col. 2. " Aleyn waxe wery in the dawning, For he had savonken all the long nyght/' Reeues Tale, fol. 17. p. 1. col. 2. *' Hast thou had fleen al nyght, or art thou Dronke, Or hast thou al nyght with some queen iswonke." Manciples ProL fol. 91. p. 1. col. 2. Will. " And saide, if that he might acheue His purpos, it shall well be Yolcle, Be so that thei hym helpe woled." Goiver, lib. 7. fol. 169. p. 1. col. 2. V/lND. " And with the clothes of hir loue She Hilled all hir bedde aboute. And he, whiche nothjaig had in doute, Hir wimple wonde aboute his cheke." Goiver, lib. 5. fol. 121. jd. 2. col. 1. " Loue bounde hym in cradel and wonde in cloutes ful poure." Diues and Pauper, 10th Comm-. cap. 3, 1 [** So we see that Princes not in gathering much money, nor in bearing ouer great swing, but in keping of frendes, and good la\ves, Hue most merely, and raigne most surely."-— i?, Ascham, p. 19.] CH. rv.] OF ABSTRACTION. 387 Wit. " For God it wote, he satte ful ofte and Songe When that his shoe ful bitterly hym Wronge," Wife of Bathes ProL fol. 36. yi. 1. col. 2. Wring. *' Hunger in hast tho hent wastour by the maw, And WRONG him so bi the wombe, that his eies watred." Vision of Pierce Ploughinan, pass. 7. fol. 33. p. 2. ** For whiche he wept and ΛνΕ0Ν&Ε his honde, And in the bedde the blody knyfe he Fonde." Man of Lawes Tale, fol. 21. p. 2. col. 1. " So hard him wrong of sharpe desyre the payne." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 210. p. 2. col. 2. " And but it the better be stamped, and the venomous ieuse out WRONGEN, it is lykely to empoysonen all tho that therof tasten." Testament of Loue, boke 3. fol. 332. p. 1. col. 1. " To moche trusted I, wel may I sayne. Upon your lynage, and your fayre tonge, And on your teares falsly out wronge." Chaucer, Phillis, fol. 209. p. 1. col. 2. " The dome of God is lykened to a bowe, for the bowe is made of ii thynges, of a wronge tree and ryght strynge, &c. And as the archer in his Shetynge taketh the \vronge tree in hys lyfte honde, and the ryght strynge in his ryght honde, and draweth them atwynne" &.C.— Dines and Pauper, 8th Comm. cap. 15. " And then Sir Palomides wailed and wrong his hands." Hist, of P. Arthur, 2nd part, ch, 73. " And with my hand those grapes ί tooke That rype were to the show : And wronge them into Pharos cuppe And wyne therof did make." — Genesis, ch. 40. fol. 100. p. 1, " Wiues WRONG their hands." Songes &;c. hy the Earle of Surrey &;c. fol. 89. p. 1, " Give me those lines (whose touch the skilful ear to please) That gliding flow in state, like swelling Euphrates, In which things natural be, and not in falsely wrong ; The sounds are fine and smooth, the sense is full and strong." Poly-olbion, song 2 1 . *' When your ignorant poetasters have got acquainted with a strange word, they never rest till they have wrong it in." B. Jonson, Cynthia's Revels, act 2. sc, 4, 2 c 2 388 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. " Conuoy me, Sibyll, that ί go not wrang." Douglas, Prol. of boke 6. p. 158. [" But Messalina neuer more loose and dissolute in lusts, the au- tumne being well spent, celebrated in her house the feast of grape- gathering ; the presses were wrong, the vessels flowed with wine, women danced about kirt with skins, like unto mad women, solemni- zinsr the feasts of Bacchus." Tacitus Afinales, translated by Greenwey, 1622, boke 11. 31. p. 152. " Let false praise, and wroong out by praiers, be restrained, no lesse than malice and cruelty." — Ibid. p. 228.] Yield. " And thus this tyranne there Beraft hir suche thynge, as men seyne. May neuer more be yoloen ageyne." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 114. p. 1. col. 2. *' And glader ought his frendes be of his deth, Whan Avith honour yyolde is up the breth." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 11. p. 2. col. 1. " Ne had I er now, my swete herte dere, Ben YOLDE, iwis, I were nowe not here." Troy his, boke 3. fol. 179. p. 1. col. 1. '• The said Charles so sharply assauted the towne of Dam, that in shorte processe after it was yolden unto him." — Fabian, p. 154. " Yf an other mannes good be not yoldExV ayen whan it may be YOLDEN, he that stale it doth noo verry penaunce." Diues and Pauper, 7th Comm. cap. 12. [" Because to yield him love she doth deny, Once to me yold, not to be yolde againe." Faerie Qiieene, book 3. cant. 11. st. 17. '' And in his hand a sickle he did holde, To reape the ripened fruits the which the earth had yold." Ibid. Tivo Cantos of Mutabilitie, cant. 7. st. 30.] P.-— Enough, enough. Innumerable instances of the same may, ί grant you, be given from all our antient authors. But does tills import us anything? //. — Surely much : if it shall lead us to the clear under- standing of tb.e words we use in discourse. For, as far as we ^^ know not our own meaning;" as far as '^our purposes are not endowed with words to make them known γ' so far we CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 389 " gabble like things most brutish." But the importance rises higher when we reflect upon the application of words to Meta- physics. And when ί say Metaphysics ; you will be pleased to remember, that all general reasoning, all Politics, Law, Morality and Divinity, are merely Μ eta physic. F, — Well. You have satisfied me that Wrong, however written, whether Wrang, Wrong, or Wrung, (like the Italian Torto and the French Tort) is merely the past tense (or past participle, as you chuse to call it) of the verb To Wring; and has merely that meaning. And I collect, I think satisfactorily, from what you have said, that SoNG' — i. e. Any thing Singed, Sang, or Sung, is the past participle of the verb To Sing : as Cantus is of Canere, and Ode of αείδω. That BoND^ Ί — however spelled, and with whatever suhaudi- Band \tion applied, is still one and the same word, and Bound J is merely the past participle of the verb To Bind. *' As the custome of the lawe hem bonde." Lydgate, Lyfe of our Lady. (1530.) p. 29. ** We shall this serpent from our bondes chase/' — Ibid. p. 5Q. *' His power shall fro royalme to royalme The BONDES stratche of his royalte As farre in south as any flode or any see," — Ibid. p. 156. " As the custome and the statute bande." — Ibid. p. 99, ** And false goddes eke through his worchynge With royall might he shall also despise. And from her sees make hem to arise, And fro the bandes of her dwellynge place Of very force dryue hem and enchace." — Ibid. p. 155. ** Droue theim all out of the mayne lande into isles the uttermost BONDES of al Great Briteigne." — Epitome of the Kynges Title S^-c. ["Let him (quoth he) in bonds goe plead his cace, Thats BOND, and fit for bondage hath a graine, I free was borne, and liue, and free in place Will die, ere base cord hand or foot astraine. ί [It is questionable whether bound, a limit, be connected with the verb To Bind : and there is also another bond, Boiiba, paterfamilias, which forms a part of our word husbond or husband, whose origin is entirely distinct, being the present participle of Buan, habitare, incolere ; and Avhich furnishes another curious instance of the tendency of similar words to coalesce. See Additional Notes. — Ed.] 390 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Usde to my sword, and used palmes to beare Is this right hand, and scornes vile gyues to weare." Godfrey of Bulloigne, iraiislated by R. C. Esq. A 1 ,, , cant. 5. St. 42. printed 1594.Ί And that ^ -■ Bundle — i. e. Bondel, Bond-dcdl^ is a compound of two par- ticiples Bond and bsel : i. e. a small part or parcel Bound up. '' Papistrie being an heresie, or rather a Bondle made up of an infi- nite number of heresies." Warnyng agaynst the dangerous Practises of Papist es. (1559.) And that Bit ") — -whether used (like MorsOy MorceaUj or Morsel) Bait J for a small piece, part, or portion of any thing ; or for that part of a bridle {imhoccatiira) which is put into a horse's mouth ; or fur that hasty refreshment which man or beast takes upon a journey; or for that temptation which is offered by treachery to fish or fool ; — is but one word dif- ferently spelled, and is the past participle of the verb To Bite. " Baits, baits, for us to bite at." — Sejanus, act 2. [" She feeling him thus bite upon the bayt, Yet doubting least his hold was but unsound." Faerie Queene, hook 5. cant. 5. st. 42.] And that Battel — (a term used at Eton for the small portion of food which, in addition to the College allowance, the collegers receive from their Dames,) is Bat-t)del. And Bat-ful — -(a favourite term of Drayton,) is a similar com- pound of the two participles Bat and Full. " That brook whose course so batful makes her mould." Pohj-olbion, song 10. *' Of Bever's batful earth, men seem as though to fain, Reporting in Avhat store she multiplies her grain." — Ibid, song 13. " There's scarcely any soil that fitteth by thy side, Whose turf so batful is, or bears so deep a swath." — /ozc?.song21. " Which for the batful glebe, by nature them deny'd. With mighty mines of coal, abundantly are blest." — Ibid, song 23. [" The soile, although differing somewhat in kinde, yet generally is wilde with woods, or unpleasant and il-fauoured with marishes : moist towards Gallia : m.ore windie towards Noricum and Pannony, batful enough ; but bad for fruit-bearing trees." Description of Germanic, translated from Tacitus, by Richard Greeiiwey. 1622. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 391 " Whether or no ought we to folowe the nature of groundes that be BATWELL, which bnnge moche more fruyte than they receyued." Roberte Whytinton, Translation of Tullyes Offyces, 1534, WynUn Worde. " The best advizement was, of bad, to let her Sleepe out her fill without encomberment ; For sleepe, they sayd, would make her battil better." Faerie Queene, book 6. cant. 8. st. 38.] That Drunk — is the past participle of the verb To Drink: and Stroke — of the verb To Strike. Still this is but a very scanty portion of participles passing for substantives from the verbs in English whose characteristic letter is i or γ. Η. — Scanty indeed, if these were all : especially if w^e in- clude, as we ought to do, the numerous verbs which in the Anglo-Saxon have the same characteristic letters. But I will produce enough to you ; if you will promise me not to be tired with their abundance. i\— That is more than I can possibly undertake ; but I do engage to let you know it when it happens. H. — Throng — is the past participle of the verb To T/iritig, Djiinjan, comprimere, constringere. F. — Thriiig ! Where is that word to be found in English ? //. — In the antient New Testament, in Gower, in Chaucer, in Douglas, and in all our old authors. " He was throngun of the cumpanye." — Luke, ch. 8. v. 42. " And Ihesu seyth, who is it that touchide me ? sotheli alle men denyinge, Petir seide and thei that weren with him, Commaundour, companyes thryngen and tourmenten thee, and thou seist, who tou- chide me." — Ibid. v. 45. " A naked swerde the whiche she bare Within hir mantell priuely, Betwene hir hondes sodeinly She toke, and through hir hcrte it thronge." Goiuer, lib. 7. fol. 171. p. 2. col. 1. " And sodainly anon this Dam3^an Gan pullen up the smocke, and in he thronge A great tent, a thrifty and a longe." Marchauntes Tale, fol. 33. p. 2. col. 2. 392 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. •' For there was many a birde singyng Throughout the yerde ul thringyng." Romaunt of the Rose, fol. 123» p. 1. col. 1. ** But in his sleue he gan to thryng A rasour sharpe and wel byting." — Ibid. fol. 155. p. 2. col. 2. " When Calcas knew this tretise shulde lielde In consistorie amonge the Grekes sone He gan in thringe forthe with lordes olde And set hym there as he wont to done." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 182. p. 2. col. 2. " But your glory that is so naroAve and so strayte throngen into so lytel boundes." — Boecius, boke 2. fol. 230. p. 1. col. 2. " '\^''ith blody speres rested neuer styl; But THRONG now here now there amonge hem bothe That euerich other slew, so Avere they Avroth." Annelida and Arcite, fol. 170. p. 2. col. 2. " But of my disease me lyst now a whyle to speke, and to informe you in what maner of blysse ye haue me throng." Testament of Lone, boke 1. fol. 306. p. 1. col. 2. " What shal I speke the care but payne, euen lyke to hel, sore hath me assayled, and so ferforthein payne me thronge, that I leue my tre is seer, and neuer shal it frute forth bring." Ibid, boke 3. fol. 332. p. 2. col. 1. " Amang the men he thrang, and nane him saw." Douglas, booke 1. p. 26. " Remoif all drede, Troianis, be not agast, Pluk up your hartis, and heuy tliouchtis doun thring." Ibid. p. 30. " The Grekis ruschand to the thak on hicht Sa thik thai thrang about the portis all nycht, That like ane wall they umbeset the yettis." Ibid, booke 2. p. 53. *' The rumour is, doun thrung under this mont Enceladus body with thunder lyis half Bront." Ibid, booke 3. p. 87. " All foikis enuiroun did to the coistis thring." Ibid, booke 5. p. 131. " And euer his schynand swerd about him Swung Quhil at the last in Volscens mouth he thrang." Ibid, booke 9. p. 292. " And of hys inemys sum inclusit he, Ressauand al that thrang to the entre : CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 393 Ane full he was, and witles ane nitliing, Persauit not Turnus Rutuliane king So violentlie thking in at the yet." — Douglas, j?. 304. " The bustuous Strake throw al the armour thrang." Ibid, booke 10. p. 334. " The matrouns and young damysellis, I wys. That grete desire has sic thing to behald, Thking to the stretis and hie wyndois thik fald.'' Ibid, booke 13. p. 472. " When Sir Launcelot saw his part goe to the Λvorεt, hee throng into the thickest presse with a sword in his hand/' Historie of Prince Arthur, 2d part, ch. 127. " Sir Launcelot thrang in the thick of the presse." Ibid, 3d j)art, ch. 150. " And so it hapt when Joseph came His brethren them amonge. They stript from him his partie coate And then with thrust and throng They cast him in an emptie pit." — Genesis, ch. 37. fol. 93, p. 2. Strong — is the past participle of the verb To String. A STRONG man is, a man well Strung^. " Orpheus, whose sweet harp so musically strong, Inticed trees and rocks to follow him along." Poly-olbion, song 21. " And little wanted, but a woman's heart With cries and tears had testified her smart ; But inborn worth, that fortune can controul, ΝεΛν STRUNG, and stiiFer bent her softer soul." Dry den, Siyismunda and Guiscardo. [_" I saw an harpe stroong all with silver twyne." Spenser, Ruines of Time. *' Phoebus shall be the author of my song. Playing on ivorie harp with silver str®ng. nor fear I foil Spenser, Virgils Gnat. From the Phseacians, save in sj^eed alone ; For I have suiFer'd hardships, dash'd and drench'd By many a wave, nor had I food on board At all times, therefore am I much unstrung." Coivpers translation of Homer s Odyssey, p. 211.] 1 [" He will the rather do it, whan he sees Ourselves Avell sinewed to our defence." — King John, p. 23." 394 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. Bold— is the past participle of the verb To Build. Bolt — -is the same.- You seem surprised : which does not surprise me ; because, I imagine, you are not at all aware of the true meaning of the verb To Build; which has been much degraded amongst us by impostors. There seems there- fore to you not to be the least shadow of corresponding signi- fication between the verb and its participle. Hurs and hovels, as we have already seen, are merely things Raised up. You may call them habitations, if you please ; but they are not Buildings (i. e. Buildens^ :) though our modern architects would fain make them pass for such, by giving to their feeble erections a strong name. Our English word To Build is the Anglo- Saxon Bylban, To confirm, To establish. To make firm and sure and fast, To consolidate, To strengthen ; and is applicable to all other things as well as to dwelling places. " Amyd the clois undar the heuin all bare Stude tliare that time ane mekle fare altare, Heccuba thidder with hir childer for beild Ran al] in vane and about the altare swarmes. Bot quhen she saw how Priamus has tane His armour so, as thoucht he had bene ymg ; Quhat fuliche thocht, my vv^retchit spous and kinge, Mouis the now sic Λvappynnis for to weild ? Quhidder haistis thou ? quod sche, of ne sic beild Haue we now myster, nor sic defendoris as the." Douglas, booke 2. p. 56. [^_ ^ — _ *' Most noble Anthony, Let not the peece of vertue, which is set Betwixt us as the cyment of our loue To keepe it builded, be the ramme to batter The fortresse of it" — Antony and Cleopatra, p. 352. col. 1.] And thus a man of confirmed courage, i. e. a confirmed heart, is properly said to be a Builded, Built ^ or bold man ; who, in the Anglo-Saxon, is termed Bylb, Bylbeb, Ire-bylb, Ge-bylbeb as well as Balb. The Anglo-Saxon words Bolb and Bolt, i. e. Builded, Built, Άνβ both likewise used indiffer- ently for what we now call a Building (i. e, Buildeu) or strong edifice. 1 [Such an account of the Verbal Substantive is quite inadmissible. See Additional Note on tlie Present Participle, — Ed.] CH. IV .] OF ABSTRACTION. 395 Bolt, as we novv' apply it, is that by which a door, shutter, 8cc. is fastened or strengthened. Drop — Any thing Dripped ; the past participle of To Drip. So DRIPPING i. e. DRIPPEN. Chop — Any thing Chipped ; the past participle of the verb To Chip. Plot- — i. e. Plighted. A plighted agreement; any agree- ment to the performance of which the parties have plighted their faith to each other. " Pilgrames and Palmers plyght hem togyther For to seke S. James and sayntes at Rome." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 1. p. 2. Pledge — i. e. Pleght : the past participle of the same verb To Plight. The thing Plighted ; from the Anglo-Saxon verb Plihtan, Exponere vel objicere periculo, spondere, oppigne- rare. Spot Ί The past participle of the verb To Spit, A.-S. Spout J Spittan. Spot is the matter Spitten, Spate, or Spitted: and spout is the place whence it was Spitten or Spate. Snot 1 Is the past participle of the verb To Snite\ A.-S. Snout J Snytan, emungere, To Wipe. Snot the matter Suited or wiped away. Snout the part Suited or wiped. ^ [This verb remained in use up to the last century. GreAV, descri- bing the various uses of the tongue, says, " Nor would any one/' without it, "be able to Snite his nose, or to sneeze : in both which actions the passage of the breath through the mouth being intercepted by the tongue, 'tis forced, as it then ought to do, to go through the nose." Cosmologia Sacra, 1701. p. 26. Mr. Tooke reverses the order in Λvhich Wachter and ihre place these words ; for they derive the verb Smitten, Smitten, from the noun Smiit, Snut, the Snout. And indeed v/e can hardly derive the Snout of a pig from the act of iviping. Moreover, To wipe, generally, is not an ad- equate translation of Snytan. " Snot est a snuiten, et hoc a snuit, nasus." Wachter. " Snytan, a snut, rostrum. Metaphorice de candelse purgatione." It is remarkable that this application of the same ΛνοΓ(1 to the nose and to a candle, or the nozzle of a lamp, prevails among the Romance as well as the Teutonic dialects : see Moucher, Menage ; Mu- cato7'ium, Emimctoria, &c., Ducange ; and Emunctorium, Canbel-]-n\'telp, ^Ifric's Glossary, p. 61. The derivation of Moiichoir de cou from 'Mus- catorium, " quod collum defendit a miiscis," will not, I suppose, obtain credit, and we must be content with the homelier one, although, as Menage says, " ce mot de moucher donne une vilaine image." — Ed.] ί9β OF ABSTRACTION, [PABT '' He that snites his nose, and hath it not, forfeits his face to the king." — Ray's Proverbial Sayings, p. 68. Shot Shotten Shut Shuttle Shuttle cork Shoot Shout Shit Shitten Shittle Sheet Scot Italian Scotto French Escot^ ecot Italian Schiatta Scout S GATES Skit Skittish Dutch SCHEET Sketch Dutch SCIIETS Italian Schizzo French Esquisse Latin Sagitta " About me than my swerde I belt agane, And scHOTE my lefte arme in my scheild all mete." Douglas, booke 2. p. 61, *' Syne tuke his wand, quhare with, as that thai tel. The pail saulis he cauchis out of hell, And uthir sum thare gaith gan schete ful hot, Deip in the sorouful grisle hellis PotJ' — Ibid, booke 4. p. 108. " All kynd defensis can Troianis prouide. Threw stanis doun, and shotys here and thare, At euery part or opin fenister." — Ibid, booke 9. p. 296. " The archer shetynge in this bowe is Cryste." Dines and Pauper, 8th Comm. cap. 15. '* Eke Hanniball Λνΐιεη fortune him outshit Clene from his reigne, and from all his entent/' Songes, SfC. By the Earle of Surrey, 8iC. fol. 20. p. i. All these^ so variously written^ pronounced and applied^ have but one common meaning : and are all the past participle, j'ceac, of the Anglo-Saxon and English verb Scytan, j'citan, To Shite, i. e. pro- jicere, dejicere, To throw, To cast forth, To throw out. Under the article sheet, Junius promised — "Variarumvocabulij'ceat: acceptionum exempla, Deo vitam λΑ- resque largiente, Lectori suppeditabit lexicon nostrum Anglo-Saxonicum/^ But this has not been performed. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 397 " 'Tis one of those odd tricks which sorow shoots Out of the minde." — Antony and Cleopatra, p. 358. " I shall heare abide the hourely shot Of angry eyes." — Cymheline, p^ 370. " Another soul into my body shot." — Beaumont and Fletcher. The French used formerly this same word in the same general meaning — " Les autres Nes qui nerent mie cele par guenchies, furent entrees en boche d'Auie ; et ce est la, ou li Braz Sain lorge chiet en la grant mer." — Ville Hardhuin, edit. 1601. p. IS. I have already said, that it is common to all the verbs whose characteristic letter is i or γ, to form the past tense in this manner; and our ancestors wrote it ad libitum, either with o, or A broad, or ou, or oo, or u, or i short. That a SHOT — from a gun, or bow, or other machine, means —something Cast or Throiv)i forth, needs neither instance nor explanation to persuade you. But a shot window may re- quire both. " And forth he goth, ielous and amerous, Tyl he came to the carpenters hous, A lytel after the cockes had ycrowe. And dressed him by a shot wyndoΛve." Myllers Tale, fol. 13. p. 1. col. 1. *' Quharby the day was dawing Λvele I. knew ; Bad bete the fyre, and the candyll alicht, Syne blissit me, and in my wedis dicht ; Ane schot wyndo unschet ane litel On Char." Douglas, prol. to booke 7. p. 202. A shot w^indow means a projected window, throicn oat beyond the rest of the front : AYhat we now call a Bow window. And this was a very common method in our antient houses (many of which still remain) ; and Vv'as a circumstance worth the painting poet's notice ; as affording a much better station for the serenading Clerk Absolon (whom I think I now see) than that which Mr. Urry and Mr. Tyrwhitt assign to him\ 1 Mr. Urry alters the text to ''shop" window. Mr. Tyrwhitt retains shot window; but says— ''That is, I suppose, a window that was shut." 398 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. When Speed (in the Two Gentlemen of Verona y p. 27.) says to Lauiice — ^^ He to the aleliouse with you presently ; where for one shot of five pence, thou shalt haue five thousand wel- comes ;" what else does he say, but that — For five pence Cast down, or, For one Cast of five pence, he shall have five thousand welcomes ? A SHOTTEN herring, is a herring which has Cast or Thrown forth its spawn. A SHOOT of a tree, (In Itahan schiatta', which is the same participle) is- — That which the tree has Cast forth, or Throivn forth. ** Quhare stude ane wod, with schoutand bewis schene." Douglas, boke 6. p. 189. A SHOUT ("a word," says Johnson, ^^of v^^hich no etymo- logy is known") is no other than the same participle differently spelled, and applied to sound Throivn forth from the mouth. " The nobles bended as to loue's statue, and the commons made a shower and thunder, with their caps and showts." — Coriolanus, p. 11. " You SHOOT me forth in acclamations hyperbolical, As if I lou'd my little should be dieted In prayses." — Ibid. p. 7. " •— — They threw their caps As they would hang them on the homes o' th' moone, Shooting their emulation."- — Ibid, p. 2. ** Unshoot the noise that banish'd Martins; Repeale him." — Ibid. p. 29. Shut and shit are also the past tense (and therefore past participle) of the verb To Shite, And though, according to the modern fashion, we now write — To Shut the door — the common people generally pronounce it more properly and nearly to the original verb, and say^ — To Shet the door: Which means to Throio or Cast the door to. But formerly it was ' Ferrari derives schiatta from " Caudex, Caudico, Ciocco, Caudicata, Schiatta:" or from " Scuttiriendo :" or from "Scopus." — Menage dis- approves these, and says — " Crederei piutosto derivasse da Planta, Exsplanta, Schicmta, Schiatta," And, upon second thoughts, is so well satisfied with this latter derivation from Flanta ; that his ''Crederei piutosto" is converted* into^---''A^(? viene al sicuro" CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 399 otherwise written and pronounced : nor had a false delicacy proscribed a very innocent and decent word, till affectation made it otherwise. " Forsothe bifore the faith cam, we weren kepte undur the lawe shit togidir in to that faith that was to be shewid. And so the lawe was oure litel mastir in Crist." — Galathies, eh. ii. (v. 23, 24.) " These han power of shittyng heuen, that yt reyne not in the daies of her prophecie." — Apocalips, ch. xi. (v. 6.) " There Christ is in kingedome to close and to shit. And to open it to hem, and heuens blisse shewe." Vis. of P. Plotighmmi, pass. 1. fol. 2. p. 2. " Marchaunts meten with him and made him abide And SHiTTE hym in her shoppes to she wen her ware." Ibid. pass. 3. fol. 11. p. 1. " For there is none so lytel thyng So hyd ne closed with shyttyng That itneis sene." — Rom. of the Rose, fol. 127. p. 2. col. L " And the sothfast garner of the holy grayne, As sayth Guydo, was a mayde swete. In whome was shytte, sothely for to sayne, The sacred store." — Lydgate, Lyfe of our Lady, p. 128. *' For of her wombe the cloyster virginall Was euer eliche bothe firste and laste Closed and shytte, as castell pryncipall. For the holy ghoste deuised it and caste, And at bothe tymes shytte as lyke faste In her chyldynge no more through grace ybroke Than at her conceyuynge than it was unloke." — Ibid. p. 210. *' Fader Joseph, ye knowe well that ye buryed the body of Jhesu and, fader, ye knowe well that we shytte you in prison, and we coude not fynde you therin, and therfore tell us what befell there. Then Joseph answered and sayd. Whan ye dyde shytte me in the close pry- son" &c. — Nychodemus Gospell, ch. 13. ''Than they lad them in to theyr synagoge, and whan they had shytte the dores surely they toke theyr la\ves," &c. — Ibid. ch. 15. " Shytte myghtely your gates with yren barres." — Ibid. ch. 15. " All the gates and shyttynges with yren barres and boltes all to braste in his holy comynge." — Ibid. ch. 16. " Whan man or wOman sholde pray, they sholde go in to theyr chambre and shytte the dore to them. The dore that \\q sholde shytte ben our fyue wyttes outwarde, to flee dystraccion." Oiues and Pauper, fyrste Comm, cap, 54, 400 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " She saye, that she hadde leuer to shytte herselfe all quyck in the graue, than to harme eny soule that God made to his lykenesse." Diues and Pauper, 10th Comm. cap. 4. "The yates of this cyte shall neuer be shytte."— /a/c?. ch. 11. '' Sometymes the mouth of the matrice is so large and ample that it cannot conueniently shytte itselfe together, nether contayne the feture or conception." — Byrth of Mankynde, fol. 41. p. 1. " And holding out her fyngers, shytting together her hand," &c. Ibid. fol. 51. p. 1. " The woman sealeth her matrice verye fastelye enclosed and shytte, in so muche" &c.- — Ibid. fol. 84. p. 2. " The foure sayde bishoppes denounced kynge Ihon with his realme of Englande accursed, and shitte faste the doores of the churches." Fabian, p. 28. " That boke whiche as sainct lohan saith in the Apocalyps is so shyt with vii elapses, that it cannot be opened but by the lambe, that whan he shytteth, then can no man open it; and whan he openeth it, than can no man shyt it." Sir T. Mores Workes, A Dialogue, SfC. 1st boke, p. 111. " The temple of Christ is mans harte, and God is not included nor SHiT^ in any place." — Ibid. p. Γ22. [" Syr Thom.as More being shit up so close in prison." — Letters of Sir Thoinas More to his Daughter, Feb, 1, 1532. p. 142.] " Goddes determinacions be hydden frome us, and euery wyndowe SHYT up, where we myghte pere into them." Gardeners Declaration against loye, fol. 45. p. 2. '* His disciples knew not how he entryd, the dores being shit." A Declaration of Christe. By lohan Hop&r, cap. 8. ['* Ne is there place for any gentle wit, Unlesse, to please, it selfe it can applie ; But shouldred is, or out of doors quite shit." Spenser, Colin Clouts come home againe.'j I do not know that it is worth while ; but it can do no harm to notice, that the expression of — getting shut of a thing — - means-— to get a thing thrown off or Cast from us". And » [See the Rev. R. Forby's Vocabulary of East Anglia, ii. p. 297, v. Shet, and Shitten Saturday, the Saturday in Passion V/eek. — Ed.] 2 ^ — •' This outward sainted deputie, Whose setled visage, and deliberate word Nips youth i' th' head, and follies doth emmew As falcon doth the fowle, is yet a divell ; CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 401 that a Weaver*s shuttle or shittle {Shut-del^ Shit-del) means a small instrument shot, i. e. Thrown or Cast. " An honest weaver, and as good a workman As e'er shot shuttle." — B. and Fletcher, The Coxcombe, p. 334* A SHUTTLE-cork or sHiTTLE-cork has the same meaning. i. e. A cork Throtvn or Cast (backward and forward). Sheet, (whether a sheet for a bed, a sheet of water, a SHEET of lightning, a sheet anchor, &c.) is also the same participle j^ceat. What we now write sheet anchor was formerly written shot anchor. " Certaine praiers slioulde ther be sayd : and thys was against the stone the very shote anker." Sir T. Mores Workes, A Dialogue 8^c. 2d boke, p, 195. " Thei runne to the heresie of the Donatistes as to a shoote anker." Traictise of the pretense d Marriage of Priest es. ch. 2. But, besides the above different ways of writing and pro- nouncing this same participle, as with other verbs; we have, with this verb, another source of variation. The Anglo-Saxon yc was pronounced both as sh and as sk. The participle therefore of j^citan, upon that account, assumes another ap- parently different form : and this different pronunciation (and consequently different writing) has given us scot, scout, scATE, and skit\ Scot and shot are mutually interchangeable. They are merely one and the same word, viz. the Anglo-Saxon j^ceat, the past participle of j^citan ; the yc being differently pro- nounced. Scot free, scot and lot, Rome-scoT, &c. are the same as shot free, shot and lot, Rome-SHOT, Sec. His filth within being cast, he would appeare A pond, as deepe as hell." Measure for Measure, 1st folio, act 3. sc. 1. p. 71. See Malone's edition, volume 2 ; and Johnson's foolish note. " To CAST a pond is to empty it of mud." Aristophanes in the first scene of his comedy, intitled * Peace,' speaks of Alos Καταιβατον. The epithet has exceedingly puzzled the com- mentators. It means merely, Jupiter the shiter.] 1 [See the Plutus of Aristophanes, act 3. sc. 2. Σι^ατο-φαγοί, merdi-vorus. See also Σκατοε, merda; and Σκίταλοι in Aristophanes.] 2 ϋ 402 OF ABSTRACTION, [pART II. The Italians have (from us) this same word scotto, appHed and used by them for the same purpose as by us. Dante uses it in his Purgatory^ : and is censured for the use of it, by those who, ignorant of its meaning, supposed it to be only alow, tavern expression ; and applicable only to a tavern reckoning. And from this Italian scotto, the French have their Escot, Ecot, employed by them for the same purpose. This word has extremely puzzled both the Italian and French etymologists. Its use and application they well knew : they could not but know : it was — '^ U argent jette"^ sur la table de rhote, pour prix du repas qu'on a pris chez lui." — But its etymology, or the real signification of the word, taken by itself, (which alone could afford the reason why the word was so used and applied,) intirely escaped them. Some considered that, in a tavern, people usually pay for what they have eaten : these therefore imagined that scotto might come from Excoctus of Coquere ; and that it was used for the payment of Excoctus cibns. Excocto, Escotto, Scotto. Others considered that men did not always eat in a tavern ; and that their payment, though only for wine, was still called SCOTTO. These therefore fixed upon a common circumstance, viz, that, whether eating or drinking, men were equally forced or compelled to pay the reckoning : they therefore sought for the etymology in Cogere and Excogere. CoactOy Excoacto, Excocto, Excotto, Scotto, Indeed, if the derivation must necessarily have been found in the Latin, I do not know where else they could better have gone for it. But it is a great mistake, into which both the Italian and Latin etymologists have fallen, to suppose that all the Italian must be found in the Latin, and all the Latin in the Greek : for the fact is otherwise. The bulk and foundation of the Latin language is Greek ; but great part of the Latin is the language of our Northern ancestors, grafted upon the ["L'alto fato di Dio sarebbe rotto Se Lete si passasse, e tal vivanda Fosse gustata senza alcuno scotto Di pentimento, che lagrime spanda." // Purgatorio di Dante, cant. 30.] 8 [Ital. Gittare. French Jetter.'] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 403 Greek. And to our Northern language the etymologist must go, for that part of the Latin which the Greek will not furnish : and there, without any twisting or turning or ridiculous forcing and torturing of words, he will easily and clearly find it. We want therefore the testimony of no historians to conclude that the founders of the Roman state and of the Latin tongue came not from Asia, but from the North of Europe. For the lan- guage cannot lye. And from the language of every nation we may with certainty collect its origin. In the same manner ; even though no history of the fact had remained ; and though another Virgil and another Dionysius had again, in verse and prose, brought another iEneas from another Troy to settle mo- dern Italy, after the destruction of the Roman government ; yet, in spite of such false history, or silence of history, we should be able, from the modern language of the country (which cannot possibly lye) to conclude with certainty that our Northern ancestors had again made another successful ir- ruption into Italy, and again grafted their own language upon the Latin, as before upon the Greek. For all the Italian, which cannot be easily shewn to be Latin, can be easily shewn to be our Northern language. It would therefore, i believe, have been in some degree useful to the learned world ; if the present system of this country had not, by a^ [shameful persecution and a most un- constitutional, illegal, and cruel sentence, destroyed] that virtuous and harmless good man, Mr. Gilbert Wakefield. For he had, shortly before his death, agreed with me to undertake, in conjunction, a division and separation of the Latin tongue into two parts : placing together in one division all that could be clearly shewn to be Greek ; and in the other division, all that could be clearly shewn to be of Northern extraction. And I cannot forbear mentioning to you this circumstance ; not to revive your grief for the loss of a valuable man who deserved [reward rather than punishment;] but because, he being dead Ϊ [The words in brackets were omitted in the first edition. Mr. Wakefield left Dorchester gaol on the 29th of May 1801, having been imprisoned there for two years ; and died on the 9th of September in the same year. — Ed.] 2 d2 404 OF ABSTRACTION* [pART II. and I speedily to follow him, you may perhaps excite and en- courage some other persons more capable to execute a plan, which would be so useful to your favourite etymological amusement. I say, you must encourage them : for there ap- pears no encouragement in this country at present [but for the invention of new taxes and new penalties, for spies and inform- ers ;] which swarm amongst us as numerously as our volunteers [in this our present state of siege ;] with this advantage, that none of the former, [neither taxes, nor penalties, nor spies,] are ever rejected on account of their principles. Good God ! This country [in a state of siege] ! What cannot an [obstinate system of despotism and corruption] at- chieve ! America, [Ireland,] Corsica, Hanover, with all our antient dependents, friends and allies, [All lost, All gone !] And in how short a time ! And the inhabitants of this little [persecuted and plundered] island (the only remaining spot) [now in a state of siege !] Besieged collectively by France from without : [and each individual at home, more disgracefully and daily besieged] in his house by swarms of [tax collectors, assessors, and supervisors, armed with degrading lists, to be signed under precipitated and ensnaring penalties ;] whilst his growing rents, like the goods of an insolvent trader, are [pre- maturely attached] in the hands of his [harassed tenants,] who now suddenly find that they too have a new and additional rent, beyond their agreement, to pay to a new and unforeseen landlord. F,- — Turn your thoughts from this subject. Get out of the way of this vast rolling mass, which might easily have been stopped at the verge of the precipice ; but must now roll to the bottom. Why should it crush you unprofitably in its course? [The die is certainly cast, although we had not a fo- reign enemy in the world.] H,- — '^Ever right, Menenius. Ever, Ever.'' A SCOUT has been supposed, in some manner (but it is not attempted to be shewn in what manner) to belong to the verb Ecouter, Escouter^ auscultare. To Listen : and this, merely because of a resemblance in the sound and letters of that verb. But is listening the usual business of a scout ? Are his ears all, and his eyes nothing? Is he no good scout who returns CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 405 with intelligence of what he has seen' of the enemy, unless he has likewise overheard their deliberations ? Is an Out-scovT at Cricket se?it to a distance, that he may the better listen to what is passing? A scout means (subaud. some one, any one) SENT out. Say before an army, to collect intelligence by any means : but, I suppose, by his eyes rather than by his ears ; and to give notice of the neighbourliood or position &c. of an enemy. Sent out, (which Τ have here employed, be- cause it is the word most used in modern discourse) is equiva- lent to Thrown or Cast. The Anglo-Saxon Senban was used indifferently for Scitan : and send, in Old English, for Thrown or Cast. In the ninth chapter of St. Mark, verse 22, our modern translation says — '* Oft times it hath Cast him into the fire and into the waters." Which our Old English translation renders — '^ Ofte he hath sente him bothe in to fier and in to watir." And the Anglo-Saxon has it — " l^e hyne jelomlice on pyji anb on paetep j^enbe." But the plainest instance I can recollect of the indifferent use of send and Cast or Thrown, is in the 12th chapter of Mark. — -"And Ihesu sittinge ayens the tresorie bihelde hou the cumpany Castide money into the tresorie : and many riche men Castiden manye thingis. Sotheli whanne a pore widewe hadde come, she sente twey myniitis, that is, a ferthing. And he clepinge togidre hise disciplis, seide to hem ; treuly I seie to you, for this pore widewe sente more than alle men that sen ten in to the tresorie: for alle senten of that thing that was plen- teuose to hem : sotheli this sente of hir pouert, alle thingis that she hadde, al hir lyflode." '* And Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how the people cast money into the treasury ; and many that were 1 [" Caliga, in Roman antiquity, was the proper soldier's shoe, made in the sandal fashion, without upper leather to cover the superior part of the foot, tho' otherwise reaching to the middle of the leg, and fastened with thongs. The sole of the caliga was of wood, like the sabot of the French peasants, and its bottom stuck full of nails ; which clavi are supposed to have been very long in the shoes of the scouts and sentinels ; whence these w^re called by way of distinction caligcc specu- latori^ ; as if by mounting the Λvearer to a higher pitch, they gave a greater advantage to the sight." Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. 4. p. 42.] 406 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART 11. rich CAST in much. And there came a certain poor widow, and she threw in two mites, which make a farthing. And he called unto him liis disciples, and saith unto them. Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast more in, than all they which have cast into the treasury. For all they did CAST in of their abundance ; but she of her want did cast in all that she had, even all her living." As a writ, the past participle of To Write, means (subaud. something) Written^ ; so a skit, the past participle of jOitan, means (subaud, something) Cast or Thrown. The word is now used for some jeer or jibe or covered imputation Throivn or Cost upon anyone. The same thing in jesting conversation is also called a Fling^, But, as the practice itself has long been ba- nished from all liberal society, so the word is not easily to be found in liberal writings : and I really cannot recollect an in- stance of its use. But the adjective skittish, applied to a horse or jade of any kind, is common enough^. The Dutch Scheet, peditus, is the same participle, and means merely (subaud. Wind) Cast out. Our Enghsh word Sketch, the Dutch Schets, the Italian 1 [*' With flying speede, and seeming great pretence, Came running in, much like a man dismayd, A messenger Λvith letters, which his message sayd." " Then to his handes that writt he did betake. Which he disclosing, read thus, as the paper spake." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 12. st. 24, 25. " Ο cursed Eld, the canker- worme of writs ! How may these rimes, so rude as doth appeare, Hope to endure, sith workes of heavenly wits Are quite devourd }" Ibid, book 4. cant. 2. st. 33. " Ne may this homely verse, of many meanest, Hope to escape his venemous despite. More than my former writs, all were they cleanest From blamefull h\ot." Ibid, book 6. cant. 12. st. 41.] " [" Plantagenet I see must hold his tongue, I^east it be said, Speake Sirha when you should : Must your bold verdict enter talke with lords ? Else would I have a fling at Vv^inchester." 1st Part of Henry VL p. 106.] 3 [»* For such as I am, all true louers are, Unstaid and skittish in all motions else, Saue in the constant image of the creature That is belou'd." Twelfe Night, p. 262. col. 1.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 407 Schizzoy and (though further removed) the French Esquisse, are all the same participle. And, besides the application still common to all those languages, viz. '^ spezie di disegno non terminato/' the Italians likewise apply Schizzo very properly to — ^' Quella macchia di fango, d'acqua, ο d' altro liquore che viene dallo Schizzare :'' any spot of dirt, or water, or other li- quor spirted out upon us. The Latin (Sagitta pronounce Saghitta) is likewise this same participle skit, with the Latin terminating article a : and it means (subaud. something) Cast, Thrown, i. e. Shot. Skit, Skita, Sakita, Sagita : (The earlier Romans never doubled their letters.) And Sagitta comes not (as Isidorus, C. Scali- ger, Caninius, Nunnesius and Vossius dreamed) from sagaci ictUy or σα-γμα, or aKi^oc, or σayη ^ [Shoe, in Anglo-Saxon Scoe, and Scoh, and Ge-j'cy, means sub-position. It is the past participle of Scyan, Ije-j'cyan, To place under, S. Johnson, with his usual good luck, calls it — " the Cover of the foot." It means merely — Underplaced. See page 346. — '^ ealbe jej-cy." EfC-j-cob, Shod, calceatus.] Sop η Soup I — are the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon and Sup (English verb Sipan, To Sip, sorbere, macerare. Sip J j^ ^ I — are the past participle of Ernyttan, I'o Knit, ,T I nectere, alliarare, attacher. Net J ' & ? "To by a bell of brasse or of bryght syluer And KNYT it on hys coller." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 3. p. 2. " I would he had continued to his country As he began, and not unknitte himselfe The noble knot he made." Coriolanus, p. 20, * " Sagittam, a sagaci ictu, hoc est, veloci ictu, ita appellari scribit Isidorus. Cassar Scaliger putat a σαγμα, eliso m, fieri saga; unde Sagitta. Angelus Caninius et Petrus Nunnesius aiunt venire ab ob- liquo (iKicos, prsemisso s. Sane vel hoc verum est ; vel est Sagitta a Σαγη. Ut omnino σαγη5 nomine contineantur Omnia armorum genera." — Vossius. 408 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II* " lie have this knot knit up tomorrow morning." Romeo and Juliet, p. 71. *' So often shall the knot of us be call'd The men that gaue their country Liberty." Julius Ccesar, p. 119. ["The knot was knit by faith, and must onely be unknit of death." — Galathea (by Lily), act 4. sc. 2. " His owne two hands the holy knotts did knitt." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 12. st. 37. " Then thinke not long in taking litle paine To KNIT the KNOT that ever shall remaine." Spenser, sonnet 6.] Knight — is Enyt, Un attache. *' And KNiTTE, upon conclusion, His argument in suche a forme ΛVhiche male the pleyne trouth enforme." Gower, lib. 7. fol. 149. p. 2. col. I. " Ye knowe eke ho we it is your owne knight." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 177. p. 2. col. 1. " Yf it Avere lefuli to syngell man and syngell woman to medle togydre and gendre, God hadde made matrymonye in vayne, and ther wolde no man knitte hym undepartably to ony woman." Diues and Pauper, 6th Comm. cap. 3. " In all places I shall bee my lady your daughters seruant and KNIGHT in right and in wrong." Historie of Prince Arthur, 2d part, chap. 12. " 0, find him, giue this ring to my true knight." Romeo and Juliet, p. 6Q. Net— is (subaud. something) Kf/ittecL " Theiben to gether knet." — Gower, lib. 7. fol. 142. p. 1. col. 1. " The goodly hede or beaute which that kynde In any other lady had ysette Cannot the mountenance of a gnat unbynde About his hert, of al Creseydes nette He Avas so narowe ymashed and yknette." Troylus, boke 3. fol. 181. p. 2. col. 2. Slop Ί Slope > — are the past participle of Slipan, To Slip. Slip Slit ") — Fissura pedis ceivlni, is the past participle of Slot [T ") — Fissura pedis ceivlni, i; DT J Slitan, findere, To Slit. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 409 " Here 's Little John hath harbour'd you a Deer, I see by his tackling. And a hart of ten, I trow he be. Madam, or blame your men : For by his slot, his entries, and his port. His frayings, fewmets, he doth promise sport And standing 'fore the dogs." Sad Shepherd, act 1. sc. 1. ** Where harbor'd is the hart ; there often from his feed The dogs of him do find ; or thorough skilful heed. The huntsman by his slot, or breaking earth, perceives Where he had gone to lodge." Poly-olbion, song 13. Whore — is the past participle of J^yjian, To Hire. The word means simply (subaud. some one, any one) Hired. It was formerly written without the w. How, or when, or by whom, the w was first absurdly prefixed, I know not. " Treuli I sey to you, for pupplicans and π ο oris shulen go bifore you in to the rewme of God. For John came to you in the wey of right- fulnesse, and ye bileuyde not to hym; but pupplicans and hooris bi- leuiden to him." — Mattheu, ch. 21. " This thi sone whiche deuouride his substaunce with hooris." Luk. ch. 15. ** Takynge membris of Crist, shal I make membris of an hoore ."^" 1 Corinthies, ch. 6. " Bi feith Raib hoor perishide not." — Hehrewes, ch. 11. "Also forsothe and Raib hoore, wher she was not iustified of werkis," — James, ch. 2. " I shal shewe to thee the dampnacion of the great hore." Apocalips, ch. 16. ** The watris that thou hast seyn where the hore sittith, ben pupplis, folkis and tungis or langagis. These shulen hate the fomycarie or HOORE." — Apocalips, ch. 17. " Shal I make the membres of Christ, partes of the hores bodye ?" Detection of the Deiiils Sophistrie, fol. 9Q. p. 2. In confirmation of this explanation of the word (thouo-h it needs none, for it is in the regular and usual course of the whole language,) we have the practice of other languages : which, on the same score, give the same denomination to the same thing. Thus, as Vossius has well observed, Meretrix in Latin is so denominated a Merendo ; and Πο^ί^οα, ΤΙορνη, in Greek, a ΙΙερναω (quod a ΥΙεραω) vendo. F. — Am I then to understand that all the other vvojds of re- 410 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. preach (so numerous and dissimilar) which are cast upon un- chaste women, have a similar etymology ? And that all those denominations {Harlot, Prostitute, Concubine, Wench, Trull, Punk, Drab, Strumpet) have also a reference to Sale and Hire ? H. — Not so. In one respect they have all a resemblance ; inasmuch as they are all past participles ; but they do not all relate to the circumstance of Sale or Hire^ as whore and HARLOT do. Harlot~I believe with Dr. Th. Hickes, is merely Horelet, the diminutive of more. The word was formerly applied (and commonly) to a very different sort of Hireling, for that is all which it means, to Males as well as Females. In Troylus and Cressida, Thersites tells Patroclus, " Thou art thought to be Achilles' male varlot. P. Male varlot, you rogue, What's that ? Th. Why his masculine ΛVHϋRE." Varlet ") The antient varlet^ and the modern valet Valet J for Hireling, I believe to be the same word as harlot; the aspirate only changed to v, and the R, by effeminate and slovenly speech, suppressed in the latter : as Lord, by affectation, is now frequently pronounced Lod or Lud. F. — You do not surely produce to me these words of Ther- sites, to shew that harlot was applied to males as well as to females : for they contain an infamous charge against Patro- clus, and intended to give him a female appellation and oihce. //. — Agreed. But they shew that varlot and whore were synonymous terms. For the common application of HARLOT to men, merely as persons receiving wages or hire, I must produce other instances. '' He was a gentel harlot and a kynde, A better felowe shulde a man nat fynde." Chaucer, Prologues, The Sompnour. 1 [Mr. Todd, in a note to Spenser's Faerie Queene, book 1, canto 8, stanza 13, tells us, that—-" the Avord varlet, in old French, signifies a Youth." But Mr. Todd knew as little as heart can wish, concerning the signification of any words.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. . 411 '' Ye ; false harlot (quod the Miller) haste. A false tray tour, false clerke (quod he)." Reues Tale, fol. 17. p. 1. col. 2. " A sturdy harlot went hem ay behynde, That was her hostes man, and bare a sacke." Sompners Tale, fol. 42. p. 2. col. I. " Suche HARLOTTES shul men disclaunder." Plowmans Tale, fol. 94. p. 2. col. 2. " False Semblant (quod Loue) in thys wyse I take the here to my seruyce, &c. My kyng of harlotes shalt thou be." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 149. p. 1. col. 1. " The bissy knapis and verlotis of his stabil About thaym stude." Douglas, booke 12. p. 409. " This day (great duke) she shut the doores upon me. While she with harlots feasted in my house." Comedy of Errors, p. 98. " The HARLOT-king is quite beyond mine arme." Winters Tale, p, 284. V. " Let not your too much wealth, Sir, make you furious. Corb, Away, thou varlet. V, Why, Sir ? Corb. Dost thou mock me } V. You mock the world. Sir. Did you not change wills ? Corb. Out, harlot." Volpone, The Fox, act 2. sc. 6. " It is written in Solinus De mirabilibus mundi, that in the Island of Sardinia there is a Λνβΐΐ ; whereof if a true man doe drinke, his eie sight straight waie waxeth cleere ; but if a false harlot doe but sup of it, hee waxeth starke blinde out of hande, although hee did see neuer so well before." — Wilson upon Usurie, fol. 186. Prostitute 1 , , . ^ > need no explanation. Concubine J ^ Wench — is the past participle of pincian, To Wink ; i. e. One that is Winked at ; and, by implication, who may be had by a nod or a Wink. Observe, that great numbers of words in English are written and pronounced indiiFerently with cii or K. As Speak and Speech^ Break and Breach, Seek and Seech f Dike and Ditch, Drink and Drench, Poke and Pouch, Stink and Stench, Thack and Thatch, Stark and Starch, Wake and Watch, Kirk and Church, &c. £" K. Yet they doe winke and yeeld, as loue is blind and enforces. 412 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. B. They are then excus'd, my lord, when they see not what they doe. K. Then, good my lord, teach your cousin to consent winking. B. I will wiNKE on her to consent, my lord, if you will teach her to know my meaning." — Henry fift, p. 94. " If some alluring girl, in gliding by. Shall tip the λυινκ, with a lascivious eye'. And thou, with a consenting glance, reply." Dry den s translation of the 4tk Sat. of Persius. " I pray God that neuer dawe that day That I ne sterue, as foule as woman may, Yf euer I do to my kynne that shame Or els that I empayre so my name That I be false ; and if I do that lacke. Do stripe me, and put me in a sacke And in the next ryuer do me drenche ; I am a gentyl woman, and no wenche." Marchauntes Tale, fol. 33. p. 1, col. 1. " But for the gentyl is in estate aboue She shal be called his lady and his loue. And for that tother is a poore woman She shal be called his wenche, or his lemman." Manciples Tale, fol. 92. p. 1. col. 2. " But to weake wench did yield his martiall might : So easie was to quench his flamed minde With one sweete drop of sensuall delight." Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 6. st. 8.] Trull. " I scar'd the dolphin and his trull." 1st Part Henry 6, p. 102. " Only th' adulterous Anthony, most large In his abhdminations turnes you oiF, And giues his potent regiment to a trull." Anthony and Cleopatra, p. 354. ** Amyddis Itale, under the hillis law, Thare standis ane famous stede wele beknaw, ^ That for his brute is namyt in mony land. The vale Amsanctus hate, on ather hand [. -— '* Wanton looks And privy Becks, savouring incontinence." Heywood's Rape of Lucre ce (1630.) CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 413 Quham the sydis of ane thik wod of tre Closis all derne with skuggy bewis hie : Ane routand burn amydwart therof rynnis, Rumland and soundand on the craggy quhynnis : And eik forgane the brokin broΛv of the mont Ane horribill caue with brade and large front lliare may be sene ane throll, or aynding stede Of terribill Pluto fader of hel and dede, Ane rift or swelth so grislie for to se, To Acheron renin doun that hellis sye, Gapand with his pestiferus goule full wyde." Douglas, boke 7. p. 227. " Est locus, Italiae in medio sub montibus altis, Nobilis, et fama multis memoratus in oris, Amsancti valles : densis hunc frondibus atrum Urget utrinque latus nemoris, medioque fragosus Dat sonitum saxis et torto vortice torrens : Hie specus horrendum, et ssevi spiracula Ditis Monstrantur : ruptoque ingens Acheronte vorago Pestiferas aperit fauces." Virg. yEn. lib. 7. line 563. Trull, applied to a woman, means pei-forata, Dyjiel, Dypl ; the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Dyplian, perforare. And as Dyplian or Diplian, by a very common transposition of r, is in English Tlirill ; so the regular past participle of Diplian, viz. Dypl or Dupl, is become the English throll, Thrul, or trull ^ ** All were they sore hurte, and namely one That with a spere was throuled his brest bone." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 9. p. 2. col, 2. " He coude hys comynge not forbeare, Thoughe he him thrylled with a speare." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 156. p. 2. col. 2. " So THYRLED with the poynt of remembraunce The swerde of sorowe." Complaynt of Annelyda, fol. 272. p. 2. col. 1. * [" Gia veggia, per mezzul perdere, ο luUa, Com' io vidi un, cosi non si pertugia, Rotto dal mento insin dove si trulla." Dante, VInferno, cant. 28. ** Trullo (says Menage) Peto, Coreggia. Trullare, Lat. pedere, sonitum ventris emittere. Forse da Pedo, Peditus, Peditulus, Tulus, TuUus, TruUus, trullo " ! I — Menage, Orig, Ital.'] 414 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " Howe that Arcite, Annelyda so sore Hath THRILLED With the poynt of remembraunce." Complaynt of Annelyda, fol. 273. p. 1. col. 2. " The speare, alas, that was so sharpe withal. So THRILLED my herte." Mary Magdaleyne, fol. 336. p. 1. col. 2. " But wel 1 wot the speare with euery nayle Thirled my soule." lUd. fol. 336. p. 2. col. 1. *' The knight his thrillant speare again assayd." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 11. st. 20. " For she was hable with her wordes to kill. And rayse againe to life the hart that she did thrill." Ihid. cant. 10. st. 19. ** How ill-beseeming is it in thy sex To triumph like an Amazonian trull." Μ Part of Henry 6, p. 151. col. 2. ** Tho' yet you no illustrious act have done. To make the world distinguish Julia's son From the vile offspring of a trull, who sits By the town- wall." Dryden's Juvenal, by G, Stepney, sat, 8. Punk. " She may be a puncke : for many of them are neither maid, widow, nor wife." — Measure for Measure, p. 81. " Squiring punck and Puncklings up and down the city." B. and Fletcher, Martial Maid. Punk is the regular past participle of Pynjan, pungere : and it means (subaud, a female) Pung or Piinc, i. e. Puncta. " Lo, he Cometh with cloudis, and ech ige shal see him, and thei pungiden or prickiden hym." — Apocalips, ch. 1. " Behold, he cometh with clouds, and every eye shall see him, and they also which Pierced him." — Revelations, ch. 1. v. 7. Drab — is the past participle of Λ.Κ6ΐ15Λ^ί> ejicere, expellere. " They say he keepes a Troyan drab, and uses the traitour Chalcas his tent." — Troylus and Cressida. Thersites here gives Cressida the appellation of drab, with peculiar propriety : for, according to his slanderous speech, who never omitted a circumstance of reproach, she was so in more senses than one. She was Dpabbe, Bisf(eces (for so our CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 415 ancestors applied this participle) : and she was Djiab and Troyan Djiab, as being expelled and an Out-cast from Troy. Strumpet — i. e. Stronpot^ -, a compound of two Dutch participles. Which, being Dutch, let Cassander and his as- sociate explain. F, — Speaking of Varlets, you mentioned the word Lord. That word is not yet become quite an opprobrious term, what- ever it may be hereafter ; which will depend intirely upon the conduct of those who may bear that title, and the means by which it may usually be obtained. But what does the word mean? For I can never believe, with Skinner, that it proceeds from — '' i^lap, panis, et Ford (pro Afford) suppeditare : quia scilicet multis panem largitur, i. e. multos alit."^ For the animal we have lately known by that name is intirely of a dif- ferent description. H. — You know, it was antiently written J^lapojib ; and our etymologists were misled by J^lap, which, as they truly said, certainly means and is our modern loaf. But when they had told us that loaf came from T^lap, they thought their business with that word was compleated. And this is their usual prac- tice with other words. But I do not so understand etymology. I could as well be contented to stop at loaf in the English, as at J^lajc in the Anglo-Saxon : for such a derivation affords no additional nor ultimate meaning. The question with me is still, why Dlap in the Anglo-Saxon ? I want a nieaning, as the cause of the appellation ; and not merely a similar word in another language. Had they considered that we use the different terms bread and DOUGH and loaf for the same material substance in dif- ferent states ,* they would probably have sought for the etymo- logy or different meanings of those words, in the circumstances of the different states. And had they so sought, they probably 1 \Strontpot, lasanum : Skinner.— Ed.] - "Lord, ab A.-S. plafopb, postea Lovepb, Dominus : hoc a plap, panis, et Ford pro Afford, suppeditare. Quia sc. dominus, i. e. nohilis multis panem largitur, i. e. multos alit." — Skinner. Junius and Verstegan concur with this derivation ; though Junius acknowledges a difficulty-—" quoniam nusquam adhuc incideram in vo- cabulum A.-Saxonicum quod responderet Angl. Afford," 416 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. would have found : and the meaning of the word J^lap would have saved them from the absurdity of their derivation of lord. Bread we have already explained : It is Brayed grain. After breaking or pounding the grain, the next state in the process towards loaf is dough. And Dough — is the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Deapian, To moisten or To wet. Dough therefore or dow means Wetted. You will not fail to observe en passant, that dew — (A.-S, Deap) though differently spelled and pronounced, is the same participle with the same meaning. " Ane hate fyry j^ower, warme and dew, Heuinly begynnyng and original Bene in tliay sedis quhilkis we saulis cal." Douglas, lib. 6. p. 191. *' Of Paradise the well in sothfastnes Foyson that flowetli in to sondry royames The soyle to adewe with his swete streames." Lyfe of our e Lady, p. 165. '^ Wherefore his mother of very tender herte Out Braste on teres and might herselfe nat Stere, That all bydewed were her eyen clere." — Ibid. p. 167. " And let my breste, benigne lorde, be dewed Downe with somme drope from thy mageste." — Ibid. p. 182. ** With teares augmenting the fresh mornings deaw." Romeo and Juliet, p. 54. " Her costly bosom streM^'d with precious orient pearl, Bred in her shining shells, which to the deaw doth yawn, Which deaw they sucking in, conceive that lusty spawn." Poly-olbion, song 30. [" The drouping night thus creepeth on them fast : And the sad humor loading their eye-liddes. As messenger of Morpheus, on them cast Sweet slombring deaw, the which to sleep them biddes." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 36. . — — — " There Tethys his wet bed Doth ever wash, and Cynthia still doth steepe In silver deaw his ever-drouping hed." — Ibid. st. 39. " Now when the rosy-fingred morning faire. Weary of aged Tithones saifron bed. Had spread her purple robe through deawy aire." Ibid, cant. 2. st. 7. CH. TV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 417 " From that first tree forth flow'd, as from a well, A trickling streame of balme, most soveraine And dainty deare, -which on the ground still fell, And overflowed all the fertile plaine, As it had deawed bene with timely raine." Faerie Queene, cant. 11. st. 48. '* The ioyous day gan early to appeare ; And fayre Aurora from the deawy bed Of aged Tithone gan herselfe to reare." Ibid, book 1. cant, ll.st. 51. " As fresh as flowres in medow greene doe grow. When morning deaw upon their leaves doth light." Ibid cant. 12. st. 6. "' She alway smyld, and in her hand did hold An holy- water- sprinckle, dipt in deowe." Ibid, book 3. cant. 12. st. 13. '' And all the day it standeth full of deow. Which is the teares that from her eyes did flow." — ^pense?\ " Like as a tender rose in open plaine. That with untimely drought nigh withered was, And hung the head, soone as few drops of raine Thereon distill and deaw her daintie face. Gins to look up." — Faerie Queene, book 5. cant. 12. st. 13. " Now sucking of the sap of herbe most meet. Or of the deaw, which yet on them does lie." Spenser's Muiopotmos, st. 23. '' Whose beautie shyneth as the morning cleare, With silver deaw upon the roses pearling." Spenser, Colin Clouts come home again, ^ After the bread has been icetted (by which it becomes bough) then comes the Leaveti (which in the Anglo-Saxon is termed J^sejpe and J^apen) ; by which it becomes loaf. Loaf — (in Anglo-Saxon J^lap, a broad) is the past par- ticiple of i^lipian, To raise ; and means merely Raised. So in the Moeso-Gothic, hA)VlKS is loaf ; which is the past par- ticiple of hAeiBQAi^j TO raise, or To lift up. In the old English translation we read — *' He hauynge mynde of his mercy Took up Israel his child." In the modern ver- sion — *' He hath holpen his servant Israel in remembrance of his mercy." Luke, chap. 1. ver. 54. But in the Gothic it is ΙίλΘΐΒίΛΛ ϊ8ΚΛ^λΛ? He hath raised or lifted up Israel. 2 Ε 418 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. When the etymologist had thus discovered that l^lap meant Raised ; I think he must instantly have perceived that i^lapojib was a compound word of J^lap (raised or exalted) and Opb, Ortns, source, origin, birth. Lord— therefore means High-born, or of an Exalted Origiii. With this explanation of the word, you will perceive, that [kings] can no more make a lord, than they can make a Traitor. They may indeed place a Thief and a Traitor amongst lords ; and destroy an innocent and meritorious man as a Traitor, But tlie theft and treachery of the one, and the innocence and merits of the other, together with the infamy of thus mal-assorting them, are far beyond the reach and power of any [kings] to do away. F. — if J^lapopb, i. e. lord, does not mean (as I before suspected, and you have since satisfied me it does not mean) an Afforder of Bread ; neither can l^lapbi^, i. e. lady, mean a Distributor or Server out of that Bread^ ; as (still misled by 1 Verstegan, in his Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, edit. 1634, pag. 316, gives us the following account of Lord and Lady. *' Lord. " I finde that our ancestors used for Lord the name of Laford, which (as it should seeme) for some aspiration in the pronouncing, they wrot Hlaford and HJafurd. Afterward it grew to be written Loverd : and by receiving like abridgment as other our ancient appellations have done, it is in one syllable become Lord. " To deliver therefore the true etymology, the reader shall under- stand, that albeit Avee have our name of Bread from Breod, as our ancestors were Avoont to call it, yet used they also, and that most com- monly, to call Bread by the name of HIaf ; from whence w^e now only retaine the name of the forme or fashion wherein Bread is usually made, calling it a Loaf ; whereas Loaf comming of HIaf or Laf, is rightly also Bread it selfe, and was not of our ancestors taken for the forme only, as now we use it. " Now was it usuall in long foregoing ages, that such as were endued with great wealth and meanes above others, were chiefelj^ renowned (especially in these Northerne regions) for their housekeeping and good hospitality ; that is, for being able and using to feed and sustaine many men ; and therefore were they particularly honoured with the name and title of Hlaford, which is as much to say as An Af order of Laf, that is a Bread-giver : intending (as it seemeth) by Bread, the sustenance of man ; that being the substance of our food, the most agreeable to na- CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 419 J^Iap) the same etymologists have supposed. Yet in J^lapbi^ there is no Ojxb, nor any equivalent word to make her name signify High -horn. H. — Nor does it so sionify. J^lapbi^ signifies and is merely Lofty, i. e. Raised or Exalted: her birth being intirely out of the question ; the w^ife following the condition of the husband. But Lwish you here to observe, that the past participle of the verb J^li]:ian, besides loaf, lord, and lady, has furnished us with two other supposed substantives • viz, lift (Lypt) and LOFT. ture, and that which in our daily prayers we especially desire at the hands of God. " And if we duly obserue it, wee shall finde that our nobility of Eng- land, which generally doe beare the name of Lord, have alwaies, and as it were of a successive custome (rightly according unto that honour- able name) maintayned and fed more people, to wit, of their servants, retayners, dependants, tenants, as also the poore, than the nobility of any country in the continent, which surely is a thing very honourable and laudable, and most well befitting noblemen and right noble minds. ^'Lady. " The name or title of Lady, our honourable appellation generally for all principall women, extendeth so farre, as that it not only mounteth up from the wife of the knight to the wife of the king, but remaineth to some women whose husbands are no knights, such as having bin Lord Majors are afterward only called Masters, as nameiy the Aldermen of York. " It was anciently written Hleafdian or Leafdian, from whence it came to be Lafdy, and lastly Lady. I have shewed here last before how Hlaf or Laf was sometime our name of Bread, as also the reason why our noble and principall men came to be honoured in the name of Laford, which now is Lord, and even the like in corespondence of reason must appeare in this name of Leafdian, the feminine of Laford : the first syl- lable whereof being anciently written HIeaf and not Hlaf, must not therefore alienate it from the like nature and sense ; for that only seemeth to have bin the feminine sound ; and we sea that of Leafdian we have not retained Leady but Lady. Well then both Hlaf^nd Η leaf we must here understand to signifie one thing, which is Bread : Dian is as much to say as Serve; and so is Leafdian, a Bread-server. Whereby it appeareth that as the Laford did allow food and sustenance, so the Leafdian did see it served and disposed to the guests. And our ancient and yet continued custome that our Ladies and Gentleworden doe use to carue and serve their guests at the table, which in other countries is altogether strange and unusuall, doth for proofe hereof well accord and corespond with this our ancient and honourable feminine appellation," 2 Ε 2 420 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART Π. The former of these, lift, is not used at present in Eng- land ; but, I am told, is still common in Scotland. *' With that the dow Heich in the lift full glaide he gan behald." Douglas y booke 5. p. 144. " Under the lift the maist gentyl riuere." — Ibid, booke 8. p. 241. " Nane uthir wyse, than as sum tyme we se The schynand brokin thunderis lichtyng fle, Peirsand the wattry cloudis in the lift. "-—Ibid. p. 255. " For suddanlie thay se, or thay be war, The fyre flaucht beting from the lift on fer. Cum with the thunderis hidduous rumbling blast." — Ibid. p. 261. " And on that part quhar the lift was maist clere Towart the left hand maid ane thundering," — Ibid, booke 9. p. 300. " Wyth stormy tempestis and the northin blastis, Quhilk cloudis skatteris, and al the lift ouercastis."• — Ibid. p. 302* " Ane huge clamour thay rasit and womenting, Beting thare breistis, quhil all the lift did ryng." Ibid, booke 11, p. 360. ** The sparrow chirmis in the wallis clyft Goldspink and lintquhite fordynnand the lyft." Ibid. Prol. to booke 12. p. 403. " Beliue ouer al the lift upsemyt rise The fell tempest." — Ibid, booke 12. p. 418. '' But lo ane sworl of fyre blesis up thraw Lemand towart the lift the flamb he saw."-— /^eW. p. 435. " And as I lukit on the lift me by. All birnand rede gan waxin the euin sky." Ibid. Prol. to booke 13. p. 449. Lift— is the past participle J^lijcob or lifed ; obtained, in the usual manner, by adding the participial termination ob or ED to J^lip or Liff Lifedf Lif'dj Lift. Seeing the signification of the word lift, you will not wonder that it is perfectly equi- valent to HEAVEN ; and that in all the foregoing passages you may, if you please, substitute Heaven for Lift : One being the past participle of l^lipian, and the other of J^eajzan. Loft (our common name for a Raised^ Elevated or High room or chamber) — is likewise the past participle of J^lipian ; obtained in the same manner, by adding the participial termi- nation ED to the past tense I^lap or Laivf, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 421 Lqfed (a broad) Lafd, Laft- — or loft. " A heart where dread was neuer so imprest. To hide the thought that might the truth aduaunce, In neither fortune loft, nor yet represt, To swell in wealth, or yeeld unto mischaunce." Songes and Sonets, By the Earl of Surrey, fol. 16. p. 2. *' Absence, my friende, workes wonders oft, Now brings full low, that lay full loft." — Ibid. fol. 87. p. 1. Being thus in possession of the supposed substantive loft, the language proceeded in its usual way of forming an adjec- tive by adding ij to it ; which our modern language uniformly, in all cases, changes to y. Hence the Adjective lofty. Lofty Ί are the same word, the same participle, the same and > adjective ; and mean merely Raised^ Elevated, Lady J Exalted. F. — I cannot take this leap with you at once from lofty to LADY : They are too distant for me. I must have some station or some steps between, or I shall never reach it. I do not boggle at the difference between ο and a, or, as it was pronounced, aw. That change is perpetually made. But the ft in the one, instead of d in the other, I cannot so easily get over. Besides, we use the one as a substantive, and the other as an adjective. H. — It is the f alone which, being retained in the one and suppressed in the other, causes all your difficulty, and all the difference between the words. I^lap, KMapob, l^lapb, J^Mapb-ij omitting the incipient h, is in our modern character, Laf, Lafed, Laf'd, Lafd-y. if the F is retained in the word, the immediately subsequent d is, as usual, changed to τ : and the word will be Lafty (a broad) or lofty. If the F is suppressed, no cause remains for changing the d, and the word will be lady. It is not necessary, I suppose, to say one word to explain why lady is used as a substantive. Their frequent recurrence causes the same to numberless other adjectives which are now considered as substantives. F. — It seems rather extraordinary to me, that you should derive from one common stock so many different words, which 422 OF ABSTRACTION. • [PART II. ill their common use and application do not, at first sight, ap- pear to have any the smallest relation to each other. That Lord and Ladj/ however might have a common origin, and be derived from the same source, 1 could very well suppose. But how their meaning should be connected with the Lift, a Loft, and a Loaf I confess I had not imagined, I do see at present the common link which holds them together. But, though you did the same thing before with the verbs K5eapan and Scitan, yet, I suppose, such coincidencies are rare. H. — No. It is the necessary condition of all languages. It is the lot of man, as of all other animals, to have few dif- ferent ideas (and there is a good physical reason for it), though we have many words : and yet, even of them, by no means so many as we are supposed to have, I mean, of words with different significations. What you now notice would have happened often before, if I had not been careful to keep it out of sight, till you should be ripe for it. At first, if you remember, we were led to a discovery of these hidden participles only by the participial terminations ED, EN, and T, But we have now proceeded a little further, and have discovered another set of participles which we obtain by a change of the characteristic letter of the verb. We may now therefore look back to those participles we at first noticed ; and add to them those which are derived from the same com- mon stock, and which I forbore at that time to mention. Thus Brown "^ as well as brand^, are the past participle of the and >verb To Bren, or To Brin. The Fieoch and Brunt J Italians have in their languages this same par- ticiple ; written by them Bran and Βιίιϊιο. Brown means Burned, (subaud. colour). It is that colour which things have that have been Burned. [" Come procede innanzi dall' ardore Per lo papiro suso un color bruno, Che non e nero ancora, e Ί bianco muore." L' Inferno di Dante, cant, 25.] *'Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe ahotte stomake, as Rasis sayth, it repressethe his brounes and heate." Regiment of Η el the. By T. Pmjnel, (1541.) fol. 61. p. 1. " It BOURNETH ouer ■moc\\e."—Ihid. fol. 62. p. 1. ' In BRANDY, (German Brand-wein) Brand is the same participle. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 423 (Hence also the Italians have their Bronzo : from which the French and English have their Bronze.) IS'Or is this peculiar to our language alone ; nor to this colour only. All colours in all languages must have their de- nomination from some common object, or from some circum- stainces which produce those colours. So Vossius well derives Ft) sous — ^^ τταρα ro φωσκειν, quod Hippocrati est Ustulare. Nam quse ustulantur Fusca reddunt." In the same manner, Yellow^ — (Geasljeb, Eie-ael^) is the past participle of Ge-aelan^, accendere. The Italian Giallo and the Fr„ench (Eie-seljen) Giahie, Jaune, are the same participle. So the Latin words Flammeus and Flavus from Φλέγω, Φλεγ^αα, Flamma, Green — is the past participle of Erpenian, virescere : as Viridis of virere, and Prasinus from ΐΐρασον. WhitE' — is the past participle of 0^\.φ9/\.Ν, spumare. Grey — of rrejiejnan, iniicere, &c. Brunt — {Brun-ed, Brun'd, Bruiit)\. e. Burnt, is the same participle as brown or Brun. In speaking of a battle, To bear the brunt of the day — is to bear the Heat, the Hot or Burnt part of it. [Skinner says — '* Brunt, To bear the brunt of the day: maximum prselii impetum sustinere. Procul dubio a Teut. et Belg. BRUNST, ardor, fervor, calor, sestus, i. e. The Heat of the day."] ** Enceladus body vi^ith thunder lyis half bront.'* Douglas, booke 3. p. 87. " I report me unto the kynges maiestye that ded is, whiche at the fyrst BROUNT, as sone as he toke Godes cause in hand, that leopard and dragon of Rome, did not only solicitat thole forene worold against him, but &c." — Declaraci07i of Christe, By Johan Hoper, (1547.) " With what reason could ye thinke, that if ye bode the Jiote brunt of battaile, but ye must needs feele the smart ?" The Hurt of Sedition, By Sir John Cheke. Log Ί as well as Law- — are also the past participle of and >Aj\r*9A^^> Lec^an, ponere, To Lay. Lag (a Load J broad, and retaining the sound of the 5) log, from 1 [Ale; Yellow; Yelk, Yolk: Gold.] All these^ so variously written and pronounced ; and ηοΛν so differently and ί distinctly applied; are yet merely the past participle of Scijiarij To Shear, To cut^ To divide. To separate. And they were formerly used indifferently. 424 OF ABSTEACTION. [PART II. the Anglo-Saxon, corresponds with post from the Latui. We say indifferently — " To stand like a post," or *' To stand like a log" in our way. Lag-ed or Lag'd (dismissing the sound of the 5) becomes Lad (a broad) or load. And you will not fail to observe, that, though Weight is subaud. and therefore imphed in the word load ; yet Weight is not load, until cuivis Impositum. Sheer Sherd, Shred Shore and Score Short Shorn Shower Share and Scar Shard Shire Shirt and Skirt Nor have we any occasion to travel for their etymology (I cannot say ivith Dr. Johnson, for he himself never advanced a single footstep towards any of them, but by his ignorant di- rection) to the Dutch, the Swedish, the Islandic, the French, or the Frisick. it is true that all these languages, as well as the German, the Danish, and even the Italian and the Spanish, share this participle in common with ourselves : and if that be Etymology, barely to find out a similar word in some other language, the business of the etymologist is perfectly idle and ridiculous. For they might all refer, each to the other, with- out any one of them ever arriving at a meaning. But the Italian, the French and the Spanish have this participle from our Northern ancestors : and in our own language the etymo- logy of all these words is to be found : and from a Northern language only can they be rationally explained. The Italian and French etymologists are therefore in some sort excusable for the trash they have written on the Northern w^ords in their language : If I was not afraid of being condemned by my own sentence, I should add, an Englishman has no excuse. To exemplify and confirm what I have said, I will give you a few instances ; your own reading will furnish you with as many more as you please. CH, v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 425 "Bot tliare was na dynt mycht thare federis scher." Douglas, booke 3. p. 75. " And thay that with scharp cultir Teile or schere Of Rutuly the hilly knollis hie." — Ihid. booke 7. p. 237. " Than the reuthful Eneas kest his spere, Quhilk throw Mezentius armour dyd all schere." Ihid. booke 10. p. 347. " And bad thay suld with ane scharp knyfe that tyde Schere down the wound and mak it large and wyde." Ibid, booke 12. p. 423. " And with that word his scherand swerd als tyte Hynt out of sceith." — Ibid, booke 4. p. 120. " And with ful flude flowing fra toun to toun ThroΛV fertil feildis schering thare and here." Ibid, booke 8. p. 241. " But with no craft of combes brode, Thei might hir hore lockes shode. And she ne ΛVolde not be shore." Gower, lib. 1. fol. 17. p. 2. col. 1. " Like as the Nazareans, as sone as euer they had vowed, thei shore of streight ways their heare." Dr. Martin, Of Pries tes unlauful Mariages, ch. 8. p. 117. " . I am glad thy father 's dead. Thy match was mortal to him : and pure greefe Shore his old thred in twaine." — Othello, p. 337. *' Ο sisters three, come, come to mee. With hands as pale as milke. Lay them in gore, since you haue schore With sheeres his thred of silke." — Mids.NightsDreame, 1^.161. [" Eftsoones her shallow ship away did slide. More swift than swallow sheres the liquid skye." Faerie Qneene, book 2. cant. 6. st. 5. " With rugged beard, and hoarie shagged heare. The which he never wont to combe, or comely sheare." Ibid, book 4. cant. 5. st. 34. " For with his trenchant blade at the next blow Halfe of her shield he shared quite away." Ibid, book 5. cant. 5. st. 9. " So soone as fates their vitall thred have shorne." Spenser's Ruines of Time. " His snowy front, curled with golden heares, Like Phoebus face adornd with sunny rayes. 426 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Divinely shone ; and two sharpe winged she ares, Decked with diverse plumes, like painted jayes, "Were fixed at his backe to cut his ayery wayes." Faerie Queene, book 2, cant. 8. st. 5.] " On cais thare stude ane meikle schip that tyde, Hir wail joned til ane schore rolkis syde." Douglas, booke 10. p. 342. " And fra hir hie windois can espy With bent sail caryand furth the nauy. The coistis and the schore all desolate." — Ibid, booke 4. p. 120. '* Smate with sic fard, the airis in iiendris lap, Hir forschyp hang, and sum dele schorit throw." Ibid, booke 5. p. 134. *' With mantil rent and schorne men micht hir se." Ibid, booke 8. p. 269. " His berdles chekis or his chaftis round In sunder schorne has with ane greslie wound." Ibid, booke 9. p. 305. " Syne smate he Lycas, and him has al to lorne, That of his dede moderis wame furth was schorne." Ibid, booke 10. p. 326. " x\nd lyke as sum tyme cloudis bristis attanis. The schoure furth yettand of hoppand halestanys." Douglas, booke 10. p. 348. " His feris has this pray ressauit raith, And to thare meat addressis it to graith, Hynt of the hydis, made the boukis bare, Rent furth the entrellis, sum into tahjeis schare." Ibid, booke 1. p. 19. " The god of loue, whiclie al to schare Myn herte with his arowes kene." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 12S. p. 2. col. 2. '' I had my feather shot shaer away." B. and Fletcher, Knight of the Burning Pestle. " And eke full ofte a littel skare Upon a banke, or men be ware, Let in the streme, whiche with gret peine If any man it shal restreine."- — Gower, Prol. fol. 3. p. 2. col. 2. " I dare aduenture mee for to keepe her from an harder shoure than euer ί kept her." — Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, ch. 155. " Yet Lug, whose longer course doth grace the goodly sheere." Poly-olbion, song 6. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 427 " Which manly Malvern sees from furthest of the sheer." Poly-olhion, song 7. " Yet both of good account are reckned in the shiere." Ibid, song 7. Sherd and shred have been already explained, (p. 330.) Sheer, as we now use it, means separated from every thing- else. As when we say — ''sheer ignorance/' i. e. separated from any the smallest mixture of information ; or, separated from any other motive. So in the instance from Beaumont and Fletcher (who write it shaer) it means, that the feather was so separated by the shot, as not to leave the smallest par- ticle behind. Shore, as the seB^-shore or shore of a river (which latter expression Dr. Johnson, without any reason, calls " a licen- tious use" of the word), is the place where the continuity of the land is interrupted or separated by the sea or the river. Ob- serve, that shore is not any determined spot, it is of no size, shape nor dimensions ; but relates merely to the separation of land from land. Shored, Shor'd, short (or, as Douglas has written it, schorit) cut off; is opposed to long, which means Extended: Long being also a past participle of Lenjian, To extend, or To stretch out. Shirt and Skirt (i. e. j"Cipeb) is the same participle, dif- •ferently pronounced, written, and applied. Shower (in Anglo-Saxon ycyup. and j^ciijn) means merely broken, divided, separated: (subaud. clouds). Junius and Skinner had some notion of the meaning of this word ; Johnson none. Score, when used for the number Twenty, has been well and rationally accounted for, by supposing that our unlearned ancestors, to avoid the embarrassment of large numbers, when they had made twice ten notches, cut off the piece or Tailey (Ti7g//e) containing them; and afterwards counted the scores or pieces cut off; and reckoned by the number of separated pieces, or by scores. Score, for account or reckoning, is well explained, and in the same manner ; from the time when divisions, marks or notches, cut in pieces of stick or wood, were used instead of 428 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. those Arabian figures we now employ. This antient manner of reckoning is humourously noted by Shakespeare. " Thou hast most traiterously corrupted the youth of the realme, in erecting a Grammer Schoole ; and whereas before our forefathers had no other bookes but the score and the tally, thou hast caused print- ing to be used." — 2d part Henry 6. p. 141. [** And on his brest a bloodie crosse he bore. The deare remembrance of his dying Lord, Upon his shield the like was also scor'd." Spenser s Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 2.] Share, shire, scar, one and the same past participle, mean separatedj divided. Share, any separated part or por- tion. Shire, a separated part or portion of this realm. And though we now apply scar only to a cicatrix, or the remaining mark of a separation ; it was formerly applied to any sepa- rated part^ [" — ___ Stay, Sir King, This man is better than the man he slew. As well descended as thyselfe, and hath More of thee merited, then a band of Clotens Had euer scarre for." — Cymheline, p. 397. col. 2. •'*Tho him she brought abord, and her swift bote Forthwith directed to that further strand : Upon that shore he spyed Atin stand. There by his maister left, when late he far'd In Phaedrias iiitt barck over that perlous shard." Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 6. st. 38.] In the instance I produced to you from Gower, he calls it — ■ ^^ a littel skare upon a banke that lets in the streame." So you will find in Hay's North-country words (p. 52.) that what we now call Pot-sherds^ or Pot-shards, are likewise called * [Skinner says, — " A scar, a Fr. G. Escare, Escarre, cicatrix, utr. detorto sensu, a Gr. Έσχαρα, Crusta post adustionem relicta. Medicis Escara, vel, ut Minsk, vult, a Belg. Schorre, Schoore, ruptura ; sed prius prsefero : Escara enim cicatrici propter duritiem affinis est. Verum si Camdeno credendum sit, Scap, A.-S. cautem signare, longe optimum esset ab isto Scaji deducere : nam instar cautis dura est. V. Camden. in agro Ebor, reddentem etymon portus Scarborough."] [So in York- shire and Westmoreland there are Hardraw Scar, Thornton Scar, Knype Scar, &c. — Ed.] CH. TV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 429 Poi-scARs or Poi-SHREDs\ You Will find, too, that where we now use scar, was formerly used score, with the same meamng : as in Rai/'s Proverbs (p. 19.) — '^Slander leaves a SCORE behind it." — So the ^^ cliff e of a rocke" (i. e. the cleaved part of it) as Ray informs us, is still called a ''scarre.'* Douglas, we have seen, calls it——" ane schore rolkis syde." ** And northward from her springs haps Scardale forth to find, Which like her mistress Peake, is naturally inclin'd To thrust forth ragged cleeves, with Λvhich she scattered lies. As busy nature here could not herself suffice. Of this oft-alt'ring earth the sundry shapes to show. That from my entrance here doth rough and rougher grow, Which of a lowly dale although the name it bear. You, by the rocks, might think that it a mountain were. From which it takes the name of Scardale." Poly-olbion, song 26, ** As first without herself at sea to make her strong, And fence her farthest point from that rough Neptune's rage. The isle of Walney lies ; whose longitude doth swage His fury, when his waves on Furnesse seems to war. Whose crooked back is arm'd with many a rugged scar Against his boist'rous shocks." — Ihid. song 27. The SHARE-BONE is SO called, because it is placed where the body is separated or divided. So Douglas, booke 3, p. 82, says, " Ane fair virginis body doune to hir schere." Plougii-share is a Plough-sheerer, contracted to avoid the repetition er, er. A pair of sheers, a pair of sheerers. ** Quhais woll or fleis was neuer clepit with schere." Douglas, booke 12. p. 413. The Italian Scerre, SciarrarCy and Schiera ; and the French a Γ E' cart, and Dechirerj sufficiently speak the same North- * [*' They hew'd their helmes, and plates asunder brake, As they had potshares bene." Faerie Queene, book 6. cant. 1. st. 37.] [" The shard-home beetle ;" " sharded beetle ;" ''They are his shards, and he their ^qqHq J' -^Shakespeare, Ed.] 430 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. ern origin ; and none other has been or can be found for them \ Blunt — As blind has been shewn to be Blin-ed ; so BLUNT is ΒΙοΐΐ'βά, the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Blmnan, To Blin, To stop. Blou is the regular Anglo-Saxon past tense ; to which by adding ed, we have Blon-ed, Blou'd, Blont or blunt : i. e". Stopped in its decreasing progress to- wards ^ point or an edge. [" For God he often saw from heavens hight. All were his earthly eien both blunt and had, And through great age had lost their kindly sight." Faerie Queene, hook 1. cant. 10. st. 47.] Foe "^ Upon a former occasion, you may remember, I FoH ! > considered the adverb or interjection fie ! as the Faugh ! J Imperative of the verb Fian, To Hate: and I have very lately shewn fiend, pianb, to be the present parti- ciple of the same verb. Now that we have noticed the usual and regular change of the characteristic letter of the verbs, I suppose that you are at once aware that foe, pa, is the past tense, and therefore past participle, of the same verb pian ; and means (subaud. any one,) Hated. 1 think you must at the same time perceive, that the nau- seating (Interjection, as it is called) foh ! or faugh ! is merely the same past participle^e " FoH ! one may smel in such, a will most ranke, Foule disproportions, thoughts unnaturall." — Othello, p. 324. i Scerre Menage derives from EUgere. Sciarrare from the French Escarter. ScJdera from the Latin Spira. E'cart from Ex parte. And Dechirer from Dilacerare. [_" Or ecco Draghinazza a fare sciarra." Orlando Innam. (da Berni), lib. 1. cant. 5. st. 44. " Impon, die Ί di segiiente in un gran campo Tutto si mostri a lui schierato il campo." Gierusalemme Liherata, cant. l.st. 34.] 2 "Ml? yevoLTo, in Greake, sygnyfyeth detestacyon, as we speake wyth one syllable in Englyshe, fye." — Detection of the Deiiils So- phistrie, By Steuen Gardiner, Bp, of Winchester, fob 64. p. 1. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 431 Fen 1 In the explanation of Fenowed, Viiieived or Faint J Whinid, the past participle of pyni^ean ; I men- tioned FEN and FAINT, as past participles of the same verb. Bat I forbore at that time to consider them more particularly, because no mention had then been made of the change of the characteristic letter. [Seep. 346.] Fan or fen is the past tense, and therefore past participle, of pynijean •, and means corrupted, spoiled, decayed,withered. In modern speech we apply fen only to stagnated or corrupted water ; but it was formerly applied to any corrupted or de- cayed, or spoiled substance. " Quhen that Nisus fallis unhappely Apoun the glouit blude, quhar as fast by The stirkis for the sacrifyce per case War newly brytnit, quhareof all the place And the grene gers hedewit was and wet ; As this younghere hereon tredeand fute set, loly and blyith, waning him victour round. He slaid and stummerit on the sliddry ground, And fell at erd grufelingis amid the fen. Or beistis blude of sacrifyce." — Douglas, booke 5. p. 138. Faint is Failed^ Fand, Fant, or Feued, Fend, Fent. The French pa^rticiple Faiw, of the \evhFaner or Fener, is also from Fynijean. " La rose est ainsi appellee pour ce qu'elle jette un grand flux d'odeur, aussi est ce pourquoy elle se fene et se passe bientost." Amyot : Morales de Plutarque, 3 liv. Des propos de table, ["E come donna onesta, che permane Di se sicura, e per Γ altrui fallanza. Pure ascoltando timida, si fane ; Cosi Beatrice trasmuto sembianza." II Paradiso di Dante, cant. 27. " C'est comme dans un jardin oil les roses fanees font place aux roses nouvelles." — -Jacques le Fataliste et son Maitre : par Diderot, torn. 2. p. 10. Fynijean, English. Fen. Faint. Fenowed. Vinewed. Whinid. Vinny\ 1 See p. 345 et seq. 432 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Latin. Vanus. Vanesco. Italian, Fango. AiFanno. Affannare. French, Faner. Se Fener. Fange. Evanouir.] Raft- — As έ,ιέύ {Riv' d) was shewn to be the past participle of To Rive ; so raft {Rafed) is the past participle of Repan, Reapian, rapere. To Rive, To Reave or Bereave, To Tear away. Rough (jiojc) and rtff-raff are the same participle. ** What gylte of me ? what fel experience Hath me rafte, alas, thyne aduertence ? Ο trust, Ο faythe, Ο depe assuraunce Who hath me rafte Creseyde." Troylus, boke 5. fol. 197. p. 1. col. 2. " But priuely she cought forth a knyfe. And therwithal she rafte herselfe her lyfe." Lucrece, fol. 216. p. 1. col. L ['* Mischiefe ought to that mischaunce befall. That so hath raft us of our merriment." Shepheards Calender : August. '' And stroke at her with more than manly force, That from her body, full of filthie sin. He RAFT her hatefull heade without remorse." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 24.] Clou Gil 1 as well as Cleeve, Cleft, Cliff, C lift, mid Cloven, Clout J are the past participle of Eliopian, findere, To -' Cleave. " She fayned her, as that she must gon There as ye wote, that euery wight hathe nede. And whan she of this byl hath taken hede. She rent it al to cloutes, and at last Into the preuy sothly she it cast." Marchaunts Tale, fol, 31. p. 2. col. 2. " She ne had on but a stray te olde sacke. And many a cloute on it there stacke." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 122. p. 1. coL 1, " And cast on my clothes clouted and hole." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 31. p. 2. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 433 [" Then as you like this, I will instruct you in all our secrets : for there is not a οεολυτε nor corde, nor boord, nor post, that hath not a speciall name, or singular nature." — Galathea {by Lily), act 1, sc. 4. *' His garment, nought but many ragged clouts. With thornes together pind and patched was." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 9. st. 36.] Cloiive, Cloughf cleaved or divided — into small pieces, Clouvedj Cloiivd, Clout. " Indeede a must shoote nearer, or heele ne're hit the clout." Loue's Labour Lost, act 4, Clouted cream is so called for tlie same reason. Woof— as Weft, before noticed, is the past participle of Pepan, To Weave. " And yet the spacious bredth of this diuision Admits no orifex for a point as subtle As Ariachne's broken woofe to enter." Troylus and Cressida. Tag — as well as tight, is the past participle of Tiaii, vin- cire. Ford — S. Johnson says, most untruly, that this word — ''sometimes signifies the stream, the current, without any consideration of passage or shallowness'." As FART, so ford IS the past participle of Fapan, To Go ; and always, without exception, means Gone, i. e. a place Go?ie over or through. Wane Ί are all (as well as want and gaunt before- Wan >mentioned) the past participle of panian. To Wand J Wane, To decrease. To fall away; and mean De- 1 " Ford," says Junius, " Vadiim, qualiscunque via aut transitus per flumen. A.-S. fopb, a papan, ire, transire : quam originem tradit Gun- therus Ligurini sui lib. prim ο : " Sede satis nota, rajDido quae proxima Mogo Clara situ, populoque frequens-, muroque decora est, Sed rude nomen habet : nam Teutonus incola dixit Franconefurt ; nobis liceat sermone Latino Francorum dixisse Vadum ; quia Carolus illic Saxonas, indomita nimium feritate rebelles Oppugnans, rapidi latissima flumina Mogi Ignoto fregisse vado, mediumque per amnem Transmisisse suas, neglecto ponte, cohortes Creditur, inde locis mansurum nomen inhiesit/'' 2 F 434 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. creased, or fallen away. The moon in the wane, is the moon in a decreased state. Skelton, p. 167, Edit. 1736, says — ^' The waters w^ere wan," i. e. decreased. [" All the charmes of loue, Salt Cleopatra, soften thy wand lip ! Let witchcraft join with beauty, lust with both ; Tye up the libertine in a field of feasts, Keepe his braine fuming." — Antony and Cleopatra, p. 345. col. 1. S. Johnson supposes a Fond or Warm lip. Wand here means thin or delicate. "Eftsoones she cast by force and tortious might Her to displace, and to herselfe t' have gained The kingdome of the night, and waters by her wained." Faerie Queene, Tiuo Cantos of Mutahilitie, cant. 6. st. 10.] " His spear, to equal which the tallest pine Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast Of some great ammiral, Avere but a wand." Paradise Lost, book 1. Λ'erse 294. Tall 1 All these words, as well as Tilt, which we have Toll | already explained, however different they may at Tool ^first sight appear, are all one word, with one Toil I meaning, ; and are the past participle of the An- TaillfJ glo-Saxon verb Tilian To Lift up, To Till. Tall, and the French word Taille (as applied to stature), i. e. raised, lifted up ; require, I suppose, no explanation. ["Buona e la gente, e non puo da piii dotta ^ O' da piu forte guida esser condotta." Gierusalemme Liherahi, cant. 1. st. 61. "Tall were the men, and led they could not be By one more strong, or better skil'd than he." Godfrey of Bvlloigne, translated by R, C. N.B. For this use of the word tall, see B. Jonson, Evefy Man in his Hnmour, and elsewhere.] Toll, and the French word Taille (which is taken of Goods) differ only in pronunciation and consequent w-riting of them. It is a yc^rt lifted off oy taken away. Nor will this use of the woid appear extraordinary, when we consider the common expressions of — To raise taxes — To Levi/ taxes ^— Lever des impots.~A Levi/ u\)on any persons^ — Une Levee, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 435 The TOLL of a beli^ is, its being Lifted wp, wliich causes that sound we call its toll. Tool is (some instrument, any instrument) Lifted tip, or taken up, to work with. Toil (for labour), applied perhaps at first principally to having Tilled (or lifted up) the earth; afterwards to other sorts of labour. The verb was formerly written in English Tueil and Tiiail. " Biholde ye the hlies of the feeld hou thei wexen : thei tueilen not, nether s])iiinen."~Matken, ch. 6. " Greteth well Marie : the whiche hath tuailid rayche in us." Romans, ch. 16. Toil (for a snare) is any thing Lifted np or raised, for the purpose of ensnaring any animal. As, Λ spider's web is a TOIL (something Lifted up) to catch flies : springes and nets, TOILS for other animals. Batch-— as well as bacon (before explained) is the past participle of Bacan, To Bake. Tlie indifferent pronunciation of CH or K, ought not to cause any difficulty : for it prevails through- out the whole language. As Link and Linch, Rick and Rich, &c. A BATCH of bread, is, the bread Baked at one time. I have already said that barren is the past participle of the verb To Bar : and that, when we apply this word Barren either to land or to females, we assert the passage, either from the womb or the earth, to be Barr-en or Barr-ed from bearing any thing into the world or into life. Our English verb To Bar is the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb ΚΛιΚΓΛΝ; Beopjan, Bipjan, Bypjan ; which means, To Defend, To Keep safe, To Protect, To Arm, To Guard, To Secure, To Fortify, To Strengthen. And the past participle of this verb has furnished our language with the fol- lowing supposed substantives : [ΗΛιΚγΛΝ. Byp^an. A BAR A BARRIER A BARGAIN A BARGE The BARK of a dog The BARK of a tree A BARK — a ship A BARKEN A BARRACK A BARN 2 F 2 436 Of ABSTRACTION. [part 11 A BARON Guarantee Aborowe^ War A BOROUGH Warrior The BOROUGH oi Bouthwark Guard A BURGESS Ward A BURGH A HAUBERK A BURGHER USBERGO ItttL Burial Hauberg Ft, A barrow^ a barbican A BURROW^ or WARREN BARBARITY ^ WARRA.NTY Barbarous Guaranty Barmekin Warrant A BAR, in ail its uses is a Defence : tliat by which any thing \s fortified, strengthened, or defended. A BARN {Bar-en, Bar'n) is a covered inclosure, in which the grain &c. is protected or defended from the weather, from depredation, &c. A baron is an armed, defenceful, or powerftd man. A barge is a strong boat. A bargain is a confirmed, strengthened agreement. After two persons have agreed upon a subject, it is usual to conclude with asking — is it a bargain ? Is it confirmed ? A bark is a stout vessel. The bark of a tree is its defence : that by which the tree is defended from the weather &c. " The cause is, for that trees last according to the strength and quan- tity of their sap and juice ; being well munited by their bark against the injuries of the air." — Bacon's Natural History, cent. 6. The BARK of a dog is that by which we are defended by that animal. A BARKEN, according to Skinner—*' Vox in comitatu Wilts 1 [See Borseholder, in the Encyclopcedia Britamdca, vol. 3. p. 405.] "-^l^Borhs-oIder ; See Schultes^'s Inquiry into the Elective Franchise of the Citizens of London, 1822. — Ed.] - [In Dorsetshire and in Cornwall sepulchral hillocks are called BARROW^S.] 3 [Bapvs. — Barbarus, i. e. Bar-bar-us, reduplication of Bar, for very strong. Seneca, lib. 1. de Ira, describes them™"BARBAR0S tanto rohus- tiores corporibus," — 4ta Edit. Lipsii, p, 8.] CH. IV.] . OF ABSTRACTION. 437 usitatissima. Atrium, a Yard of a Iiouse^ vel a verbo 7Ό Ban• ; vel a Germ. Bergen, absconclere ; A.-S. Beoj\'^2in, munire, q. d. locus clausus, respectu sc. agrorum." A HAUBERK. Vossius, Wachter and Caseneuve concur in its etymology. — '^ Hahherga vel Halsperga, vox est Saxonica, proprieque signat thoracem ferreum, sive armaturam colli et pectoris ; ab Hals, collum, et Bergen, tegere, protegere, mu- iiire. Quomodo et in Legg. Ripuariis, cap. 36. ^. 11, Bain- berga, pro ocrea^, sive crurum armatura." — YosuuSy De vitiis sermonis, lib. 2. cap. 9. The French, in their accustomed manner changing the l in J^alj^ to iJ, made the word hauberg: and the Italians, in their manner, made it usbergo. A burgh or BOROUGH meant formerly a fortified Τοιυη^, [Spenser says unadvisedly^ : — " By that which I have read of a borough, it signifieth a Free Towne, which had a principall officer, called a Headborough, to become ruler, and undertake for all the dwellers under him." Spenser, View of the State of Ireland. 1 [The Boot Vv'as much used by the ancients, by the foot as \nq\\ as the horsemen. It was called by the ancient Romans ocrea; in middle- age writers, greva, gambera, benberga, bainharga, and bemberga. The boot is said to have been the invention of the Carians, It was at first made of leather, afterwards of brass or iron, and Avas proof both against cuts and thrusts. It Λvas from this that Homer calls the Greeks brazen- booted. The boot only covered half the leg ; some say the right leg, which was more advanced than the left, it being advanced forward in an attack with the sword ; but in reality it appears to have been used on either leg, and sometimes on both. Those Avho fought with darts or other missile Λveapons, advanced the left leg foremost, so that this only w^as booted. — EncycIop(Edia Britannica, vol. 3. p. 393.] "^ [Bourguignons or 13urgundians, one of the Northern nations who overran the Roman empire and settled in Gaul. They Avere of a great stature, and very warlike ; for Λvhich reason the Emperor Valentinian the Great engaged them in his service against the Germans. They lived in tents which were close to each other, that they might the more readily unite in arms on any unforeseen attack. These conjunctions of tents they called hurgs ; and they were to them what towns are to us. Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. 3. p. 486.] 3 [Perhaps Spenser's grounds for making this distinction are better than Mr. Tooke seems to have thought. But there appears to have been a confusion in the use of the ΛVord Franciplegiiim for Frid-borg, which is pledge for the peace, and not free borough. — See Schultes's Inquiry. Bury, designating a town, should perhaps be traced to Buan, To abide. See Additional Notes. — Ed.] 438 OF ABSTRACTION. . [pART II. Again•^ — " A BOROGH, as I here use it, and as the old lawes still use it, is not a BOROUGH towne, as they now call it, that is, a franchised towne, but amain pledge of 100 free persons, therefore called a free borough or (as you say) Franci-plegium : for borh in old Saxon signifieth a pledge or surety, and yet it is so used with us in some speeches, as Chaucer saith ;-^' St. John to borrow ;' that is, for assurance and Warranty.'' Spenser, View of the State of Ireland. For BERiA, see Encyclopsedia Britannica, where I think the Encyclopedist is, without and against all reason, misled by Dli Fresne, who is himself misled.] A BURROW for rabbets &c. is a defended or protected place: to which a warren is synonymous, meaning the same thing : for WARREN is the past participle of pepian, defendere, pro- tege re, tueri. " Foxis han borwis or dennes, and Briddis of the eir han nestis ; but mannes sone hath not where he shal reste his hede." Mattheu, ch. 8. v. 20. [War. — On J^ij-um bocuni iif fej^ ]?at Saul ysdy ^ecojien aepeft ro cynmje on Ij-pahela pGODG. foyi J^anj^e hij polbon pimne |7βΚΙΘΝΒ habban 'jpe hi je- heolbe pi^ J^set hsej^ene pole. ..... J^paet J^a Samuel psebe lpB.t: Gobe. anb Hob him Γ^θρ^ΑΕΟΟΘ ^at hij petton him to kinin^e Saul Eipep punu. anb he [^i^^an pixobe peopeptij jeapa paec, anb ^at pole ΒθρβΚΟΌΘ. Mlfric, de Veteri Testamento, p. 13. he hip pole jeheolb butan seleum ηΘΡΘΟΙ:5Τ6. Id. p. 14.] A BOROWE was formerly used for what we now call a Secii- rity, any person or thing by which repayment is secured; and by which the Lender is defended or guarded from the loss of his loan. " Thou broughtest me borowes my biddings to fulfyll." Vis. of P. Ploughman, fol. 5. p. 2. " For I dare be his bold BORo\yE that do bet will he neuer." md. fol. 47. p. 2. " And I will be your borow ye shall haue bred and cloth." Ibid. fol. 115. p. 1. " We fynde in the lyfe of saynt Nycholas, that a lewe lente a crysten man a grete somme of golde unto a certayne daye, and toke no syker- nesse of him, but his fayth and saynt Nycholas to borowe." Diues and Pauper, 2d Comm. cap. 9, CU. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 439 " I i3raye God and saynt Nycholas that was thy borowe, that harde vengeaunce come to the." — Diues and Pauper, 2d Comm. cajD. 9. " Yf the Borower upon usure fayle of his daye of payment, he that is his BOROWE may paye that moneye with the usure to the Lener, and do his dettour for whome he is borowe paye to hym ay en that moneye with the usure. For it is to the borowe none usure." Ih'id. 7th Comm. cap. 25. [" St. John to borrow." Chaucer. " This was the first sourse of shepheards sorrow, That now nill be quitt with baile nor borow." Shepheards Calender: May. " Nay, say I thereto, by my dear borrowe, If I may rest, I nill live in sorrowe." Ibid. " They boast they han the devill at commaund. But aske hem therefore what they han paund : Marrie ! that great Pan bought with deare borrow. To quite it from the biacke bowre of sorrow." — Ibid. September. " Like valiant champions aduance forth your standardes, and assay whether your enemies can decide and try the title of battaile by dint of sword ; auaunce, I say again, forward, my captaines, — Now Saint George to Borrow let us set forvv^ard." Holinshed {after Hall), Richard 3d. " He made it strange, and swore, so God him saue, Lasse then a thousand ponde ΛνοΗ he not haue, Ne gladly for that somme nolde he it don. Aurelyus with blissfull herte anon Answerde thus : fye on a thousand pounde. This wyde world, which men say is rounde, I wolde it yeue, if I were lorde of it, Thys bargayne is ful driue, for Ave be knit ; Ye shal be payde truely by my trouthe. But loke nowe for no neglygence or slouthe, Ye taryen us here no langer than to morowe. Nay (qd this clerk) here my trouth to borow." Frankeleijns Tale, fol. 54. p. 1. col. 2. " Her loue of frendshyp haue ί to the won, And therfore hath she laid her faith to borrow." Troylusy boke 2. foL 168. p. 1. col. 2. " Siir, put you in that auenture, For though ye boroaves take of me, The sykerer shall ye neuer be For hostages, ne sykernesse. Or chartres, for to beare wytnesse. 440 ^. OF ABSTRACTION. [PATIT Π. And Loue answerde, I trust the Without BonowE, for I wol none." Romaunt of the Rose, fo\. 155. p. 1. col. 1 & 2.] Burial, Bypjel, is the diminutive of Bypi^ or Burgh; a defended or fortified place. To Biirj/, Bypjan, sepelire, means To Defend : as Gray in his Elegy expresses it — ^' These bones from insult to protect." It cannot escape you, that the Latin sepelire has the same meaning : for seps or sepes '' notat id, quod objectum, prohibet introitum in agrum vel hortum." Stern, in its different applications, has already been shewn to be the past participle of the verb Stijian, To Stir, To Steer, To Move, This participle also gives us the following sub- stantives. A STORE is the collective term for any quan- tity or number of things stiiTed or moved into some one place together. Stour (A.-S. ]'tu]i), formerly in much use, means moved, stirred: and was applied equally to dust, to water, and to men ; all of them things Store Stour Sturt Start Stir Sturdy E'tourdi^ easily moved. "Besely our folkis gan to pingil and strife, Swepand the fiude with lang routhis belife, And up thai welt the stouke of fomy see." Douglas, booke 3. p. 77. " Upsprang the clamour, and the rerd furth went Hie in the skyis of mony marinere. The fomy stoure of seyis rays thare and here." Ibid, booke 5. p. 132. " Eot we that bene of nature derf and doure Cummin of kynde as kene men in ane stouiie." Ibid, booke 9. p. 299. " Be this the Troianis in thare new ciete Ane dusty sop uprisand gan do se. Full thik of STOUKE vpthryngand in the arc." — Ibid. p. 274. " The ετοΓΓνΕ encressis furius and wod." — Ibid, booke 11. p. 387. " And not forsoith the lakkest weriour, Bot forcy man and richt stalwart in stouee." — Ibid. p. 389. " The siluer scalit fyscbis on the grete, * Cuer thwort clere strem.es spiinkilland for the hete. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 441 With fynnys schinand broun as synopare, And cliesal talis, stourand here and thare." Douglas, Frol. to booke 12. p. 400. '* The knyght was fayre and styiFe in stour." Rom, of the Rose, fol. 126. p. 1. col. 1. " They fight, and bringen horse and man to grounde, And with her axes out the braynes quel, But in the laste stoure, sothe to tel. The folke of Troy hem seluen so misleden That with the worse at night home they fleden." Troylus, boke 4. fol. 182. p. 2. col. 1. " Lo a greet styryng Λvas maid in the see, so that the litil ship was hilid Avith wawys." — Mattheu, ch. 8. v. 24. " There found Sir Bors more greater defence in that knight then hee wend, for that Sir Priden was a full good knight, and hee wounded Sir Bors full euill and hee him againe. But euer this Sir Priden held the STOURE in like hard." — Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, ch. 72. " Then began a great sturre and much people was there slaine." Ibid. ch. 154. ** He in the midst of all this sturre and route, Gan bend his browe, and moue himselfe about.." Songes 8iC. By the Earlc of Surrey ^c. fol. 89. p. 2. " And after those braue spirits in all those baleful stowrs That with Duke Robert went against the pagan powers." Poly-olhion, song 16. " Such strange tumultuous stirs upon this strife ensue." Ibid, song 4 . " Who Λvith the same pretence In Norfolk rais'd such stirs, as but with great expence Of blood was not appeas'd." Ibid, song 22. ** Better redresse was entended, then your upstirres and unquiet- nesse coulde obtaine." — Hurt of Sedition, By Sir J. Cheke. " Your pretensed cause of this monstrous sturre, is to encrease mens ΛΥ^ίΙι." — Ibid. ' " How daungerous it is to make stukres at home, when they doe not only make ourselues weake, but also our enimies stronge." — Ibid. [" In religion and libertie were sayd to be of many men the very cause of all these sturries." — R. Ascham, in a Letter to I. Astely, p. 7.] Sturt is formecl in the visual manner from stour^, J'tup. Stiir-edy Stm^d^ Sturt, 442 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. " Dolorus my lyfe I led in sturt and pane." Douglas, booke 2. p. 41. " Hyr moder, quham sa sone full desolate Yone fals se reuer wyl leif in sturt, God wate." Ibid, booke 7. p. 219. " Suffir me swelt, and end this cruel lyffe, Quhil doutsum is yit all syc sturt and striiFe." Ibid, booke 8. p. 263. A START and a stir require neither instance nor explanation. By the accustomed addition of 15 or γ, to stour or j'tup, we have also the adjective sturdy, and the French Estourdi, Etoui'di. Storm — the past participle of Stypmian, agitare^ furere. Day — is the past participle Daj, of the Anglo-Saxon Daejian^ Jucescere. By adding the participial termination en to Daj, we have Dajen or daw^n already mentioned. I told you some time since that a churn is the past participle CyjieU;, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Cyjian^ i^cypan^ Λ^ertere^ rever- tere ; and that it means Turned, Turned about, or Turned back- v;ards and forAvards, This same verb Cyjian^ gives us also the folio wins:, I Eyjian. Cart Char Chair^ chair Ciiew^r Chur-w^orm Car Cardinal Char-woman^ charcoal Chair-man Chariot, charioteer A-JAR To Jar Latin, carrus, cardo, carbo.] " A woman, and commanded By such poore passion as the maid that milkes And does the meanest chares ^" — Aniony and Cleopatra, p. 364. " And when thou hast done this chare. He giue thee leaue To play till doomesday." Ibid. p. 367. ' Mr. Steevens, at this passage, cites Heywood's Rape of Lucrece " She, like a good wife, is teaching her servants sundry chares." And Promos and Cassandra : " Well, I must trudge to do a certain chare." CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 443 " That CHAR is char'd; as the good wife said, when she hang'd her husband." — Ray's Proverbs, ^. 182. " Here's two chewres cheavr'd : when wisdom is employ'd ■ 'Tis ever thus." — Beaumont and Fletcher, Martial Maid. " All's CHARD when he is gone." — Ibid. Two Noble Kinsmen. " Lyke as ane bull dois rummesing and rare, Quhen he eschapis hurt one the altare. And CHARRis by the ax with his nek wycht, Gif on the forehede the dynt hittis not richt." Douglas, booke 2. p. 46. " The witches of Lapland are the Diuel's CHARE-women." Beaummit and Fletcher, Fair Maid of the Inn. " Charre folks are never paid." — Ray's Proverbs, p. 87. " The pyping wind blaw up the dure on char." Douglas, booke 3. p. 83. " Ane Schot windo unschet ane litel on char." Ibid. Prol. to booke 7. p. 202. Menage^ MinshcAv^ Junius^ Skinner, &c. have no resource for the derivation of chair, but the Greek καθεΒρα; in which they all agree. But, though they travel so far for it, none of them has attempted to shew by what steps they proceed from icaOehpa to CHAIR. The process wOuld be curious upon paper. But KaOehpa, though a Seat, is not a chair ; nor does it convey the same meaning. Chair is a species of Seat. It is not a fixed, but a moveable seat ; Turned about and Returned at pleasure : and from that circumstance it has its denomination: It is a CHAiR-seat. Car', CART, chariot, &c, and the Latin carrus are the ' [A remarkable floating island in this country. — Adjoining Eas- thwaite-water, near Hawkshead, Lancashire, there is a tarn (or small lake) called Priestpot, upon which is an island, containing about a rood of land, mostly covered \vith willows ; some of them eighteen or twenty feet high. This island is distinguished by the name of The Car. At the breaking up of the severe frost in the year 1795, a boy ran into the house of the proprietor of this island, who lived Λvithin view of it, and told him that " his Car was coming up the Tarn." The proprietor and his family soon proved the truth of the boy's report, and beheld with astonishment, not " Birnam-wood removed to Dunsinane!" but the woody island approaching them with slow and majestic motion. It rested, however, before it reached the edge of the tarn, and afterwards 444 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. same participle. This word was first introduced into the Roman language by Cagsar, who learned it in his war with the Germans. Vossius mistakingly supposes it derived from Currus, So CHAR-coal is wood Turned coal by fire\ We borrow nothing here from Carhone ; but the Latin etymologists must come to us for its meaning, which they^ caiuiot find elsewhere. As they must likewise for Cardo^ ; that on which the door is Turned and Returned. " This is the station of the cause, the argument and material of all Paules pistels, even the tredsole or groundsole wherupon, as the dore is Turned and Returned, so are all his argumentes and proces therupon treated and retreated." — Declaration 8^c. against loye, fol. 25. p. 1. frequently changed its position as the \vind directed ; being sometimes seen at one side of the lake, which is about two hundred yards across, and sometimes in the centre. It is conjectured to have been long separated from the bed of the lake, and only fastened by some of the roots of the trees, which were probably broken by the extraordinary rise of the water on the melting of the ice. CJiarrue, the French name for a plough. A carpenter, in French Charpentier. Charta, Lat. Charterparty . *' The present Boyer says the word comes from hence, that per medium charta incidebatur, et sic fiebat charta partita ; because, in the time when notaries Avere less common, there was only one instru- ment made for both j^arties : this they cut in two, and gave each his portion ; joining them together at their return, to know if each had done his part." — Encyclopcedia Britamiica, Edit. Sd. 1797. vol. 4. p. 360.] ' ["I no longer see the human heart char'd in the flame of its own Adle and paltry passions." Mr, Currans Speech for Owen Kirwan, Edit. 1805.] " Carbo, say the Latin etymologists, from Careo ; quia carci flamma. Or from καρφω, arefacio. Or from the Chaldaic. 3 " Cabdo unde sit, docere conatus Servius ad 1 JEn. : Cardo inquit, dictus, quasi cor januEe, quo movetur, απο τη5 Kaphias. Et Isidorus, lib. XV. cap. vii. Cardo, inquit, est locus in quo ostium vertitur et semper movetur, dictus αττο -?;s Kupcias ; quod, quasi Cor hominem totum, ita ille cuneus januam regat ac moveat. Unde et proverbiale est. In cardine rem esse. " De etymo longe verisimiliora sunt quee Martinius adfert : nempe ut κατά μεταΟεσιν sit a ιφαοη, hoc est, Jianms, vel aliud ex quo quidsus- penditur. Vel a ιψα^αω, hoc est agito : in cardinibus enim janua agi- tatur vertiturqiie. Horum alteram malim quam ut vel sit a κρατεω, firmiter teneo ; quia janua^n retinet. Vel a Kctpros pro k-paros, hoc est, robur, firmitas, quam janua in solis cardinibus habet." — G. ,/. Vossius. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 445 A CHUR-worm is so called, because it is Tamed about with great celerity. To set the door or the window achar^ Avhich v^e now WTite AJAR (or, as Douglas writes it^ on char) is to put it neither quite open nor quite shut, but on the turn or return- to either. A cHAR-woman is one who does not abide in the house where she works, as a constant servant, but Returns home to her own place of abode, and Returns again to her work when she is required. A CHAR, when used alone, means some single separate act, such as we likewise call a Tuvfi, or a Bout, not any uninter- mitted coherent business or employment of long continuance. And in the same sense as char was formerly used, we now use the word Turn. Pil have a Bout with him. — I'll take a Turn at it. — That Turn is served — (Which is equivalent to— That CHAR is char'd ; though not so quaintly expressed, as it would be by saying — That Turn is Turned.) — One good Turn deserves another. All these are common phrases. *' Doe my lord of Canterbury A shrewd Turne ; and hee 's your friend for euer." Henry 8. p. 230. '' -False gelden, gang thy gait, And du thy Turns betimes : or Γ is gar take Thy new breikes fra' thee, and thy dublet tu." — 8ad Shepherd. " Gi' me my tankard there, hough. It's six a clock ; I should ha' carried tAVO Turns, by i\as.''— Every Man in his Humour, act 1. sc. 4. F, — What is the name of that fish which one of your friends H. — Oh ! you mean my gentle and amiable friend, Michael Pearson: forty long years my steady and uniform accomplice and comforter in all my treasons ; equally devoted with myself to the rights and happiness of our countrymen and fellow- creatures ; which, for the last forty years in this country has by some persons been accounted the worst of treason. Yes : It was CHAR that he sent us : and I believe with Skinner, that it is so called — '' quia hie piscis rapide et celeriter se in aqua vertit." 446 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Yare 1 are the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Yard J Gyppan, Erypian, To Prepare: and it is formed in the accustomed manner, by changing the characteristic letter y to A. Yare means Prepared. " The winde was good, the ship was yare, Thei toke her leue, and forth thei fare." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 101. p. 2. col. 1. " In all hast made hir yare Towarde hir suster for to fare."— /δί(?. fol. 114. p. 1. col. 2. " Ana bad the maister make hym yare, .Tofore the wynde for he wolde fare." IbidAih, 8. fol. 184. p. 1. col. 1. " This Tereus let make his shyppes yare,• And into Greece himselfe is foi'th yfare." Chaucer, Phyhmene, fol. 218. " I do desire to learne, Sir : and I hope, if you haue occasion to use me for your owne Turne, you shall find me yare. For trul}^ Sir, for your kindnesse, I owe you a good Turne.'' Measure for Measure, p. 76. A YARD, to mete, or to measure with (before any certain extent was designated by the word) was called a CQet-^eapb, or OQete-jyjib, or Mete-yard, i. e. something Prepared to mete or to measure with. This was its general name : and that prepared extension might be formed of any proper materials. When it was of wood, it was formerly called a yardwand, i. e. a Wand prepared for the purpose. By common use, when we talk of mensuration, we now omit the preceding word Mete, and the subsequent Wand; and say singly a yard. Yar-en, Yar'n, Yarn, has been already explained (p. 357.) To those participles noticed by me in the beginning of our conversation, and which terminated in ed, t, and en, I have now added those which are also formed from the same verbs by a change of the characteristic letter. And I may now pro- ceed to other verbs which, by a change of the characteristic I or Y, have furnished the language with many other supposed Nouns, which are really Participles. Dot.- — Skinner says ^^Muci globus vel grunuis, fort, a Teut. Dotter, ovi viteHus, i. e. Muci crassioris globus vitello ovi in- crassato similis." Johnson says-™-^' it seems rather corrupted from Jot*^' [CH. IV. OF ABSTRACTION. 447 Dot is merely the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Dyttan, occludere, obturare, To Stop up, To Shut in. It has the same meaning as Dytteb, Ditted, occlusum. It is not ''made to mark any place in a writing;" but is, what we call, a full stop. The verb To Dit, To Stop up, is used, in its par- ticiple, by Douglas : " The riuaris dittit with dede corpsis wox rede Under bodyis bullerand ; for sic multitude Of slauchter he maid, quhil Exanthus the flude Mycht fynd no way to rin unto the see." Booke 5. p. 155. " . — gemerentque repleti Amnes, nee reperire viam atque evolvere posset In mare se Xanthus." Liu Ί These words, though seemingly of such different Lot significations, have all but one meaning : viz. Blot r Covered, Hidden. And the only difference is Glade | in their modern distinct application or different ^ Cloud J subaudition. Lid and lot were in the Anglo-Saxon written J^lib and J^lot:; and these, by the change of the characteristic letter I to I short and to ο (as Writ, Wrote, Wrool, Wrat, Wrate, of Ppitan, To Write^) are the regular past tense, and there- fore past participle of rMiban^tegere, operire. To Cover. The Anglo-Saxon participle J^lib, suppressing the aspirate, is the English LID, i. e. that by which any thing (vessel, box, &c.) is Covered. The Anglo-Saxon participle l^lob or J^lot, suppressino• the aspirate, is the English lot, i. e. (something) Covered or Hidden. " Playeng at the dyce standeth in lotte and auenture of the dyce." Diues and Faiiper, 1st Comm. cap. 38. ^ [Puttenham in his Arte of English Poesie, speaking of Thomas Chaloner, says — " that other gentleman who λυκατε the late Shep- heardes Calender." " And, her before, the vile Enchaunter sate, Figuring straunge characters of his art : With living blood he those characters wrate." Faerie Qneene, book 3. cant. 12. st. 31.] 448 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. So we say — To draw lots. And To put any thing to the LOT. Indifferently with J^liban our ancestors used Be-hliban and Ere-hliban, with the same meaning•. Be-hlob or Be-hlot is the regular past tense and past par- ticiple of Be-hliban, tegere ; which is become our English blot: and you cannot fail to observe that a blot upon any thing extends just as far as that thing is Covered, and no further. rie-hlyb, Ge-hlib, Ije-hlob, Ere-hlab, is the regular past tense and past participle of Hre-hliban : and Ije-hlab, is be- come the English glade ; applied to a spot Covered or Hidden with trees or boughs. [" — — « the ioyous shade Which shielded them against the boyling heat. And with greene boughes decking a gloomy glade, About the fountaine like a girlond made." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 7. st, 4. " At last he came unto a gloomy glade. Cover d with boughes and shrubs from heavens light." Ihkl. book 2. cant. 7. st. 3. " Upon our way to which we Averen bent, We chaunst to come foreby a covert glade." Ihid. book 6. cant. 2. st. 16. "■ Farre in the forrest, by a hollow glade Covered with mossie shrubs, which spredding brode Did underneath them make a gloomy shade." — Ihid. cant. 4. st. 13. " Till that at length unto a woody glade He came, whose covert stopt his further sight." Ihld. cant. 5. st. 17. «* For noon-day's heat are closer arbours made. And for fresh ev'ning air the op'ner glade." Dry den s Fall of Man, act 2. sc. 1. "Within that wood there was a covert glade." Faerie Queene, book 3. cant. 5. st. 17. " Into that forest farre they thence him led, Where was their dwelling ; in a pleasant glade With mountaines rownd about environed And mightie woodes, which did the valley shade." — Ibid. st. 39. CH, IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 449 '* As doth an eger hound Thrust to an hynd within some covert glade." Faerie Queene, book 4. cant. 6. st. 12. *' Unto those woods he turned backe againe, Full of sad anguish and in heavy case ; And finding there fit solitary place For wofull wight, chose out a gloomy glade. Where hardly eye mote see bright heavens face." Ibid, cant. 7. st. 38.] From the same participle, I suppose, is formed our English word CLOUDY Gehlod, Gehloud, Gloud, Cloud, For the same reason Ihe Latiu word Nubes was formed from Nubere ; Avhich means To Cover.- — *' Quia coelum Nubit, i. e. operit ;" says Varro. And therefore Nupta (i. e. Nubita, Niibta) is Femme Couverte, In the same manner, Lock "^ in the Anglo-Saxon Loc, Beloc, are the regular Block J past participles of Lycan, Be-lycan, obserare, claudere. So Last 1 in the Anglo-Saxon Dlasj^te and Be~h\sefte, Ballast/ are the past participles of KMasj^tan and Be- hlsej^tan, onerare. The French Lester is the same word, dis- missing the aspirate, and changing the Anglo-Saxon infinitive termination an for the French infinitive termination er. 1 " Cloud videtur esse a κΧν^ων, fluctus, unda ; quod nubes undatim veluti fluctuent in media aeris regione : vel quod imbres nubibus fusos horridus undarum de montibus decidentium fragor et minax exaestuan- tium consurgentiumque torrentium facies consequi soleat." — Junius. " Cloud, Nubes, Minshew deflectit a Claudo ; quia percludit et in• tercipit nobis solem. Somner a C/oiZ et Clodded; quia sc. est vapor concretus : sed utr. violentum est. Mer. Casaub. tamen longe violen- tius deducit a Gr, ίΐχλν$. Quid si deducerem ab A.-S. Eluc, Pannus, nobis Clout ; quia, instar panni, solem obtegere videtur ? Sed nihil horum satisfacit. Mallem igitur a Belg. Kladde, macula, litura ; Klad- den, maculare, fcedare ; et sane omnino ut maculse sen liturae chartam puram, ita nubes aerem foedant et deturpant : hoc tandem ab alt. Klot, Klotte, nobis Clod, grumus, formare fortean non abs re esset." — Skinner. 2 G 450 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART il. Blaze ") A blaze or Blase is the past tense (used as a Blast J participle) of Blasjran, flare : By adding to Blase, the participial termination ed, we have Biased, Biased, blast. Frost — is the past participle of Fjiyj^an, To Freeze, By the change of the characteristic y, the regular past tense is ppojre, which we now write Froze : adding the participial ter- mination ED, we have Frosed, Fros'd, Frost, [Drum — is the past participle of Djieman, Dpyman, '' To make a joyful noise ;" for so the word is used in Psalms xlvi. 1 ; Ixxxi. 1 ; xcv. I, 2; &c. Trump and trumpet — in Dutch tromp, trumpet. Italian, TROMBA, says Menage, ^' Da Tuba, Truba, Trumba, tromba, e derivazione indubitata." — And perhaps triumph-us. German, trompe, trompette, trommette ; Danish, trompette; German, drommeten, or trompeten, To Trumpet; Swedish, trumpet. In Dutch, trom.] Nod — is the past participle of J^nijan, caput inclinare. The past tense of J^ni^ari is J^nah. By adding to f^nah or Nah the participial termination ed, we have Nahed, Nah*d, Nad (a broad) or nod. Oak — A.-S. Άac. of lean. Yoke — is the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Ere- ican. lean, addere, adjicere, augere, jungere, gives us the English verb To Ich (now commonly written To Eke), *' I speake too long, but 'tis to peize the time. To ICH it, and to draw it out in length." Merchant of Venice, p. 173. Iie-ican, by the change of the characteristic i to o, gives us the past tense and past participle Hreoe : which (by our accustomed substitution of γ for G) we now write yok or yoke. " It is fulle good to a man whan he hath borne the yok of our Lorde from his youthe."= — Diues and Fauper, 1st Comm. cap. 21. This same participle gives the Latin jvG-um, and the Italian Giogo. Old^ by the change of the characteristic i or y, is the Eld 5 past tense and past participle of the Anglo-Saxon CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 461 verb Ylban, Ilban, To Remain, To Stay, To Continue j To Last, To Endure, To Delay, To Defer, morari, cunctari, tar- dare, difFerre. And this verb (though now lost to the language) was commonly used in the Anglo-Saxon with that meaning, without any denotation of long antiquity. As we now say — A week OLD, Two days old. But a minute old. " As youth passeth, so passeth their beaute. And as they olde, so they fade." — Diues and Pauper, 4th Comm. cap. 27. *' The tyme that eldeth our auncestours And ELDETH kynges and emperours. The tyme that hath all in welde To ELDEN folke." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 121. p. 2. col. 2. Ope η Ope (by the change of the characteristic γ to o) is the regular past tense of Yppan, aperire, pan- dere. By adding to which the participial termi- nation EN, we have the past participle open. Open Gap Gape Chap Chaps A GAP and a gape, are the regular past tense and past participle of Eie-yppan, by the change of the characteristic γ to a. A chap and chaps vary from the foregoing only by pro- nouncing CH instead of g. But the meaning and etymology are the same. ρ Poke and pock (by the change of the character- p I istic γ to o) is the regular past tense and past J participle of the Anglo-Saxon Pycan, To Pi/ke, or To Peck. J or Pox *' Than Cometh the Pye or the rauene and pyketh out the one eye. Than Cometh the fende and pyketh out ther ryght eye, and maketh them lese conscyence anent God. After he pyketh out theyr lyfte eye." — Dines and Pauper, 9th Comm. cap. 7. *' Heretikes shall not thereby pike any matter of cauillation against us." — Dr. Martin, Of Priestes unlauful Mariages, ch, 10. p. 145. Pock is so applied as we use it ; because where the pustules have been, the face is usually marked as if it had he^n picked or pecked. We therefore say pitted with the small pocks (or 2 g 2 452 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART 11. pox). And the French — picote de hi petite verole. The French Piquer and Picoter are both from the Anglo-Saxon Pycan. Menage says- — '^ Picote, On appeile ainsi en Poitou la petite verole. Ce mot se troiive dans Rabelais, 4, 52." *^L'un y avoit la Picote, Tatitre le tac, I'autre la verole." *' De piquer a cause que le visage en est souvent marque." Smoke — is the regular past tense and past participle of Smican, fumare. Pit 7 are the past tense and past participle of the verb Pot J To Pit, i. e. To Excavate, To Sink into a hollow. *' Deip in the sorowful grisle helUs pot." — Douglas^ booke 4. p. 108. " First fayre and wele Therof much dele He dygged it in a pot." Sir T. More's Workes. Town"] Notwitlistanding their seeming difference, these Tun > three (toavn, tun, ten) are but one word, with Ten J one meaning; viz. Inclosed, Encompassed, Shut in : and they only differ (besides their speHing) in their n"ioderii different application and subaudition. It is the past tense and therefore past participle (ton, tone, tun, tyne, tene) of the Anglo-Saxon verb Tynan, To Inclose, To Encompass, To Tyne, F,—To Tyne ! H. — Nay, I will not warrant tliat use of the word in modern English. ^' To tyne (Skinner says) adhuc pro Sepire in qui- busdam Anglii38 partibus usurpatur : si Verstegano fides sit." Whether tlie word be now so used, I know not, nor shall I give myself the trouble to inquired ΐ think it probable ; but it is sufficient for my purpose that this verb was commonly so used in that period of our language which we call Anglo-Saxon. Tlie modern subaudition, when we use the word town, is restricted to — any number of houses — Inclosed together. ^ [" The priest with holy hands was seen to tine The cloven wood, and pour the ruddy wine," Orydens Tnwslaiion of the First Book of Homer's Ilias.J CH. IV.] ^ OF ABSTRACTION. 453 Formerly the English subaudition was more extensive, and em- braced also any inclosnre—'nwy quantity of land &c. inclosed^, ** Sotheli thei dispisiden, and thei wenten awei, another in to his TOUN, for sothe another to his marchaundie." " But they made light of it, and went their ways, one to his Farm, another to his merchandise." — Matthew, ch. 22. v. 5. ** Whiche thing as thei that leseAviden hadden seyn don, thei fledden, and telden in to the citee and in tounes." ** When they that fed them saw what was done, they fled, and went and told it in the city and in the Country J" — Luke, ch. 8. v. 34. *' And alle bigunnen togidre to excuse, the firste seide, I haue bougt a TOUN, and I haue nede to go out and se yt." " And they all with one consent began to make excuse. The first said unto him, I have bought a Piece of ground, and I must needs go and see it." — Ihid. ch. 14. v. 18. *• And he Λvente and cleuide to oon of the burgeys of that cuntre, and he sente him in to his toun that he shulde fede hoggis." ** And he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country ; and he sent him into his Fields to feed swine." — Ibid. ch. 15. v. 15. " And whanne thei ledden him, thei token sum man Symont of Sy- renen, comynge fro the toun and thei puttiden to him a cross, to here aftir Ihesu." " And as they led him away, they laid. hold upon one Simon a Cyre- nean, coming out of the Country, and on him they laid the cross, that he might bear it after Jesus." — Ibid. ch. 23, v. 26. A TUN (tunne) and its diminutive Tmiiiel (tsenel, tend) is the same participle, with the same meaning ; though now usually applied to an indosure for fluids^ I [Dr. Beddoes, in a letter to me (H. Tooke) Nov. 25, -1805, says, — " Have you not heard, or did not you choose to mention, that in the W. of Cornwall, every cluster of trees is called a τοΛνΝ of trees, — first no doubt from the indosure, then simply as a group ? To tyne is still a provincialism. To tyne a gap in a hedge, means at present, to fill it up." — Extract of a letter to me from Dr. Beddoes, Nov. 25, 1805.] " [" ToNNA vel TTJNNA, vas, ex Germanico et Belgico tonne ; quo notatur vas vinariura, reive similis. Auctor vitse Philiberti : ' Rogans eum cellarium ingredi, et vas vinarium, quod tonna dicitur, benedicere.' Hinc diminutivum tonnella, vel tunnella, vasculum. M. loannes 454 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. *' Certain persons of London brake up the tunne in the warde of Cornliill, and tooke onte certayne persons that thither were committed by Sir Ihon Briton, then custos or gardeyn of the citie." Fabian, Edwarde 1. p. 142. F, — In this derivation of tun, I suppose you know that you have only all the etymologists of all the languages of Europe against you : for all of them use this word : and they seem to agree that it comes from the Latin Tina^ and Tina from the Greek Aeti^oc. H. — Do Aetj/oc or Tina afford us any shadow of a meaning to the word tun ? If they do not, such derivation is at least nugatory. But Tina has no connection with this doubtful Aeivoq. Tina is itself from Tynan : as heaps of other Latin words, referred to by our etymologists, shall in due time be shewn evidently to come from us, and not our words from them. P.— -When different languages have the same word, who shall decide which of the two is original ? H. — This circumstance — Its meaning — shall decide. The word is always sufficiently original for me in that language where its meaning, which is the cause of its application, can be found. And seeking only meaning, when I have found it, there I stop : the rest is a curiosity whose usefulness I cannot discover. de Thwrocz in chronicis Hungaricis, secundse partis cap. xcvii : * De vino expensse sunt centum et octoginta tunnell^.' Imo et virili genere TONELLus dixere : forte oh diminutionem extrita consona, ut a signum, sigillum, a mamma, mamilla. Petrus Cellensis, lib. ix. Epist. v. ' Habes vinum de vite vera expressum de torculari crucis et attractum aperto ostio lateris. Sicut enim tonellus foratur, ut vinum habeatur : sic latus Christi lancea militis apertum est, ut exiret aqua baptismatis, et sanguis nostrse redemptionis.' Tonn^ vel tunn^e vocabulo vicinum est TINA : quod legas in Actis Thyrsi et sociorum ad xxviii Jan. ' Tum Sylvanus jussit impleri tinam aqua, et merso capite ligari pedes ejus sursum, et mediam partem corporis, quae super aqua esset, flagellis csedi.' Imo et Varro usurpat in iv, de L.L. et in 1, de vita populi Ro- mani, ut quidem utrobique in Conjectaneis corrigit Scaliger ; qui et apud Festum legit tina ; ubi vulgo, tinia, vasa vinar'ia. Utcunque hoc, plane videntur tonn^e vel tunnjl et TiNiE vel tini^, vocabula esse cognata, et ab eadem origine profecta." Vossii de Vit. Serm. lib. 2. cap. 18. p. 100.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 455 But to proceed in our course. However strange it may, at first mention, appear to you, TEN (in the Anglo-Saxon^ ^yn, tin, ten) is likewise the past participle of Tynan. You have already seen that the names of Colours have a meaning, as a cause of their denomination ; and now you will find that the names of Numerals have also a meaning. So have the Winds, &c. In fact, all General terms must have a meaning, as the cause of their imposition : for there is nothing strictly arbitrary in language. It is in the liighest degree probable that all numeration was originally performed by the fingers, the actual resort of the ignorant : for the number of the fingers is still the utmost ex- tent of numeration. The hands doubled, closed, or shut in, include and conclude all number : and might therefore well be denominated tyn or ten. For therein you have closed all numeration^: and if you want more, must begin again, ten and one, ten and two, &c. to Twain-tens : when you again recommence, Twain^tens and one, &c. . Knoll \ In the Anglo-Saxon Enoll, Enyll, is the past Knell ^ participle of Enyllan, To strike a hell. Choice — was formerly written chose; and is the past participle of Eij'an, eligere. To Chese, as it was formerly written. 1 [Ten — pa TYN beboba. — id est — The ten commandments, lofeph leopobe on ]?ani lanbe msejihce hunb teonti^ jeapa anb TIN to eacan. — JEIfric. de Veteri Testamento . 8eo ojiep boo yj' Exobuj' jehaten. Se OOoyfef Ap'RAT be pam miclum tacnum anb be ])am TYN picum J?e pupbon pa ^efpemobe opep Phapao. ^ibidr\ 2 Decern, Ae/ca, has also been well derived from /!^εχομαι, compre- hendo — πάρα το ^εγβσθαί και συγκεγ^Μρηκεΐ'αί τα γένη πάντα των αριθμών. — *' Sed hsec (says Vossius) allusio verius quam originatio." I do not concur with him in this censure. [See Juvenal, Sat. 10. And Cselius Rhodiginus, lib. 23. cap. 12. et sequ. — To count on the right hand, when the number exceeds a hundred.] 456 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " Frely paye the tytlie neyther Avorste ne beste, but as they come to honde without chose." — Diues and Fauper, 7th Comm. cap. 13. " — Now thou might chese How thou couetist to cal me, now thou knowst al mi names." Vision of P. Plovghnan, pass. 16. fol. 77. p. 2. " Then sayd Pilate to the maysters of the lawe : Chese you of the moost myghty men amonge you, and let them holde these maces." Nichodemus Gospell, ch. 1. (1511,) '* I haue sette byfore you lyfe and dethe, good and euyll, blessynge and curse, and therfore chese the lyfe." Dines and Pauper, 8th Comm. cap. 13. Mint 1 are the past participle of ClQynejian, GQynjian, Money J iiotare, To Mark, or To Coin. Miiiej/edf Mini/ed, Min'dj Mint : and money, merely by changing the character- istic γ to o. — The Latin Moneta^ is the past participle of the same Anglo- Saxon verb. Thong") are the past participle of Dpinan, Dpinan, de- Thin J crescere, minui. Thong (in the Anglo-Saxon Dpon^, Dpan^) was still written thwong, long after our lan- guage ceased to be called Anglo-Saxon. *' Forsothe a stronger than I shal come aftir me, whos I am not worth to unb5mde the thavong of hise shoon." — Luke, ch. 3. Ύ. 16. " He it is that is to corny nge aftir me, whiche is maid bifore me, of whom I am not worthi that I unbynde the thwong of his shoo." lohn, ch. 1. v. 27. " He axed of the kynge so myche grounde as the hyde of a bull or other beste wolde compace, Avhich the kynge to hym graunted. After whiche graunt, the sayde Hengyste to the ende to Avinne a large grounde, causyd the sayd bestes sky η to be cut into a small and slender THONG." — Fabian, parte 5. ch. 83, Thin, as well as thong, appears to have been formerly written with a w. ** And then hee sickned more and more, and dried and dwined away." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, ch. 175. 1 Vossius tells us that moneta is from Moneo : " quod ideo moneta vocatur ; quia nota inscripta monet nos autoris et valoris." CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 457 Sorrow T are one word differently spelled, and in modern Sorry English somewhat differently applied ; but have Sore . all one meaning : and, by the change of the cha- [Sour] racteristic letter ύ to o, are the past participle Shrewd of the Anglo-Saxon verb Syppan, Syjiepan, Shrew J Syjiepian, To Vex, To Molest, To cause inis^ chief to. This participle was written in the Anglo-Saxon fojip, roppe, foph, JOphj, fop3, j*ape, pp. And, long after that time, in Enghsh 80ΚΛνΕ, sorewe, soor, &c. And was, and is, the general name for any malady or disease, or mischief, or suffering ; any thing generally by which one is molested, vexed, grieved, or mischieved. And whoever attempts to pro- nounce the Anglo-Saxon participle sorw, will not wonder that it should have been so variously written*. " And Ihesu enuyrownyde al Galilee, techynge in the synagogis of hem the gospel of the rewme, and heelinge al sorewe, ether ache, and sikenesse in the peple. And his fame wente in to al Sirie, and thei oifriden to him alle men hauynge yuel, takun with dyuerse sooris and tormentis." '* And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all maimer of sickness and all manner of diseases among the people. And his fame went throughout all Syria ; and they brought unto him all sick people that were taken with divers diseases and torments." Matthew, ch. 4. v. 23, 24. I The same change in the written signs has taken place in the modern manner of representing similar sounds. Arwe Narwe Sparwe Harwe Falwe Halwe Sahve Walwe Yelwe Borwe Holwe Morwe )>are becomes Arrow Narroio Sjmrroio Harrow Falloio Hallow Salloio Wallow Yelloiu Borrow Hollow Morrow. 458 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART IF. ** Marye Magdaleyn anoynted the blysful fete of our Lorde Ihesu with a precyous oynement. Judas was sorowe therof and grutched." Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 53. [** I am SORROW for thee: By thine owne tongue thou art condemn'd." Cymheline, p. 397. col. 2. Malone ignorantly says — '^ This obvious error of the press adds support to Mr. Steevens's emendation of a passage in Much Ado about Nothing.^' — (i. e. Sorry wag.)] In the same meaning we say- — a sorry tale^ a sorry case or condition. \_" The heardes out of their foldes were loosed quight, And he emongst the rest crept forth in sory plight." Faerie Queene, book 3. cant. 10. st. 52. " Here in this bottle, sayd the sory mayd, I put the tears of my contrition." — Ibid, book 6. cant. 8. st. 24. '* Her bleeding brest and riven bowels gor'd, Was closed up, as it had not beene sor'd." Ibid, book 3. cant. 12. st. 38.] Junius says — '' sore, A.-S. f^iji. Forte est a σωροα, cu- mulus ; ut proprie olim accepta sit vox de tumore in quern ingens purulentse materise copia confluit ac coacervatur. Rec- tius tamen videri potest desumptum ex φωρα, scabies late diffusa et alte defixa. Vel a avpeiv, trahere.'' Skinner thinks sore is a contraction from the Latin seve- Rus. And the Latin etymologists give us the satisfaction of informing us, that Severus is either satis verus — or seciiSj hoc est,juxta verum — or semper verus — or σεβηροο,, venerabilis. ['' There also those two Pandionian maides. Calling on Itis, Itis evermore. Whom, wretched boy, they slew with guiltie blades : For whom the Thracian lamenting sore, Turn'd to a lapwing, fowlie them upbraydes. And fluttering round about them still does sore." Spenser: Virgil's Gnat. 2 Shrewd — the past participle of the same verb Syppan, rypepan ; not by a change of the characteristic letter, but by adding ed to the indicative. It is jryjipeb, yypeyeO ; which, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 459 I doubt not, is our modern shrewed, or shrewd. And fyppe, j^ypepe, is our modern shrewe, or shrew* : which I believe to be the indicative of j*yjiepan ; and to mean, — one who vexes or molests. Shrew was formerly applied indifferently to Males as well as to Females. ** The old SHREW Sir Launcelot smote me downe." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 2d part, ch. 133. " Nay, not so, said Sir Tristram, for that knight seemeth a shrew." Ibid. ch. 143. *• Jacob was a good man, Ezau a shrewe." Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 20. " Be ye subgettes for Goddes sake, not only to good lordes and well ruled, but also to shrewes and tyrauntes." Ibid. 4th Comm. cap. 15. " But Vulcanus, of whom I spake. He was a shrewe in all his youth." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 88. p. 2. col. 2. *'As our Saviour sayd by the wicked baily, which though he played the false shrewe for his master, prouided yet wilily somwhat for him- selfe." — Sir T. More, Confutacion of Tyndale, p. 461. Be-shrew thee ! (Be-j-ypepe, the imperative of Be-j^ype- pian) i. e. Be thou pyppe, pypepe, i. e. vexed — or, May'st thou be vexed, molested, mischieved, or grieved, in some manner. ["Now much BESHREW my manners and my pride." Midsummer Nights Dreame, p. 180. vol. 2^.] Morrow ^ Mer. Casaubon says — '* Quis ad Grsecorum Morn >verborum sonos aures habet vel tantillum im- Morning J butas, qui, cum audit solemne illud in omnium ^ By a similar easy corruption of y to h, Syrop becomes Shrop, Shrup, Shrub. ^ [Mr. Steevens says — " This word, of which the etymology is not exactly known, implies a sinister wish, and means the same as if she had said — Now ill befall mymanners &c." Toilet says — " See Minshew's etymology of it, which seems to be an imprecation or wish of such evil to one, as the venomous biting of the shrew mouse." See also S. Johnson's nonsense.] 460 OF ABSTRACTION. [PAKT II. ore — Good-moriOW — non Grsecos audire se putet — *'γαθην ■ημβραν — dicentes ?" Junius says — ''Ego A.-S. masjiijen olim suspicabar de- sumptum ex GQaji anb OQasjijie, amplius. Quoniam dies cras- tinus nihil est aliud quam spatium vitse ulterius adhuc, eoque lucro apponendum." Skinner's good sense does not attempt any explanation. If we cannot believe with Casaubon (and I think w^e cannot) that Good morrow is merely the Greek α-γαθην -ημβραν ; or with Junius, that it means a Daz/ more ; you will perliaps be in- duced to examine the equivalent words of other languages ; in hopes of receiving some assistance, hints at least, from the manner in which the equivalent words of other languages are explained by their etymologists. You may be tempted per- haps to inquire after the Greek avpwv, the Latin Cras, or the Italian and French Dimane and Demain. But spare yourself the trouble. From the numerous labourers in those vineyards, instead of the grapes you look for, you will gather nothing but thorns. Let us then trace backward the use of the word in our own language ; and try whether we cannot find at home the mean- ing of this common, useful, and almost necessary word ; which our ancestors surely could not have waited for, till the Greeks, or some other nation, were pleased to furnish them with it. ** Shorten my dayes thou canst with sudden sorow And plucke nights from me ; but not lend a morrow." Richard 2ά. fol. 27. " They sped theym to a place or towne called Antoygnye and there lodged that nyghte, and ujjpon the morowe tooke their journey toward Normandy." — Fabian s Chronicle, p. 253, 254. •* Right so in the morning, afore day, he mette with his man and his horse. And so king Arthur rode but a soft pace till it was day." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 1st part, ch. 21. " Well, said Queene Gueneuer, ye may depart when ye will. So early on the morroav, or it was day, she tooke her horse." — Ibid. ch. 73. " This night abide and Avashe your feetc ; And, or the day begin, You shall rise earely in the morne And so departe againe."^ — Genesis, ch. 19. fob 37. p. 1. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 461 " Then Abraham rose early up In MORNE before the sunne." — Genesis, ch. 22. fol. 45. p. 2. " Woo be to you that thynke unproiFytable thynge,[and werke wycked thynge in your beddes in the morowe whan ye may not slepe." Diues and Pauper, 9th Comm. cap. 1. " The nyght is passed, lo the morowe graye, The fresshe Aurora so fayre in apparence Her lyght Dawith, to voyde all oiFence Of wynter nyghtes." Lyfe of our Lady, p. 7. " Lorde, in relese of our wo In hygh heuenes thy mercy make enclyne And doΛvne discende, and let thy grace shyne Upon us wretches in the vale of sorowe. And Lorde, do Dawe thy holy glade morowe." — lUd. p. 120. ** And anoon in the morewende the heigeste preistis makinge coun- seil, &c." — Mark, ch. 15. v. 1. ** In that nigt thei token no thyng. forsothe the morewn maad, Ihesu stood in the brynk." — lohn, ch. 21. v. 3, 4. ** Thei leiden hondis in to hem, and puttiden hem to kepyng til in to the morewe, sotheli it Avas now euen." — Dedis, ch. 4. v. 3. " He expownede witnessynge the kyngdom of God, fro the morewe til to euentide."— /δ/ίί. ch. 28. v. 23. From MORROW, morn and morning, we have traced the words back as far as we can go in what is called English, to Moreiuy MorewUj and Morewende. In the next stage back- ward of the same language, called Anglo-Saxon, they were written GQepien, CQep^en, CQepne ; or CDajijene, CDajme ; or COojiji, OQop^en, GQojin. And I believe them to be the past tense and past participle of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb MGKQAn, OQejijian, OQijijian, COyppan, To D'lssi- pate, To Disperse, To Spread abroad, To Scatter, The regular past tense of GQyjijian (by the accustomed change of γ to o) is morr ,• which (in order to express tlie latter r) might well be pronounced and written Moreiu, as we have seen it was; and afterwards ilio;'o?<;e and morrow. By adding the participial termination en to the past tense, we have GQepjen, ClQejiien, ClQep'n ; OQapjen, OQaji'ii ; COop- jen, OQopn ; or Morewen, Morew'n, Mor'n : according to the 462 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. accustomed contraction of all other participles in our lan- guage*. Morrow therefore, and morn (the former being the past tense of GQypjian, without the participial termination en ; and the latter being the same past tense, with the addition of the participial termination en) have both the same meaning, viz. Dissipated, Dispersed. And whenever either of those words is used by us, Clouds or Darhiess are suhaiid. Whose disper- sion^ (or the time when they are dispersed) it expresses. '^ Dileguate intorno s'eran le nubi." — It was the morrow or the morn. Darkness was antiently supposed to be something positive ; and therefore in the first chapter of Genesis we are told *' peojrtpu paepon opep |)2epe nipelnipj^e bpabnippe. Cob cpae^ ]?a. Irepeop^e leoht. anb he tobaslbe J>at leoht ppam J)am J>eoptpum. anb hset J^at leoht: basj. anb ]?a f>eoptpa niht. }?a paep jepopben aepen anb mopjen an baej." " Darkness was upon the face of the deep. God said, Let there be light. And God divided the light from the darkness. And God called the light, day ; and the darkness he called night. The evening and the morning (GOopjen) was the first day." GQyppenbe is the regular present participle of CDyppan ; for which we had formerly Morewende. The present partici- pial termination ende is, in modern English, always converted to ing. Hence Morewingy Moriving (and by an easy corrup- tion) morning. Pond Pound 1 } Binn J P^N > To Pin or To Pen, is a common English verb. Pin [So the Latin cras may be from KepatZ^w, dissipo.] [" and if the night Have gather'd aught of evil or conceal'd. Disperse it, as now light dispels the dark!" — Milton, P. L.h. 5. ' ■ the cock, with lively din. Scatters the rear of darkness thin." V Allegro. — Ed.] CH. TV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 463 *' And made Peace porter to pinne the gates." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 21. fol. 116. p. 1. *' Pent up in Utica." Cato. " Hearke, our drummes Are bringing forth our youth : wee'l breake our walles Rather than they shall pound us up : our gates Which yet seeme shut, Λve haue but pin'd with rushes, They '11 open of themselues." Coriolanus, p. 5. [" Ο thou hast a sweet life, mariner, to be pind in a few boords, and to be within an inch of a thing bottomlesse." Galathea, {hy John Lily,) act 1. sc. 4.] This modern English verb To Pin or To Pen is the Anglo- Saxon verb Pynban, includere ; whose past participle is POND, POUND; PENN, PIN, BIN; and the old Latin benna, a close carriage. Skinner says — ''Pond Minsh. dictum putat quasi bond, quoniam ibi ligata est (i. e. stagnat) aqua. Doct. Th. H. ob- servat antiquis dictum esse pand, q. d. patella." He adds, *' Mallem deflectere ab A.-S. Pynban, includere : turn quia in eo pisces, tanquam in carcere, includuntur; turn quia vivarium agro vel horto includitur." Skinner is perfectly right in his derivation; and would have expressed himself more po- sitively than mallem, if he had been aware of that change of the characteristic letter of the verb, which runs throughout our whole language : nor would he have needed to use the vague and general word Deflederej when he might have shewn what part of the verb it was. Lye concurs with Skinner — ''Pond, stagnum, idem credo habere etymon ac pound. In hoc diiferunt, quod alterum bestias terrenas, alterum aquaticas includit.'' Dotard 'I I believe to be doder'd (i. e. Befooled), the Dotterel J regular past participle of Dybejiian, Dyb- pian, illudere. To Delude^. Dotterel is its diminutive. 1 [Skinner says — "To dorr, confundere, obstupefacere ; a Teut. Thor, stultus. q. d. stupidum vel stultum facere. Alludit Lat. terreo et Gr. reijow ; sed proculdubio verius etymon est a nostro Dorr, A.-S. Dopa, fucus ; q. d. fucum, i. e. ignavum et aculei expertem reddere, Vir rev. deilectit a verbo To Dare, q. d. minaciter provocare." 464 OF ABSTRACTION• [PART II. [" And if some old Dotterell trees, with standing over nie them." R. Ascham, p. 318.] '• The Dotterel, which we think a very dainty dish, Whose taking makes such sport, as man no more can wish ; For as you creep, or cowr, or lie, or stoop, or go. So marking you with care the apish bird doth do, And acting every thing, doth never mark the net. Till he be in the snare, which men for him have set." Foly-olbion, song 25. This Doi^ereZ-catching (except treacherously shedding the blood of his most virtuous subjects) was the favourite diversion of Charles the second. Bow *"\ This word (for it is but one word differently Bough (spelled) wliether applied to the inclination of the Bay jbody in reverence ; or to an engine of war ; or an Buxom J instrument of music ; or a particular kind of knot ; or the curved part of a saddle, or of a ship ; or to the Arc-en- ciel ; or to bended legs ; or to the branches of trees ; or to any recess of the sea shore ; or in buildings, in barns or win- dows; always means one and the same tiling : viz. Bended or Curved: and is the past tense and therefore past participle of the Anglo-Saxon veib Byjan, flectere, incurvare. It will not at all surprize you, that this word should now appear amongst us so differently written as ΐ30Λν, bough and bay ; when you consider that in the Anglo-Saxon, the past tense of Byjan was written Bogh, Buj, and Beah. ** I se it by ensample in sommer time on trees. There some Bowes bene leued, and some here none." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 78. p. 2. " The tabernacles were made of the fayrest braunches and bowes that myght be founde." — Diues and Pauper y 3d Comm. cap. 4. " It is our purpose, Crites, to correct And punish, with our laughter, this night's sport ; Which our court dors so heartily intend." Ben Jonson, Cynthia's Revels, act 5. sc. 1. " Do it, on psene of the dor. Why, what is 't, say you ? Lo, you have given yourself the dor. But I will remonstrate to you the third dor ; which is not, as the two former dors, indicative ; but deliberative." — Ibid, act 5. sc. 2.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTHACTION. 465 '* God badde the childern of Israeli take braunches and bowes of palme trees." — Diues and Pauper, 3d Comm. cap. 18. "All they bowed awaye from goddes lawe." Ibid. 4th Comm. cap. 13. *' In tyme of tempest the boaves of the tree bete themself togydre and all to breste and fall downe." — Ibid. cap. 27. ['* As in thicke forrests heard are soft whistlings, When through the bowes the wind breathes calmly out." Godfrey of Bulloigne, Translated by R. C\ Esq. 1594. p. 101. cant. 3. st. 6. " Whereat the prince, full wrath, his strong right hand In full avengement heaved up on hie, And stroke the pagan with his steely brand So sore, that to his saddle-bow thereby He BOWED low." — Faerie Queene, book 4. cant. 8. st. 43.] " He lept out at a bay Avindow euen ouer the head where king Marke sate playing at the chesse." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 2d part, ch. 58. *' They stoode talking at a bay window of that castle." Ibid. ch. 68. " They led la beale Isond where shee should stand, and behould all the iusts in a bay window."— /Z»2c?. ch. 154. ** Queene Gueneuer was in a bay window waiting with her ladies, and espied an armed knighfe." — Ibid. 3d part, ch. 132. " These ceremonies that partly supersticion, partly auaryce, partly tyranny, hath brought into the church ar to be eschuyed, as the sayng of priuat masses, blessing of water, bowgii bread." Declaracion of Christe, By lohan Ilojwr, cap. 11. « Or with earth By nature made to till, that by the yearly birth The large-BAY'o barn doth fill." — Poly-olbion, song 3. " Adorn'd with many harb'rous bays." — Ibid, song 23. \_" If this law hold in Vienna ten yeare, ile rent the fairest in it, after three pence a bay^" — Measure for Measure, p. 66. col. 2.] ' [To which S. Johnson gives the folloAving note : " A BAY of building is, in many parts of England, a com-mon term ; of which the best conception that I could ever attain, is, that it is the space between the main beams of the roof; so that a barn crossed twice Avith a beam, is a barn of three bays."] 2 II 466 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Buxom, in the Anglo-Saxon Boj-j-um, Boc-pim, Buh- j^um ; in old English Bough-some, i. e. easily Bended or Boiced to one's will, or obedient. " Yf ther were ony unbuxom childe that wold not oheye to his fader and moder &c. God badde that all the people of the cyte or of that towne sholde slee that unbuxom childe with stones in example of all other." — Diues and Pauper, 4th Comm. cap. 2. *' I praye you all that ye be buxum and meke to fader and moder." Ihid. cap. 10. [" Hee did treade downe and disgrace all the English, and setup and countenance the Irish all that hee could, whether thinking thereby to make them more tractable and buxome to his government." Spenser s View of the State of Ireland. Todd's edit. 1805. p. 437. " But they had be better come at their call; For many han unto mischiefe fall. And bene of raA^enous wolves yrent, All for they nould be buxome and Bent.'' Shepheard's Calendar, September. " So wilde a beast so tame ytaught to bee. And buxome to his bands, is ioy to see." Spenser, Mother Huhherd's Tale. " The crew with merry shouts their anchors weigh, Then ply their oars, and brush the buxom sea." Dry den, Cymon and Iphigenia.'] Stock 1 All these (viz, j^toc, j^tac, j^ticce ; stok, Stocks stok-en, stuk, stak, stik, stich) so va- Stocking rioiisly written, and with such apparently dif- Stuck ferent meanings, are merely the same past Stucco } tense and past participle (differently spelled. Stake pronounced, and applied,) of the Anglo-Saxon Steak verb Stican, j^tician. To Stick, pungere. Stick figere : although our niodein fashion acknow- Stitch J ledges only stuck as the past tense and past participle of the verb To Stick, and considers all the others as so many distinct and unconnected substantives. We have in modern use (considered as words of different meaning) Stock — Truncus, stipes, i.e. Stuck : as Log and Post and Block, before explained.—** To stand like a stock/' CH. IV,] OF ABSTRACTION. 467 Stock — metaph. A stupid or blockish person. Stock — of a tree, itself Stuck in the ground, from which branches proceed. Stock — metaph. Stirps, family, race. *' Ony man born of the stoke of Adam." Declaracion of Christe, By lohan Hoper, cap. 7. Stock — Fixed quantity or store of any thing. Stock — in trade : fixed sum of money, or goods, capital, fund. Stock — Lock ; not affixed, but stuck in. "The chambre dore anone was stoke Er thai haue ought unto hir spoke." Gower, lib. 7. fob 171. p. 1. col. 2. Stock — of a gun ; that in which the barrel hfixed, or stuck. Stock — Handle ; that in which any tool or instrument is fixed. Stock — Article of dress for the neck or legs. (See stock- ing.) Stocks — A place of punishment ; in which the hands and legs are stuck or fixed, " There to abyde stocked in pryson." Lyfe of our Lady, p. 35. Stocks — in which ships are stuck or fixed. Stocks — The public Funds ; where the money of [un- happy] persons is now fixed. — [Thence never to return.] Stocking- — for the leg : corruptly written for stocken, (i. e. Stok, with the addition of the participial termination en) because it w-as Stuck or made with sticking pins, (now called knitting needles.) Stucco — for houses, &c. A composition stuck or fixed upon walls &c. Stake — in a hedge ; Stak or Stuck there. [" Whose voice so soone as he did undertake, Eftsoones he stood as still as any stake." Faerie Queene, book 5. cant. 3. st. 39.] Stake— to which beasts are fastened ίο be baited— i. e« any thing stuck or fixed in the ground for that purpose. Stake— -A Deposit ; paid down or fixed to answer the event, 2 Η 2 468 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART IT. Stake— metaph. Risque; any thing ^j:ec? or engaged to answer an event. Steak — a piece or portion of flesh so small as that it may be taken up and carried, stuck upon a fork, or any slender sticking instrument. Hence, I believe, the German and Dutch Stuck, Stuk, to have been transferred to mean any small piece of any thing. Stick — (formerly written stoc) carried in the hand or otherwise ; but sufficiently slender to be Stuck or thrust into the ground or other soft substance. Stick — A thrust. Stitch — in needle work (pronounced cii instead of ck) a tlirust or push with a needle : also that which is performed by a thrust or push of a needle. Stitch — metaph. A pain, resembling the sensation pro- duced by being stuck or pierced by any pointed instrument. The abovementioned are the common uses to which this participle is applied in modern discourse ; but formerly (and not long since) were used Stock — for the leg ; instead of stocken (Stocking.) Stock — A sword or rapier, or any weapon that might be thrust or stuck. Stock — A thrust or push. Stuck — A thrust or push. The abovementioned modern uses of this participle stand not in need of any instances or further explanation. For the obsolete use of it, a very fev/ will be sufficient. " Speed, item, she can knit. " Lcmnce. What neede a man care for a stock with a wench, when she can knit him a stocke ?" — Tivo Gentlemen of Verona, p. 31. "I did thinke by the excellent constitution of thy legge, it was form'd under the starre of a galliard. i, 'tis strong; and it does indiiferent well in a dam'd colour'd STOCKE." — Twelfe Night, p. 257. " Which our plain fathers erst would have accounted sin. Before the costly coach and silken stock came in." Poly-olbion, song 16. '' To see thee fight, to see thee foigne, to see thee trauerse, to see CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTIONa 469 thee heere, to see thee there, to see thee passe thy 2m?icf ο , thy stock, thy reuerse, thy distance, thy montant." Meny Wines of Windsor, p. 47, " I hadde a passe with him, rapier, scabberd, and all : and he giues me the stucke in with such a mortall motion, that it is ineuitable." Twelfe Night, p. 269. ** When in your motion you are hot and dry, And that he calls for drinke ; He haue prepar'd him A challice for the nonce ; whereon but sipping. If he by chance escape your venom'd stuck, Our purpose may hold there." Hamlet, p. 276. " The fere affray it my mind astonit als, Upstert my hare, the word stake in my hals." Douglas, booke 3. p. QQ. Though I have no doubt of my explanation of stucco ; yet, standing alone, I ought to give you Menage's account of it. He says, that the French da Stuc, is from the Italian Stucco; and Stucco — '^forse dalTedesco Stnk, che vale Fram- mento : essendo composto lo Stucco di frammenti di marmo.— — II S^ Ferrari da Stipare.^' The Italian stocco and stoccata and the French estoc are the same participle. F, — Before you quit this word, I wish to know what you will do with Dry den's Stitch-fall' η cheek ? ['* Mistaken blessing which old age they call, 'Tis a long, nasty, darksome hospital ; A ropy chain of rheums, a visage rough ; Deform'd, unfeatur'd, and a skin of buff; [j^-w ; — A stitch-faln cheek, (pendentesijue genas) that hangs below the Such wrinkles, as a skilful hand would draw For an old grandam ape, when, with a grace, She sits at squat, and scrubs her leathern face." Dryde?i's Translat. of the Tenth Sat. of Juvenal. 2 Johnson says — ^Hhat perhaps it me cins fuii^oivs or ridges/^ ancl that ^' otherwise he does not understand it." H, — The woman who knitted his stockings could have told him, and explained the figure by her own mishap. These words, though differently spelled, and ■differently applied, are the same past tense and past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verbDjiy^an, excutere, expellere, and therefore siccare. Dry 1 ' Drone V Drain J 470 OF ABSTRACTION. [part II. Dry, siccus, in the Anglo-Saxon Djiy^, is manifestly the past tense of Djiyjan, used participially. Drone, excussus, expulsus (subaiid. bee), is written in the Anglo-Saxon Dpan, Dpane, Djisen. Djia^ (y in Djiyjan being changed into a broad) is the regular past tense of Dpy- jan : by adding to it the participial termination en, we have Dpa^en, Dpaj'n, Djian (the a broad) pronounced, by us in the South, DRONE. Drain is evidently the same participle differently pro- nounced, as Dpsen : being applied to that by which any fluid (or other thing) is exciissum or expulsum. ROGUE^ "I Rock Roche Rochet Rocket Rug Ruck Array- Rail Rails Rig Rigging RiGEL Rilling Ray Ail these are the past participle of the An- glo-Saxon verb ppi^an, tegere, To Wrine, To Wrie, To cover. To cloak. To Wririe, or To Wrie was formerly a com- mon English verb. 1 ["Rogue, vulgari usu profligatissimus nebulo, trifurcifer, τριμα- GTtyias, trico, scelus ; in legibus nostris, erro, mendicus. Sunt qui de- flectunt a Fr. G. Rogue, arrogans, impudens, q. d. A bold or sturdy- beggar. Doct. Th. H. declinat a Fr. G. Roder, vagari. Non incom- mode etiam deduci posset a rogando ; quia stipem corrogat : Rogator autem pro mendico apud IMartialem reperitur, lib. 4. Epigr. 30. Et Roga in Grseco- Romano imperio pro donativo vel eleemosyna, preesertim ab imperatore collata, usurpata est olim apud Codinum et alios passim Orientalis imperii scrip tores. Minsh. declinat ab A.-S. Roa^h, ma- lignari, et Germ. Roggen, nebulonem agere : sed hse voces nusquam gentium comparent. Melius a Gr. 'Ρακο? et Heb. Rong, malus. Po-_ test et formari a Belg. Wroeglien. A.-S. fpejan, accusare, deferre, prodere." — Skinner. Junius says — "Erro, scurra, vagus. Grsecis pa^os est homo nihili," &c. S. Johnson, in a note to The Merry Wives of Windsor» says : *' A CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 471 " The goode folke that Poule to preched Profred hym ofte, whan he hem teched. Some of her good in charite. But ther of ryght nothyng toke he. But of hys honde wolde he gette Clothes to WRiNE hym and hys mete." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 152, p. 1. col. 1. " I haue wel leuer, sothe to say. Before the people patter and pray, And WRYE me in my foxerye Under a cope of papelardye," Ibid. p. 2. col. 1. " And aye of loues seruauntes euery whyle Himselfe to wrye, at hem he gan to smyle." Ihid. fol. 159. p. 1. col. 1. " For who so lyste haue healyng of his leche To him byhoueth fyrst unwrie hys wounde." Ibid. fol. 161. p. 2. col. 2. " And WRiE you in that mantel euermo." Troylus, boke 2. fol. 165. p. 1. col. 1. " But Ο fortune, executrice of Wyerdes, Ο influences of heuens hye, Soth is, that under God ye ben our hierdes. Though to us beestes ben the causes wrie." Ibid, boke 3. fol. 175. p. 2. col. 2. " Up embossed hygh Sate Dido al in golde and perrey wrigh." Dido, fol. 212. p. 2. col. 2. " Wrie the glede, and hotter is the fyre, Forbyd a loue, and it is ten tymes so wode." Tysbe, fol. 210. p. 2. col. 1. The disuse of this verb Pjiijan, To Wrine, or To Wrie, has, I believe, caused the darkness and difficulty of all our etymo- logists concerning the branches of this word which are left in our language ^ And yet, I think, this should not have hap- ROGUE is a wanderer, or vagabond ; and, in its consequential significa- tion, a cheat." — Malone's Edition, vol. 1. part 2. p. 226. In his Dictionary he says — " Rogue, of uncertain etymology."] ^ [_" Foi'd. He Prat her: out of my doore, 3^ou witch, you ragge, you baggage, you poul-cat, you runnion, out, out : lie conjure you. He fortune-tell you." Merry Wives of Windsor, (First FoHo,)^). 55. act 4. sc. 2. See in Malone's edition the note on the same passage.] 472 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. pence! to them : for ihe verb pjiijan is not so intirely lost to the Langiiaoe, but that it has still left behind it the verb To Rig, Vvith the same meaning. Wfiich Johnson (with his wonted sagacity) derives from Ridge, the back. Because, forsooth,- — *^ Cloaths are proverbially said to be for the back, and victuals for the belly.'' Rogue (according to the usual change of the characteristic i) is the past tense and therefore past participle of Ppi^an^ and means Covered, Cloaked; most aptly applied to the cha- racter designated by that term. it happens to this verb, as to the others, that the change of the characteristic i vvas not only to o, but also to a. What Vv'e call rogue, Douglas therefore calls ray (5 being softened to Y.) " Thir Romanis ar bot ridlis, quod I to that ray, Lede, lere me ane utliir lessoun, this I ne like." Douglas, Prol. of the 8th booke, fol. 239. p. 2. Upon this passage, the Glossarist to Douglas says — '' ray seems to signify some name of reproach, as Rogue, Knave, or such like : Or perhaps it may be taken for a Rymer or poet- aster, and so allied to the word Ray in Chaucer exp. SongSy Roundels : Or lastly, perhaps it may denote a wild or rude fellow, from the A.-S. Reoh, asper, whence Skinner derives the old English word Ray, mentioned in some of their statutes, explained by Cowel Cloth never dyed: or from the S. Rea (for Roe) as we commonly say, as wild as a Rea. But after all I am not satisfied." The same w^ord, with the same meaning, is also used in Pierce Ploughman. " To Wy and to Wynchester I wente to the fayre, With mani maner merchandise as mi master me hight, Ne had the grace of Gyle igoo amongest my chaffer, it had bene unsolde thys seuen yere, so me God lielpe ; Than draue I me among drapers, my donet to lerne, To drawe the lyser a longe the lenger it semed ; Amonge the riclie rates I rendred a lesson, To broche them with a packnedle and plitte hem togithers, And put hem in a presse and pynned them therin. Til ten yardes or twelue had tolled owte xiii." Vis. of P. Ploughman, fol. 23. p. 2. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 473 A ROCK (k instead of g) is the covered part of the machine which spinsters use ; I mean covered by the wool to be spun. It was formerly well written rok, c before κ being always superfluous. " As sche that has nane uthir rent nor hyre, Bot wyth hyr κοκ and spynnyng for to thryiFe, And therwyth to sustene her empty lyffe." Douglas, booke 8. p, 256. [" The wyfe came yet And Λvith her fete She holpe to kepe him downe, And with her rocke Many a knocke She gaue hym on the crowne." Sir T. Mores Workes, p. 4. " Sad Clotho held the rocke, the whiles the thrid By griesly Lachesis was spun Λvith paine." Faerie Queene, booke 4. cant. 2. st. 48.] Rocket or rochet, part of the dress of a bishop, and for- merly of women, is the diminutive of the Anglo-Saxon jioc, exterior vestis (the same participle), or that with which a per- son is covered. " For there nys no clothe sytteth bette On damosel, than doth rokette. A woman wel more fetyse is In rokette, than in cote ywis : The white rokette ryddeled fayre Betokeneth that ful debonayre And swete was she that it here." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 125. p. 2. col. 2. " For al so wel wol loue be sette Under ragges as ryche rochette." Ibid. fol. 142. p. 2. col. 2. Rug, in the Anglo-Saxon Rooc, indumentum, is also the same past participle of ppijan ; the characteristic i, as usual, being changed also to oo and u. " Horror assumes her seat, from whose abiding flies Thick vapours, that like rugs still hang the troubled air." Poly-olUon, song 26. Ruck also (a very common English word, especially amongst females, though ί find it not in any English collection) is the same participle as j"iooc, and means covered. It is commonly 474 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. used when some part of silk, linen, &c. is folded over, or covers some other part, when the whole should lye smooth or even. We may notice in passing, that the old English words To Roifk and To Ruck, are likewise formed from the past tense of ppijan ; and mean, not (as Junius supposes) to lye quiet or in ambushf but simply to lye covered, *' What is mankynde more unto you yholde Than is the shepe that rouketh in the folde ?" Knyghtes Tale, fol. 3. p. 1. col. 2. ** Now ryse, my dere brother Troylus, For certes it non honour is to the To wepe, and in thy bed to rouken thus." Troylus, boke 5. fol. 193. p. 2. col. 2. " Waytyng his tyme on Chaunticlere to fall. As gladly done these homicides all. That in a wayte lye to murdre men, Ο false murdrer, ruckyng in thy den." Tale of Nonnes Priest, fol. 90. p. 1. col. 1. We have seen ray (the past tense of ppi^an) used by Douglas for rogue. It is likew^ise used with the same pro- priety for ARRAY. " The thirde the kynge of nacions was And Tidnall was his name. These foure did marche in battel raye By armes to trye the same." Genesis, ch. 14. fol. 25. p. 2. " And such as yet were left behinde Made speede to scape awaie : And to the mountaynes fledde for life Forgettinge battel raie." Ibid. ch. 14. fol. 26. p. 2. [" Like as a ship, whom cruell tempest drives Upon a rocke with horrible dismay, Her shattered ribs in thousand peeces rives. And spoyling all her gearcs and goodly ray, Does make herselfe misfortunes piteous pray." Faerie Queene, book 5. cant. 2. st. 50. " I heard a voyce that called farre away, And her awaking bad her quickly dight. For lo ! her bridegrome was in readie ray. To come to her ; and seeke her loves delight." Spenser, Rulnes of TimeJ] CH. IV.] . OF ABSTRACTION. 475 By the addition of the participial tenninatioii ed to ray or RAiE, we have rayed, rated, or raide. '* What one art thou, thus in torne weed iclad ? Vertue. In price whom auncient sages had. Why poorely raide ?" — (i. e. poorly rigged.) Songes, &;c. By the Earle of Surrey, S^c. fol. 107. p. 1. Array is the same past tense, with a the usual prefix to the preeterit of the Anglo-Saxon verbs ; and means Covered, Dressed: and is applied by us both to the dressing of the body of an individual, and to the dressing of a body of armed men. Arayne is the foresaid past tense aray with the addition of the participial termination en : Arayen, Aray'n, clothed, dressed, covered. " Eftir thame mydlit samin went arayne The uthir Troyanis and folkis Italiane." Douglas, hooke 13. p. 470. A woman's Night-UAiL, in the Anglo-Saxon Raejel, is the diminutive of Ras^ or ray, the past tense of Pjiijan. As rochet so rail means thinly or slenderly covered. And we have not this word from the Latin Ralla or Regilla, to which our etymologists refer us, without obtaining any meaning by their reference ; but Ralla and Regilla are them- selves from our northern jiaejel : nor is there found for them any other rational reference. Rails, by which any area, court-yard, or other place is thinly (i. e. not closely, but with small intervals) covered, is the same word psejel. " Furth of the sey with this the dawing springis. As Phebus rais, fast to the yettis thringis The chois gallandis, and huntmen thaym besyde. With RALis and with nettis Strang and wyde. And hunting speris stif with hedis brade." Douglas, booke 4. p. 104. " The bustuous swyne Quhen that he is betrappit fra hys feris Amyd the hunting ralis and the nettys." Ihid. booke 10. p. 344. 476 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Of the same meaning and family is the word rilling (for mileiij as railing for railen,) for that with which the feet are covered. " Thare left fute and al thare leg was bare, Ane rouch hilling of raw liyde and of hare The tothir fute couerit wele and knyt." Douglas, booke 7. p. 238. A RIG, RiGEL, RiGiL, or RiGsiE, is a male (horse or other animal) who has escaped with a partial castration, because some portion of his testicle was covered, and so hidden from the operator's view. Rigging (wi'itten, I suppose, corruptly for riggen, i.e. pjiij^jen) is that with which a ship, or anything else, is RIGGED (i. e. Ppijjeb) or cov£red. I fear I have detained you too long upon this verb Pjiijan. And, for our present purpose, it is not necessary to shew you what I think of a rock in the sea^ ; or of a sky-ROCKEX ; or of RAIMENT, ARRAiMENT, To Rail and To Ralli/ ; the real meaning of all which, I believe, the etymologist will find no- where but in f^ju^an. Dross — is the past participle of clKii^S/\N, Djieoj^an, dejicere, preecipitare. „^ ' ^ I Hoard, h^^KcX, ftojib, is the past par- I ticipie of J^ynban, custodire. Hurdle J ^ jj^ Herd is the same participle; and is applied both to that which is guarded or Jiept, and to him by whom it is guarded or kept. We use it both for Grex and Pastor. Hurdle, i>ypbel, is the diminutive of the same participle ftynb : for (as usual with the change of the characteristic letter) the past tense of J^yjiban was written either J^ojib, hy]\t>, or hejxO. [" With rich treasures this gay ship fraighted was ; But sudden storme did so turmoyle the aire, And tumbled up the sea, that she (alas) Strake on a eock, that under water lay." Spenser, Visions of Petrarch.'] CH, ,ν.] OF ABSTRACTION. 477 Skill Scale Scald Shale Shell Shoal ^ Scowl Scull Shoulder Shilling Slate Scala SCAGLIA ESCHELLE ESCAILLE ESCHALOTTE SCALOGNA. At first sight, these words may seem to have nothing in common with each other ; little at least in the sound, less in the mean- ing. Yet are they all the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Scylan, To Divide, To Separate, To make a difference, To ^ Discern, To Skill : and have all one com- mon meaning. This English verb, To Skill, though now obsolete, has not been long lost to the lan- guage ; but continued in good and common use down to the reign of Charles the First. *' Shall she worke stories or poetries ? It SKiLLETH not which." Endimion, (hy John Lily,) act 3. sc. 1. ['' We shall either beg together, or hang together. It SKiLs not so we be together." Galathea, By John Lily, act 1. sc. 4.] " And now we three have spoke it, It SKILLS not greatly who impugnes our doome." Henry VI. part 2. p. 132. " It 's no matter, give him what thou hast ; though it lack a shilling or two, it SKILLS not." — B. Jonson, Poetaster, act 3. sc. 4. " I am sick, methinks, but the disease I feel Pleaseth and punisheth : I v/arrant Love Is very Hke this, that folks talk of so ; I SKILL not what it is." B. and Fletcher, Martial Maid. '' Now see the blindnes of us worldlye folk, how precisely we pre- sume to shoote our folish bolte, in those matters most in whiche Ave least can skill." — Sir T. More, De quatiior nouissimis, p. 73. ' [Quaere. " But this Molanna, were she not so shole, Were no lesse faire and beautifull then she." Faerie Queene, Two Cantos of Mutabilitie, cant. 6. st. 40.] 478 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. Skill, as now commonly used, is manifestly Discernment : that faculty by which things are properly divided and separated one from another. *' Into vii partes I haue this boke dyuyded, So that the reder may chose where he wyll. The fyrste conteyneth how the Brytons guyded This lande from Brute, Moliuncius untyll. And from Moliuncius I haue sette for skyll To the nynthe yere of kynge Cassibelan The seconde parte." Fabian, Prologue. " I thought that fortitude had been a mean 'Twixt fear and rashness ; not a lust obscene Or appetite of offending ; but a skill And nice discernment between good and ill." B. Jonson, Underwood. As we have in English Writ, Wrote, Wroten, Wroot, Wrat, Wrate, and Written, for the past participle of ppitan, To Write ι so the characteristic letter i or γ of the verb rcylan, in order to form the past tense, is changed to i short, or to A, or to E, or to o, or to oa^ or to oo, or to ou, or to ow, or to u. And here again, as before in j"Cl]ian and rcitan (and in all Anglo-Saxon words) γο become indifferently either sh or SK. Scale, therefore, in all its various applications, as well as SHALE, shell, shoal or SHOLE, SCOWL, and SCULL, will be found to be merely the past participle of j'cylan. j^it _ — You have found, Skaling his present bearing with his past, That hee's your fixed enemie." Coriolanus, p. 14. col. 1.] ** The cormorant then comes, by his devouring kind, ''^'"hich flying o'er the fen immediately doth find The fleet best stor'd of fish, when from his wings at full. As though he shot himself into the thicken'd skull. He under water goes, and so the shoal pursues." Poly-olbion, song 25. [" Let us seeke out Mydas whom we lost in the chase. He warrant he hath by this started a couey of bucks. Or roused a scul of phesants." Mydas (by John Lily,) act 4. sc. 3.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 479 " Now here he fights on Galathe his horse, And there lacks work ; anon he 's there a foote, And there they flye or dye, like scaled sculs Before the belching whale." Troylus and Cressida, (p. 103, if paged.) On this passage of Shakespeare, Mr. Steevens (whose notes are almost always useful and judicious ; as Mr. [Malone's] are as constantly insipid and ridiculous) gives us the follow- ing note : '' Sculls are great numbers of fishes swimming together. The modern editors, not being acquainted with the term, changed it into Shoals. My knowledge of this word is de- rived from a little book called The English Expositor^ London, printed by lohn Legatt, 1616. Again, in the 26th Song of Drayton's Poly-olbion ; * My silver-scaled sculs about my streams do sweep.' " I forbear to repeat to you the tedious nonsense of [MaloneJ which he has added to this note : for I think you do not wish to hear (nor, when heard, would you believe) that the Cacha- lot was — "the species of whale alluded to by Shakespeare." " By this is your brother saued, your honour untainted, the poore Mariana advantaged, and the corrupt deputy scaled." — Measure for Measure, p. 72. On this passage Mr. Steevens mistakingly says,- — ^' To Scale, as may be learn'd from a note to CorioIa?ius, act 1. sc. 1., most certainly means. To Disorder, To Disconcert, To put to flight. An army routed, is called by Hollinshed, an army Scaled. The word sometimes signifies To Disuse or Disperse ; at others, as I suppose in the present instance, To put into confusion. '^ " I shall tell you A pretty tale, it may be you haue heard it, But, since it serues my purpose, I will venture To SCALE 't a little more." Coriolanus, act. 1. sc. 1. On this passage Mr. Steevens says, " To Scale is To Disperse^. The word is still used in the ^ [" May be you placed haue your hope alone In bandes, of which this circuit maketh showe, 480 OF ABSTEACTION. [PART Π. North. The sense is — Though some of you have heard the story, I will spread it wider, and diffuse it among the rest. 'Ά measure of wine spilt, is called — a scaled pottle of wine, — in Decker's comedy of the Honest Whore: 1635. So, in the Historie of Cli/omen, Knight of the Golden Shield, &c. a play published in 1599. ' The hugie heapes of cares that lodged in my minde, Are SKALED from their nestling place, and pleasure's passage find.* ''In the North they say — Scale the corn, i. e. Scatter it. Scale the muck well, i. e. Spread the dung well. '' The two foregoing instances are taken from Mr. Lambe's notes on the old metrical history of Floddon Field. Again, Holinshed, vol. 2. p. 499. speaking of the retreat of the Welch- men, during the absence of Richard 2, says— They would no longer abide, but scaled and departed away. '* In the Glossary to Gawin Douglas's translation of Virgil, the following account of the word is given — Skail, skale, To scatter. To spread, perhaps from the Fr. Escheveler, Ital. Scapigliare, crines passos s-eu sparsos habere. All from the Latin Capillus. Thus— —Escheveler, Scheval, Skail — but of a more general signification." Steeveris. To these instances from Shakespeare, and those adduced by Mr. Steevens, may be added the following : *' Ane bub of weddir folio wit in the taill Thik schour of rane mydlit full of haill. The Tyriane menye skalis wyde qahare, And all the gallandis of Troy fled here and thare." Douglas, booke 4. p. 105. And whom disperst you vanquisht, hiit in one Now eke assoone to ouercome you troive. Though of your troopes that store is scald and gone Through wars and want, yourselfe do see and knowe." Godfrey of Bulloigne, translated hy li. C. Esq. p. 85. cant. 2. st. 73. Ma forse hai tu riposta ogni tua speme In queste squadre, ond' hora cinto siedi. Quei che sparsi vincesti, uniti insieme Di vincer anco agevolmente credi : Se ben son le tue schiere hor molto sceme, Tra le guerre, e i disagi, e tu te Ί vedi." Gierusalemme Liherata.'] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 481 ''An old seek is aye skailing." Ray's Scottish Proverbs, -p. 280. Shakespeare in King Lear, p. 288, mentions — ^'a Siieal'd peascod." " All is not worth a couple of nut shalis." Skelton,^, 4. Edit. 173G. ** Al is but nut shales That any other sayth. He hath in hirn such faith." Ibid. p. 154, " They may garlicke pill, Gary sackes to the mil, Or pescodes they may shil." Ibid. p. 145. And Ray;, in his North Count rj/ Words, p. 53, tells us,— '^ To SHEAL, to separate: most used of milk. To sheal milk, is to curdle it, to separate the parts of it." " Coughes and cardiacles, crampes and toth aches, Keumes and radgondes, and raynous scalles." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 21. fol. 112. p. 2. You laugh at the derivation from Scapigliare, Escheveler and Capillus, as introduced to account for the antient but now obsolete use of the word scale. How much more ridiculous would it appear, if attempted to be applied in explanation of the word scale in all its modern uses. We have — Scale — a ladder^ And thence Scale — of a besieged place. A pair of vSgales. A Scale of degrees. Scale of a fish, or of our own diseased skin. Scale of a bone. ScALL, and SCALED (or scald) head. We have also — Shale of a nut, 8cc. Shell of a fish, &c. Shoal, Shole, or Skul of fishes. Scull of tlie head. Scowl of the eyes. J [" Tu vuoi udir quant' e die Die mi pose Neir eccelso giardino, ove costei A COS! iunga scala ti dispose." — // Paradiso di Dante, cant. 2G.] 482 of abstraction. . [part ii. Shoulder. And finally — Skill, Shilling, And — Slate. Now in every one of these, as well as in each of the in- stances produced of the antient use of the word scale ; one common meaning (and only one common meaning) presents itself immediately to our notice : viz. Divided, Separated. Let us look back upon the instances produced. The fishes come in shoals, sholes, or sculs' (which is the same participle, fC being differently pronounced as sn or sk) ; that is, They come in separate divisious or parts divided from the main body: and any one of these divisions, (shoals or scuLs) may very well again be scaled, i. e. divided or separated by the belching whale. The corrupt deputy was scaled (or shaled, if you please) by separating from him, or stripping off his covering of hypo- crisy. The tale of Menenius was ''scaled a little more;" by being divided more into particulars and degrees ; told more circumstantially and at length. That I take to be Shake- speare's meaning by the expression : and not the staling or di/'- fusing of the tale ; which, if they had heard it before, could not have been done by his repetition. For Menenius does not say that some of them had heard it before : that word some is introduced by Mr. Steevens in his note ; merely to give a co- lour to his explanation of " diffusing it amongst the rest." Holinshed's arm.y of Welchmen '' scaled (i. e. separated) and departed." Clyomen's cares were scaled (i. e. separated) from their nestling place. The Tyrian menye, in Douglas, skalit (i. e. separated) themselves wide quhare. An old sack (as old men best know) is always sk ailing ; i. e. parting, dividing, separating, breaking. A *' raynous (i. e. roynous, from ronger, rogner, royner ; whence also aroynt) scall," is a separation or aiscommmty i [In Cornwall they say *' a skool of pilchards."— Ed.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 483 of the skin or flesh, by a gnawing, eating forward, malady : As is also a scall or Scaled head, called a scald head. [" Her crafty head was altogether bald, And, as in hate of honorable eld, Was overgrowne with scurfe and filthy scald." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 8. st. 47.] But I need not, I suppose, apply this same explanation in- dividually to each of the other words mentioned. It applies itself: unless perhaps to scowl, i. e. separated eyes, or eyes looking different ways ; which our ancestors termed j"Ceol- eaje. We say only j-ceol : i. e. scowl ; siibaud. Eyes. *' Than scripture scornid me and a skile loked." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 53. p. 1. pass. 11. (The Germans use Schal for the same.) In the same manner their name for the testicles, was rcallan, i. e. Divided J separated. Shoulder, which formerly was, and should still be, written SHOULD E, is also the past participle of this verb j^cylan. " The due fashion of byrthe is this, fyrste the head cometh forwarde, then foloweth the necke and shouldes." — Byi^th of Mankynde, fol. 13. p. 2. (1540.) The Latin, Italian, and French words Scalar Scaglia, Eschelle, Echelon^, Escaille, &c. referred to by some of our etymologists as originals, are themselves no other than this same Northern participle. Hence also the French Eschalotte and the Italian Scalogna. I think it probable that shilling (Dutch, Schelling) may- be corruptly written for shillen, or jOylen, an aliquot part of a pound. And I doubt not in the least that slate is the past participle of the same verb j-cylan. 1 Besides its modern uses, the French formerly employed the word Eclielles for certain divisions of their army : and the modern very use- ful military position is well called Echelon : as Captain James (to whom, for his valuable publications at this time, our [besieged] coun- try is so deeply indebted) informs us in his Military Dictionary. "President Fauchet in his book De la Milice et des Armees, tells us, that by this word (Echelles) were meant several troops of horse : so that Echelle in antient times signified what is now called a Troop." " Echelon, a position in military tactics, where each division follows the preceding one, like the steps of a ladder," &c, 2 1 2 484 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART Π. F. — This is singular. Wliat you meiitiuii as a bare pro- bability, appears to me doubtless. And where you have not the least doubt, ί have the most. The meaning indeed of the past participle of j^cylan would apply very well to slates, which are thin flakes of stone separated or scaled from each other. But the words themselves seem too far asunder. H. — We must bring; tliem nearer too'ether. What we now call slate, was formerly sclat. " And tliei not fyndinge in what parti thei shulden here hym in, for the curapany of peple, steigeden up on the roof ; and hi the sclatis thei senten him doun with the bedde in to the myddil." — Luke, ch. 5. v. 19. " He buylded a royall mynster of iyme and stone, and couueryd it with plates of syluer in stede of sclate or leade." — Fabian, parte 5. ch. 131. I suppose the word to have proceeded thus — ska lit, sklait, SKlate, slate. And ί am the more confirmed in this sup- position, because our ancestors called slates, SKJI^Q^ '•> the Scotch (as I am told by the Glossarist of Douglas) SKELLYis ; and the Dutch call them sciialien'. The French Chaloir^ No)icJiala/ice, the Italian Noii cahj (" Ε pien di fe, di zelo ; ogni mortale Gloria, imperio, tesor, mette in Non cole!' — (i. e. It sMUs not.) Gierusalemme Liherata.) and the Latin CalUdiis; ai'e all from this same northern vei'b j^cylaii. And it is not unentertaining to observe how the French, Italian and Latin etymologists twdst and turn and writhe under the words. If you have the curiosity to know, you may consult Menage's Orig, Ital. iVrticle calere : and his Orig. Franc. Articles nonchalant and chaloir ; and Vossius, Art. callis. Shop Ί The past tense, and therefore past participle, of Shape >the Anglo-Saxon verb Scyppan, To Fashion, To Ship J Forni, To Prepare, To Adapt. A Shop — -for mat urn aliquid (in contradistinction from a J {^^hale (Germ, schalen, to peel), slaty clay. — Roberts's Diet, of Geolocjij, — Ed. J CIl. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 485 slalt) for tiie purpose of containing merchandise for sale, pro- tected from the ueather. A SHIP — -formatiim aliquid (in contradistinction from a Raft) for the purpose of conveying merchandise, &c. by water, protected from the water and the weather. Shape requires no explanation. ** At whiche the god of loue gan loken rowe Eight for dispite, and shope him to he Avroken." Troyhs, boke 1. fol. 168. p. 1. col. 2. " AVe ben shape Somtyme lyke a man or lyke an ape." Freres Tale, fol. 41. p. 1. col. 1. " He was goodly of shappe and of V5^sage, l)ut that Avas mynged wyth lechery and cruelty." — Fabian, fol. 120. ρ. 2. col. 2. " Of dyuerse shappe and of dyiierse colours." Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 28. "Atyre to costful or to straunge in shap." Ibid. 6th Comm. cap. 13. " The gloryous vyrgyn Mary came out of the chapell in rayment and SHAPPE lyke the knyghtes wyit." — Myracles of our Lady, p. 14. Shroud ") Shroud, in Anglo-Saxon Scpiib, vestitus, SHT^OΛYDS J though now applied only to that with which the dead are clothed, is the past participle of Scjiiban, vestire : and was formerly a general teiTn for any sort of clothing what- ever'. " In somer season whan softe was the sonn, I shope me in to a schroud, as I a schepeherde wer." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 1 . Thus Athelstane commands, " /Bpelj-tane cyninj. ealliim miniim jepepum binnon mine pic jecyj^e. j^at ic pille ]?at ^e peba^6 eallepas^a an eapm enjlipcman (jip je him habba^. o]^]7e o)?epne gepmba^) ppam tpam minjia peopma ajype men hme 1 [" There is nether buske nor hay In Mey that it η 'ill shroudid bene, And it with newe levis wrene." Ro?n. of the Rose, line 55. " Than becometh the grounde so proude That it wol have a nevN^e shroude, And make so queint his robe." Ibid, line 65, — En.] 486 OF ABSTRACTlONe [PART II. elce mona^ ane ambpa melej^. anb an j-conc j-picej-. o])])e an pam peopJ?e iiii peninjaj- anb 8 c pub pop tpelp monJ>a aelc jeap." You see here that ['Cpub, shroud, means any sort of cloth- ing generally. F. — Yes. I see the meaning of shroud ; but I see some- thing besides, worth more than the meaning of any word — -jip je him habba^ ! — ^What, Doubt whether an Englishman could be found so poor as to accept this bounty ! Good God ! Were Englishmen ever such a people as this ? Had they ever such kings ? And had their kings such counsellors ? And was this the manner of providing (not out of any taxes, but out of the king's own estate)' for a poor Englishman, if one could be foiindj who would accept such provision ? Was this my coun- ti'y ? And is this my country ? ^ H. — Oh, this was many ages ago. Long before the reign of Messrs. [Pitt] and [Dundas]. Long before the doctrine was in vogue or dreamed of, which has made so many small men great (small in every sense of the word :) I mean the [traitorous doctrine of giving up our last guinea, to secure a remaining sixpence ; and the most precious of our rights, in order to secure the miserable rest:] Like pulling out the stones of an arch (and the key-stone amongst them) to render the edifice the stronger : or surrendering all our strong holds to an enemy, that the lest of the country may enjoy the greater security. But a ti'uce with Politics, if you please. The business of this country, believe me, is settled. We have no more to give up : until some [Chancellor of the Exchequer] shall find out that grand desideratum of a substitute for bread, as he has already discovered a substitute for money. Till that period arrives, let us pursue the more harmless investigation into the meanino' of words. σ The SHROWDS are any things with which the masts of a ship are dressed or clothed. 1 [" Ego illud locupletissimum mortalium genus dixerim, in quo pauperem invenire non posses."— Seneca, Ep. 90. ed. 4to. Lips. p. 580.] CH. ^V.] OF ABSTRACTION. 487 " Such a noyse arose, As the SHROWDES make at sea m a stiiFe tempest, As lowd, and to as many tunes." — Henry VIII. p. 224. [" With glance so swift the subtle lightning past, As split the sail-yards. The flaming SHR0ΛVDS so dreadful did appear." Dry dens Juvenal, sat. 12. By Thomas Powis. " Oh cozen, thou art come to set mine eye : The tackle of my heart is crack'd and burnt. And all the shrowds wherewith my life should saile Are turned to one thred, one little haired" — King John, p. 22.] Flout — is the past participle of Flitan, jurgari, conten- dere. ^' Here stand I, ladie, dart thy skill at me ; Bruise me with scorne, confound me with a flout." Loues Labours Lost, p, 140. Foul — the past participle of Fylan, ajcylan^ bepylan, To File; which we now write To Dejiie. [" Where feeling one close couched by her side, She lightly lept out of her filed bed." Faerie Queene, book 3. cant. 1. st. 62.~\ " For Banquo's issue haue I fil'd my mind. For them the gracious Duncan haue I murther'd." Macbeth, p. 139. " Sirrah, I scorn my finger should be fil'd with thee." β. and Fletcher, Pilgrim. " A scabbit sheep files all the flock." — Ray's Scottish Proverbs. Sprout ) A.-S. Spjiote, j-ppaut. Sprout is the past Spurt J participle of Sppitan, pppytan, germjnare, To Shoot out, To Cast forth. Spurt is the same word, by a • customary metathesis. * [On this passage Malone says, " Shakespeare here uses the word shrouds in its true sense. The SHROUDS are the great ropes, which come from each side of the mast. In modern poetry the word frequently signifies the sails of a ship." ! ! It signifies the same here : " shrowds wherewith my life should saile." He could not saile with the great ropes alone.] 488 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. Trouble — Is the past participle of Tpibiilan, tunderc, contereie, pinsere. To Bruise, To Pound, To Vex. The Latin Trihulare is the same word ; differing only by a different in- finitive termination : TrUml-au, Tribnlare. As many other Latin verbs differ from the Anglo-Saxon verbs only by the different infinitive terminations an or re. Brook Broach Brack Break Breach Breech Breeches Bracca Brachium All these words are merely the same past par- ticiple (differently pronounced and written) of the verb KKIKA^^j Bjiecan, bji^can, To Break. Brook (in the Anglo-Saxon Bpoc) ap- proaches most nearly to our modern past tense broke: and indeed this supposed noun was formerly so written. " And so boweth furth bi a broke, beeth biixome of spech Tyll you fynden a forde, your fathers honourable. Wade in that water and wash you wel there." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 6. fol. 29. p. 2. ** And helde the way down by a broke syde." Ciickowe anclNyghtyngale, fol. 351. p. 1. col. 1. " He lept ouer a broke for to fight with the giaunt." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, ch. 79. " The eye that scorneth his fader, and despyseth the byrth of his moder, rauyns of the brokes, that is to saye, fendes of helle brokes, shall delue out and pyke out that eye." Diues and Pauper, 4th Comm. cap. 1. " With knyghtly force and violence he entred the sayde cytye (Lon- don) an(| slewe the fore namyd Liuius Gallus nere unto a broke there at tha.t daye rynnynge, and hym threΛve into the sayd broke. By » reason wherof long after yt Λvas called Gallus or Wallus broke. And at this day the strete where some tyme rarme the sayde broke is nowe called Walbroke." — Fahians Chronicle, 4th parte, ch. Qb. Doctor Th. Hickes was aware that brook must be in some manner derived from Bpaecan : and gives this reason for it — " quia rivus exiliens terram perrum]:)it." And this is very aptly described in Beaumont and Fletcher's Fait/ijnl Shep- herdess. en. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 489 " Underneath the ground. In a long hollow the clear sprmg is bound. Till on yon side Avhere the morn's sun doth look. The struggling Avater breaks out in a brook." Abroach is Abpasc, the regular past tense of bpsecan, by tlie customary addition of the preefix A. *' Hewe fire at the flynt four hundred wynter. But thou haue towe to take it, with tinder or broches, All thy labour is loste." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 18. fol. 95. p. 1. Brack is not far removed from our modern past tense Brake, which is still in use with us as well as Broke; and it approaches still nearer to the past tense as it was formerly written Brak. " He biholdinge in to heuene, blesside and brak, and gaf looues to disciplis." — Mat t heu, ch. 14. v. 19. " Hee feutred his speare and ranne agains Sir Trian, and there either BRACKE their speares all to peeces." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 2d part, ch. 94. "So he ranne to his sword, and when he saw it naked, he praised it much, and then he shooke it, and therewith he bracke it in the middes." — Ibid. 3d part, ch. 79. Though BRACK (as a noun) is not much in fashion at pre- sent, it was formerly in good and common use. " Let not a brack i' th' stuif, or here and there The fading gloss, a general loss appear." B. and Fletcher, Epilogue to Valentinian. " You may find time out in eternity. Deceit and violence in heavenly justice. Life in the grave, and death among the blessed. Ere stain or brack in her sweet reputation." Ibid. A Wife for a Month. A I; REACH (bjiic) or BREAK, the same word as the former, with the accustomed variation of ch for ck. " Is it no BREAKE of duetie to ΛΛ'ithstande your king V Hurt of Sedition, By Sir John Cheke. " The contrarie partie neyther could by justice, neither would by boldenesse haue enterprised the breake thereof." — Ibid. ν 490 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Of BREECH (the same participle) Skinner says well — ** Veruni etymon vocis breech commodius deduci potest ab A.-S. bjiyce, ruptio, ruptura : quia sc. in ano corpus in fora- men quasi disrumpi videtur.'* — — And breeches, which cover those parts where the body is Broken into two parts. Hence also assuredly the Latin Bracca^ ; and, I believe, the Greek and Latin Β^οαχίων, Brachium, ^ " Braca (pro quo vulgo bracca, vel bracha, minus recte scribunt) Isidoro, lib. xix. cap. xxii. videtur dici, quod sit brevis, nempe a Grseco βραχν$. Aliis placet, esse a pciKos, quod a ρησσω seu ρηγννμι, unde ab Eustathio esse dicitur ^teppwyos Ιματων, vestis disrupta. ^oles (quos Romani maxime imitantur) literam /3 literse ρ prsemittunt, quando post jO sequitur /c, τ, vel Z, ut, ρντηρ, βρντηρ, polov, βρο^ον, ρακοε, βρακο$, &c. Sed sane bracce vox est a Gallis Belgis. Quippe hodieque Belgse, sive Germani inferiores, earn broeck appellant, ut Cimbfi, brog, Britanni, breache. At braca esse a Gallis, clare docet Diodorus Siculus, cujus illud de Gallis, γβωνταί he αναζυρισα', us εκείνοι βρακαε καΧονσίρ. Simi- liter Hesychius, olimque Gallise pars ab harum usu dicta bracata. Idem confirmant versus isti apud Sueton. in Julio, cap. Ixxx : * Gallos Csesar in triumphum ducit : iidem in curia Galli bracas deposuerunt, latum clavum sumserunt.' Sed et bracarum Gallicarum liquido meminere Vopiscus in Aureliano, Lampridius in Alexandro Severo, pluresque alii. Bracatos quoque mi- lites Gallicos ai)pellat Ammianus, lib. xvi. Quare et braca vocem Gal- licam putamus : vel, si origo est Grseca, vocem eam acceperint Galli a Massiliensibus, qui Graece loquebantur. Non soli autem bracts usi Galli; sed et Persse, quibus eas tribuit Ovidius v. Trist. el. x. item Sarmatss, sive Scythee, ut ex eodem, item Mela, et Valerii v. Argon, constat." — G. J. Vossius. "Brachium, βραχ^αο}', αττο ti]s βρα-χντητοί. Festus : Brachium nos, Graci βραχ^ιων dicunt : quod deducitur a βραγυ, hoc est, breve ; eo quod ab humeris ad ?nanus breviora sini, quam a coxis plantce. Sed videtur obstare Festo, quod brachium, ac βραχιων, proprie dicatur de osse, quod inter scapularum et cubiti articulos interjacet, Eoque potius brachium sic dici censeo, qiiia os id, quod dixi, breve sit, imprimis si conferetur cum osse femoris, cui avcCKoyov est. Nam ut pedibus manus, lacertus tibiiB, genui cubitus, sic femori brachia respondent. Ac quia de hac vocis proprietate aliquis litem movere possit, addo την ολην χείρα (in- telligo per χείρα totum illud ab humero usque ad extremes digitos, quomodo hac voce etiam usi Homerus et Hippocrates) dividi a Galeno in partes tres ; βραχίονα, ιτηχυν, et ακροχεφον. quae ipsa etiam com- plexus Naso, cum, 1 Met. ait : ' ' Laudat digitosque manusque Brachiaque et nudos media plus parte lacertos.' CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 491 Snow — In the Anglo-Saxon Snap, and the same in Douglas. " His schulderis heildit with new fallin snaw." Douglas, booke 4. p. 108. " And thar withal attanis on euery sydis The dartis thik and iFeand takilUs glidis. As dois the schoure of snaw." — Ihid. booke 11. p. 386. It is the regular past tense and therefore past participle of Snipan, which Gower and Chaucer write To SneitK. "And as a busshe, whiche is besnewed, Their berdes weren hore and white." Goiver, lib. 1. fol. 19. p. 1. col. 2. " The presentes euery daie bene newed. He was with yeftes all besnewed." Ibid. lib. 6. fol. 135. p. 2. col. L " A better viended man was nowhere none, Without bake meate was neuer hys house Quare, cum tres sint brachii partes, os illud totius brachii maximum, quod est inter humerum et cubitum, proprie βραγ^,ων, seu hrachium ap- pellabitur. Os alterum inter brachium et manum Latinis fuerit lacertiis, Grsecis ττηχυί, quanquam hsec vox et angustius interdum sumatur. Nam cum OS illud duobus constet ossibus ; uno inferiori et grandiori, altero superinsidente et minori ; illud quidem eodem nomine cum toto dicitur ττηχνε, sive ulna; hoc vero, quia parvarum rotarum" radios refert, KepKis, sive radius nominatur. Quod superest άκρα χεφ, et una Yoce ακροχειρον, ac κατ εζοχηρ, χ€ψ, Latinis manus dicitur. Ex his igitur liquet, quid proprie brachii nomine sit intelligendum. At Celsus, lib. viii, cap. 1. quemadmodum pro brachio humerum dixit, ita per brachium intelligit omne illud a scapulis dependens usque ad extremam manum. Qui similiter βραχωνο$ vocem usurpat Aristoteles, lib. 1. Histor. Animal, cap. XV. ubi hse a philosopho statuuntur partes βραχωνοε' ωμοε, α-γκων, ωλεκρανον, ττηχυ$, χειρ. Ω^μο5 ei est articulus brachii cum ωμοττΧατγ}, sive scapula. Αγκων est, quod interjacet inter dictum articulum et eum cui innitimur. Is articulus Aristoteli est ωλεκρανον, quibusdam cubitus, aliis gibber brachii, nominatur. ΐΐηχυί est quod inter manum et acutam gibberamque brachii partem, situm est. Χειρ palma et digitis constat. Qusedam tamen ex hisce vocabulis aliter ab Hippocrate et aliis accipi, non ignoramus : et qui nescit, discere possit ex definitionibus medicis doctissimi Gorrsei. Isidorus autem plane audiri non meretur, cum lib. xi. cap. 1. hoc pacto scribit : Brachia a fortitudine nominata : Bapv enim Grace grave et forte significat, in brachiis eniin tori lacertorimi sunt et insigne musculorum robur existit." — G. J. Vossius. 492 OF ABSTRACTION. [I'ART li. Of fyshe and fleslie, and that so plentconse It δΝΕΛΥΕΟ in hys house of meate and drinke." Prologues, The Frankdeyn. Snow, is simply — tliat which is sniwed or snewed\ Loss "I The past participle of AlllS^lN, Lyj^an, amittere, Loose J dimittere^. " Their arrows finely pair'd, for timher and for feather. With birch and brazil piec'd, to fly in any weather ; And shot they Avith the round, the square, or forket pile. The LOOSE gave such a twang, as might be heard a mile." Poly-olhion, song 26. Knee ^ I believe the Gothic hNAlVQA^^ ΙΐΝβί- Neck ( VA^i^ ^"d the Anglo-Saxon bnijan (which Knuckle Γ have all the same meaning, viz. incurvaie, incli- NoD J nare, To Boiv, To Bend, To Iiwlme) to be the same verb; though something differently pronounced : And ί suppose KNI\^, Eneop, and our Englisli knee, to be the past tense of this verb. Neck, in the Anglo-Saxon I^necc (or l^nejj) may perhaps also be the past tense of ftnijan. Knuckle, in Anglo-Saxon Eniicl (perhaps formerly ftniijel) I suppose to be the diminutive of }3nuj ; wdiich may likewise have been the regular past tense of j^nijan. I offer the foregoing to you barely as conjecture. But we knovv^ that J^nah is perpetually xised in the Anglo-Saxon as the past tense of J^nijan : by adding to it the participial ter- mination ED, we have J^naheb, l^nah'b (a broad); from which, I doubt not, we have our English nod, i. e. An incli- nation of the head. 1 [In Norfolk Sneiv is used as the prseterite ; and Shc^v as the prse- terite of Shoiv, which is also found in Shakespeare. — En.] '- [There is no authority for rendering this word by dimittcre : it should have been po^dere. AlflSj\N ansv/ers to our Lose, hut AA^'^SQA^ ^° °^^ ^oose or Loosen. (See above, p. 85, 91.) Richardson makes strange confusion, by erroneously deriving Loose from liusan, and stating that loose and lose " are the same word, some- M'hat ditFerently applied ;" which he labours to support by a forced ex- planation of the latter y/ord. See Additional Notes. — Ed.] en. IV.] OF ABSTRx\CT10N. 49 Notch i NocK^ Nook Niche Which vary respectively in sound only by the im- material difference of ch or ck, have all one com- mon meanino' : and I believe them to be the past χ,χν,χχ^ , prj^^,j.j^jpjg Qf ^{^g ^gj,]^ f^ Nickj incidere. *' All ruiFe of haire, my nailes unnockt, as of such seemeth best. That wander by their wits, deformed" so to be." Sondes S;c. By the Earl of Surrey S^c. fol. 61. p. 2. " Like the good fleacher that mended his bolte with cuttinge of the NocKE." — Dr. Martin, Of Pr'iestes imlauful Mariages, ch. 13. p. 250. " The rough Hibernian sea I proudly overlook Amongst the scatter'd rocks, and there is not a nook But from my glorious height into its depth I pry." Poly-olhion, song 80. [" Or did his genius ΚηοΛν mine the stronger dsemon, fear'd the grapple, And looking round him, found this nook of fate To skulk behind my sword." — Dryden, Do?i Sebastian, act 1. sc. 1 .] The Italian and French languages have many words, Nicchio, Nicchia, Niche, 8cc. of the same origin. Wroth Wrath Wreath Ί All these are the past tense and therefore the past participle of Pjii^an, torquere, To Writhe. The Raddle ' two former are applied to the mind ; and, together Wry with ^vreath, (or vvrith) speak themselves. Riddle A raddle^ hedge, is a hedge of pleached or plaslied or twisted or wreathed twigs or boughs. I suppose raddle to be so pronounced for ppa^el; the diminutive of fjia^. So RIDDLE metaphorically. Wry I suppose to be so pronounced for pjii^. 1 [" NocKE." — R. Asckam, p. 130.] - " With the help of these tools they were so very handy, that they came at last to build up their huts or houses very handsomely; sad- dling, or working it up like basket-work all the Y\^ay round, which was a very extraordinary piece of ingenuity, and looked very odd." Robinson Crusoe, vol. 2. p. 110. edit. 1780, 494 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. These are the past tense and past participle of the verb cX./llAgAi>i^j Dailan, dividere, partiri, To Deal, To divide, To distribute. Deal Dell Dole DOULE DOWLE , " My wife shal haue of thai I wan with truth and no more. And DEALE among my daughters and my dear children." Vision of P, Ploughman, pass. 7. fol. 32. p. 2. " Thylke that God geueth moste, leest good they deleth." Ibid. pass. 11. fol. 45, p. 2. " If he be pore, she helpeth hym to swynke, She kepeth his good, wasteth neuer a dell." Marchauntes Tale, fol. 28. p. 2. col. 2. '' I consent, and conferme euery dell. Your wordes all and your opinyon." Ibid. fol. 29. p. 2. col. 2. *' Al this sentence me lyketh euery dell." Wife of Bathes Prol. fol. 34. p. 2. col. 2. " I shall tell you a part now, and the other deale to morrow." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, ch. 75. [" He ceast, and vanisht flew to th' upper deale> And purest portion of the heavenly seat." Godfrey of Bulloigne, Translated by R. C. p. IG^] " And that night a doale, and al they that would come had as much flesh and fish, wine and ale as they might eate and drinke, and euery man and woman had twelue pence, come who would. Thus with his owne hands dealed he his money." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, ch. 171. [" Clients of old were feasted ; now a poor Divided dole is dealt at th' outward door." Dry den's Juvenal, sat. 1 . " And slaves, now manumiz'd, on their dead master wait : They hoist him on the bier, and deal the dole." Dry den s Third Sat. of Persius.'] ι [•* Tacque, e sparito rivolo del cielo A le parti pin eccelse, e piu serene." Gierusalemme Liberata, cant. 1 .] CH. ^] OF ABSTRACTION. 495 " We rede in holy wryte. Deut. xxvii. Cursed be he that flytteth the boundes and the doles or termes of his neyghbour, and putteth hym out of his ryght." — -Diues and Fauper, 10th Comm. cap. 7. In this last passage, dole is applied to a Land-mark, by which the lands of different occupants are divided and appor- tion ed\ " It was your presurmize, That in the dole of bloΛves your son might drop." Henry 4, 2d part, p. 76. Mr. Steevens, on this passage, says — -^'The dole of blows is the distribution of blows. Dole originally signifies the portion of Alms (consisting either of meat or money) that was given away at the door of a nobleman." " Now my masters, happy man be his dole, say I : Euery man to his business." — Henri/ 4, 1st part, p. 54. Sir J. Hawkins says — ^' The portion of Alms distributed at Lambeth palace gate, is at this day called the dole." " If it be my luck, so : if not, happy man be his dole." Merry Wives of Windsor, p. 116. In all the above passages, and wherever the word is used, DOLE is merely the Anglo-Saxon past participle bal ; and has not in itself the smallest reference to Alms, or to the nobleman's gate, or to Lambeth palace; if indeed those places have any distinguished connection with Alms. But dole (i. e. Dal) might very well be applied to any things divided, distributed, or Dealt out : and therefore to land-marks, and to blows in a battle, &cl 1 [" Fop ]9an J^e ]ψι baelaf pnb je bselebe |>u]ih hij. Apa on eaj^c pice pam ylbftan jauia. Appica on fu^ bsele ])25γ Chamef cynne, anb 6upopa on nopS bsele laphepef opfppmje." uElfric. de Veteri Testamento, p, 8.1 "2 [" He with their multitude was nought dismay'd. But with stout courage turn'd upon them all. And with his brond-iron round about him layd ; Of which he dealt large almes." Faerie Queene, book 4. cant, 4. st. 32, 496 ΟΙ' ABSTRACTION. [pART II. In the following passage from Chaucer, there is no allusion to any of these. " And for thou treive to loue shalt be, I Λνγΐ, and eke commaunde the, That in one place thou set al hole Thine hert, without haliin dole." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 131. p. 1. col. 2. As it has happened in the interpretation of dole; so does it with dowle: and so will it usually happen, when the interpreters seek the meaning of a word (or rather endeavour to collect it) singly from tlie passages in which the word is found : for they usually connect, with (he unknown word, the meaning of some other word or words in tlie sentence. A little regard to the individual etymology of the word whose meaning is souoht, would secure them from this perpetually repeated error; and conduct them to the intrinsic meaning of the word. " ~ The elements Of whom your swords are temper'd, may as well Wound the loud wdndes, or with bemockt-at stabs Kill the still-closing Avaters, as diminish One DOWLE that 's in my plumbe." (plume.) — Tempest, p. 12. Mr. Steevens here tells us, that — '^ Bailey, in his Diction- ary, says that dowle is a Feather ; or rather the single par- ticles of the Doivn.'^ To which Mr. Malone adds — " Cole, in his Latin Diction- ary, 1 670, interprets — young dowle — by Lanugo,'' But bal, basl, DOLE, doule, dowle, deal, dell, are all but one word differently pronounced and differently vv^ritten ; and mean merely a part, piece, or portion, without any desig- nation of Feather or Doivn, or Alms, or any other thing. And when the cards are Dealed or Dealt round to tlie company within doors ; each person may as properly be said to receive See Milton : " Dealing dole among his foes." — Sampson Agonistes, v. 1529. See also Translation (1598) of Orlando Innamorato, '* Thus Ferraw, brauo-like, doth deale his dole."] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 497 his DOLE or DOWLE (i. e. that which is Dealed out, Distri huted, or Dealt to him) as the attendant beggars at the gate. Thus Chaucer, in the Plowman's Tale^ fol. 99. p. 2. col. 2. " The gryiFon grynned as he were wood. And loked louely as an owle. And swore by cokes hert bloode He wolde him tere euery doule." What think you is contained in this threat of the gryiFon ? That he will tear off the feathers, or the small particles of Down from the pelican ? Surely not. But that he would tear him, as we say, piecemeal; tear every piece of him, tear him all to pieces^ Skinner is of opinion, and reasonably, that dollar also belongs to bal, portio — ''quia sc. est aurei, sen, ducati dimi- dium." ^ I The past participle of Gyllan, Efiellan, ululare, Tj ' I Are the past participle of Ryman, be-jiyman, -r, I dilatare, ampliiicare, extendere. Brim J ^ Room means d datum, Extended, Place, Space, Extent, In the second chapter of Luke, verse 7. where our modern translation has it — ** There was no room for them in the inn," the old Englisli translation says — *' There was not Place to hem in the comyn stable." Non erat eis Locus in diver- sorio. The Anglo-Saxon — l^i^ naspbon jiiim in cumena hup The Gothic— iNTi VA^ ΪΜ KllMlS ΪΝ STA^A ΦΛΜΜΛ. [" At Λν1ιο5θ first entrie thearunto he made him Master of the Requests, having then no better roome voyde." Life of Syr TJiomas More, By Mr, Roper, p. 32. *' In the yere xiiij of his gracious raigne there was a parliament holden, whereof sir Thomas More was chosen speaker. Who being very lothe to take this roome uppon him, made an oracion." — Ihid. p. 34. " The duke of Norfolk, in audience of all the people theare assembled, shewed, that he was from the kinge himselfe streightlie chardged by 2 Is 498 OF ABSTIIAGTION. [PART II. speciall commission, theare openlie in presence of tliem all to make de- claracion how muche all England was beholdinge to Sir Thomas More for his good service, and how worthie he was to have the highest ROOME in therealme." — Life of Syr Thomas More, By Mr. Roper, p. 55. " Yet nevertheles he must for his owne part needes confesse that in all things by his grace alleadged he had donne no more then was his dutie : and farther disabled himselfe to be unmeete for that roome." Ibid, p, 56. " He made suite unto the duke of Norfolke, his singular good friend, to be a meane to the kinge that he might, with his grace's favour, be discharged of that chardgeable roome of the chauncellorship, wherin, for certain infirmities of his body, he pretended himself unable anie longer to serye."— Ibid. p. 65. ^* Besides this, the manifolde goodness of the king's highnes himselfe, that hathe binne soe manie waies my singular good lord, and that hath soe deerlie loved and trusted me, even at my verie first comming into his honourable service with the dignity of his honourable Privie-Counsaile vouchsafinge to admit me, and to offices of great credit and worship most liberallie advanced me ; and finally Λvith that weightie roome of his grace's high chauncellor." — Ibid. p. 93. " It may like your highness to cal to your gracious remembrance, that at such time as of the great weightie rome and office of your chauncellor (with which so farre above my merites or qualities able and mete therfore, your highnes had of your incomparable goodnes honoured and exalted me)." — Ibid. p. 107.] Rim (of pyman) is the utmost Extent in bieadth of any thing. Brim (of be-pyman) is also the Extent of the capaciiy of any vessel. [*♦ and ran at him amaine With open mouth, that seemed to containe A full good pecke within the utmost brim." Faerie Queene, book 6. cant. 12. st. 26. " Then by the edge he doth his mantle take, He bowes it, plaites it, reacheth towards him The plait, and to these farder speeches brake. More then to fore of visage spiteful grim, Ο thou that scorne of hardest brunts dost make, I peace and warre bring in this plaited brim. Thine be the choice." Godfrey of BuUoigne, Translated by K, C. Esq, Windet, 1594. p. 93. cant. 2. st.89,] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 499 ** Which from a large-BRin'n lake To hie her to the sea with greater haste doth make." Poly-olhion, song 30. Large-BRiM'D (or be-pym'b) is widely extended in breadth. Groom] — We apply this name to persons in various situa- tions. There is a groom of the stables, a groom of the cham- bers, a GROOM of the stole, a groom porter, a Bride-GRooM, &c. But all of them denote attendance, observance, care, and custody ; whether of horses, chambers, garments, bride, &c. [" The gentle lady, loose at random lefte, The greene-wood long did walke, and wander wide, At wilde adventure, like a forlorne wefte : Till on a day the Satyres her espide, Straying alone withouten groome or guide. Her up they tooke, and with them home her ledd." Faerie Queene, book 3, cant. 10. st. 36. " Ne wight with him for his assistance went, But that great yron groome, his gard and government.'* Ibid, book 5. cant. 4. st. 3.] *' He is about it, the doores are open : And the surfeted groomes doe mock their charge With snores." Macbeth, p. 136. col. 2. Groom therefore has always one meaning. It is applied to the person by whom something is attended. And, notwith- standing the introduction of the letter r into our modern word groom, (for which I cannot account) I am persuaded tliat it is the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Eryman, curare, regere, custodire, cavere, attendere^ ; and that it should be written goom, without the r. And I think it a sufficient con- firmation of my opinion, that what we now call B?ide-GROOM, our ancestors called Bjiib-jiim. And, at present, in the col- lateral languages there is no r ; The Germans calling him — Brauti-gam. The Dutch .... Bruide-gom. The Danes .... Brud-gom. And the Swedes . , . . Brud-gumme. ' [" Fop |)8e]m kmmga jeleajrleaj'te ])e. jrojdeton heojia bpihcen anb j)Der Folcer ZlCOeheAST€ pe ne CICDDe ^obef." j^lfric. de Veteri Testame?ito, p, ]i6.] 2 Κ 2 500 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 1I< Swoop 1 '* AH my pretty ones ! Swop J ^'^^ Y^^ say All ? Oh Hell Kite ! All ? What, all my pretty chickens and their damme At one fell swoope ?" Macbeth, act iv. Mr, Steevens on this passage, says — " Swoop is the descent of a bird of prey on his quarry. It is frequently however used by Drayton in his Polj/'olbwti, to express the swift de- scent of rivers," Drayton has used it in his Poly-olhion only three times : in his first, sixth, and twenty-eighth songs ; but never as a substantive. ** Proud Tamer swoops along with such a lusty train, As fits so brave a flood." Song 1. " Thus as she swoops along with all that goodly train.'* Song 6. ** And in her winding banks, along my bosom led,' As she goes swooping by." Song 28, In this use of the word by Drayton there is notlilng antique, or unusual, or in the least different from the common, modern, every day's use of the word : if we except only the spelhng of it. Pat SWEEPS and sweeping instead of swoops and swoop- ing, and no man would ask for an interpreter. [" Thus, as some fawning usurer does feed With present sums th' unwary spendthrift's need. You sold your kindness at a boundless rate ; And then o'erpaid the debt from his estate ; Which, mould'ring piece-meal, in your hands did fall ; Till now at last you came to swoop it all." Dry den's First Pco't of the Coiiquest of Granada, act 1. sc. 1.] The Anglo-Saxon verb is Spipan, in modern English To Sweep, Swoop and svvOP are (as we have already seen in so many other instances) its regular past participle, by the change of the characteristic i to o. Swoop has nothing to do with the descent of a bird ; or with any descent or ascent ; but it may be applied to either : for it has to do with a body in motion, either ascending, de- scending, or horizontal ; and with a body removing all obstacles in its passage. A SWOP between two persons, is where, by the consent of the parties, without any delny, any reckoning or counting, or en. XV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 501 otlicr adjustment of proportion, something is Sivept off at once by each of them. Swoon — This word was formerly written, Swough, swowe, SΛVOWNE, ASWOWNE, SWOND, SOWNE, and SOWND. *' Tliat what for fere of slainider, and dred of deth She loste both at ones wit and breth And in a swough she lay." Chaucer, Lucreccy fol. 215. p. 2. col. 2, ** I fel in suche a slomber and a SΛV0WE, Nat al a slepe, ne fully wakynge. And in that swowe methought I herde sing The sorie byrde the leude cuckowe." Cuckoive and Nyghtyngale, fol. 351. p. 1. col. 2. ** Whan she this herd, aswoune down she falleth." Gierke of Oxenfordes Tale, fol. 51. p. 1. col. 1. '• AswouNE I fel, bothe deed and pale." Rom, of the Rose, fol. 128. p. 2. col. 1. " Whan this woman sawe this sharte and redde the letter, she felle downe in swowne." — Dines and Pauper, 6th Comm. cap. 15. " Hee tooke such a hartily sorrow at her words, that he fell downe to the floore in a swond. And Λvhen Sir Launcelot awaked of his swoND hee lept out at a Baij window." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 3d part, ch. 8. " Hee fell downe off his horse in a sowne." — Ibid. 2d part, ch. 59. ** Hee fell ouer his horse mane in a sownd." Ihid. ch. 140. Swoon &c. is the past participle of 8pi;^an, stupere ; whose regular past tense is Sivogj or Swoug, written by Chaucer Sv)oiigh and Swoive : adding to wliich the participial termina- tion en, we have SwoioeUf Swoione ; and with the customary prsefix A, Asiooivne, „ "" > The past participle of the verb To Click. Clack j ι ^ ^ Puddle } r^ ^• *i -^ τ^ ^ > Fuddle was antientiv written Fodell. Pool ^ " And^all the centre whiche was byfore lykened to paradyse for fayre- nesse and plente of the contre, tourned in to a foule stynkynge podell, that lasteth in to this daye, and is called the deed see." Dines and Pauper, 6th Comm. cap. 16. It is the regular past tense and past participle of the verb To Fiddle. 502 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Pool is merely the contraction of Podel, Poodle, Pool, _F. — I hardly think the word Piddle to be of any long stand- ing in the language ; as the word pool (or Pul^ as the Anglo- Saxons wrote it) certainly is. There is no antient authority, Γ believe, for the use of the word Piddle : and yet, to justify your derivation, it ought at least to be as antient in the lan- guage as the Anglo-Saxon PuL H. — I cannot produce any Anglo-Saxon or antient author- ity for it. Yet it cannot be of very modern introduction ; since it long ago furnished a name to one of our rivers. " Whilst Froom was troubled thus, where nought she hath to do. The PIDDLE, that this while bestirr'd her nimhle feet. In falling to the pool, her sister Froom to meet, And having in her train two little slender iills, Besides her proper spring, wherewith her banks she fills. To whom since first the world this later name her lent, (Who antiently was known to be instiled Trent) Her S7nall assistant brooks her second name have gaind.'* Foly-olhion, song 2. Bead— The past participle of Bibban, orare, To bid, To invite. To solicit. To request, To pray. Bead (in the Anglo-Saxon Beabe, oratio, somQUuwg prayed) is so called, because one was dropped down a string every time a prayer was said, and thereby marked upon the string the number of times prayed, [" Silly old man, that lives in hidden cell. Bidding his beades all day for his trespas." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 30. " All night she spent in bidding oi her bedes.'* Ibid. cant. 10. st. 3.] Gewgaw VWhat we write Gewgaw is written, in tlie An- Gaud /glo-Saxon, Ije^ap. It is the past participle of the verb Hre-Jipan : and means any such trifling thing as is given aivay or presented to any one^ Instead of gew- GAWEs it is sometimes written gigawes and gewgaudes. " And of Holy Scriptures Sawes He counteth them for gigawes." Skelton, p. 171. (Edit. 1736.) 1 [I doubt this etymology. Gaud and GEΛVGAW, are rather Ue-eb and Ire-geab, from 6abian and rre-eabian.— H. T.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 503 ['* Go back to what thy infancy began, Thou who wert never meant to be a man. Eat pap and spoonmeat : for thy gugaws cry." Drydens Third Sat. of Persius. " Give to your boy, your Caesar, This rattle of a globe, to play withal. This Gu-GAU world." - Dryden, All for Love, act 2. sc. 1.] "May not Morose, with his gold. His GEWGAUDEs, and the hope she has to send him Quickly to dust, excite this ?" B. and Fletcher, The Woman's Prize. Gaud has the same meaning, and is the same as the ibre- going word, with only the omission of the prsefix ge, gi, or GEW\ It is the past participle of Uripan ; Gaved, Gav'd, Gavdf Gaud. *' Here is a mittayne eke, that ye may se. He that his hande wol put in this mittayne He shal haue multiplyeng of his grayne, &c. By this GAUDE haue I wonne euery yere An hundred marke sythen I was Pardonere." Prol. of the Pardoners Tale, fol. 65. p. 2. col. 2. " And also thynke wel, that this is no gaude." Troylus, boke 2. fol. 165. p. 1. col. 1. " Quhat God amouit him with sic ane gaude In his dedis to use sic slicht and fraude." Douglas, booke 10. p. 315. " And stolne the impression of her fantasie. With bracelets of thy haire, rings, gawdes, conceits, Knackes, trifles, nosegaies, sΛveetmeats." Mids. Nights Dreame, p. 145. " _ My loue to Hermia (Melted as is the snow) Seems to me ηοΛν As the remembrance of an idle gaude, Which in my childhood I did doat upon." Ibid, act 4, sc. 2. p. 158. " Sweeting mine, if thou mine own wilt be, I 've many a pretty gaud, I keep in store for thee ; A nest of broad-fac'd owls, and goodly urchins too." Poly-olbion, song 21. Laugh — -Is the regular past tense and past participle of 604 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. the Anglo-Saxon verb J^lihan, ridere ; viz. J^lah, which we wrhe LAUGH. '^ Vox ftlahan (says Skinner) licet apud Som- nerum non occurrit, non dubito quin olim in usu fuerit." Had Skinner been aware of the regular change of the characteristic letter in all the Anp^lo-Saxon verbs, he would have been well contented with J^lihan ; but certainly there remained for him the Gothic hAAhQA^^? though not the Anglo-Saxon I^lahan. Wharf 1 Are the past participles of J^pyppan, pyjipan ; Warp J ambire, projicere. Wall — Is the past participle of pilan, connectere, co- pulare, To Join together, To {Consolidate, To Cement. And its meaning is singly, consolidated^ cemented, or joined firmly together. The Anglo-Saxon J^eal is sometimes applied by them in the same manner in which alone we now use it ; viz. for any materials, brick, stone, mud, clay, wood, &c. con- solidated, cemented, or fastened together : but it is also some- times used by them for the cement itself, or that by which the materials are connected, *' pi^ hsefbon tyjelan j-oji j-tan. anb typpan fop Peallum.'* ** They had brick for stone, and sUme had they for Mortar." Genesis, ch. 11. v. 3. Our etymologists derive wall from the Latin Valliun^ : and ' *' Vallum dicebatur — Murus e terra adfosscB oram aggestus, crebris sudibus sive palis inunitits — Itaque duse ejus partes, agger sive terra, et pali sive sudes. De etymo sic Varro, lib. iv. de L. L. : — Vallum, vel quod ca varicare nemo jJossit : — vel quod singula ibi extrema bacilla fur- cillata habent figuram litercB v. Quie lectio si recta est, varicare hie erit νττερβαιναν sive transgredi : quomodo varicare in vett. Glossis ex- ])onitur. De etymo plane assentio. Quamvis enim, quia valh agger jactu aut aggestione terrss iieret, vallum et vallare non inepte deduci queant a Greeco βάλλω ; taraen cum non omnis agger sit vallum, sed turn demum id nomen adipiscatur, cum munitus est vallis sive sudibus : quin a vallus VxVLLum dicatur, dubitandum minime censeo. idem esse vallus, (\\xoapalus, sive sudis, ostendimus superius. Vallos autem aggeri imponi solere, clare docet hie Vegetii locus, hb. 3. cap. viii. :-— ' Primum in unius noctis transitum, et itineris occupatione leviore, cum sublati cespites ordinantur, et aggerem faciunt, supra quem valh, hoc est, sudes, vel tribuli lignei, per ordinem digeruntur.'• — Hinc Ammianus, lib. 31. — Vallo sudibus fossa que fi7'mato. — Quemadmodum autem vallum a val- lus, ita vallus υποί^υρισηκωί a varus, quo furcillas notari ostensum sue loco." — Vossius. CH. IV.] OP ABSTRACTION. 505 not only the English word, but the Anglo-Saxon peal also from the same. They seem to forget that the Latin is a mere modern language, compared with the Anglo-Saxon. The Roman beginning (even tlieir fable) is not, comparatively, at a great distance. The beginning of the Roman language we know ; and can trace its formation step by step. But the Northern origin is totally out of sight; is intirely and com- pletely lost in its deep antiquity. Besides, in deriving wall from ]7ilan, we follow the regular course of our whole lan- guage, v/ithout the least contortion ; and we arrive at once at a full and perfect meaning, and a clear cause of the applica- tion of the word to the thing. But, if we refer wall to F«/- lum, what have we obtained ? We must seek for the mean- ing of Vallum, and the cause of its application : and that we shall never find but in our own language : none of the Greek or Latin etymologists can help us to it : for Vallum itself is no other than our word Walj with the addition of their Article υ Μ (or the Greek oi^) tacked to it. Tart (teajit:, asper) is the past participle of Tyjian, ex- acerbare, irritare, exasperare. To Tar. Tar-ed, Tar'd, Tart. " Ye faderis nyle ye Terre youre sones to wraththe." Ephesies, cap. 6. v. 4. '* Faderis nyle ye Terre youre sones to indignacioun." Colocens'is, cap. 3. ver. 21. "And like a dogge that is compell'd to fight Snatch at his master that doth tarre him on." Ki7ig John, act 4. sc. 1. p. 14. ** Two curres shal tame each other, pride alone Must tarre the mastiifes on, as 'twere their bone." Troylus and Cressida, end of act 1. " Faith there has bene much to do on both sides : and the nation holds it no sinne, to tarre them to controuersie." — Hamlet, p. 263. Span. — For the etymology and meaning of this word, you may, if you chuse it, travel with others' to the German, the 1 Vossius de Vit. Serm. lib. 2. cap. 17. " Spannum et spanna habe- mias in Legibus Frisonum. Tit. xxii. de Dolg. Ixv. : ' Vulnus, quod longitudinem habeat quantum inter poliicem et complicati indicis ar- 506 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. French, the Italian, the Latin, or the Greek. But you may find them more readily at home : for the German Spanne, the old French Espcin mentioned by Cotgrave, the Italian Spanna, and the Low Latin Spannumj together with the Dutch, the Danish, the Swedish, and the Islandic, are all, as well as the English word, merely the past tense and therefore past parti- ciple j-pan, j-pon, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Spman, To Spin, extend ere, protrahere. *• And elk his coit of goldin thredis bricht, Quhilk his moder him span." Douglas, booke 10. p. 349. " He will not give an inch of his will for a span of his thrift." Rays Scot. Prov. p. 291. Narrow 1 Napp, Neapp, Neappe. The past participle Near J of Nyppian, coarctare, comprimere, contrahere, To Draiv together, To Compress^ To Contract, ticulum, spammm non impleat, iv. solid, componatur. Quod integrse spannce longitudinem habuerit, hoc est, quantum index et poUex extendi possunt, vi. solidis componatur.' Et cap. Ixvi. : * Quod inter pollicem et medii digiti spannum longum fuerit, xiii. solidis comiDonatur.' Item Fris. addit. Tit. iii. Ivi. : ' Si unius spannce longitudinem habuerit.' Est vero spannus et spanna, id quod spithama antiquis : estque a Ger- manico spanne, quod a spannen, tendere : nisi malis esse ab Italico spandere pro Latino expandere. Nam pro ex ssepe initio ponunt s." Menage. — "• Spanna. La lunghezza della mano aperta e distesa dalla estremita del dito mignolo a quella del grosso. Lat. palmus ma- jor. Gr. σπιθαμή. Gall, empan. Dal Tedesco spann, che vale il palmo maggiore, che e costituito di dodici dita Geometriche. Ovvero dal Latino expalmus, expanmus, expammus, expannus, spannus ; onde Γ antico Francese espan. Cosi da impalmus, il Francese empan : da m- palmare, enpaumer. La prima oppinione par la vera. S' inganna il Monosini diducendo sparma da σπιθαμή. Lo seguita pero il Sr. Fer- rari." Junius — " Span, Spithama, dodrans, palmus major, intervallum inter pollicem et minimum digitum diductos ; estque duodenum digitorum, sive palmorum trium. A.-S. Span, ]•ροηη. It. Spanna. G. Espan. D. Spand. B. Span. Isl. Span vel Spon. Su. Span. Fr. Span. Sjmnna. M. Casaubonus petita vult ex Σπιθαμή, Spithama. V. eum p. 337. opusculi de Vet. Ling. Angl. Sed omnino videntur promanasse ex Teut. Spannen, tendere, extendere. Ipsum vero Spannen affine est Gr. Stt^hs trahere : quod attrahendo res extendantur." Skinner — " Span &c. Omnia per contractionem, et conversionem Μ in Ν, et ejus reduplicationem immediate, a Lat. et Gr. Spithama. VeL si a Germanica origine petere malles, a Teut. et Belg. Spannen, tendere, extendere. Martinius autem Teut. Spannen a Lat. Expandere deducit. Alludit Gr. Στταω." Cii. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 507 I" To kerke the narre, from God more farre. Has bene an olde-said sawe." Shepheards Calender, July.'] Sharp — The past participle of Scyppan, acuere. Rack Rake A rack of hay, and a rick of hay, are the past Rick )>participle of KlKQA^i congerere, coUigere, To Rich ι Colled j To Draw together, To rake together, RiCHESj A RAKE, the same participle ; it being the tool or instru- ment by which the Hay is collected, ["The sonnes must bee masters, the fathers, gaifers ; what we get together with a rake, they cast abroad with a forke." Mother Bombie {hy John Lily), act 1. sc. 3.] Rich and riches are the same participle. Throughout the language the diiierent pronunciation of ch and ck is not to be regarded. Thus, what we pronounce rich and riches {tch), the French pronounce riche and richesse (sA), and the Italians ricco and richezza (/<;). But it is the same word in the three languages : and it applies equally to any things, collected, accumulated^ heaped, or (as we frequently ex- press it) RAKED together ; whether to money, cattle, lands, knowledge, &.c. Sale \ is the past participle of Sylan, dare, tradere, Handsel3 To Sell. In our modern use of the word a condition is understood. Handsel is something given in hand. Harangue — In Italian Aringa, in French Harangue; both from our language. This word has been exceedingly laboured by a very nume- rous band of etymologists ; and upon no occasion have their labours been more unsuccessfully employed. S. Johnson, as might be expected, has improved upon all his predecessors : and as he is the last in order of time, so is he the first in fa- tuity. He says — '* Perhaps it comes from Orare, or Oratio- nare, Oraner, * Ar anger, Haranguer.' " I will not trouble you with a repetition of the childish con- jectures of others, nor with the tedious gossiping tale of Ju- nius. 508 o:p abstraction. [part it. Skinner briefly mentions a conjecture of Menage ; and he spells tlie word properly, in the old English fashion, harang ; and not (a la Francoise) harangue. The word itself is merely the pure and regular past parti- ciple, J^panj, of the Anglo-Saxon verb J^jiin^an, To Sounds or To make a great sound. (As J^pino is also used.) And M. Caseneuve alone is rigiit in his description of the word, when he says-—*' Harangue est un discours prononce avec CONTENTION DE VOIX." So far has the manner of pronunciation changed with us, that, if the commencing aspirate before R was to be preserved, it was necessary to introduce an a between ii and r ; and instead of hrang, to pronounce and write the word ha- " By theyr aduyse the kyng Agamemnowne For a trewse sent unto the towne For thirty dayes, and Priamus the kinge Without abode graunted his arynge." Lydgate, Aunc'ient Historie, S^-c. Yard } Yard, in the Anglo-Sax. Iieajib, is the past Garden) tense and therefore past participle of the verb Ijyjiban, cingere, To Girdj To Surround, To Inclose: and it is therefore a|)plicable to any inclosed place; as Courl-YMiD, Chnrch-Y AitO, &c. Garden is the same past tense, with the addition of the participial termination en. I say, it is the same ; because the Anglo-Saxon Tj is pronounced indifferently either as our G or Y. Though it is not immediately to our present purpose, you will not be displeased, if ί notice here, that a Girth is that which Girdeth or Gird'lh any thing : that a Garter is a Girder ; that we have in Anglo-Saxon the diminutive Hryjibel, or Girdle: and that I suppose the verb Lrypbelan, whose pre- sent participle would be Hryjibelanb, encircling, surrounding; anb (for which we now employ ing) being the Anglo-Saxon and old English termination of the participles present : and that I doubt not that Eiyjibelanb, Ilrypblaiib, Gyjilanb, has becom.e our modern Garland, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 509 The Italian Giardmo 2ίΏά G/iirlanda\ and the French Jar- din and Giiirlande have no other oriiiin. Stage Stag Stack Stalk Stay Stairs Story Stye Stile Stirrup Etage Certainly these words do not, at first sight, appear to have the least connection with each other. And, till the clew is furnished, you may perhaps wonder why I have thus assembled them together. ' The verb otijan, ascendere, to which we owe these words, is at present lost to the language ; but has not been long lost. For it survived that period of the language which we call Anglo-Saxon ; and descended in very good and frequent use to that period of the language which we now call Old English : a name hereafter perhaps to be given by our suc- cessors to the language which vv^e talk at present. Instances enough may be found of the use of this verb j"tijan, from the time of Edward the third down even to the end of the fifteenth century. And though it has itself most strangely disappeared for the last two hundred years ; it has still left behind it these its surviving members. In that old translation of the New Testament Vvdiich was very much, though surreptitiously, circulated in the reign of Edward the third and afterwards, (and of which many other manuscripts remain, beside the curious one which you have given to me) we have seen the word perpetually employed in Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, in the Epistles, in the Acts, and in the Revelations. Let us turn to a few instances. ** Anoon Ihesu constreynide the disciplis to steige in to a boot." — Mattheu, ch. 14. v. 22. " The whiche seyden by spirit to Poul, that he shulde not stie to lerusalem." — Dedis, ch. 21. v. 4. •' We preiden, and thei that weren of that place, that he shulde not STYE to lerusalem." — Dedis, ch. 21. v. 12. ^ " Ghirlanda (says Menage) e voce presa peravventura dal parte- fice futuro passivo del verbo ghirlare, non usato, che venga da girare, dice il Castelvetro. Ε cosa certissima. Da gyrus, girus, girulus, giru- lare, girlare, ghirlare, glm^lamlus , ghirlanda." — Cosa certissima ! — Ut plane hommes non, quod dicitur, Χογικα ζωα ; sed ludicra et ridenda quiedam neurospasmata esse videantur. 510 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " But whanne thou slialt be bedun to feest, go and sitte doun in the laste place, that whanne he shal come that bad thee to feest, he seie to thee, frende steige heiger." — Luke, ch. 14. v. 10. " The firste vois that I herde, as of a trumpe, spekynge with me, seiynge, sty up hidur." — Apocalips, ch. 4. v. 1. " Forsoth Ihesu took twelue disciplys, and seide to hem, lo we stien to lerusalem." — Luke, ch. 18. v. 31. " To ech of us grace is gouen up the mesure of the gyuyng of Crist, for whiche thing he seith, he steigynge in to heig, led caitifte caitif." — Ephesyes, ch. 4. v. 7, 8, " Ihesu was baptisid of lohn in Jordan, and anoon he stiynge up of the watir." — Mark, ch. 1. v. 9, 10. " Lo we STEiGEN to lerusalem." — Mattheu, ch. ^0. v. 18. " Ihesu forsothe seynge companyes steigide in to an hil." — Mattheu, ch. 5. V. 16. ** And the thornes steigeden up and strangliden it." — Mark, ch. 4. V. 7. " And whanne it is sowun it steigeth in to a tree." — Ibid. v. 32. " What ben ye troblid, and thougtis steigen up in to youre hertis }" ^Luke, ch. 24. v. 38. " Stiege up at this feest dai, but I shal not stie up at this feest day, for my tyme is not yit iillid. Whan he had seide these thingis he dwelte in Galile. Forsothe as hise britheren stieden u^d, thanne and he steiede up at the feest dai."• — lohn, ch. 7. v. 8, 9, 10. *' Nyle thou touche me, for I haue not yit stied to my fadir. For- sothe go to my britheren and seie to hem, I stie to my fadir."- — Ibid, ch. 20, V. 17. *' And whanne he steig into a litil ship, hise disciplis sueden him." —Mattheu, ch. 8. v. 23. But we need not turn to any more places in this little book ; where the word is used at least ninety times. The same word is constantly employed by Gower, Chaucer, Lydgate, Fabian, Sir T. More, &c. Su;. ** And up she stighe, and faire and welle She drofe forth by chare and Avhelle Aboue in the ay re amonge the skies." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 105. p. 1. col. 2, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 511 ** And or Christ went out of this erthe here And STiGHED to heuyn, he made his testament." Balade to K. Henry 4. fol. 349. p. 1. col. 2. '* Beryne clepid a maryner, and bad him sty on loft, , And weyte aftir our four shippis aftir us doith dryue ; For it is but grace of God, yf they be alyue. A maryner anoon wyth that, right as Beryn bad, Styed into the top castell, and brought hym tydings glad." Merchaunts 2d Tale, Urry's Edit. p. 607. " ^- Joseph might se The Angell stye aboue the sonne heme." Lyfe of our Lady, By Lydgate, p. 103. " Then king Philip seing the boldnesse of the Flemminges, and how little they feared him, tooke counsayle of his lordes, how he might cause them to descende the hylle, for so longe as they kepe the hyl, it was ieoperdous and perelous to stie towarde them." — Fabian's Chro- nicle, vol. 2. p. 265. " But like the hell hounde thou waxed full furious, expressyng thy malice when thou to honour stied." — Ibid. p. 522. " And so he toke Adam by the ryght hande and styed out of hell up in to the ayre." — Nichodemus Gospell, ch. 16. '• The ayre is so thycke and heuy of moysture that the smoke may not STYE up." — Oiues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 27. " But lord how he doth thynk hym self full wele That may set once his hande ujDpon her whele. He holdeth fast : but upwarde as he stieth She whippeth her whele about, and there he lyeth." Sir T. Mores Works, (1557). [" But when my muse, whose f ethers, nothing flitt. Doe yet but flagg and lowly leame to Άγ, With bolder wing shall dare alofte to sty To the last praises of this Faery Queene." Spenser's Verses to the Earle of Essex. **The beast, impatient of his smarting wound, And of so fierce and forcible despight. Thought with his winges to stye above the ground, But his late wounded wing unserviceable found." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 2. st. 25. 512 OF ABsTHACTioN. [t>AiiT π. if j^nd though no reason may apply Salve to your sore, yet love can higher stye Then reasons reach." Faerie Queene, book 3. cant. 2. st. 36. "' For he so swift and nimble was of flight, That from this lower tract he dar'd to stie Up to the clowdes." Sjoenser's Muiopoimos, st. 6. " A bird all white, well feathered on each wing, Hereout up to the throne of gods did flie. And all the way most pleasant notes did sing, "Whilst in the smoake she unto heaven did stie." Spenser, Visions of Bellay. ** That was ambition, rash desire to sty. And every linck thereof a step of dignity." Faerie Qiieene, book 2. cant. 7. st. 46'.] If more were necessary to confirm the claim of j^tijan to a place in our language, much more might be drawn from a va- riety of quarters ; but I suppose the foregoing instances to be amply sufficient : and you may perhaps think them too many. Being now in possession of this verb, let us proceed to its application. And first for stage. 1. We apply stage to any elevated place, where comedians or mountebanks, or any other performers exhibit ; and to many other scafibldings or buildings raised for many other purposes. As, " At the said standarde in Chepe w^as ordeyncd a sumptuouse stage, in the whiche were sette dyuers personages in rych apparell." — Fahian, vol. 2. p. 334. 2. We apply stage to corporeal progress. As, — At this Stage of my journey — (Observe, that travelling was formerly ^ [On this passage, T. Warton says ;•— " The lexicographers inform us, that STY signifies to soar, to ascend. Sty occurs often. This word occurs in Chaucer's Test, of Love, p. 480. edit. Urry — * Ne steyrs to STEY one is none :' — Avhere it is used actively, to lift one up." Mr. Warton mistakes the passage ; being misled by Chaucer's spelling. Stey is not here used actively. One is here thus written for on or iipo?i. ' Chaucer does not mean — There are no stairs to sty one ; but — there are no stairs to sty on, to ascend vpon.~\ CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 513 termed '' steiging "; to Jerusalem, or any other place) — At this Stage of the business. — At this Stage of my life. — As, " And Ο thou young and wourschipful child, quhais age Is to my youthede in the nerrest stage." Douglas, booke 9. p. 285. 3. We apply stage to degrees of mental advancement in or towards any knowledge, talent, or excellence. As, ** Bot Turnus stalwart hardy hye curage, For all this fere dymynist neuir ane stage." Douglas, booke 10. p. 325. 4. And besides the above manners of applying this word stage, our ancestors likewise employed it where the French still continue to use it: for their word Estage, Etage, is merely our English word stage ; though, instead of it, upon this oc- casion we now use story. *' Architriclynus, that is, prince in the hous of thre stagis." loon, eh. 2. v. 8, " Sotheli sum yong man, Euticus hi name, sittynge on the Λvyndow» whanne he was dreynt with a greuous sleep, Poul disputynge long, he led hi sleep felde doun fro the thridde stage or sopyng place." Dedis, ch. 20. v. 9. For stage, in this last passage, the modern translation puts LOFT ; which (as we have already seen) is an equivalent par- ticiple. Now I suppose that in all these applications of it, you at once perceive that ascent (real or metaphorical) is always conveyed by the word stage : which is well calculated to con- vey that meaning; being itself the regular past participle of Stag is the same past participle. And the name is well applied to the animal that bears it ^ ; his raised and lofty 1 I" Cervus, or Deer, &c. The species of this genus are seven, enu- merated by Linnaeus, &c. " 1. The Camelopardalis, or GiraiFe, &c. The fore legs are not much longer than the hind legs ; but the shoulders are of a vast length, Λvhich gives the disproportionate height between the fore and hind parts : &c. The latest and best description of this extraordinary qua- 2 h 514 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. head being the most striking circumstance at the first sight of him \ Thence the poet's well-chosen description : *' When as those fallow deer, and huge-hauncht stags that graz'd Upon her shaggy heaths, the passenger amaz'd, To see their mighty herds with high-palm'd head to threat The woods of o'ergrown oaks ; as though they meant to set Their horns to th' others heights." Poly-olhion, song 12. '' Ε cervi con la fronte alta e superba." Orlando Fur. cant. 6. st. 22. The swiftness of these animals ; the order which they are said to observe in swimming ; and the sharpness of their horns ; these three distinct properties have induced Minshew, Junius, druped is given in the 16th number of a work intitled, ' A Description of the uncommon Animals and Productions in the Cabinet and Mena- gerie of His Serene Highness the Prince of Orange, by Mr. Vosmcer, &c.' All the accounts we have of the giraffe agree in representing its hind quarters as about 2\ feet lower than its withers, &c. . . . The gi- raffe here described, which Mr. Gordon, who dissected it, says was the largest he had ever seen, was 15 feet 4 inches Rhinland measure (about 15 feet 10 inches English) from the ground to the top of its head, &c. M. Vaillant asserts that he has seen several which were at least 17 feet high : and M. Vosmser declares, that he has been assured by some very respectable inhabitants of the Cape, that they had seen and killed gi- raffes Λvhich, including the horns, were 22 Rhinland feet in height, &c. &c. " 2. The Elk, Alces, or Moose Deer, &c. This is the bulkiest animal of the deer kind, being sometimes 17 hands high, &.c. In Siberia they are of a monstrous size, particularly among the mountains, &c. "3. The Elaphus or Stag, &c. : when pursued they easily clear a hedge or a pale fence of six feet high, &c." Encyclop(cdia Britannica, Edit. 1797. vol. 4. p. 300.] 1 [A HORSE is so denominated from his obedience and tractabletiess. In the Anglo-Saxon hepan and heopan is To Hear and To Obey. (In the same manner Audire and Ακουειν, signify both To Hear, and To Obey.) pepmjman means obedient : so do hejipiin, andhipj'ume, and hypj-um. pipj'umian, liyppan, and hypj'umian, and heojij-umian mean To Obey, Pypfumnej'j'e, obedience. popflice means obediently. peoji]' and hopf (Anglice horse) is the past participle of pyppan. To Obey.~\ [But see Ross in Meidenger's JVorterbuch. Outzen con- siders Horse and Ross as words of distinct origin. — Glossar. der Fries- ischen Sprache. Yet Alfred calls the Walross pojij'-hpgel. — Ed.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 515 and Skinner to attempt respectively three different derivations of STAG. In which I think they fail'. Stack is the same past participle (pronouncing κ for g). Junius supposes it to be the same word as stake. — '* Stacaj^ A.-Saxonibus erant stipites : atque inde fortasse cumulus fceni, aliarumque rerum, stack dictus est: Quod perticam longam acuminatamque alte satis terra infigebant, circa quam foenum undiquaque congestum in metam a^qualiter assurgeret." But how would this notion of the word do for a stack of chimnies ? I fear lie was a worse farmer than etymologist : for I do not believe that a stack of hay or of wood was ever so Raised by any one, in any country, at any time. Stalk, applied by us at present only to plants, I believe to be the same participle^; and perhaps it should be written STA\VK (as we pronounce it) or stak (the a, as formerly, broad): and indeed the l may have been introduced to give the broad sound to our modern a. This however is only my conjecture, being unable otherwise to account fov the intro- duction of L into this word, whose meaning is evident. This etymology, I think, is strengthened by the antient application * Junius says — " Stagg. .Cervus. Fortasse est a Ί^τειχω, ordine in- cedo. In cervis certe gregatim prodeuntibus mirum ordinem depre- hendunt quibus ea res curse. Prsecipue tamen admirabilis est ordo, quern tenent maria transnatantes. Maria tranant gregatim nantes por- recto ordine (inquit Plin. N. H. viii. 32.) et capita imponentes prsece- dentium clunibus, vicibusque ad terga redeuntes. Hoc maxime notatur a Cilicia Cyprum trajicientibus. Nee vident terras, sed in odorem ea- rum natant." Skinner says — " Stag Minsh. deflectit a Σ-ειχω, curro : sed ^ταγω nusquam ciirro ; sed Eo ordi?ie, et Eo exponitur. Nescio an ab A. -S. Scican. Teut. Stechen, Stecken, pungere.- Quia sc. Cornua acuta habet quibus pungere aptus natus est." 2 [" Like as the seeded field greene grasse first showes, Then from greene grasse into a stalke doth spring, And from a stalke into an eare forth-growes. Which eare the frutefull graine doth shortly bring ; And as in season due the husband mowes The Avaving lockes of those faire yeallow heares, Which bound in sheaves, and layd in comely ro\ves. Upon the naked fields in stalkes he reares." Spenser, Riihies of Rome,'] 2 L 2 516 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. of the word stalk to the rounds, or steps, or stairs of a ladder. '' He made him ladders three To clymben by the ronges, and the stalkes Into the tubbes hongyng by the balkes." Myllers Tale, fol. 14. p. 1. col. 2. It is not impossible that the l may have been introduced here, for the sake of the rime to balkes : it certainly is a liberty often taken both by Gower and Chaucer, and by our other antient rimers. As the verb j^tijan was variously pronounced and variously written, steig, stye, stie ; some sounding and wn'iting the G ; some changing it to γ ; and some sinking it altogether ; so consequently did its participles vary. We have already noticed stag, stage, stack, stalk; in which the g hard, or the g soft, or its substitute κ, is retained ; and we must now observe the same past participle of j^ti^an, without either g or κ ; viz. stay. *' Ane port thare is, quham the Est fludis has In manere of ane bow maid boule or bay, With rochis set forgane the streme full stay To brek the salt fame of the seyis stoiire," Douglas, booke 3, p. S6. " Portus ah Eoo fluctu curvatur in arcum, Ohjectcp salsa spumant aspergine cautes. IjDse latet : gemino demittunt brachia muro TuRRiTi scopuli, refugitque a littore templum." The Glossarist of Douglas, in explanation, says—'' Stay, steep : as we say, Scot,—k stay brae, i.e. α high hank of difficult ascent : from the verb Stay, to stop or hinder ; because the steepness retards those who climb it; as the L. say, iter impeditum, loca impedita. — Or, from the Belg. Stegigh, prse- ruptus." I think the Glossarist wanders.—'' Rochis full stay," are - — ven/ high rocks. And a "stay brae/' is a high bank. Without any allusion to, or adsignification of, the difficulty of ascent. Nor is there any word, either in the original or in the translation, which alludes to delay or iter impeditum. Nor does it appear that they were prccrnptce cautes. But these CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 517 objected cautes are afterwards called Tarrili scopuii. And the purpose of this description is barely to account for the port itself being hidden : ipse latet : for which purpose their height was important. But the Glossarist was at a loss for the mean- ing of the epithet stay ; and therefore he introduces difficult ascent J and prderuptus ; giving us our choice of two derivations ; viz. either from our English verb To Stay, i. e. to delay; or from the Dutch Stegigh. But neither of these circumstances are intended here to be conveyed by the poet : and Douglas knew too well both his author and his duty, to introduce a fo- reign and impertinent idea, merely to suit his measure or his rime. — Stay means merely fteij, raised, high, lofty. Stair, in the Anglo-Saxon j^tasjep, and still in the Dutch Steiger, I must not at present call a participle (whatever I may venture to do hereafter;) for fear of exciting a premature dis- cussion. Stair means merely an Ascender. The change from j'tasjep to STAIR, has been in the usual course of the lan- guage. First the g gave place to the softer γ, and has since been totally omitted. Chaucer wrote it steyer; and the verb To Steig lie wrote To Stey. " Depe in thys pynynge pytte with wo I lygge 3'stocked, w4th chaynes lynked of care and tone. It is so hye from thens I lye and the com- mune erth, ther ne is cable in no lande maked, that myght stretche to me, to drawe me into blysse, no steyees to stey is none," Testament of Loue, fol. 203. p. 2. col. 2. Fabian, in the reign of Henry 7. continues to write it in the same manner. " Then the saied 11 dead corses were draAven downe the steyees ■without pitie." — Chronicle, vol. 2. p. 294. " At Bedforde this yere at the keping of a Shire dale, by the faliyng of a steyer, wer xviii murdered and slaine." — Ibid. p. 434. [" Others number their yeares, their houres, their minutes, and step to age by staires : thou onely hast thy yeares and times in a cluster, being olde before thou remembrest thou wast young." Endimion {hy John Lily^ act 4. sc. 3.] Story, which the French denominate Estage, E'tage^, ^ " Nicot dans son Dictionnaire, et Caninius dans son Canon des Dialectes, le derivent t)'es veriiablement de στέγη. Στέγη, στεγα, ste- gagiiirn, Etagc. Ou bien : stega, Estege, Estoge." Menage. 518 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. and which (as we have seen in a foregoing instance) was formerly in England also called a stage, is merely — Stagery, Stayeryy (the A broad) Stawry or Story y i. e. A set of Stairs, As Shrubbery, Rookery y &c. a number or collection of shrubs; a number or collection of rooks, &c. The termination ery, for this purpose, to any word, is a modern adoption of our lan- guage, and the term therefore comparatively modern : but the meaning is clear; and the derivation at least unrivalled ^ Sty, on the eye. Skinner says well^ — '' tumor palpebree phlegmonodes, vel ab A.-S. Stijan, ascendere ; quia sc. con- tinuo crescit, nisi per medicamenta cohibeatur." He adds injudiciously — *Wel a Gr. 'Στια^ lapillus, propter duritiem, ut auguratur Mer. Cas." — The name of this complaint in the Anglo-Saxon is j^tijenb or j^tijanb, ascenclens, rising up ; the present participle of the verb j^tijan. Our ancestors therefore wanted not, and were not likely to borrow from the Greeks the name of a malady so common amongst themselves. Sty for hogs, in the Anglo-Saxon rti^e, is the past partici- ple of j'tijan. It denotes a Raised pen for those filthy animals, who even with that advantage can scarcely be kept in tole- rable cleanliness. The Italian Slia is the same word ; of which Menage was aware ; though he knew not its meaning. — '' Ε vocabol Gottico. Steyra dicono gli Suezzesi per signifi- care stalla da porci ; et Hogstie, gli Inghilesi." Which makes it the more extraordinary, that, with his good understanding, Skinner should imagine that it might be derived — '' a stipando; quia sc. in eo quasi stipantur.^' A stile, in Anglo-Saxon j^ti^el, the diminutive of Sty. Stirrup, in Anglo-Saxon j^tij-jiap. In the derivation of this word our etymologists (with the exception of Minshew) could not avoid concurrence. It is a mounting-rope ; a rope by which to mount. 1 " A STORY, contignatio, nescio an a Teut. S fewer, fulcrum ; vel a nostro Store, q. d. locus ubi supellexet reliqua omnia bona asscrvantur ; vel a Belg. Schuere, horreum, granarium ; vel fort, quasi Stoiver vel Stoicry ab A.-S. Stop, locus."• — Skinner, CII. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 519 [" The STIRRUP Avas called so in scorne, as it were a sxy^Y to get up, being derived of the old English word sty, which is to get up, or mounte." Spenser s View of the State of Ireland, edit. 1805. vol. 8. p. 391.] The Low-Latin words Astraba and Strepa, and the Spanish Estriho, are manifestly taken from our language by a corrupt pronunciation of j'tijpap or j^tipap'. Gain — i. e. Any thing acquired. It is the past participle of jepan, of the verb Ije-pinnan;, acquirere. This word has been adopted from us into the French, Italian and Spanish languages : of which circumstance Menage and Junius were aware ; Skinner not concurring. Pain — We need not have recourse to Pcena and ΤΙοινη, It is the past participle of our own Anglo-Saxon verb Pinan, cruciare. Rain — In the Anglo- Saxon RaEijn, is the past participle of KirNQ/\.N, pluere. As the Latin Piiivia is the unsuspected past participle formed from Piitvi, the antient past tense of Pluere. *' In Helies time heauen was closed That no raine ne ronne." — Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 72. p. 2. Strain Λ ^^ • , ^ ^ n I feTRAiN IS the past tense and therefore past Λ7 7 >participle of the Anolo-Saxon verb StnV" lESTER-aat/ i ' \ "^^ . J J TT 1 Ώίΐη, gionere, procreare, acqun-ere. Hestern-/a paepneb hc?i\ye:'— Alfred's Will. There is nothing extraordinary in this use of the participle STRAIN or STRYND as a substantive. The past participle get, i. e. Begotten J is used in the same manner. "And I thy blude, thy get, and dochter schene." Douglas, booke 10. p. 313. " Quhare that his douchter, amang buskis ronk. In derne sladis and mony sloggy slonk, Wyth milk he nurist of the beistis wilde, And wyth the pappys fosterit he hys chyld : Of sauage kynd stude meris in that forest, Oft tymes he thare breistis mylkit and prest Within the tendir lippis of his get." — Ibid, booke 11. p. 384. And though we do not at present use get as a past parti- ciple, for Begotten; it was so used formerly. " For of all creatures that euer were get and borne This wote ye w'el, a woman Λvas the best." Chaucer, Praise of Women, fol. 292. p. 1. col. 1. What is commonly called a Cocks stride is corruptly so pronounced, instead of a cock's strynd. Skinner says well — '^ A cock's stride, vel, ut melius in agro Line, efierunt, a cock's strine : ab A.-S. Stpmb." Yesler-dai^j Yester-night, Yester-evoi: and Dryden, with great propriety, says also '* Yester-sun." 522 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. [" To love an enemy, the only one Remaining too, whom YESTER-sun beheld Mnst'ring her charms, and rolling, as she past By every squadron, her alluring eyes ; To edge her champions' swords, and urge my ruin." Don Sebastian, act 2. sc. 1.] YESTER-c?ej/ is in the Anglo-Saxon Erej^tpan baej. Ere- j-tjian is the past tense and past participle of Ere-j^tjiinan, To Acquire, To Get, To Obtain. But a day is not gotten or obtained^ till it is passed: therefore jej^tpan beej is equiva- lent to the passed day. Erertjian, Yestran, Yestern', Yester. The Latin Etymologists and Menage, with whom Junius and Skinner concur, would persuade us that hestern-?/.? is derived from y^ec, or ^.y^^c,. And some of them from Hareo — *' nempe quia dies hesternus heeret hodierno." But this reason would suit as well the subsequent as tlie preceding day : and therefore the term, leaving no distinction between them, would not be qualified for the office assigned to it. The Latin hes- tern-ws is also of our Northern origin : Ghestern, Hestern. Bruise — according to the constant practice of the lan- guage, by the change of the characteristic letter, is the past tense and past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Bpyj^an, conterere; according to our antient English, To Brise. [French, Briser.] " Then they rashed together as it had beene thunder, and Sir Hemi- son BRisED his speare upon Sir Tristram." Historie of Prince Arthur, 2d part, ch. 83. ** Whan a tree is newely sette men water it, and sette stakes and poles about to strength it ayenst the v/yndes blastes and for stormes, it sholde ellys bryse it or breke it and felle it adowne." Dines and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 61. " The asse sawe the angell and fledde asyde for drede of the angels swerde, and bare Balaam ayenst the walle, and brosed his fote."— Ibid. 5th Comm. cap. 15. Bruit — means (something) spread abroad, divulged, di- ' In German, Gestern : in Dutch, Gisteren. [Wachter says, " Gothis gistradagis est eras, Matth. vi. 30 : quod miratur Junius."— Ed.] CM. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 523 spersed\ It is tlie past tense and past participle, formed in the accustomed manner, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Bpittian, Bpyttian, distribuere, dispensare : In English also To Brit. " To BRIT, apud Salopienses, to divulge and spread abroad." Ra/s Preface to North Country Words. Truce — is formed in the usual manner. It is the reo;ular past tense and therefore past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Tpip]"ian, fidem dare, To pledge one's Faith, To plight one's Troth, The French Treve (formerly written Tresves) is the same word. " He therfore sent hym in ambassade to the sayd Rollo to requyre a TREWE or TREWSE for thre monethes." — Fabian, parte 6. ch. 131. " Under coloure of a fayned trewce they were taken and caste the moste parte of theym in pryson." — Ibid, parte 7. ch. 241. " Was proclaimed throughe the citee and also the hooste, a daie of lenger trewes." " The daie of expiration of the truewes opproched." Fabian, Lewes XI. p. 484. Full — is the past tense, used as a past participle, of the verb Fyllan, To Fill. And may at all times have its place supplied by Filled', 1 ['• Brother, we will proclaime you out of hand. The BRUIT thereof will bring you many friends." Sd Part of Hemy 6, p. 167. col. 1. Malone says—" The word bruit is found in Bullokar's Enghsh Ex- positor, 8vo, 1616, and is defined — * A reporte spread abroad.' " So (says Steevens) in Preston's Cambyses ; " : Whose many acts do fly By bruit of fame." " The French word bruit (says Mr. Whalley) was very early made a denizen of our language. " ' Behold the noise of the bruit is come.' — Jeremiah, 10. 22."] "- [The Italian folla ; whence the French foulle. Menage says — "Folla, dal Lat. inusitato falla, originato da fullus, detto per Fullo, Fullonis. Quindi deriva il Francese foulle, Vedi Fouller nelle Origini Francesi." ΛVhere may be seen the foolish de- rivations of Caseneuve and Menage.] 524 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. Stum — -is the past tense and past participle of Styman, fumare, To Steam. It me'ans Jmnigated, steamed^, " Stum, in the wine trade, denotes the unfermented juice of the grape, after it has been several times racked off and separated from its sediment. The casks are, for this purpose, well matched or fumigated with brimstone every time, to prevent the liquor from fermenting, as it would otherwise readily do, and become Avine." Encyclop. Britannica. Art. stum. Lust— -The past tense and past participle of the verb Lyj'tan, cupere, To List. It Avas not formerly, as now, con- fined only to a desire of one kind ; but was applied generally to any thing ivished, or desired, or liked. " And of the myracles of these crownes twey, Saynt Ambrose in his preface luste to sey." Seconde Nonnes Tale, fol. 57. p. 2. col. 2. " Faire Sir, said Sir Tristram, to drinke of that water haue I a lust." Hist, of Prince Arthur, 2d part, ch. 87. Dung (or, as it was formerly written, dong) by the change of the characteristic letter γ to o, or to u, is the past tense and therefore past participle of the verb Dynjan, dejicere. To Cast doivn. *• And Dowel shal ding him down-, and distroi his might." Vision of Pierce Ploughman, pass. ] 1. fol. 50. p. 2, ' " Stum of wine. Sic appellatur, ni fallor, Mustum statim quam primum expressum est, validissimo dolio circulis ferreis munito usque ad summum, nullo spiritibus loco vacuo relicto, inditum sen potius in- fartum, ne sc. posset effervescere et defeecari : hoc vinis fere vietis et evanidis immissum novum ipsis vigorem et spiritum, instar fermenti, conciliat ; et, modo confestim bibantur, palata apprime commendat. Nescio an a Belg. Sto^n, Tent. Stumm, mutus, q. d. vinum mutum ; quia nunquam efferbuit. Vel potius a Belg. Stomp, Teut. Stumpff, hebes, obtusus (i. e.) vinum obtusum ; quia sc. quoniam nulla fermentatione depuratum est, spiritus, non ut vina setate defaecata, puros vividos et expedites, sed hebetes et languidos habet." — Skinner. Lye says — " Stum, vox oenopolis satis nota, Su. Stum. Detruncatum volunt ex Lat. Mustum." 2 [In Malone's edition of Shakespeare are inserted Poems on Shake- speare, and in the 200th page of the ist part of the 1st volume, it is thus written : CH. TV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 525 [" My fore grandsyr, hecht Fyn Mac Cowl, That DANG the deuil and gart him 3''owll, The skyis rained whan he wald scowll, And trublit all the air." Interlude of the Droichis, Scotch Poem about the time of James the 4th. *' Many strong eddies, gusts, and counterblasts : whereby we are hoisted sometime to heaven with a billow of presumption, and dung downe againe with abysse of desj)aire to helward." Divers Ancient Monuments in the Saxon Tongue : Published by William L'Isle of Wilburgham, Esquire to the King's body. Printed by E. G. for Francis Eglesfield, 1638. Preface, p. 3.] Dung, or dong, therefore means Deject um, and in that meaning only is applied to Stercus. " And at the west gate of the toun (quod he) A carte ful of donge there shalt thou se." Tale of the Nonnes Priest, fol. 99. p. 1. col. 1. " All other thynges in respecte of it, I repute (as sainct Paule saith) for DONG." — Sir T. More, Lyfe of Pycus, p. 20. ['* Who shall let me now On this vile body from to wreak my wrong, And make his carkas as the outcast dong." Faerie Qiieene, book 2. cant. 8. st. 28.] Turd (or, as it was formerly written, Tojib and toord) is the past tense and past participle of the verb Tipan, To Feed upon. [** Then hath she an haukes eye. Ο that I were a partridge head. " His (meaning Marlowe's) Hero and Leander, was published in quarto, 1598, by Edward Blount, as an imperfect work. The fragment ended wdth this line — ' Dang'd down to hell her loathsome carriage.' Chapman completed the Poem, and published it as it now ajDpears, in 1600." " Sea-nymphs hourly ring his knell : Hark, now I hear them,— ding — dong, bell. (Burden, ding — dong, bell.)" In Malone's edition of Shakespeare, vol. 1. part 2. The Tempest, P• 27.] 626 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. To what end ? That she might tire with her eyes on my countenance." My das (hy John Lily), act 1. sc. 2. " Thou dotard, thou art woman-TYR'n, unroosted By thy dame Partlet here." Winter s Tale, act 2. sc. 3. *' And like an emptie eagle Tyre on the flesh of me and of my sonne." 2>d Part of Henry 6, p. 149. col. 2. " __ I greeve myselfe, To thinke, when thou shalt be disedg'd by her That now thou tyrest on, how thy memory Will then be pang'd by me." — Cymbdine, p. 383. col. 1. " And now doth ghostly death With greedy tallents gripe my bleeding heart. And like a harper tyers on my life." One of Malone's Notes, vol. 1. part 2. p. 211.] "Euen as an empty eagle, sharp by fast. Tires with her beak on feather, flesh and bone, Shaking her wings, deuouring all in haste. Till either gorge be stuff^'d, or prey be gone." — Veims and Adonis. " I thinke this honorable lord did but try us this other day. Upon that were my thoughts tyring when we encountred." Timon of Athens, p. 89*. "- This man. If all our fire were out, would fetch down new Out of the hand of Jove, and rivet him To Caucasus, should he but frown ; and let His own gaunt eagle fly at him to tire." B. Jonson, Catiline, act 3. Turd and dung may therefore be well applied to the same thing ; although each word has intrinsically a very different meaning : for turd, i. e. that wliich has been fed upon, been 1 [Upon this passage Dr. Johnson says — " A hawk, I think, is said to tire, w^hen she amuses herself with pecking a pheasant's wing, or any thing that puts her in mind of prey. To tire upon a thing, is therefore, to be idly employed upon it." ! Upon this note, Malone sagaciously remarks — " I believe Dr. Johnson is mistaken. Tiring means here, I think, Fixed, Faste?ied ; as the hawk fastens its beak eagerly on its prey."!] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 527 eaten, must, by the course of nature, be afterwards Oejectum from the body ; and thereby becomes dunGc " Sum man hadde a fige tree plauntid in his vyner, and he cam sekinge fruyt in it, and fonde not. sotheli he seide to the tiher of the vyner, lo thre yeris ben, sithen I come sekynge fruyt in this Htil fyge tree : and I fynde not. therfor kitte it doun, wherto occupieth it the erthe ? And he answeringe seide to him. Lord, suflfre also this yeer : til the while I delue ahoute it, and sende toordis. And if it shal make fruyt : ellis in tyme to comynge thou shalt kitte it doun." Luke, ch. 13. v. 6, 7, 8, 9.~ " Natheles I gesse alle thingis for to be peyrment for the clear science of Ihesu Crist, for whom I made alle thinges peirement, and I deme as tooudis, that I wynne Crist." — Philippensys, ch. 3. v. 8. Muck 'l These two words are improperly confounded by MixEN J Junius and Skinner. They do not mean tlie same thing. Muck is the past tense and therefore past participle of ClQlCjan, meiere, mingere, To Piss. And it means (any thing, something) pissed upon. Hence the common saying — " As wet as MUCK," i. e. As wet as if pissed upon. So the hay and straw, &c. which Imve been staled on by the cattle, make the MUCK heap, or heap of materials which have been staled upon by the cattle. MixEN means the same as Mixed, and is equivalent to Compost. — ■'' Quia est (as Skinner truly says) miscela omnium alimentorum." " The operation of the storaake is, to make a good myxyon of thynges there in, and to digeste them well." Regiment of Helth, By Tho. Paynel, fol. 48. p. 1. What we call a mixen was indifferently termed in the An- glo-Saxon either OQeox or ClQixen ; that is, they either (in their accustomed manner) used tlie regular past tense as a past participle ; or they added the participial termination en to the verb, and so obtained a past participle. Our English verb To Mix is no other than the Anglo-Saxon verb OQij^can, raiscere. By casting off the Anglo-Saxon infinitive termi- nation AN, and, according to our custom, prefixing our infinitive sign 2Ό, we had the verb To Misc. And this, by a transpo- sition common to all people and languages, became To Mies, 528 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART ΙΓ, i. e. To Mix. COeocy or QQeox is the joast tense of GQij^can or OQicpn, used participially : and COiycen, OQiCj^en, or Mixeu is the past participle. I cannot help noticing to you as we pass (though I have often forborne a similar remark) that the Latin verbs Miscere and Meiere, for which Junius and Vossius would send us in vain to the Hebrew, are evidently from our own Northern lan- guage ; with no other difference than the Latin infinitive termination ere instead of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive termina- tion AN. Anglo-Saxon O^ij^c-aii A.-S. OQic^-an. Latin . . Misc-ere Lat. < -,/./ > -ere. I Mmg J F. — You have touched upon this subject before. And what you threw out has not been lost upon me. I do spy great re- lief to the difiiculties of the Latin etymologist, by directing his view to the Noith rather than to the East, when all his labour and toil are frustrate in the Greek. And I agree witli you, that, dismissing the common terminations, which are mere common adjuncts to the diflferent words, it is impossible not to discover at once the derivation of many of them. Besides those Latin words you have already noticed ,• the following. ]:5abb-an J eve only in composition. )^naec-an — — Nec-are 8ec-an Seqn-i- — qu equivalent to c. ftij-an l~re — The aspirate suppressed. rr 7 Γ Which the Latin has ^ent-an — Uend-ere— i^jiop, of J^jiypan, cadefe, prolabere. Mort'is 1 Γ OQoji^, of OQipjian, dissipare, abstra- Mors J \ here. Aur-a Opa^, of Ope^ian, spirare. Di-es — - — Dasj, of Dasjian, illucescere. Ocul-us' Atirj?, of ΛίΙΓΛΝ, ostendere. &c. &c. Of all which words the serious and elaborate accounts given by the Latin etymologists, will cause to those who consult them, either great disgust or great entertainment, according to the disposition and humour of the inquirer. But I beg pardon for this interruption, which yourself how- ever occasioned : We shall have time enough hereafter to canvass this matter : and I entreat you at present to proceed in your course. ίί.— Loos, though now and long since obsolete, was for- merly in common use in the language : and your mention of the Latin word laus has brought it to my recollection. " It is a carefull knight, and of kaytife kynges making, That hath no land ne linage riche ne good loos of hys handes." Vision of F. Ploughman, fol. 57. p. 2. *• And felle, that Ariadne tho, Whiche was the doughter of Minos, And had herde the worthye los Of Theseus." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 112. p. 2. col. 1. ** Great loos hath largesse, and great prise For both wyse folke and unwyse.'' Rom. of the Rose, fol. 125. p. 2. col. 1. [Aksha^ Sanskrit,— Ed/] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 531 *' She knewe by the folke that in his shippes be, That it was lason ful of renomee, And Hercules, that had the great loos." HypsipJiile, fol. 214. p. 1. col. 2. " Ye shal haue a shrewde name And wicked loos, and Λvorse fame, Thoughe ye good loos haue wel deserued." Zd Boke of Fame, fol. 300. p. 1. col. 1. ** And yet ye shal haue better loos Ryght in dispyte of al your foos." Ibid. " And he gan blowe her loos so clere In hys golden clarion η , Through the Avorlde Λvent the soun." Ibid. col. 2. " in heuen to bene losed with God hath none ende." Testamefit of Loue, boke 1. fol. 310. p. 2. col. 2. •' Sir priest, he said, I kepe for to haue no loos Of my crafte, for I wold it were kept cloos. And as you loue me, kepith it secre." Tale of Chanons Yeman, fol. 63. p. L col. 2. [" That much he feared least reproachfuU blame With foule dishonour him mote blot therefore ; Besides the losse of so much loos and fame, As through the world thereby should glorifie his name." Faerie Queene, book 6. cant. 12. st. 12.] This word was also aiitiently in common use with the French. Menage endeavoured to revive it. He says — '^ Ce mot etoit un beau mot. le souhaiterois fort qu'on le remit en usage : et pour cela, j'ai dit dans mon epitre a M. Pelisson : * Fais-tu raisonner le los De Fouquet, ton grand heros.' " Loos or LOS is evidently the past participle of the verb J^lij-an, celebrare^ As Laus also is. Of which bad the Latin etymologists been aware ; they never would, by such childish allusions, have endeavoured to derive it from Aaoc, populus — ^^ ut LAUS proprie sit sermo populi de virtute alicujus testantis." ** Vel a Λαω, id est, eloquor." ['* pij- PLY8A If γιύ CUD on geleafullum bocum." jElfnc. de Veteri Testametito, p. 13.] 2 Μ 2 532 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Vel ab antiquo Αηυω, id est, fi'Lior. — ^' Quia iiullus virtutis major est fructus, quam la us." Busy, i.e. Occupatus, is the past participle of Byj^Jian, occupare. Stunt, i. e. Stopped in the growth : the past participle of Stintan, To Stop\ Numb 1 [Swedish^ Dambskalle.] This word was for- NuMscuLL J merly written num. How, or why, or when the Β was added to it, I know not. " She fel, as she that was throug nome Of loue, and so forth ouercome." Goiver, lib. 5. fol. 103. p. 1. col. 2. *' He maie neither go ne come. But all to gether he is benome The power both of honde and fete." Ibid. lib. 6. fol. 127. p. 2. col. 1. [" Or hath the crampe thy ioynts benomd with ache." Spenser, Shepheards Calender, August. 2 " ^' If this law Of nature be corrupted through affection , And that great mindes, of partiall indulgence To their benummed wills, resist the same, There is a law in each well-ordred nation To curbe those raging appetites." Troylus and Cressida. " Bedlam beggars, who Λvith roaring voices Strike in their num'd and mortified amies Pins, &c." Lear, p. 293. " These feet whose strengthlesse stay is numme." 1st Part of Henry 6. p. 104. [" It was such bitter weather that the foote had waded allmost to the middle in snow as they came, and were so nummed with cold, when they came into the towne, that they were faine to be rubbed to get life in them." — Life of Col. Hutchinson, p. 181.] NuM is the past tense and past participle of Niman, capere, eripere. To Nim. Skinner says truly — " Eodeni fere sensu 1 Skinner says — " Stunt, vox agro Line, familiaris, Ferox, iracundus, contumax, ab A.-S. Stunca, j*tunte, stultus, fatuus ; fort, quia stulti, prseferoces sunt : vel a verbo To Stand, ut Resty, a restando ; metaphora ab equis contumacibus sumpta." Lye says — '* Stunt, alicujus rei in- crementum impedire : manifeste venit ab Isl. Stunta, abbreviare ; in decursu, sensu aliquantulum mutato." CH. iV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 533 quo Lat. dicitur memhris captus, i. e, iiiembiOrtiin usu, sc. motii et sensu privatus." NuMscuLL, in Ital. MeutecattOj Aiiimo captus. So Seneca. Hercules Furens. " Ut possit animo captus Alcides agi, Magno furore percitus ; vobis prius Insaniendum est." Hurt — The past participle of I^yjipian, injuria afficere, vexare. Hunger — The past participle of J^ynjpian, esurire. Din Ί Dint >The past participle of Dynan, strepere, To Din. Dun J " They hurled together and brake their speares and all to sheuered them, that all the castle rang of their dints." Hist, of Prince Arthur, ch. 132. A DUN is one who has dinned another for money or any thing. Snake"] Snake, Anglo-Saxon Snac, is the past participle Snail >of Snican, serpere, repere, To Creep, To Sneak; Snug J as Serpens in Latin is the present participle of Serpere. Shakespeare very properly gives this name to a sneaking or creeping fellow. " I see Loue hath made thee a tame snake." As you like it, act 4. sc. 3. p. 202. Snail, j^nsejel (or Snakel) the diminutive of snake : ο being sounded and written instead of κ in the Anglo-Saxon ; and both g and κ dropped in the English. Snug (i. e. Snuc) is likewise the past participle of Snican ; the characteristic i changed to u, and g sounded for κ. Smut — is the past participle of Smitan, be-j'initan, pol- luere, inquinare, contaminare\ 1 [" Then, all around with a wet sponge he wiped His visage, and his arms and brawny neck Purified, and his shaggy breast from smutch." Cowpers Iliad, vol. 2. book 18. p. 235. " A cauldron of four measures, never smirch'd By smoke" or flame." Ibid, book 23. p. 380.] ^34 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Crum — Mica, is the past participle of Epymman, acpym- man, friare. " The ryche man shpi gyue answere of euery threde in his clothe, of euery cromme of brecle in his bredeskep, of euery droppe of drynke of his barell and in his Tonne." — Diues and Pauper, 8th Comm. cap. 17. [" Then art thou in a state of life which philosophers commend. A CRUM for thy supper, a hand for thy cup." Campaspe (by John Lily), act 1. sc. 2.] " As the gold-finer will not out of the dust, threds, or shreds of gold, let pass the least crum ; in respect of the excellency of the metall ; so ought not the learned reader to let pass any syllable of this law, in respect of the excellency of the matter." Lord Coke's Eocposit. of 2dth chap, of Magna Charta. GrumI The past participle of Erpymman, ssevire, fre- Grim J mere\ Gun — formerly written gon, is the past participle of Eiy- nian, biare. " They dradde none assaut Of gynne, gonne, nor skafFaut." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 140. p. 1. col. 1. Scum— That which is Skimmed off ; the past participle of the verb To Skim. Hence the Italian Schiuma and the French Esc lime, Ecume. Snuff — That which is Sniffed up the nose; the past par- ticiple of the verb To Sniff, Pump — An engine by which water, or any other fluid is obtained or procured. It is the past participle of the verb To Pimpf i. e. To procure, or obtain. 1 [" Calati dunque nel cosco, e portati bene, sai ? Che monel fra tanto andra a canzonar co 1 grimo." Guarini, La Idropica, atto 3. sc. 10. " Grima. Vecchia Grima," says Menage, " II Sig^. Ferrari da Qri~ nitia. L' Eritreo, a Rimis : ' quod ejus frons rugis arata sit.' Sono da cercare altre derivazioni di questa voce. Grimace per Smorfia, diciamo in Francia." La Crusca says — '' Grimo : aggiunto che diamo a vecchio grinzo, senex rugosus." ** The hearing this doth force the tyrant gry." Godfrey of Bulloigne, Translated by R. C. p. 61. cant. 2. st. 23, *' Hor, questo udendo, in minaccievol suono Freme il tiranno."] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 535 Stench — -is the past participle of Stincan, foetere ; pio- nouncing ch for κ. As Wench is the past participle of ]7incan ; Drench of Dpincan ; and Wrench of pjiin^an. Snack — Something Snatched, taken hastily, κ for ch ; it is the past participle of the verb To Snatch. Ditch ^ The past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Dyche >Dician, fodere, To Dig. As the Latin reputed Dike J substantive Fossa is the past participle of fodere. In these words Dig, Dike, Dyche, Ditch, we see at one view how easily and almost indifferently we pronounce the same word either with g, k, or ch. " I DYKE and delue and do that truth hoteth. Some tyme I sowe and some tyme I thresh." Vision of P. Ploughnan, pass. 6. fol. 29. p. 1. " These labourers, deluers and dykers ben ful poore." Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 46. " Two freres walkynge on a dyches brynke." — Ibid. cap. 50. Dim — The past participle of Dimnian, abimnian, ob- sciirare. It was formerly in English written dimn', '" Ye elues, by whose ayde I haue bedymn'd The noone tide sun." Tempest, p. 16. " With sad unhelpeful teares, and with dimn'd eyes." 2d Part of Henry VI. p. 132. Trim — used adjectively or substantively, is the past parti- ciple of the verb Tjiyman, ordinare, disponere. " Young ladies, sir, are long and curious In putting on their trims." — B. and Fletcher, Women Pleas d. '* In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes." Gray. Limb • 1 In Anglo-Saxon written Lim^ and Limb ; β being Limbo J written for p. It is the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Limpian, pertinere. And it means- — quod ' Junius derives this word from " Αβιμασθαι, quod Hesychio exp. φοβεισθαι, metuere ; quandoquidem naturalis tenebrarum metus est." Skinner, from " Teut. Demmen, Danwien, obturare ; quia omnia ob- turata propter luminis exclusionem tenebricosa sunt." Lye from " C. B. et Arm. Dii, vel Dy ; caliginosus, ater, niger." S. Johnson, — from " Doiv, Erse." 2 Junius says — " Lim, fortasse per inversionem factum e tribus in- itialibus Uteris Greeci μ€λos, membrum." 536 OF ABSTRACTION, [PART II. pertinet or quod peitinuit. What belongeth or hath belonged to something. Limb of the body. Limb of the law. Limb of an argument, &c. Hence and hence only are derived the Latin words Limbus and Lembus^ : which are sometimes trans- lated περι-στρωμα, περι-ττετασμα : but that is not precisely the meaning, unless the notion οι pertinendi, i. e. of holding to, or behrwhiQ, to, is included. [" He found himself un\vist so ill bestad. That LiM he could not wag." Faerie Queene, book 5. cant. 1. st. 22. ** And soothly sure she was full fayre of face, And perfectly well shapt in every lim." Ibid, book 6. cant. 9. st. 9.] Imp — Shakespeare, in Loues Labours Lost, p. 125, makes Don Armado say, *' Sadnesse is one and the selfe same thing, dear impe." Upon this passage Dr. Johnson says : — *' Imp was antiently a term of dig?iiti/. Lord Cromwel in his last letter to Henry VIII. prays for the imp his son. It is now used only in con- tempt or abhorrence ; perhaps in our author's time it was ambiguous, in which state it suits well with this dialogue." In the 2d part of Henry IV. p. 99, we have imp again, " Saue thy grace, king Hall, my royall Hall. The heauens thee guard and keepe, most royall impe of fame." And again in Henry V. p. 83. " The king 's a bawcock, and a heart of gold, a lad of life, an impe of fame, of parents good." Mr. Steevens (very differently indeed from Dr. Johnson) sought industriously and judiciously for the meaning of Shake- speare's words, by the use which was made of the same terms by other antient authors : and nothing was wanting to Mr. Steevens to make him a most perfect editor of Shakespeare, but ' " LiMBUS — Non occurrit nunc unde verisimilius deducam, quam a λ(>βο5, quo τα άκρα παιτα signiiicari Hcsychius et Suidas testantur." — Vossius^ CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 537 a knowledge of his own primitive language, the Anglo-Saxon. Mr. Steevens tells us, — ''An imp is a Shoot, in its primitive sense, but means a Son in Shakespeare. In Hollinshed, p. 951, the last words of Lord Cromwel are preserved, who says — 'And after him that his Sonne prince Edward, that goodlie IMPE, may long reigne over you.'" — ■ — And again, "The word IMP is perpetually used by Ulpian Fulwell, and other antient writers, for progeny, ' And were it not thy royal impe Did mitigate our pain. — ' Here Fulwell addresses Anne BuUeyne, and speaks of the young Elizabeth. Again, in the Battle oj" Alcazar, 1594; ' Amurath, mighty emperor of the East, That shall receive the imp of royal race. — ' Impyyn is a Welch word, and primitively signifies a Sprout, a Slicker, In Newton's Herbal to the Bible, 8vo. 1587, there is a chapter — on shrubs, shootes, slippes, young imps, sprays, and buds." Mr. Steevens needed not to have travelled to Wales, for that which he might have found at home. Our language has ab- solutely nothing from the Welch. Imp is the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Impan, To Plant, To Graft. " I Avas continually a fryer And the couentes gardiner for to graft impes On limitors and listers, lesynges I imped Tyll the)^ beare leaues of smoAvthe speach." Vision of Pierce Ploughman, pass. 6. fol. 22. p. 2. " Impe on an elderne, and if thyne apple be s\vete Muchel maruaile me thynketh." — Ibid. pass. 10. fol. 44. p. 1. " As it is in younge and tender ympes, plantes, and twygges, the whiclie euen as ye bowe them in theyr youthe, so wyll they euermore remayn." — Byrth of Mankynde, fol. 54. p. 2. [" And also for the love which thou doest beare To th' Heliconian ymps, and they to thee ; They unto thee, and thou to them, most deare." Spenser's Verses to the Ε arte of Oxenford. " And thou, most dreaded impe of highest Jove, Faire Venus sonne." Faerie Qiieene, Prol. to 1st book. 538 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. " That detestable sight him much amazde. To see th' unkindly impes, of heaven accurst, Devoure their dam." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 26. " For all he taught the tender ymp, was but To banish cowardize and bastard feare." — Ibid. cant. 6. st. 24. " Well worthy impe, said then the lady gent,. And pupil fitt for such a tutor's hand."— /έ?ί/. cant. 9. st. 6. " And thou, faire ymp, sprong out from English race, How ever now accounted Elfins sonne. Well worthy doest thy service for her grace, To aide a virgin desolate fordonne." — Ihid. cant. 10. st. 60. " Now, Ο thou sacred Muse, most learned dame, Fayre ympe of Phoebus and his aged bryde." Ibid. cant. 11. st. 5. "Fayre ympes of beautie, whose bright shining beames Adorne the world with like to heavenly light." Ibid, book 3. cant. 5. st. 53. *' The first was Fansy, like a lovely boy Of rare aspect and beautie without peare, Matchable either to that ympe of Troy, Whom Jove did love and chose his cup to beare, Or that same daintie lad, which was so deare To great Alcides." Ibid. cant. 12. st. 7. •' Fond dame I that deem'st of things divine As of humane, that they may altred bee. And chaung'd at pleasure for those impes of thine." Ibid, book 4. cant. 2. st. 51. " Helpe therefore, Ο thou sacred impe of Jove, The nourslingof dame Memorie his deare." — Ibid. cant. 11. st. 10. " That faire city (Cambridge) wherein make abode So many learned impes, that shoote abrode. And with their braunches spred al^ Britany." Ibid, st, 16. " But Beige with her sonnes prostrated low Before his feete, in all that peoples sight ; Mongst ioyes mixing some teares, raongst wele some wo. Him thus bespake : Ο most redoubted knight. The which hast me, of all most wretched wight^ That earst was dead, restor'd to life againe, And these weake impes replanted by thy might." Ibid, book 5. cant. 11. st. 16. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 539 " Ye sacred imps that on Parnasso dwell. And there the keeping have of learnings threasures." Faerie Queene, book 6. cant. 1. st. 2. " The noble ympe, of such new service fayne. It gladly did accept." Ibid. cant. 2. st. 38. " That of the like, whose linage was unknowne, More brave and noble knights have raysed beene (As their victorious deedes have often showen. Being with fame through many nations blowen) Then those which have bene dandled in the lap. Therefore some thought that those brave imps were sowen Here by the gods, and fed with heavenly sap, That made them grow so high t' all honorable hap." Tbid. book 6. cant. 4. st. 36. " Brave impe of Bedford, grow apace in bountie, And count of wisedome more than of thy countie." Spenser's Ruines of Time. " The sectaries of my celestiall skill, That wont to be the worlds chiefe ornament. And learned impes that wont to shoote up still. And grow to height of kingdomes government." Spenser, Teares of the Muses, " The Norman, th' English, and Dardaniane, (O royall impe) are ioyned by thy sire ; And thou fro mothers side draw'st blood of Dane." To the Prince (Charles 1st) his highnes, Welcome home, 8(C. Ancient Monuments, by William L'Isle of Wilburgham, Esquire to the King's body. st. 6. Francis Eglefield, 1638. " Then shall we need no more to plant vs vines. Nor them to prop, to spread, to prune, to rub ; Nor send beyond seas for outlandish wines ; But in our fields, about each humble shrub. The selfe-set imp shall Λvinde, and load the same With purple clusters, all of deerest name," — Ibid. st. 21.] Grip — -and its diminutive grapple, the past participle of E/pipan, prehendere. Mist— The past participle of OQiftian, caligare'. 1 Minshew derives mist from the Latin Mistus. *' Aer enim caligine et densis vaporibus Mistus." 540 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Bliss 1 The past participle of Blifj-ian and BliJ?pan, Blith J laetari. Quick — The past participle of E/piccian, vivificare. Wizen — The past participle of pij^nian, arescere. Stiff — The past participle of Stijzpian, rigere, ^ ^ I The past participle of Diccian, clensare, con- TmcKET > 1 ^ ^ „ I clensare. Thigh J Thicket, for Thickedj i. e. with trees. Thigh (gh for ck) is sometimes in the Anglo-Saxon written Deoh (for Deoc) by change of the characteristic letter. Witch ") Skinner inclines to suppose wicked derived Wicked/ from Vitiatus: and Johnson, that — '* Perhaps it is a compound of ^ic (vile, bad) and Heady — Malum caput,^' — - According to which latter wise supposition, a wlcked action means- — a malum caput action : but nothing is too ridiculous for this Undertaker. Witch is the past tense, used as a par- ticiple, of the Anglo-Saxon verb piccian, incantare, veneficiis uti. And wicked i. e. avitched (k for ch) is the same past tensCj with the participial termination ed. The word witch is therefore as applicable to men as to women. ** Witches, in foretime named Lot-tellers, now commonly called sor- cerers." Catalogue of English printed Bookes. 1595. By Aiidrew Maunsell, p. 122. Lot-teller ; i. e. a teller of covered or hidden things. " Wherof came the name of Symonye ? Of Symon Magus, a grete WYTCHE." — Dines and Pauper, 7th Comm. cap. 16. " Dauid was lyk wyce so intanglid in the snares of the deuill, that with mouche paine he could quit hym self from the wycchyd coupe that the deuill had ons brought hym." Declaracion of Christe, By Johan Hoper, cap. xi. The notions of enchantment, sorcery and witchcraft were Dr. Th. Hickes supposes it to be Moist. And according to Junius — " Videtur esse a μειστον, quod Hesychio exp. ελάχιστον, nihil enim aliud est nebula, quam tenuissima quaedam ac subtilissima pluvia." CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 541 universally prevalent with our ancestors, who attributed all atrocious actions to this source : thus attempting to cover the depravity of human nature by its weakness, and the depravity of some other imaginary beings. So run our indictments to this day ; in which the crime is attributed to the instigation of the Devil. '* Latini certe comici," says Junius, ''hominem aperte im- probum atque omnibus in visum, pari prorsus ratione, dixerunt Veneficum,^' HiLDiNG — (like Coward) is either the past participle of the verb J^ylban, inclinare, curvare. To Bend doivri, To Crouch or To Coiver ; (and then it should be written hilden) or it is the present participle J^ylbinj (Kiylbanb) of the same verb. ["Which when that squire beheld, he to them stept, Thinking to take them from that hylding hound." Faerie Queene, book 6. cant. 5. st. 25.] " A base slaue, a hilding for a liuorie, a squires cloth, a pantler." Cymheline, p. 378, " *Tis positiue against all exceptions, Lords, That our superfluous lacquies, and our pesants. Who in unnecessarie action swarme About our squares of battaile, were enow To purge this field of such a hilding foe." — Henry V. p. 86. *' He was some hielding fellow, that had stolne The horse he rode on." 2nd Part Henry IV. p. 75. " Nay, good my lord, put him to 't ; let him have his way. If your lordshippe finde him not a hilding, hold me no more in your respect. Beleeue it, my lord, in mine owne direct knowledge, he is a most notable coward," All's Well thai Ends Well, p. 243. Some have supposed hilding to mean Hinderling (if ever there was such an English word) and some Hilderling ; which, Spelman says, is familiar in Devonshire. It is true that J^ylbep is a term of reproach in the Anglo-Saxon, furnished bv this same verb, and means — a croucher or coiverer\ ^ S. Johnson, in a note, act 2. sc. 1. Taming of a Shrew, tells us that hilding means — " a low loretch." But in his Dictionary he has disco- vered that pilb in the Anglo-Saxon means a Lord .• and that "perhaps Hilding means originally a little Lord, in contempt for a man that has only the delicacy or bad qualities of high rank." 542 OF ABSTEACTION. [PART II. Ripe — the past participle of Ripian, maturescere. Rhime — of J^jiiman, numerare. Spoil — of Spillan, privare, consumere. Crisp — In the Anglo-Saxon Eippp of Eipppan, crispare, torque re. Deed (like Actum and Factum) means — something, any thing — done. It is the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Don, To Do. Do-ed, did, deed, is the same word differently spelled. It was formerly written dede, both for the past tense and past participle. ** I do nought as Ulysses dede." — Gower, lib. 1. fol. 10. p. 2. col. 2. " Fy, upon a lorde that woU haue no mercy But be a lyon, bothe in worde and dede." Knightes Tale, fol. 5. p. 2. col. 1. Need 1 Nybbe, the past tense and past participle of Needle J Nybian, cogere, compellere, adigere\ Needle, (the diminutive of need) a small instrument, pushed y driveii. Observe, as we pass, that To Knead is merely Iie-nyban, (Ijnyban) pronounced Eneban — κ for g. Deep 1 Deep (which some derive from βνθος, fundum; Dab-c^26"A: _f primis tribus literis inversis : and others from ΔυτΓτω) is merely the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Dippan, mergere. To Dip, To Dive. " Deape linen clothes in to sundry waters, and after lay them to dry, and that whiche is sonest dry, the Λvater wherin it was deaped, is most ^Mhtjir—Castel of Helth, fol. 31. p. 2. " A spunge deaped in cold water." — Il)id. fol. 34. p. 1. In D^B-chick or OOB-chick; dab or dob, (so pronounced for Dap or Dop) is also the past participle of Dippan ; by the accustomed change of the characteristic i to a or o. Minshew derives need from the Hebrew Nadach, impulit. Mer. Casaubon, from the Greek ej'^eia, penuria. Junius, from ννσσω, ννττω. And NEEDLEj Mer. Cas. would derive from βελόνη. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 543 ** So was he dight That no man might Hym for a frere deny, He DOPPED and dooked He spake and looked So religiously." — Sir T. Mores Workes, fol. 11. p. 1. *' This officere This fayned frere Whan he was come aloft. He DOPPED than And grete this man Religiously and oft." — Ibid. " The diving dob- chick, here amongst the rest you see. Now up, now down, that hard it is to proue. Whether under water most it liveth, or above." Poly-olbion, song 25. Weak — The past participle of ]7ican, labare. To Totter, To Fail. Help- — The past participle of J^ylpan, adjuvare : which Minshew derives from ΕλτΓίί; ; and Junius from ^^ συΧλαβειν, sibilo tantummodo in aspiratam commutato." Well — Is the past participle of p'lllan, ebullire, effluere, To Spring out, To Well. It means (any or some place) where water, or other fluidj hath sprung out, or welled. *' And than welled water for wicked workes Egrely Ernynge out of mens eyen." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 20. fol. 109. p. 2. •• Where as the Poo, out of a wel small Taketh his first spring and his sours." Clerhe of Oxenf. Pro!, fol. 45. p. 1. col. 2. " For Avhich might she no lenger restrayne Her teares, they gan so up to well." Troylus, boke 4. fol. 186. p. 1. col. 1. *' Mine eyen two in vayne, with which I se. Of sorowful teares salte arn woxen wellis." Ihicl boke 5. fol. 197. p. 2. col 2. 544 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. " I can no more but here outcast of al welfare abyde the daye of my dethe, or els to se the syght that myght al my wellyng sorowes voyde, and of the flod make an ebbe." Testament of Loue, fol. 304. p. 1. col. 1. " The mother of the Soudon wel of vices." Man of Lawes Tale, fol. 20. p. 1. col. 1. *' But Christe that of perfeccion is well." Wife of Bathes Pro!, fol. 34. p. 2. col. 1 . " There dwelt a terselet me fast by That seemed wel of all gentilnesse." Sqmers Tale, fol. 27. p. 1. col. 2. *' The holy water of the sacrament of baptisme, the water that Welleth oute of ^ «ly church which stretcheth to two seas of synnes." Sir T. Mores Workes, p. 385. [" Thereby a christall streame did gently play, Which from a sacred fountaine avelled forth alway." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 34. " About the fountaine Whose bubbling wave did ever freshly well." Ibid. cant. 7. st. 4. "All wallowd in his own yet luke-war7ne blood, That from his wound yet welled fresh." — Ibid. cant. 9. st. 36. " And with intrusive enmity to light. Welled like a spring, and dimmed the orbs of sight." The Maid of Snoivdon, By Cumberland. edit. 1810. p. 199.] Welkin | j^^ ^^^^ Winter's Tale, act 1. sc. 1. p. 278. We ,,. j have — While J " Come (Sir Page) Looke on me with your welkin eye." On which passage S. Johnson says hardily, as usual ; ''welkin eye: Blue eye; an eye of the same colour with the WELKIN or sky." And this is accepted and repeated by Malone. I can only say, that this Note is worthy of them both ; and they of each other. Welkin is the present participle ]7illijenb, or J^ealcynb CIl. IV.] OP ABSTRACTION. 545 (i. e. volvens, quod volvit) of the Anglo-Saxon verb pillijan, p'ealcan, volvere, revolvere. Which is equally applicable to an eye of any colour — to what revolves or rolls over our heads —and to the waves of the sea. pealcynbe ea. pealcenbe yse, A rolling or wandering eye is no uncommon epithet : " Come hither, pretty maid, with the black and rolling eye." Here is a black pealcynb or welkin eye : and indeed the WELKIN, or that which is rolled about over our heads, is some- times black enough ^ But Messrs. Johnson and Malone probably agree with Mr. Tyrwhitt, who, in the advertisement to his Glossary, p. iiii. says — " Etymology is clearly not a necessary branch of the duty of a Glossarist V Wheel, quod volvitur, In Anglo-Saxon Dpeojl, J^peohl, J^peopol, (by transposition, for peolij or peol^) is also the past participle of piUijan. 1 [" As gentle shepheard in sweete eventide. When ruddy Phebus gins to welke in west. High on an hill, his flocke to vewen wide, Markes which doe byte their hasty supper best." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 23. "Ne ought the whelky pearles esteemeth hee. Which are from Indian seas brought far away." Spenser, Virgil's Gnat, On which Mr. Todd gives the following note : " The WHiLK or welk is a shell-fish. Perhaps the poet introduced this adjective in the sense of wreathed, twisted, as that shell-fish ap- pears. Or perhaps it may be considered in the sense of whelked, that is, rounded, or embossed; from whelk, a protuberance, according to Fluellen's description of Bardolph's face. K. Hen. V, ' His face is all bubukles, and whelks, and knobs,' &c. — Where Mr. Steevens cites the word from Chaucer in the same sense." Methought his eyes Were two full moones ; he had a thousand noses. Homes wealk'd and waved like the enraged sea." Lear, p. 303. col. 1. There comes proud Phaeton tumbling thro' the clouds. Cast by his palfreys that their reigns had broke. And setting fire upon the avelked shrouds." Drayton, Barons Wars, book 6. st. 39.] 2 Ν 546 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " Haile to thee, Ladie : and the grace of heauen. Before, behinde thee, and on euery hand Enwheele thee round." Othello, p. 316. " Heaven's grace inwheel ye : And all good thoughts and prayers dwell about ye." B. and Fletcher, The Pilgrim, act 1. sc. 2. While — -In the Anglo-Saxon J^pile (for J^piol) is the same past participle. We say indiiFerently— Walk a While — or — . Take a Turn, \_" And commonly he would not heare them whilest an hundred ^suters should come at once."— i?. Ascham, p. 19.] ' ^ I The paf-t participle oi 'heap > rji iy . rp "p ^ j 10 Bargain, I ο hm Ch Ar I ^^^ p^^.^ participle of Eypan, mercari, To Traffick, j To Bargain, To Buy or Sell. Good-cwKkv or Bad-QHEA'P, i. e. Well or 111 bargained, bought or sold : such were formerly the modes of expression. The modern f^ishion uses tlie word only for good cheap ; and - therefore omits the epithet Good, as unnecessary. " By that it neghed to haruest, new corne came to cheping." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 35. p. 2. " The sack that thou hast drunk me, \vould haue bought me lights as Good CHEAPE, at the dearest chandlers in Europe." 1st Part Henry 4. act 3. sc. 3. *' To CHOP and change" — means To bargain and change. " I am an Hebrew borne by byrth And stolne away was I, And CHOPT and changde as bondslaues bee This wretched life to trye."- — Genesis, ch. xl. fol. 100. p. 2. A CHAP or CHAPMAN.- — Any one who has trafficked. Wreck 1 ppac, ppasc, ]7pec. The past participle of Wretch I \?K.IKA^^? Ppican, persequi, affligere, pu- Wretched I nire, vindicare, iilcisci, Isedere, perdere. The Rack J different pronunciation of ch or ck (common throughout the language) is the only difference in these words. They have all one meaning. And though, by the modern fashion, they are now differently applied and differently writ" ten ; the same distinction was not antiently made. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 547 ''• Such WHECH on hem for fetching of Heleyne Thare shal be take." Troylus, boke 5. fol. 195. p. 1. col. 2. " Other thought cometh not in my mynde, but gladnesse to thynke on your goodnesse and your mery chere, frendes ; and sorowe to thynke on your wreche and your daunger." Testament of Loue, boke 1. fol. 303. p. 2. col. 2. " My sprete for ire hrynt in propir tene, And all in greif thocht cruell vengeance tak. Of my countre for this myscheuous wraik With bitter panis to wreik our harmes smert." Douglas, booke 2. p. 5S. " Vengeance tuke and wraik apoun our flote." Ibid, booke 11. p. 370. " It was an open token of the grete offence to God with the people of Englonde, and that harde wretch ε was corny ng but yi they wolde amend them." — Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 29. " We sholde wepe and not be gladde for that we haue soo many martyrs, and nyght and daye crye mercy, to lett wretche." Ibid. cap. 60. " By this commaundement he forbedeth us wrathe and wretche." Ibid. 5th Comm. cap. 6. ** You haue tresoured wrath and wretche to you in the laste dayes." Ibid, 8th Comm. cap. 18. " There nis sicke ne sorye, ne none so much wretch That he ne may loue, if him like." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 18. fol. ^Q. p. 2. *' The wrache walis and wryngis for this Avorldis wrak." Douglas, Prol. to booke 8. p. 228. ** Na help unto thay wrachit folkis I socht Na annour sekit, nor thy craft besocht."— /έ/ίϊ?. booke 8. p. 255. ** Man may know hymselfe to be as he is a very avrecchid and damnable creature, were not the vertew of Christes deathe." Declaracion of Christe, By lohan Hoper, cap. 12. *• So that comes and frutis gois to wraik Throw the corrupit are." Douglas, booke 3. p. 72. We say — '^ go to rack and ruin." Smear- — The past participle of Smyjiian, luigere, illinere, SHEEN~The past participle of Scinan, splendere, fulgere. 2 n2 548 OF ATiSTRACTioN. [part II. Hearse 1 The past participle of J^ypj^tan, ornare, pha- HuRST J lerare, decorare'. Hearse is at present only- applied to an ornamented carriage for a corpse. " So many torches, so many tapers, so many black gownes, so many mery mourners laughyng under black hodes, and a gay hers." — Sir T. More, De Quatuor Novissimis, p. 79. [" But leave these relicks of his living might To decke his herce, and trap his tomb-blacke steed." Faerie Queene, book 2. cant. 8. st. 16.] Hurst is applied only to places ornamented by trees. *« „ _ The courteous forest show'd So just-conceived joy, that from each rising hurst, Where many a goodly oak had carefully been nurst, The sy Ivans in their songs their mirthful meeting tell." Poly-olUon, song 2. Menage says — ^' Guille. C'est iin vieux mot Francois, qui signifie tromperie. Les Anglois di- sent encore a present gile et wile, pour trompe- rie, II est difficile de savoir s'ils ont emprunte ce mot de nous, ou si nous le tenons d'eux.'' It is easily settled between them. Neither has borrowed this word from the other. They both hold it in common from their common Northern ancestors : though Mer. Casaubon would derive it from the Greek aioXoc In the Anglo-Saxon, pi^lian, Ge- pi^lian, Be-pijlian, means To conjure, To divine, consequently To practise cheat, imposture and enchantment. Wile (from pijlian) and guile (from Ere-pijlian) is that by which any one is deceived. Guilt is De-pijleb, Guiledy GuiVd, Guilt: the past parti- ciple of Ire-pijlian. And to find guilt in any one, is to find 1 Minshew derives hearse from " Greek, apais, i. e. a lifting up : for the Hearse is a monument or emptie tombe erected or set up for the honourable memorie of the dead." Junius says — " Medii sevi scriptt. dicebatur Hersia, quod vulgo for- tasse ita dictum ab A.-S. Ape, honor ; vel pepian, laudare ; quod in laudem honoremque defuncti erigatur." Skinner — " Nescio an a Teut. Hulse, siliqua : est enim cadaveris quasi exterior siliqua. Hoc Hulse, credo ortum ab A.-S. pelan, tegere, q. d. tegumentum." CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 549 that he has been Guiled, or, as we now say, Be-gui/ed : as Wicked means Witched, or Be-witched. To pronounce guilt is indeed to pronounce Wicked. Gull is the past tense (formed in tfie usual manner, by the change of the characteristic letter) and means merely a person Guiled or Beguiled. At this day, we make a wide distinction between Gull, the past tense, and guilt, the past participle ; because our modern notions of enchantment, sorcery, and witchcraft are very different from the notions of those from whom we re- ceived the words. Gull therefore is used by us for Guiled or Beguiled (subaud. aliquem) without any allusion to witch- craft. But GUILT, being a technical Law-term, keeps its place in our legal proceedings, as the instigation of the Devil does; and with the same meaning ^ F, — You seem to have confined yourself almost entirely to instances of the change of the characteristic letters i and γ. And in those you have abounded to satiety. But we know that the verbs with other characteristic letters change in the 1 These words have exceedingly distressed our English Etymologists. — Guilty, Minshew says, " a Belg. Gelden, i. e. lucre, solvere ; ut Reus — Res enim Reorum petitur in judicio." Junius — "Cylban est reddere, solvere. Atque ita %^\tv^ vel giltie proprie dicetur, qui culpam commissam tenetur solvere \e\ sere vel in corpore/' Skinner — " A verbo Eilban, solvere. Et hoc prorsus ex moribus priscorum Germanorum; qui quaevis crimina, imo homicidium, et, quod vix credideris, etiam regum suorum ciedem, mulctis pecuniariis expi- abant." Gull — Mer. Casaubon derives, by a most far-fetched allusion, from yvKws, pera militaris. Junius and Skinner repeat this ; and have no other derivation to offer; except that Junius says — " Mihi taraen Angl. GULL non ita longe videtur abire a Scot. Cul';^e: morari blando sermone, palpandoque demulcere." " Now him withhaldis the Phinitiane Dido And cul^eis him with slekit wordis sle." DouglaSy booke 1. p. 34. *' And sclie hir lang round nek bane bowand raith, To gif thaym souck, can thaym cid';^e bayth." Ibid, booke 8. p. 266. ** The cur or maists he haldis at smale auayle. And cul-^eis spangeartis, to chace partrik or quale." 550 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. same manner. Have not they liIso furnished the language with concealed participles, supposed to be substantives and adjectives ? H. — Surely. In great numbers. Food 1 In Anglo-Saxon jcob, past, are the past participle Fat J of the verb Feban, pascere, To Feed. Milk ") One and the same word differently pronounced Milch J (either ch or κ), is the past participle of the verb CDelcan, mulgere. Meat — In Anglo-Saxon CDaet (whatever is Eaten) is the past participle of the verb MA^QA^^? GQetian, edere, To Eat, Mess — Is the past particij)le of GQetj'ian, cibare, To fur- nish meat or food. In French Mets ; in Italian Messo ; from the same verb. Scrap — Is the past participle of Scjieopan, scalpere, ra- dere, To Scrape. It means (any thing, something) scraped off. Offal- — The past participle of Feallan, Άpeallan ; as Skinner explains it — ^^ quod decidit a mensa." Ort- — This word is commonly used in the plural ; only because it is usually spoken of many vile things together. Shakespeare, with excellent propriety for his different pur- poses, uses it both in the singular and plural. " Where should he haue this gold ? It is some poor fragment, some slender ort of his remainder." — Timon of Athens, p. 94. " The fractions of her faith, orts of her loue. The fragments. Scraps, the Bits, and greazie Reliques Of her ore-eaten faith, are bound to Diomed." Troylus and Cressida, p. 102. Where you may observe Orts, Scraps, Bits, Reliques, all participles. Skinner says — '^ Orts, parum deflexo sensu, a Teut. Ort, quadrans sen quarta pars: fort, olim qutOvis pars, seu portio.'' — Which derivation omits entirely the meaning of the word : for ort is not applicable to every part or portion of a thing. Lye says—'* Vox est, agro Devoniensi, usitatissima : unde suspicabar per plerosque Anglioe comitatus difFusum fuisse ; et ex OUGHT (aliquid) corruptam, quod iis effertur ort, gh in r CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION, Ool pro more siio, mutato. At aliter sentire coepi, cum incidissem in Hib. orda, fragmentiim. Quod ut \'erum etymon non potui non amplecti." This groundless derivation of Mr. Lye, which explains just nothing at all, and leaves us where we were, is by Johnson pronounced most reasonable : yet every fragment is not an ort. Orts is, throughout all England, one of the most common words in our language ; which has adopted nothing from tlie Irish, though we use two or three of their words, as Irish. Orts is merely the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Opettan, turpare, vilefacere, deturpare. Ο ret, ort means (any thing, sometliing) made vile or tuorUiless. Heat ") In Anglo-Saxon j^ast, ]^at, i. e. Heated; is the Hot J past participle of the verb J^setan, calefacere. Hot, as a participle, is sufnciently common : Heat is rarely so used. Ben Jonson however so uses it in Sejanus, act 3. " And fury ever boils more high and strong. Heat with ambition, than revenge of wrong." Warm — paepm, ]7eapm, and pypmeb, i.e. Warmed, are the past tense and past participle of the verb Pypman, cale- facere. F. — What is luke-warm or lew-warm ? For I find it is spoken and wi'itten both ways. How does it differ fiom warm ? " The beryes of iuniper or galbanum beaten to powder and dronke Mdth LUKE AVARMED wyne." — Byrth of Mankijnde, fol. 29. p. 2. " Ye maye use in the stede of wyne, luke warme mylke." Ih'id. fol. 38. p. 2. " Then shall ye geue it her with luke warme water." Ihid. fol. 50. p. 1. " In the Λvynter with hote water, in the sommer with luke warme water." — Ihid. fol. ^^. p. 1. " Quhare the vyle fleure euer lew warme was spred Λνίίΐι recent slauchter of the blude newlie schede." Douglas, hooke 8, p. 247. ** Besyde the altare blude sched and skalii newe Beand lew warme thare ful fast did reik." Ibid. p. 243. rr Luke warm Ί The Anglo-Saxon piaec, tepidus (which Lew warm J we corruptly pronounce and write luke) 552 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11, is the past participle of placian, tepere, tepescere. And lew, in the Anglo-Saxon ίΜιρ and KMeop, is. the past participle of J^lipan, l^leopan, tepere, fovere. Nor need we travel with Skinner to the Greek λυω ; " quia tepor hnmores resolvit et cutira aperit :" nor with Junius to -χΧιαροο, from γΧιαινω. To say LUKE or lew warm is merely saying warm- WARM. And that it is a modern pleonasm, the following pas- sage in the third chapter of the Apocalyps will, I think, con- vince you. in the modern Version it stands : — " I knoΛV thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot : I would thou wert cold or hot. So then, because thou art luke-wabm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth." In the old Version, which is called WickliiFe's, it is thus given :— " I woot thy werkis, for nether thou art cold nether thou art hote. 1 wolde thou were cold or hoot, hut for thou art lew, and nether cold nether hoot, I shal bigynne for to caste the out of my mouth." In the Version of Edward the sixth, it runs thus :— - " I know thy workes, that thou art nether colde nor hotte : I wolde thou were colde or hote. So then, because thou arte betwene both, and nether cold nor hote, I wyll spewe thee out of my mouth." Plough (A.-S. ploj and ploii). Is the past participle of Ple^^an, incumbere. ** No man sendinge his hond to the tloug, and biholdinge agen, is able to the rewme of God." — Luke, cap. ix. v. 62. Our English verb To Pli/, is no other than plejjan. " Ppeoft ne beo hunta. ne hapecepe. ne tseplepe, ac pledge (incum- bat) on hip bocum." — Canones sub Edgaro, R. 64. ρ I In Loues Labours Lost, p. 144. Shakespeare uses ^ ' I the word To Keele, Cold J '* Then nightly sings the staring owle To-whit, to-who, A merie note. While greasie lone doth keele the pot." On this passage Dr. Farmer tells us — " To Keele the pot; CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 553 is, to cool ; but in a particular manner : It is — To stir the pottage ivith the ladles to prevent the boiling over." Mr. Steevens too thinks that Keele means cooling, in a particular manner. But his manner differs from Dr. Farmer's. — He says — " Mr. Lambe observes, in his notes on the an- cient metrical history of the battle of Flodden, that it is a common thing in the North, for a maid servant to take out of a boiling pot a wheen i. e. a small quantity, viz. a porringer or two of broth, and then to fill up the pot with cold water. The broth thus taken out is called the Keeling wheen. In this manner greasy loan Keeled the pot." That Mr. Malone should repeat all this, is nothing wonder- ful ; it is perfectly to his taste. But it is really lamentable, that two such intelligent men as Dr. Farmer and Mr. Steevens should expose themselves thus egregiously. Who, or what, informed them, that To Keele meant To stir with a ladle, or. To take out a porringer or tiuo ? There are very numerous instances of the use of the word To Keel, without the least allusion to ladles or porringers, *' Sende Lazarus, that he dippe the laste part of his fynger in watir and KELE my tunge." — Luke, cap. 16. v. 24. " To the louers Guide wrote. And taught, if loue be to hote. In what maner it shulde akele." Gower, lib. 4. fob 77. p. 2. col. 2. In the Castel of Helth, by Syr Thomas Elyot, book 3. fol. 73. he says — '* Onyons, lekes, fynally all thynges whyche heateth to moche, keleth to moch, or drieth to moche." And Malone himself knew, that in Marston's What you xuill, was the following passage, ^' Faith, Doricus, thy braine boyles; Keel it. Keel it, or all the fat's i' the fire." So in the Vision of Pierce Ploughtnan, " Vesture, from cheyle to saue." Pass. 2. fol. 4. p. 2. ** And the carfull may crye and carpen at the gate Both a hungerd and a furste, and for chels quake." Pass. 11. fol. 46. p. 1. " Bothe hungry and a cale." Pass. 19. fol. 103. p. ]. " And syth they chosen chele and cheitif pouertie Let them cheΛve as they chosen." Pass. 21. fol. 115. p. 1. ι 554i OF ABSTRACTION. [pAET II. " Do almesse for them, and by almes dede, by masses syngynge, and holy prayers, refresshe them in theyr paynes, and kele the fyre about theym." — Diues and Fauper, 9th Comm. cap. 11. " To KELE somwhat theyr hygh courage." Fabian, parte 5. ch. 140. Ill the above instances can there be any employment for the ladle or porringer? In truth, the verb To Keel, i. e. The Anglo-Saxon Eelan, refrigerare, is a general term ; confined to and signifying no particular manner. And of this verb Eelan ; chill (A.-S. Eele) and cool (A.-S. Eol) are the past tense : and Eoleb, EoPb, cold (A.-S Eealb) is the past participle. Nesh Ί Minshew derives nice from the Latin Nitidus: Nice J Junius from the French Niais. It is merely the Anglo-Saxon Dnej"C, dijfterently pronounced and written ; and is the past participle of ftnej^cian, mollire. '' Mine herte for joye doth bete Him to beholde, so is he godely freshe, It semeth for love his herte is tendre and nesshe." Cou7^t of Love, in Urry's Edition of Chaucer. " So that no step of hym was sene in the nesshe fenne or more that he passed thorough." — Fabian, parte 6. ch. 172. Sleet — Is the past participle j'le-eb, rleeb, rleet; of j^lean, projicere ; and has no connexion (as Johnson ima- gined) with the Danish Slet, which means smooth, polished. " Flying, behind them, shot Sharp sleet of arrowy show'rs against the face Of their pursuers." Paradise Regained, book 3. v. 324. Hoar — Anglo-Sax. I^ap, is the past tense and past par- ticiple of J^ajiian, canescere. " They toke hored brede in theyr scryppes, and soure wyne in theyr hotels, and loded asses with olde hored brede in olde sackes." Dines and Pauper, 2d Comm. cap. 20. Addle"^ Though Mer, Casaiibon and Junius would send us Ail I for ail, to aXveiv^ moerore affici, or to aXyeiv άο^ Idle [lere ; and for idle, to vOXoCy nugee ; and for ill, III J to the Greek iXXoc, strabo ; or even to the Hebrew ; I am persuaded that these are only one word, diiierently pro- nounced and written : and that it is the past participle of the CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 555 Anglo-Saxon verb Άlbllan, segrotare, exinanire, irritum facere, corrumpere. "If you loue an addle egge, as well as you loue an idle head, you would eate chickens i' th' shell." —Troyhis and Cressida. ADDLE-pated, and ADDLE-brained, are common expressions. " You said that idle weeds are fast in growth." Richard 'dd.•^. 186. " III weids waxes weil." — Ray's Scottish Proverbs, p. 295. Addle becomes ail, as idle becomes ill by sliding over the D in pronunciation. Dam ") The past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Das- DuMB J man, Demman, obturare, obstruere, To Dam, " Now will I DAM up this thy yawning mouth For swallowing the treasure of the realm." 2d Part Henry 6. p. 137. col. 2. As we have ah^ady seen that Barren means Barred; and that Blind means Blinned or Stopped ; so dumb means obtu- ratuniy obstriictum, Dammed. And therefore, when those who have been dumb recover their speech, their months are said to be opened ; the dam being, as it were, removed. Though these three words. Barren, Blind, and Dumb, are now by custom confined to their present respective application; i. e. to the womb, the eyes, and the mouth ; they were originally general terms, and generally applicable ; as all the other branches of those verbs, To Bar, To Blin, and To Dam, still are : and, having all one common meaning, viz. Obstruction, if custom had so pleased, they might, in their application, very fairly have changed places. So when B. Jonson, in his Poetaster, act 1. sc. 2. says, — " Nay, this 'tis to have your ears Danid up to good counsell." — He might have said — '* This 'tis to have dumb ears ; or, ears Dumb to good counsell." In Antony and Cl/opatra, p. 344. Shakespeare writes, " — So he nodded, And soberly did mount an arme-gaunt steede, Who neigh'd so hye, that what I Avould haue gpoke, Was beastly dumbe by him." Mr. Theobald here alters the text, and instead of dumbe, 556 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. reads dumb'd. This reading Mr. Malone approves, adopts, and calls a correction. But there needs here no alteration. DuMBE is the past tense of Dseman, Demman, and means Dammed, i. e. Obstructed^ or stopped. — ^^ What I would have spoke, was, in a beastly manner, obstructed by him.'' Dumb was formerly written dome and dum ; without the b. " He became so confuse he cunneth not loke. And as dome as death." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 11. fol. 47. p. 2. ** I tell you that which you yourselues do know. Shew you sweet Caesar's wounds, poor poor dum mouths, And bid them speake for me." Julius Cccsar, p. 122. col. 2. And Junius, whose authority may be much better rehed on than his judgement, tells us, and bids us remark it — ^' Quod in Cantabrigiensis publicse bibliothecse codice msto melioris notai, Matth. xii. 22. Lite. i. 22. bum scribitur." Dull *) Dull (or as it is in the Anglo-Saxon, bol) hebes ; Dolt J is derived by Mer. Casaubon from δούλος servus. " Notissima (says he) est Aristotelis opinio, ^ovXovc, esse a natura, qui scilicet κοινωνουσι τον Xoyov τοσούτον, οσοι^ αισθα- νβσθαι, α\λα μη e^^eiv : quos etiam ad corporis ministeria natos a bestiis usu μικρόν τταραΧΧαττειν sancit." Skinner would derive dull from Dolian, pati, sustinere, tolerare; — " Qui enim obtusi sensus sunt, injurias et quashbet vexationes sequiore animo patiuntur," But dull, bol, is the regular past tense of bpelian, bpolan, hebere, liebetare. And dolt, i. e. Dulled (or bol-eb, bol'b, bolt) is the past parti- ciple of the same verb. ** Oh gull, oh DOLT, as ignorant as durt." — Othello, p. 337. Though the verb. To Dull, is now out of fashion, it was formerly in good use. " I DULLE under your disciplyne." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 143. p. 1. col. 1. •* For though the best harpour on lyue Wold on the best sowned ioly harpe That euer was, with al his fyngers fyue Touche aye ο strynge, or aj^e ο warble harpe. Were his nayles poynted neuer so sharpe, It shulde make euery wight To dulle." Troylus, boke 2. fol. 168. p. 1. col. 2. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 557 " For elde, that in my spirite dulleth me, Hath of endyting al the subtelte Welnigh berafte out of my remembraunce." Complaynt of Venus, fol. 344. p. 1; col. 2. " Myrth and gladnesse conforteth men in Goddes seruyce, and heuynesse dulleth and letteth all maner lykinges." Diues and Pauper, -3d Comm. cap. 18. " Her syght sholde haue be derked, and her herynge sholde haue DULLED more and more." A Morning Remembraunce of Margarete Countesse of Rychemondey By J. Fyssher, Bishop of Rochester. ['*! demaund one thyng; whan myne understandyng is dulled in that I haue to dooe, and whan my memory is troubled in that I haue to determyne, and whan my bodye is compassed with dolours, and whan my heart is charged with thoughtes, and whan I am without knoΛvlege, and whan I am set about with perils ; wher can I be better accompa- nied than with wise men, or els redyng among bokes?" Marcus Aurelius, Printed by Berthelet, London, 1559. sect. 30.] " Sluggyshnes dulleth the body." " Sorowe dulleth the wylle." Castell of Helth, fol. 44. p. 2. and fol. 64. p. 2. [** Who am myself attach'd with weariness, To the DULLING of my spirits." The Tempest, Malone's edit. vol. 1. part 2. p. β^.~\ " As well his lord may stoope t' advise with him. And be prescribed by him, in affaires Of highest consequence, when he is dull'd Or wearied with the lesse." B. Jonson, Magnetick Lady, act 1. sc. 7. " Cunning calamity. That others gross wits uses to refine. When I most need it, duls the edge of mine." Beaumont and Fletcher, Honest Man's "Fortune. [" Sir Martin. There 's five shillings for thee : What, we must en- courage good wits sometimes. Wartier. Hang your white pelf: Sure, sir, by your largess, you mistake me for Martin Parker, the ballad-maker ; your covetousness has offended my muse, and quite dull'd her." Sir Martin Mar-all : By Dry den, act 5. sc. 1.] 558 OF ABSTRACTION. [PATIT IIv Grub (ΓΚ52Ϊ5) The past tense and therefore past partici- ple of ΓΚΛΒΛΝ, foclere. Grudge, written by Chaucer grutche, gruche, and in some copies groche. " A lytel yre in his herte ylafte He gan to grutchen and blamen it a lyte." ^ Reues Pro!, fol. 15. p. 1. col. 2. " At thende I had the best in eche degre By sleight or force, or by some maner thing, As by contynuall murmure or grutchyng." Wife of Bathes Prol. fol. 36. p. 1. col. 1. " What ayleth you to grutche thus and grone ?" — Ibid. col. 2. " And sayne the Pope is not worth a pease To make the people ayen him gruche" — or groche. Ploughnans Tale, fol. 99. p, 1. col. 2, Mer. Casaubon derives this word from γογγυζω, murmuro. Minshew, from the Latin grunnire. Junius, from γρυζειν, hiscere, mutire. Skinner, from the French Griiger, briser. And Gruger from cruciari : " quia qui alicui invidet, aliena felicitate cru- ciatur.'' S. Johnson will have it either from the French Gruger^ or from the Welch Grugnach, or from the Scotch Grunigh, or — rather from Grudgeons! — '^ Grudgeous being (as he says) the part of corn that remains after the fine meal has passed the sieve." A grudge is the past participle of I^jieopian (Efe-hjieop- ^an) J^jieoppan, Ere-hjieoppan, dolere, ingemiscere, poeni- tere. Drudge — (Dpoo^, Dpiije) The past tense and past par- ticiple of Dpeojan, Eie-bpeojan, agere, tolerare, pati, suf- fene. Dpeojenb, the present participle. Smooth— (prised) The past participle of pne^ian, polire, planare. Junius derives this word from σμαω, σμεω. σμω : and Skinner from μacQQ, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 559 Mad ") is merely OQastt, OQaeb (d for τ), tlie past tense Matto J and past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb OQe- tan, somniare, To Mete, To Dream. The verb, To Mete, was formerly in common use. " I fell eftsones a slepe, and sodainly me mette '." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 20. fol. 103. p. 2. ** And eke I sayd, I mette of him all nyght And al was fals, I Dremed of him right naught." Wife of Bathes Prol. fol. 36. p. 2. col. 2. ** And whan that he in x;hambre was alone, He downe on his beddes fete him sette, And firste he gan to sike, and efte to grone, And thought aye on her so withouten lette. That as he satte and woke", his spirite mete That he her saugh." — Troylus, boke 1. fol. 159. p. 1. col. 1. *' As he satte and woke, his spirite mete that he her saugh." — This I take to be a clear, though not a pbysiological, de- scription of Madness, This is not the place to enter into a physiological inquiry concerning the nature of madness and of dreaming ; in order to shew the propriety of the name, as I have explained it. But I may give you a short extract from the ingenious obser- vations on Insanity, by Mr. John Haslam. 1798. ** Some who have perfectly recovered from this disease, and who are persons of good understanding and liberal education, describe the state they were in, as resembling a Dream." ^ [Mette is here used impersonally, as the case of the pronoun shows. See the instances in Lye, and the Additional Note on English Imper- sonal Verbs. — Ed.] ^ [** Dubbio cosi s' aggira Da un torbido riposo Chi si desto talor : Che desto ancor delira Fra le sognate forme ; Che non sa ben se dormer Non sa se veglia ancor." Metastasio, La Clemenza di Ά7ο, att. 2, sc,-7, "— gli amanti Sognano ad occhi aperti." — Ibid, Zenohia, att. 2. sc. 1.] 560 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART 11. And our valuable friend Mr. Rogers, in his beautiful poem, The Pleasures of Meinort/, has this note : " When sleep has suspended the organs of sense from their office, memory not only supplies the mind with images, but assists in their combination, x^nd even in madness itself, when the soul is resigned over to the tyranny of a distempered imagination, she revives past per- ceptions, and awakens that train of thought which was formerly most familiar." The Italian matto, is this same Anglo-Saxon participle CQaett, with the Italian terminating vowel. The decided opinion of Menage and Junius, that matto is derived from the Greek ματαιυο,, is overruled in my mind, by the considera- tion of the time when the word matto was first introduced into the Italian language : for the Greek derivatives, in that language, proceed to it through the Latin. And in the Latin there is nothino• which resembles matto. ο Smug' — is the past participle of Smas^an, j-meajan, de- liberare, studere, considerare. Applied to the person or to dressj it means studied ; that on which care and attention have been bestowed. " I will die brauely, like a smugge bridegroom." — Lear, p. 304. *' A beggar, that was us'd to come so smug upon the mart." Merchant of Venice, p. 173. " A young smug, handsome holiness has no fellow." B. and Fletcher, The Pilgrim, " Fie, Sir, so angry upon your wedding day ! Go, SMUG yourself, the maid will come anon." B. and Fletcher, Women Pleas' d. *' Go in, and dress yourself smug, and leave the rest to me." Wycherly, Love in a Wood, act 4. sc. 1. Proud (Anglo-Saxon Ppiit) The past participle of Ppy- tian, superbire. Safe — formerly written saffe; The past participle of the verb To Save. Ϊ " Ε Uteris vocis κοσμυε fieri potuit σμοκο8 ; atque inde Smuck. Sed Italis Smoccare est emungere : quasi Exmucare. Ita nimirum solent uti s, tanquam prsepositione inseparabili, ex Se Latino ; quasi Semuc- care, mucum separare. Sed tam multis non est opus : cum facillima derivatione peti possit ex σμαω, σμεω, σμω, σμηχω, abstergo, detergo," — Junius. [See note on Snite, p. 395. — Ed.] C'H. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 561 *' He liir wymijle fonde blodie, And wende a best had hir slayne, Where as hym ought be right fayne. For she was saffe right beside." Goioer, lib. 2. fol. 36. p. 2. col. 1, " Than his dyscyples sayd to Cryste, Lorde, who may than be save ?'* Diues and ΡαψβΓ, 0/ Holy Pouerie, cap. 5. Low ^ LowN y^'^^^' ^^" Dutch Laag) is the past participle of the LowT J ^"S^O'^^^o" ^'^^"^ Licjan, jacere, cubare. Of this past tense (according to their common custom) our ancestors made the verb To Low : or 7Ό ??iake Loiu, " Fortune hath euer be muable, And maie no while stonde stable. For nowe it hieth, nowe it loweth." Gower, lib. 8. fol. 177. p. 1. col. 1. " The god of Loue, ah benedicite, Howe mighty and ho we great a lorde is he. For he can make of lowe hertes hye. And of hye lowe. He can make within a lytel stounde Of sicke folke, hole, fresshe and sounde. And of hole he can make seke.• Shortly al that euer he wol he may, Agaynst hym dare no wyght say nay, For he can glad and greue whom hym lyketh. And who that he wol, he loweth or syketh." CncJcowe and Nyghtyngale, fol. 350. p. 2. col. 2. " The pra)^er of hym that loweth hym in his prayer, thyrleih the clowdes." — Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 15. " Whan he is waxen and roted in pryde and in mysuse of lyuynge, it is full harde to lowe hym or to amende hym." Ibid. 4th Comm. cap. 10. " They lyue forth in pryde and not lowe them to God, ne pray to God for helpe." — Ibid. 5th Comm. cap. 3. " For al this Adam repented hym not, ne wolde axe mercy, ne lowe him." — Ibid, 6th Comm. cap. 25. 2 ο 562 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Of this verb To Loiv, the past participle is indifferently either Low-en, Low'n, lown ; or Low-ed, Low'd, lowt, (t for D.) "We should have both Lord and lown, if the peeuish baggage Avould but giue way to customers." Pericles Prince of Tyre, act 4. sc. 6. " — I haue belyed a lady, The princesse of this country, and the ayre on 't Reuengingly enfeebles me, or could this carle, A very drudge of natures, haue subdu'de me In my profession ? Knighthoods and Honors (borne As I weare mine) are titles but of scorne. If that thy gentry (Britaine) go before This LOWT, as he exceeds our lords, the oddes Is, that we scarse are men, and you are goddes." Cymheline, p. 392. col. 1. You will observe that, of this participle lowt, we have again made another verb, viz. To Lowt, To do or To bear one's self as the Lowed person, i. e. the lowt, does. Slack Slouch Slough Slug r* Slow Sloven Slut " The noblest of the Greekes that there were Upon her shulders caryed the here With SLAKE pace." — Knyghtes Tale, fol. 10. p. 2. col. 2. (in the Anglo-Saxon j^lasc, j^leac, J'loj, j^lsep, jrleap, plap) are all the same past tense and '^therefore past participle (differently pronounced and written) of the Anglo-Saxon verb rleacian, j^leacjian, j^lacian (a broad) tardare, remittere, relaxare, pigrescere. Slouch, j'laec — (ch for κ) i. e. a 5/0?^; (pace.) Slough, j^lo^ — (gh forcn) i. e. slow (water.) Slug, floj- — (g for κ) i. e. slow (reptile.) Slow^, )-lap-~(w fore.) Such changes of pronunciation are perpetual and uniform throughout the whole language• Slow-en, slouen, sloven ; and slow-ed, slow'D; sloud, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 563 SLOUT, slut; are the past participles of the verb Slapian, To Sloiv, i. e. To make Slow, or cause to be SloivK There is no reason^ but the fashion, for the distinction which is at present made between sloven and slut, by applying the former of these words to males only, and the latter only to females : and we are sure that distinction did not prevail formerly: for Gower and Chaucer apply slut to males. " Among these other of sloutes Idnde Which all labour set behinde, And hateth all besines, There is yet one, Vv^hich Idelnes Is cleped. In wynter doth he nought for colde, . In somer maie he nought for hete ; So, whether that he frese or swete. Or be he in, or be he out, He woll ben ydell all about : For he ne woll no trauaile take To ride for his ladies sake." Gower, lib. 3. fol. 69, p. I. col. 1. " Why is thy lorde so slotlyche -, I the pray, And is of power better clothes to bey ?" ProL of Chanons Yeman, fol. 59, p. 2. col. 2. Lore — The past participle of Laspan, docere. Home — The past participle of J^seman, coire. Hone — (petrified wood) the past participle of J^asnan, lapidescere. [Gown — from J^ynan, Ge-hynan, humiliare, To bring down to the ground. Past participle Gehon, Ijehiin. N.B. Anglo-Saxon substantive J^yn^, i. e. that which Immhhih^ or hringeth down to the groii?2d. J [" Lookt on by ecli the stately ladie goes. But lookes on none, and to the king she came, Nor, for he angry seemes, one steppe she slowes." God/re]/ of Bulloigne, Translated ly R, C p. 58. cant. 2. st. 19, ** Mirata da ciascun passa, e non mira L' altera donna, e innanzi al re se 'n viene. Ne, perche irato il veggia, il pieritira."] 2 Mr. Urry reads sluttish ; and Mr. Tyrwhitt, sluttish. 2 ο 2 * 564 or• ABSTUACTioN. [part n» Ilaliaiit gonna. Menage says well — *' Lo tengo d'origine Tedesca ; leggendosi in Luilprando Gnnata, id est, pellicea Sfixonia. L' ebbero gl' Italiani da' Longabardi ; e i Greci nioderni da gl' Itaiiani."] Loan-— The past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb ftlas- nan, Lasnan, To Lend, formerly written To Lene. " Yf a man lene awaye an other mannes good without assent of him." — '• In the lenynge he useth an other mannes good ayenst his wyl." — Diues and Pauper, 7th Comm. cap. 8. " Yf wynnynge come frely to the lener for his lenynge without couenaunt." — " Yeue ye your lone hopynge noo wynnynge." — " The usurer selleth togydre the thynge that he leneth." — Ibid. cap. 24. Foam — paem ; the past participle of Fasman, spumare *. ΒΚΟΑΟ'Λ Board (are the past tense and past participle of Bpasban, Brid I dihUare, propalare, dispalare, ampliare. Bird J Fowl. As Bird, so fowl, (A.-S. pujel,) by a similar but not quite so easy and common a metathesis, is the past parti- ciple of Fliojan, pioljan, piojlan, volare. Shock — The past participle of Scacan, To Shake, " And after that himselfe he shoke Wherof that all the halle quoke." Goiver, lib. 6. fol. 139. p. 1. col. 2. " In the dyenge of Ihesu the erth groned and shoke." Nycodemus Gospell, ch. 8, "■ Whan I herde the commaundement of his worde, I trembled and shoke for drede." — Ibid. ch. 15. " The erthe shoke so and trembled that they ^onke downe in to helle." — Olues and Pauper , 6th Comm. cap. 16. " The sterry heuen me thought shoke with the shout." Skelton, p. 57. 1 " FoME, quibusdam videtur dicta quasi Vome ; quod sit quasi qui- dam vomitus aquse violento motu concitatse ac veluti ferventis. Ubi notundum quod Chaucero in Angl, translatione Boethianee Consola- tionis, Vomes sunt spurns. ' Setiger spumis humeros notavit.' * The bristled Bore marked with Vomes the shulders of Hercules.' " — Junius. Skinner thinks jzeem is from the Latin Fmnus. " Spuma enim ra- rescens instar fund vel nebulee est ; certe proximum ei raritatis gradum obtinet." CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION* 565 *' The frere arose, But I suppose Amased Avas his hed. He SHOKE his eares. And from grete feares He thought hym Avell a fled." Sir T, Mores Workes. Doom — The past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb De- man, judicare, censere, decernere, To Deem. *' Whan I De7ne domes, and do as trouth teacheth/' Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 16. fol. 77. p. 1. " Than sayd Pilate, Take hym in to your synagoge and deme thare on hym your lawe." — Nycodemus Gospell, ch. 3. " God ruleth, demeth and gouerneth all mankynde &c. — whoos DOMES and ordenaunces passe mannes wytte." Dines and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 19. ** None of us can tel what deth we he demed to." . Sir T. More, De Qnatiior Novissimis, p. 84. Roof — In the Anglo-Saxon }^]"iop, the past participle of J^jiaspnan, sustinere. Minshew, Junius and Skinner derive it from the Greek όροφος. Woof l^are tlie past tense and past participle of Pepan, Weft j texere, obvolvere, tegere. To Weave. Proof ~) The past tense and past participle of the verb Reproof J To Preve and To Repreve. '• Euery seruaunt is bounden to warne his lorde of the harme that is done to his lorde in his oiFyce for good fayth and saluacyon of his owne persone &c. yf he can preue them he is bounde to telle them to his lorde, yf his lord is pacyent and resonahle and not to cruell, and yf he cannot peeue thenl he is not bounde to telle them." Diucs and Pauper, 2d Comm. cap. 13. " Commende vertues and despyse vyces, Chese truthe and lette faise- hode, commende heuen blysse, and ghoostly thynges and repiieue pompe and pryde of this Avorlde." — Ibid. 5th Comm. cap. 10. Breed ~\ J. >The past participle of Bjieban, fovere. Brat J 666 OF ABSTilAGTlON. [PART II. Saw — (Any thing, sometliing) said. The past tense and past participle of Sasjan, f ejan, j-ec^an, dicerc, To Say. " Experyence accordeth with this sawe of the apostle." Diues and Pauper, Of Holy Pouerte, cap. 1 . " By comon sawes of clerkes God in the fyrste commaundement forbedeth thre pryncypal synnes." Ihid. 1st Comm. cap. 37. " Than they that shal be dampned shall saye a sawe of sorowe that neuer shall haue ende." — Ihid. 8th Comm. cap. 15. " Some doctours of Law Some learned in other saw." Skelton, p. 203. [" So Love is lord of all the world by right, And rules their creatures by his powrfull saw." Spenser, Colin Clouts come home againe.'] " Yea from the table of my memory He wipe away all triviall fond records. All SAWES of bookes." ~ Hamlet, p. 258. " When all aloud the winde doth blow, And coffing drownes the parsons saw." Loues Labours Lost, p. 144. [So Such Talis QUALIS _ Talis and qualis are compound words : the first part of these compounds are the Greek re and και, which both signify And : — re-illius — /cat-illius, i. e. and of this — and of that.] Tale ~) A tale, the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon Re-tail J veib Tellan, something told. To sell by tale, i. e. by nnmeration, not by weight or measure, but by the number told. — Retail, told ovei• again. Hand 1 Hint, something taken. Hand, that limb by Hint > which things are taken. The past tense and past Handle J participle of J^entan, capere, To take hold of, ** And with that word, his scherand swerd als tyte Hynt out of scheith, the cabyll in tua gan smyte." Douglas, booke 4. p. 120, " This sayand with richt hand has scho hynt The hare, and cuttis in tua or that scho stynt." Ibid, p, 124. So (for sa) the past participle of j^ae^an. So, i. e. in the said manner. Such — So each : i. e. in the said manner Each, CU, IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 567 So HANDLE or Ha)id-del, is a small part taken hold of. " He would gladly catche holde of some small iiandell to kepe hys money fast, rather then help his frendes in their necessitie." Sir T. More, Supplicacion of Soides, p. 330. Fang 1 Fang, the past tense and past participle of Fen- FiNGER J jan, capere, prehendere. Finger, i. e. jzen^eji, quod prehendit. Speech — Any thing spoken, and the facidty by which any thing is spoken. The past tense and past participle j^psec, j-psece, of j^pecan, To Speak. Tiie indifferent pronunciation of CH or CK pervades the whole language. Fetch, (A.-S. paec) is the past tense and past participle of Feccan, fraude acquirere, adducere. [" Yet since so obstinate grew their desire, On a new fetch (t' accord them) he relide." Godfrey of Bulloigne, cant. 5. st. 72.] Thack 1 (A.-S. Dac) is the past tense and past participle Thatch J of Decan, tegere. " Thy turphie mountaines, where liue nibling sheepe. And flat medes thetchd with stouer, them to kepe." Tempest, act 4. sc. 1. p. 14. " A well-built gentleman ; but poorly thatcht." B. and Fletcher, Wit ivithout Money, act 1. sc. 1. Lace "^ Latch \ ^ it xi ^ ^ i .^ Lace and Latch are the past tense and past LaTCHET I .••,/' τ τ τ y participle of Lgeccan, Laecjan, Lseccean, prehendere, apprehend ere. Luck Clutch Clutches " A stronger than I shal come aftir me, of whom I, kneelinge, am not worthi to unbynde the lace of hise shoon." — Mark, ch. 1. " There cometh one mightier than I after me, the latchet of whose shoes I am not worthy to stoop down and unloose." — Ihid. v. 7 . " His hatte Hinge at hys backe by a lace." Pi'ol. to Chanons Yeoman, fol. 59. p. 1. col.. 2, [" Therewith in baste his helmet gan unlace." Faerie Qtieene, book 1. cant. δ. st. 37. 568 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II, *' There the fond flie, entangled, strugled long, Hiraselfe to free thereout ; but all in vaine. For, striving more, the more in laces strong Himselfe he tide, and wrapt his Avinges twaine In lymie snares." Spenser s Miiiopoimos, st. 54.] The LATCH of a door, or that by which the door is caught, latched, or held, is often likewise called a catch. *' If thou Avilt he gracious to do good as the gospel techith, And biloue the among low men, so shalt thou latch grace." Vision of Pierce Ploughman, pass. 7. fol. 34. p. 2. " As who so layeth lynes for to latche foules." Ibid. fol. 26. p. 1. ** The same I say forsoth, by al such priestes, That haue nether cunning ne kynne, but a crowne one. And a title a tale of nought, to Hue by at his mischife ; He hath more beleue, I leue, to latch through croAvn Cure than for kennynge." Ibid. pass. 12. fol. 57. p. 2. " And whan the find and the flesh forth with the worlde Manacen behinde me my frute for to Fetche, Than liberum arbitrium latcheth the first polante." Ibid. pass. 17. fol. 87. p. 2. *' What shepe that is full of wulle Upon his backe thei tose and pulle Whyle ther is any thynge to pille, &c. Whiche is no good shepeherdes dede. And upon this also men sayn That fro the Lease, whiche is plaine. In to the breres thei forcatche, Here of for that thei wolden lache With suche duresse, and so bereue That shal upon the thornes leue Of wool, whiche the brere hath tore." Gower, Pro!, fol. 3. p. 1. " As Ouid in his boke recordeth How Polyphemus whilom wrought, ΛVhen that he Galathe besought Of loue, whiche he maie not latche." Ibid. lib. 2. fol. 27, p. 2. col. 2. *' Of love which he maie not latche; i. e." says Skinner, '^ amoris quern dimittcre non potest : amoris sc. itiextiiigui- hilis. a Fr. G. Lascher, laxare, remittere. Vir Rev. dictum putat pro Catch, Verum quoniam iste metaplasmus nusquam, CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 569 quod sciam, in Germ, et recentioribus dialectls occurrit, mal- lem secundum etymon petere a Fr. G. Laissei•, relinquere: i. e. Amor qui relinqui seu demitti nequit: vel a Teut. et Belg. Lescheiij extinguere, delere : i.e. Amor, ut dictum est supra, iriextvigiiihilis et indelebilis.'^ Skinner's mistake in the etymology of the word To Latch, caused his mistake in the meaning of the preceding hnes ; in which Gower does not speak of the love of Polyphemus ; but of the love of Galathe, which he besought, and could not get, could not take hold of, could not hatch. ** Loue wyl none other byrde catclie. Though he set eyther nette or latche." Rom. of the Rose, fob li?7. p. 2. col. 2. " Thre other thynges that great solace Doth to hem that be in my lace." Ibid, fob 133. p. 1. col. 2. " So are they caught in loues lace." Ibid, fob 144. p. 1. col. 2. ** Loue that hath the so faste Knytte and bounden in his lace." Ibid. p. 2. col. 2. [" Tho pumie stones I hastly hent, And threw ; but nought avayled : From bough to bough he lepped light. And oft the pumies latched." Spenser : Shepheards Calender, March. " Which when the kidde stouped downe to catch. He popt him in, and his basket did latch." Ibid. May.'] " I haue words That would be howl'd out in the desert ayre, Where hearing should not latch them." Macbeth, act 4. sc. 3. p. 147. Junius, concurring with Minshew, says — ^' Latch magnam videtur habere affinitatem cum B. Letse vel Litsc, nexus, la- queolus, quo aliquid continetur ne excidat. M. Casaubonus Angl. Latch per metathesin profluxisse putat ex ayKvXiov.'* Skinner and Lye concur that it is — *^ satis manifeste a Lat. Laqueas.^^ '*Laqt]eus Nunnesio placet esse a λυγοα, id est, vitex, salix; ut mutetur υ in a. Malim a Lax\ quod fraudem notat, Festo teste. Vel ab Hebraso.'' — G. L Vossius. Isaac Vossius dissents from his father, and says it is — ^'omnino a kXqioc." 1 am persuaded that the Latin La- 570 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. queus itself (as well as the Italian Laccio) is this same past participle Lace or Lacj of Laeccean, Laecjan. Luck is derived by Minsliew, '* a Xay^oCj i. e. Sors, fortuna." By Junius — '^ a B. Geliick, quod valde affine est Grseco yXvKv, dulce ; quod nihil mortalibus videatur suavius, quam negotia sua bene feliciterque administrare." ^^ Aliter de vo- cabuli etymologia M. Casaubon, ' λα-^γ^ανω, sortior, sortito obtineo. To Xay^op, quod sorte obtigit. Inde Luck et Liickie, Quamquani dubito utrum ex eadeni sint origine, et non potius Luckie sit ex XevKoCf candid us, albus.' " But LUCK (good or bad) is merely the same participle^ and means (something, anything) caught. Listead of saying that a person has had good Luckj it is not uncommon to say, — he has had a good catch. Clutch is also the past participle of Eie-lasccean, capere, arripere. " Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand ? Come, let me clutch thee." Macbeth, act 2. sc. 1. p. 136. col. 1. "But age with his stealing steps Hath caught me in his clutch." Hamlet, p. 277. So clutches, i. e. Clutchers (^Gelatchers) : as Fangs and Fingers from Fenian, and Hand from I^entan. Though Junius would persuade us that they are — '^ Hamatas atque aduncse ferarum volucrumque prsedatricum ungulse : a B. K/utseUf quatere, concutere : item KletseUy gravi ac resono ictu percutere." [" But all in vaine : his woman was too wise Ever to come into his clouch againe." Faerie Qtieene, book 3. cant. 10. st. 20. "And in his hand an huge long staiFe he held. Whose top was arm'd with many an yron hooke, Fit to catch hold of all that he could weld, Or in the compasse of his clouches tooke." Ibid, book 5. cant. 9. st. 11,] Hank Ί One and the same word, only with a different Haunch Vfinal pronunciation, common throughout the Ian» Hinge J guage, either of κ, ch, or ge. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 571 Minshew derives haunch from ayKv\oc;. Junius from α-γκων ; ^'quod non raodo cubitum, sed quemlibet flexum sig— nificat :" Skinner from ayκη : Menage, the Italian Anca, from ayκωu : S. Johnson says — ^' Hinge or Hingle from Η angle or Hang.'' — I believe no one ever before saw or heard of Hingle and Hangle. All the three words however are merely the past participle of the verb J^anjan, pendere, To Hang. To have a hank upon any one, is, to have a hold upon him ; or to have something Hank, Hanki/d, Hanged or Hung upon him. The haunch, the part by which the lower limbs are Hanky d or Hanged upon the body or trunk. Hence also the French Hanche, and the Italian and Spanish Ama. Hinge — That upon which the door is Filings Heng, Hyng, or Hi/nge : the verb being thus differently pronounced and written. " He HANKYD not the picture of his body upon the crosse to teache them his deathe." — Declaracion of Christe, By lohan Hoper. cap. 5. " The same body that hankyd upon the crose." — Ihid, cap. 8. "And therwithal he hyng adowne hys heed And fel on knees." — Troylus, boke 3. fol. 178. p. 1. col. 2. " Than Gesmas the thefe whiche henge on the lefte syde of our Lorde sayd thus to our Lorde Ihesu. If thou be God, delyuer bothe the and us. Than Dysmas that henge on the ryght syde of our Lorde Ihesu blamed hym for his wordes." — Nycodemus Gospell, ch. 7. " Absolon henge stylle by his heer." Diues and Pauper, 4th Comm. cap. 2. " Example of the tlieef that hynge on the ryght syde of Cryste." Ibid. 5th Comm. cap. 11. " Tliys mater hynge in argument before the spyrytual iudgesby the space of xv dayes." Fabian, parte 7. ch. 243. [" Then gin the blustring brethren boldly threat To move the world from oif his stedfast henge." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 11. st. 31. J Wake 1 are one and the same word, differently prc- "Watch ) nounced and therefore differently written. Though accounted substantives in construction, they are merely the 572 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II, past participle of the verb pecan, peccean ; vigilaie, exci- tare, suscitare, expergisci, solicitare. . In the old translation of the New Testament attributed to WicklifFe, we read, " Aboute the fourthe waking of the nigt." In the modern translation, " About the fourth watch of the night." — Mark, ch. 6. v. 48. "And comaundide the porter that he wake. Therefore wake ye, forsothe ye witen not whanne the lorde of the hous shall come." " And commanded the porter to watch. Watch ye therefore, for ye know not when the master of the house cometh." — Ibid. ch. 1 3. v. 34, 35. "And he cam Rx\a fonde hem slepinge, and he seide to Petir, Sy- mount, slepist thou, migtest thou not wake oon homMvith me ? Wake ye, and preie ye, that ye entre not in to temptacion." " And he cometh and iindeth them sleepmg, and saith unto Peter, Simon, sleepest thou ? Couldest not thou watch one hour ? Watch ye and pray, lest ye enter into temptation."— 7^2c/. ch. 14. v. 37, 38. " And if he shal come in the secounde waking, and if he shal come in the thridde waking, and shal fynde so, the seruauntis hen blessid. Forsothe Λvite ye this thing, for yf an husbande man wiste in Λvhat hour the thcef shulde come, sotheli he shulde wake and not suffre his hous to be mynyd." " And if he shall come in the second watch, or come in the third watch, and find them so, blessed are those servants. And this know, that if the good man of the house had known what hour the thief would come, he would have watched, and not have suffered his house to be broken through." — Luke, ch. 12. v. 38, 39. " The constable of the castell that kepith al the wache." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 10. fol. 42. p. 1. •' Ne how that Arcite is brent to ashen colde, Ne hoΛV the lyche wake was holde All that nyght, ne hoiv the Grekes play The WAKE playes, kepe I nat to say." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 11. p. 1. " Al be it so, that no tonge may it deuise. Though that I might a thousande winter tell The paynes of that cursed house of hell ; CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 573 But for to kepe us from that cursed place, Wake, and prayeth lesu of his grace." — Freres Tale, fol. 42. p. 1. " They nolde drinke in no maner wyse No drinke, that dronhe might hem make ; But there in abstynence pray and wake. Lest that they deyden." Sompners Tale, fol. 43. •' Saynt Poule byddeth us wake in all manner besynesse of gode werkes." — Oiues and Pauper, lOth Comm. cap. 6. Awake is the same past participle of pecan, preceded by A ; the usual Anglo-Saxon prefix to the past tense. Hence too, I believe, the old Italian words Avaccio and Avacciare ; which liave so exceedingly distressed their etymo- logists. The Italians not having a w, and pronouncing c as we pronounce ch, have made Avaccio from Έρ3£0, or Awatch ; which appears to me to be its meaning in all the passages where Avaccio is eniployed'. F. — Though it is not much to our present jHirpose, I cannot but notice a word in our own language, as little understood by us. I mean the common nautical term avast; wdiich seems to supply the place of our antient Ya)e, Yare. Skin- ner says, it means — *' Ocyus facesse, hinc te proripe, abi quam primum ; vox nautis usitatissima : fort, a prsep. Lai, Ah et Belg. Flaesten, festinare ; q. d. Hinc festines." This is given by Skinner only as a conjecture ; but it is not a happy one : for this Latin and Dutch mixture makes but an ill- assorted English compound. Apothecaries often complain of the physician's want of skill in pharmacy. S. Johnson, without even a glimpse of the meaning of the word, says— '^ Avast, adv. \ϊΐοι\\ Bastaj Ital. It is enough] Enough. Cease." FI, — Skinner and Johnson differing thus widely in the im- port of the word, as well as in its derivation, I may be per- mitted to differ from both, and to ofi^er my conjecture. Avast, when used by seamen, always precedes some orders or some conversation. It cannot therefore mean Abi quam primum, Flinc te proripe : neither can it mean Cease. Enough. Avast [Qu. Bivouac, Be-v/achten ? — Ed.] 574 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. answers the same purpose as — Hearki/e, List, Attend, Take heed, Gala, Hola, or (as the French used to begin the exercise of their soldiers) Alerte. Like the Italian Avacci, I think it means — Be attentive, Be on the Watch, i. e. awake. I do not undertake to sliew the gradations of the corruption. Pack Patch Page Pageant Pish Pshaw Of these words S. Johnson says, '' Pack — pack, Dutch." ^' Patch — pezzo, Itahan." '' Page — page, French," This Dutch, this Italian, and this French derivation (which explain nothing ; and in point of signification leave us just where we were without tliem) he takes from Skinner. He then proceeds upon his own bottom. *' Pageant. Of this word the etymologists give us no satisfactory account. It may perhaps be Payen Geantj a Pagan Giant; a representation of triumph used at return from holy wars ;— as we have yet the Saracen's head." Undoubtedly we have in London the sign of the Saracen's head. Undoubtedly Payen is French, and Geant is French : but these words — Un Payen Geant- — were never yet seen so coupled in French. He proceeds, '^ Patchery, Botchery, Bungling work. Forgery. A word not in use." ^'Pageantry, Pomp, Show." "Pish, inteij. A contemptuous exclamation. This is some- times spoken and written Pshaw. I know not their etymo- logy, and imagine them formed by Chance,'^ His Chance is not half so disgusting as his Payen Geant : and it would have been better for his readers j would have saved him a little trouble -, and been no disgrace to his philo- sophy ; if he had at once assigned Chance as the common cause of all the words in the language. The word patch however having been formerly applied to men, and patchery to their conduct; and these applications of those words being no longer in common use ; the commen- CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 575 tators of Shakespeare (in whose writings they are frequent) were compelled to inquire into the meaning of the words PATCH and patchery. " What a py'de ninnie 's this ! Thou scuruy patch." Tempest, p. 12. col. 1. Mr. Steevens says — ^^ It should be remembered that Trin- culo is no sailor, but a Jester, and is so called in the ancient Dramatis Personse. He therefore wears the parti-coloured dress of one of these characters." Mr. Malone says — '' Dr. Johnson observes tliat Caliban could have no knowledge of the striped coat usually worn by fools ; and would therefore transfer this speech to Stephano. But though Caliban might not know this circumstance, Shakespeare did. Surely he who has given to all countries and all ages the manners of his own, might forget himself here, as well as in other places." " S. Dro. Mome, malthorse, capon, coxcombe, idiot, patch." " E. Dro, What patch is made our porter ?" Comedy of Errors, p. 90. col. I. Mr. Steevens says- — '' Patch, i. e. A fool. Alluding to the parti-coloured coats worn by the licensed fools or jesters of the age." " A crew of patches, rude mechanicals, That worke for bread upon Athenian stals." Midsummer Nights Dreame, p. 151. col. 1. What were the commentators to do here? These were not licensed Jesters, in parti-coloured coats ; a crew of Jesters ; but rude mech-anicals, working for bread upon their stalls. Johnson says — '^ Patch was in old language used as a term of opprobry ; perhaps with much the same import as we use ragamuffin or tatterdemalion^'* T. Warton — ^^This common opprobrious term probably These explanatory words are themselves thus explained by Johnson s Ragamuffin — from Rag, and I know not what else." Tatterdemalion— Taiier, and I know not what." 576 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. took its rise from patch. Cardinal Wolsey's fool. In the Western Counties, Cross-patch is still used for perverse, ill• nahired fooU' Steevens•— '' The name was rather taken from the patched or pyed coats worn by the fools or jesters of those times." Tyrwhitt— *' I should suppose patch to be merely a cor- ruption of the Italian Pazzo, which signifies properly a Fool. So, in the Merchant of Venice, Shylock says of Launcelot — ■ 'The PATCH is kind enough' — after having just called him — ' That fool of Hagar's ofl'spring.' " Malone — ^' This term should seem to have come into use from the name of a celebrated fool. This I learn from Wilson's Art of Rhetoriqiie — ' A word-making, called of the Grecians onomatopeio, is when we make words of our own mind, such as be derived from the nature of things ; as to call one patche^ or cowLsoN, whom we see to do a thing foolishly : because these two in their time were notable fools.' — Probably the dress which the celebrated patche wore, was, in allusion to his name, patched or parti-coloured. Hence the stage fool has ever since been exhibited in a motley coat. Patche, of whom Wilson speaks, was Cardinal Wolsey's fool." " Serv. There is ten thousand — Macb. Geese ? villaine. Serv. Souldiers, sir." *' Macb. What souldiers ? patch." " V/hat souldiers ? Wh.ey-iace."-~Macbeth, p. 42. Steevens again says — ''An appellation of contempt, al- luding to the py'd, patch'd or parti-coloured coats antiently worn by the fools belonging to noble families." Johnson, Steevens, Warton, and Malone assume, for the purpose of their explanation, that Patched means the same as pi/ed or parti-coloured. But this assumption every huswife can contradict. ι [In two books in the Remembrancer's office in the Exchequer, con- taining an account of the daily expenses of King Henry the 7th, are the following articles, &c. ''Item, to Pachye the Fole for a rew . . . . 0.6. 8." See Malone' s Edition of Shakespeare, vol. 1. part 2. p. 53.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 577 In the following passages of Shakespeare can they find any ρΊ /ing or particolouring ? " And oftentimes, excusing of a fault Doth make the fault the worse by the excuse : As PATCHES, set upon a little breach, Discredite more in hiding of the fault. Than did the fault before it was ^o patch' d." King John, p. 14. col. 2. They who put patches on a little breach, to hide it, are careful that the colour shall as nearly as possible resemble that upon which they put it. " Other diuels that suggest by treasons, Do botch and bungle up damnation. With PATCHES, colours, and with formes being fetch't From glistering semblances of piety."- — Henri/ V. p. 75. col. 1. " Here is such Patcherie, such jugling and such knauerie : all the argument is a cuckold and a whore." — Troylus and Cressida, p. 87. ** Tim. There 's neuer a one of you but trusts a knaue. That mightily deceiues you. Poet 8f Painter. Do we, my lord ? Tim. I, and you heare him cogge, see him dissemble y Know his grosse patchery, loue him, feede him, Keepe in your bosome, yet remaine assur'd That he 's a made-up villaine." Timon of Athens, p. 96. col. 1. But beside the words patch and patchery, Shakespeare applies the word pack^ in a manner now almost obsolete. 1 [" Sought to nousel the common people in ignorance, least, being once acquainted with the truth of things, they would in time smell out the untruth of their packed pelfe and Masse-peny religion." E. K's Glosse on Shepheards Calender : June. " These were the arts, with which she could surprize A thousand thousand soules by theeuish trade, Rather the armes with which, in robbing wise. To force of loue them humble slaues she made ; What maruaile then if fierce Achilles lyes, Or Hercules or Theseus, to blade Of Loue a pray ; if who for Christ it draw. The naiightie-TACK^. sometimes do catch in paw." Godfrey of Bulloigne, Translated by R, C. Esq. cant. 4. St. 92. 2 Ρ 578 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART What hath bm seene Either in snuifes, and packings of the dukes, . Or the hard reine which both of them hath borne Against the old kinde king." LeaVf p. 296. col. 1. Upon this passage Mr. Steevens says — '' Packings are underhand contrivances. So, in Stanyhursfs Virgil, 1 582.• — ^ Witli two gods packing, one woman silly to cozen.' — We still talk of packing juries." " She, Eros, has Packt cards with Caesars, and false plaid my glory Unto an enemies triumph." — Antony and Cleopatra, p. 362. col. 1. To these instances from Shakespeare we may add some others, written before Shakespeare's time ; one in the reign of Henry the seventh, before Wolsey was a Cardinal, or had a fool. " King Rycharde did preferre such by shops to bishoprykes, as could neyther teache nor preache, nor knewe any thinge of the Scripture of God, but onely to call for theyr tythes and duties, and to helpe to serue his lustes and pleasures ; whiclie in dede were not worthye the name of byshops, but rather of noughtye packes disguised in byshoppes ap- parell."— jPaozaw, vol. 2. p. 343. " Some haue a name for thefte and bribery, Some be call'd crafty, that can pyke a purse. Some men be made of for their mockery, " Queste fur Γ arti, onde mill' alme, e mille Prender furtivamente ella poteo ; Anzi pur furon Γ arme, onde rapille, Et a forza d' Amor serve le feo. Qual meraviglia hor fia, se Ί fero Achille D' Amor fu preda, et Hercole, e Theseo, S' ancor chi per Giesu la spada cinge L' EMPio ne' lacci suoi tal' hora stringe T' Tasso, cant. 4. st. 92, '' — his lord of old Did hate all errant knights which there did haunt, Ne lodging would to any of them graunt : And therefore lightly bad him packe away, Not sparing him with bitter words to taunt." Faerie Queene, book 6. cant. 6. st, 21. " Faire Cytheree, the mother of delight. And queene of beautie, now thou maist go pack ; For io ! thy kingdome is defaced quight." Spenser ρ Teares p/ the Muses,'} CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 579 Sora careful cokolds, som haue their wiues curse, Som famous witwoldes, and they moche wurse, Som lidderous, som losels, som naughty packes, Som facers, som bracers, som make gret cracks." Skelton, p. 15. edit. 1736. ** I tell you nothing nowe of many a noughtye packe, many a flecke and his make, that maketh their ymages metinges at these holsum hal- lowes." — Sw T. Mores WorJces, A Dialogue, SfC. p. 140. Now, if you have well considered the use and signification of the words pack, patch and patch ery in the above differ- ent passages ; I think I shall not surprize you, when I afRrm that PACK, PATCH (in both its applications, viz. to men or to clothes) and page, are the same past participle Pac (differ- ently pronounced and therefore differently written, with κ, CH, or ge) of the Anglo-Saxon verb Psecan, Pseccean^, To 1 [*' Ne let the ponke, nor other evill sprights, Ne let mischievous witches with theyr charmes, Ne et hobgoblins, names whose sense we see not, Fray us with things that be not." — Spenser : Epithalamion . Todd supposes pouke to be the true reading, i. e. puck, or Robin Goodfellow. I suppose the same ; and that it belongs to this word Psecan or Pseccean. His tricks account for his name. *' Puck. Either I mistake your shape and making quite, Or else you are that shrew'd and knavish sprite Cal'd Robin Good-fellow. Are you not hee, That frights the maidens of the villag'ree, Skim milke, and sometimes labour in the querne. And bootlesse make the breathlesse huswife cherne, And sometime make the drinke to beare no barme, Misleade night-wanderers, laughing at their harme. Those that Hobgoblin call you, and sweet pucke. You do their worke, and they shall haue good lucke. Are you not he ? Rob. Thou speak'st aright ; I am that merrie wanderer of the night : I iest to Oberon, and make him smile. When I a fat and beane-fed horse beguile, Neighing in likenesse of a silly foale ; And sometime lurke I in a gossips bole, In very likenesse of a roasted crab : And when she drinkes, against her lips I bob. And on her withered dewlop poure the ale. The wisest aunt telling the suddest tale, 2 Γ 2 580 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART Π. deceive hy false appearances f imitation, resemblance, semblance, or representation ; To Counterfeit, To Delude, To Illude, To Oissemhle, To impose upon. And that pageant is (by a small variation of pronunciation) merely the present participle Pascceanb, of the same verb. — Pacheand, Pacheant, Pageant, " I will put on his presence ; let Patroclus make his demands to me : You shall see the pageant of Ajax." — Troylus and Cressida. " — — — With him Patroclus Upon a lazie bed, the liue-long day Breakes scurril jests. And with ridiculous and aukward action. Which, slanderer, he imitation calls. He PAGEANTS us." Ibid. [** In Satyres shape Antiopa he snatcht : And like a fire, when he ^gin' assayd : A shepeheard, when Mnemosyne he catcht : And like a serpent, to the Thracian mayd. Whyles thus on earth great love these pageaunts playd, The winged boy did thrust into his throne." Faerie Queene, book 3. cant. 11. st. 35. '' Before mine eies strange sights presented were. Like tragicke pageants seeming to appeare." Spenser's Ruines of Time. " Of this worlds theatre in which we stay, My Love, like the spectator, ydly sits ; Beholding me, that all the pageants play, Disguysing diversly my troubled wits. Sometimes I ioy when glad occasion fits, And mask in myrth lyke to a comedy : Soone after, when my ioy to sorrow flits, I waile, and make my woes a tragedy." — Spenser: sonnet 54.] The ejaculations pish and pshaw are the Anglo-Saxon Psec, Paecaj pronounced pesh, pesha (a broad). And Sometime for three-foot stoole mistaketh me. Then slip I from her bum, downe topples she, And Tailour cries, and fals into a coife. And then the whole quire hold their hips, and loffe, And waxen in their mirth, and neeze, and sweare, A merrier houre was neuer wasted there." A Midsommer Nights Dreame, p. 14S, cob 1, 2, act 2.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 581 are equivalent to the ejaculation- — Trumpeiy ! i. e. Tromperie from Tromper. As servants were contemptuously called Harlot, Variety Valet and Knave, so were they called Pack, Patch and Page, And from the same source is the French page and the Italian PAGGIO. But if you shall be pleased rather to suppose that the English word page comes from the French, and the French from the Italian, because that is the order in which you learned those languages : What will you gain by such a supposition ? You must still go on, and inquire the meaning of paggio. And all the satisfaction you will obtain, will be ; that some will tell you, it comes either from the Latin Pccdagium, or from Faheus, or from the Greek παιο,, or from the Turkish Peikf or from the Persian Bagoas. But still you will have made no progress : for the meaning of any one of these words (distinct fi'om its application) they will not attempt to tell you. F, — If the office of page was an inferior station, your ety- mology would have more probability ; but you know there is much dispute upon that subject; and that many contend, it was a post of honour and distinction, unlikely to receive so degrading an appellation. H, — A page of honour, comparatively with o{\\qx pages, was no doubt in a post of honour. But of the grandeur of the station you may judge by what follows. " Sir knight, I pray thee to tell me Avhat thou art, and of thy being. I am no knight, said Sir Gawaine, I liaue been brought up many yeares in the gard-robe, with the noble prince king Arthur for to take heede to his armour and his other aray, and for to point his paultockes that belongeth to him selfe. At Christmas last hee made me Yeoman, and gaue me horse and harneis and an hundred pound in money, and if fortune be my friend, I doubt not but to be well aduanced and holpen by my liege lord. Ah, said Priamus, if his Knaves be so keene and fierce, then his knights be passing good. Now for the kinges loue of heauen, whether you be knight or knaue, tell me thy name. By god, said Sir Gawaine, now will I tel the truth ; my name is Sir Gawaine, and knowen I am in his noble court and in his chamber, and on of the knights of the round table : he dubbed me a duke with his own hande, therefore grudge not if his grace is to me fortune and common, it is the goodnesse of God that lent to me my strength. ΝοΛν am I better 582 OF ABSTRACTION, [PART 11. pleased, said Priamus, then if thou hadst giuen me all the prouince of Paris the rich, I had rather to be torne with wild horses then any Varlet should haue wonne such lots, or any page or Pricker should haue had the price of me." — Hist, of Prince Arthur, ch. 97. " Our lyege lorde the kyng hath powder and fredom, of a page for to , make a Yoman, of a Yoman a Gentyhnan, of a Gentylman a Knight, of a poore man a grete Lord, without leue or helpe of the planetes." — Diues and Pauper, 1st Comm. cap. 17. Wrest ") The past participle of the verb Ppasj"tan, tor- Wrist J quere^ intorquere. To Wrest. " It causeth hertes no lenger to debate That parted ben with the wreste of hate." Lyfe of our Lady,'^. 176. Wrist, which is the same participle, was formerly called J^anbpyjij^t:, i. e. Handwrist, or Handwrest. [" Their shining shieldes about their ΛVREsτEs they tye." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 5. st. 6. " His sunbroad shield about his wrest he bond." Ibid, book 2. cant. 1. st. 21. " His puissant armes about his noble brest, And many-folded shield he bound about his wrest." Ibid. cant. 3. st. 1. ** And Guyons shield about his wrest he bond." Ibid. cant. 8. st. 22.] Grist — (Eie-jiij^eb) the past participle of Ge-pij^an, Ere- hjiyi^an, contundere, conterere, collidere, To Crush, To Crush comes from the same verb. As does also the French Escraser, Ecraser. IiKISQAN, FA-KKISQAN, HS-PA- hKiSQA^^• ρ > The past participle of Fjieman, facere. The Latin Forma, by a common transposition, is likewise from the same verb : But if this derivation should not please you, see whether you will be better off with the Latin etymo- logists. '' Forma ab antiquo Formiis, id est, calidus ; quia ex caiore nativo prove nit, Nonnullis placet, ut κα\ον juxta Platonem venit ατΓο του καλειν, id est, vocare ; quia pulcra hominem ad CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 583 se alliciunt : ita Formam esse ab Όρμη ; quia impetu quodam homines ad FormcB amorem iinpellantiir. Sane spiritus asper crebro abit in f. Atque idem locum habeat, si Forma dedu- catur ab όραμα, quod ab οραω, video. Et sane hoc prioribus impensius placuit. Quare vel istud verum erit : vel κατά μεταθεσίν fuerit Forma ex Dorico μορψα pro μόρφη, quod idem ac Forma, Indeque Ovidio Morpheus dictus somni vel fihus vel minister; quod varias Formas in dormientium φαν- τασία gignat.'^ — •νο88ΐα8. Flaw — The past participle of Flean, excoriare, To Flaj/, Gleam *) The past participle of A.-S. Leoman, Lioman, Gloom J Ire-leoman, Ere-lioman, radiare, coruscare, Ul- cere. " This light and this leem shal Lucifer ablend." VisioYi of P. Ploughman, pass. 19. fol. 99. p. 1. [" Of this faire fire the faire dispersed rays Threw forth abrode a thousand shining leames. When sodain dropping of a golden shoure Gan quench the glystering flame." — Visions of Petrarch, st. 9.] " Ο Cynthia, if thou shouldest continue at thy fulnesse &c. but thou, thinking it sufficient if once in a moneth we enjoy a glimpse of thy majestic, thou doest decrease thy glemes." Endimion, By John Lilly, act 1. sc. 1. [** Scarsely had Phoebus in the glooming east Yett harnessed his fyrie-footed teeme." Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 12. st. 2. " There by th' uncertaine glims of starry night, And by the twinkling of their sacred fire, He mote perceive a litle dawning sight Of all which there was doing in that quire." Ibid, book 6. cant. 8. st. 48.] " I have methinks a kind of fever upon me : a certain gloominess within me, doubting, as it were, betwixt two passions." B. and Fletcher : The Woman Hater, " The field, all iron, cast a gleaming brown." Paradise Regained, book 3. v. 326. The Latin Lumen is the past participle of Lioman. 584 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Long — The past participle of Lenjian, extendere, produ- cere. Nor can any other derivation be found 'for the Latin Loiigus^. Sleeve — A.-S. flyp. Formerly called Gapm-j^Iipe : that with which the arm is covered : The past participle of Slepan^ induere. Sleeveless means without a cover, or pretence. Bed — i. e. Stratum. The past participle of Bebbian, sternere. Therefore we speak of a Garden-oerZ and a Bed of Gravel, &c. And in the Anglo-Saxon Bebb is sometimes used for a table. Path — The past tense and participle of Pe^^ian, concul- care, pedibus obterere*^. ^ G. L Vossius tells us — "Longus a Linea quae porrecta est: Ita Isidorus. Vel potius a longa figura venabuli aut lancese, quam Grseci λυγχην vocant : Ita Csesar Scaliger. Item Petrus Nunnesius." But Isaac Vossius tells us — " Est ex Graeco oyKos, XaoyKos, λογκοε : nisi forsan ex ^oXlxos, tEoI. Xodixos." - [Trode, Tkade, Went. ** This rede is rife, that oftentime Great clymbers fall unsoft. In humble dales is footing fast, The THODE is not so tickle. And though one fail through heedless hast, Yet is his misse not miclde." — ShepJiecuxls Calender : July. " They saye they con to heaven the high-way, But by my soule I dare undersaye They never sette foote in that same troad, But balke the right way, and strayen abroad." — IJyid. September. " As shepheardes curre, that in darke eveninges shade Hath tracted forth some salvage beastes trade." Faerie Quee?ie, book 2. cant. 6. st. 39. " Till that at length she found the troden gras. In which the tract of peoples footing Avas." Ibid, book 1. cant. 3. st. 10. '< an island spatious and brode. Found it the fittest soyle for their abode, Fruitfull of all thinges fitt for living foode. But wholy waste and void of peoples trode." Ibid, book 3. cant. 9, st. 49. CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 585 [" That PATH he kept, which beaten was most plaine." \ Faerie Queene, book 1. cant. 1. st. 28.] INVEST — The past participle of Nejran, visere, visitare, To Visit frequently y To Haunt. [" Sweete Loue deuoyd of villanie or ill But pure and spotless, as at first he sprong Out of th' Almightie's bosom, Avhere he nests." Spe?iser : Teares of the Muses.'] [Vide Pye Nest in Yorkshire. See also Dungeness, &c.] Grass^ — That which is grazed or fed upon by cattle : the past participle of Irpapan, To Graze, Quag — The past participle of Epacian, tremere. Mead 1 A.-S. CQasb (i. e. COzyeb) Mowedy the past Meadow J participle of OQapan, metere. " This Troilus is by a privy went Into my chamber come." — Chaucer, Troilus, in. 786. See Junius. " Farre under ground from tract of living avent, DoAvne in the bottome of the deepe abysse • their dreadfull dwelling is." Faerie Queene, book 4. cant. 2. st. 47. " But here my wearie teeme, nigh over-spent. Shall breath itselfe a while after so long a went." Ibid, book 4. cant. 5. st. 46.] [" And, through the long experience of his dayes. Which had in many fortunes tossed beene. And past through many perillous assayes. He knew the diverse went of mortall Λvayes, And in the mindes of men had great insight." Ibid, book 6. cant. 6. st. 3. " He chaunst to come, far from all peoples troad. Unto a place, whose pleasaunce did appere To passe all others on the earth which were." Ibid. cant. 10. st. 5. " Said then the Foxe ; — Who hath the world not tride. From the right way full eath may wander wide. We are but novices, new come abroad. We have not yet the tract of anie troad. Nor on us taken anie state of life." Spenser : Mother Hubberds Tale.] <' S6 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Cage. A place shut in and fastened, in which birds are confined. Also a place in which malefactors are confined. Gage. By which a man is bound to certain fulfilments. Wages. By which servants are bound to perform certain duties. Gag. By which the mouth is confined from speaking. Keg. In which fish or liquors are shut in and confined. Key. By which doors, &c. are confined and fastened. Quay. By which the water is confined and shut out [or Lin.] All these I believe to be the past participle of the verb Eaej^ian, obserare. From the same Anglo-Saxon verb are the French Cage, Gage J Gages, Gageure, Engager, Quai ; the Italian Gaggia, Gaggio, Gabbia; and the antient Latin Caiare : which have so much bewildered the different Etymologists. Grave Grove Groove Graft Grot Grotto J " But ο alas, the rhetorikes swete Of Petrake fraunces that coude so endyte, And Tullius, with all his wordes whyte Full longe agone, and full olde of date Is dede a las, and passed into fate, And eke my maister Chaucers nowe is graue, The noble rethore, poete of Britaine." Lydgates Lyfe of our Lady, p. 96. " Eleyne and eke Policene Hester also and Dido with her chere And riche Candace of Ethiope quene, Lygge they nat graue under colours grene." Ihid. p. 197. Graft (sometimes written graff) is the same past tense Eipap, with the participial termination ed. Graf-ed, graf'd, graft. " Litle meruail it is though enuy be an ungracious grafe, for it cometh of an ungracious stocke."— ^9fr T. More, Be Qiiatuor Novissimis, p. 85. Hrpaj: and Erjisep serve equally in the Anglo- Saxon for GRAVE or GROVE. Grave, grove )> groove are the past tense and therefore past participle of Ijjiapan, fodere, insculpere, exca- vare. CH. IV,] OF ABSTRACTION. 587 In GROT, from graft (a broad), the f is suppressed, and GROTTO (or rather grotta^ is obliged to the Italians for its terminating vowel. Hell All these words, now so differently applied, are ί merely the same past participle of the Anglo- 1 Saxon verb J^elan, tegere : in Old English To Hehy To Healf or To Hil. Heel Hill Hale Whole Hall Hull Hole Holt Hold *• Nyl ye be bisy, seiynge what shulen we ete, ether what shulen we drynke, ether with what shulen we be hilid." — Matheu, ch. 6. v. 31. *• The litil ship was hilid with wawys." — Ibid. ch. 8. v. 24. '* I was herborles, and ye gederiden me, ether herbourden me, nakid and ye hiliden me." — Ibid. ch. 25. v. 36. " lust men shulen answere, whanne seigen Λve thee nakid and we HILIDEN thee." — Ibid. ch. 25. v. 38. " And thei entringe in to the sepulcre sayen a yong con hilid with a white stoole sittinge on the right half." — Mark, ch. 16. v. 5. " Forsothe no man ligtinge a lanterne hilith it with a vessel, ether puttith under a bedde, but on a candilstik."— Xw/ce, ch. S, v. 16. " No man ligtneth a lanterne and puttith in hidlis, nether undir a busshdl, but on a candilstik." — Ibid. ch. 11. v. 33. " Forsothe no thing is hilid whiche shal not be shewid, nether hid that shal not be Avist." — Ibid. ch. 12. v. 2. •* Thanne thei shulen bigynne to seie to mounteyns, falle ye doun on us; and to litil hillis, hile ye us." — Ibid. ch. 23. v. 30". ^ Menage derives grotta from κρυπτά, 2 [Although the instance from Luke, ch. 23. v. 30., adduced by Mr. Tooke, may seem to countenance his referring hill, a mount, to the verb pelan, yet, if, instead of an apparent resemblance, the cognate dia- lects are taken as our guides, we cannot overlook the Dutch Heuvel, Isl. Hvel, Germ. Hiibel, which Wachter derives from Jieben, levare : and more especially the Swedish Hygel and German Hiigel (from hohen, 588 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " Seie thou not in thin herte, who shal siie in to heuene, that is to seie for to lede doun Crist ? or who shal go doun in to depnesse, or HELLE, that is for to agen clepe Crist fro the dede spiritis." Romayns, ch. 10. v. 6, 7. *' Eche man preyinge or propheciynge, the heed hilid, defoulith his heed, forsothe eche womman preiynge or propheciynge, the heed not HILID, defoulith her heed." — 1 Cot^inthies, ch. 11. v. 4, 5. *' That in the name of Ihesu eche kne be bowid of heuenli thingis and erthly and hellis." — Philippensis, ch. 2. v. 10. " And for he was of the same crafte, he dwellide at hem and wrougte, forsothe thei weren of tenefectorie craft, that is to make hilyngis to traueilynge men." — Dedis, ch. 18. v. 3. " And al the houses bene hyled hales and chambres." Vision of P. Ploughman, pass. 6, fol. 30. p. 1. " And yet me marueiled more howe many other birds Hydden and hylden her egges full derne." lUd. pass. 12. fol. 58. p. 2. ** Kind kenned Adam to knowe his priuy membres. And taught him and Eue to hyll hem with leaues." Ihid. pass. 13. fol. 63. p. 1. '* Lewed men many times masters they apposen Why Adam ne hilled not first his mouth that eat the apple Rather than his licham alowe." Ihid. fol. 63. p. 2. " What hightest thou, I pray the, heale not thy name." Ihid. pass. 21. fol. 116. p. 2. "As she that was not worthie here To ben of loue a chambrere. For she no counsaile couth hele." Gower, lib. 3. fol. 52. p. 1. col. 1. " For I haue in you suche a triste As ye that be my soule hele. That ye fro me no thynge woll hele." Ihid. lib. 4. fol. 62. p. 2. col. 2. extollere), of Λvhich Kilian and Schilter consider hill to be a contrac- tion. Elevation is more the essential character of hill than covering. Richardson gives Germ. Huegel as the root, and then, confounding in- compatible etymologies, refers that to A.-S. pelan. To cover. As to the passage he gives from R. Brunne, p. 224, " He sped him thider in haste, Λvith hilled hors of pris," and which he interprets '' high horse ;" it no doubt means " horse co- vered with trappings." So in the following page, " with hors and her- neys." — Ed.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 589 ** She toke up turues of tlie londe Without helpe of mans honde And HELED with the grene grass." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 105. p. 2. col. 1, *' Murdre is \valtsome and abhominable To God, that so juste is and reasonable That he ne wol it suiFre healed to be. Though it abyde a yere, two or thre, Murdre wol out." Tale of the Nonnes Priest, fol. 89. p. 1. col. 2. " And some men sain, that great delyte haue we For to ben holde stable and eke secre And in ο purpose stedfastly to dwell And nat bewray thing that men us tell. But that tale is not worth a rake stele, Parde we women can no thyng hele, Witnesse of Midas, wol ye here the tale." Wife of Bathes Tale, fol. 38. p. 2. col. L *' For which I wol not hyde in holde No priuete that me is tolde. That I by worde or sygne ywis Ne wol make hem knowe what it is, And they woUen also tellen me, They HELE fro me no priuyte." Ro7n. of the Rose, fol. 104. p. 1. col. 1. " His brade schulderis wele cled and ouer heild With ane young buUis hyde newly of hynt." Douglas, booke 11. p. 388. " Eneas houit stil the schot to byde, Him schroudand under hys armour and his scheild, Bowand his hock, and stude a lytle on heild." Ibid, booke 12. p. 427. '* And fyrie Phlegon his dym nychtis stede Doukit sa depe his hede in fludis gra}^ That Phebus roUis doun under hel away : And Hesperus in the West with hemes brycht Upspringis, as fore rydare of the nycht." lUd. Prol. to booke 13. p. 449. '' Laye it in a troughe of stone, and hyll it wyth lede close and juste, and after do bynde it wyth barres of iron in moste strongest and sure wise." — Fabian, parte 6. ch. 213. Ray says — '^ To heal, To cover. Sussex. As — To heal the fire.— To heal a house.— To heal a person in bed, i. e. 590 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART Π. To cover them, ab A.>S. T^elan, To hide, To cover. Hence, in the West, he that covers a house with slates is called a HEALER or HELLiER."— Ray, Soutli and East Country WordSf p. 78. Hell — any place, or some place covered over\ Heel — that part of the foot which is covered by the leg^ Hill — any heap of earth, or stone, &c. by which the plain or level surface of the earth is covered^» Hale—-!, e. healed, or whole. [" There he remaind with them right well agreed. Till of his wounds he wexed hole and strong." Faei'ie Queene, book 6. cant. 1. st. 47.] Whole^ — the same as hale, i. e. covered. — It was formerly written hole, without the w. — As, a wound or sore is healed or ΛΥΗΟΕΕ, that is, covered over by the skin. Which manner of expression will not seem extraordinary, if we consider our use of the word He-cover. Hall — a covered building, where persons assemble, or where goods are protected from the weather ^ Les iiALLES in French has tlie same signification. *' Ce sont des places et lieux publics couverts pour y vendre les denrees a Tabri," — ** In quibus tempore pluviali omnes mercatores merces suas mundissime venderent." — ■'' Le lieu auquel pour I'exercice du commerce on s'assemble de toutes parts, mesme es jours ordinaires de marche, et aussi pour conferer et communiquer." — '^ Domus qusevis in qua merces plurimorum conservantur." The French etymologists were all clear enough in the ap- 1 Minshew derives hell from 'E\os, lacus — palus. 2 Minshew derives heel from κηλΐ], tumor. Skinner from '* ifKos, clavus, et secundario, callosum illud tuberculum quod medici clavum dicunt ; nos Angli, a Corn : fort, quia os hoc instar capitis clavi ferrei, vel potius clavi morbi, prctuberat." 3 Hill, Junius says — " videri potest abscissum ex κόλωνη vel κόλω- ros. Plures derivarunt ab High, altus." 4 Hall, say the etymologists, from the Latin Aula and the Greek ανλη. Junius thinks from *' άλω^, atrium j vel ?ώ ανλων, quod signi- iicat oblongum locum." CH. TV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 591 plication of the word ; but trifled egregiously when they sought its derivation from the Latin ΑιιΙα^ or Areay or Hallusy ^^ qui (say they) dans les loix barbares signiiie Rameau." Or from the Greek aXia, αλισαί, άΧων, άλως. Hull — of a nut, 8cc. That by which the nut is covered. Hull — of a ship. That part which is covered in the water. Hole — some place covered over'. ** You shall seek for holes to hide your heads m." Holt. — Holed, HoPd, Holt, A rising ground or knoll covered with trees. Hold — As tlie Hold of a ship : in which things are covered ; or the covered part of a ship^ jP. — I cannot perceive that hole always means covered; though it may in the instance you have chosen to produce. Cannot I drill a hole in the centre of this shilling ? And then where will be tlie covering ? 77. — After you have so drilled it, break it diametrically : and then where will be the hole ? Of the two pieces each will have a notch in it ; but no hole will remain. A shade "1 which our etymologists unnecessarily derive A SHADOW I from the Greek σκιά, mean (something, any A SHAW I thing) secluded, separated, retired; or (some- A shed J thing) by which we are separated from the weather, the sun, &c. They are the past tense and therefore past participle of Sceaban, separare, segregare, dividere. " Hantit to ryn in woddis and in schawis." Douglas, booke 5. p. 137. " Quher that the happy spay man on his gyse Pronuncit the festuale haly sacrifice, And the fat oiferandis did you call on raw To banket amyd the derne blissit schaw." Ibid, booke 11. p. 391. » Minshew derives hole from icoiXos, cavus. " Alludit etiam (says Skinner) ανΧαζ, sulcus : ανλων, fossa seu convallis oblonga ; γωλεα, latibula ferarum : κωλον, κόλον, inter alia, alvus ; et fwXeos, antrum." ~ Skinner has well described holt and hold, though he missed their derivation. Hold of a ship, he says — " sic dicitur contabulatio navis infima, ubi penus navis conditur." And holt — " Nemus seu arborum quarumvis 4ensius consitarum multitudinem designat." 592 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Lewd 1 Lewd, in Anglo-Saxon Lsepeb, is almost equiva- Lay J lent to wicked ; except that it includes no agency of infernal spirits : it means misled, led astray , deluded^ im- posed upon, betrayed into error. Lew'd is the past participle, and LAY is the past tense and therefore past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Laepan, prodere, tradere, To Delude, To Mislead. Lewd, in its modern application, is confined to those who are betrayed or misled by one particular passion : it was an- tiently applied to the profanum vulgus at large ; too often misled through ignorance. F. — Our word many seems to me a strange word, and its use in our language still stranger. There is nothing like it, I believe, in the use of the equivalent words of any other lan- guages. What is its intrinsic meaning ? Ls it a substantive or an adjective ? What is the rule of its employment ? Dr. Lowth is extremely puzzled with it : amongst other perplexing passages he cites the following : " How MANY a message would he send." Sivift, Verses on his own Death. On which, Lowth says — ^' He would send many a message - — is right : but the question How, seems to destroy the unity or collective nature of the idea : and therefore it ought to have been expressed, if the measure would have allowed of it, without the Article, in the plural number, — * how many mes- sages.^ " H, — The bishop mistakes in one point. ^' Many a mes- sage'' — -is not right : except by a corrupt custom. There is a corruption here in this familiar expression ; which, not being observed by Lowth, made him suppose this a to be an Arti- cle ; and therefore made him attempt to arrange the use of it, as an Article, on such occasions ; and to reduce it to some regularity. " a made a finer end, and went away, and it had beene any christome child : a parted eu'n just between e twelue and one. How now Sir lohn (quoth 1 1) what man ? Be a good cheare : so a eryed out, God, 1 Because the third person singular of our English verbs is usually designated by eth or th ; many ignorant persons, affecting to shew a CH. TV.] OF ABSTRACTION* 593 God, God, three or foure times : now I, to comfort him, bid him a should not thinke of God : I hop'd there was no neede to trouble him- selfe with any such thoughts yet : so a bad me lay more clothes on his ieetr—Hemy V. p. 75. So, in page 78 of the same play, Gower says to Flaelleu— ^^ Here a comes/' SirT. More, as we have seen, writes — '^Burne up, quoth a." So we say — John a Nokes \ Tom a Stiles, Thomas a Becket, &c. In all the above passages and in similar phrases, which are common enough, a by a slovenly pronunciation, stands some- times for He, sometimes for She-j and sometimes for Of. The use of A after the word many is a similar corruption for Of ; and has no connection whatever with the Article a, i.e. One, Instead of this corrupt a after many, was formerly written Ofy without the corruption : " Ye spend a great meany of wordes in vayne." — Bishop Gardiner, Declaracion against loye, fol. 14. " I haue spoken a meany of wordes." — Ihid. fol. 24. and innumerable other instances may be produced of the same manner of expression. As for the '' collective nature of the idea ;" that is confined to tlie word many. Many is indeed a collective term, and may therefore be preceded by the article A ,• but Message is not a collective term. Therefore — Mcoiij a message^ is not right ; except by a corrupt custom. It should be — '' a ynany of messages ^ Many, is supposed by Lye to be derived from man ; — ^^ ac profrie de hominum multitudine usurpatum :" and thence, according to him, transferred to other things. But many is superior propriety of sj^eech, are shocked at the expression — Quoth I — as a false concord ; and affectedly depart from the customary phrase, and Avrite Quod I. But Quoth /, is strictly accurate for said I. The th in Quoth, does not designate the third person. The verb is Epe^an, and its past tense is EpoS or Quoth. 1 [In the case of proper names, it is probably the representative of at, in like manner as, " Sym at Style, Hankyn Attihxiage, John Atte- water." — Mr. Stevenson's note in Boucher s Glossary, v. at, atten, ATTE. — Ed.] 2q 594 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. merely the past participle of GOen^an \ miscere, To Mix, TO Mingle : it means mixedy or associated (for that is the effect 0Ϊ mixing) subaud. company, or any uncertain and unspecified number of any things. " And in her house she abode with such meyne As tyl her honour nede was to holde." Troylus, boke L• fol. 157. p. 2. col. 2. " Nor be na wais me lyst nat to deny That of the Grekis menye ane am I." Douglas, booke 2. p. 41. [" The commoditie doth not countervail e the discommoditie ; for the inconveniencies which thereby doe arise, are much more many."•— Spenser's View of the State of Ireland, Todd's edit. 1805, p. 367.] Similar instances of the use of this word abound in all our antient authors. Lowth observes that many is used '^ chiefly with the word Great before it." I believe he ΛνΒ8 little aware of the occa- sion for the frequent precedence of Great before Many: little imagining that there might be — a Few many, as well as a Great many. S. Johnson had certainly no suspicion of it : for he supposes Few and Many to be opposite terms and con- traries : and therefore, according to his usual method of ex- planation, he explains the word FeiOj by — *^ Not many.'^ What would have been his astonishment at the following lines ? A comment of his upon the following passage, like those he has given on Shakespeare, must have been amusing. " In nowmer war they but ane few menye, Bot thay war quyk and valyeant in melle." Douglas, booke 5. p. 153. F. — V/ill this method of yours assist us at all in setthng the famous and long-contested passage of Shakespeare in The Tempest? " — = These our actors (As I foretold you) were all spirits, and [" Thou bewray 'dst his mothers wantonnesse. When she with Mars was meynt in ioyfulnesse." Faerie Qneene,hooli 3. cant. 11. st. 36.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 595 Are melted into ayre, into thin ayre .• And, like the baselesse fabricke of this vision. The clowd-capt towres, the gorgeous pallaces. The solemne temples, the great globe itselfe, Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolue. And, like this insubstantiall Pageant faded, Leaue not a racke behind." Tempest, p. 15. col. 1. Many persons, you know, and those of no mean authority, instead of racke read wreck. And Sir Thomas Hanmer reads track : which Mr. Steevens says — ^^ may be supported by the following passage in the first scene of Timou of Athens" — " But flies an eagle flight, bold, and forth on, Leaving no tract behind." J/. — The ignorance and presumption of his commentators have shamefully disfigured Shakespeare's text. The first Folio, notwithstanding some few palpable misprints, requires none of their alterations. Had they understood English as well as he did, they would not have quarrelled with his language. jF.— But if racke is to remain, what does it mean ? ^' Rack (says Mr, Malone) is generally used by our ancient writers for a body of clouds sailing along; or rather, for the course of the clouds when in motion. But no instance has yet been produced, where it is used to signify a single small fleeting cloud; in which sense only it can be figuratively applied here. I incline therefore to Sir Thomas Hanmer's emendation ; though I have not disturbed the text.'* Dr. Johnson concurs with Malone. He says — " Rack (^Racka, Dutch. A track.) The clouds as they are driven by the tvind." Though I mention their opinions, I am not in the least swayed by their authority : for Shakespeare himself gives a fiat contradiction to their imputed signification of rack ; where he says, in Hamlet^ ♦* But as we often see against some storme, A silence in the heauens, the racke stand still, The bold windes speechlesse, s^nd the orbe below As hush as death." -2 Q 2 596 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. If the RACKE may stand still; it cannot be—" the course of the clouds when in motion.^* Nor• — " the clouds as they are driven by the windy Upon this passage too, in the Third Part of Henry 6. " Dazzle mine eyes, or doe I see three sunnes ? Three glorious sunnes, each one a perfect sunne, Not separated with the racking clouds. But seuer'd in a pale cleare-shining skye/' Upon this passage Mr. Malone quotes from Shakespeare^s SonnetSj " Anon permit the basest clouds to ride With ugly RACK on his celestial face." Can Mr. Malone imagine that — -'' ugly rack '* means here •""—an ugly motion that rides on the sun's face*? Upon the whole, What does rack mean? And observe, you will not satisfy my question by barely suggesting a signi- fication ; but you must shew me etymologically, how the word RACK comes to have the signification which you may attribute to it. i/. — You ask no more than what should always be done by those who undertake to explain the meaning of a doubtful word. It surely is not sufficient to produce instances of its use, from whence to conjecture a meaning ; though instances ' ["Full many a glorious morning have I seen Flatter the mountain tops with sovereign eye Anon permit the basest clouds to ride With ugli/ rack on his celestial face." Shakespeare : Sonnet 33. Now read the following passage in the First Part of Henry 4. p. 50, where the same thought is expressed in different words. " Yet heerein will I imitate the sunne. Who doth permit the base contagious cloudes To smother up his beauty from the world. That when he please againe to be himselfe. Being wanted, he may be more wondred at. By breaking through the foule and ugly mists Of vapou7^s, that did seeme to strangle him." N. B. In the Sonnet, it is — " permit the basest clouds " — and — " ugly rack." In the Play, it is — '' permit the base contagious clouds "—and — '* ugly mists of vapours."] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 597 are fit to be produced, in order, by the use of the word, to justify its offered etymology. Rack is a very common word, most happily used in The Tempest; and ought not to be displaced because the com- mentators know not its meanins;. If such a rule for banishino- words were adopted, the commentators themselves would, most of them, become speechless. In Songs and Sonets by the Earl of Surrey and others, p. 61, we read, '* When clouds be driven, then rides the racke." By this instance also we may see that rack does not mean the course of the clouds token in motion, " Some time we see a clowd that 's dragonish, A VAPOUR some time, like a beare, or lyon. That which is now a horse, euen Avitli a thought, The RACKE dislimes, and makes it indistinct As water is in water." Antony and Cleopatra, p. 362. col. 1. Mr. Steevens says — '^ The rack dislimes, i•. e. T\\efleeting away of the clouds destroys the picture." But the horse may be dislimb'd by tlie approach of the rack, as well as by the fleeting away of the clouds : for rack means nothing but Vapour; as Shakespeare, in a preceding line of this passage, terms it. •' The upper part of the scene, which Λναβ all of clouds, and made artificially to swell and ride like the rack, began to open; and the air clearing, in the top thereof was discovered luno." — Ben Jonson : Masque, " A thousand leagues I have cut through empty air. Far swifter than the sayling rack that gallops Upon the wings of angry winds." B. and Fletcher ; Women pleas' d. '* — Shall I stray In the middle air, and stay The sayling rack V Ibid. Faithful Shepherdess. " The drawin blade he profFeris thare and here Unto thai monstouris euer as thay drew nere. And were not his expert mait Sibylla Taucht him tha)'' war but vode gaistis all tha But ony bodyis, as waunderand wrachis waist. He had apoun thame ruschit in grete haist." Douglas, booke 6. p. 173. 598 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART il. Upon this passage the Glossarist of Douglas says — '' wka- CHiSj spirits, ghosts. We once thought that it might be a typographical error for Wratliis, t and c being written the same way in the manuscript. But we thought fit not to alter it." What a mischievous fury have commentators and editors to alter those words of their author which they do not under- stand ! The Glossarist of Douglas did well here not to yield to his inclination. '' Na slaw cours of thy hors onweildy Thy carte has rendrit to thy inemye, Nor yit nane vane wrechis nor gaistis quent Thy chare constrenit bakwart for to went." Douglas, booke 10. p. 339. " Sic lik as, that thay say, in diuers placis. The wRACHis walkis of goistis that ar dede." Ihid. p. 341. " Thiddir went this wraych or schade of Enee That semyt all abasit fast to fle." Ibid. p. 342. " Persauyt the mornyng bla, wan and har, Wyth cloudy gum and rak." Ibid. Prol. to booke 7. p. 202. " ^- The brychtnes of day Inuoluit all with cluddis hid away. The rane and roik reft from us sycht of heuin." Ibid, booke 3. -^. 74. " As we may gyf ane similitude, wele like Quhen, that the herd has fund the beis bike, Closit under ane derne cauerne of stanis And fyllit has full sone that litil wanys With smoik of soure and bitter rekis stew : The beis wythin aiFrayit all of new Ouerthowrt thare hyuis and waxy tentis rynnis, With mekil dyn and beming in thare innis, Scharpand thare stangis for ire as thay wald ficht : Swa here the laithly odoure rais on hicht From the fyre blesis, dirk as ony roik. That to the rujSis to^^pis went the smoik, The stanis warpit in fast did rebound. Within the wallis rais the grete brute and sound. And up the reik all wod went in the are." Ibid, booke 12, p. 432. GH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 599 *' Quhare thir towris thou seis doun fall and sway, And stane fra stane doun bet, and reik upryse. With stew, pouder, and dust mixt on this wyse." Douglas, booke 2. p. 59. " Furth of his thrott, ane wounderous thing to tell, Ane laithlie smok he yeiskis black as hell. And all the hous inuoluit with dirk myst. That sone the sicht vanyst, or ony wist. And REKY nycht within an litil thraw Gan thikkin ouir al the cauerne and ouer blaw. And with the mirknes mydlit sparkis of fire. The hie curage of Hercules lordlie sire Mycht this no langar suffir, bot in the gap With haisty stert amyd the fyre he lap, And thare, as maist haboundit smokkis dirk. With huge sope of reik and ilambis myrk, Thare has he hynt Cacus." Ibid, booke 8. p. 250. [" Through th' tops of the high trees she did descry A litle smoke, whose vapour thin and light Reeking aloft uproUed to the sky." Faerie Queene, book 3. cant. 7. st. 5.] " You common cry of curs, whose breath I hate As REEKE a th' rotten fennes : whose loues I prize As the dead carkasses of unburied men. That do corrupt my ayre." Coriolanus, act 3. p. 19. [" Thou mightst as well say, I love to walke by the Counter-gate, which is as hatefull to me as the reeke of a lime-kill." — Merry Wiues of Windsor, p. 58. col. 1. " A paire of reechie kisses." Hamlet, p. 271. •' Reechie recke." Coriolanus, p. 10. col. 1.] '* A REEK, with us (says Mr. Ray, in his preface to North Country/ Words, p. viii.) signifies, not a smoak, but a Steam, arising from any liquor or moist thing heated." Rack means merely— That which is Reeked. And, whether written rak, wraich, reck, reik, eoik^ or reeke, is the 1 [Ray has rooky, misty : and the Vocabulary of East Anglia has ROKE, a fog ; ROKY, foggy. " Light thickens : and the crow Makes wing to the rooky wood." — Macbeth, act iii, sc. 2. in explaining Λvhich Mr. Forby observes, " an East Anglian ploughboy 600 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. same word difFereiitly pronounced and spelled. It is merely the past tense and therefore past participle, peac or pec, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Recan, exhalare, 7Ό Reek ; and is surely the most appropriate term that could be employed by Shakespeare in this passage of The Tempest ; to represent to us, that the dissolution and annihilation of the globe, and all which it inherit, should be so total and compleat ;— -they should so *' melt into ayre, into tldn or/re ;''—d.s not to leave behind them even a VapouVj a Steam, or an Exhalation, to give the slightest notice that such things had ever been. Since you seem to be in no haste to reply upon me, I con- clude tliat the explanation is satisfactory. And on this subject of subaudition I will, at present, exercise your patience no fur- ther ; for my own begins to flag. You have ηολν instances of my doctrine in, I suppose, about a thousand words. Their number may be easily increased. But, ί trust, these are suf- ficient to discard tliat imagined operation of the mind, which has been termed Abstraction: and to prove, that what we call by that name, is merely one of the contrivances of language, for the purpose of more speedy communication. F. — You have at least amused me, and furnished me with matter for reflection : Conviction and satisfaction are plants of slower growth. JBut, to convince you that you have not tired me, I beg leave to remind you, that you some time since as- serted that the Winds, as well as colours, must have their denomination from some circumstances attending them ; and that there must be a meaning in each of their denominations. L'Orient and L'Occident, for instance, are intelligible enough ; but how is it with the other names which all our Northern languages give to these same winds ? The EAST, the west, the noiith, the south. The French Quest, Nord, and Snd. The Dutch Oosi, West, Noord, Zuid. The German Ost, West, Nord, Snd. The Danish Ost, Vest, Nord, Sud. would have instantly removed the learned commentator's doubts whe- ther it had any thing to do with rooks." — Ed.] CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 601 The Swedish Oster, Wester, Νοίύ, Soder. The Spanish language, besides Orieitte, Levante, Ponienle, Occideute, Aquiloti, Septentrion, and Medio dia, has likewise Este, Oeste, Nord, Sur. What do these mean? For. when the English etymologist merely refers me to the Anglo-Saxon Gayt, yeyt, Nop^, Su^, he only changes the written characters, and calls the same language by a different name ; but he gives me no in- formation whatever concerning their meaning : and, for any rational purpose, might as well have left me with the same words in the modern English character. H. — Certainly. It is a trifling etymology that barely refers us to some word in another language, either the same or similar ; unless the meaning of the word and cause of its im- position can be discovered by such reference. And permit me to add, that, having once obtained clearly that satisfaction, all etymological pursuit beyond it is as trifling. It is a childish curiosity, in which the understanding takes no part, and from which it can derive no advantage. Our winds are named by their distinguishing qualities. And, for that purpose, our ancestors (who, unlike their learned descendants, knew the meaning of the words they employed in discourse) applied to them the past participles of four of their common words in their own language : viz. Yjirian, Pej-an, Nyppan, and 8eoJ)an. Irasci, Macerare, Coarctare, Coquere. East 1 The past participle of yppan or lejfipan, irasci. West I is Yjxyeb, ypf<5, ypf t : dropping the ji (which North many cannot articulate) it becomes yf t: ; and so South J it is much used in the Anglo-Saxon. They who cannot pronounce r, usually supply its place by a : hence, I suppose, east\ which means angry, enraged. 1 ['* As whence the sunne 'gins his reflection. Ship-wracking stormes and direfull thunders break ;...." Macbeth, p. 131. See Dr. Warburton's note on this passage. " Qualis frugifero quercus sublimis in agro, &c," " At quamvis p'i'mo nutet casiira sub euro, &c."^ — Lucan, lib. 1. There seems but little connexion between the east wind and Goose- 602 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " The wynd Tifomjk, that is cleped north best, or wynd of tem- pest," — Dedis, ch. 27. berry. Hre-yppan, Yppan, rre-yppan : Ixeopj-eb, liopj-eb, Uropj-b, Iiopffc. " Gooseberry, n. s. \_goose and herry, because eaten with young geese as sauce.]" — Johnson s Dictionary. It is a corruption for Ijojift berry. TsO]i]X is a thornhush ; so that it means, the berry of the thornhush. S. Johnson says " Gorse [Πορ]% Saxon,] Furze ; a thick prickly shrub that bears yellow flowers in win- ter." Skinner says " Goss or Gors ; ab A.-S. Ceopft, liopft, erica." lie-opft, i. e. enraged, angry. lie-yppan, irritare. " Give all present a sprig of Rosemary, hollies or gorses." — A codicil to the last will and testament of James Clegg, conjurer ■ May 25, 1751. " Then I beat my tabor, At which, like unback'd colts, they prick'd their ears, Advanc'd their eye-iids, lifted up their noses As they smelt musick ; so I charm'd their ears. That calf-like, they my lowing follow'd, through Tooth' d briers, sharp furzes, pricking goss, and thorns, ΛVhich entered their frail shins." Tempest, Malone's edition, p. 81. Steevens's Note. — " I know not how Shakespeare distinguished goss ίτοτΆ furze ; for what he cdl\?> furze, is called goss or gorse in the mid- land counties." Toilet's Note. — " By the latter, Shakespeare means the low sort of GORSE that only grows upon Avet ground, and which is well described by the name of whi7is in Markham's Farewell to Husbandry. It has prickles like those on a rose tree or gooseberry." "A troope of cavalliers searcht Mr. Needham's house : they found not him, for he hid himselfe in the gorse, and so escaped them." — Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson, p. 101. " He rid along, muttering that it was to no purpose, and when he came to Saxondale gorse, purposely lost himselfe and his forlornehope." —Ibid, p. 207. " The country adjoining being a dreary waste, many thousand acres together being entirely overrun with gorse or furze." — Ibid. p. 331. note. " They are under rights of commons, and cannot be touched without distinct acts of parliament to permit the plough to produce grass and corn, instead of gohse and ling." — Arthur Young in a Letter to Cobbefs Political Register, Vol. 13. No. 10. March 5, 1808.] [Lye has gojift, and gopj't-beam, rubus. As another conjecture with regard to Gooseberry, it is suggested that it ma}^ have been Gross- BESRY (Ribes Grossularia), as distinguished from the smaller Ribes, or Currants, which in German are Johannisbeeren, whilst the Gooseberries CH. IV.] OF ABSTRACTION. 603 In the modern version, '* A tempestuous wind, called Euroclydon." — Acts, ch. 27. v. 14. Macbeth says, (act 4. p. 144.) " Though you untye the windes, and let them fight Against the churches : though the yesty wanes Confound and swallow nauigation up : Though bladed corne be lodg'd, and trees blown downe. Though castles topple on their warders heads : Though pallaces and pyramids do slope Their heads to their foundations : though the treasure Of nature's germaine tumble altogether Euen till destruction sicken." *' Yesty waves (says S. Johnson), that is foaming or frothy.^^ • A little matter however always makes the waves frothy. But Johnson knew what the yeast of beer was ; (which comes indeed from the same verb) and the epithet Yesty con- veyed to him no stronger idea than that of fermentation. But γ EST γ here is the Anglo-Saxon yjftij, lej'ti^, procellosus, are Gross- (Johannis) beeren. in French Groseille, and Petit Groseille. In Kent black currants are, I am told, called Gazles. A reference to the various designations collected by Nemnich in his Ρ olyglotten- Lexicon der NaturgescJiichte seems, however, to leave no doubt that our word gooseberry is no other than the name given to the same fruit by our Teutonic neighbours : e. g. Germ. Krausbeere, Krduselbeere, Gruselheere, Grosselbecre, Grasel- heere, Kreutzbeere, Krutzbeere, Christbeere, (Uva Christi, Littleton.) Dutch, Kruisbessen, Kroesbaeye : see KiUan. — Dan. & Sw. Krusbar. Uva crispa is given as the Latin name ; and kraus, kroes, is crispus. However, the signification of the name has been so much lost sight of, that it seems to have been modified to suit the fancied reference of it to a Cross, a Cruse, a Goose, &c. The fruit is called Grozer in Scot- land and the North of England : see Brockett and Nemnich. In Norfolk the A.-S. name Thepes, or Febes, is still retained. If the relation between the Teutonic Grosselbeere, &c. and the low Latin Grossularia seems very probable, still the question remains as to which is the original, whether kroes, crispus, or grossulus, a little fig. Gerarde, booke 3. ch. 22, gives the following account: — ^" This shrub hath no name among the old writers, who, as we deeme knew it not, or else esteemed it not ; the later writers call it in Latine, Crossidaria .• and oftentimes of the berries, Uva Crispa, Uva Spina, Uva Spinella, and Uva Crispina : in high Dutch Kruselbeer ; in low Dutch Stekelbessen. .... in English, Gooseberry, Goose-berry bush, and Fea-berry bush in Cheshire, my native country." — En.] 604 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. stormy, enraged : which much better accords with Shake- speare's high-charged description than the wretched allusion to fermenting beer. pej*eb, yer'ty, yeyt, or west, is the past participle of yey2in, macerare. To Wet. North, i. e. Nyppe^, or Nypp^, the third person sin- gular of Nyppan, coarctare, constringere. Nord and norr (as it is in the other European languages) is the past participle of the same verb. " Frosts that constrain the ground, and birth deny To ί1θΛν6Γ8 that in its womb expecting lie." Dry den : Astraea redux. In the Anglo-Saxon Nipp^ or Nypp^ is also the name for a prison, or any place which narrowetli or closely confines a person. South is the past tense and past participle of 8eoJ?an, coquere, To Seethe. " Peter fyshed for hys foode, and hys fellowe Andrewe, Some they sold and some they soth, and so they liued both." Vision of Pierce Ploughman, pass. 16. fol. 81. p. 2. " Nero gouerned all the peoples that the violent wyne Nothus skorcyth and baketh the brennyng sandes by hys dry heate, that is to say, al the peoples in the southe." — Boecius, fol. 230. p. 1. col. 1. Dryden, whose practical knowledge of English was (beyond all others) exquisite and wonderful, says in his Doti Sehastiarij (act 2. sc. 2.) " Here the warm planet ripens and sublimes The well-hahed beauties of the southern climes." I need not notice to you that the French, sud„ and our English vvOrd suds, &c. is the same as Sod or Sodden. And now, 1 suppose, I may conclude the subject. CHAPTER V. the same subject continued. p. — I still wish for an explanation of one word more ; which, on account of its extreme importance, ought not to be omitted. What is truth ? CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 605 You know, when Pilate had asked the same question, he went out, and would not stay for the answer ^ And from that time to this, no answer has been given. And from that time to this, mankind have been wrangling and tearing each other to pieces for the truth ^, without once considering the meaning of the word. H. — In the gospel of John, it is as you have stated. But in the gospel of Nichodemus (which, I doubt not, had originally its full share in the conversion of the world to Christianity^) Pilate awaits the answer, and has it ''Thou sayest that I am a kynge, and to that I was borne, and for to declare to the worlde that who soo be of trouth wyll here my worde. Than ^ See John, xviii. 38. "What is Truth? said jesting Pilate ; and would not stay for an answer." — Bacon s Essays. 2 [" Canonica, in philosophical history, an appellation given by Epicurus to his doctrine of logic. It was called Canonica, as consist- ing of a few canons or rules for directing the understanding in the pursuit and knowledge of truth. Epicurus's Canonica is represented as a very slight and insufficient logic by several of the antients, who put a great value on his ethics and physics. Laertius even assures us that the Epicureans rejected logic as a superfluous science ; and Plutarch complains that Epicurus made an unskilful and preposterous use of syl- logisms. But these censures seem too severe. Epicurus was not averse to the study of logic, but even gave better rules in this art than those philosophers who aimed at no glory but that of logics. He only seems to have rejected the dialects of the Stoics, as full of vain subtilties and deceits, and fitted rather for parade and disputation than real use. The stress of Epicurus's Canonica coiisists in his doctriyie of the criteria of truth. All questions in philosophy are either concerning ivords or things : concerning things we seek their truth ; concerning \vords, their signification : things are either natural or moral ; and the former are either perceived by sense or by the understanding . Hence, according to Epicurus, arise three criterions of truth, viz. sense, anticipation or prse- notion, and passion. The great canon or principal of Epicurus's logic is, that the senses are never deceived ; and therefore that eve7-y sensation or perception of an appearance is true." — Encyclopsedia Britannica, vol. 4. p. 119.] 3 Nicodemus was the Patron Apostle of our ancestors the Anglo- Saxons and their immediate descendants : his Gospel was their favour- ite authority : and it w^as translated for their use, both into Anglo- Saxon and into old English ; which translations still remain, and the latter of them was one amongst the first books printed. By Wynkyn de Worde. Anno 1511. 606 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. sayd Pylate, What is trouth, By thy worcle there is but lyteli trouth in the worlde. Oav Lorde sayd to Pylate, Understande trouth how that it is judged in evth of them that dwell therin." — N^chodemus Gospell, ch. 2. F. — Well, What say you to it? ii/.-— That the story is better told by John ; for the answer was not worth the staying for. And yet there is something in it perhaps : for it declares that '' truth is judged in erth of them that dwell therin." However, this word will give us no trouble. Like the other words, true is also a past parti- ciple of the verb ΤΚΛ^Λ^^ί Tjieopan, confidere, To Think, To Believe firrnli^ J To be thoroughly persuaded ofj To Trow. " Marke it, Nuncle. Haue more then thou showest, Speake lesse then thou knowest. Lend lesse then thou owest, Ride more then thou goest, Learne more then thou trowest." — Lear, p. 288. This past participle was antiently written trew^, which is the regular past tense of trow ; as the verbs To Bloiv, To Ci'oiVj To Grow, To Know^ To Throw ^ give ns in the past tense, Blew, Crew, Grew, Knetv, Threw^. Of which had the learned Dr. Gil been aware, he would not, in his Logonomia ι ["Thou minde, of yeeres and of obliuion foe. Of what so is, guardaine and steward trew." Godfrey of Bulloigne, Translated by R. C. p. 2L " A bedroll long and trew he reckoneth." Jbid. p. 22. " Graunt that the heau'ns thereof giue evidence, And as yourselfe expound, so be it trew." — Ibid. p. 85. " Leaning the charge of me, and of the state To brother, Λvhom he bare a loue so trew." — Ibid. cant. 4. st. 40. Roberte Whytinton, poete laureate, in his translation of TuUye's Offyces, fyrst booke, writes trewe. " In kepynge trewe tutche and promesse in bargaynynge."] 2 [To Show — Past participle 57^e'^^. To Soiv — — — " sew. To Draw ™"™= — ™— dreiv.'] CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 607 AngUca, p. 64, have told iis that tru, ratus, was '^verbale anomalum of I trou, ιέοΓο'^ Of this I need not give you any instances ; because the word is perpetually written trew, by all our antient authors in prose and verse, from the time of Edward the third to Ed- ward the sixth. True, as we now write it; or trew, as it was formerly written ; means -simply and merely— That which is trow- ed ^ And, instead of its being a rare commodity upon earth ; except only in words, there is nothing but truth in the world ^ That every man, in his communication with others, should speak that which he troweth, is of so great importance to mankind ; that it ought not to surprize us, if we find the most extravagant and exaggerated praises bestowed upon truth. But TRUTH supposes mankind : for whom and hy whom alone the word is formed, and to lohom only it is applicable^. If no man, no truth. There is therefore no such thing as eternal, immutable, everlasting truth ; unless mankind, such as they are at present, be also eternal, immutable, and everlasting. Two persons may contradict each other, and yet both speak truth : for the truth of one person may be opposite to the TRUTH of another. To speak truth may be a vice as well as a virtue : for there are many occasions where it ought not to be spoken. [" Sed incidunt ssepe tempora,, cum ea quse maxime videntur digna esse justo homine, eoque quern virum bomim dicimus, commutantur, fiuntque contraria ; ut non reddere depositum, etiam nefarioso promis- sum facere, quseque pertinent ad veritatem et ad fidem, ea negare inter- dum et non servare, sit justurn." — Tullys Offices. Λ, 1 Mer. Casaubon derives true from the Greek ατρεκηε ; and ατρεκηί from ctrpej??, impavidus. 2 I" That which is true onely is, and the rest is not at ail." — Speji- sers View of the State of Ireland, Todd's ed. 1805. p. 501. j 3 [" Cic) ben sappiam, clie la divina essenza, In cui tutti viviamo, a nostre menti Aia del vero dono la conoscenza." Metastasio, La Morte di Catone, Ed. Parigi. torn. 10. p. 167.] 608 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. ** Quantunque il simular sia le piu volte Ripreso, e dia di mala mente indicj ; Si trova pur in molte cose e molte, . Aver fatti evidenti beneficj ; Ε danni, e biasmi, e morti aver gia tolte : Che non conversiam sempre con gli amici In questa, assai piu oscura che serena, Mortal vita; tutta d' invidia piena." Orlando Furioso, cant. 4. st. 1. P.— If TROWED be the single meaning of the term true^ I agree that these and many other consequences will follow : for there can be nothing trowed ; unless there are persons trow- ing. And men may trow diiferently. And there are reasons enough in this world, why every man should not always know what every other man thinks. But are the corresponding and the equivalent words in other languages resolvable in the same manner as true ? Does the Latin Verum also mean trowed ? H. — It means nothing else. Ties, a thing, gives us Reor, i. e. I am Thiitg-ed: Ve-reoi\ I am strongly Thinged ; for Ve in Latin composition means Valde, i. e. Valide. And Venim, i. e. strongly impressed upon the mind, is the contracted par- ticiple of Vereor\ And hence the distinction between Vereri and Metuere in Latin : '' Feretnr VibeVj Met nit serwus.'' Hence also Revereor. F. — -lam Thinged! Who ever used such language before ? Why, this is worse than reor, which Quinctilian (lib. 8. cap. 3.) calls a Horrid word. Reor^ however, is a deponent, and means / think. H. — And do you imagine there ever was such a thing as a de- ponent verb ; except for the purpose of translation, or of con- cealing our ignorance of the original meaning of the verb ? The doctrine of deponents is not for men, but for children ; who, at the beginning, must learn implicitly, and not be dis- * Vossius doubts not that " Vereor est a Ve, id est Valde, et Reor." But he affirms that Verum is not '' a Ve valde, et reor ; quia Vera ani- mum maxime afficiant ; sed ab epeir, hoc est, dicere ; quia quod dicitur, est ; quodque est, hoc dicitur ; ut hiec duo sint αΐ'τιστρεψοντα, nempe in sermone tali, qualem esse convenit." — The meaning of the verb Est, would here have prevented his mistake. CM. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. • 609 turbed or bewildered with a reason for every thing : which reason they would not understand, even if the teacher was always able to give it. You do not call Think a deponent. And yet it is as much a deponent as Reor, Remember, where we now say I Think j the antient expression was- — Me thinketh\ i. e. Me Thingeih, It Thingeth me, ** Where shall we sojourne till our coronation? Where it thinks best unto your royall selfe." Richard Zd, p. 186. For observe, the terminating κ or g is the only difference (and that httle enough) between Think and Thing. Is not that circumstance worth some consideration here ? Perhaps you will find that the common vulgar .pronunciation of Nothink, instead of Nothing, is not so very absurd as our contrary fashion makes it appear. Bishop Hooper so wrote it, " Mens yeyes be obedient unto the Creatour, that they may se on THINK, and yet not another."—^ Declaracion of Christe, By lohan Hoper, cap. 8. [** Da nsepbe he nan fetl hyxji he pttan mihte, pop^ani5e nan heojron nolbe hme abejian, ne nan pice nsej' ]>e hif mihce beon onjean Ixobej' pillau j?e ^epophte ealle DINC." " Then had he no seat where he might sit, for that no part of heaven would bear him, nor was there any kingdom that might be his against the Λνϋΐ of God who made all things." — jElfric. de Veteri Testamento, p. 4.] But your question has almost betrayed me unaware into a subject prematurely ; which will be more in its place, when, in some future conversation, we inquire into the nature of the Verb ; and especially of the Verb Substantive (as it is called) To Be, Esse, Existere, Extare, &c. Where we must neces- sarily canvass the meaning of the words Tiling, Essence, Sub- stance, Being, Real, &c^ And thither I desire to refer it. 1 [See above, p. 292, and Additional Notes. — Ed.] 2 Mr. Locke, in the second book of his Essay, chap, xxxii. treats of T?'ue and False ideas : and is much distressed throughout the whole 2r 610 • OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. Ill the mean time, if you reject my explanation of true ; find oat, if you can, some other possible meaning of the word : or content yourself, with Johnson, by saying that true is — ''not False.'' And false is — -'' not True.'' For so he ex- plains the words. F. — Be it so. But you have not answered my original question. I asked the meaning of the abstract truth : and you have attempted to explain the concrete true. Is truth also a participle ? i?.— No. Like North (which I mentioned before, p. 604,) it is the third person singular of the Indicative trow. It was formerly written Troweth, Troiothy Trouth, and TrothK And chapter ; because he had not in his mind any determinate meaning of the -word true. In Section 2, he says—** Both ideas and words may be said to be true in a metaphysical sense of the word truth ; as all other things, that any way exist, are said to be true ; i. e. really to be such as they EXIST." In Section 26, he says — " Upon the whole matter, I think that our ideas, as they are considered by the mind, either in reference to the proper signification of their names, or in reference to the reality of THINGS, may very fitly be call'd right or wrong ideas. But if any one had rather call them true or false, 'tis fit he use a liberty, which every one has, to call things by those names he thinks best." If that excellent man had himself followed here the advice which, in the ninth chapter of his third book. Sect. 16. he gave to his disputing friends concerning the word Liguor : If he had followed his own rule, previously to writing about true and false ideas ; and had determined what meaning he applied to true, being, thing, real, right, wrong; he could not have written the above-quoted sentences : which exceed- ingly distress the reader, who searches for a meaning where there is none to be found. ' [" For I, playing no part of no one side, but sitting downe as in- different looker on, neither Imperiall nor French, but flat English, do purpose with troth to report the matter : and seyng I shall lyve under such a Prince as King Edward is, and in such a countrey as England is, ([ thank God) I shall have neither neede to flatter the one side for profite, nor cause to fear the other side for displeasure. Therefore let my purpose of reportyng the trouth as much content you, as the meane handlyng of the matter may mislike you." — R. Ascham to John Astely, p. 6. CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 61] it means — (aliquid, any thing, something) that which one TROWETH, i. e. thinketh, or firmly believeth^ F. — Here then is another source of what has been called abstract terms ; or rather (as you say) another method of shortening communication by artificial substantives : for in this case one single word stands for a whole sentence. But is this frequently employed ? H. — Yes. Very frequently. So, besides North and Truths we have Girth — That which Girdeth, Gird'th, Girth, [" It would have cleft him to the girding place." — (i. e. to the GIRTH ; or place which one Girdeth.) Faerie Queene, book 4. cant. 8, st. 43.] Warmth — That which Warmeth. Filth — Whatsoever Filet h ; antiently used where we now say Oefileth, See before foul, p. 487. " Quhat hard mischance filit so thy plesand face ? Or quhy se I thay fell woundis ? allace." Douglas, booke 2. p. 48, " Causit me behald myne owne childe slane, alace, And wyth hys blude filit the faderis face." — Ibid. p. 57. [•* The come is theyrs, let other thresh, Their handes they may not file." — Shepheards Calender : July J] " Yet speaking thus much of trouth as was onely in the brest of Monsieur d'Arras on the Emperour's side, or in Baron Hadeck on Duke Maurice side, with whom and with on other of his counsell he onely conferred all his purposes three yeares before he brake out with the Emperor : But I meane such a troth as by conference and common consent amongest all the Ambassadores and Agentes in this Court and other witty and indiiFerent heades beside was generally conferred and agreed upon." — R. Ascham to John Astely, p. 6. " That doubtfull of the troth, and in suspence, The towne rose not in armes for my defence." Godfrey of Bulloigne, Translated by R. C. cant. 4. St. 54.] ^ If Mr. Wollaston had first settled the meaning of the word, he would not have made truth the basis of his system. 2 R 2 612 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 1ί. Tilth — Any manner of operation which Tilleth, i. e. lifteth, or turneth up, or raiseth the earth. See before tilt, p. 352. '* For he fonde of his owne wit The fyrst crafte of plough tillynge." Gower, lib. 5. fol. 90. p. 1. col. 2. i. e. The craft, of lifting up the earth with a plough. Wealth — That which enricheth ; the third person singular of Pelejian, locupletare, &c. ['* God hathe ordeyned man in this worlde, as it were the verye image of hym selfe, to the intent that he, as it were a god in erth, shuld prouide for the welthe of al creatures." — Bellum Erasmi : By Berihelet, 1534. p. 5. 2. "There as one is for his oiFence greuously punished, it is the WELTHY warnynge of all other."— Ibid. p. 30. 2.] Health- — That which Healeth, or maketh one to be Hale, or whole. See before hale, p. 590. Dearth — The third person singular of the English (from the Anglo-Saxon verb Depian, nocere, laedere) To Dere, It means, some, or any, season, weather, or other cause, which BERETH, i. e. maketh dear, hurteth or doth mischief. The English verb To Dere was formerly in common use. " No deuil shal you dere, ne fere you in your doing." Vision of P. Ploiighman, pass. 8. fol. 36. p. 2. '* Shal no deuyl at his deathes daye dere him a mite." Ibid. fol. 37. p. 1. *' Shal neuer deuil you dere, ne death in soule greue." Ibid. pass. 18. fol. 91. p. 2. "No dynte shal him dere." Ibid. pass. 19. fol. 97. p. 1. *' Whan he was proudest in his gere. And thought nothyng might him dere." Gower, lib. 1. fol. 18. p. 2. col. 2. **As for that tyme I dare well swere, None other sorowe maie me dere." Ibid. fol. 23. p. 1. col. 2. " That with his swerd, and with his spere. He might not the serpent dere." Ibid, lib. 5. fol. 103. p. 2, col. 2, CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 613 " Upon a day as he was mery As though ther might him no thinge derie." Goiuer, lib. 6. foh 135. p. 2. col. 2. ** His good kynge so well adresseth. That all his fo men he represseth : So that there maie no man hym dere." Ibid. lib. 7. fol. 164. p. 1. col. 2. " For of knighthode thordre wolde. That thei defende and kepe sholde The common right, and the franchise Of holy churche in all wise : So that no wicked man it dere." — Ibid. lib. 8. fol. 19. p. 1. col. 1. *' And ye shall both anon unto me swere ' That ye shall neuer more my countre dere Ne make warre upon me nyght ne day." Knyghtes Tale, fol. 5. p. 2. col. 1. *' And fel in speche of Telophus the king And of Achilles for his queynte spere For he couthe with it heale and dere." Squiers Tale, fol. 25. p. 2. col. 2. ** For though fortune may nat angel dere. From hye degree yet fel he for his synne." Monkes Tale, fol. 83. p. 2. col. 2. "No thynge shall dere them ne dysease them." — Diucs andPauper, 3d Comm. cap. 13. " The womans synne w^as lesse greuous than Adams synne and lesse dered mankynde." — Ibid. 6th Comm. cap. 10. Shakespeare, in the Tempest^ (act 2. sc. 1.) says, " We haue lost your son, &c. The fault 's your owne. So is the deer'st oth' losse." Again, in Timon of Athens ^ (Act 5. sc. 3. p. 97.) " Our hope in him is dead : let us returne. And straine what other meanes is left unto us In our DEERE peril." [" Ο thou sweete king-killer, and deare diuorce Twixt naturall sunne and fire." [" son and sire."] Ibid, act 4. sc. 3.] And in Julius CccsaVj (act 2. p. 120,) 614 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II. " That I did loue thee Caesar, Ο 'tis true : If then thy spirit looke upon us now. Shall it not greeue thee deerer then thy death. To see thy Antony making his peace. Shaking the bloody fingers of thy foes ?" And, ill Hamlet, " Would I had met my dearest foe in heauen. Ere I had euer seene that day." Johnson and Malone, who trusted to their Latin to explain his English, for Deer and Deerest, would have us read Oire and Direst ; not knowing that Dejie and Dejiienb mean hurt and hurting, mischief and mischievous : and that their Latin Dims is from our Anglo-Saxon Dejie, w^hich they would ex- punged Mirth — That which dissipateth, viz. care, sorrow, melan- choly, &c. the third person singular of the Indicative of GQyji- jian. See before morrow, p. 461. The Anglo-Saxons likewise used GOoji^, ClQop^e, Mors, i. e. Quod dissipat (subaud. Vitam) ; the third person of the same verb OQyjiJian^, To Mar, &c. and having itself the same meaning as Mirth ; but a different application and subaudition. Hence, from Qi^oji^e, murther, the French Meurtre, and the Latin Mors. ^ " Martinius, in voce pretiosus censet Angl. deare affine esse το ^ηρον, diuturnum ; quod majoris pretii sint ac pluris fiant quae sunt du- rabiliora. Ita quoque B. Duyr, pretiosus, derivant a Duyren, durare.'* Junius. " Dear alludit Gr. θηραω, consector, capto, venor ; quia quae pretiosa sunt omnes captant." Skinner. " DiRUS, Dei ira natus." Festus. " DiRUM est triste, infestum et quasi Deorum ira missum." Nannius. Servius says it is a Sabine word—" Sabini et Umbri, quae nos Mala, DiRA appellant." Vossius and Dacier will at all events have it from the Greek Aeij^os ; Ν mutato in R. 2 ["A good man is subject, like other mortals, to all the influences of natural evil ; his harvest is not spared by the tempest, nor his cattle by the murrain." — Adventurer, Edit. 1797. vol. 4. No, 120. p. 124.] CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 615 Growth. The third person oi'To Grow. Birth. The third person of To Bear. See before born, p. 356. Ruth. The third person of To Rue. J^pypian, misereri. Sheath. The third person of Sceaban, segregare. See before Shade, and Shed, p. 591. Drougth. A.-S. Djiujo^. It was formerly written dry- ETH, dryth, and drith. ** When ouermuch heate or dryeth in the matrice is cause of the hynderaunce of conception." — Byrth of Mankynde, (1540) boke 3. fol. 83. p. 1. " They whiche be compounde, are in compounde or myxte qualities : as heate and moisture, heate and drythe." — Cast el of Helth, (1541) fol. 3. p. 1. " Hot wynes, &c. be noyfull to theym whyche be choleryke, because they be in the highest degree of heate and drythe, aboue the just temperaunce of mannes body in that complexion." — Ibid, boke 2. cap. 4. fol. 17. p. 2. " Where great weerinesse or drith greueth the body, their ought the dyner to be the lesse." — Ibid. cap. 27. fol. 41. p. 2. Drougth is, that which Dryeth, the third person singular of the indicative of Dpijan, Djiujan, arescere. Dry, A.-S. Djii^, is the past participle of the same verb. As is also drugs, a name common to all Europe, and which means Dryed (subaud. Herbs, roots, plants, &c.). When we say, that any thing is a mere drug; we mean Dryed up, worthless. Sloth — That which Sloweth, or maketh one Slow, the third person of the Indicative of Slapian. See before slow, p. 562. [" The Lincolneshire commanders inform'd our's of the slowth and untoward carriage of Ballard." — Lyfe of Col. Hutchinson, p. 121.] Strength — That which Stringeth, or maketh one Strong, A.-S. j-tpenj. See before strong ^ p. 393. ' Mer. Casaubon derives strong from Εστηριγμ€νο5. " Videri potest (says Junius) affine Gr. Στραγγευω vel Στραγγίζω^ torqueo, stringo." Skinner derives it from the Latin Strenuus a Gr. Στρηνψ, asper, acu- tus : he adds — '* AUudit et Gr. ρωννυω, ρωνννμι, corroboro." 616 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. Mouth. (ΜΛΤ9ϊφ)— That which Eateth ; the thh'd person of the Indicative of MATQ^^^^ ClQetian, edere^ See before meat, p. 550. Moth — The name of an insect that Eateth or " Fretteth a garment" (pjiettan, vorare). It is the same word as Mouth, differently written, pronounced and applied. Junius indeed says, of moth- — '' tanquam sit ex μο^θνροα^ pravus ; propter importunam scelestissimi insecti malitiam." And Skinner — ^' Hoc credo, a ^υδαω, uligine putresco.'' Tooth (ΤΛΓΙ9ίφ)— That which Tuggeth ; the third person singular of the Indicative of X/VllQ/l.^? Teojan, To Tug. [The Collegers at Eton are jestingly called Tugmutton.~\ Faith. A.-S. pasj^ — That which one covenanteth or en- gageth. It was formerly written faieth. " Sainct Paule speaketh of them, vv^here he write th that the tyme shoulde come when some erring in the faieth, shoulde prohibite ma- riage." — Dr, Martin, Of Priestes unlauful Manages, ch. 2. p. 15. ** The very profession of faieth, by the whiche we beleue on the Father, the Sonne, and the Holy Ghoste, of what writyng haue Λνβ this}"— Ibid. -p. 20. *' In sainct Gregories daies, at whose handes Englande was learned the FAIETH of Christ." — Ibid. ch. 8. p. 116. It is the third person singular of the Indicative of Fsejan, pangere, pagere, To Engoge, To Covenant, To Contract. Smith — -One who Smiteth, scil. with the hammer, &c. Thus we have^ Blacksmith, Whitesmith, Silversmith, Gold- smith, Coppersmith, Anchorsmith, &c. " A softe pace he wente ouer the strete. Unto a SMYTH men callen Dan Gerueys, 1 Minshew and Junius derive mouth from Μυθοε, sermo.— [How will Mr. Tooke's derivation accord Avith the Gothic ΜΓΙΝφ5, Ger. Mund? See Grimm, ii. 233.— Ed.] ~ [But the Islandic has also, (besides trcesmid, a carpenter, husa sniid, an architect, &c.) vefsmid, a weaver, and even liodsmider, a poet. See Hire, V. Smida. And in A.-S. we have i^fmiS, a warrior, belli fabri- cator. --Ed.] CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 617 That in his forge smiteth i plowe harneys. He sharpeth Shares and culters besyly." My Hers Tale, fol. 14. p. 2. col. 2. This name was given to all who smote with the hammer. What we now call a carpenter, was also antiently called a SMITH. The French word Carpente?^ was not commonly used in England in the reign of Edward the third. The translation of the New Testament, which is ascribed to WicliiFe, proves to us that at that time smith and CarperUer were synonymous ; and the latter then newly introduced into the language. " He bigan to teche in a sinagoge, and manye heeringe wondriden in his teching, seiynge. Of whennes ben alle these thingis to this man, and what is the wisdom whiche is gouun to him, and suche vertues that ben maad by hise hondis ? Wher this is not a smith, ether a carpentere, the sone of Marie ?" — Mark, ch. 6. v. 2, 3. Stealth — The manner by which one stealeth. Month — Moon was formerly written Mone ; and month was written moneth. It means the period in which that planet Monethj or compleateth its. orbit. " And he his trouth leyd to borowe To come, and if that he Hue male, Ageine within a moneth daie." Gower, lib. 4. fol. 67. p. 1. col. 2. ** His wife unto the sea hym brought With all hir herte, and hym besought. That he the tyme hir wolde seyne. Whan that he thought come ageyne, Within, he saith, two monethes daie." Ibid. lib. 5. fol. 79. p. 2. col. 1. Eahth — That which one Ereth or Eareth, i. e. plougheth. It is the third person of the Indicative of Gjiian, arare, To Ere, To Eare, or To Plough, '* He that erith, owith to ere in hope." 1 Corinthies, ch. 9. v. 10, " I haue an halfe acre to erie by the hygh waye ; Had I eried thys halfe acre and sowed it after, I would wend wyth you." Vision of P. Ploughman, fol. 31. p. 1„ 1 [Some editions read smithed ; perhaps smitheth ? — En.J 618 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART II, " The mans honde doth what he maie, To helpe it forth, and make it riche : And for thy men it delue and diche. And EREN it with strength of plough." Gower, lib. 1. fol. 26. p. 1. col. 1. " I haue, God wotte, a large /e/i? to ere, And weked ben the oxen in the plowe." Knightes Tale, fol. 1. p. 1. col. I. " His fine flokkis pasturit to and fra, Fine bowis of ky unto his hame reparit. And with ane hundreth pie wis the land he arit." Douglas, booke 7. p. 226. " Taucht thame to grub the wynes, and al the art To ERE, and saw the cornes, and yoik the cart." Ibid, booke 13. p. 475. " He that eres my land, spares my teame, and giues mee leaue to inne the crop." — Alls Well that Ends Well, p. 233. " That power I haue, discharge, and let them goe To Ε are the land." Richard 2. p. 35. Instead of earth, Douglas and some other antient authors use erd, i.e. Ered, Er'd — That which is ploughed. The past participle of the same verb. " The nicht followis, and euery wery wicht Throw out the erd has caucht anone richt The sound plesand slepe thame likit best." Douglas, booke 4. p. 118. " Thare speris stikkyng in the erd did stand." Ibid, booke 6. p. 187. '' Of youth thay be accustumed to be skant. The ERDE with pleuch and harrowis to dant." Ibid, booke 9. p. 299. " Ο thou Faunus, help, help, I the pray. And thou, Tellus, maist nobill god of erd*." Ibid, booke 12. p. 440. Math— A. -S. CDape^. The third person singular of the indicative of OQapan, metere, To Moid. 1 Where we now say earth, the Germans use erde ; which Vossius derives from the Hebrew. '' Ab Hebrseo est etiam Germanicum erd." CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 619 As Latter Math — i.e. That which one inoweth^ later, or after the former mowing. " Lo, now of al sic furour and efFere, The lattir Meith and terme is present here." Douglas, booke 13. p. 454. Broth— the third person of the indicative of Bpipan, co- quere. That which one Bjiipe^. Hence the old English say- ing, of a man who has killed himself with drinking, — *' He has fairly drunk up his Broth : " — The Italian Brodo is the past participle of the same verb. That which is Bpipeb, Bpiob. [Bath. ** For in her streaming blood he did embay His little hands." Faerie Queene, booke 2. cant. 1. st. 40.] Wath — i. e. where one Wadeth, the third person singular of ]7aban, To Wade ; is used commonly in Lincolnshire and in the North, for a Ford, Garth — i. e. Girdeth ; is commonly used in the same coun- ties for a yard. From the Hebrew also he is willing to derive Tellus. But both erd and Tellus are of Northern origin, and mean — Erd— That which is Er-ed. | |^;^J^' Tell-us—ThsL•t Avliich is Till-ed. I r^ 7^^^* And it is a most erroneous practice of the Latin etymologists to fly to the Hebrew for whatever they cannot find in the Greek : for the Romans were not a mixed colony of Greeks and Jews ; but of Greeks and Goths. As the whole of the Latin language most plainly evinces. ^ [Booth — i. e. That which one Bougheth or maketh with Boughs. See the bad derivations of booth by Junius, Skinner, and S. Johnson. But it is tolerably well described by Johnson : " A house built of boards or Boughs, to be used for a short time." It is better described by Seneca : " Mihi crede, felix illud sseculum ante architectonus fuit. Furcee utrimque suspensse fulciebant casam : spissatis ramalibus, ac fronde con- gesta et in proclive disposita, decursus imhrihus quamvis magnis erat. Sub his tectis habitavere securi," — Seneca, Epist. xc. 4ta edit. Lipsii, p. 575.] 620 OF ABSTRACTION. [PART 11. Fifth 1 In the same manner are formed the names of our Sixth | ordinal numbers, Fifths Sixth, Ninth., Te?ith, Ninth r" Twentieth^ &c. i. e. That unit which Fiv-eth, Six- Tenth eth, Niu-eth, Ten-eth, Twenty- eth, &c. or, which &c. J maketh up the number Five, Six, Nine, Ten, Twenty, &c. Length Ί In the same manner are formed our words Breadth j of admeasurement, Length, Breadth, Width, Width Y Depth, Heigth, Which are respectively the Depth j third persons singular, Lenje^, Bjiasbe^, Heigth J ^abe^, Dipped, I^Jeape^, of the indicatives of Lenjian, extendere ; Bjiasban, dilatare ; ]7aban, proce- dere; Dippan, submergere ; i5aspan, extollere. F.- — It has been remarked indeed that Milton always wrote Heigth, as our antient authors also did ; but the word is now commonly written and spoken Height ; which seems to oppose your etymology. H. — That circumstance does not disturb me in the least : for the same thing has happened to many other words. But this interferes not at all with their meaning nor with their deri- vation ; though it makes them not quite so easily discoverable. So it has happened to Might ; which the Anglo-Saxons wrote CDasje^ or GQas^^e, i. e. What one mayeth — Quantum potest aut valet aliquis. Might is the third person singular of the indicative of GQajan, posse, valere. *' Meath, vox agro Line, usitatissima, ut ubi dicimus, I give thee the meath of the buying, i. e. tibi optionem et ple- nariam potes'tatem pretii seu emptionis facio." — Skinner. Light : which the Anglo-Saxons wrote Leohte^, Leoh^, and Leoht, i. e. quod illuminat. It is the third person of the indicative of Leohtan, illuminare. Sight : which the Anglo-Saxons wrote 81^ and Si^e, i.e. that faculty which seeth. The third person singular of the indicative of 8eon, videre. This change of ε for 1 is nothing extraordinary: for, as they wrote j^ie^ or j^i^ for Seeth ; so they wrote fie for See, and riene for Seen, And Gower and Chaucer wrote sigh for saw. CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 621 *' And tho me thought that I sigh ε A great stone from an hille on highe Fell downe of sodeine auenture." Gower, Prol. fol. 4. p. 2. col. 1, " He torneth him all sodenly And sawe a ladie laie him by Of eightene wynter age, Whiche was the fairest of visage That euer in all this worlde he sighe." rbid. lib. 1. fol. 17. p. 2. col. 2. ** Ful fayre was Myrthe, ful longe and high A fayrer man I neuer sygh." Rom. of the Rose, fol. 123. p. 2. col. 2. Weight — A.-S. pae^e^. The third person singular of the indicative of fasjan, To Weigh. — -The weight of any thing, is^ — That which it Weigheth. Wright : i. e. One that Worketk. The third person of the indicative of pyjican, operari. As Shipwright, Cartwright, Wainwright, Wheelwright : One that worketh at Ships, Carts, Waggons, Wheels. [** Se selmihti^a Scippenb ge fputelobe hme j'ylfne J^uph ]?a micclan peopc ]?e he ^e pORpT6 set ppuman." *' The almighty Shaper manifested himself through the great work that he wrought at the beginning."— ^//r/c. de Veteri Testamento, p. 2. " Fopt5am]?e hiC yj- ppit^e polic ^ fa ^eFORpTAN geSHeAFTA fam ne beon gehijipume pe hi geSEGOP anb §eyORpT6. Nsep j^eop populb sec ppuman, ac hige pORpTG Cob pilp." •' For very disorderly it Λvere that thing created should be disobedient unto the Creator thereof. This world was not at first, but God himself made it." — Ibid.'] R and h, the canine and the aspirate, are the two letters of the alphabet more subject to transposition than any other. So WORK — aliquid operatiim- — which we retain as our sub- stantive, is the regular past tense of pypcan ; which, by the addition of the participial termination ed, became w^orked, work'd, workt. This our ancestors, by substituting η for κ or c, wrote ]7opht:, and by transposition pjioht: ; which we now write wrought, and retain both as past tense and past participle of ]7ypcan. To Work, For pipce^, our ancestois wrote pyjiht ; and, by a trans- 622 OF ABSTRACTION. [pART II. position similar to the foregoing, ]7j"iyht: ; which with us be- comes WRIGHT. These words, and such as these, are not difficult to discover. Because the terminating ht, instead of th, leads to suspicion and detection. But there are many others, such as blow, HARM, ALE, KNAVE, RooM^, Scc. whicli are not so readily suspected as those I have before mentioned : because, in our modern English, we have totally cast off' all the letters of the discriminating termination of the third person singular of the indicative of those verbs. Sir Walter Raleigh, in his History of the World, instead of blow, uses BLOWTH (the third person singular of the indica- tive of Blopan, florere) as the common expression of his day. " This first age after the flood was, by ancient historians, called Golden. Ambition and covetousness being as then but green and newly grown up ; the seeds and effects whereof were as yet but poten- tial, and in the blowth and bud." Part 1. book 1. ch. 9. sect. 3. p. 107. edit. 1677. Ϊ RooMTH (in the Anglo-Saxon Rym^e), the third person singular of Ryman, is the favourite term of Drayton. *' When wrathful heauen the clouds so lib'rally bestow'd The seas (then wanting roomth to lay their boist'rous load) Upon the Belgian marsh their pamper'd stomachs cast." Poly-olbioUt song 5, '' But RydoU, young' st and least, and for the others pride Not finding fitting roomth upon the rising side. Alone unto the West directly takes her way." Ibid, song 6. " Whose most renowned acts shall sounded be as long As Britain's name is known ; which spred themselves so wide As scarcely hath for fame left any roomth beside." Ibid, song 8. " Nor let the spacious mound of that great Mercian king (Into a lesser roomth thy burliness to bring) Include thee." Ibid, song 8. " Kanutus, yet that hopes to win what he did lose, Provokes him still to fight : and falling back Avhere they Might field- ROOMTH find at large their ensigns to display, Together flew again." Ibid, song 12. '* Besides I dare thus boast, that I as far am known As any of them all, the South their names doth sound ; The spacious North doth me : that there is scarcely found A ROOMTH for any else, it is so fiU'd with mine." Ibid, song 26. CH. v.] OF ABSTRACTION. 623 " This princess having beheld the child ; his form and beauty, though but yet in the blowth, so pierced her compassion, as she did not only preserve it, and cause it to be fostered ; but commanded that it should be esteemed as her own." — Part 1. book 2. ch. 3. sect. 3. p. 148. Harm. Our modern word harm was in the Anglo-Saxon Yjim^ or lejim^, i. e. Whatsoever Harmeth or Hurteth : the third person singular of the indicative of ypman, or lejiman, Isedere. ["pi alifbe op heopa YKOODG." — ^Ifric. de Veteri Testamento, p. 12. See above, in p. 337.] Ale, was in the Anglo-Saxon Άΐο^, i. e. Quod accendit, inflammat : the third person singular of the indicative of /Blan, accendere, inflammare. Skinner was aware of the meaning of this word, though he knew not how it was derived. He says of ale — *' Posset et non absurde deduci ab A.-S. /Blan, accendere, inflammare : Quia sc. ubi generosior est {qualis majoj^hus twstris in usu fuiO spiritus et sanguinem copioso semper, ssepe nimio, calore perfundit,'' [Crew ") Ere-pasp, Ije-jiaspub. — Ragpub, Rout. Dutch, Crowd J Rot and Rotting. A.-S. Epeab and Ejiu^. Iiepaspub pae^a.•— jR. 7. Cot. 13. ''Mixta, sive undique collecta, acies." — Xj/e. " They saw before them, far as they could vew, Full many people gathered in a crew." Faerie Qiieene, book 5. cant. 2. st. 29.] Knave (A.-S. Enapa) was probably Napa^, i. e. Ne- hapa^, rienapa^ ; qui nihil habet : the third person singular of Nabban, i. e. Ne-haban. So Gensep, Erenaspb, Ncepij, Naspja, are in the Anglo-Saxon, mendicus, egens. In the same manner Nequam is held by the Latin etymologists to mean Ne-qiiicquam, i. e. One who hath nothing ; neither goods nor good qualities. For — " Nequam servum, non malum, sed inutilem significat." Or, according to Festus — "Qui ne tanti quidem est, quam quod habetur minimi." Of the same stert the Anglo-Saxons had likewise many other abstract terms (as they are called) from others of their verbs : of which we have not in our modern language any 624 OF ADJECTIVES. [PART II. trace left. Such as Erjiy^, the third person singular of the indicative of Erpetan : Diijii^, the third person singular of the indicative of Diijan, 8cc. Chaucer indeed lias used gryth. ** Christ said : Qui gladio percutit, Wyth swerde shall dye. He bad his priestes peace and gryth." Ploughmans Tale, fol. 94. p. 1. col. 2. And from Dujii^ we have Doughty still remaining in the language'. But I think I need proceed no further in this course : and that I have already said enough, perhaps too much, to shew what sort of operation that is, which has been termed Abs- traction, CHAPTER VL OF ADJECTIVES. i'.— -You imagine then that you have thus set aside the doc* trine of Abstraction. Will it be unreasonable to ask you, What are these Adjec- tives and Participles by which you think you have atchieved this feat? And first, What is an Adjective? I dare not call i [Pyni5, nocumentum, Isesio, oppression; third person singular of Pynan, opprimere. pu(5e, past participle of Pyi^ian. " Se Chalbea cmmc com pa to hij" eapbe mib J)8epe PUD6 anb psepe liepe lape." — JSlfric. de Veteri Testamento, p. 16.] [To these may also be added, Fixo^ and fixnoi5e, PuntaS and hunt- ϊΐο^, psefcne^, hseptno^e, Pep^aiS, Igja^, Eeoju^. •* Ic pille 2;an on ριχοί5." " I will go a-fishing." — John, xxi. 3. '* On hseftnei^e paef." "Was in custody."— C^row. Sax. 1101. " Ucapapen on hepgat^." " Gone out a-plundering." — lb. an. 894. The reader is referred to Grimm's account of derivations in th ; Orammat, vol. ii. p. 245, &c.-~Ed.] CH. VI.] OF ADJECTIVES. 625 it Noii?i Adjective: for Dr. Lovvth tells us, p. 41, ^'Adjectives are very improperly called Nouns, for they are not the names of things.^' And Mr. Harris (Hermes, book 1. ch. 10.) says — '' Gram- marians have been led into that strange absurdity of ranging Adjectives with Nouns, and separating them from Verbs ; though they are homogeneous with respect to Verbs, as both sorts denote Attributes : they are heterogeneous with respect to Nouns, as never properly denoting Substances," You see, Harris and Lowth concur, that Adjectives are not the names of things ; that they never properly denote sub- stances. But they differ in their consequent arrangement. Lovvth appoints the Adjective to a separate station by itself amongst the parts of speech ; and yet expels the Participle from amongst them, though it had long figured there : whilst Harris classes Verbs, Participles, and Adjectives together under one head, viz. Attributives^, H. — These gentlemen differ widely from some of their ablest predecessors. Scaliger, Wilkins, Wallis, Sanctius, Scioppius, and Vossius, considerable and justly respected names, tell us far otherwise. Scaliger, lib. 4. cap. 91. ''Nihil differt concretum ab abstracto, nisi modo significationis, non significatione." Wilkins, Part 1. ch. 3, sect. 8. "The true genuine sense of a Noun Adjective will be fixed to consist in this ; that it imports this general notion, οϊ pertaining to,'^ Wallis, p. 92. " Adjec.tivum respectivum est niliil aliud quam ipsa vox substantiva, adjective posita." Pag. 127. " Quodlibet substantivum adjective posituni degenerat in adjectivum." 1 Harris should have called them either Attributes or Attributahles. But having terminated the names of his three other classes (Stihstantive, Definitive, Connective) in Ive, he judged it more regular to terminate the title of this class also in Ive : having no notion whatever that all com- mon terminations have a meaning ; and probably supposing them to be (as the etymologists ignorantly term them) mere protractiones vocum : as if words were wiredraivn, and that it was a mere matter of Taste in the writer, to use indifferently either one termination or another at his pleasure. 2 s 626 OF ADJECTIVES. [PART II. Pag. 129. ^' Ex substantivis fiunt Adjectiva copia3, addita terminatione^, &c. Sanctius, F. — I beg you to proceed no further with your authorities. Can you suppose that Harris and Lowth were unacquainted with them ; or that they had not read much more than all which you can produce upon the subject, or probably have ever seen ? H. — I doubt it not in the least. But the health of the mind, as of the body, depends more upon the digestion than the swallow. Away then with authorities : and let us consider their reasons. They have given us but one ; and that one, depending merely upon their own unfounded assertion, viz. That Adjectives are not the names of things. Let us try that. I tliink you will not deny that Gold and Bi^ass and Silkj is each of them the name of a things and denotes a substance. If then I say — a Go/i/-ring, a Brass-ixxhe, a ASi/Zc -string : Here are the Substantives adjective posita, yet names of things, and denoting substantives. If again I say— a Golden ring, a Brazen tube, a Silken string ; do Gold and Brass and Silk, cease to be the names of things, and cease to denote substantives ; because, instead of coupling them with ringy tube and string by a hyphen thus - , I couple them to the same words by adding the termination en to each of them ? Do not the Adjectives (which I have made such by the added termination) Golden, Brazen, Silketi, (ut- tered by themselves) convey to the hearer's mind and denote the same things as Gold, Brass, and Silk ? Surely the ter- mination en takes nothing away from the substantives Gold, Brass, and Silk, to which it is united as a termination : and as suiely it adds nothing to their signification, but this single circumstance, viz. that Gold, Brass and Silk, are designated, by this termination en, to be joined to some other substantive. And we shall find hereafter that en and the equivalent adjec- tive teruiinations cd and ig (our modern j/) convey all three, by their own intrinsic meaning, that designation and nothing- else ; for tliey mean Give, Add, Join. And this single added ciicraiistance of *^ pertaining to/^ is (as Wilkins truly tells us) CH. VI.] OF ADJECTIVES. 627 the only difference between a substantive and an adjective ; between Gold and Golden, &c. So the Adjectives Wooden and Woolen convey precisely the same ideas, are the names of the same things, denote the same substances; as the substantives Wood and Wool: and the terminating en only puts them in a condition to be joined to some other substantives ; or rather, gives us notice to expect some other substantives to which they are to be joined. And this is the whole mystery of simple Adjectives. (We speak not here of compounds, ful^ ons, ly, &c.) An Adjective is the name of a thing which is directed to be joined to some other 7iame of a thing. And the substantive and adjective so joined, are frequently convertible, without the smallest change of meaning : as we may say-— a perverse nature, or, a natural perversity. P.-— Mr. Harris is short enough upon this subject; but you are shorter. He declares it ^' no way difficult''^ to understand the nature of a Participle: and ^^ easy^' to understand the nature of an Adjective. But to get at them you must, ac- cording to him, travel to them through the Verb. He says, (p. 184.) — '^The nature of Verbs being under- stood, that of Participles is no way difficult. Every complete Verb is expressive of an Attribute; of Time; and of an Asser- tion, Now if we take away the Assertion, and thus destroy the Verbj there vi'ill remain the Attribute, and the Time, which make the essence of the Participle. Thus take away the Assertion from the Verb Γραφεί, Writeth, and there remains the Participle Γράφων, Writing ; which (without the Asser^ tion) denotes the same Attribute, and the same Time." Again, (p. 186.) — '^ The nature of Verbs and Participles being understood, that of Adjectives becomes easy. A Verb implies both an Attribute, and Time, and an Assertion. A Participle implies only an Attribute and Time. And an Ad- jective only implies an Attribute." H. — Harris's method of understanding easily the nature of Participles and Adjectives, resembles very much that of the Wag who undertook to teach the sons of Crispin how to make a shoe and a slipper easily in a minute. But he was more successful than Harris ; for he had something to cut away, the 2s2 628 OF ADJECTIVES. [PART Π. boot. Whereas Harris has absolutely nothing to be so served. For the Verb does not denote any Time; nor does it imply any Assertion. No single word can. Till one single thing can be found to be a couple, one single word cannot make an Ad- serlion or an Ad-firmation: for there \s joining in that opera- tion ; and there can be no junction of one thing. F. — Is not the Latin Ibo an assertion ? H. — Yes indeed is it, and in three letters. But those three letters contain three words ; two Verbs and a Pronoun. All those common terminations, in any language, of which all Nouns or Verbs in that language equally partake (under the notion of declension or conjugation) are themselves separate words with distinct meanings : which are therefore added to the different nouns or verbs, because those additional meanings are intended to be added occasionally to all those nouns or verbs. These terminations are all explicable, and ought all to be explained ; or there wUl be no end of such fantastical w^riters as this Mr. Harris, who takes fustian for philosophy. In the Greek verb l-evai (from the antient Εω or the modern Et/u :) in the Latin verb I-re ; and in the English verb To- Hie, or to Hi, (A.-S. J^ijan ;) the infinitive termina- tions evai and re make no more part of the Greek and Latin verbs, than the Infinitive prefix To makes a part of the English verb Hie or Hi. The pure and simple verbs, without any suffix or prefix, are in the Greek I (or Et) in the Latin I ; and in the English Hie or Hi. These verbs, you see, are the same, with the same meaning, in the three languages; and differ only by our aspirate. In the Greek βουΧ-ομαι or (as antiently) βουλ-εω or βονΧω, βουΧ only is the verb ; and ομαι, or eo), is a common remove- able suffix, with a separate meaning of its own. So in the Latin Vol-o, Vol is the verb ; and ο a common removeable suffix, with a separate meaning. And the meaning of Εω in the one, and Ο in the other, I take to be Εγω, Ego: for I per- fectly concur with Dr. Gregory Sharpe, and others, that the personal pronouns are contained in the Greek and Latin ter- minations of the three persons of their verbs. Oar old English Ich or Jg (which we now pionounce 1) is not flu' removed from Ego. CH. VI.] OF ADJECTIVES. 629 Where we now use Will, our old English verb was Wol ; which is the pure verb witliout prefix or suffix. Thus then will this Assertion Ibo stand in the three lan- guages : inverting only our common order of speech,— -/ίΛ Wol Hie or Hi, to suit that of the Greek and Latin ; English . . . Hi Wol Ich Latin .... I Vol Ο Greek ... I Βουλ ew. They who have noticed that where we employ a λν, the Latin employs a ν ; and where the Latin employs a v, the Greek uses a β (as Δαβίδ, ΒεσττεσίοΓοο, &c.) ; will see at once, that Wol, Vol, Boul, are one and the same word. And the progress to Ibo is not very circuitous nor unnatural. It is Iboul, Ibou^ Ibo. The termination Bo (for Βουλεω) may therefore well be applied to denote the future time of the Latin verbs -, since its meaning is / Woll (or Will). So it is, Amaboul, Amabou, Amabo, &c.^ But let us, if you please, confine ourselves at present to Mr. Harris, He says — ^'Take away the Assertion from the verb 1 When Varchi undertook to shew that the Italian language had more Tenses than the Greek and Latin ; Castelvetro objected that the Italian had no Future Tense, as the Latin had. — " Conciossiacosach^ la lingua nostra manchi d' un Tempo principale, cio e del futuro, nol potendo significare con una voce simplice : ma convenendo che lo sig- niiichi con una composta ; cio e con lo 'nfinito del verbo e col presente del verbo Ho : come Amare Ho, Amore Hat, Amare Ha," &c. Castelvetro accounts very properly for the Italian future Tense Amero, Amerai, Amera, (and so he might for Sarb, &c. i. e. Essere lio^ &c.) But it seems to me extraordinary that he should have supposed it possible that the Latin, or any other language, could, by the simple verb alone, signify the additional circumstances of Manner, Time, &c., without additional sounds or Avords to signify the added circumstances : and that he should imagine that the distinguishing terminations in any language were not also added Avords ; but that they sprouted out from the verb as from their parent stock. If it Avere so, how would he ac- count for the very different fruit borne by the same plant, in the same soil, at different times ? Antiently the Romans said Audi-bo : then Audi-am : now Udir-h, i. e. Audi(re) Volo .... I icill to hear. Audi(re) Amo .... I desire to hear. Udir(e) Ho .... I have to hear. 630 OF ADJECTIVES. [pART II. Tf>ae to cumenne eapfc : " if so, it was no shift of the translators, but an ancient form in common use. See page 266 ; and the Notes subjoined to the Editor's Preface. —Ed.] CH. VIII.] OF PARTICIPLES. 681 " Crist Ihesu that is to demynge the quyke and deed." — 2 Timoth. cap. 4. V. 1. " He ordeynide a day in whiche he is ίο demynge the world in equyte." — Dedis, cap. 17. v. 31. ** Bi feith he that is clepid Abraham, obeide for to go out in to a place which he was to takynge in to eritage." — Ebrewis, cap. 11. v. 8. '* Forsothe whanne Eroude was to Iringynge forth hym, in that nigt Petir was slepynge bitwixe tweyne knytis." — Dedis, cap. 12. v. 6. " Thei fallinge on the nek of Poul, kissiden him, sorewynge moost in the word that he seide : for thei weren no more to seynge his face, and thei ledden him to the ship."— /ozc?. cap. 20. v. 37, 38. " Sotheli there the ship was to puttyng out the charge." Ibid. cap. 21. v. 3. " Centurioun wente to the tribune and tolde to hym, seyinge, what art thou to doynge ? forsothe this man is a citeseyn romayn." — Ibid. cap. 22. V. 26. *' Anoon thei that weren to tormenting e him, departeden awey from hym."— /ozW. v. 29. ** Sum of the lewis gaderiden hem, and maden a vow, seiynge hem nether to etynge nether drinkynge, til thei slowen Poul." — Ibid. cap. 23. V. 12. " I gesse me blessid at thee, whanne I am to defendynge me this day, moost thee wytynge alle thingis that ben at lewis." — Ibid. cap. 26. V. 2, 3. ** Drede thou nothing of these Λvhiche thou art to suffrynge : lo the deuel is to sendynge sume of you in to prisoun." — Apocal. cap. 2. V. 10. " The dragon stode bifore the womman that was to beringe child ; that whanne she hadde born child, he shulde deuoure hir sone." — Ibid. cap. 12. V. 4. The aukwardness of the above substitutions for the Future Participle (or Future Tense Adjective) will not, I believe, be disputed. I leave you to compare them with the more modern successive versions of the same passages, and I think you will find the latter equally inadequate. Now in regard to all these which I have mentioned, and many other abbreviations which I have not yet mentioned ; our modern English authors (not being aw^are of what the lan- guage had gained) have been much divided in their opinions; whether we should praise or censure those who, by adopting a great number of foreign words and incorporating thera into the 682 OF PARTICIPLES. [PART II. old Anglo-Saxon language, have by degrees produced the modern English. Whilst some have called this Enriching, others have called it Deforming the original language of our ancestors : which these latter affirm to have been sufficiently adapted to composition to have expressed with equal advantage, propriety and precision, by words from its own source^ all that we can now do by our foreign helps. But in their declama- tions (for they cannot be called arguments) on this subject, it is evident that, on both sides, they confined themselves to the consideration merely of complex terms j and never dreamed of the abbreviations in the manner of signification of words. Which latter has however been a much more abundant cause of borrowing foreign words than the former. And indeed it is true that almost all the complex terms (merely as such) which we have adopted from other languages, might be, and many of them were, better expressed in the Anglo- Saxon : — -I mean, better for an Anglo-Saxon : because more intelligible to him, and more homogeneous with the rest of his language. Yet I am of opinion (but on different ground from any taken by the declaimers on either side) that those, who by thus borrowing have produced our present English speech, de- serve from us, but in a very different degree, both thanks and censure. Great thanks, in that they have introduced into the English some most useful abbreviations in manner of significa- tion ; which the Anglo-Saxon, as well as all the other North- ern languages, wanted ; and some censure, in that they have done this incompletely, and in an improper manner. The fact certainly is, that our predecessors did not themselves know what they were doing ; any more than their successors seem to have known hitherto the real importance and benefit of what has been done. And of this the Grammars and Philosophy both of antients and moderns are a sufficient proof. An over- sight much to be deplored : for I am strongly persuaded (and I think I have good reason to be so) that had the Greek and Latin Grammarians known and explained the nature and in- trinsic value of the riches of their own language, neither would their descendants have lost any of those advantages, nor would the languages of Europe have been at this day in the corrupt and deficient state in which we, more and less, find them. For those languages which have borrowed these abbreviations, CH. VIII.] OF PARTICIPLES. 683 would have avoided the partiahty and patchwork, as well as the corruptions and improprieties with which they now abound ; and those living languages of Europe wliich still want these advantages wholly, would long ere this have intirely supplied their defects. F. — It seems to me that you rather exaggerate the import- ance of these abbreviations. Can it be of such mighty conse- quence to gain a little time in communication ? H. — Even that is important. But it rests not there. A short, close, and compact method of speech, answers the pur- pose of a map upon a reduced scale : it assists greatly the comprehension of our understanding : and, in general reason- ing, frequently enables us, at one glance, to take in very nu- merous and distant important relations and conclusions, which would otherwise totally escape us. But this objection comes to me with an ill grace from you, who have expressed such frequent nausea and disgust at the any-lengthian Lord with his numerous strings, that excellent political swimmer ; whose tedious reasons, you have often complained, are as '' two graines of wheat hid in two bushels of chaffe.'' And here, if you please, we will conclude our discussion for the present. F. — No. If you finish thus, you will leave me much un- satisfied ; nor shall I think myself fairly treated by you. You have told me that a Verb is (as every word also must be) a Noun ; but you added, that it is also something more : and that the title of Verb was given to it, on account of that distinguishing something more than the mere Nouns convey. You have then proceeded to the simple Verb adjectived, and to the different adjectived Moodsy and to the different adjec- tived Tenses of the verb. But you have not all the while ex- plained to me what you mean by the naked simple Verb un- adjectived. Nor have you uttered a single syllable concerning that something which the naked Verb unattended by Mood, Tense, Number, Person, and Gender, (which last also some languages add to it) signifies More or Besides the mere Noun. What is the Verb ? What is that peculiar differential cir- cumstance which, added to the definition of a Noun, constitutes the Verb ? ■ 684 OF PAUTiciPLEs. [part ii. Is the Verb, 1 . '' Dictio variabilis, quae significat actionem aut passionem." Or, 2. '^ Dictio variabilis per moclos." Or, 3. '* Quod adsignificat teiiipus sine casu." Or, 4. ^^ Quod agere, pati, vel esse, significat." Or, 5. '' Nota rei sub tempore." Or, 6. *' Pars orationis prsecipua sine casu." Or, 7. *' An Assertion." Or, 8. '' Nihil significans, et quasi nexus et copula, ut verba alia quasi animaret." Or, 9. ** Un mot declinable indeterminatif." Or, 10. '' Un mot qui presente a Tesprit un etre indeter- niine, designe seulement par Tidee generale de Texistence sous ime relation a mie modification." Or, 11. — — if. — A truce, a truce. — I know you are not serious in lay- ing this trash before me : for you could never yet for a mo- ment bear a negative or a quasi in a definition. I perceive Λvhither you would lead me ; but I am not in the humour at present to discuss with you the meaning of Mr. Harris's — " Whatever a thing may Be, it must first of necessity Be, be- fore it can possibly Be any thing else." With which precious jargon he commences his account of the Verb, No, No. We viWX leave off here for the present. It is true that my evening is now fully come, and the night fast approaching ; yet, if we shall have a tolerably lengthened twilight, we may still per- haps find time enough for a further conversation on this sub- ject : And finally, (if the times will bear it) to apply this system of Language to all the different systems of Meta- physical (i. e. verbal) Imposture. THE END. APPENDIX. A LETTER TO JOHN DUNNING, Esq. By Mr. HORNE. Vengono di quelle occasion! clie tutto serve : Ε dice il proverbio a questo proposito ; Impare V arte, e mettila da parte. Goldoni, PRINTED 1778. Dear Sir, It would be worse than superfluous in me even to hint* to you why none of the reasons given for over-ruling my Exception are satisfactory to my mind. But there is something very curious in the precedent of the King and Lawley, which, I am persuaded, neither those who took the Exception, nor perhaps the Judges who decided that case (though the reason they gave destroys the effect of the precedent towards me), nor the Judge who quoted it, were aware of. As it is intirely out of the line of the profession, and its novelty may perhaps afford you some entertainment ; as it is an offering worthy your acceptance, and cannot be presented to you by any other hand, I entreat your forgiveness for laying it before you. The precedent of that supposed omission is produced to justify a real omission in the information against me : when indeed there was no omission in the information against Lawley. But the Averment said to be omitted, was, not only substantially, but literally made. " The exception taken was, that it was not positively averred that Crooke was indicted ; it was only laid that she sciens that Crooke had been indicted and was to be tried for forgery, did so and so." -^" She knowing that Crooke had been indicted for forgery, did so and so." — That is, literally thus, — ** Crooke had been indicted for forgery," (there is the averment literally made) — " She, knowing that, did so and so." — Such, Sir, is, in all cases, the unsuspected construction, not only in our own but in every language in the world, where the conjunction THAT (or some equivalent word) is employed. I speak it confidently, eS6 APPENDIX. because I know (and, with Lord Monboddo's permission, a priori) that it must be so ; and I have likewise tried it in a great variety of languages, antient as well as modern, Asiatic as well as European. I am very well aware, Sir, that, should I stop here, what I have now advanced would seem very puerile ; and a mere quibbling trick or play upon words ; founded upon the fortuitous similarity of sound between THAT the article or pronoun, as it is called, and that the conjunction : between which two, though they have the same sound, it is universally imagined that there is not any the smallest correspondence or similarity of signification. But Γ deny that any words change their nature in this manner, so as to belong sometimes to one part of speech and sometimes to another, from the different manner of using them. I never could perceive any such fluctuation in any word whatever: though I know it is a general charge brought erroneously against words of al- most every denomination. But it is all error ; arising from the false measure which has been taken of almost every sort of words ; whilst the words themselves continue faithfully and steadily attached, each to the standard under which it was originally enlisted. As the word THAT does, which, however used and employed, and however named and classed, always retains one and the same signification. Unnoticed abbreviation in construction, and difference of position, have caused this appearance of fluctuation ; and (since the time of the elder Stoics) have misled the grammarians and philosophers of all languages both antient and modern : for in all they make the same mistake. If I should ask any of these gentlemen, whether it is not strange and improper that we should, without any reason or necessity, employ in English the same word for two different meanings and purposes ; would he not readily acknowledge that it was wrong, and that he could see no reason for it, but many reasons against it .-^ Well, then is it not more strange, that this same impropriety, in this same case, should run through ALL languages ; and that they should all use an Article, without any reason, unnecessarily, and improperly, for this same Con- junction ; with whicji it has, as is pretended, no correspondence nor similarity of signification ? Yet this is certainly done in all languages ; as any one may easily find by inquiry. Now does not the uniformity and universality of this supposed mistake and unnecessary impropriety (in languages which have no connexion with each other) naturally lead us to suspect that this usage of the article may perhaps be neither mistaken nor improper ; but that the mistake may lie only with us, who do not understand it ? I will make use of the leisure which Imprisonment affords me, to examine a few Instances ; and, still keeping the same signification of the sentences, shew, by a resolution of their construc- tion, the truth of my assertion. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 687 Example. " I wish you to believe that I would not wilfully hurt a fly." Resolution. ** I would not wilfully hurt a fly, 1 wish you to believe that " (as- sertion) . Example. " You say that the same arm which when contracted can lift — —, when extended to its utmost reach will not be able to raise — : You mean that we should never forget our situation, and that we should be prudently contented to do good within our sphere, where it can have an eiFect : and that we should not be misled, even by a vir- tuous benevolence and public spirit, to waste ourselves in fruitless ef- forts beyond our power of influence." Resolution. " The same arm which when contracted can lift , when extended to its utmost reach will not be able to raise : you say that. We should never forget our situation; you mean that. And we should be contented to do good within our own sphere, where it can have an effect ; you mean that. And we should not be misled even by a virtuous benevolence and public spirit to waste ourselves in fruitless efforts beyond our power of influence ; you mean that." Example. " They who have well considered that kingdoms rise or fall, and that their inhabitants are happy or miserable, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages ; but accordingly as they are well or ill governed ; may best determine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politics." Resolution. " Kingdoms rise or fall, not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages, but accordingly as they are well or ill governed ; they who have considered that (maxim) may best ♦deter- mine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politics. And the in- habitants of kingdoms are happy or miserable not so much from any local or accidental advantages or disadvantages, but accordingly as they are well or ill goΛ^erned ; they who have considered that, may best de- termine how far a virtuous mind can be neutral in politicSo" Example. '* Thieves rise by night, that they may cut men's throats." ReSOLUTIOxNT. *' Thieves may cut men's throats, (for) that (purpose) they rise by night." 688 APPENDIX. After the same manner may all sentences be resolved, where the supposed conjunction that (or its equivalent) is employed ; and by such resolution it will always be discovered to have merely the same force and signification, and to be in fact nothing else but an Article. And this is not the case in English alone, where that is the only conjunction of the same signification which we employ in this manner ; but this same method of resolution takes place in those languages also which have different conjunctions for this same purpose : for the ori- ginal of my last example (where υτ is employed, and not the Latin neuter article quod,) will be resolved in the same manner. " Ut jugulent homines surgunt de nocte latrones." For though Sanctius, who struggled so hard to withdraw quod from amongst the conjunctions, still left υτ amongst them without molesta- tion ; yet is υτ no other than the Greek article on, adopted for this conjunctive purpose by the Latins, and by them originally written υτι : the ο being changed into υ from that propensity which both the antient Romans had and the modern Italians still have, upon many occasions, to pronounce even their own ο like an u. Of which I need not pro- duce any instances '. The resolution therefore of the original will be like that of the translation. " Latrones jugulent homines (Δ/) or; sm-gunt de nocte." I shall not at this time stop here to account etymologically for the different words which some other languages (for there are others beside the Latin) employ in this manner instead of their own article : though, if it w^re exacted from me, I believe I should not refuse the underta- king; although it is not. the easiest part of etymology : for Abbrevia- tion and Corruption, are always busiest with the words which are most frequently in use. ; Perhaps it may be though^ that, though this method of resolution will answer with most sentences, yet that there is one usage of the conjunction that which it will not explain. I mean in such instances as this : " IF THAT the King Have any way your good deserts forgot, He bids you name your griefs." How are we to bring out the article that, when two conjunctions, as it often happens, come in this manner together ? The truth of the matter is that if is merely a Verb. It is merely the imperative mood of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verbs rifrjVN, 1 " Quant a la voyelle u, pource qu'ils {les Italiens) I'aiment fort, ainsi que nous cognoissons par ces mots nfficio, ubrigato, Sfc. je pense bien qu'ils la respectent plus que les autres," >—/?(???;•«/ Estiene, de la Precellence du langage Franqo'is, tETTER TO Μϋ. DUNNINO, 689 Irifan ; and in tKose languages, as well as in the English formerly, this supposed conjunction was pronounced and written as the common im- perative, purely Γΐ]ζ, Cip, Gif.— Thus in B. Jonson's Sad Shepherd (which though it be " such wool As from mere English flocks his muse could pull," I agree with its author, " is a fleece, To match or those of Sicily or Greece*') it is thus written, " My largesse Hath lotted her to be your brother's mistresse, Gif she can be reclaim'd ; gif not, his prey," And accordingly our corrupted if has always the signification of the present English imperative give, and no other. So that the resolution of the construction in the instance I produced from Shakespeare, will be as before in the others. " The King may have forgotten your good deserts ; give that in any way ; he bids you name your griefs." And here, as an additional proof, we may observe, that whenever the datum, upon which any conclusion depends, is a sentence ; the article TiiAT, if not expressed, is always understood, and may be inserted after IF. As in the instance I have produced above, the poet might have said ** Gif (that) she can be reclaim'd," &c. For the resolution is, ^ r " She can be reclaim'd, give that ; my larges&e hath lotted her to be your brother's mistresse. She cannot be reclaim'd, give that ; my largesse hath lotted her to be your brother's prey." But the article that is not understood, and cannot be inserted after IF ; where the datum is not a sentence, but some noun governed by the verb IF or give. As— Example. " How will the weather dispose of you tomorrow } if fair, it will send me abroad : if foul, it will keep me at home." Here we cannot say — " if that fair, it will send me abroad : if that foul, it will keep me at home." Because in this case the verb if governs the 7ioun : and the resolved construction is Resolution. " Give fair weather, it will send me abroad: give foul v/eather, it will keep me at home." 2 Υ 690 APPENDIX. But make the datum a sentence ; as " If it is fair weather, it will send me abroad : if it is foul weather, it will keep me at home ;" And then the article that is understood, and may be inserted after IF. As, — " IF THAT it is fair weather, it will send me abroad : if that it is foul weather, it will keep me at home." The resolution then being — ^' It is fair weather, give that, it will send me abroad : It is foul weather, give that, it will keep me at home." And this you will find to hold universally, not only with if, but with many other supposed conjunctions, such as unless that, though that, lest that, &c. (which are really verbs,) put in this manner before the article that. We have in English another word, which (though now rather obso- lete) used frequently to supply the place of if. As, " An you had an eye behind you, you might see more detraction at your heels, than fortunes before you." No doubt it will be asked ; in this and in all similar instances what is AN ? I do not know that any person has ever attempted to explain it, ex- cept Dr. S. Johnson in his Dictionary. He says, — ** an is sometimes, in old authors, a contraction of and if." — Of which he gives a very un- lucky instance from Shakespeare ; where both an and if are used in the same line ; " He cannot flatter. He ! An honest mind and plain ; he must speak truth ! An they will take it, — So. if not, he 's plain." Where if an was a contraction of and if ; an and if should rather change places. But I can by no means agree with Johnson's account. A part of one word only, employed to shew that another word is compounded with it, would indeed be a curious method of contraction : although even this account of it would serve my purpose ; but the truth will serve it better : for AN is also a verb, and may very well supply the place of if : it being nothing else but the imperative mood of the Anglo-Saxon verb Anan, which likewise means to give or to grant. Nor does an ever (as Johnson supposes) signify as if; nor is it a contraction of them . I know indeed that Johnson produces Addison's authority for it. " My next pretty correspondent, like Shakespeare's Lion in Pyramus and Thisbe, roars an it were any nightingale." Now if Addison had so written, I should answer roundly, that he had written false English. But he never did so write. He only quoted it in mirth. And Johnson, an editor of Shakespeare, ought to have LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 691 known and observed it. And then, instead of Addison's, or even Shakespeare's authority from whom the expression is borrowed ; he should have quoted Bottom's, the Weaver ; whose language corresponds with the character Shakespeare has given him ^. " I will aggravate my voice so (says Bottom) that I will roar you as gentl)?• as any sucking dove : I will roar you an 'twere any nightingale." If Johnson is satisfied with such authority as this for the different signification and propriety of English words ; he will find enough of it amongst the clowns in all our comedies ; and Master Bottom in parti- cular, in this very sentence, will furnish him with many new meanings. But, I believe, Johnson will not find an used for as if, either seriously or clownishly, in any other part of Addison or Shakespeare, except in this speech of Bottom, and in another of Hostess Quickly : — " He made a finer end, and went away an it had been any Christom child." Now Avhen I say that these two English words if and an which have been called conditional conjunctions, (and whose force and manner of signification, as well as of the other conjunctions we are directed by Mr. Locke to search after in — "the several views, postures, stands, turns, limitations, and exceptions, and several other thoughts of the mind for which we have either none or very deficient names, "^ when I say that they are merely the original Imperatives of the verbs to give or to GRANT ; I would not be understood to mean that the conditional conjunctions of all other languages are likewise to be found, like if and AN, in the original imperatives of some of their own or derived verbs meaning to give. No, if that were my opinion, it would instantly be confuted by the conditionals of the Greek and Latin and Irish and many living languages. But I mean that those words which are called con- ditional conjunctions are to be accounted for, in all languages, in the same manner as I have accounted for if and an. Not indeep that they must all mean precisely as these two do, — give and grant ; but some word equivalent. Such as, — Be it. Suppose, Allow, Permit, Suffer, &c. Which meaning is to be sought for from the particular etymology of each language; not from some unnamed and unknown — '' turns, stands, postures, &c. of the mind." In short, to put this matter out of doubt, I mean to discard all sup- posed mystery, not only about these Conditionals, but about all those words also which Mr. Harris and others distinguish from Prepositions, ■and call Conjunctions of sentences. I deny them to be a separate sort of words, or part of speech by themselves. For they have not a sepa- ' " The shallow'st thickscull of that barren sort, A crew of patches, rude mechanicals, That work for bread upon Athenian stalls," 2 Υ 2 692 APPENDIX. rate manner of signification : although they are not " devoid of signify cation." And the particular signification of each must be sought for from amongst the other parts of speech, by the help of the particular etymology of each respective language. By such means alone can we clear away the obscurity and errors in which grammarians and philo- sophers have been involved by the corruption of some common words and the useful Abbreviations of Construction. And at the same time we shall get rid of that farrago of useless distinctions into Conjunctive, Adjunctive, Disjunctive, Sub -disjunctive, Copulative, Continuative, Sub• continuative, Positive, Suppositive, Causal, Collective, Effective, Ap- probative, Discretive, Ablative, Prsesumptive, Abnegative, Completive, Preventive, Adversative, Concessive, Motive, Conductive, &c. &c. &c. — which explain nothing ; and (as most other technical terms are abused) serve only to throw a veil over the ignorance of those who em- ploy them. You will easily perceive, Sir, by what I have said, that I mean flatly to contradict Mr. Harris's definition of a Conjunction ; which, he says, is — '* A part of speech devoid of signification itself, but so formed as to help signification by making two or more significant sentences to be one significant sentence." And I have the less scruple to do that ; because Mr. Harris makes . no scruple to contradict himself. For he afterwards acknowledges that some of them — "have a kind of obscure signification, when taken alone ; and that they appear in grammar like Zoophytes in Nature, a kind of middle beings of amphibious character, which, by sharing the attributes of the higher and the lower, conduce to link the whole together." Now I suppose it is impossible to convey a Nothing in a more in- genious manner. How much superior is this to the oracular Saw of another learned author on language (Lord Monboddo), who amongst much other intelligence of equal importance, tells us with a very solemn face, and ascribes it to Plato, that — " Every man that opines must oj^ine something, the subject of opinion therefore is not nothing ^" But Mr. Harris has the advantage of a similie over this gentleman : and though similies appear with most beauty and propriety in works of imagination, they are frequently found most useful to the authors of philosophical treatises : and have often helped them out at many a dead lift, by giving them an appearance of saying something, when in- deed they had nothing to say. But we may depend upon it, — Nubila mens est, hsec ubi regnant. As a proof of which, let us onlv examine • " il pos^ede Tantiquite, comrne on le peut voir par les belles remarques qu'il a faites. Sans lui nous ne sfaurions pas que dans la ville d'Athenes les enfans pleuroient quand on leur donnoit le fouet,— Nous devons cette d^couverte a sa profonde erudition,'' LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 693 the present instance, and see what intelligence we can draw from Mr. Harris concerning the nature of Conjunctions. First, he says (and makes it a jjart of their deiinition) that they are /' devoid of signification i." Afterwards he allows that they have " a kind of signification." "But this kind of signification is obscure," i. e. a signification unknown : something I suppose (as Chillingworth couples them) like a sec7'et tradition, or a silent thunder-, for it amounts to the same thing as a signification which does not signify : an obscure or unknown signification being no signification at all. But not con- tented with these inconsistencies, which to a less learned man would seem sufficient of all conscience, Mr. Harris goes further, and adds, that they are a — " kind of middle beings " (he must mean between sig- nification and no signification) ; " sharing the attributes of both f" (i. e. of sig. and no sig.) and " conduce to link them both " (i. e. sig- nification and no signification) " together." It would have helped us a little if Mr. Harris had here told us what that middle state is, between signification and no signification ! what are the attributes of no signification ! and how, signification and no signification can be linked together ! Now all this may, for aught I know, be — '' read and admired, as long as there is any taste for fine writing in Britain." — But with such un- learned and vulgar philosophers as Mr. Locke and his disciples, who seek not taste and elegance, but truth and common sense in philo- sophical subjects, I believe it will never pass as a "perfect example of analysis," nor bear awa)?" the palm for " acuteness of investigation " and " perspicuity of explication." — For, (separated from the fine WRITING,) thus is the Conjunction explained by Mr. Harris ; . — A word devoid of signification, having at the same time a kind of obscure signification ; and yet having neither signification nor no sig- nification ; but a middle something, between signification and no sig- nification, sharing the attributes both of signification and no significa- tion ; and linking signification and no signification together. If others of a more elegant Taste for Fine "Writing are able to re- ceive either pleasure or instruction from such " truly philosophical lan- guage," I shall neither dispute with them nor envy them: but can only deplore the dulness of my own apprehension, who, notwithstanding the great authors quoted in Mr. Harris's Treatise, and the great authors who recommend it, cannot help considering this " perfect example of Analysis," as, An improved compilation of almost all the errors which grammarians have been accumulating from the time of Aristotle down to our present days of technical and learned aiFectation. 1 Observe Mr. Harris defines a Word to be " a sound significant." And now he de- fines a Conjunction to be a word (i. e. a sound significa7it) devoid of signification. 694 APPENDIX. I can easily suppose that in this censure which I thus unreservedly cast upon Mr. Harris, (and which I do not mean to confine to his ac- count of the conjunctions alone, but extend to all that he has written on the subject of language) I can easily suppose that I shall be thought, by those \vho know not the grounds of my censure, to have spoken too sharply. They will probably say that I still carry with me my old humour in politics, though my subject is now different ; and that, ac- cording to the hackneyed accusation, I am against authority, only be- cause authority is against me. But, if I know any thing of myself, I can \yith truth declare, that Neminem libenter nominem, nisi ut laudem ; sed nee peccata reprehenderem, nisi ut aliis prodessem. And so far from spurning authority, I have always upon philosophical subjects ad- dressed myself to an inquiry into the opinions of others with all the diffidence of conscious ignorance ; and have been disposed to admit of half an argument from a great name. So that it is not my fault if I am forced to carry instead of following the lantern ; but at all events it is better than walking in total darkness. And yet, though I believe I differ from all the accounts which have hitherto been given of language, I am not so much without authority as may be imagined. Mr. Harris himself, and all the grammarians whom he has and whom he has not quoted, are my authorities. Their own doubts, their difficulties, their dissatisfaction, their contradictions, their obscurity on all these points, are my authorities against them : for their system and their difficulties vanish together. Indeed, unless I had been repeating what others have written, it is impossible I should quote any direct authorities for my own manner of explanation. But let us hear Wilkins, whose industry deserved to have been better em- ployed, and his perseverance better rewarded with discovery ; let us hear what he says. / *' According to the true philosophy of speech, I cannot conceive this kind of words " (he speaks of Adverbs and Conjunctions) ** to :be pro- perly a distinct part of speech, as they are commonly called. But un- till they can be distributed into their proper places, I have so far com- plied with the grammars of instituted languages, as to place them here together." Mr. Locke's dissatisfaction with all the accounts which he had seen, is too well known to need repetition. Sanctius rescued quod particularly from the number of these myste- rious Conjunctions ; though he left ut amongst them. And Servius, Scioppius, J, ir. Vossius, Perizonius, and others, have displaced and explained many other supposed adverbs and conjunctions. Skinner has accounted for if before me, and in the same manner ; which, though so palpable. Lye confirms and compliments. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 695 Even S. Johnson, though mistakenly, has attempted and. And would find no difficulty with therefore. In short, there is not such a thing as a Conjunction in any language, which may not, by a skilful herald, be traced home to its own family and origin ; without having recourse to contradiction and mystery, with Mr. Harris ; or, with Mr. Locke, cleaving open the head of man, to give it such a birth as Minerva's from the brain of Jupiter. After all, I do not know whether I shall be quietly permitted to call these authorities in my favour : for I must fairly acknowledge that the full stream and current sets the other way, and only some little brook or rivulet runs with me. I must confess that all the authorities which I have alleged, except Wilkins, are upon the whole against me. For, though they have explained the meaning and traced the derivation of many adverbs and conjunctions ; yet, (except Sanctius in the particulai instance of quod, — whose conjunctive use in Latin he too strenuously denies) they all acknowledge them still to be adverbs or conjunctions. It is true, they distinguish them by the title of reperta or usurpata : but they at the same time acknowledge (indeed the very distinction it- self is an acknowledgment) that there are others which are real, pri- migenia, nativa, pur a. But the true reason of this distinction is, because that of the origin of the greater part of them they are totally ignorant. But has any philosopher or grammarian ever yet told us what a real, original, native, pure Adverb or Conjunction, is ? Or which of these conjunctions of sentences are so? Whenever that is done, in any language, I may venture to promise that I will shew those likewise to be repertas, and usurpatas, as well as the rest. I shall only add, that though Ah- hreviation and Corruption are always busiest ivith the words which are most frequently in use ; yet the words most frequently used are least liable to be totally laid aside. And therefore they are often retained, — (I mean that branch of them which is most frequently used) when most of the other words (and even the other branches of these retained words) are, by various changes and accidents, quite lost to a language. Hence the difficulty of accounting for them. And hence, (because only one branch of these declinable words is retained in a language) arises the notion of their being indeclinable ; and a separate sort of words, or Part of Speech by themselves. But that they are not indeclinable, is suffi- ciently evident by what I have already said: For Ijip, An, &c. certainly could not be called indeclinable, when all the other branches of those verbs, of which they are the regular Imperatives, were likewise in use. And that the \vords If, An, &c. (which still retain their original sig- nification, and are used in the very same manner, and for the same pur- 696 APPENDIX. pose as formerly) should now be called indeclinable, proceeds merely from the ignorance of those who could not account for them; and who, therefore, with Mr. Harris, \vere driven to say that they have neither meaning' nor Inflection : whilst notwithstanding they were still forced to acknowledge (either directly, or by giving them different titles of conditional, adversative, &c.) that they have a "kind of obscure mean- ing." How much more candid and ingenuous would it have been, to have owned fairly that they did not understand the nature of these Conjunc- tions ; and, instead of wrapping it up in mystery, to have exhorted and encouraged others to a further search- ! Now, Sir, I am presumptuous enough to assert that what I have done with IF and an, may be done universally with all the Conjunctions of all the languages in the world. I know that many persons have often been misled by a fanciful etymology ; but I assert it universally not so much from my own slender acquisition of languages, as from arguments a priori : which arguments are however confirmed to me by a successful search in many otheir languages besides the English, in which I have traced these supposed unmeaning, indeclinable conjunctions to their source ; and should not at all fear undertaking to shew clearly and satisfactorily the origin and precise meaning of each of these pretended unmeaning, indeclinable conjunctions, at least in all the dead and living languages of Europe. But because men talk very safely of what they may do, and what they might have done ; and I cannot expect that others who have no suspi- cion of the thing, should come over to my opinion, unless I perform, at least as much as Wilkins (who had a suspicion of it) required before he would venture to differ from the grammars of instituted languages ; I will distribute our English conjunctions into their proper places ; and thus wilfully impose upon myself a task which I am told " no man however learned or sagacious has yet been able to perform^." ' There is not, nor is it possible there should be, a word in any language, which has not a complete meaning and signification, even when taken by itself. Adjectives, prepositions, adverbs, &c. have all complete, separate meanings; not difficult to be dis- covered. 2 This general censure would be highly unjust, if an exception of praise Λvas not here made for Bacon, Wilkins, Locke, and S. Johnson ; who are ingenuous on the subject. ' " The particles are, among all nations, applied with so great latitude, that they are not easily reducible under any regular scheme of explication : this difficulty is not less, nor perhaps greater, in English than in other languages. I have laboured them with diligence, 1 hope Math success : such at least as ran be expected in a task, which no man, hcAvever learned or sagacious, has yet been able to perform."— P?r/cce to S. Johnso7i's Dictio7iai'tj. LETTER TO MR. DUjNNlNG. 697 Thus then ; I say that Ε If Έη Onlef (/1 tac If An Unless Eke Yet Still Else Tho', or Though But But Without And I 8cell 1^ Sler ^ Dajr, or Dapij ω Boc ^ Be-utan Pypi5-utan Sn-ab dfan !Snan Onlefan. 6acan Tretan Scellan Allefan {Dapian, or Dapi^an Botan Beon-utan To give To grant To dismiss To add To get To JDUt To dismiss To allow To Boot To be-out "o Peojic^an-utan To be-out Snan-ah ( ^'"'f ^""^^- I riem of Lej'an, to dismiss is the Participle of Seon, To see Lest, is the Participle Le)*eb, Since 8i^-^an Since Syne Since Seanb-ep Since 8i^-^e, or Sin-ej- ■ That is the Neuter Article Dat. These I apprehend are the only conjunctions in our language which can cause any difficulty ; and it would be impertinent in me to explain such as Be-it, Albeit, Notwithstanding, Nevertheless, Set^, Save, Except, Out-cept"-, Out-take^, To wit. Because, S(C. which are evident at first sight. I hope it will be acknowledged that this is coming to the point ; and is fairer than shuffling them over as all philosophers and grammarians have hitherto done ; or than repeating after others, that they are not themselves any part of languages, but only such Accessaries, as Salt is to Meat, or Water to Bread ; or that they are the mere Edging, or Sauce of language ; or that they are like the Handles to Cups, or the Plumes to Helmets, or the Binding to Books, or Harness for Horses ; or that they are Pegs, and Nails, and Nerves, and Joints, and Liga- ments, and Lime and Mortar, and so forth. ' " Set this my work full febill be of rent." — G. Douglas. ^ " ri'd play hun 'gaine a knight, or a good squire, or gentleman of any other countie i'"the kingdome, — Outcept Kent: for there they landed all gentlemen." — B. Jonson. Tale of a Tub. 3 " And also Γ resygne al my knyghtly dignitie, magesty, and crowne, wyth all the lordeshyppes, povvre, and pryvileges to the forcsayd kingely dygnitie and crown be- longing, and al other lordshippes and possesyons to me in any maner of wyse pertayn- ynge, what name and condicion thei be of, out-take the landes and possessions for me and inine obyte purchased and broughte." — Instrument of Resignatioii of K. Richard II. in Fabian's Chronicle, 698 APPENDIX. In which kind of pretty similies philosophers and grammarians seem to have vied Λvith one another ; and have often endeavoured to amuse their readers and cover their own ignorance, by very learnedly disputing the propriety of the similie, instead of explaining the nature of the conjunction. I must acknowledge that I have not any authorities for the deriva- tions Avhich I have given of these words ; and that all former etymo- logists are against me. But I am persuaded that all future etymo- logists (and perhaps some philosophers) will acknowledge their obliga- tion to me : for these troublesome Conjunctions, which have hitherto caused them so much mistaken and unsatisfactory labour, shall save them many an error and many a weary stej) in future. They shall no more expose themselves by unnatural forced conceits to derive the English and all other languages from the Greek or the Hebrew, or some imaginary primseval tongue. The Conjunctions of every language shall teach them whither to direct and where to stop their inquiries : for wherever the evident meaning and origin of the conjunctions of any language can be found, there is the certain source of the whole ^ . But, I beg pardon ; this is digressing from my present purpose. I have nothing to do with the learning of mere curiosity ; nor must (at this time) be any further concerned with etymology, and the false phi- losophy received concerning language and the human understanding, than as it is connected with the point with which I began. If you please therefore, and if your patience is not exhausted, Λve will return to the conjuyictions I have derived: and if you think it worth the while we will examine the conjectures of other persons about them, and see whether I have not something better than their authority in my favour. IF, AN. If and an may be used mutually and indifferently to supply each other's place. Besides having Skinner's authority for if, I suppose that the mean- ing and derivation of this principal supporter of the Tripod of Truth- are so very clear and simple and universally allowed, as to need no fur- ther discourse about it. GiF is to be found not only, as Skioner says, in Lincolnshire ; but in all our old writers. G. Douglas almost always uses Gif ; once or twice only he has used if ; and once he uses Gewe for Gif. Chaucer • This is to be understood with certain limitations not necessary to be now men- tioned. 2 See Plutarch, Why Ε I was engraved upon the gates of the temple of Apollo. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 699 commonly uses if ; but sometimes yeve^, yef, and yf. And it is to be observed, that in Chaucer, and other old writers, the verb to Give suffers the same variations in the manner of writing it, however used, whether conjunctively or otherwise. " Well ought a priest ensample for to yeve." Prol. to Cant. Tales. " Lo here the letters selid of this thing, That I mote here in all the haste I may ; Yeve ye well ought unto your sonne the king, I am your servant both by night and day." Man of Lawes Tale. "This gode ensample to his shepe he yaffe." Prol. to Cant. Tales. Yef is also used as well for the common imperative as for what we call the conjunction. " Your vertue is so grete in heven above, That IF the list I shall well have my love, Thy temple shall I worship e\ar mo, And on thine aulter, where I ryde or go, I woll don sacrifise, and firis bete ; And YEF ye woll nat so my lady swete, Then pray I you tomorrow with a spere That Arcite do me through the herte here : Then reke I not, whan I have lost my life, Though Arcite winnin her to his wife. This is th' eifect and ende of my prayere ; Yef me my lady, blissful lady dere." Chaucer, Knight's Tale. Gin 2 is often used in our Northern counties and by the Scotch, as we use IF or an : which they do with equal propriety and as little cor- ruption : for Gin is no other than the participle Given, GVen, Gi'n. (As they also use Gie for Give, and Glen for Given, when they are not used conjunctively.) And hoc dato is of equal conjunctive value in a sentence with da hoc. Even our Londoners often pronounce Give and Given in the same manner ; As, — " GV me your hand" " I have Gin it him well." I do not know that an has been attempted by any one, except S. Johnson : and from the judicious distinction he has made between Junius and Skinner, I am persuaded that he will himself be the first person to relinquish his own conjecture. * Yeve was commonly used in England instead of Give, even so low down as in the sixteenth century. See Henry Vllth's Will. 2 " Gin, Gif, in the old Saxon is Gif, from whence the word If is made per aphse- resin literae G. Gif from, the verb Gif an, dare; and is as much as Dato," — Ray's North Country Words. 700 APPENDIX. UNLESS. Skinner says, — " Unless, nisi, prsster, prseterquam, q. d. one-less, i. e, uno dempto seu excepto : vel potius ab Onlefan, dimittere, liberare, q. d. Hoc dimisso." It is extraordinary, after his judicious derivation of if, that Skinner should be at a loss about that of unless : especially as he had it in a manner before him : for Onlef , dimitte, was surely more obvious and immediate than Onlej-eb, dimisso. As for — One-less, i. e. uno dempto seu excepto, it is too poor to deserve notice. So low^ down as in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, this conjunction was sometimes written oneles : for so (amongst others) Robert Home, Bishop of Winchester, writes it in his Answeare to Fekcnham touchinge the othe of the supremacy. — ** I coulde not choose, oneles I woulde shewe myselfe overmuch Tinkinde unto my native countrey, but take penne in hande, and shape him a ful and plaine answeare, without any cunositie."— Preface. And this way of spelling it, which should rather have directed Skinner to its true etymology, might perhaps contribute to mislead him to the childish conjecture of " one-less, Uno dempto.'* — -But in other places it is written purely onles. Thus, in the same book, " The election of the Pope made by the clergie and people in those dales, was but a vaine thing, onles the Emperour or his lieutenant had confirmed the same." Fol. 48. ** The Pope would not consecrate the elect bishop, onles he had first licence therto of the Emperour." Fol. 63. " No prince, no not the Emperour himselfe should be present in the councell with the cleargie, onles it were when the principall pointes of faith were treated of." Fol. 67. " He sweareth the Romaines, that they shall never after be present at the election of any Pope, onles they be compelled thereunto by the Emperour." Fol. 71. " Λνΐιο maketh no mencion of any priest there present, as you un- truely report, onles ye will thinke he meant the order, whan he named the faction of the Pharisees." Fol. 111. It is likewise sometimes written — onlesse and onelesse. " So that none should be consecrate, onlesse he were commended and investured bishop of the kinge." Fol. 59. " And further to eommaunde the newe electe Pope to forsake that dignitie unlawfully come by, onlesse they woulde make a reasonable satisfaction." Fol. 73. '• That the Pope might sende into his dominions no Legate, onlesse the kinge should sende for him." Fol, 76. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 701 " What man, onlesse he be not well in his wittes, will say that " &c. Fol. 95. '• To exercise this kinde of jurisdiction, neither kinges nor civil ma- gistrates may take uppon him, onlesse he be lawfully called there unto." Fol. 105. ".That from hencefoorth none should be Pope, onelesse he were created by the consent of the Emperour." Fol. 75. " Ye cannot finde so muche as the bare title of one of them, one- lesse it be of a bishoppe." Fol. 113. In the same manner, Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, write s it in his " Declaration against Joye ^" *' No man commeth to me, onlesse my Father draweth hym." Fol. 29. " Can any man further reply to this carpenter, onles a man wolde saye, that the carpenter was also after, the thefe hymselfe." Fol. 42. " For ye fondely improve a conclusion which myght stande and be true, onlesse in teaching ye wyl so handel the matter, as" &c. Fol. 54. " We cannot love God, onles he prepareth our harte, and geve us that grace : no more can we beleve God, onlesse he giveth us the gift of belefe." Fol. 64. " In every kynde the female is commenly barren, onlesse it con- ceyveth of the male ; so is concupyscence barren and voyde of synne, onlesse it conceyve of man the agreymente of his free wyll." Fol. QQ. " We may not properly saye we apprehend justification by fayth, ONLESSE we wolde call the promisse of God," &c. Fol. QS. " Such other pevishe words as men be encombred to heare, onles they wolde make Goddes worde, the matter of the Devylles strife." Fol. 88. " Who can wake out of synne, without God call him, and on- lesse God hath given eares to heare this voyce of God ? How is any man, beyng lame with synne, able to take up his couche and walke, ONLESSE God sayeth," &c. Fol. 95 ^. ' Τη the same manner Barnes (on the occasion of whose death Gardiner wrote this Declaration) Avrites it in his Supplicatioji to K, Henry fill. " I shall come to the councell, when soever I bee called, onles I be lawfully let." p. 195. 2 So in the Trial of Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cohham, 1413. ** It was not possible for them to make whole Christes cote without seme onlesse certeyn great men were brought out of the way." So in the IVhetstone of Witte. " I see moure menne to acknowledge the benefit of nomber, then I can espie wil- lyng to studie, to attain the benefites of it. Many praise it, but fewe dooe greatly practise it, onlesse it bee for the vulgare practice concernyng merchaundes trade." — The Whetstone of Witte, hy Robert Recorde, Phisician ; 15Γ)7. (If himself say true, the first author concerning Arithmetic in English : " Th^ first venturer in these darke matters." Preface.) 702 APPENDIX. I have here given you all the instances v/here this conjunction is used in these two small tracts I have quoted, which I suppose are something more than sufficient for my purpose ; unless you had as much leisure to read as I have to write. I do not remember to have ever met with Onlef used in the Anglo- Saxon as we use Unless ; (though I have no doubt that it was so used in discourse) but, instead of it, they frequently employ nym^e or nem'Se : (which is evidently the imperative nym or nem of nyman or neman, to which is subjoined ^e, i. e. that.) And — Nym^e, Take away that, — may very well supply the place of — Onlef (^e expressed or understood) Dismiss that. Les', the imperative of Lefan, (which has the same meaning as On- lefan) is likewise used sometimes by old writers instead of Unless. As, " And thus I am constrenit, als nere as I may, To hald his verse, and go nane uthir way. Les sum historie, subtell worde, or ryme, Causis me mak degressiouii sum tyme." G. Douglas, Preface. You will please to observe that all the languages which have a cor- respondent conjunction to Unless, as well as the manner in which its place is supplied by the languages which have not a correspondent conjunction to it, all strongly justify my derivation. Thougli it certainly is not worth the while, I am tempted here to observe the gross mistake Mr. Harris has made in the force of this word, which he calls an " adequate preventive." His example is,— *' Troy will be taken, unless the Palladium be preserved." — " That is, (says Mr. Harris,) This alone is sufficient to preserve it." — According to the oracle, so indeed it might be ; but the word unless has no such force. Let us try another instance. " England will be enslaved, unless the House of Commons continue a part of the legislature." Now I ask, — Is this alone sufficient to preserve it .'' We who live in these times know but too well that this very House may be made the instrument of a tyranny as odious and (perhaps) more lasting than that of the Stuarts. I am afraid Mr. Harris's adequate preventive, un- less, will not save us. For though it is most cruel and unnatural, yet we know by w^oful experience that the kid may be seethed in the mo- ther's milk, which Providence appointed for its nourishment ; and the " Yet is it not accepted as a like flatte, onles it bee referred to some other square nomher."— Whetstone of Witte, p. 54. ' It is the same imperative at the end of those words which are called adjectives, such as hopeless, motionless, &c. i. e. dismiss hope, dismiss motion, &c. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 703 liberties of this country be destroyed by that very part of the legisla- ture which was most especially appointed for their security. EKE. Junius says, — " Eak, etiam. Goth. /lIlK A.-S. 6ac. Al. Auch. D. Og. B. Ook, Viderentur esse ex inverse και, sed rectius petas ex proxime sequenti ^ΓΙΚ/\ί^ (isl. Auka) A.-S. Gacan. ecan. ican. Al. AucJion. D. Oge. B. Oecken. Gacan vero, vel Auchon, sunt ab avt,€ty vel ae^etj', addere, adjicere, augere." Skinner says, — " Eke, ab A.-S. 6ac, Deac. Belg. Oock. Teut. Auch. Fr. Th. Ouch. D. Oc. Etiam." Skinner then proceeds to the verb, " To Eke, ab A.-S. 6acan. Ereican. lecan, augere, adjicere. Fr. Jun. suo more, deflectit a Gr. av^en'. Mallem ab €ac, iterum, quod vide : Quod enim augetur, secundum partes suas quasi iteratur et de novo fit." In this place Skinner does not seem to enjoy his usual superiority of judgement over Junius : and it is very strange that he should chuse here to derive the verb Gacan from the conjunction 6ac, (that is, from its own imperative) rather than the conjunction (that is, the impera- tive) from the verb. His judgement was more awake when he derived IF or GIF from Iripan ; and not liifan from Tjiy. : which yet, according to his joresent method, he should have done. YET. STILL. I put the conjunctions yet and still here together ; because (like If and An) they may be used mutually for each other without any al- teration in the meaning of the sentences : a circumstance which (though not so obviously as in these instances) happens likewise to some other of the conjunctions ; and which is not unworthy of con- sideration. According to my derivation of them both, this mutual interchange will not seem at all extraordinary : For yet (which is nothing but the imperative Eret or Hiyc, of Eetan or Erytan, obtinere), and still (which is only the imperative Scell or Sceall, of Scellan or Stealhan, ponere) may very well supply each other's place, and be indiiFerently used for the same purpose. But I will repeat to you the derivations which others have given, and leave you to determine between us. Mer. Casaubon says — " Ετι, adhuc, yet." Junius says, — " Yet, adhuc, A.-S. ^yc. Cymraeis etwa, etto, significat adhuc, etiam, iterum : ex eri vel avdis." Skinner says, — " Yet, ab A.-S. Det, ueta, adhuc, modo. Teut. Jetzt, jam, mox." Skinner says, — '• Still, assidue, indesinenfer, incessanter . Nescio 704 APPENDIX. an ab A.-S. Till, addito tantum sibilo : vel a nostrOj et credo etiara, A.-S. AS, ut, sicut, (licet apud Somnerum non occurrat), et eodem Til, usque, q. d. Usque, eodem modo." ELSE. This word else, formerly written Alles, Alys, Alyse, Elles, ElluS, Ellis, Els, and now Else ; is, as I have said, no other than Έΐβγ or Κ\γγ, the imperative of Mej^an or Myj-an, dimittere. Mr. Warton, in his History of English Poetry, vol. i. (without any authority, and in spite of the context, which evidently demands else and will not admit of also) has explained alles in the following pas- sage by also. "The Soudan ther he satte in halle; He sent his messagers faste withalle, To hii-e fader the kyng. And sayde, how so hit ever bifalle, That mayde he wolde clothe in palle And spousen hire with his ryng. And ALLES I swere withouten fayle I schull hire winnen in pleyn battayle With mony an heih lordyng," &c. Ed. 8vo. vol. ii. p. 24. The meaning of which is evidently, — " Give me your daughter, else I will take her by force." It would haA^e been nonsense to say, — " Give me your daughter, also I λνϋΐ take her by force." I quote this passage, not for the sake of censuring Mr. Warton, but to give you one of the most recent instances, as I suppose, of alles used for else in English. Junius says, — " Else, aliter, alias, alioqui. A.-S. eilep Al. Alles, D. Ellers." Skinner says, — " Else ab A.-S. Gllej', alias, alioquin. Minshew et Dr. Th. H. putant esse contractum a Lat. alias, vel Gr. αλλωε ; nee sine verisimilitudine." S. Johnson says,—" Else, pronoun, (611ef Saxon) other ; one be- sides. It is applied both to persons and things." He says again — "'* Else, adverb. 1. Otherwise. '2. Besides ; excejDt that mentioned." THOUGH. Tho' or THOUGH (or, as our country-folks more purely pronounce it, THAF, THAUF, and THOF ; and the Scotch who retain in their pronun- ciation the guttural termination,) is the imperative Daf or Dapj of the verb Dapan or Dafigan ', concedere, permittere, assentire, consentire. ' It is remarkable, that as there were originally two ways of writing the verb, with the aspirate G or without it ; so there still continue the two same different vfays of LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 705 And Dap^ becomes Thoug and Though (and Thoch, as G. Douglas and other Scotch authors write it) by a transition of the same sort, and at least as easy, as that of Hawk from hapuc. I reckon it not a small confirmation of this etymology, that antiently they often used Algife, Algyff, Allgyf, and Algive, instead of although. As, " With hevy chere, with dolorous hart and mynd, Eche mail may sorrow in his inward thought Thys Lords death, whose pere is hard to fynd Allgyf Englond and Fraunce were thorow saught." Skelton. Skinner says, — " Though, ab A.-S. Deah. Belg. Doch. Belg. and Teut. Doch, tamen, etsi, quamvis." Though this word is called a conjunctive^ sentences, it is constantly used (especially by children, and in low discourse,) not only between, but at the end of sentences. As, " Pro. Why do you maintain your poet's quarrel so with velvet and good clothes ? We have seen him in indifferent good clothes e're now himself." *' Boy. And may again. But his clothes shall never be the best thing about him, though. He will have somewhat beside, either of humane letters or severe honesty, shall speak him a man, though he went naked." What sentences are here connected by the prior though ? BUT. It was this word, but, which Mr. Locke had chiefly in view, when he spoke of conjunctions as marking some " stands, turns, limitations, and exceptions of the mind." And it was the corrupt use of this one word (but) in modern English, for two words (bot and but) originally (in the Anglo-Saxon) very diiferent in signification, though (by re- peated abbreviation and corruption) approaching in sound, which chiefly misled him. " But (says Mr. Locke) is a particle, none more familiar in our language ; and he that says it is a discretive conjunction, and that it answers sed in Latin, or mais in French', thinks he has suflSciently explained it. But it seems to me to intimate several relations the mind gives to the several propositions or parts of them, which it joins by this monosyllable. writing the reinaining part of this same verb Tho, or Though, with the aspirate G or without it. •^It does not answer to sed in Latin, or mais in French ; except only when it is used for BOX. Nor will any one word in any language answer to our English but : because a similar corruption in the same instance has not happened in any other language. 2 ζ 706 APPENDIX. " First, — ' But to say no more :' " Here it intimates a stop of the mind, in the course it was going, before it came to the end of it. '* Secondly, — ' I saw but two plants : ' " Here it shows, that the mind limits the sense to what is expressed, with a negation of all other. ** Thirdly, — ' You pray ; but it is not that God would bring you to the true religion :' ** Fourthly, — ' But that he would confirm you in your own.' " The first of these buts intimates a supposition in the mind of something otherwise than it should be : the latter shews, that the mind makes a direct opposition between that and what goes before it. " Fifthly, — ' All animals have sense, but a dog is an animal.' ** Here it signifies little more, but that the latter proposition is joined to the former, as the minor of a syllogism. '• To these, I doubt not, might be added a great many other signifi- cations of this particle, if it were my business to examine it in its full latitude, and consider it in all the places it is to be found ; which if one should do, I doubt whether in all those manners it is made use of, it would deserve the title of discretive which grammarians give to it. " But I intend not^ here a full explication of this sort of signs. The instances I have given in this one, may give occasion to reflect upon their use and force in language, and lead us into the contemplation of several actions of our minds in discoursing, which it has found a way to intimate to others by these particles, some whereof constantly, and others in certain constructions, have the sense of a whole sentence con- tained in them." Now all these difficulties are very easily to be removed without any effort of the understanding : and for that very reason I do not much wonder that Mr. Locke missed the explanation : for he dug too deep for it. But that the etymologists (who only just turn up the surface) should miss it, does indeed astonish me. It seems to me impossible that any man who reads only the most common of our old English au- thors should fail to observe it. Gawin Douglas, notwithstanding he frequently confounds the two words and uses them improperly, does yet (without being himself ' " Essentiam finemque conjunctionum satis apte explicatum puto : nunc earum originem materiamque videamus. Neque vero Sigillatim percurrere omnes in Animo est." — /. C. Scaliger. The constant excuse of them all, whether grammatists, grammarians or philosophers ; though they dare not hazard the assertion, yet they would all have us understand that they can do it ; but non in animo est. And it has never been done. >y- LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 707 aware of the distinction, and from the mere force of customary speech) abound with so many instances and so contrasted, as to awaken, one should think, the most inattentive reader. " BoT thy werke shall endure in laude and glorie, But spot or fait condigne eterne memorie." Preface. *''BoT gif this ilk statew standis here wrocht, War with zour handis into the cietie brocht, Than schew he that the peopil of Asia But ony obstakill in fell battel suld ga." Book 2. " This chance is not but Goddis wilhs went, Nor is it not leful thyng, quod sche, Fra hyne Creusa thou turs away with the ; Nor the hie Governoure of the hevin above is Will suffer it so to be, bot the behuff is From hens to wend full fer into exile. And over the braid sey sayl furth mony a myle, Or thou cum to the land Hisperia, Quhare with soft coursis Tybris of Lidia Rynnys throw the riche feildis of pepill stout ; Thare is gret substance ordenit the but dout." Book 2. " BoT gif the Fatis, but pleid, At my plesure suffer it me life to leid." Book 4. " Bot sen Apollo clepit Gryneus, Grete Italic to seik commandis us, To Italie eik Oraclis of Licia Admonist us but mare delay to ga." Book 4. " Thou wyth thir harmes overchargit me also, Quhen I fell fyrst into this rage, quod sche, Bot so to do my teris constrenyt the. Was it not lefull, alace, but cumpany. To me BUT cryme allane in chalmer to ly." Book 4. " The tothir answered, nouthir for drede nor boist, The luf of wourschip nor honoure went away is, Bot certanly the dasit blude now on dayis Waxis dolf and dull throw myne unweildy age, The cald body has mynyst my curage : Bot war I now as umquhile it has bene. Zing as zone wantoun woistare so strang thay wene, Ze had I now sic zoutheid, traistis me, But ony price I suld all reddy be.'^ Book 5. "The prince Eneas than seand this dout, No langar sufRr wald sic wraith precede, Nor feirs Entellus mude thus rage and sprede j Bot of the bargane maid end, but delay." Book 5, 2z2 708 APPENDIX. " In nowmer war thay but ane few menze, BoT thay war quyk, and valzeant in melle." Book 5. " Blyn not, blyn not, thou grete Troian Enee, Of Ihy bedis nor prayeris, quod sche ; For BOT thou do, thir grete durris, but dred, And grislie zettis sail never warp on bred." Book 6. *' How grete apperance is in him, but dout. Till be of proues, and ane vailzeant knycht : BoT ane blak sop of myst als dirk as nycht Wyth drery schaddow bylappis his hede." Book 6. '' BoT sen that Virgil standis but compare/* Prol. to Book 9. *' Quhiddir gif the Goddis, or sum spretis silly Movis in our myndis this ardent thochtful fire. Or gif that every mannis schrewit desyre Be as his God and Genius in that place, I wat never how it standis, bot this lang space My mynd movis to me, here as I stand, Batel or sum grete thyng to tak on hand ; I knaw not to quhat purpois it is drest, BoT be na way may I tak eis nor rest. Behaldis thou not so surelie but aifray Zone Rutulianis haldis thaym glaid and gay ?" Book 9. " Bot lo, as thay thus wounderit in eifray, This ilk Nisus, Avourthin proude and gay, And baldare of his chance sa with him gone, Ane uthir takill assayit he anone : And with ane sound smate Tagus but remede." Book 9. i( , Bot the tothir BUT-sere, Bure at him mychtely wyth ane lang spere." Book 10. " Bot the Troiane Baroun unabasitilie Na wourdis preisis to render him agane ; BoT at his fa let fle ane dart or flane That hit Lucagus, quilk fra he felt the dynt, The schaft hinging into his scheild, but stynt. Bad drive his hors and chare al fordwert streicht," Book 10. " BoT qvihat awalis bargane or Strang melle Syne zeild the to thy fa, but ony quhy." Prol. to Book 11. '' Than of his speich so wounderit war thay Kepit thare silence, and wist not what to sa}?^, BoT athir towart uthir turnis but mare, And can behald his fallow in ane stare." Book 11. " Bot now I se that zovmg man haist but fale, To mache in feild wyth fatis inequale." Book 12. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 709 " Quhare soiie foregadderit all the Troyane army And thyck about liym flokkand can but baid, BoT npwtbir schnild nor wappinis down tliay laid." Book 12. The glossarist of Douglas contents himself Avith explaining bot by BUT. The glossarist to Urry's edition of Chaucer says, — bot for but is " a form of speech frequently used in Chaucer to denote the greater certainty of a thing." — This is a most inexcusable assertion : for, I be- lieve, the place cited in the Glossary is the only instance (in this edi- tion of Chaucer) Avhere bot is used ; and there is not the smallest shadow of reason for forming even a conjecture in favour of this un- satisfactory assertion ; unsatisfactory, even if the fact had been so ; because it contains no explanation ; for v^hy should bot denote greater certainty ? And here it may be proper to observe, that Gawin Douglas's lan- guage (where bot is very frequently found), though written about a century after, must yet be esteemed more antient than Chaucer's : even as at this day the present English speech in Scotland is, in many re- spects, more antient than that spoken in England so far back as the reign of Queen Elizabeths So Mer. Casaubon, (de Vet. Ling. Aug.) says of his time, — " Scotica lingua Anglica hodierna purior." — -Where, hy purior, he means nearer to the Anglo-Saxon. So G. Hickes, in his Anglo-Saxon Gt^aminar (chap. 3.) says, — " Scoti in multis Saxonizantes." But to return to Mr. Locke, whom (as B. Jonson says of Shake- speare) " I reverence on this side of idolatry ;" in the five instances which he has given for five different meanings of the word but, there are indeed only two difi^erent meanings- : nor could he, as he imagined he could, have added any other significations of this particle, but what are to be found in bot and but as I have explained them^\ ^ This will not seem at all extraordinary if you reason directly contrary to Lord Monboddo on this subject ; by doing which you will generally be right as well in this as in almost every thing else which he has advanced. 2 "You must answer, that she was brought very near the fire, and as good as thrown in ; or else that she was provoked to it by a divine inspiration. But, but that another divine inspiration moved the beholders to believe that she did therein a noble act, this act of hers might have been calumniated," &c. — Doiine's Βιαθανατο?, part 2. distinct. 5. sect. 8. In the above passage, Avhich is exceedingly awkward, but is used in both its mean- ings close to each other: and the impropriety of the corruption appears therefore in its most offensive point of view. A careful author would avoid this, by placing these two buts at a distance from each other in the sentence, or by changing one of them for some other equivalent word. Whereas had the corruption not taken place, he might without any inelegance (in this respect) have kept the construction of the sentence as it now stands : for nothing would have offended -us, had it run thus, — ''Bot, butan that another divine inspiration moved the beholders," &c. 3 S. Johnson, in his Dictionary, has numbered up eighteen different significations (as he imagines) of BUT : Λvhich however are all reducible to Bot, and Be-utan. 710 APPENDIX. But, in the first, third, fourth, and fifth instances, is corruptly put for EOT, the imperative of Botan : In the second instance only it is put for Bute, or Butan, or Be-utan^ In the first instance, — " To say no more," is a mere parenthesis : and Mr. Locke has unwarily attributed to but, the meaning contained in the parenthesis : for suppose the instance had been this, — " but, to proceed." Or this, — '* but, to go fairly thro' this matter." Or this,— ■ "but, not to stop." Does but in any of these instances intimate a stop of the mind in the course it was going } The truth is, that but itself is the furthest of any word in the language from " intimating a stop." On the con- trary it always intimates something more^, something to follow: (as indeed it does in this very instance of Mr. Locke's ; though we know not what that something is, because the sentence is not completed). And therefore whenever any one in discourse finishes his words with BUT, the question always follows — but what ? — So that Shakespeare speaks most truly as well as poetically, when he gives an account of but, very different from this of Mr. Locke : ^^ Mess. Madam, he's well. Cleo. Well said. Mess. And friends with Caesar. €leo. Thou rt an honest man. Mess, Caesar and he are greater friends than ever. Cleo. Make thee a fortune from me. Mess. But — yet — Madam, — Cleo. I do not like but — yet. — It does allay The good precedent. Fie upon but, — yet. — But — yet~— is as a jaylour, to bring forth Some monstrous malefactor." Anthony and Cleopatra, act 2. so. 5. ' " I saw but two plants." Not or Ne is here left out and understood, which used formerly to be always inserted, as it frequently is still. So Chaucer — " I ne usurpe not to have founden this werke of my labour or of myne engin. I n'ame but a leude compilatour of the laboure of old astrologiens, and have it translated in myn Englishe. And with this swerde shall I sleene envy." — Intro•' auction to Conclusions of the Astrolahie. We should now say — " I am hut a leude compilatour," &c. 2 In the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and several other dead and living languages, the very word more is used for this conjunction but. The French language anciently used mais not only as they now do for the conjunc- tion mats, but also as they now use plus. Υ puis je mais ? Je n'en puis mais, are still in use among the vulgar people ; in both which expressions it means more. So Henri Estiene uses it ; — " Sont si bien accoustumez a ceste syncope, ou plustost apocope, qu'ils en font quel- quesfois autant aux dissylables, qui n'en peuvent mais." — H. E. de la Precellence du Langage Frangois, p. 18. "il/ai5vient de magis (j'entens mais pour d'avantage)."—Ibid. p. 131. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 711 where you may observe that yet (though used elegantly here, to mark more strongly the hesitation of the speaker) is merely superfluous to the sense ; as it is always when used after bot : for either bot or yet alone (and especially bot) has the very same effect, and will always be found to allay equally the Good, or the Bad^, precedent ; by something more"^ that follows. For Bocan means — to hoot^, i. e. to superadd '^, to supply, to substitute, to compensate with, to remedy with, to make amends with, to add something more in order to make up a deficiency in something else. So likewise in the third and fourth instances, (taken from Chilling- worth) ^. Mr. Locke has attributed to but, a meaning which can only be collected from the words which follow it. * ^' Speed. Item, she hath more hairs than wit, and more faults than hairs, but more wealth than faults. Laun. Stop there. She was mine, and not mine, twice or thrice in that article. Rehearse that once more. Speed. Item, she hath more hair than wit. Laun. What 's next ? Speed. And more faults than hairs. Laun. That's monstrous ! Oh that that were out \ Speed. But more wealth than faults. Laun. Why that word makes the faults gracious." Here the word but allays the had precedent ; for which, without any shifting of its own intrinsic signification, it is as well qualified as to allay the good. " So Tasso, — " Am. Oh, che mi dici ? Silvia m' attende, ignuda, e sola ? Tir. Sola, Se non quanto v' e Dafne, ch' e per noi. ^»2. Ignuda ella m' aspetta? Tir. Ignuda: MA — Am. Oime, c?ie ma ? Tu taci ; tu m' uccidi." Aminta, att. 2. sc. 3. where the difference of the construction in the English and the Italian is worth obser- ving; and the reason evident, why in the question consequent to the conjunction, what is placed after the one, but before the other. Boot what ?! ( What more ? But what ? ^ Χ Che Ma ? 3 S. Johnson, and others, have mistaken the expression — To Boot — (which still re- mains in our language) for a substantive ; which is indeed the infinitive of the same verb of which the conjunction is the imperative. * " Perhaps it may be thought improper for me to address you on this subject. But a moment, my Lords, and it will evidently appear that you are equally blameable for an omission of duty here also." This may be supposed an abbreviation of construction, for " But indulge me with a moment, my Lords, and it will," &c. ; but there is no occasion for such a supposition. ^ Knott had said, — *' How can it be in us a fundamental errour to say, the Scripture alone is not judge of controversies, seeing (notwithstanding this our belief) we use for interpreting of Scripture, all the means which they prescribe ; as prayer, conferring of places, consulting the originals," &c. To which Chillingworth replies, " You pruy, but it is not that God would bring you to the true religion, but that he would confirm you in your own. You confer places, but it is that you may confirm, or colour over with plausible disguises your erroneous doctrines ; not that you may judge of them, and forsake them, if there be reason for it. You consult the originals, BUT you regaid them not when they make against your doctrine or translation." 712. APPENDIX. But Mr. Locke says, — "If it were his business to examine it (but) in its full latitude :" and that he — " intends not here a full explication of this sort of signs." — And yet he adds, that — " the instances he has given in this one (but) may lead us into the contemplation of several actions of our minds in discoursing Λvhich it has found a way to intimate to others by these particles." And these, it must be remembered, are actions, or, as he before termed them, thoughts of our minds, for which, he has said, we have " either none or very deficient names." Now if it had been so, (which in truth it is not,) it was surely, for that reason, most especially the business of an Essay on Human Under- standing to examine these signs in their full latitude ; and to give a full explication of them. Instead of which, neither here, nor elsewhere, has Mr. Locke given ani/ explication whatever. Though I have said much, I shall also omit much which might be added in support of this double etymology of but : nor should 1 have dwelt so long upon it but in compliment to Mr. Locke ; whose opinions in any matter are not slightly to be rejected, nor can they be modestly controverted without very strong arguments. None of the etymologists have been aware of this corrupt use of one word for two^. In all these places, but (L e. box, or as we now pronounce that verb, Boot) only directs something to be added or supplied in order to make up some deficiency in Knott's expressions of *' prayer, conferring of places," &c. And so far indeed as an omission of something is improper, but (by ordering its insertion) may be said to " intimate a supposition in the mind of the speaker of something otherwise than it should be." But that intimation is only, as you see, by consequence ; and not by the intrinsic signification of the word but. ' Nor have etymologists been any more aware of the meaning or true derivation of the words corresponding with but in other languages. Vossius derives the Latin con- junction AT from aras ; and AST from at, " inserto s." (But how or why s happens to be inserted, he does not say.) Now to what purpose is such sort of etymology? Suppose it was derived from this doubtful word aras, — what intelligence does this give us ? AVhy not as well stop at the Latin w^ord at, as at the Greek word aras ? Is it not such sort of trifling etymology (for I will not give even that name to what is said by Scaliger and Nunnesius concerning sed) which has brought all etymological inquiry into disgrace ? Vossius is indeed a great authority ; but, when he has nothing to justify an useless conjecture but a similarity of sound, we ought not to be afraid of opposing an appear- ance of reason to him. It is contrary to the customary progress of corruption in words to derive AST from AT. Words do not gain, but lose letters in their progress : nor has unaccountable ac- cident any share in their corruption ; there is always a good reason to be given for every change they receive : and, by a good reason, I do not mean those cabalistical ■words, Metathesis, Epenthesis, &c., by which etymologists work such miracles ; but at least a probable or anatomical reason for those not arbitrary operations. JdsU, Adst, Ast, At. I am not at all afraid of being ridiculed for the above derivation, by any one who will give himself the trouble to trace the words (corresponding with But) of any language to their source : though they should not all be quite so obvious as the French Mais, the Italian Ma, the Spanish Mas, or the Dutch Maar. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 713 Minshew, keeping only one half of our modern but in contemplation, has sought for its derivation in the Latin imperative Puta. Junius confines his explanation to the other half ; Λvhich he calls its *' primariam significationem." And Skinner, willing to embrace them both, found no better method to reconcile tvro contradictory meanings, than to say hardily that the transition from one^ to the other ^ was — " levi flexu !" Junius says — "but, Chaucero τ. c. v. 194. bis positum pro Sine. Primus locus est in summo columnse — ' but temperaunce in tene.' — Alter est in coluranse medio ; * This golden carte with firy hemes bright Four yoked stedcs, full different of hew, But baite or tiring through the spheres drew.' ubi, tamen perperam, primo bout pro but reposueram : quod iterum delevi, cum (sub finem ejusdem poematis) incidissem in hunc locum ; ' But mete or drinke she. dressed her to lie In a darke corner of the hous alone.' atque adeo exinde quoque observare coepi frequentissimam esse banc particulse acceptionem. In ^neide quoque Scotica passim occurrunt,— *BUT spot or fait.' 3. 58. — ' but ony indigence.' 4. 20. — * but sentence or ingyne.' 5. 41. — ' principall poet but pere.' 9. 19. — atque ita porro. But videtur dictum quasi Be-ut, pro quo Angli dicunt without : unde quoque, hujus derivationis intuitu, prsesens hujus particulae acceptio videbitur ostendere banc esse primariam ejus significationem." The extreme carelessness and ignorance of Junius, in this article, is w^onderful and beneath a comment. Skinner says, — " but, ut ubi dicimus— A^owe but he ; — ab A.-S. Bute, Butan, prater, nisi, sine .• Hinc, levi flexu, postea ccepit, loco anti- qui Anglo- Saxonici Kc, Sed, designare. Bute autem et BuCan tandem deflect! possunt a prsep. be, circa, vel beon, esse, et ute vel ucan, /oris." WITHOUT. But (as distinguished from Bot) and without have both exactly the same meaning ; that is, in modern English, neither more nor less than Be-out. And they were both originally used indiiFerently either as conjunc- tions or prepositions. But later writers, having adopted the false notions and distinctions of language maintained by the Greek and Latin gram- marians, have successively endeavoured to make the English language • Id est, a direction to leave out something. 2 Id est, a direction to superadd something. 714 APPENDIX. conform more and more to the same rules. Accordingly without, in approved modern speech, is now entirely confined to the office of a Pre- position 1 ; and but is generally (though not always) used as a Con- junction. In the same manner as Nisi and Sine in Latin are distributed ; which do both likewise mean exactly the same, with no other diff^erence than that, in the former the negation precedes, and in the other it follows the verb. Skinner only says, — " without, ab A.-S. wiSutan, extra." S. Johnson makes it a preposition, an adverb, and a conjunction ; and under the head of a Conjunction, says, — " without. Conjunct. Unless ; if not ; except. — Not in use." Its true derivation and meaning are the same as those of but (from Butan) . It is nothing but the imperative pypS-ucan, from the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic verb J^eop^an, ^(^^\ΐΚ•φ/\Ν ; which in the Anglo-Saxon language is incorporated with the verb Beon, esse. AND. M. Casaubon supposes and to be derived from the Greek eira, postea. Skinner says — *'Nescio an a Lat. addere, q. d. Add ; interjecta per epenthesin n, ut in render, a reddendo." Lye supposes it to be derived from the Greek en, adhuc, 'prceterea, etiam, quinetiam, insuper. I have already given the derivation, which, I believe, will alone stand examination. I shall only remark here, how easily men take upon trust, how willingly they are satisfied with, and how confidently they repeat after others, false explanations of what they do not understand. — Conjunc- tions, it seems, are to have their denomination and definition from the use to which they are applied : per accidens, essentiam. Prepositions connect words ; but — " the Conjunction connects or joins together sentences ; so as out of two to make one sentence. Thus—-* You and /, AND Peter, rode to London' is one sentence made up of three," &c. Well ! So far matters seem to go on very smoothly. It is, ** You rode, I rode, Peter rode." But let us now change the instance, and try some others which are full as common, though not altogether so convenient. 1 It is however used as a conjunction by Lord Mansfield, in Hornets Trial, p. 56. *' It cannot be read, without the Attorney-General consents to it." And yet, if this reverend Earl's authority may be safely quoted for any thing, it must be for words. It is so unsound in matter of law, that it is frequently rejected even by himself. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 715 Two AND Two are four. A β and Β C and C D form a triangle. John AND Jane are a handsome couple. Does A Β form a triangle, Β C form a triangle ? &c. — Is John a couple ? Is Jane a couple ? — Are two, four ? If the definition of a conjunction is adhered to, I am afraid that and in such instances, will appear to be no more a conjunction, (that is, a connecter of sentences) than Though, in the instance I have given under that word ; or than But, in Mr. Locke's second instance ; or than Else, when called by S. Johnson a Pronoun; or than Since, when used for Sithence or for Sine. In short I am afraid that the grammarians will scarcely have an entire conjunction left : for I apprehend that there is not one of those words which they call conjunctions, which is not sometimes used (and that very properly) without connecting sentences. LEST. Junius only says — " Lest, least, minimus, v. little." Under Least, he says — ** Least, lest, minimus. Contractum est ex ελαχιστοε. v. little, parvus." And under Little, to which he refers us, there is nothing to the purpose. Skinner says — " Lest, ab A.-S. Lsef, minus, q. d. quo minus hoc fat." S. Johnson says, — " Lest, Conj. (from the adjective Least) That not.'* This last deduction is a curious one indeed ; and it would puzzle as sagacious a reasoner as S. Johnson to supply the middle steps to his conclusion from Least, (which always however means some) to " That not" (which means none at all). It seems as if, when he wrote this, he had already in his mind a presentiment of some future occasion in which such reasoning would be convenient. As thus, — " The mothef country, the seat of government, must necessarily enjoy the greatest share of dignity, power, rights, and privileges : an united or associated kingdom must have in some degree a smaller share ; and their colonies the least share ;" — That is (according to S. Johnson) ^ None of any kind. It has been proposed by no small authority (Wallis followed by Lowth) to alter the spelling of lest to Least ; and vice versa. " Multi," says Wallis, " pro Lest scribunt Least (ut distinguatur a conjunctione Lest, ne, ut non;) verum omnino contra analogiam grammaticae. Mallem ego adjectivum lest, conjunctionem least scribere." " The superlative Least," says Lowth, " ought rather to be written * Johnson's merit ought not to be denied to him ; but his Dictionary is the most imperfect and faulty, and the least valuable of any of his productions ; and that share of merit which it possesses makes it by so much the more hurtful. I rejoice however that, though the least valuable, he found it the most profitable : for I could never read his Preface without shedding a tear. 716 APPENDIX. without the a ; as Dr. Wallis hath long ago observed. The Conjunc- tion of the same sound might be written with the a, for distinction." S. Johnson judiciously dissents from this proposal, but for no other reason, but because he thinks, — *' the profit is not worth the change." Now though they all concur in the same etymology, I will venture to affirm that Lest, for Lesed, (as blest for blessed, &c.) is nothing else but the participle past of Lefan, dimittere ; and, with the article That (either expressed or understood) means no more than Hoc dimisso or Quo dimisso. And, if this explanation and etymology of lest is right, (of which I have not the smallest doubt) it furnishes one caution more to learned critics, not to innovate rashly : Lest, whilst they attempt to amend a language, as they imagine, in one trifling respect, they mar it in others of more importance ; and, by their corrupt alterations and amendments, confirm error, and make the truth more difficult to be discovered by those who come after. Mr. Locke says, and it is agreed on all sides, that — " it is in the right use of these (Particles) that more particularly consists the clear- ness and beauty of a good stile," and that " these words, which are not truly by themselves the names of any ideas, are of constant and indispen- sable use in language ; and do much contribute to men's well expressing themselves." Now this, I am persuaded, would never have been said, had these particles been understood : for it proceeds from nothing but the diffi- culty of giving any rule or direction concerning their use : and that difficulty arises from a mistaken supposition that they are not " by them- selves, the 7iames of any ideas :" and in that case indeed I do not see hoΛv any rational rules concerning their use could possibly be given. But I flatter myself that henceforward, the true force and nature of these words being clearly understood, the proper use of them will be so evident that any rule concerning their use will be totally unnecessary ; as it would be thought absurd to inform any one that Avhen he means to direct an addition, he should not use a word Λvhich directs to take away. I am induced to mention this in this place, from the very improper manner in which lest (more than any other conjunction) is often used b)»- our best authors : those who are most conversant with the learned languages being most likely to make the mistake. — " You make use of such indirect and crooked arts as these to blast my reputation, and to possess men's mindg with disafi'ection to my person ; lest peradventure, they might with some indift'erence hear reason from me." — Chilling' worth's Preface to the Author of Charity maintained, &c. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 717 Here lest is well used, — " You make use of these arts :" — Why ? The reason follows, — Lefeb that, i. e. Hoc dimisso, — "men might hear reason from me." — Therefore, — you use these arts. Instances of the improper use of lest may be found in almost every author that ever wrote in our language ; because none of them have been aware of the true meaning of the word ; and have been misled by supposing it to be perfectly correspondent to some conjunctions in other languages, which it is not. Thus Ascham, in his Scholemaster, says,—" If a yong jentleman will venture himselfe into the companie of ruffians, it is over great a jeopar- die, LEST their facions, maners, thoughts, taulke, and deedes will verie sone be over like." Any tolerable judge of English will immediately perceive something awkward and improper in this sentence ; though he cannot tell why. Yet the reason will be very plain to him, when he knows the meaning of these unmeaning particles (as they have been called) : for he will then see at once that lest has no business in the sentence ; there being nothing dimisso, in consequence of which something else would follow ; and that, if he would employ lest, the sentence must be arranged otherwise : As, — "Let not a young gentleman venture, &c. lest his manners, thoughts," &c. SINCE. Since is a very corrupt abbreviation ; confounding together different words and different combinations of words : and is therefore in modern English improperly made (like but) to serve j)urposes which no one word in any other language can answer ; because the same accidental corruptions, arising from similarity of sound, have not happened in the correspondent words of any other language. Where we now employ since, was formerly (according to its re- spective signification) used, Sometimes, 1. 8eoi5^an, 8iO(5i5an, 8e(5^an, SiS^an, SiSi^en, Sithen, Sithence, Sithens, Sithnes, Sithns : Sometimes, 2. Syne, Sine, Sene, Sen, Syn, Sin: Sometimes, 3. Seand, Seeing, Seeing-that, Seeing-as, Sens, Sense, Sence: Sometimes, 4. 8iSi5e, Si6, Sithe, Sith, Seen-that, Seen-as, Sens, Sense, Sence. Accordingly since, in modern English, is used four ways. Two, as a preposition, connecting (or rather affecting) words : and Two, as a conjunction, affecting sentences. 718 APPENDIX. When used as a preposition, it has always the signification either of the past participle Seen joined to thence, (that is, seen and thence for- ward ;) — Or else it has the signification of the past participle Seen only. When used as a conjunction, it has sometimes the signification of the present participle Seeing or Seeing -that ; and sometimes the signi- fication of the past participle Seen or Seen-that. As a preposition, 1. Since (for Si^San, Sithence, or Seen and thenceforward)', as, " Such a system of government as the present, has not been ven- tured on by any king since the expulsion of James the Second." 2. Since (for Syne, Sene, or Seen) ; as, "Did George the Third reign before or since that example ?" As a conjunction ; 3. Since (for Seanb, Seeing, Seeing-as, or Seeing- that) ; as, " If I should labour for any other satisfaction but that of my own mind, it would be an effect of phrenzy in me, not of hope ; since it is not truth, but opinion, that can travel the world without a passport." 4. Since (for Sic56e, Sith, Seen-as, or Seen-that) ; as, " Since death in the end takes from all, whatsoever fortune or force takes from any one ; it were a foolish madness in the shipwreck of worldly things, where all sinks but the sorrow, to save that." Junius says, — " Since that time, Exinde. Contractum est ex Angl. Sith thence, q. d. sero post : ut Sith illud originem traxerit ex illo 8θΐφΠ, Sero ; quod habet Arg. Cod." Skinner says, — '' Since, a Teut. Sint, Eelg. Sind, Post, postea, postquam. Doct. Th. H. putat deflexum a nostro Sithence. Non ab- surdum etiam esset declinare a Lat. Exhinc, ε et η abjectis, et χ facil- lima mutatione in s transeunte." Again he says, — ** Sith ab A.-S. 8ii5i5an, Sy^^an. Belg. Seyd, Sint, Post, post ilia, postea." After the explanation I have given, I suppose it unnecessary to point out the particular errors of the above derivations. Sithence and Sith, though now obsolete, continued in good use down even to the time of the Stuarts. Hooker in his writings uses Sithence, Sith, Seeing, and Since. The two former he always properly distinguishes ; using Sithence for the true import of the Anglo-Saxon SiS^an, and Sith for the true import of the Anglo-Saxon 8i^i5e. Which is the more extraordinary, because authors of the first credit had very long before Hooker's time, confounded them together ; and thereby led the way for the present indiscriminate and corrupt use of since in all the four cases mentioned. Seeing Hooker uses sometimes, perhaps, (for it will admit a doubt) improperly. And Since (according to the corrupt custom which has now universally prevailed in the language) he uses indiflferently either for Sithence, Seen, Seeing, or Sith, LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 719 THAT. There is something so very singular in the use of this Conjunction, as it is called, that one should think it would alone, if attended to, have been sufficient to lead the Grammarians to a knowledge of most of the other conjunctions, as well as of itself. — The use I mean is, that the conjunction that generally makes a part of, and keeps company with most of the other conjunctions. — If that, An that, Unless that. Though that. But that, Without that, Lest that. Since that. Save thai. Except that, &c. is the construction of most of the sentences where any of those conjunctions are used. Is it not an obvious question then, to ask, why this conjunction alone should be so peculiarly distinguished from all the rest of the same family ? And why this alone should be able to connect itself with, and indeed be usually necessary to almost all the others } So necessary, that even when it is compounded with another conjunction, and drawn into it so as to become one word, (as it is with sith and since,) we are still forced to employ again this necessary index, in order to precede and so point out the sentence which is to be affected by the other con- junction .'' De, in the Anglo-Saxon, meaning that, it Λνϋΐ easily be perceived that sith (which is no other than the Anglo-Saxon p'SSe) includes That. But when since is (as I here consider it) a corruption for seeing-as and seen-as, I may be asked ; how does it then include that ? — In short, what is as ? For we can gather no more from the etymolo- gists concerning it, than that it is derived either from ws or from als ' : but still this explains nothing ; for what ws is, or als, remains likewise a secret. The truth is, that as is also an Article ; and (however and whenever used in English) means the same as It, or That, or Which. In the German, where it still evidently retains its original signification and use, (as So also does) it is written Es. It does not come from Als ; any more than Though, and Be-it, and If (or Gif), &c., come from Although, and Albeit, and Algif, &c. — For Als, in our old English, is a contraction of Al and Es or As : and this Al (which in comparisons used to be very properly employed be- fore the first es or as, but was not employed before the second) we now, in modern English, suppress. As we have also done in numberless other instances, where All, though not improper, is not necessary. Thus. ' Junius says, — " as, ut, sicut, Graecis est ws." Skinner, whom S. Johnson follows, says—" AS a Teut. Als, sicut, eliso, scil. propter euphoniam, intermedio L." 720 APPENDIX. " She glides away under the foamy seas, As swift AS darts or feather'd arrows fly." That is, " She glides away (with) that swiftness, (with) which feather'd arrows fly." When in old English it is written, «' She Glidis away under the fomy seis, Als swift AS ganze or fedderit arrow fleis ;" Then it means, "With ALL THAT swiftness, with which, &c." And now I hope I may for this time take my leave of Etymology ; for which I confess myself to be but very slenderly qualified. Nor should I have even sought for those derivations which I have given, if reflection had not first directed me where to seek, and convinced me that I was sure easily to find them. Nor, having found them in one language only, should I have relied on that particular instance alone on which to build a general conclusion of the proof in fact. But I am confirmed in my opinion by having found the same method of explana- tion successful in many other languages ; and as I have before said, I know, a priori, that it must be so in all languages. After what I have said, you will see plainly why so many of the con- junctions may be used almost indifferently (or with a very little turn of expression) for each other. And without ray entering into the par- ticular minutiae in the use of each, you will easily account for the slight differences in the turn of expression, arising from different customary abbreΛάations of construction. I will only give you one instance, and leave it Avith you for your en- tertainment : from which you will draw a variety of arguments and conclusions. " And soft he sighed, lest men might him hear. And soft he sighed, else men might him hear. Unless he sighed soft, men might him hear. But that he sighed soft, men might him hear. Without he sighed soft, men might him hear. Save tliat he sighed soft, men might him hear. Except he sighed soft, men might him hear. Out-cept he sighed soft, men might him hear. Out-take he sighed soft, men might him hear. If that he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear. And AN he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear. Set that he sigh'd not soft, men might him hear." According to this account which I have giΛ'en of the Conjunctions (and which may also be given of the Prepositions) Lord Monboddo will LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 721 appear extremely unfortunate in the particular care he has taken (part 2. book i. c. 15.) to make an exception from the general rule he lays down (of the Verb's being the parent word of the whole language), and to caution the candid reader from imputing to him an opinion, that the Conjunctions were intended by him to be included in his rule ; or had any connexion whatever with Verbs. " This so copious derivation from the l^erb in Greek, naturally leads one (says he) to suspect that it is the Parent word of the whole lan- guage : and indeed I believe that to be the fact. For I do not know that it can be certainly shewn that there is any word that is undoubt- edly a Primitive, which is not a Verb ; I mean a verb in the stricter sense and common acceptation of the word. — By this the candid reader will not understand that I mean to say that prepositions, conjunctions, and such like words, which are rather the pegs and nails that fasten the several parts of the language together, than the language itself, are derived from Verbs, or are derivatives of any kind." Indeed, in my opinion, he is not less unfortunate in his Rule than in his Exception. They are both equally unfounded : and yet as well founded as almost every other position which he has laid down in his two first volumes. The whole of which is perfectly worthy of that profound politician and philosopher, who (vol. i. p. 243.) esteems that to be the most perfect form, and, as he calls it, ** the last stage of civil society," where Government leaves nothing to the free-will of indivi- duals, but interferes with the domestic, private lives of the citizens, and the education of their children ! Such would in truth be the last stage of civil society, in the sense of the lady in the comedy, whose lover having offered — " to give her the last proof of love, and marry her ;" — she aptly replied — '' the last indeed : for there 's an end of loving." But what shall we say to the bitter irony with which Mr. Harris treats the moderns in the concluding note to his doctrine of Conjunc- tions 1 Where he says, — " It is somewhat surprising that the politest and most elegant of the Attic writers, and Plato above all the rest, should have their v^^orks filled with particles of all kinds and with con- junctions in particular ; while in the modern polite works, as well of ourselves as of our neighbours, scarce such a word as a particle or con- junction is to be found. Is it that where there is connection in the meaning, there must be words had to connect ; but that Avhere the con- nection is little or none, such connectives are of little use ? That houses of cards, without cement, may well answer their end, but not those houses where one would chuse to dwell ? Is this the cause ? Or have Λve attained an elegance to the antients unknown ? * Venimus ad sumraam Fortunae,' " &c. 3 a 722 APPENDIX. I say, that a little more reflection and a great deal less reading, a little more attention to common sense * and less blind prejudice for his Greek commentators, would have made him a much better grammarian, if not perhaps a philosopher. — What a strange language is this to come from a man, who at the same time supposes these particles and con- junctions to be words without meaning ! It should seem by this inso- lent pleasantry that Mr. Harris reckons it the perfection of composition and discourse to use a great many words without meaning ! If so, per- haps Slender's language would meet with this learned gentleman's approbation : — " I keep but three men and a boy yet till my mother be dead ; But what though yet I live a poor gentleman born." Now here is cement enough in proportion to the building. It is plain however that Shakespeare (a much better philosopher by the bye than most of those who have written philosophical treatises) was of a very different opinion in this matter from Mr. Harris. He thought the best Avay to make his zany talk unconnected!!/ and nonsensically, was to give him a quantity of these beautiful words without meaning, which are such favourites with Mr. Harris. I shall be told, that this may be raillery perhaps, but that it is neither reasoning nor authority : that this instance does not aiFect Mr. Harris : for that all cement is no more fit to make a firm building than no cement at all : that Slender's discourse might have been made equally as uncon- nected without any particles, as with so many together : and that it is the proper mixture of particles and other words which Mr. Harris would recommend ; and that he only censures the moderns for being too spa- ring of participles. — To which I answer, that reasoning disdains to be employed about such affected airs of superiority and pretended ele- gance. But he shall have authority, if he pleases, his favourite author- ity ; an antient, a Greek, and one too writing professedly on Plato's opinions, and in defence of Plato ; and which, if Mr. Harris had not forgotten, I am persuaded he would not have contradicted. He says, — " II n'y a ny beste, ny instrument, ny armeure, ny autre chose quelle qu'elle soit au monde, qui par ablation ou privation d'une siene propre partie, soit plus belle, plus active, ne plus doulce que paravant elle n'estoit, la ou I'oraison bien souvent, en estans les Conjonctions toutes ostees, a une force et efficace plus affectueuse, plus active, et plus es- mouvante. C'est pourquoy ceulx qui escrivent des figures de retorique louent et prisent grandement celle qu'ils appellent deliee : la οΐι ceulx Ϊ The author would by no means be thought to allude to the common sense of Doctors Oswald, Reid, and Beattie ; which appears to him to be sheer nonsense. LETTER TO MR. DUNNING. 723 cy qui sont trop religieux et qui s'assubjettissent trop aux regies de I» graminaire, sans ozer oster une seule conjonction de la commune facon de parler, en sont a hon droit blasmez et repris, comme faisans un stile enerve, sans aucune pointe d'aiFection, et qui lasse et donne peine a ouir•." And I hope this authority (for I will offer no argument to a writer of his cast) will satisfy the — "true taste and judgement in writing" of Lord Monboddo ; who with equal affectation and vanity has followed Mr. Harris in this particular ; and who, though incapable of writing a sentence of common English, really imagines that there is something captivating in his stile, and has gratefully informed us to whose assist- ance we owe the obligation. If these two gentlemen, whom I have last mentioned, should be ca- pable of receiving any mortification from the censure of one who pro- fesses himself an admirer of the — " vulgar and unlearned'' Mr. Locke, I will give them the consolation of acknoAvledging that a real grammar- ian and philosopher, J. C. Scaliger, has even exceeded them in this mistake concerning the Particles : for he not only maintains the same doctrine which they have adopted ; but even attempts to give reasons a prioi'i, why it is and must be so. If the generous and grateful (not candid) reader should think that I have treated them with too much asperity, to him I owe some justifi- cation. Let him recollect, then, the manner in which these gentlemen and the Common Sense Doctors'^ have treated the 'vulgar, unlearned, and atheistical' Mr. Locke (for such are the imputations they cast upon that benefactor to his country) ; and let him condemn me, if he can. And thus. Sir, have I finished what I at first proposed ; namely, to prove that in the information against LaΛvley there was not the smallest literal omission. In the elucidation of this I have been compelled to enter into a minute disquisition of some mistaken words, which igno- rance would otherwise have employed in order to render a very plain position, ridiculous. I shall not however expect to escape ridicule ; for so very disgusting is this kind of inquiry to the generality, that I have often thought it was for mankind a lucky mistake (for it was a mistake) which Mr. Locke made when he called his book, an Essay on Human Understanding. For some part of the inestimable benefit of that book • Though the sound of the Greek would be more pleasing to Mr. Harris, I quote the bishop of Auxerre's translation ; because I have not the original Λvith me in prison. At the same time it gives me an opportunity to remind their Lordships the Bishops of our days, of the language which that virtuous Prelate held to a Sovereign of France ; that, instead of being ready on all occasions to vote for blood awd slavery, they may, from that example, learn a little more of their duty to their country and mankind. 2 [Oswald, Reid, and Beattie. See p. 151, note ^,— Ed.] 3a2 724 APPENDIX. has, merely on account of its title, reached to many thousands more than, I fear, it would have done, had he called it (what it is merely) a grammatical Essay, or a Treatise on Words or on Language. The human Mind, or the human Understanding, appears to be a grand and noble theme ; and all men, even the most insufficient, conceive That to be a proper object of their contemplation ; whilst inquiries into the nature of Language (through which alone they can obtain any know- ledge beyond the beasts) are fallen into such extreme disrepute and contempt; that even those who " neither have the accent of Christian, pagan, or man," nor can speak so many words together with as much propriety as Balaam's Ass did, do yet imagine Words to be infinitely beneath the concern of their exalted understandings ! Let these gen- tlemen enjoy their laugh. I shall however be very well satisfied if I do not meet with your disapprobation : and I have endeavoured stu- diously to secure myself from that, by avoiding to oiFend you with any the smallest compliment from the beginning to the end of this letter. It is not any to declare myself, with the greatest personal affection and esteem, your most obedient and obliged humble servant, JOHN HORNE. King's-Bench Prison, April 21, 1778. INDEX. Abal, 675. Abbaiare, Ital., 357. Abbaubare, Lat,, 357. Abboyer, Fr., 357. Abject, 325. Ablative, 672. Ablaze, 270. Able, 675. Aboard, 236, 270. Abode, 372. Abominable, 661. Abominevole, Ital., 665, Above, 247. About, 241. xxii. Abroad, 271. Abstract, 322. Absti-use, 325. Abuse, 325. Accent, 316. Access, 323. Accident, 313, 315. Accordable, 661. Accordevole, Ital., 665. Accustomable, 666. Acquest, 323. Across, 236. Act, 313. Ad, Lat., 195. Adays, 271. Addle, 554. Adept, 316. Adieu, 263. Admissible, 658. AdoAvn, 244. xxiv. Adrift, 252. Adulaton^ 638. Adult, 316. Advent, 322. Adventure, 679. Adverse, 323. Adversus, Lat., 226. Advocate, 325. jElan, 623. Affable, 658. Affannare, Ital., 347. Affauno, Ital., 347. Affix, 325. Afflux, 325. Affuera, Span., 178. Afii-e, 272. Afoot, 268. After, 243. Against, 231. xx. Agast, 253. Aggradevole, Ital., 665. Aghast, 253. Ago, 254. Agon, 254. Agone, 254. Agrarian, 638. Agreeable, 661. Agrestic, 638. Ague, 253. Aiblian, 555. Ail, 554. Αισθητικον, 663, 670, 675. Αισθητον, 663, 670, 675. Α -jar, On-char, 442, 445. Albeit, 70. Ale, 622, 623. Alert, 318. Alerte, Fr., 319. Algate, 94. Algif, 719. A I'herte, Fr., 319. Alive, 272. Allegiance, 322. All 'erta, Ital., 318. Alles, 95. AUev, 322. AlHance, 322. Allv, 322. Alms, 639. Aloft, 273. Alone, 290. Along, 231. Along of, xx. Alofi, 623. Als, 148, 719. Amabo, Lat., 629. Amatory, 638. Amatus, Lat., 655. Amble, 666. Ambulare, Lat., 666. Amero, Ital., 629. Amiable, 658. Amicable, 661. Amichevole, Ital., 665, 669. Amid, 231. Amidst, 231. Among, 226. xx. Amongst, 226. Amorevole, Ital., 665. Amorous, 638. Amphibious, 637. Amyable, 659. An, 53, 70, 78, 81, et seqq. 690, 698. Analytic, 672. Anca, Ital. & Span., 571. And, 70, 117, 714. AnevF, 273. Angel, 313, 315. An-honge, 228. An if, 82, Anights, 272. Auima, Lat., 315. Animus, Lat., 315. Anniversaiy, 638. Annual, 638. Annular, 638. Anon, 292. Aperitive, 672. Apologetic, 672. Apostle, 313, 322. Appetite, 326. Applause, 326. Apposite, 319. Appulse, 322. Apt, 316. Aquatic, 638. Aqueduct, 321. Aqueous, 638. Aquiline, 638. AquUon, Span,, 601. Arable, 658. Ai-are, Lat., 529. Aringa, Ital,, 507. Armee, Fr,, 322. Army, 322. Around, 236. Arow, 274. Aroynt, 482. Array, 470. As, 147. Aside, 236, 270. Askant, 259. Askew, 259. Asleep, 274. Aspect, 324. Assailant, 322, 726 INDEX. Assault, 322. Assent, 325. Asseth, 276. Assignee, 326. Assize, 325. Assizes, 325. Ast, Lat., 113. Astound, 260. Astraba, Lat., 590. Astral, 638. Astray, 258. Astride, 236. Asunder, 257. Aswoon, 259. At, Lat., 113. Ate, 373. Athree, 290. Athwart, 226. Atom, 322. At once, 288. Atte, attan, 291, 593. Attiltrer, Fr., 352. Attribute, 313. Atwist, 259. Atwo, 290. Audiam, Lat., 629. Audible, 658. Audibo, Lat., 629. Auditory, 637. Auditus, 655. Aught, 274. Aumone, Fr., 639. Aura, Lat., 530. Auricular, 637. Auxiliary, 639. Avacciare, Ital., 573. Avaccio, Ital., 573. Available, 661. Avant, Fr., 187. Avanti, Ital., 187. Avast, 573. Avec, Fr., 173. Avenue, 322. Averse, 323. Awake, 574. Award, 223. Awhile, 274. Awry, 259. Aye, 294. Bacan, 354. Bacon, 354. Bad, 357. Bait, 390, BaUad, 323. Ballast, 449. Ballate, Ital., 323. Ballet, 323. Ban, 357. Band, 389. Bandetto, 318. Bandite, 318. Banditti, 318. Bane, 357. To Bar, 435. Bar, 435. Barbarity, 436. Barbarous, 436. Barbican, 436. Bargain, 435. Barge, 435. Bark, 435. Barken, 435. Barmekin, 436. Barn, 435. Baron, 436. Barren, 354. Barrier, 435. Barrow, 436. Batch, 435. Batful, 390. Bath, 619. Battel, 390. Bay, 357, 464. Bead, 502. Bearable, 667. Beam, 356. Because, 72. Bed, Bebbian, 584. Bedstead, 240. Before, 220. Begon, 373, 374. Behind, 220. Behoveable, 666. Being that, 73. Be it, 70. Belike, 268. Belong, 234. xx. Below, 220. Be-lycan, 449. Beneath, 220. Benefit, 321. Benna, Lat., 463. Bent, 352. Beoji^an, By^^an, 435. Beojin, 357. Bergauf, Germ., xxviii. Beshrew, 459. Beside, 220. Besides, 220. Between, 220. Betvnxt, 220. Beyond, 222. Biasmevole, Ital., 665, 668, Bible, 666. Biblium, Lat., 666. Bibban, 502. Biennial, 638. Binn, 462. Bird, 564. Birth, 615. Bit, 394. Bituminous, 638. Bivouac, 573. Blameable, 668. Blameful, 668. Blast, 450. Blaze, 450. Blind, Blmnan, 334. BUss, 540. Blith, 540. Block, 449. Blot, 447. Blow, 622. Blowth, 622. Blunt, 430. Boar, 359. Board, 364, 564. Βοαω, 357. Bobbel, Dutch, 666. Bod, 373, 374. Bold, 394. Bolt, 394. Bond, 375, 376, 389- Booth, 619. Borh, 438. Borhs-older, 436. • Born, 356. Borough, 437. Borowe, 436, Borwe, 457. Bot, 70, 100, Bote, 373, 376. Bove, 247. Bough, 464, ΒονΧομαι, 628. Bound, 389. Bow, 464. Bracca, Lat,, 490. Brachium, 490. Brack, 489. Braide, 336, Brand, 327. Brand-new, 294. Brandy, 422. Brat, 565. Brawn, 358, 359, 364. Breach, 489. Bread, 334, 416. Breadth, 620. Break, 488. Breech, 488. Breeches, 66, 488. Breed, 465. Bren, 422. Brid, 564. Bride, 565. Bridegroom, 499. Brim, 498. Briser, Fr., 522. To Brit, 523. Broach, 488. Broad, 364, 564. Brodo, Ital., 619. Bronze, 423. Bronzo, Ital., 423. INDEX. 727 Brood, 565. Brook, 488. Broth, 619. Brown, 422. Bruckner, 82. xi. Bruise, 522. Bruit, 522. Brumal, 638. Brun, Fr., 422. Bruno, Ital., 422. Brunt, 422, 423. Bubble, 666. Buildens, 394. BuUdings, 394. Bundle, 390. Burgess, 436. Burgh, 436. Burial, 436. Burrow, 436. Busy, 532. But, 70, 100, 175, 705. Buxom, 464. By, 218. By^an, Bojh, Beah, 464. Bylban, 394. Ca, Ital., 163. Cable, 666. Cadaverous, 637. Cage, 586. Cage, Fr., 586. Caiare, Lat,, 586. Calere, ItaL, 484. Calhdus, Lat., 484. Canine, 638. Cant, 316. Cantata, 316. Canto, 316. Cantus, Lat., 389. Capable, 661. Capevole, Capace, Ital., 665. CapiUary, 637. Capital, 637. Car, 442, 443. Car, Fr., 209. Carbo, Lat., 442, 444. Cardiac, 637. Cardinal, 442, 638. Cardo, Lat., 442, 444. Caritatevole, Ital., 665. Carnal, 637. Carnivorous, 637. Carpenter, 617. Carrus, Lat., 442. Cart, 443. Case, 315. Cassander, 82, 126. xi. Cast, 400. Cathartic, 672. Caustic, 672. Celestial, 638. Cetaceous, 638. Chaceable, 660. Chair, 442. Chair-man, 442. Chaloir, Fr., 484. Chance, 313, 315. Chanceable, 666, 669. Chanceful, 668. Changeable, 669. Changeful, 669. Chap, 451, 546. Chapman, 546. Chaps, 451. Char, 442, 445. Characteristic, 672. Charcoal, 442. Chare, 442. Chariot, 442. Charioteer, 442. Charitable, 661. Char-woman, 442. Chaunt, 316. Cheap, 546. Chewr, 442. Chez, Fr., 160. xxv. Cheze, Fr., 162. Chief, 637. Chier, Fr., 397. ChiU, 554. Chode, 371. Choice, 455. Chop, 546. To Chop, 546. Chronical, 638. Church, 314. Churn, 357. Chur-worm, 442. Circuit, 325. Circumspect, 324. Clack, 501. Clause, 320. Cleft, 348. Click, 501. CUiF, 348. Clift, 348. Cling, 376. xxi. Clock, 501. Clomb, 371. Clonge, 373, 376. Close, 320. Closet, 320. Cloud, 447. Clough, 432. Clout, 432. Clouted, 433. Clutch, 570. Clutches, 570. Codardo, Ital., 333. Coercive, 672. Cognizable, 658. Cold, 552. Collateral, 637. Collect, 323. Colorevole, Ital., 665, Colourable, 661, 669. Colpevole, Ital., 665. Combat, 326. Comfortable, 661. Committee, 321. Common Sense, 151. Compact, 326. Companionable, 666. Composite, 319. Compost, 319. Compromise, 321. Comrade, 322. Conceit, 325. Concise, 325. Concordable, 661. Concordevole, Ital., 665. Concourse, 325. Concubine, 411. Conducevole, Ital., 665. Conducible, 661. Conduct, 321. Conduit, 321. Conflict, 326. Confluent Words, 222. Conflux, 325. Confortable, Fr., 665. Confortevole, Ital., 665. Congenial, 638. Conjugal, 639. Connubial, 639. Conquest, 323. Conscript, 325. Consecutive, 672. Consent, 325. Conspicuous, 637.- Constraint, 323. Contact, 325. Contemptible, 658. Content, 324. Contents, 324. Conterminous, 638. Context, 325. Continent, 324. Contract, 322. Contrite, 325. Convenable, 661. Convenevole, Ital., 665. Convent, 322. Converse, 323. Convert, 323. Convict, 325. Cool, 552. Copious, 639. Cordial, 637. Corporal, 637. Corporeal, 637. Correct, 324. Cosmetic, 672. Costumevole, Ital., 665. Couard, Fr., 333. Counterfeit, 321. 728 NDEX. Counterview, 323. Course, 325. Covenant, 322. Coward, 332. Cras, Lat., 460. Craven, 353. Credence, 326. Credenda, 677. Credible, 660. Credit, 326. Credulous, 638. Crescere, Lat., 529. Crescive, 672. Crew, 623. Crisp, 542. Crispare, Lat., 529. Critic, 672. Crowd, 623. Crucifix, 325. Crura, 534. Crumble, 666. Crural, 637. To Crush, 582. Cryptic, 672. Cubital, 637. Cuckold, 316. To Cucol, 316. Cud, 331. Culinary, 638. Culpable, 639, 658, 661. Culprit, 322. Curare, Lat., 529. Curse, 360. Customable, 661. Cutaneous, 637. Eyjian, 442. Dabchick, 542. Dam, 555. Damnare, Lat., 529. Dastard, 332. Date, 317. Dative, 672. Dawn, 356, 442. Day, 442. Deal, Daslan, 494. Dear, 612. Dearth, 612. Debate, 326. Debt, 313, 317. Decay, 315. Deceit, 325. Deceitful, 668. Deceivable, 668. Decern, Lat., 455. Dechirer, Fr., 429. Decree, 306, 325. Deed, 542. Deep, 542. Default, 324. Defeat, 321. Defect, 321. To Defile, 487, 611. Definite, 325. Degree, 325. ' Aeivos, 454. AeKa, 459. Delectable, 661, 668. Delegate, 325. Delere, 529. Delightful, 668. Dell, 494. Demise, 321. Demur, 324. Demman, 556. Denken, Dunken, Germ., 292. xxxi. Dental, 637. Deodand, 676, 677. Deposit, 319. Depot, Fr., 319. Depth, 620. To Dere, 612. DereUct, 324. Derriere, Fr., 187. Desert, 313, 350. Desiccative, 672. Despicable, 658. Despotic, 672. Destinee, Fr., 314. Destiny, 313, 314. Destitute, 325. Desultory, 639. Detersive, 672. Detinue, 324. Devious, 638. Devout, 324. Dew, Deapian, 416. Dexterous, 637. Dialectic, 672. Didactic, 672. Dies, Lat., 530. Digital, 637. Dike, Dician, 535. Dilettevole, Ital., 665. Dim, 535. Din, 533. Ding Dong, 525. Dint, 533. Dip, Dippan, 246, 542. Direct, 324. Diritto, Ital., 304. Dirus, Lat., 530, 614. Discordable, 661. Discordevole, 665. Discourse, 325. Discreet, 325. Dispute, 326. Dissemble, 666, 696. Dissent, 325. Dissimulare, Lat., 666. Dissimule, 669. Dissymuled, 669. Distinctj 325. District, 323. Disuse, 325. To Dit, Dyttan, 447. Ditch, 535. Ditto, 317. Ditty, 318. Diuretic, 672. Diui-nal, 638. Dive, 246, 542. Divers, 323. Diverse, 323. Dividend, 677. Do, 193. Docile, 658. Doctus, Lat., 655. Dole, 494. Dollar, 497. Dolorous, 638. Dolt, 556. Domestic, 638. Dominical, 638. Doom, 565. Dot, 447. Dotard, 463. Dotterel, 463. Double, 666. Dough, 416. Doughty, 624. Doule, 494. DoAvle, 494. DoAvn, 244. xxiv. Drab, 414. Drad, 373. Drain, 469. Drastic, 672. Draught, 352. Drift, 349. Dripping, 395. Dritto, Ital., 304. Droict, Fr., 304. Droit, Fr., 304. Drone, 469. Dronk, 373, 377. t Drop, 373, 395. Dross, 476. Drougth, 615. Drove, 372. Drudge, 558. Drug, 615. Drugs, 615. Drum, 450. Drunk, 391. Dry, 469. Duct, 321. Ductile, 658. Due, 317. Dull, 556. Dumb, 555. Dumbskalle, Swed,, 532. Dun, 533. Dung, Dyn^an, 524. Duplex, Lat., 312. INDEX. 729 Duplum, Lat., 666. Durable, 661. Durevole, Ital., 665. During, 236. Dux, Lat., 312. Djjman, Dwine (Dwindle), 456. Dyche, 535. Dybejiian, 463. Dyke, 535. Earth, 617. East, 600. Ecart, Fr., 429. Ecclesiastical, 639. Echelon, Fr., 483. Ecot, Fr., 396. Ecume, Fr., 534, Edict, 306, 318. Effect, 321. EiFeminate, 637. Egregious, 638. Egress, 325. Et μη, 91. Eke, 70, 92, 703. Elastic, 672. Eld, 450. Elect, 323. Eleemosynary, 639. EUgible, 658* Eloquent, 637. Else, 70, 95, 133, 136, 704. Emetic, 672. Emot, Swed., 231, Emulous, 637. Endemial, 639. Energetic, 672. Enough, 260, Entendable, 661. • Enterprize, 322. Entry, 322. Ephemeral, 638. Epidemical, 639, Epistle, 322. Equestrian, 638. Equinoctial, 638. Ercta, Ital., 318. Erd, 618, Erde, Germ., 618. Erect, 318. ejiian, 529. Erta, Ital., 318. Eruptive, 672. Escaille, Fr., 477, 483. Eschalotte, Fr,, 477, 483. Escheat, 315, Eschelle, Fr,, 477, 483, Escot, Fr., 396. Escume, Fr., 534. Espan, Fr., 506. Esquisse, Fr., 396. Essential, 637. Estage, Fr., 513. Este, Span., 601. Esteem, 336. Estival, 638. Estoc, Fr., 469. Estreat, 322. Estribo, Span., 519. Etage, 509, 513. Etourdi, Fr., 440. Etsi, Lat., 99. Eughen, 359. Evanouir, Fr., 346. Event, 322. Exact, 326. Excess, 323. Excise, 325. Excusable, 660. Exempt, 322. Exit, 325. Expanse, 313. Expence, 326. Expert, 324. Expletive, 672. Export, 326. Express, 326. Exquisite, 323. Exscript, 325. Extent, 323. Extinct, 325. Extract, 322. Fable, 666. Fabula, Lat., 666. Facile, 658. Fact, 313, 321. Facturus, 680. Fain, 260. Faint, 346, 347, 431. Faith, 616. False, 313, 324. Fanciful Etymologies, 66. Fan or, Fr., 346, 431. Fang, 567. Fange, Fr., 346. Fango, Ital., 346. Fantastic, 672. Farewell, 263. Farinaceous, 638. Fart, Fapan, 350, 351. Farthing, 321. Fastuous, 638. Fat, 550. Fate, 313, 314. Fatum, Lat., 314. Faugh, 430. Fault, 313, 324. Fauxbourg, Fr,, 178. Favorevole, Ital., 665. Favourable, 661. Favourite, 322. Fea-beriy, 602. Feasible, 658. Feat, 321. Federal, 639. Feint, 347. Feline, 638. Female, 637. Feminine, 637. Femoral, 637. Fen, 346, 431. Se Fener, Fr., 346, 431. Fenowed, 346. Festival, 638. Festive, 638. Fetch, 567. Fiducial, 638. Fie, 285. Field, 330, 331. Fiend, Fian, 313, 337. Fifth, 620. Figere, Lat., 529. To File, 487, 611. Filth, 611. Final, 638. Fine, 325. Finger, 567. Finite, 325. Finie, Finnig, 346. xxxii. Fire-new, 294. Fiscal, 639. Fit, 321. Fixob, 624. Flamma, 423. Flavus, 423. Flaw, 583. Flong, 373, 377. Flood, 329. Flout, 487. Flow, 373, 378. Fluere, Lat,, 528. Flux, 325, Foam, 564. Foe, 430. Foedus, Lat., 530. Fob, 430. Folia, Ital., 523 Fommelen, Dutch, 666. Fond, 373, 377. Food, 550. Foothot, 269. For, 178 et sc.j., 198 ei seqq., xvii. Forbery, 178. Forbod'e, 373 et seqq. Forceful, 668. Forcible, 661, 668. Ford, 433. For-do, 275. xvii. Foreseen that, 73. Fore, xix. Forfeit, 321. xvii. Foris, Lat., 178. Form, 582. Forma, Lat, 582. 730 INDEX. Formidable, 658. Tors, Fr., 178, 275. Forsbom-g, Fr., 178.. Forth, 275. Forzevole, Ital., 665. Fosse, 326. Foul, 487. Foulle, Fr., 523. Fowl, 564. Frail, 658. Frame, 582. Fraternal, 637. Friant, Fr., 337. Frid-borg, Germ.,. 437. Friend, 337. From, 184, Frost, 450. Fruit, 324. Full, 523. Fumble, 666. Fuori, Ital., 178. Furtive, 639. Fuscus, Lat., 423. Fusible, 658. Future, 679. Futurus, Lat., 680. Fyni;gean, 346. Gabbia, Ital., 586. Gadso, 277. Gag, 586. Gage, 586. Gage, Fr,, 586. Gaggia, Ital., 586. Gain, 519. Gap, 451. Gape, 451. Garden, 508. Garland, 508. Garrulous, 637. Garter, 508. Garth, 619. Gaud, 502. Gaudium, Lat., 530. Gaunt, 351. General, 638. Generic, 638. Genitive, 672. Genitive absolute, 265. Geo^utS, 624. Gestern, Germ., 522. Get, 521. Gewe, 79. Gevi'gaw, 502. Ghirlanda, Ital., 509. Giallo, Ital., 423. Gialne, Fr., 423. Giardiuo, Ital., 509. Gie, 81. Gien, 81. Gif, Gij:an, 52, 78. Giffis, 79. Gift, 347. Gin, 81. Giogo, Ital., 450. Girdle, 508. Girdlestead, 240. Girth, 508, 611. Gisteren, Dutch, 522. Glacial, 638. Glade, 447. Glasen, 358. Gleam, 583. Glode, 373, 379. Gloom, 583. Go, 254, 255. Gon, 254. Gone, 254. Gonna, Ital., 564. Good, 357. Gooseberry, 602, 603. Gorse, 602. Gove, 373, 378. Gown, 563. Gradual, 639. Graduate, 325. Graff, 586. Graft, 586. Grapple, 539. Grass, 360, 585. Gratuitous, 639. Grave, 586. Green, 423. Gregarious, 638. Gremial, 637. Grey, 423. Grim, 534. Grimgribber, 38. vi. Grip, Gjiipan, 539, Grist, 582. Grommelen, Dutch, 666. Groom, 499. Groove, 586. Grosselbeere, Germ,, 603. Grot, 586. Grotta, Ital., 587. Grotto, 586. Grove, 586. Growth, 615. Grub, 558. Grudge, 558. Grum, 534. Grumble, 666. Grunnire, Lat., 529. Gryth, 624. Guarantee, 436. Guaranty, 436. Guard, 436. Gude, 357, Guile, 548. Guille, Fr,, 548. Guilt, 548. Guirlande, Fr., 509. Gull, 548. Gun, 534. Guttural, 637. Gymnastic, 672. Habere, Lat., 528. Habilis, Lat., 675. Habnab, 267. iDajjre, 417. baeptrne^, iDaeptnoiJe, 624. iDapen, 353, 417. Haft, 349. Hale, 587. Hall, 587. Les Halles, Fr., 590. Halt, 263. Hanche, Fr., 571. Hand, 566. Handle, 566. Handsel, 507. iDan^an, 571. Hank, 570. Harangue, 507. Hard, 373. Harlot, 410. Harm, 622, 623. Hat, 367. Hauberg, Fr., 436. Hauberk, 436. Haven, 367. Haughty, 638. Haunch, 570. Head, 329, 367. To Heal, 589. Health, 612. Hearse, 548. Heat, 551. Heaven, 313, 353, 367. Hebdomadal, 638. Heel,*587. Heft, 349, 367. Heigth, 620. Hell, 313, 587. Help, 543. Hendere, Lat., 528. Herd, 476. Heritable, 658. bej-i^aii, 624. Hesternus, Lat., 519, 522, 530. Het, 340. To Hie, 628. Hight, 342. Hilden, 541. Hilding, 541. Hill, 587. Hilt, 350. Him Ust, Him ought, xxxi. Hinge, 570. Hint, 566. Hit, 339, et seqq. hAAii^S, Waj:, bla- pojib, lDlafbi2,417,418. INDEX. 731 iDlseytan, 449. iDliban, 447. Hoar, 554. Hoard, 476. Hodiernal, 638. Hold, 587. Hole, 587. Holt, 587. Home, 563. Homestead, 239. Hone, 563. Honorevole, Ital., 665. Honourable, 661. Hood, 367. Hoof, 367. Hore, 409. Hormis, Fr., 179. Hors, Fr., 178. Horsley, 215. Horse, 514. Hostile, 637. Hot, 551. Hovel, 367. Howl, 497. Hove, Howve, 367. Hiigel, Germ., 587. Huff, 367. Hull, 587. Human, 637. Humble, 638, 666. Humeral, 637. Humile, Lat., 666. Hunger, 533. buntatJ, iDuntnoiie, 624. Hurdle, 476. Hurst, 548. Hurt, 533. Husband, 389. iDuiJe, 624. bynti, 624. Hypothetic, 672. Ibland, Swed., 229. Iblandt, Dan., 229. Ibo, Lat., 628. Idle, 554. levaL, 628. If, 52, 70, 78, 688. x. If case, 74. IJζ^aί, 624. Igneous, 638. Ignominious, 639. Ignorabilis, Lat., 662. lU, 554. lUicit, 325. Imaginative, 673. ImeUem, Dan., 229. Immense, 326. Immiscible, 658. Immutable, 658. Imod, Dan., 231. Imp, 536. Imperative, 672. Imperceptible, 658. Impersonal verbs, 292, 559, XXX. Impervious, 638. Implacable, 658. Import, 326. Impossible, 660. Impost, 319. Impracticable, 658. Impregnable, 658. Impress, 326, Improve, 86. Impulse, 322. In, 250. Ing, 651, Jdd. Notes. Inaccessible, 658. Inadmissible, 658. In case, 72, 79. Incense, 313. Incentive, 673. Inceptive, 672. Inchinevole, Ital., 665. Inchoative, 672. Incident, 315. Inchnable, 661. Incognito, 322. Incombustible, 658. Incommensurable, 658. Incompatible, 658. Incorrigible, 658. Incredible, 658. Incurable, 660. Indefatigable, 658. Indefeisible, 658. Indehble, 658. Index, 312. Indigent, 639. Indivisible, 658. Indubitable, 658. Ineffable, 658. Inevitable, 658. Inexorable, 658. Inexplicable, 658. Inexpugnable, 658. InfaUible, 658. Infandum, Lat., 678. Infant, 637. Infantine, 637. Infinite, 325, 638. Infinitive, future, 192, 266, 678, 680. xxix. Inflexible, 658. Influx, 325. Infortb, 276. Ingress, 325. Inguinal, 637. Inhabit, 338, 339, Inimical, 637. Inimitable, 658. Initial, 638. Innocence, 313, 315, Inquest, 323. Insane, 638. Insatiable, 658. Inscrutable, 658. Insect, 322. Insensible, 663. Insidious, 638. Insipid, 637. Insolible, 659. Instead, 239. Instinct, 325. Institute, 306, 325. Insular, 638, Insidt, 322, Insurgent, 324. Intellect, 323. Intellective, 672. Intelligible, 658. Intendevole, Ital., 665. Intense, 323. Intent, 323. Intercourse, 325. Interdict, 318. Interminable, 658. Interview, 323. Intolerabile, Lat., 679. Intolerable, 658. Intolerandum, Lat., 679. Intoleraturum, Lat., 679. Intricate, 325.^' Intrigue, 325. Invective, 673. Inverse, 323. Investigable, 658. Invincible, 658. Invisible, 660. To Inwheel, 546. Irasci, Lat., 529. Irascible, 658. Ire, Lat., 528, 628. Irrefragable, 658. Irremissible, 658. Isosceles, 637. Issue, 325. Is to, 678. Is to be, 678, 680. It, 339, 342, 343, 345. To Jar, 442. Jardin, Fr,, 509. Jaune, Fr., 423. Jef, xi. Jegens, Dutch, 231. Join, 1/2, 180. Joint, 347. Jubilee, 326. Judex, Lat., 312. Judicature, 679. Jugular, 637. Jugum, Lat., 450, 530. Junto, 322. Jiu:at, 322. 732 INDEX. Jury, 322. Jus, Lat., 303, 304. Just, 305, 314. Kabel, Dutch, 666. Keele, 552. Keg, 586. Kearse, not worth a, 360. Key, 586. Knave, 622, 623. To Knead, 542. Knee, 492. Knell, 455. Knight, 407. Knoll, 455. Knot, 407. Knowable, 667. Knuckle, 492. Xwpis, 178. Kruimelen, Dutch, 666. Labial, 637. Laccio, Ital., 570. Lace, 567. J-