A GKAMMAR 
 
 OF 
 
 THE FRENCH TONGUE; 
 
 WITH A PREFACE, 
 
 CONTAINING AN ESSAY 
 
 OX THE PROPER METHOD 
 
 OF 
 
 TEACHING AND LEARNING THAT LANGUAGE. 
 
 > 
 
 (By 
 
 I CHAMBAUD. 
 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED, 
 AGREEABLY TO THE DICTIONARY OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY, 
 
 Br 
 
 M. DES CARRIERES. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 Printed for Longman, Brown & Co. ; Simpkin, Marshall & Co. ; 
 
 Hamilton & Co. ; Whittaker & Co. ; Sherwood & Co. ; 
 
 F. & J. Rivington ; J. M. Richardson ; Dulau & Co. ; 
 
 Harvey & Barton ; Houlston & Stoneman ; Souter & 
 
 Law ; & Joseph Thomas. 
 
 1846. 
 
1 lit 
 
CHAMBAUD'S GRAMMAR 
 
 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 1 he Pronunciation of a Language consists of sounds and 
 articulations ; and the greatest difficulty met with in learning to 
 read, arises from the words being written and spelt otherwise than 
 they are pronounced. If then the sounds and articulations of a 
 foreign language, and the combinations of those sounds and arti- 
 culations, that is, the various ways of representing them in 
 writing, were exhibited in proper tables to the learner, with the 
 corresponding sounds and articulations of his own language, that 
 difficulty would be in a great measure removed*. The nature of 
 the thing itself points out the true method of obtaining the pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 Of the seventeen sounds of the French language, fifteen are 
 in English, even our nasal vowels, and e, both guttural and 
 mute; eux and un only are not; and liquid g only, as expressed 
 in gueux, is perhaps the only articulation that is not in English : 
 for I dare maintain that our liquid n and / are in the English 
 words minion, billiards, million. I maintain, likewise, that these 
 following English words are exactly pronounced like the French 
 ones underneath : 
 
 parlour f, fare, 
 
 parleur, faire or fer, 
 
 sum or some, sweat, 
 
 somme, soahaite, 
 
 Those who deny it, only proclaim their ignorance of the 
 French pronunciation. The English sounds, that are com- 
 pared to the French ones in my tables, have been weighed, as 
 it were, in a pair of scales. This comparative view has been 
 the object of above twenty years' meditation ; and the sounds 
 
 * I say in a great measure, because of the final consonants of words, some of 
 tchich are always dropt, and some always pronounced ; some are sometimes arti- 
 culuted) and sometimes net. 
 
 f There is a difference of accent, not of sound, in the pronunciation of thest 
 two words. 
 
 a<2 
 
 fat, 
 
 hall, 
 
 long, 
 
 tin fat, 
 
 le hale, 
 
 longue. 
 
 bell, 
 
 pen, 
 
 swear, 
 
 belle, 
 
 peine, 
 
 soir, 
 
 pull, 
 
 kit, 
 
 we, fyc, 
 
 poule, 
 
 quitte, 
 
 out. 
 
Ti PREFACE. 
 
 have been found exactly corresponding to each other, by several 
 English Gentlemen, who have been long enough conversant 
 with people of fashion and character abroad, to become masters 
 of the pronunciation, and who are therefore competent judges of 
 the matter. 
 
 This work is divided into three parts : and I have printed in 
 a small character such observations as are not fit for beginners : 
 but must be omitted, in order for them to learn first what is 
 essential to the language ; that they may thereby be the sooner 
 enabled to enter into the construing of the French books. 
 Each Part of Speech is treated of, both with respect to its 
 accidence and construction, in a manner that leaves nothing- 
 further to be said upon the same subjects. There is not one 
 construction in French, but is taken notice of, and reduced into 
 rules. And I have reserved for an Appendix some more parti- 
 cular observations, that could not be inserted in the body of 
 the work, without interrupting that order which I proposed; 
 but which are nevertheless necessary to the understanding and 
 writing French. 
 
 Another advantage that youth and illiterate people will reap 
 from it is, that in learning French, they will at the same time 
 learn the art of speaking, the reason of the words they utter, 
 the economy of all languages. Therefore after a succinct, 
 but clear and exact analysis of the analogy and foundations of 
 languages, prefixed by Vay of introduction, I give in the 
 sequel true and perfect notions of the Parts of Speech, and 
 other Grammatical terms used in the work : and both the 
 division of the work, and definitions used in it, will be found 
 grounded in the nature of things, and formed after the most 
 exact rules of Logic. This (though the young learner need 
 not at first trouble himself with it) seemed to me the more 
 necessary, as there is no treatise on Grammar fit for youth and 
 illiterate persons ; all the English, as well as the Latin and 
 French Grammars, used in schools, being quite defective in 
 that respect, and the definitions in them, for the most part, false, 
 though generally used by Grammarians. 
 
 I think, after the generality of Grammarians, that all the 
 words of which speech is composed, may be ranged into eight 
 or nine classes ; but I differ from them as to the true species ot 
 words, which are the constituent parts of speech. Thus I keep 
 from that number the Participle, which is no distinct species 
 from the Verb, of which it is only a mode ; and I admit the 
 Ad noun, which they confound with the Noun, though esseu- 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 tialiy different, I acknowledge the Particles for one of the 
 Parts of Speech : but I fix them to a particular species at 
 words, which are neither Adverbs, nor Prepositions, nor Con- 
 junctions. How these came to be so confounded by Gram- 
 marians, as to be all promiscuously called by one name, to 
 which they have fixed no idea, and be at the same time distin- 
 guished by particular ideas, which fix their species, cannot be 
 easily accounted for. Things specifically distinguished must 
 have distinct appellations. Again : I admit of one Article only, 
 and of no case at all in nouns, contrary to all those who have 
 written upon the French language before me. I give my reasons 
 for that singularity. Reason, and the right of the thing, not 
 imitation, is my guide, and the rule which I go by throughout 
 this performance. 
 
 And now, having given an account of this work, 1 shall say 
 something of the method of teaching and learning French, 
 whereon depends the whole success of those who are desirous 
 of attaining to the knowledge of that language : for I am satis- 
 fied that the little progress of Learners is often owing to Uie 
 mismanagement of Teachers, who are so far from being quali- 
 fied for their art, that they do not so much as suspect that it is 
 one. Teaching French is become the profession of Foreigners 
 of all sorts, who know not how to shift for a living, and often 
 have no qualification at all. The generality of the French 
 know not their mother-tongue: but the few who are masters 
 of it are not, on that single account, capable of teaching it. I 
 have composed this performance, not only for the instruction of 
 the English who learn French, but also for the use of sucli 
 Teachers as are not masters of that language. I hope it will be 
 advantageous to them in all respects : for they must have the 
 mastery of it, a^id make the rules familiar to them, that they 
 may readily represent them upon occasion to their scholars, 
 whenever they happen to write or speak wrong. I shall there- 
 fore subjoin my own method of teaching, which is grounded 
 both upon reason and experience. 
 
 The lesson consists of four or five parts, which ought to keep 
 an equal pace together : the materials of the language, I mean 
 the Vocabulary and Forms of Speech ; the way of using them, 
 or the Grammar; the Exercise, which is the practice of the 
 Grammar Rules; and the pronunciation, or reading : to which 
 translating and construing must be added, when the scholar has 
 learnt his Accidence. The lesson must always begin with the 
 pronunciation, and each part always follow in its turn in the 
 same order, for fear of forgetting something. 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 Before the Master shows his scholars the vowels of the first 
 table, he himself must pronounce distinctly to them each vowel 
 one after another, and make them pronounce the same aftei 
 him; then make them pronounce the first four together, then 
 four more, and so on : and when he is satisfied that his pupils 
 have got the pronunciation of them all, he must show them in 
 the first table the letters by which those sounds are represented ; 
 pronouncing again first the vowel, as he points it out to his 
 pupils, and making them pronounce it after him. He may 
 then explain to them what a vowel is, in the very words of the 
 definition set down in page 5 ; and tell them that the vowels 
 marked with a circumflex over them, have a much broader 
 and longer sound than the others ; and that the nasal vowels are 
 so called, on account of their being pronounced through the nose. 
 Afterwards he must show them the mute e ; but must take care 
 not to pronounce it. 
 
 When the scholars know their vowels, as represented in the 
 first table, the Master must show them the second, which con- 
 tains the several ways of representing the vowels ; and inform 
 them, that all those combinations of letters, such as ai, ei, oi, 
 et, &c. represent each of them only the sound of the vowel 
 beginning the line, and that ai, ei, oi, et, &c. must be pro- 
 nounced e. They are to pronounce each combination after 
 him, and then repeat or pronounce them by themselves as he 
 points at each of those combinations. The master must then 
 observe to them, that e mute is represented these three ways, 
 e, es, ent. 
 
 The table of the consonants is to be used after the same man- 
 ner, the Master pronouncing them first with the guttural sound 
 of e (or eu) but very weak, just to show the articulation. They 
 are ranged according to their several efficient causes ; those 
 which are produced by the same disposition and motion of the 
 lips or tongue, being placed against each other. 
 
 The tables of the syllables must be learnt next, the Master 
 still pronouncing first the syllable, and making his Pupil pro- 
 nounce it after him, without spelling ; that is, without causing 
 him to name first the consonant, and then the vowel of which 
 the syllable is formed. But the learner must read the syllables, 
 not only in their natural order, from the left to the right, but 
 also from the right to the left, from top to bottom, and again 
 from bottom to top, till he is perfect in the pronunciation of 
 them. Next comes the table of Monosyllables : then two other 
 tables to acquaint the learner when the consonants ought not 
 to be pronounced at the end of words and syllables, and when 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 tliey ought ; lastly, the table of the combinations of sounds, 
 The learner must get this last table by heart, and have six or 
 eight syllables, with the words annexed to them, set him every 
 lime, as part of his task : and when he has learnt all those 
 combinations, go through them over again after the same man- 
 ner ; adding a rule of the final consonants, with its exception ; 
 and thus repeat these tables a third and fourth time, nay, till 
 the Master is convinced, by the pupil's reading, that he has 
 them thoroughly, and they have made a lasting impression on 
 his mind. Afterwards he must make him read the Vocabulary 
 and Forms of Speech (but still without spelling), reading each 
 word first, and making the pupil repeat it after him : and give 
 him a certain number of words and sentences to get by heart, 
 more or less, according to his capacity. 
 
 Spelling will not do at all ; and is, on the contrary, the greatest 
 hinderance to the learning of the pronunciation. Children 
 must be accustomed to read the words without naming each 
 letter separately, one after another : they will soon learn to 
 read, if they are taught their letters and syllables after the 
 manner contained in the tables. The usual method of teaching 
 children to read, in making them name the vowels and conso- 
 nants by themselves, is quite absurd. To evidence this beyond 
 contradiction, let us suppose the pronunciation of this word 
 champs is to be learnt. If you make the pupil spell, he will say, 
 cei/j ash, a, em,pei/, ess, and he will stop of course; because the 
 separate sounds of c, h, a, m,p, s, cannot give him any idea of 
 the combined sound, which is to be pronounced. How should 
 they ? Those letters, named singly after one another, make six 
 different sounds and articulations, none of which separately 
 has, or altogether have, any manner of affinity of resemblance to 
 the single articulated sound expressed by champs. The master, 
 seeing his pupil stop after spelling this word, pronounces him- 
 self champs to him ; and the pupil, echo-like, repeats champs, 
 Spelling, therefore, can only serve to confound the learner, and 
 lead him into error, in intimating to him that there are six 
 sounds in champs, though the teacher is obliged, after all, to 
 convince him by his own pronunciation that there is but one. 
 Let the word be pronounced at first to the learner, and the diffi- 
 culty is removed ; that sound will make a right impression upon 
 his mind ; and whenever he sees the same combination of letters, 
 he will remember the sound represented by them, and will pro- 
 nounce the word right. 
 
x PREFACE. 
 
 Moreover, the names of the letters most commonly offei 
 false notions, nay, sounds and articulations directly opposite to 
 those which are to be pronounced. The letter c is pro- 
 nounced sometimes k, and sometimes s. Its name cey, leads the 
 learner to pronounce sa for ka, and to read Idee for lac. G is 
 sometimes pronounced gne, as is Gog, Agag, and sometimes 
 jey. The name of gey, which the learner gives it in spelling, 
 leads him naturally to read, Joge for Gog, and Ajage for Agag. 
 Some Masters, hearing a child make such mistakes in reading, 
 are apt to fret, to fall into a passion, and perhaps to abuse him. 
 But how can the child help it, if he pronounces false sounds, 
 into which he is naturally led by those names of the letters, 
 which his master has been at great pains to teach him ? He 
 must not blame the child, but his own method only, and re- 
 form it. 
 
 The method here recommended to the Teacher has expe- 
 rience for its voucher ; it has never failed me. But, upon the 
 whole, those that are fond of spelling, may as well make theii 
 pupils spell the words of the Vocabulary and Forms of Speech, 
 as a set of unmeaning words of two, three, or four syllables ; 
 since those materials of the language cannot be learnt too early. 
 I make my scholars begin with the Adverbs, instead of the 
 common Nouns, that they may have the indeclinable parts of 
 speech, the Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions, treasured 
 up in their memory, against the time they will be capable of 
 construing French. This is the most difficult and necessary 
 part of the Vocabulary ; and, when once learnt, the scholar will 
 meet with nothing to stop him in construing, but the signification 
 of the Nouns, Adnouns, and Verbs, which he will learn of course 
 by dint of translating and construing, besides his usual task out 
 of the Vocabulary. 
 
 After minding the pronunciation and materials of the lan- 
 guage, the Grammar must be thought of. Therefore the 
 master will set his scholar a lesson out of the Accidence; ex- 
 plain to him what a noun is, that it is of a gender, has two 
 numbers, and is commonly preceded by the article, and what 
 is meant by each of these terms ; make him read the four rules 
 for the formation of the plural number (p. 101.) with the two 
 last paragraphs of page 111 about the article, apply the rules 
 to the nouns set down for his pattern (p. 112.) and take notice 
 to him of the conformity of the examples to these rules : then 
 exercise him immediately upon the same, in making him write 
 down the first noun of the Introduction to the Writing of French 
 
PREFACE. xi 
 
 in French and English, through its three states in both num- 
 bers, according to his examples, to show him how to do it by 
 himself ; and set him, for his exercise, three or four nouns to 
 be done after the same manner; and give him, besides, those 
 rules about the plural number and agreement of the article with 
 the noun, to get by heart as part of his task. A grown person 
 will easily learn this in one lesson. Young scholars of an in- 
 different capacity may be made two, or three, or four lessons of 
 the same, and they will have it perfect, before they have done 
 half a dozen exercises upon the accidence of nouns. After- 
 wards they must learn the rules for the formation of the verbs, 
 (p. 137.) omitting the exceptions at first, which are to be 
 learned only the second time of going through these rules : for, 
 as soon as they have been got by heart, they must be repeated 
 with the exceptions ; and the scholar be put to the practice of 
 them, in turning into French the exercises upon the accidence 
 of verbs : ani he must prove every tense and person of his exer- 
 cise by his rules. 
 
 The six rules about the Gender of Nouns (p. 105, 106.) are 
 to be learnt next with the exceptions ; afterwards the rules for 
 the formation of the feminine gender of the Adnouns (p. 1 14. & 
 llo.); lastly, those of the construction of the Article (p. 209). 
 When the pupil has learnt so far, he must put the first chapter 
 of the third part of the Exercises into French ; and, after his. 
 master has corrected his exercise, prove the same by his Gram- 
 mar rules : but the teacher must first prepare the exercise tc 
 his young scholar, after the manner set down in the preface to 
 that book. While he is exercising upon the article, he must 
 learn the rules for the construction of the Pronouns personal ; 
 and, as soon as he can say them, be put into that chapter of the 
 Exercises : then return to the Accidence of the Adnouns, and 
 learn also their construction (p. 221. and following); and whilst 
 he is exercising upon the same, learn a new set of rules, in 
 order to be put into the next chapter of the Exercises, and so 
 on, till he has gone through all the Parts of Speech and their 
 principles. i 
 
 When the scholar has learnt his Accidence, he must con- 
 strue a French book, and enter into the understanding of the 
 language. He must also repeat his verbs, especially the irre 
 gular ; conjugate a new verb every time, after saying first 
 where the irregularity of the verb lies ; and then learn the ob- 
 servations belonging to each verb. He must likewise go through 
 his Syntax over again, and learn the notes. But the masters 
 
xii PREFACE. 
 
 must insist upon their scholars learning well their rules, and 
 never suffer them to learn any thing new, before ihey tho- 
 roughly understand, and can readily repeat what is before ; 
 which is also a light and help to what follows. The contrary 
 would be prejudicial to children, and rather retard than forward 
 them. They learn fast enough, when they learn well. Sat cito, 
 si sat bene. 
 
 But the great difficulty is to procure books fit for beginners. 
 Ttltmaque, and Molitre are excellent books, but never were 
 composed nor designed for learning French. They suppose a 
 thorough knowledge of the language, and are the last books 
 that ought to be read, in order to relish the beauties and deli- 
 cacies of it, and learn its figurative, idiomatical, and pro- 
 verbial ways of speaking ; and a Teacher cannot more plainly 
 show his want of judgment, than in causing beginners to con- 
 strue such books. Who would advise a Foreigner, who wants 
 to learn English, to read Milton's Pai-adise Lost, which a great 
 part of the English themselves do not rightly understand, or 
 some witty play ? I say the same of French books of literature. 
 They must certainly be read, but in their turn. The rule in 
 all kinds of learning is, or ought to be, to proceed by insensible 
 steps from what is easy to what is difficult. Beginners must 
 read only books easy to be understood, written in the most 
 plain and natural style, without any thing puzzling, either in 
 the expression or in the turn of the sentences, and the subject 
 ought to be known and agreeable to their capacity: for the 
 whole business at first is to make them learn the true import 
 and proper signification of words, and their general construc- 
 tion. 
 
 I recommended, about twelve or fourteen years ago, a book 
 which has gained immortal honour to its author; I mean 
 Comenii Janua Lingua* urn reserata: a performance con- 
 trived with incredible art and pains to promote more effectually 
 the learning of languages ; and which has been translated, not 
 only into all the languages of Europe, besides the Latin and 
 Greek, but also into the Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and even 
 the Mogul's language : and has gone through a great many 
 Polyglot editions. The ingenious author, in methodising all 
 the works of nature and art, all that is the object of our senser 
 and understanding, has not only brought under proper head* 
 all the words and common constructions of a language, but 
 also explained things and their differences; so that his pei- 
 fonnance is a compendious system of learning, altogether pre* 
 
PREFACE. siii 
 
 per to form the minds of youth, and enrich them with knowledge, 
 at the same time that they are learning languages. How it comes 
 to pass that so valuable a book is now quite disused in schools, 
 and known only to some Men of Letters, is indeed a matter of 
 wonder. Would it not he worth a Bookseller's while to get that 
 work reprinted in French and English ? 
 
 As to the first construing book, the scholar must first translate 
 his lesson, then construe it; and the construction must be 
 literal, taking one French word only, then one English word, 
 except the article and noun, the pronoun and verb, which must 
 not be parted. By and by, after he shall have gone through 
 a dozen of pages, he must take three or four words together, 
 so as to make a sense, as the noun and adnoun, the subject and 
 the verb, with its regimen. But this is only one half of the 
 business. The young scholar must now digest his lesson (if I 
 may use the expression), [in studying it over again another way ; 
 and, after he has construed it, must be called upon for every 
 word, first in French, then in English, according to the order of 
 the parts of speech : nouu, adnoun, verb, adverb, preposition, 
 conjunction, and particle. By that means, and the set ot 
 words which he is to get by heart every time out of his Voca- 
 bulary, a child will treasure up in his memory the words of 
 the language, of which he will understand the divers signi- 
 fications, and of which he will soon find the advantage for 
 speaking French. The master must keep to this method, all 
 the first construing book throughout, taking notice, besides, all 
 along to his pupil, of the constructions of which he has learnt the 
 rules : and when he has gone through his Grammar, make him 
 parse, that is, account for the construction of every word of his 
 lesson, and show how r each governs or is governed by another in 
 the sentence. 
 
 Of the books which are to be read next, some are to be con 
 strued only to the master, the scholar having first studied his 
 lesson, and others to be translated and rendered according to 
 the beauties of the English Tongue ; but in both he must pass 
 over nothing unexplained, and that he does not entirely under 
 stand. The master must make him render faithfully the true 
 spirit of the author; I say faithfully, and not literally, which is 
 necessary only in the beginning!, and when the scholar is at a 
 loss how to find out the sense himself. He must take notice to 
 him of the divers forms of speech, turns, and idioms of the two 
 languages ; of the propriety of the French words, that is, their 
 significations both proper and figurative ; of the choice of the 
 
 b 
 
xiv PREFACE. 
 
 expressions, in mentioning others almost alike, but which would 
 not sufficiently express the thought, or which might be used in 
 common discourse, but would be unsuitable to the dignity of 
 composition ; and especially he ought to explain the use and 
 force of the prepositions, and adverbial ways of speaking, in 
 which consists the idiom of a language, which he must always 
 have in view with his scholars. I cannot swell this Preface 
 with examples, to show by their application that true way of 
 studying French Authors which I here recommend. An inge- 
 nious and able teacher, who has his duty at heart, that is, the 
 improvement of the learners, will not be at a loss how to pro- 
 mote it : bu«t there is little to be expected from those who either 
 want the qualifications necessary for their business, or are so 
 bigotted to their own method, as to scorn to listen to any new 
 instructions. 
 
 By this time the scholar will pronounce pretty well : there 
 tore he must read with his Master the treatise on the Pronun- 
 ciation, which makes the first part of this work. He will then 
 see with pleasure the principles of the pronunciation of which 
 he has got the practice already ; will easily correct the few 
 defects in his reading ; and, in a little time, become entirely 
 perfect therein. He must likewise try to speak French. If he 
 exerts himself he will find that he can speak a great deal more 
 than he imagined, and will be surprised at his own progress. But 
 this wants explanation : which will, at the same time, lead me to 
 the resolution of a question frequently put to French masters : 
 In how much time can one learn French ? 
 
 The term of scholar, learner, pupil, which I am obliged to 
 make use of in this Essay, has a two-fold signification. A scho- 
 lar signifies, first, a person whose judgment is formed, a man of 
 parts, who, being sensible of the benefit of learning, learns 
 French of his own accord, and therefore acts his part, and pur- 
 sues his study with diligence and steadiness. A scholar is also 
 a child of ten or twelve years of age, or under, whose under- 
 standing is not open yet, of an indifferent capacity, and no in- 
 clination at all for learning. A grown person of parts and 
 application will learn his Accidence in a couple of months ; be 
 able in less than three to construe a French bock, and turn into 
 French the first chapter of the Exercises ; and go through the 
 whole course of the language, all along with the Exercises 
 upon the Grammar Rules, in less than a twelvemonth. Such 
 scholars indeed can then exert themselves in the practice of 
 what they have learnt. They understand common French, and 
 
PREFACE. xir 
 
 cau make themselves understood. Yet they are not masters 
 of the French language. They have learnt too fast, without 
 allowing themselves time for digesting their learning. The 
 matters which they have been studying, have only grazed on 
 their mind, without making any deep impression ; a new set of 
 rules generally driving away those that were learnt before 
 Moreover, when they are out of the drudgery of the Accidence, 
 and have once entered into the understanding and writing 
 of the language, they are generally apt to neglect their Vo- 
 cabulary and Forms of Speech, and forget that the several 
 parts of their business ought to keep an equal pace together. 
 They must therefore go through their principles over again, 
 and keep to their method of studying for twelve months longer : 
 for it is by dint of reading only they can learn the several sig- 
 nifications of the words, and make themselves masters of the 
 Idioms. 
 
 But supposing a grown person of parts ana application can 
 learn French in a twelvemonth ; it is also reasonable to suppose 
 that he applies himself to his business, and reads four times more, 
 and takes four times more pains, than a child will, or is able to 
 do ; therefore a child cannot be less than four or five years learn- 
 ing the same. There is no proposition in Euclid more evident 
 It is as plain as that two and two make four. 
 
 The learning of a language is the work of time and application. 
 It cannot be learnt in a short time, nor without taking great 
 pains. That is impossible in the nature of the thing : and 
 children learn nothing but by repeating the same thing over 
 and over again. But if they do not learn so fast as grown per- 
 sons, they generally learn better. They will speak French. 
 of course, after they" have learnt how to speak ; for we are all 
 apt to show our accomplishments. If both they and their 
 master act their part, you may rest satisfied that they come on 
 well, though they cannot speak. Do not be impatient at the 
 operations of Nature ; she works but slowly. Children, in a 
 good state of health, and under a wholesome diet, grow con- 
 stantly, though their growing is not constantly observable. It 
 is even so with the mind : it improves constantly, so it is pro- 
 perly cultivated ; though it is in process of time only that we 
 can perceive the improvement. It is impossible for one not to 
 he able to speak the language, when thus made capable of it ; 
 and it is as impossible to be made capable of it, otherwise than 
 by studying its Genius, and learning methodically. 
 
xvi PREFACE. 
 
 It is a great abuse introduced in most schools to force begin- 
 ners to speak nothing but French among themselves. They of 
 necessity must either speak wrong (even supposing that they 
 have a competent stock of words and expressions, for it is the 
 utmost absurdity to pretend that they will learn them by guessing), 
 or condemn themselves to silence. The first cannot but be very 
 detrimental to them ; since they thereby accustom themselves to 
 a barbarous broken French, which is no language at all, 
 and cannot be worn out without infinite pains. The second 
 is still worse, for it hinders them from disclosing freely their 
 thoughts, and straitens in some measure their understanding ; 
 but, above all, gives them the utmost aversion to the language, 
 their books, and master : to prevent which too much care cannot 
 be employed. 
 
 It is amazing to see how apt people are to deceive them* 
 selves, and how easy to be imposed upon, by designing crafty 
 men, who improve the general simplicity to their own private 
 gain. To this is owing the abuse of which I am complaining. 
 The generality of people, being incapable to reflect duly upon 
 the nature of a language, and the facidties of the human mind, 
 have hardly put their children to the study of the French lan- 
 guage, but they expect them to speak it, before they have learnt 
 how to speak : and in case they do not, never fail to task the 
 master either with incapacity or neglect of his business. 
 
 The masters, on the other hand, being at a loss to satisfy 
 those unreasonable expectations, and not knowing what to con- 
 trive for forwarding their boys, presently begin by making them 
 learn words, dialogues, and phrases, and labour hard to beat 
 iilto their heads as many common sentences as they ean ; pretty 
 near after the seme manner as parrots are instructed. And, as 
 has been hinted before, the absurdity is even carried so far in 
 some schools, as to confine the poor boys, under all sorts of 
 penalties and puniahments, to the talking nothing else but 
 French. The consequence of which is, they acquire the knack 
 of talking a Gibberish, which nobody can make any thing of 
 The ignorant parents, charmed, however, with the show their 
 children make of their learning, think them great proficients in 
 the French tongue. They recommend the school as one of the 
 best for learning, and so the master gets his ends ; but, in truth, 
 the poor boys know nothing of French, and the parents are 
 deceived and imposed upon. 
 
 To evidence this, let us observe, that two things are chiefly 
 to be considered in the learning of language : first, the words t 
 
PREFACE. xvii 
 
 then, the using those words conformably to the genius of the 
 language. The one is the object of memory, the other that of 
 judgment and reflection. The learning of words is nothing less 
 than getting by heart the whole Dictionary of a language; 
 and cannot be performed within a small compass of time, even 
 by the best memory that youth was ever blessed with. The 
 right placing and usnig of words in speech require a constant and 
 steady application of the mind, and cannot be acquired but 
 by much meditation upon the language, either by oneself, 
 or with a teacher ; by frequently construing, and turning that 
 language into our mother-tongue, and vice versa, our mother- 
 tongue into that language, and comparing all along the Genius 
 and Idiom of the two languages. Although it is evident that 
 this must require a vast compass of time, yet it is the more 
 speedily brought about, when one proceeds with method. 
 Afterwards comes the practice of both, to require a due readi- 
 ness of the mind for writing or speaking. 
 
 If nothing more was necessary than to learn to jabber, or to 
 show in company that they can speak some French words and 
 phrases, that, indeed, would not require so much art and method. 
 But as for those who are either designed to be scholars, or to 
 be concerned in some trade that requires a correspondence 
 with foreign merchants ; who either intend to travel like rational 
 creatures, with a design to adorn their mind by the conversation 
 of the learned and polite part of Europe ; or who, by reason 
 of their birth and qualities, are entitled to those honourable 
 stations, wherein they shall be intrusted, either at home or 
 abroad, with the interest of their King and country : for these, I 
 say, who must of course attain to a mastery in the language, 
 there is much art and method required ; though, at the same 
 time, there is seldom any used. 
 
 One may daily see in schools young lads who have been 
 learning French for five or six years, and who pass with some 
 for good scholars, on account of that readiness with which they 
 express themselves. But they observe no concord at all ; cannot 
 so much as make the adnoun agree with the noun ; are utterly 
 incapable of writing four lines, or even to make sense of half a 
 page of a common French book ; in short, they know no more 
 than the words and phrases of their own book. Can this be 
 called knowledge of a language, without perverting our ideas of 
 things, and renouncing our own sense and understanding ' 
 Whereas, studying half that time, in the mannei T propose, 
 would have made them perfect masters of the language, and 
 
 b 2 
 
*viii PREFACE. 
 
 enabled them to converse and correspond with foreigners upon 
 all subjects. 
 
 As to the time, therefore, that children must be put to the 
 speaking of French, these rules, in my humble opinion, ough' 
 to be strictly observed. First, that they should have a suffi- 
 cient stock of words, and even of ways of speaking, to express 
 themselves ; and, besides, that they should be capable of using 
 them according to the genius of the language. In the next 
 place, that they should not be suffered to speak French too soon 
 among themselves, without somebody with them to correct them. 
 Therefore, when a master finds a boy capable of speaking French 
 under these two limitations, I would have him discourse himself 
 with him in a way saitable to his capacity, doing it at first in the 
 same sentences and expressions, that he has learnt in his forms of 
 speech, changing only the order of the construction, but keeping 
 to the same words. Moreover, in schools, a teacher should, 
 twice or thrice a week, spend some time in exercising his scho- 
 lars in the speaking of French, conversing in an easy and 
 friendly manner with them ; asking the youngest questions within 
 their reach ; helping them to make their answers : requiring, 
 from those that are more forward, descriptions and recitals of 
 what they have heard, seen, or read ; and speaking nothing 
 but French to the forwardest and most perfect in the language, 
 nor suffer them to speak English, except to those who cannot 
 discourse with them in French. It is after this manner boys 
 will be effectually brought to the speaking of French, and not at 
 all by using themselves to the aforesaid gibberish that prevails in 
 schools. 
 
 It will not be amiss to set before the reader a specimen of that barbarous 
 language wherein School-boys are trained up, under the specious pretence of 
 speaking French. 
 
 Bad French, English. Good French, 
 
 as it is generally spoken as it is spoken in France, 
 
 in England. " 
 
 Demain est vn jour defete To-morrow is a half ho- C'est demain conge, or 
 pour un nouvcau garcon. liday for a new boy. Nous aurons demain conge, 
 
 pour un nouveaupensionjiairc 
 ? II est dome ans vicux, He is twelve years old, II a douze ans, quoiqu'il 
 quoiqu'il ne regarde pas si though he does not look so nepnroisse pas si OgS, mais 
 zieux ; mais il est court de old; but he is short of his il est petit pour son age. 
 son uge. age. 
 
 // a He a Vecole ces qua- He nas been at school II y a quaire ans qu'il va 
 tre annecs. these four years. a Vecole. 
 
 Smith, qui n'est que dix, Smith, who is but ten, Smith, qui n'a que dix 
 est plus grand que lui par is taller than he by half a ans, est plus grand que lui 
 un demi lete. head. de la moitU de la tete. 
 
PREFACE. xix 
 
 Bad French. English. Good French. 
 
 Unnouveaugar^ondejour A new day-boy is also II doit aussi venir unnou- 
 esl aussi pour venir la pro- to eonie the next week, vel externe, or 11 y aussi un 
 cltaine semaine, mais nonsne but we are to have no holi- externe qui doit venir la se- 
 s&mmes pas pour avoir fete day for him. maine prochaine, mais nous 
 
 pour lui. n'aui'onspas conge' pour lui. 
 
 Nousrempronst'ecoledans We shall break ap in a Nous aurons vacanccs 
 une semaine. week. .?. dans huit jours. 
 
 Je puis dire deja ce queje I can say already what I Je sais deja ce que j'aurai 
 
 suispour gagner pendant les am to get during- the holi- d apprendre pour les va- 
 
 fetes. — II est vn aisi lecon, days. — It is an easy lesson, ounces. C'est unele^on bien 
 
 mais Vexercice est fort dur. but the exercise is very aisie, mais le theme est fori 
 
 hard. " difficile. 
 
 Vous faut aller, ma mat' You must go : my mis- Madame (une telle) a be- 
 tresse manque nous. — Elle tress wants you. She has soin de eons, or rous de- 
 a appele pour vous trois fois called for you three times ntande: silfaut que vous al- 
 dfja. alreadv. liez voir ce qu'elle vous veut. 
 
 ■'.')' Elle vous a deju appele" trois 
 
 fois. 
 
 Quelqn'un demand? peir Somebody asks for my Quelqu'un demande, or 
 mon multre. roaster. Voila quelqu'un qui de- 
 
 mande Monsieur (un tel). 
 
 Nous irons preridre une We shall go and take a Nous irons a la prmna- 
 promenade, si le sous^mditre walk, if the usher will go nade, or Nous irons fair? un 
 rent venir avec nous: au~ wrth us, otherwise we sh'alJ ionr, si Monsieur (un tel), 
 trement nous n'ironspas de- not go out ; for my master or si le preceptenr veut venir 
 hors, car mon mattrenerent will not have us go by our- avec nous : sinon nous ne sor*- 
 pas avoir nous oiler par selves. tirons pas ; car Monsieur 
 
 nous-mimes. (un tel) ne veut pas que 
 
 rt&us sortions seals. 
 
 Je desire vous pour donner I desire you to give me Je vous prie de me dormer 
 mot un de mon nouveau che- one of my hew shirts. uftede nics chemises neuves. 
 
 mise (said once a boy to a 
 maid) 
 
 // manque qrtinze minutes It wants fifteen minutes II est midi moinsun quart, 
 de douze. of twelve. 
 
 II est trente minutes aprcs It is thirty minutes after II est trois heures fy de- 
 trois. three. tnie. 
 
 II rous faut venir. You must come- II faut que tons veniez. 
 
 Vous regard ez bien. You look well. Vous avez boa air, or bon 
 
 Visage. 
 
 Vous Hes a jouer. — Vous You are to play, C'est a vous a jouer. 
 
 ites pour jouer. 
 
 Appclez pour du pain. Call for bread. Demandez du pain. 
 
 Dernandez pour une piece Ask for a piece of bread. Demandez un msreeau de 
 de pain. pain. 
 
 Ancunepersonnevousdira. Any body will tell you. Tout le mondevous dira. 
 
 It now remains to answer the objections that may be made 
 against this method of learning and teaching French. 
 
 Some people urge, that the best way of learning a language, 
 is to learn by practice : that it is impossible to make sure rules 
 upon a living language, which is entirely grounded upon use : 
 that these rules are destroyed by the exceptions, which prove 
 that they are groundless : and, in line, that it is too tedious and 
 painful for children to get such rules by heart: that it is over- 
 loading their memory, and losing a great deal of time which 
 
xx PREFACE. 
 
 may be better employed in making them speak French : and that 
 the rules serve only to puzzle their understanding. 
 
 ^st, I am so much convinced of the excellency of practice in 
 all things, and especially that a living language is a practical 
 science, that it is for no other purpose I have taken so much 
 pains in composing this Grammar, and the Exercises upon the 
 different rules which it contains, than to put the learner, the 
 sooner and more effectually into the practice of the language ; 
 and thereby remedy the general complaint, that the generality of 
 those who learn French get no other benefit from their pains 
 and application, than that of understanding common French 
 books, without ever being able to speak or write that language. 
 But I also easily persuade myself, that those who make this ob- 
 jection, mistake rote for practice, than which nothing is more 
 absurd. 
 
 Practice, rightly understood, consists in exercising oneself, 
 upon what one has learnt, and in the frequent using of the terms 
 and idiomatical phrases of a language. It therefore supposes 
 the previous learning, not only of words to speak, but also of 
 the rules for using them, conformably to the genius of that 
 language. Practice, then, has not learning for its object, but 
 is itself the object of learning, and is no more than the exercise 
 of the mind upon the thing learnt. It is undeniably true, that 
 any one, who has once learnt how to write and speak a lan- 
 guage, ought afterwards to speak it, as often as he can find an 
 opportunity, as well in order to retain it, as to use it with greater 
 fluency and ease ,• and this only is called Practice. But as to 
 the means of attaining a due exactness and propriety in the 
 writing and speaking of a language for beginners, who most cer- 
 tainly cannot practise what they have never learnt before, unless 
 they come at the knowledge of the words of a language, and 
 the way of using them, by Conjuration, there is no other, I 
 dare maintain, than that of studying methodically the principles 
 and rules of it after the manner I propose. 
 
 Neither let it be urged, in support of that wrong notion 
 some people entertain of practice, that infants learn their mother- 
 tongue without being taught, and only by hearing others speak. 
 For without inquiring here into the faculty of the soul in 
 this respect, which would not prove favourable to those who 
 plead this instance, it may suffice to answer, that it is obvious 
 to any body, who reflects ever so little upon the case, that 
 that knowledge which young children have of their mother- 
 tongue, is confined within a very narrow compass : nor doe? 
 
PREFACE. xxi 
 
 it extend further than merely to express the most common con- 
 cerns and wants of Nature in that tender age; til!, after having 
 learnt to read, they gradually improve in the learning of the 
 words and expressions of their mother-tongue, in proportion 
 as by reading and instruction they improve their intellectual 
 faculties. 
 
 As to putting young persons into French families where not 
 one word of English is spoken, or even sending them over to 
 France, both reason and experience convince us, that unless 
 they are previously grounded in the principles, they can receive 
 no other benefit than that of practising common compliments, 
 or exercising themselves in the trilling topics of familiar dis- 
 course. For unless they study with some qualified person, who 
 makes them read much, and translate French into English, as 
 well as English into French, pointing out, as they go on, the 
 Genius and Idiom of that language, they will be so far from 
 becoming masters of its Scope and Beauty, that, even after 
 staying ten, nay twenty or more years in France, they will find 
 themselves almost as far from understanding the true spirit of a 
 French Author, or conversing in an intelligible manner upon any 
 material subject, as at their first going thither. 
 
 The French Refugees are a striking proof of this. An 
 English Gentleman hearing once an old French Refugee say, 
 that he had been fifty years in England, and expressing his 
 surprise that he could not speak English at all ; Lack-a-day, 
 Sir, said the Frenchman, what English can one learn in fifty 
 years ? Htlas, Monsieur, qu est-ce qu on peut apprendre d'Anglois 
 en cinquante ans? Neither is it an uncommon thing to see Eng- 
 lish people, who can hardly make themselves understood in 
 French, though they have lived twenty or thirty years in that 
 country. 
 
 Should a parent, who is desirous that his son should learn 
 Music, say to an excellent Master of that Art, / mil have my son 
 learn Music; but pray do not make him lose a deal of time in learn- 
 ing zvhat you call the principles of your art,zmthout singing a pretty 
 tune. Fut him at once in the practice: there is nothing like it. 
 Let your rules alone, your gamuts and keys, which are only the 
 cant of Music. I will have him learn by practice* , I say. Sing 
 airs to him, and make him sing. Never speak to him but in singing : 
 he cannot fail of learning to sing when he hears nothing else. His 
 child could never learn Music after this manner. He might 
 perhaps learn how to sing some airs, which he had often heard 
 
 * Practice is here taken in the sense of those who make this objection. 
 
xxii PREFACE. 
 
 repeated to him ; but he could never sing at the opening of a 
 book, for want of having first learnt the nature, use and power, 
 of the several notes that compose Music, which are the rules 
 of Harmony, and guides to the voice. It is the same with a 
 language. Those who are desirous to learn it, must begin with 
 the principles, proceed by the application, and finish by the 
 practice of them. To act contrarily, is to pervert the natural 
 order of things, and attempt impossibilities. To obtain an 
 end in any thing, one must use the necessary means to it ; 
 and that the principles are the necessary means of learning a 
 language, is agreed upon by all judicious men, both ancient and 
 m®dern. 
 
 Qdly, I grant, that use alone has, without reason, and often- 
 times contrary to it, established several ways of speaking in a 
 language ; but they must know those ways of speaking thus 
 established/for 'the understanding of the authors that have written, 
 and daily do write, in that language, and conform themselves to 
 them, if they are desirous to write or speak it. These particu- 
 larities, therefore, which use has thus established, and to which 
 the learner must necessarily conform, must either be in some 
 manner distinguished to him, or he must fix upon them by his 
 own observation : for no other method can be thought of to know 
 them, and yet they must be known. . 
 
 Now, who will pretend to learn by himself, and without 
 help, those caprices of use, which make the essence of a lan- 
 guage ; by studying deeply the books written therein ; meditating 
 upon the nature and use of every different expression ; takkig 
 notice that many hundred nouns are of one gender, many 
 hundred others of another, and many besides used in both 
 genders, but with divers significations according to their gen- 
 der ; that, among verbs, some require one relation in the noun, 
 and some another ; that they are affected by such and such 
 conjunctions as to their moods ; and remembering all those 
 nouns, verbs, and conjunctions, severally; and making many 
 more such observations, without whicii one cannot attain to 
 the knowledge of a language, and which also suppose the know- 
 ledge of Grammar? But though a man might dive in this man- 
 ner into the bottom of a language, will it not be shorter and 
 easier for him to read only one performance, where he shall 
 rind all those observations ready digested in a clear method, so 
 that he needs only reflect upon them to have a key to the en- 
 tire knowledge of that language ? — All ways of speaking were 
 originally established independent upon any rule ; but they are 
 
PREFACE. xxiii 
 
 become by use the very rules of speaking, which make the 
 Grammar of a language : and if they are not studied and entirely 
 known, it is impossible ever to speak or write conformably to 
 use. — As to the exceptions, far from destroying the general rules, 
 they are more particular rules, which oftentimes strengthen and 
 illustrate them. 
 
 3dly y It is well known that children do not want memory ; 
 that memory 13 active in them only, and it is of great moment 
 to cultivate it, in that tender age, in those that have but little. 
 To overload the memory of a child, would be to make him 
 learn too much at once, and things which he does not under- 
 stand ; but not to give a moderate lesson to get by heart, 
 after having well explained it to him. To learn the examples 
 that attead the rules, and promote the understanding of them, 
 is a very great help to the memory. There is no doubt but 
 some children have more memory and capacity than others, 
 and therefore can be sooner forwarded : but they must all 
 learn the Grammar, since it is the only means to attain to the 
 knowledge of a language, as I have, I think, sufficiently proved. 
 Moreover, must not they learn, sooner or later, the words of 
 the language, which are the mere object of memory ? If so, 
 one of the great benefits which they will reap from this per- 
 formance is, that in learning the rules of their Grammar, they 
 will at the same time, insensibly, and as if by artificial memory, 
 learn almost all the words of the French tongue ; so much is it 
 calculated for their improvement. Should they*- learn the 
 words and examples only, without any observation upon them, 
 they could get no knowledge of the language at all, the words 
 being only the materials of it, and its Genius and Idiom con- 
 sisting in the use of them. And should they learn but few 
 rules, they could know but part of that Genius and Idiom, as 
 this Grammar would be defective, if it did not contain all the 
 observations that can be made upon the language. Besides, 
 there is always in a language matter enough left to be learnt 
 by practice only, which no art can reduce into rules, as may le 
 seen in the Idioms all over my Dictionary. It would be there- 
 fore to no purpose to urge that the learning of these rules is too 
 hard for children, and that they can only serve to puzzle their 
 understanding ; for if there be any children that cannot learn 
 them, I declare them altogether incapable, not only of learning- 
 French, but of any sort of learning at all. " The art of 
 * c Grammar is necessary for children," says Quintilian ; " it forms 
 " the minds of those who begin." And as the understanding 
 
xxiv PREFACE. 
 
 of languages serves for an introduction to all sciences, so by 
 studying the rules of Grammar, children begin to reflect, to 
 have their unerstandings opened, and exert their tender and 
 hopeful parts ; and thereby render themselves capable of study- 
 ing in time more difficult sciences. 
 
 If, notwithstanding these proofs of the most effectual means of 
 mastering a language, which carry all the conviction in the wot ki 
 along with them, there are people that still continue to be pre- 
 judiced against a regular and methodical way of learning, they 
 must be left to their irrational conceptions ; my design being to 
 be serviceable to those only who are desirous to make themselves, 
 or their children, perfect in the French tongue, who seek ear- 
 nestly for the best means to effect it, and are sensible of the 
 benefit of a good guide in the pursuit thereof. And if the method, 
 which I have here proposed, will not bring them to the happy 
 accomplishment of their wishes, I dare insist on it, no other ever 
 will. 
 
TABLE OF THE CONTENTS. 
 
 The Introduction. 
 
 Page 
 
 THE Grounds and Principles oj the Art of Speaking 1 
 
 Definitions of the words Art, Speaking, Language Ibid. 
 
 Two sorts of Signs by means of which we convey our Thoughts 
 
 to one another Ibid. 
 
 Words are images of our thoughts 2 
 
 The thinking faculty consists in conceiving and judging Ibid. 
 
 Four things to be considered in speech Ibid. 
 
 The parts of speech reduced to nine 4 
 
 The true definition of a Grammar Ibid. 
 
 The division of this W&rk Jbid. 
 
 PART I. Of Pronunciation and Orthography. 
 
 Pronunciation, — Orthography, — Vowels, — Consonants, their 
 
 definitions 5 
 
 The French Alphabet, with the true appellation of the Letters, 
 
 erroneous 6 
 
 A table of the simple Sounds of the French Language 7 
 
 A table of the Vowels, with the several ways of representing 
 
 them 8 
 
 4 table of the Consonants 9 
 
 First table of Syllables 10 and 1 1 
 
 Second table of Syllables 12 and 13 
 
 A table of all the Monosyllables in the French Language, 14 and 15 
 First tabk of the Consonants which are pronounced at the end of 
 
 Syllables l6 
 
 First table of the words wherein the same Consonants are dropt 
 
 at the end of Syllables I? 
 
 Second table of the Consonants that are usually dropt at the 
 
 end of Syllables 18 
 
 Second table of the words wherein these Consonants are pro- 
 nounced at the end of Syllables 11> 
 
 c 
 
xxvi CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 A table of the Combinations of the Letters which compose the 
 
 Syllables, with their corresponding sounds in English • . • » 20 
 
 Combinations of a, a, an 20 and 21 
 
 Combinations of e, eux, eur, ceil, € . * 21 
 
 Combinations of e, oi, &, oie, er • • • 22 
 
 Combinations of oir, 6tre, i, in, ien 23 
 
 Combinations of oin, o, 6, or, on » 24 
 
 Combinations of our, on, u, ur, un 25 
 
 Words difficult to pronounce 26 
 
 Of the sounds expressed by the Vowels Ibid. 
 
 Of Proper Diphthongs » 41 
 
 Of Improper Diphthongs 42 
 
 Of Nasal Vowels , 49 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, followed by n or in take the nasal sound 50 
 
 Of Consonants 53 
 
 General observations upon Pronunciation 78 
 
 General observations upon Orthography * jg 
 
 Terminations whose Penultima is short 80 
 
 Terminations whose Penultima is long 82 
 
 Of the several Marks used in writing French 84 
 
 The Vowels which suffer Elision, and in what cases 85 
 
 Hyphen 86 
 
 Cedilla — Dialysis — Accent 87 
 
 The French Language most harmonious ; a late Writer confuted 91 
 
 Capitals, or great Letters, their use 92 
 
 Stops, their names, shapes, and practice 93 
 
 Parenthesis — Index — Obelisk — Asterisk — Quotation — Section 
 
 Paragraph — Caret * - 94 
 
 Abbreviations used mostly in foreign Gazettes 95 
 
 List of the words wherein h is aspirated, and wherein it is not 
 
 aspirated • • • • 96 
 
 PART II. Of the Parts of Speech 100 
 
 Accidence of the Tvouns, the formation oj the Plural • • • . 101 
 
 Of the Gender of Nouns 104 
 
 Of the Article 110 
 
 Rule for making the Article agree with the Noun Ill 
 
 Examples of all the ways of considering the Noun 112 
 
 Accidence of Adnouns, the formation of their Feminine, 114 and 115 
 
 Of the Comparison of Adnouns 117 
 
 Accidence of Pronouns, Pronouns Personal • • • • 1 19 
 
 Pronouns Possessive, or rather Pronominal Adnouns 120 
 
 Pronouns Relative and Interrogative 121 
 
 Pronouns Demonstrative 122 
 
 Pronouns Indeterminate • 123 
 
CONTENTS. xxvii 
 
 Page 
 
 Of Numbers Cardinal 124 
 
 Ordinal, Collective 127 
 
 Of Numbers, Distributive, Multiplicative 128 
 
 Accidence of Verbs, Substantive, Active, Neuter, 
 
 Reflected 129 
 
 The Mood, Tense, Number, and Person, are to be distinguished 
 
 in Verbs, and what each is 130 
 
 Conjugating a Verb, what it is Ibid. 
 
 The Auxiliary Avoir 131 
 
 The verb Substantive Etre 133 
 
 Rules for the formation of the Tenses 136 
 
 Rules for the formation of the Persons 137 
 
 First Corrugation, of Verbs in er 141 
 
 A Table of the progressive order of Tenses, simple and Compound 143 
 The manner of conjugating the reflected verbs, 144, 151, 153, 155, 
 
 157, 159,163, 165, 167,169. 
 
 First Table. The French verbs used negatively 147 
 
 Second Table. The French verbs conjugated interrogatively • • 14S 
 
 Interrogatively and negatively • Ibid. 
 
 Second conjugation, of verbs in ir (gerund in issantj 149 
 
 Third conjugation, of verbs in ir (gerund in ant ) 151 
 
 Fourth conjugation, of verbs in enir 153 
 
 Fifth conjugation, of verbs in evoir • 156 
 
 Sixth conjugation, of verbs in aire 158 
 
 Seventh conjugation, of verbs in aindre and oindre • 160 
 
 Eighth conjugation, of verbs in oitre 164 
 
 Ninth conjugation, of verbs in uire 166 
 
 Tenth conjugation, of verbs in endre and ondre 168 
 
 Verbs neuter which form their compound tenses from £tre 172 
 
 Verbs irregular, s'en aller, puer, envoyer 173 
 
 Observations upon aller and sen aller 176 
 
 Acquenr 
 
 Bouillir, Courir . « <■ 
 
 Cueillir, Fuir, and s'Enfuir, Hair 
 Mourir, Ouvrir, Saillir, Assaillir, 
 Revetir, s'Asseoir, [Tressaillir, 
 
 Pou voir, Savoir, Voir 
 
 Vouloir, Valoir • 
 
 Mouvoir, Plaire 
 
 Traire, Boire 
 
 Croire, Naitre, Dire 
 
 Lire, Rire 
 
 Ecrire, Vivre, Suivre 
 
 Prendre, Rompre 
 
 Battre, Mettre, Conclure 
 
 Convaincre, Coudre, Moudre • • 
 
 Resoudre, Clorre, dye. 
 
 Verbs Impersonal • • » J 1 9.3 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 177 
 
 178 
 
 179 
 
 180 
 
 182 
 
 183 
 
 with the requisite obser- 184 
 
 servations upon these 185 
 
 verbs 186 
 
 187 
 
 188 
 
 189 
 
 190 
 
 191 
 
 192 
 
xxviii CONTENTS. 
 
 ftp 
 
 Of Adverbs, their definition ] 9 I 
 
 Adverbs of Time 1 95 
 
 Adverbs of Place 1.97 
 
 Adverbs of Order I ()8 
 
 Adverbs of Quantity and Number ] 99 
 
 Adverbs of Quality and Manner 200 
 
 Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation, Doubt, c\c. 202 
 
 Accidence of Prepositions, their definition 203 
 
 Accidence of Conjunctions, their definition 200 
 
 Of Particles, — their definition 203 
 
 Discursive and Interjective Particles 204 
 
 PART III. Of Syntax or Construction. 
 
 Its definition 205 
 
 Syntax of Nouns 20(5 
 
 An odd Construction of Partie • 207 
 
 Four manners of expressions in Nouns 207 and 208 
 
 Syntax of the Article 209 
 
 One and twenty prepositions always trill have the article before 
 
 the next noun: nine others sometimes require it, sometimes not 212 
 The limited or partitive sense is expressed by the preposition de 213 
 Proper names take the article, when they are used in a deter- 
 minate sense, or qualified by an adnoun 213 
 
 The preposition de only, without the article, is used in five cases, 
 
 especially after icords of quantity 21 6 
 
 Biea used for beaucoup 217 
 
 Nouns are used without either article or preposition in five cases 218 
 
 Syntax of Adnouns 220 
 
 Adnouns that come after the Nouns 221 
 
 Sixteen adnouns only necessarily come before the noun 222 
 
 Adnouns always attended by the Preposition de 223 
 
 Adnouns always attended by the Preposition a 224 
 
 The construction of adnouns of D mension 225 
 
 The construction of Nouns and Verbs attending the Adnoun in 
 
 the comparative and superlative degrees 229 
 
 Syntax of Pronouns Ibid. 
 
 The pronouns governed of the verb come before the verb, except 
 
 in two cases 234 
 
 And the pronoun in the 3d state comes before that in the 4th , 
 
 except also in two cases 235 
 
 Constriction of ne and pas or point Ibid. 
 
 The several ways of asking questions 237 
 
 The pronouns, whether governing or governed of the verb, are 
 
 sometimes repeated, and sometimes not 240 
 
 The use and construction of the pronoun indeterminate on .... 242 
 The passive voice , both in French and English Ibid. 
 
CONTENTS. xxix. 
 
 Page 
 
 The use and construction of the pronouns relative le, en, y • • • • 24(5 
 Particular observations upon the construction of the pronouns 
 
 personal of the third person il, lui, elle 251 
 
 The use and construction of the pronominal adnomis 254 
 
 The construction of the pronouns relative, qui, lequel, eye. • • • • 257 
 
 The use and construction of dont Ibid. 
 
 The use and construction of oh • 258 
 
 The use and construction of quoi 262 
 
 A very remarkable Pleonasm used in asking questions 263 
 
 The use and construction of the pronouns demonstrative ce, celui, 
 
 ceci, cela, celui-ci, fyc. • 26*4 
 
 The use and construction of the pi'onouns indeterminate 267 
 
 Quelqu'un and Cfaacun \\ Ibid. 
 
 Quiconque, Personne 270 
 
 Nul, pas mi, aucun 27.1 
 
 Ni l'un ni l'autre, Tun l'autre, Plusieurs 272 
 
 Tout : 273 
 
 The use and construction of Quelque 274 and 275 
 
 Qui que ce soit, Quoi que ce soit, chaque, lien 276 
 
 Tel, certain 277 
 
 Observations upon Nouns of Number Ibid. 
 
 Syntax of Verbs 2S3 
 
 Of the Concord of Verbs with collective Nouns 284 
 
 The use and construction of the Tenses 2S8 
 
 Correspondence of the Subjunctive to the Indicative Mood • • • • 2Q3 
 The use a?id construction of the Moods, — Verbs governing the 
 
 subjunctive • • • 294 
 
 Verbs governing tlte Indicative • 2p6 
 
 Verbs Impersonal governing the Subjunctive 2Q7 
 
 Verbs Impersonal governing the Indicative 2p8 
 
 The use of the present and preterite of the Subjunctive 300 
 
 Of the government of Verbs 302 
 
 Verbs active requiring the preposition de before the next Infinitive 303 
 Verbs neuter inquiring the preposition de before the next noun 
 
 and Infinitive 305 
 
 Verbs active requiring the preposition a before the next Infinitive 306 
 Verbs neuter requiring the preposition a before the next Noun 
 
 and Infinitive 307 
 
 Verbs taking indifferently de or a before the next Infinitive' • • • 30$ 
 
 Verbs taking no preposition at all before the next Infinitive • • • • 309 
 Adnouns construed with etre, requiring a before the 7iext noun 
 
 and Infinitive 311 
 
 Adnouns construed with etre, requiring de before the next noun 
 
 and Infinitive 312 1 
 
 Nouns chiefly construed ivith avoir, requiring de before the next 
 
 infinitive 31* 
 
xxx CONTENTS. 
 
 Pa^e 
 
 A List of Nouns requiring de before the Infinitive .113 
 
 Terms of Comparison requiring que de before the Infinitive • • • • 315 
 
 De, a, pour, answer the English preposition to 3 1 6 
 
 Particular Observations upon the Construction of the English 
 
 Gerund with the particles of, from, with, in, by, for 317 
 
 Construction of the Gerund 318 
 
 Construction of the Participle 321 
 
 Of Verbs Impersonal 323 
 
 Of the Impersonal II est, &c. — 324 
 
 Of the Demonstrative — C'est, Sfc . 327 
 
 II y a 336 
 
 II fait 338 
 
 II faut 339 
 
 Of the French Negatives 340 
 
 Words requiring ne, but without pas or point before their verbs 342 
 
 Particular cases where ne is used without pas or point 345 
 
 Formation of Adverbs • • • 548 
 
 Adnouns used adverbially with some verbs 349 
 
 Syntax of Adverbs 350 
 
 Rien and tout are construed like Adverbs Ibid. 
 
 Syntax of Prepositions — a, au, aux 352 
 
 de, du, des • o55 
 
 avant 357 
 
 apres 358 
 
 devant J 359 
 
 derriere — chez — contre* • • • • Ibid. 
 
 dans and en 36*1 
 
 depuis " • 36} 
 
 jusque • • • • 364 
 
 hors — hormis — exeepte — a la reserve 365 
 
 loin — rnalgre — en depit — par • 366 
 
 pour 567 
 
 pies 360 
 
 aupres — proche 370 
 
 vis-a-vis — a l'opposite — sans — selon — suivant — sur 37 1 
 
 au-dessus --au-dessous 372 
 
 vers — envers — a 1'egaru — au lieu • • • • • 373 
 
 a rebours — au rebours — a travers — au travers 374 
 
 Prepositions which must always be repeated « 375 
 
 Observations upon some English Prepositions 370 
 
 Syntax of Conjunctions. Conjunctions governing the Indicative 377 
 
 Conjunctions governing the Subjunctive 378 
 
 Conjunctions governing the Infinitive Ibid. 
 
 The Conjunctive que used instead of repeating the Conjunctions 
 
 si, quaud, iorsque, pourquoi, $fc. 379 and 380 
 
 Difference between Iorsque and quand • • • -Ibid. 
 
CONTENTS. xxxi 
 
 Page 
 
 Si is never construed with the Conditional 380 
 
 Particular observations upon some Conjunctions . . , . 381 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE Analogy of Speech, or the Grounds and Principles of the 
 
 Art of Speaking continued 383 
 
 Reason has not been regarded in the Invention of Languages • • 3S5 
 The several species of words, invented for representing our 
 
 thoughts, are grounded in the nature of things' .....* 389 
 
 Definitions of such. grammatical terms as most occur 391 
 
 Observations upon certain words, wherein chiefly consists the 
 
 Idiom of French, Amitie, Amours, An, Annee 392 
 
 Accouturaer, s'Acooutumer, Avoir coutume, fyc. Agir 393 
 
 Aide — Aimer — Present and Imperfect of Aller and Venir • • • • 394 
 
 Apparoitre and Paroitre — Avoir 395 
 
 Avoir beau — N'avoir garde — Ne faire que, fyc. Au reste, fyc. • • 396* 
 
 Aieux — Savoir — Connoitre — Devoir 397 
 
 Ecouter — Entendre — Emplir — Enfermer — Enfer 398 
 
 Esperer — Eveiller and Reveiller — Faire 399 
 
 Faire grace, and Faire une grace — Fleurir 400 
 
 Se Her — Fourrir — Gens • • • • • 401 
 
 Bonne grace — Jouer 402 
 
 Jour and Jouruee — Laisser • 403 
 
 Livres and Francs 404 
 
 Uu coup dc main, <5fc. — Marcher, and se promener 405 
 
 Marier and Epouser — Mener and Porter — Amener cndApporter 406 
 
 Mourir — Neuf and Nouveau — Parens 407 
 
 Persomie • • 408 
 
 f'aque — Se passer de — Plus, Davantage, Encore 409 and 410 
 
 Plaire, Peinture, Portrait, Tableau 411 
 
 Prendre garde — Rompre, Briser, Casser 412 
 
 Seulement, Suppleer, Traiter mal and Maltraiter, Valoir — Vo>la 413 
 
 Ne faire que de, or Venir de — II y a 414 
 
 The. names of some parts of some animals are not the same in 
 
 French as in English Ibid. 
 
 The sounds of beasts • • « 415 
 
 Verbs which, together with a noun without the article, form but 
 
 one particular idea • • • • 416 
 
 Observations upon Verbs, considered ivith respect to the idiom of 
 
 the English tongue 425 
 
 Of the Construction of certain English Particles, with respect 
 
 to French 429 
 
 The various Significations and Constructions of que 430 
 
 Of inseparable Prepositions 435 
 
xxkH CONTENTS. 
 
 r*. 
 
 Observations upon Proper Names 4:36 
 
 Observations upon the Titles annexed by Custom to the divers 
 
 Ranks and Stations of civil Life 458 
 
 Observations upon the writing of Letters 442 
 
 Of some AdnounSy whose Signification is different according to 
 
 the different placing of them 443 
 
 Menus, Masculine in one Signification, and Feminine in another 445 
 Nouns that are applied to both Sexes, and have therefore their 
 
 feminine Gender 448 
 
 Adnouns used substantively, or like Nouns • 450 
 
 List of Ncuns Masculine ending in e mute • • « • 453 
 
THE ART 
 
 OP 
 
 SPEAKING FRENCH. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 An Art is a rational method, a collection of observations 
 digested into convenient order for the teaching and learning of 
 something : and the methodical collection of observations made 
 upon the particular custom of a nation, in the institution, order, 
 and use of the words by which they are used to express the 
 thoughts, is what is meant by a Grammar. 
 
 Speaking is exhibiting our thoughts; and a Language is 
 nothing else than the means towards that end : that is, a language 
 is the manner, or signs, of which a set of men have agreed to 
 make use, in order to express their thoughts. 
 
 And because men want to make their thoughts known, not 
 only to those with whom they live, but also to others they arc 
 very distant from, or who are to be born many ages after them, 
 they have, for that purpose, invented two sorts of means, or 
 signs ; the one instantaneous and transient, aad serving only to 
 represent thought actually, Sounds; the other permanent, and 
 designed tG represent it in all times and places, Characters. 
 
 These sounds and characters, i. e. all that is spoken and wrii- 
 ten, form Speech, which is composed of sentences, sentences 
 of words, and words of syllables. 
 
 Syllables, in speaking, are sounds of which words are com 
 p©scd and formed ; and, in writing, they are parts of the same 
 words, composed of characters which represent these sounds : as 
 ad-mi-ni-stra-ti-on, that has (in French) six parts, six sounds, six 
 syllables. Syllables are either simple or compound. They are all 
 compound in the word just mentioned : but in the words about, 
 elect, and many others, the first sellable is simple. Sometimes 
 one sound only, one syllable makes a word, called Monosyl- 
 lable, as, but, man, it is not ; which three last sounds make 
 three words : otherwise a svllable has no signification of itself. 
 * B 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Words are images of thoughts. They differ from the sounds 
 and characters, in that men have applied to these last only the 
 general power of making words, without representing other ideas 
 but those of sounds and characters : whereas they have, besides, 
 applied to the words the distinct and particular powers of repre- 
 senting their thoughts. Just as, in painting, colours make of 
 themselves no distinct object that exhibits to the mind other ideas 
 but those of green, red, blue, 8tc. but being applied with propor- 
 tion, and according to the rules of art, they make a whole which 
 represents all the figures that one has a mind to draw. 
 
 The Thinking Faculty, which shines so wonderfully in 
 the invention of speech, consists in conceiving and judging. To 
 conceive, or to apprehend, is to have the image of a thing in our 
 mind. To judge, is to unite our conceptions or ideas together 
 in declaring that a thing is or is not such. But, as we can con 
 ceive either things, or the manner of being of things ; as, like- 
 wise, we can judge of them either simply and absolutely, or with 
 restriction and respectively to some circumstance or other ; so 
 four things are to be considered in speech : 
 
 1st, That which is spoken of, which philosophers call the 
 Subject. 
 
 Qdly, That which is declared of it, which they call the At- 
 tribute. 
 
 Sdly, The Declarative Term, or Copula, which joins the 
 attribute to the subject. 
 
 Athly, The Circumstances which may attend the subject, 
 the attribute, and the declarative term. 
 
 As, for instance, when conceiving what learning is, and what 
 usefulness is, I form this judgment, " Learning is useful ;" 
 learning is the subject I speak of : useful is what I declare of it 
 (the attribute); and is — the declarative term, which connects 
 the two other terms together. 
 
 Again. When I say, " A guilty conscience is at all times a 
 " very tormenting pain," a conscience is the subject I speak of ; 
 a pain, what I declare of it ; and is — the declarative term, which 
 connects the attribute and subject together. But, besides that, 
 these words, guilty, tormenting, and at all times, are so many 
 circumstances which specify the subject of which I speak, what I 
 declare of it, and the declarative term : for I do not speak of 
 conscience in general, but of a guilty conscience ; I do not barely 
 declare that it is a pain, but a tormenting pain ; nor do I affirm 
 that it is only a tormenting pain, but that it is at all times a very 
 tormenting pain ; the word very being only a circumstance, which 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 specifies the word tormenting, as this last does what sort of pain 
 1 judge a guilty conscience is. 
 
 Whoever reflects ever so little, will easily be sensible that the 
 whole of speech amounts to the expressing of those four things 
 only, which constitute it, and make all its essence. Therefore 
 several sorts of expressions, or words, must needs have been in- 
 stituted to represent, not only all the things that can be conceived, 
 and their manners of being, but also the judgments which can be 
 made of them, with the modifications of which they are suscep- 
 tible. It does not follow, nevertheless, that one can express no 
 judgment, without making use of three or four sorts of words. 
 For men have naturally a desire to express their meaning as 
 quick as they can, and a speech the less encumbered with words 
 being less difficult to be delivered, and even the more perfect, as 
 it draws nearer to the simplicity of thinking ; so they have insti- 
 tuted words, in the signification whereof is included, at the same 
 time, the attribute and the declarative term. In others they have, 
 besides, included the signification of the subject. And even they 
 have instituted some, which express at once the subject which 
 they speak of, the attribute which they declare of it, the decla- 
 rative term, and the circumstances that modify one or all die 
 three other terms. 
 
 Thus in this proposition, " Man thinks," the word thinks in- 
 cludes both the attribute which is declared of the subject man, and 
 the declarative term : and is as much as to say is thinking, or is a 
 thinking being. These words yes, no, never, always, certainly, and 
 a great many others of the same kind, which we answer to the 
 questions that are asked us, comprehend those very questions : so 
 that the yes or no which I answer to this question, " Does he 
 " study?" is as much as if I answered, " He studies," or "He 
 " does not study ;" the first of which the Latins expressed by the 
 single word studet, which is equal to " He is studying." 
 
 Again. If to this question, " Is a guilty conscience at all times 
 " a very tormenting pain ?" I answered yes, yes sure, or certainly, it 
 is evident that either of these expressions is as much as if 1 re- 
 peated the whole proposition without interrogation, " A guilty 
 " conscience is at all times a very tormenting pain ;" and includes 
 therefore a subject which I speak of, the attribute I declare of it, 
 the declarative term, and the modifying terms, or the circum- 
 stances which those three terms are attended by. 
 
 N either does it follow that four sorts of words might have been 
 sufficient for expressing all that can be thought of. For as the 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 natural desire which men have to convey their ideas quickly, 
 has induced them to invent terms of abbreviation, whicn, though 
 ever so short, comprehend, nevertheless, whole and long propo- 
 sitions : so the necessity of making themselves understood clearly, 
 and without the least ambiguity, especially in considering and 
 speaking of the several relations which things bear to one another ; 
 and the disagreeableness of repeating the same terms too often, 
 has made them invent many others, both for the more fully ex- 
 pressing all that passes in their mind, with the manner of their 
 conceptions, and how they stand affected by them, and for 
 adorning their language. 
 
 All the words that men have instituted for representing their 
 thoughts, may be reduced to nine sorts. Grammarians call them 
 in general Parts of Speech, because speech, or all that is 
 spoken or written, is composed of those nine sorts of words, to 
 each of which they have given particular names, which shall be 
 explained in the Second Part of this Work. 
 
 The several words made use of for expressing what one thinks 
 about a subject, are, all together, called by philosophers, a Pro- 
 position, and by grammarians a Sentence: and several sen- 
 tences jeined together, in such a manner as the one has a cohe- 
 rency with and dependance upon the other, for the making one 
 entire and complete sense, are called a Period by the latter, and 
 Argument or Reasoning by the former. 
 
 Hence may appear the injudicious and false definition of 
 Grammar given by most writers. Logic is the art of thinking, 
 conceiving, or forming ideas. Dialect is the art of speaking, 
 exhibiting our thoughts, or expressing ourselves Oratory, elo- 
 quence, rhetoric, (for these terms are synonymous,) is the art 
 of persuading. But Grammar is nothing but the collection of 
 the rules of a language ; or (if you like it better) the art of re- 
 ducing into rules the manner of speaking of a nation. 
 
 These things being premised concerning the essence and 
 foundation of languages, we shall consider the sounds and cha- 
 racters of the French tongue, the nature of the words of which 
 it is composed, and the use which is to be made of them in 
 speech : three parts into which this Grammar is divided. The 
 First shall treat of Pronunciation and Orthography, or Spelling ; 
 the Second of Etymology, or the nature of the Parts of Speech, 
 as likewise of their power and different forms ; the Third of th« 
 Construction of the same, or their grammatical order, otherwise 
 called Svntax. 
 
PART I. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION is the expressing the sounds and articu- 
 lation of a language ; as ORTHOGRAPHY is the drawing of 
 them, or representing them with characters. 
 
 The sounds are nothing else but the voice, that is, the air 
 emitted out of the lungs, or the breath made sonorous ; from 
 which they are called Vowels, as a, e, i, o, u. 
 
 The vowels, in their way through the mouth, receive modifi- 
 cations, or articulations, from the several motions of the lips or 
 the tongue ; and as these articulations cannot be expressed, or 
 heard, but jointly with the sounds, they are called Conso- 
 nants. 
 
 For example, a is a vowel, or a simple sound ; but ba and ga 
 are articulated, or compound sounds ; because the motions of 
 the lips in ba, and of the tongue inga, affect the vowel a with 
 those modifications, or articulations, heard in the sounds ba and 
 pi : and those differences of sounds which are between ba or ga 
 ami the vowel a, are what we call consonants. 
 
 B2 
 
6 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 The French grammarians usually recken five vowels and nine- 
 teen consonants, constituting the alphabet, or table of the let- 
 ters of the language, in this order, with their true appellation* 
 underneath : 
 
 a, b, c, a, e, f, g, h, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, 
 aw, bey, cey, dey, ey, eff, geu f n&k 9 e, kaw, ell, emm, enn, oa,pey, 
 q, r, s, t, u, x, y, • z, and & (an abbreviation for et.) 
 qu~ err, ess, tey f u, ix, ee grec f zed 
 
 How erroneous this alphabet is, must needs appear from what 
 has just been said of the sounds and articulations of which speech 
 informed. Parting from those principles, the French language 
 will be found to have seventeen distinct sounds or vowels, though 
 the present alphabet contains these five only, a, t, i, o, u ; and 
 the twelve others, namely, e t e, on, a, eu, c, 6, an, en, in, on, itn, 
 sounds as simple as the first five, are not so much as taken notice 
 of to the learnei. There are one-and-twenty consonants in the 
 language ; but the alphabet contains only eighteen, and acquaints 
 you only with fifteen different articulations, as the letters, c, k, x, 
 represent no other articulations than those represented by other 
 consonants : and there remain four others, of which the alpha- 
 bet gives no manner of knowledge, namely, ch, gn, ill, and i 
 represented by two consonants, each of which serve to represent 
 other articulations. 
 
 Most vowels and consonants are represented several ways. For 
 instance, the vowel £ is represented by ei in peine, by ai in vaine, 
 by oi in foible, &c. the consonant f by ph in phitosophe, Sec 
 Some vowels and consonants cannot be represented, for want of 
 proper simple characters, but by several letters. Such are the 
 vowels, on, eu, eu or eux, and the five nasal an, en, in, on, mi, 
 which are also represented several ways, and such the consonants, 
 ch, gn, ill, and i. Now each of the letters, which make up these 
 divers combinations, has not the sound or articulation which it 
 has when pronounced by itself : and these letters blended toge- 
 ther represent a sound, which has no manner of affinity with 
 those which each of them represents singly. Thus in au, on, eu, 
 neither the sound of a, or of o, e, nor the sound of u, are heard, 
 but only another simple sound very different, represented by those 
 combinations of letters, au, ou, eu. If, therefore, the muster 
 makes his pupils name each of the letters which make up those 
 combinations, he will make them pronounce false sounds, which, 
 as they have no connection or affinity with the true sound* 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 
 
 that are to be pronounced, will serve only to give them a wrong; 
 impression thereof ; and by that means to puzzle, confound, and 
 quite dishearten them. 
 
 Since, then, the present alphabet does not contain all the 
 sounds and articulations of the language, nor all the ways of 
 representing them, and yet it is necessary for those who learn 
 reading to be acquainted with every one of them, a more rational 
 and easy method must be thought of, to facilitate that knowledge. 
 The following Tables will remedy all the aforesaid inconve- 
 niencies, and thoroughly acquaint a learner of the lowest capa- 
 city, with the pronunciation of the French. 
 
 A TABLE of tJie simple Sounds of the French Language* 
 
 Eight Acute Sounds. 
 
 a, e, e, e, 1, o, ou, u. 
 
 Four Grave. 
 a, eii, e, 6. 
 
 Five Nasal. 
 
 an, en, in, on, un. 
 
 e mute* 
 
8 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 A TABLE of the Vowels, with the several ways of 
 representing or writing them. 
 
 A. a, at, ac, ap, ach, &c. 
 
 A. a, as, ats, aps, acs, achs, &c. 
 
 AN. an, am, en em, aen, ean, aon, aons, &e. 
 
 E. e, eu, eut, euf, oeu, oeud, &c. 
 
 Eu. Eu, eus, eut, eux, ceufs, &c. 
 
 E. e, ez, &, ed, er, es, ai, eai, as, oe, &c. 
 
 E. e, ai, ei, oi, eg, ep, et, ait, oit, &c. 
 
 E. e, es, es, est, ets, aie, aient, ais, aits, oie, ois, eois, eoient, 
 &c. 
 
 en. en, ain, aim, em, ein, in, im, &c. 
 
 I. i, is, v*, &c. 
 
 IN. in, im, &c. 
 
 O. o, au, eau, Sic. 
 
 O. 6, au, aux, &c. 
 
 OU. ou. ou, oup, ous, out, &c. 
 
 ON. on, om, ons, oni, eon, &c. 
 
 U. u, eu, &c. ,; 
 
 UN. un, euu, um, &c. 
 
 E. (e mute) es, ent (at the end of Verbs). 
 
 ■ 
 * y in the middle of words stands for two ii's, the former whereof 
 belongs to the foregoing Syllable; but the latter denotes a particular 
 articulation, which shall be observed in the dissertation upon thai 
 letter. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 
 
 A TABLE of the Consonants, with the several ways 
 of representing or writing them. 
 
 Five Labial Consonants. 
 Weak Consonants. Strong Consonants. 
 
 M, m. mm. 
 
 Ma, mow. Homme. 
 
 B, b. P, p. 
 
 Bombe. Pompe. 
 
 V, v. F, f ff, PH, ph.. 
 /'In, v'wunt. F'm, arable, P/rare 
 
 Four Hissing. 
 J, j, G, g (before e awd i). Ch, ch, sch. 
 
 Jeu, disje, jauge. C//ar, chiche, sc&sme. 
 
 Z, z, s {between two Fozvek). S, s, ss, 5, C, c (before e tf?;J i). 
 
 Zisanie, asyle. .5a, .si, 5011, las.s'6, recu, oeci. 
 
 Pire Pdiatal or Lingual. 
 
 N, 11. 
 
 Nari/ze. 
 D,d. 
 
 Dinrfon. 
 L,1,1L 
 
 La, /evre, e//e, 
 
 mi. 
 
 Bonne. 
 T,t,tt. 
 
 IWe, ne£/e. 
 R, r, rr. 
 
 -Kedire, arracher. 
 
 G, g, GU, gu. 
 Gogwenard, garre. 
 
 Ttvo Guttural. 
 
 Q, q, qu, K, k, C, < 
 Co^/temar, cap, quand t « 
 
 GU, gu. 
 Gi/eux. 
 
 ILL, ill, IL, a. 
 
 VaiV/ant. 
 
 Five Liquid. 
 Qu, qu. 
 
 Queue. 
 Gn, gn. 
 
 R6gwa. 
 i. 
 A'/eul, pa'/en. 
 
 X, x, stands for two articulations together, to wit, gz, as in ejrii, 
 
 flwd cs, as in ve:ra. 
 
 H, h, is only a note of aspiration in some words, for in most words 
 
 it is quite mute. 
 
10 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 First TABLE V 
 
 a a 
 
 e 
 
 eux e 
 
 e est 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ha ha 
 
 heu 
 
 he 
 
 he haie 
 
 hi 
 
 ho 
 
 oh! 
 
 ma ma 
 
 me 
 
 meux me 
 
 me me 
 
 mi 
 
 mo 
 
 I1K) 
 
 ba ba 
 
 be 
 
 bceufs be 
 
 be be 
 
 bi 
 
 bo 
 
 beau 
 
 pa pa 
 
 pe 
 
 peux pe 
 
 pe pe 
 
 F? 
 
 po 
 
 po 
 
 va vas 
 
 ve 
 
 voeux ve 
 
 ve ve 
 
 vi 
 
 vo 
 
 vd 
 
 J- fa fa 
 
 fe 
 
 feux fe 
 
 fe fe 
 
 ri 
 
 fo 
 
 fan 
 
 | phaphas 
 
 phe 
 
 phe 
 
 phe phois 
 
 ; phi 
 
 pho 
 
 
 
 5J a ja 
 
 [ gea geas 
 cha cha 
 C za za 
 I sa sas 
 
 J e 
 
 jeux je 
 geux g6 
 cheux che 
 
 je jets 
 
 ji. 
 
 j° 
 
 jau 
 
 ge 
 che 
 
 ge ge^ 
 che che 
 
 gi. 
 
 chi 
 
 zi 
 
 si 
 
 cho 
 
 iieo 
 chau 
 
 ze 
 
 se 
 
 se 
 
 i ze 
 
 \ se sols 
 
 zo 
 
 so 
 
 zo 
 
 f ca cas 
 
 { sa ssas 
 
 ce 
 
 sse 
 
 ceux ce 
 sseux sse 
 
 | ce ces 
 X sse ses 
 
 ci 
 
 si 
 
 so 
 
 ceau 
 
 sots 
 
 na nas 
 
 ne 
 
 neux ne 
 
 ne ne 
 
 ni 
 
 no 
 
 no 
 
 da dais 
 
 de 
 
 deux de 
 
 de des 
 
 di 
 
 d. 
 
 dos 
 
 ta ta 
 
 te 
 
 teux te 
 
 te tes 
 
 ti 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 la la 
 
 1c 
 
 leux le 
 
 le les 
 
 li 
 
 lo 
 
 lots 
 
 ra ras 
 5 ga ga 
 { guaguas 
 
 re 
 
 reux re 
 
 re re 
 
 ri 
 
 ro 
 
 ro 
 
 gueu 
 
 gueuxgue 
 
 gue gue 
 
 gui 
 
 go 
 guo 
 
 gau 
 
 c6 
 cau 
 
 i Cd caa 
 
 | quaquas 
 
 que 
 
 queue que 
 
 que que 
 
 qui 
 
 CO 
 
 quo 
 
 gna gnas 
 ilia illas 
 
 gne 
 illeu 
 
 gneux gne 
 illeux ille 
 
 gne gne 
 ille illois 
 
 gni 
 iUi 
 
 gno 
 illo 
 
 gneaux 
 illots 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHV. 
 
 li- 
 
 SYLLABLES. 
 
 0» 
 
 u 
 
 an 
 
 in 
 
 on 
 
 U!l 
 
 hou 
 
 hu 
 
 ban 
 
 nin 
 
 hon 
 
 hum 
 
 mou 
 
 mu 
 
 mem 
 
 mm 
 
 mon 
 
 mun 
 
 bou 
 pou 
 vou 
 
 bu 
 pu 
 
 ben 
 pam 
 
 bain 
 
 pin 
 
 vin 
 
 bon 
 pon 
 von 
 
 bun 
 
 
 
 
 
 fou 
 
 fu 
 
 fan 
 
 fin 
 
 fon 
 
 fun 
 
 
 
 phan 
 
 phin 
 
 phon 
 
 
 
 
 
 JOU 
 
 J 11 
 
 jean 
 gen 
 cham 
 
 gin 
 
 chain 
 
 zin 
 
 sin 
 
 cein 
 
 sim 
 
 jon 
 
 geon 
 
 chon 
 
 zon 
 
 son 
 
 §on 
 
 son 
 
 jeun 
 
 chou 
 
 zou 
 
 sou 
 
 chu 
 
 zun 
 sun 
 
 su 
 
 san 
 
 sou 
 
 su 
 
 sem 
 
 
 nou 
 dou 
 
 nu 
 
 du 
 
 nan 
 dan 
 
 nym 
 din 
 
 non 
 don 
 
 dun 
 
 tou 
 
 tu 
 
 tan 
 
 tin 
 
 ton 
 
 tun 
 
 km 
 
 rou 
 
 lu 
 ru 
 
 Ian 
 ran 
 
 lin 
 rin 
 
 Ion 
 ron 
 
 lun 
 
 gou 
 
 g u 
 
 gan 
 
 gam 
 guim 
 
 gon 
 
 
 
 
 guan 
 
 
 
 cou 
 
 cu 
 
 can 
 
 cam 
 
 con 
 
 can 
 
 qu'ou 
 
 qu'u 
 
 quan 
 
 quin 
 gnin 
 
 qu'on 
 
 qu un 
 
 
 
 
 gnan 
 illan 
 
 illon 
 
 
 d 
 
12 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Second TABLE of 
 
 bl pi fl 
 chr ct ctr 
 
 Consonants which are coupled together. 
 
 1 cl br pr vr fr phr dr ir gr cr 
 
 s P 
 
 squ ps sc scr st str 
 
 bla 
 
 pla 
 
 fla 
 
 gla 
 
 cla 
 
 bra 
 
 pra 
 
 vra 
 
 pkra 
 
 dra 
 
 tra 
 
 gra 
 
 era 
 
 eta 
 
 spa 
 
 sea 
 
 sta 
 
 stra 
 
 bla ble 
 
 pla pie 
 
 fla fle 
 
 glas gle 
 
 clats cle 
 
 bras bre 
 
 pra pre 
 
 vras vre 
 
 fra fre 
 
 dras dre 
 
 tras tre 
 
 gras gre 
 
 era ere 
 
 etas cte 
 
 sea, sque 
 
 stas ste 
 
 bleus 
 
 ble 
 
 pie 
 
 fle 
 
 gle 
 
 breux bre 
 
 preux pre 
 
 vre 
 
 freux fre 
 
 dreux dre 
 
 tre 
 
 gre 
 
 creux ere 
 
 cte 
 
 spe 
 
 sque 
 
 ste 
 
 stre 
 
 blet 
 plai 
 floit 
 
 glet 
 
 clai 
 
 broit 
 
 pret 
 
 vrai 
 
 fre 
 
 dret 
 
 trai 
 
 gre 
 
 cret 
 
 ctoit 
 
 spoit 
 
 squoit 
 
 stoit 
 
 stroit 
 
 ble 
 
 plets 
 
 flois 
 
 glets 
 
 elaie 
 
 broient 
 
 pres 
 
 vrai 
 
 fre 
 
 drois 
 
 tre 
 
 gre 
 
 ere 
 
 ctois 
 
 spois 
 
 squoient 
 
 stoient 
 
 stro-ient 
 
 bli bio 
 
 pli plo 
 
 fli flo 
 
 gli glo 
 
 cli clo 
 
 bri bro 
 
 pri pro 
 
 vri vro 
 
 fri fro 
 
 dri dro 
 
 tri tro 
 
 gri gro 
 
 cri cro 
 
 cti cto 
 
 spi spo 
 
 squi sco 
 
 sti sto 
 
 stri stro 
 
 bl6 
 
 plots 
 
 flots 
 
 glots 
 
 elau 
 
 brocs 
 
 pro 
 
 vreau 
 
 frau 
 
 dro 
 
 gros 
 crocs 
 
 "Xxi — 
 
 ?pla 
 
 sple 
 
 scru psa pseau 
 
<md ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 13 
 
 SYLLABLES. 
 
 x, pronounced with the double articulation of cs, xa, xe, xe, xe, 
 
 xi, xe, xan, xin, xon. 
 x, pronounced with the double articulation ofgz, xa, xe, xi, xo, 
 
 xem. 
 
 blou 
 
 blu 
 
 blan 
 
 blin 
 
 blon 
 
 
 plou 
 
 plu 
 
 plan 
 
 plein 
 
 plom 
 
 
 
 tiou 
 
 flu 
 
 flan 
 
 flin 
 
 flon 
 
 
 
 glou 
 
 glu 
 
 glan 
 
 glin 
 
 glon 
 
 
 
 clou 
 
 clu 
 
 clan 
 
 ciin 
 
 clon 
 
 
 
 brou 
 
 bru 
 
 bran 
 
 brin 
 
 bron 
 
 brun 
 
 prou 
 
 pru 
 
 pren 
 
 prrn 
 
 prom 
 
 prun 
 
 
 — ■ 
 
 vran 
 
 vrin 
 
 vron 
 
 
 
 frou 
 
 fru 
 
 fran 
 
 frin 
 
 fron 
 
 
 
 drou 
 
 dru 
 
 dran 
 
 drin 
 
 dron 
 
 
 trou 
 
 tru 
 
 tran 
 
 trin 
 
 tron 
 
 
 
 grou 
 
 gru 
 
 gran 
 
 grin 
 
 gron 
 
 
 
 crou 
 
 cm 
 
 cran 
 
 crin 
 
 cron 
 
 
 
 
 ctu 
 
 ctan 
 span 
 
 ctin 
 spin 
 
 cton 
 
 
 
 spou 
 
 
 spon 
 
 
 scou 
 
 scu 
 
 scan 
 
 squin 
 
 squon 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ stu 
 
 stan 
 
 stin 
 
 ston 
 
 
 
 
 
 etru 
 
 stran 
 
 stria 
 
 stron 
 
 
 
 psi 
 
 pos 
 
14 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 A TABLE of the Monosyllables in the French Language. 
 
 a, 
 
 bleus, 
 
 clef, 
 
 cours, 
 
 Dieux, 
 
 , fut, 
 
 g"i; 
 
 Juiiu 
 
 ai, 
 
 brun, 
 
 clerc, 
 
 coups, 
 
 doigts, 
 
 fin, 
 
 glu, 
 
 joint. 
 
 ais, 
 
 broc, 
 
 clair, 
 
 coing, 
 
 deux, 
 
 font, 
 
 gre, 
 
 Juif,' 
 
 ait, 
 
 brin, 
 
 craie, 
 
 coud, 
 
 doux, 
 
 faim, 
 
 Grec, 
 
 Jo»gV 
 
 as, 
 
 bois, 
 
 croc, 
 
 court, 
 
 dur, 
 
 fond, 
 
 gant, 
 
 jeu, 
 
 au, 
 
 boit, 
 
 crois, 
 
 cceur, 
 
 dut, 
 
 feins, 
 
 gens, 
 
 jeux, 
 
 an> 
 
 bal, 
 
 croix, 
 
 cran, 
 
 Dreux 
 
 , fonds, 
 
 gond, 
 
 
 ail, 
 
 bu, 
 
 croit, 
 
 choeur. 
 
 , Dol, 
 
 fri, 
 
 geai, 
 
 la, 
 
 arc, 
 
 bref, 
 
 coi, 
 
 creux. 
 
 deuil. 
 
 froc, 
 
 git, 
 
 le, 
 
 aux, 
 
 bus, 
 
 coin, 
 
 
 
 frit, 
 
 gam, 
 
 les, 
 
 art, 
 
 buis, 
 
 choc, 
 
 
 
 fat, 
 
 grain, 
 
 lac, 
 
 air, 
 
 but, 
 
 ceint, 
 
 de, 
 
 en, 
 
 foin, 
 
 groin, 
 
 lacs^ 
 
 Aout 
 
 blanc, 
 
 cm, 
 
 des, 
 
 eu, 
 
 fit, 
 
 gue, 
 
 lard, 
 
 
 bled, 
 
 cri, 
 
 d6, 
 
 es, 
 
 franc, 
 
 gout, 
 
 las, 
 
 bac, 
 
 brut. 
 
 crin, 
 
 dans, 
 
 eut, 
 
 frein, 
 
 gai, 
 
 leur, 
 
 bar, 
 
 
 crut, 
 
 dors, 
 
 est, 
 
 frais, 
 
 guet, 
 
 lors, 
 
 bas, 
 
 car, 
 
 oris, 
 
 dont, 
 
 eau, 
 
 foi, 
 
 gueux 
 
 lier, 
 
 bat, 
 
 cal, 
 
 craint, 
 
 dort, 
 
 eux, 
 
 fief, 
 
 
 lieu, 
 
 bain, 
 
 ga, 
 
 Christ, 
 
 dos, 
 
 eaux, 
 
 fois, 
 
 hais, 
 
 lien, 
 
 bats, 
 
 ce, 
 
 cieux, 
 
 don, 
 
 et, &, 
 
 froid, 
 
 haut, 
 
 liant, 
 
 bail, 
 
 cet, 
 
 coq, 
 
 dot, 
 
 EST. 
 
 Foix, 
 
 hier, 
 
 Luc, 
 
 baux, 
 
 ces, 
 
 cerf, 
 
 du, 
 
 
 fort, 
 
 hart, 
 
 lent, 
 
 banc, 
 
 ceux, 
 
 clin, 
 
 done, 
 
 
 fuis, 
 
 hem, 
 
 lin, 
 
 bee, 
 
 ciel, 
 
 cerfs, 
 
 dais, 
 
 fi, 
 
 flot, 
 
 hors, 
 
 lis, 
 
 beau, 
 
 cep, 
 
 cuir, 
 
 dam, 
 
 fard, 
 
 fieur, 
 
 huis, 
 
 long, 
 
 bel, 
 
 cor, 
 
 chez, 
 
 dard, 
 
 nl, 
 
 flots, 
 
 huit. 
 
 lit, 
 
 bien, 
 
 camp, 
 
 cuis, 
 
 dent, 
 
 fils, 
 
 fou, 
 
 I 1 - 
 
 Linx, 
 
 bis, 
 
 corps, 
 
 choir, 
 
 dix, 
 
 fer, 
 
 fleurs, 
 
 ils, 
 
 legs, 
 
 bon, 
 
 chat, 
 
 chou, 
 
 dis, 
 
 fiel, 
 
 feu, 
 
 j e > 
 
 lu, 
 
 bouc, 
 
 champ, 
 
 i cuit, 
 
 drap, 
 
 faon, 
 
 feux, 
 
 jet, 
 
 lot, 
 
 boue, 
 
 chats, 
 
 choux, 
 
 dit, 
 
 fe fier, 
 
 front, 
 
 j' al , 
 
 loin, 
 
 bous, 
 
 chant 
 
 clos, 
 
 daim, 
 
 fier, 
 
 four, 
 
 Jean, 
 
 lots, 
 
 bord 
 
 char, 
 
 cent, 
 
 draps, 
 
 faut, 
 
 flux. 
 
 j'eus, 
 
 laid 
 
 bout, 
 
 cher, 
 
 cinq, 
 
 dru, 
 
 flanc, 
 
 
 
 lus, 
 
 bourg, 
 
 chaux, 
 
 clou, 
 
 drois, 
 
 fais, 
 
 geai, 
 
 jour, 
 
 lait, 
 
 boeuf, 
 
 chef, 
 
 clous, 
 
 du, 
 
 faix, 
 
 grand, 
 
 jours, 
 
 lut, 
 
 bras 
 
 cnaud, 
 
 cou, 
 
 doit, 
 
 faux, 
 
 gras, 
 
 jeun, 
 
 loi, 
 
 boeufs, 
 
 chien, 
 
 cous, 
 
 Dieu, 
 
 fait, 
 
 gris, 
 
 jus, 
 
 lui, 
 
 bleu, 
 
 choix, 
 
 cour, 
 
 doigt, 
 
 fus, 
 
 gros, 
 
 joins, 
 
 Jouer, 
 
 blond, 
 
 chair, 
 
 coup, 
 
 droit, 
 
 fis, 
 
 gland, 
 
 jonc, 
 
 loup, 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 15 
 
 lourd, 
 
 ne, 
 
 oeufs, 
 
 prend, 
 
 rats, 
 
 s'en, 
 
 tout, 
 
 val, 
 
 loups. 
 
 nez, 
 
 ceil. 
 
 pond, 
 
 ris, 
 
 sus, 
 
 tort, 
 
 veaux, 
 
 
 nais, 
 
 
 puis, 
 
 roc, 
 
 sein, 
 
 tous, 
 
 vos, 
 
 ma, 
 
 ne, 
 
 
 prit, 
 
 rit, 
 
 sur, 
 
 tords, 
 
 viens, 
 
 mal, 
 
 mais, 
 
 pal, 
 
 pres, 
 
 rot, 
 
 seing, 
 
 Turc, 
 
 ver, 
 
 ine, 
 
 nain, 
 
 pas, 
 
 prix, 
 
 rang, 
 
 sors, 
 
 tonds, 
 
 vers, 
 
 mes, 
 
 neuf, 
 
 pm, 
 
 plut, 
 
 rend, 
 
 sue, 
 
 temps, 
 
 voeu, 
 
 mais, 
 
 uos, 
 
 pain, 
 
 plait, 
 
 Rhin, 
 
 sort, 
 
 tint, 
 
 vert, 
 
 moi, 
 
 neufs, 
 
 paix, 
 
 pleut, 
 
 rond, 
 
 six, 
 
 tend, 
 
 veux, 
 
 mon, 
 
 nous, 
 
 pais, 
 
 par, 
 
 rapt, 
 
 Sud, 
 
 tein, 
 
 voir, 
 
 mien, 
 
 ni, 
 
 pis, 
 
 pieu, 
 
 reins, 
 
 sis, 
 
 tien, 
 
 veut, 
 
 mi el, 
 
 nef, 
 
 palt, 
 
 perd, 
 
 rumb, 
 
 sait, 
 
 tends, 
 
 vois, 
 
 mieux, 
 
 nid, 
 
 peau, 
 
 pret, 
 
 rien, 
 
 Seth, 
 
 tronc, 
 
 voit, 
 
 mo is, 
 
 nu, 
 
 plat, 
 
 perds, 
 
 romps, 
 
 sauf, 
 
 troc, 
 
 voix 
 
 m'en, 
 
 nids, 
 
 pot, 
 
 plis, 
 
 rieur, 
 
 Saul, 
 
 trop, 
 
 vais, 
 
 moins, 
 
 nerf, 
 
 plus, 
 
 pied, 
 
 roi, 
 
 seau, 
 
 tres, 
 
 vas, 
 
 marc, 
 
 non, 
 
 pu, 
 
 pair, 
 
 rois, 
 
 sien, 
 
 trot, 
 
 vin, 
 
 mil, 
 
 net, 
 
 pots, 
 
 pieds, 
 
 Ruth. 
 
 sied, 
 
 tu, 
 
 vif, 
 
 Mars, 
 
 nom, 
 
 pus, 
 
 poix, 
 
 
 sieur, 
 
 t'en, 
 
 vins, 
 
 mot, 
 
 Nil, 
 
 peaux, 
 
 peur, 
 
 
 sois, 
 
 traits, 
 
 vit, 
 
 Mons, 
 
 Nord, 
 
 peu, 
 
 puits, 
 
 sa, 
 
 soif, 
 
 tard, 
 
 vmgt, 
 
 Metz, 
 
 nait, 
 
 Paul, 
 
 pleurs, 
 
 se, 
 
 soit, 
 
 trait, 
 
 vis, 
 
 mont, 
 
 nuit, 
 
 poil, 
 
 poux, 
 
 son, 
 
 soin, 
 
 Tyr, 
 
 vint, 
 
 met, 
 
 nul, 
 
 peut, 
 
 pour, 
 
 sac, 
 
 soir, 
 
 toit, 
 
 vil, 
 
 mut, 
 
 nuls, 
 
 puis, 
 
 pur. 
 
 sain, 
 
 sou, 
 
 trois, 
 
 vol, 
 
 mets, 
 
 noir, 
 
 point, 
 
 
 sacs, 
 
 suif, 
 
 toits, 
 
 vent, 
 
 meurs, 
 
 noix, 
 
 pieu, 
 
 quand, 
 
 sel, 
 
 sous, 
 
 tas, 
 
 veuf, 
 
 meut, 
 
 nceud, 
 
 pend, 
 
 que, 
 
 ses, 
 
 seoir, 
 
 tais, 
 
 vends, 
 
 mer, 
 
 noeuds, 
 
 plan, 
 
 quel, 
 
 saint, 
 
 sourd, 
 
 train, 
 
 vain, 
 
 mort, 
 
 
 part, 
 
 qU ^ 
 
 si, 
 
 seul, 
 
 teint, 
 
 vu, 
 
 maux, 
 
 
 peins, 
 
 qujl, 
 
 saut, 
 
 stuc, 
 
 taux, 
 
 vaut, 
 
 mords, 
 
 on, 
 
 port, 
 
 qu'en, 
 
 sot, 
 
 soeur, 
 
 thym, 
 
 vient, 
 
 mur, 
 
 or, 
 
 plains, 
 
 qu'a, 
 
 sols, 
 
 seuil. 
 
 toux, 
 
 vains, 
 
 muid, 
 
 ou, 
 
 peint, 
 
 queue, 
 
 sec, 
 
 
 tiers, 
 
 vaux, 
 
 moeurS; 
 
 , ont, 
 
 pore, 
 
 quoi, 
 
 sers, 
 
 ta, 
 
 tour, 
 
 vieux, 
 
 Mai, 
 
 ou, 
 
 parts, 
 
 qu'un, 
 
 sans, 
 
 ton, 
 
 trou, 
 
 vont, 
 
 main, 
 
 OS, 
 
 plaint, 
 
 qu'on, 
 
 son, 
 
 te, 
 
 tut, 
 
 vous, 
 
 mus, 
 
 oie, 
 
 plais, 
 
 queux. 
 
 sert, 
 
 the, 
 
 Turcs. 
 
 vrai. 
 
 mains, 
 
 oing, 
 
 plein, 
 
 
 sang, 
 
 tes, 
 
 
 
 mots, 
 
 oui, 
 
 pan, 
 
 ras, 
 
 sont, 
 
 thon, 
 
 va, 
 
 yeux. 
 
 mou, 
 
 ours, 
 
 plomb, 
 
 rat, 
 
 sent, 
 
 tel, 
 
 vau, 
 
 
 inaint. 
 
 oeuf, 
 
 pont, 
 
 rets, 
 
 saints, 
 
 toi, 
 
 veau, 
 
 Zest. 
 
16 Oj PRONUNCIATION 
 
 First Table of the Consonants ivhich are pronounced 
 at the end of Syllables. 
 
 b. Absent, su&venir, radoui, Acha6, Job, &c. rumh r 
 
 de Vent (pron. rom&.). 
 
 c. Avec, eehec, aspect, Marc, Arc (but not in arc- 
 
 boutant), sac (though not in un sac de ble), froc* 
 Troc, &c. 
 
 f. and ph. Che/J vif, soif, retif, Asaph, Joseph, &c. 
 
 J. Ca/cu/, fi7, poi/, sel, seul, &c. This consonant has 
 
 a liquid articulation at the end ofAwil, babi/, 
 Bresi/, gresi/, mil, pen/: as likewise in these 
 syllables, ail, eil, ueil, euil, ouil, as in mail, so- 
 le*'/, ecuez/, deuil, travazY, and trava*7/er, f enow/,. 
 and in gentz/homme. 
 
 r. Car, avoir, air, auteur, fer, hiver, cuiller, enfer, 
 
 s'asseoir, &c. Jupiter, Lutiier, Cranmer, &c. 
 
 y # This letter stands for two ii's, in the middle of 
 
 words, as voyons, moyen, essayer, nous employ- 
 ons, fuyard, ennuyeux, &c. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 First TABLE of the Words wherein the same Con- 
 sonants are dropt at the End of Syllables. 
 
 b. Plomfe. 
 
 c. Almanach, cotignac, clerc, echecs, cstomac, banc, blanc, 
 broc, flanc, franc {except in franc arbitre and franc 
 alleu), instinct, jonc, un marc, respecfs, tabac, croc 
 {except in croc-en-jambe), and du pore {except in pore- 
 epic, wherein the first c is pronounced). 
 
 i. Apprenti/^ Clef, che/^-d'oeuvre, Bailli/) boeu/s, oeu/f, 
 
 neu/s, cerf. 
 
 1. Bari/, cheni/, couti/, cu/, un fi/s, ivtsil, genti/, gri/, nom- 
 
 bri/, outi/, persi/, le pou/s, sou/ and sourci/. 
 
 r. Monsieur and messieurs {though r is pronounced in le 
 sieur, les sieurs), volontiers, danger, berge;*, barbie/' 
 {with all nouns in er, without excepting the French pro- 
 per Names, as Didier, Roger, &c.) : as also er at the 
 end of infinitives, as chanter, &c 
 
 This letter has in the following words the very same articu- 
 lation as in the English words yacht, yell, yon, you. 
 
 Ai'eul, ba'ionnette, ca'ieu, camaieu, faience, glaieul, 
 pa'ien, tavaiolle, Ba'iard, Baieux, Baionne, Caienne, 
 and Gaiette. 
 
18 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Second TABLE of the Consonants that are usually 
 dropt at the End of Syllables, 
 
 m. This consonant usually makes the foregoing vowel a nasal 
 one, as in chambre, membre, timbre, ombre, now, re- 
 nom, parfum, &c. 
 
 p. drap, sept, beaucoup, trqp, coup, camp, loup, compte, 
 exempt, (but not in exemption,) prompt, promptement, 
 temps, &c. 
 
 s. This consonant usually makes the foregoing vowel broad, 
 as in appas, palais, effets, repos, &c. 
 
 ci. laid, iroid, cliaud, muirf, nid, pied, souri, fonJ, &c. 
 
 t. biit, m^, effet, lit, \eut, mot, but, gout, taut, ouvert, et t 
 est, &c. 
 
 n. This consonant usually makes the foregoing vowel a nasal one? 
 as in bien, ewtewdre, plaw, un, brun, &c. 
 
 g. doigt, legs, vingt, long, rang, faubourg, &c. 
 
 x. paLr, pri#, chevauj, la tou#, des chou#, &c. 
 
 z. This consonant gives the sound of '6 to the preceding e, as in 
 nez, assez, alW, vous lisez, &c. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 
 
 Second TABLE of the Words wherein these Conso- 
 nants are pronounced at the End of Syllables. 
 
 m. hem, item, Amsterdam, Abraham, Sem, Cham, Matusa- 
 lem, Selim, Stockholm, with all proper names, except 
 Adam and Absalom. 
 
 p. cap, julep, Gap, with beaucoup and trqp, before a word 
 
 beginning with a vowel, as trop ^bligeant. 
 
 s. as, anus, agnus, bis, bibus, blocus, calus, gratis, iris, ore- 
 
 mus, ours, Phebus, rebus, sinus, virus, vis, v Amos, Ce- 
 res, Pallas, Venus, and all proper names. 
 
 d. addition, rendition, Sue?, Ephod, David, &c. It takes the 
 
 articulation oft in quand, and adnouns before the nouns 
 beginning with a vowel ; as likewise in the third person 
 singular of Verbs, before il, elle, on ; as also in de fond 
 en comble. 
 
 t. bru*, de bu* en blanc, correct, direcf, do*, exac*, echec 
 
 & mar, Es*, and Oues*, fa*, un fai*, pac*, rap*, so*, 
 zeni*h, Bres*, &c. 
 
 ii. ewnemi, bine, iwnover, abdomera, amew, examew, hymerc, 
 and in all proper names. 
 
 g. Bourg-mestre, Agag, Sarug, and all proper names : and g 
 takes the articulation of k or qu in suer sang & eau, le 
 sang & le carnage, long espace ; un Bourg; but it is 
 silent in faubourg and other compounds. 
 
 x. This consonant has the articulation of cs in Ajar, Alix, 
 Anthrax, Beatrix, du borax, Felix, Lynx, le larynx, 
 onyx, le pharynx, phenix, prefix, perplex, Pollux, 
 Siphax, Sphinx, Styx, Storax. It takes the hissing 
 sound of s in Cadix ; and that of z at the end of ad- 
 nouns before nouns beginning with a vowel, or h mute, 
 as in doux amusement, heureux homme. 
 
 z. This consonant takes the hissing articulation of s in these 
 proper names, Rodez, Senez, Usez ; but it is dropt in 
 Rejr, Seez, and Vivarez {when so spelt). 
 
£0 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 A TABLE of the combination of letters which compose Syllables, 
 or of t lie divers forms and various shapes which one and the 
 same sound can receive. 
 
 Observe, 1st, that though one and the same sound can receive 
 divers forms, and be represented in writing many various ways, 
 yet one cannot indifferently spell a word or syllable in such or 
 such a manner. Thus an (year) cannot be spelt like en (in) ; 
 nor dans (in) like dent or dents (teeth) ; though an and en, dans, 
 dent, and dents, have one and the same sound ; this table showing 
 only the circumstances, or rather words, wherein a certain num- 
 ber of letters, coupled together, express only the sound that is 
 at the head of that class. 
 
 Qdly, That those various ways of spelling one and the same 
 sound, seldom take place, except in the final syllables of words, 
 and that too, saving the observations that shall be made in their 
 proper places, about final consonants. 
 
 o 7 Words wherein the sounds <n i Words whereinthe sounds 
 -bounds. r j oounas, r , 
 
 are jound. are found. 
 
 
 a 
 
 aps. 
 
 des draps, 
 
 sheets. 
 
 
 
 as. 
 
 des bras, 
 
 arms. 
 
 sounded like a in 
 
 at and ally, at. 
 
 un mat, 
 
 a mast. 
 
 a. 
 
 il a, 
 
 he has. ats. 
 
 des chats, 
 
 cats. 
 
 a. 
 
 a Paris, 
 
 at Paris. 
 
 
 
 ac. 
 
 tabac, 
 
 tobacco. 
 
 an 
 
 
 ach. 
 
 almanacA, 
 
 almanack. 
 
 
 
 al. 
 
 arsenal, storehouse of arms sounded like an in want. 
 
 ap. 
 
 drap, 
 
 cloth, an. 
 
 un an, 
 
 a year 
 
 as. 
 
 un bras,* 
 
 an arm. anc. 
 
 hlanc, 
 
 white. 
 
 at. 
 
 chat, 
 
 cat. ancs. 
 
 des bancs, 
 
 benches. 
 
 
 
 and. 
 
 un tissera/ja 7 , 
 
 a weaver. 
 
 
 a 
 
 ands. 
 
 des glands, 
 
 acorns. 
 
 sounded like a in 
 
 all, or aw in ang. 
 
 du sang, 
 
 blood. 
 
 
 law. 
 
 angs. 
 
 les ctangs, 
 
 the ponds. 
 
 a. 
 
 de la pate. 
 
 dough, ans. 
 
 dans, 
 
 in. 
 
 acs. 
 
 des lacsf, 
 
 nets. ant. 
 
 devant, 
 
 before. 
 
 achs. 
 
 almanac As, 
 
 almanacks, ants. 
 
 savants, 
 
 learned. 
 
 * It is only in this word that as has the slender acute sound ©f a, every where 
 else as has the broad sound of A. 
 
 t c is sounded in lacs (and a is slender, acute, and short) when it signifies 
 lakes. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 21 
 
 ^ 7 Words wherein the sounds & -, Words wherein tlie sounds 
 
 are found. 
 
 am. 
 
 amp. 
 
 amps. 
 
 en. 
 
 eng. 
 
 engs. 
 
 end. 
 
 ends. 
 
 ens. 
 
 ent. 
 
 ents. 
 
 em. 
 
 empt. 
 
 are found. 
 Adam, 
 un camp, 
 les champs, 
 entre, 
 un hareng, 
 des harengs, 
 il prend, 
 tu rends, 
 
 Adam. oeux. 
 a camp. - 
 thefields. 
 between. eut. # 
 a herring, 
 herrings, 
 he takes. soun d e d Ufa er { n summer, &c 
 
 voeux, vows. 
 
 {des ccufs, e gg$* 
 
 des b(xufs, oxen. 
 
 il \eut, he is zvilling* 
 
 eur. 
 
 thou renderest. 
 
 eur. 
 
 une Hear, 
 ge>*s, peopte. eurs . des plewr ^ 
 
 fce/if, an hundred. heur# bonAewr, 
 
 les de/tfs, Me fee/*. } ieurs . ma lheKrs, 
 
 ewploi, employment. ^^ le caiir> 
 
 exewipf, e*empf (or) „ des c h^ wr5 , 
 
 empts. exempt /ree. eurre . du \, eurrey 
 
 emps. le temps, the time. neure . Ulie heure 
 aen. Caen (the name of a city). emes ' demeures, 
 
 ean. Jean- John. eurenti il s meU rent, 
 
 aon. un iaon, a fawn. 
 
 aons. des \>aons, peacocks. 
 
 afiower. 
 
 tears. 
 
 happiness. 
 
 misfortunes. 
 
 the heart. 
 
 choirs. 
 
 butter. 
 
 an hour. 
 
 abodes. 
 
 they die. 
 
 sounded like e in her 
 le, 
 
 eu. 
 
 euf. 
 eut. 
 
 ce. 
 
 fie, 
 
 (jetme, 
 vei# 
 il pet/f, 
 C aillet, 
 (.ail, 
 
 oeil. 
 euil. 
 
 the, him, it. ue ?J St 
 * j ueils. 
 
 oeil. 
 un ozil, 
 le dew#, 
 ecueils, 
 iauteuils, 
 
 an eye. 
 
 the mourning. 
 
 sands. 
 
 arm-chairs. 
 
 vlav eu ^ es -^ es lilies, haves, 
 
 vounp ue *^ es - tu cueilles, thou pickest. 
 widower ue ^^ ent, ^ s vecueillent,they gather 
 he can. , 
 
 pink, 
 eye. 
 
 sounded like a in fate. 
 
 ceu. 
 
 un vaw, 
 
 a vow. e. 
 
 v 6 rite, 
 
 truth. 
 
 ocud. 
 
 un Tiozud, 
 
 a knot. ed. 
 
 un piec?, 
 
 afoot. 
 
 teuf. 
 
 C un hauf, 
 \ un auf, 
 
 an ox. edi. 
 an egg. ef. 
 sandt. efs. 
 
 les pieds, 
 une clef, 
 
 thefeet. 
 a key. 
 
 ue. 
 
 un eciail, 
 
 des cle/s 
 
 keys. 
 
 
 
 er. 
 
 donner, 
 
 to give. 
 
 
 eux. 
 
 ers. 
 
 dangers, 
 
 dangers. 
 
 eu. 
 
 jewne, 
 
 a fast. cs. 
 
 les santes, 
 
 the toasts. 
 
 eux. 
 
 les ieux, 
 
 the fires, ez. 
 
 vous lisez, 
 
 you read. 
 
 eufs. 
 
 habits neufs, 
 
 wea> coafs. et or 8c, 
 
 and. 
 
 
 • In any 
 
 other word *uf sounds like eu in jcu. 
 
 
0,2 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Sounds 
 
 Words wherein the sounds 
 are found. 
 
 Sounds. 
 
 Words wherein the sounds 
 are found. 
 
 ai. 
 
 $**> 
 
 I have. ega. 
 
 des legs, 
 
 legacies. 
 
 eai. 
 
 je mangel, 
 
 J ate. est. 
 
 il esf, 
 
 he is. 
 
 26. 
 
 JSgypte, 
 
 * Egypt, ets. 
 
 des foreVs, 
 
 forests. 
 
 ce. 
 
 aconomie, 
 
 (economy, oi. 
 
 connoztre, 
 
 to know. 
 
 
 
 oie. 
 
 monnoze, 
 
 coin. 
 
 
 e 
 
 oient. 
 
 ils dlsoie?it, 
 
 they said. 
 
 sounded like e in bell, fed, pen, ois. 
 
 je lisois, 
 
 I did read. 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 eois. 
 
 je changeois, 
 
 1 did change. 
 
 e. 
 
 etie, 
 
 s/*e. eoient 
 
 . ils mangeoient, they did 
 
 ai. 
 
 vrai, 
 
 tfrwe. 
 
 
 eat. 
 
 ay. 
 
 May, 
 
 May. etre. 
 
 champeVre, 
 
 rural. 
 
 ei. 
 
 peine, 
 
 a pain, etres. 
 
 feneVres, 
 
 windows. 
 
 aid. 
 
 laid, 
 
 ?^g/zy. aitre. 
 
 naitre, 
 
 to be born. 
 
 ait. 
 
 iait, 
 
 maete. aitres 
 
 maitres, 
 
 masters. 
 
 et. 
 
 effitf, 
 
 e/fec£. 
 
 oi 
 
 
 oi. 
 a double sound like 
 
 wea in sweat, a double sound pretty near like 
 
 oi. 
 
 moi, tot, 
 
 I, thou. 
 
 why. 
 
 
 oit. 
 
 H doit, 
 
 he owes. 
 
 
 
 oigt. 
 
 un doigf, 
 
 a finger, oie. 
 a whip. oie. 
 
 la voie, 
 
 the zvay. 
 
 ouet. 
 
 un iouet, 
 
 une o?e, 
 
 a goose. 
 
 ouhait. un souhait, 
 
 a wish. 
 
 
 
 ouoit. 
 
 il \ouoit, 
 
 he didpraise. ois. 
 
 du bo*s, 
 
 wood. 
 
 
 
 oix. 
 
 une ixoix, 
 
 a walnut. 
 
 
 i, & 
 
 oids. 
 
 le poiafc, 
 
 the weight. 
 
 sounded likee in were, there, &c. 
 
 
 
 eS. 
 
 tu es, 
 
 thou art. oigts. 
 
 les doigts, 
 
 tliefingers. 
 
 es. 
 
 tr^s, raostf. 
 
 these, best's, ouets. 
 
 iouets, 
 
 whips. 
 
 e\ 
 
 f&e, 
 
 a feast, ouhaits.des souhaits } 
 
 wishes. 
 
 at. 
 
 maitre, 
 
 master, ouoient.ils louoient, 
 
 they praised. 
 
 ais. 
 
 irais, 
 
 fresh. 
 
 
 
 aie. 
 
 iutaie, 
 
 lofty trees. 
 
 er 
 
 
 aies. 
 
 plaies, 
 
 wounds. 
 
 sounded like 
 
 ere. 
 
 ait. 
 
 il plait, 
 
 it pleases, 
 features, er. 
 
 
 
 aits. 
 
 des trfl?Vs, 
 
 du fer, 
 
 iron. 
 
 et. 
 
 preY, 
 
 ready, ers, 
 
 les mers, 
 
 the seas. 
 
 ets. 
 
 valets, 
 
 servants, air. 
 
 Tair, 
 
 the air. 
 
 aids. 
 
 \aids, 
 
 ugly. airs. 
 
 des airs, 
 
 tunes. 
 
 aix. 
 
 paix, 
 tehees, 
 
 peace, aire. 
 
 iaire, 
 
 to do 
 
 ecs. 
 
 c/iess. ere. 
 
 un clere, 
 
 a clerk 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY, 
 
 23 
 
 Sounds Words wherein the sounds o ounf j Words wherein the sounds 
 are found. are found. 
 
 ercs. 
 
 des clercs, 
 
 clerks, its. 
 
 des habiVs, 
 
 clothes , 
 
 erds. 
 
 tu perds, 
 
 f7*ow Zoses^. ix. 
 
 le pm-, 
 
 the price. 
 
 erf. 
 
 un cerf f 
 
 a stag. 
 
 
 
 erfs. 
 
 les cerfs, 
 
 the stags. 
 
 in 
 
 
 ert. 
 
 un d&sert, 
 
 a desert, sounded like en in 
 
 length, or ain 
 
 erts. 
 
 desserts, 
 
 desserts. 
 
 in saint. 
 
 ere. 
 
 un pe>e, 
 
 a father. 
 
 
 
 eres. 
 
 des irhes, 
 
 brothers, in. 
 
 du V27Z, 
 
 Me. 
 
 £rent. 
 
 ils esphent, 
 
 they hope. ins. 
 
 tuvsws, . 
 
 thou earnest. 
 
 erre. 
 
 la terre, 
 
 the earth, aim. 
 
 la iaim, 
 
 hunger. 
 
 uere. 
 
 guere, 
 
 seldom, aims. 
 
 des daims, 
 
 deers. 
 
 uerres 
 
 . guerres, 
 
 eiyars. ain. 
 
 du pew/?, 
 
 bread. 
 
 aires. 
 
 affaires, 
 
 affairs, ains. 
 
 tu crains, 
 
 thoufearest. 
 
 airent, 
 
 . ils Haircut, 
 
 Mey s?rce//. aint. 
 
 saint, 
 
 holy. 
 
 errent 
 
 . ils f errent, 
 
 they shoe, aints. 
 
 les Saints, 
 
 the Saints 
 
 
 
 eim. 
 
 Reims, (a 
 
 French city). 
 
 
 oir 
 
 ein. 
 
 fe?/idre, 
 
 to feign, 
 girt 
 
 a double sound, almost like war eint. 
 
 C«Wf, 
 
 
 in warm. emts. 
 
 tewfs, 
 
 dyed, 
 he held 
 
 
 
 int. 
 
 il tin/, 
 
 oir. 
 
 noir, 
 
 black, inct. 
 
 Pinstwtf?, 
 
 the instinct. 
 
 oire. 
 
 gloire, 
 
 glory, ingt. 
 
 vingt, 
 
 twenty. 
 
 oires. 
 
 des ioires, 
 
 fairs, im. 
 
 le timbre, 
 
 the stamp. 
 
 eoires 
 
 . nsigeoires, 
 
 /??S. 
 
 
 
 oirent 
 
 . ils ioirent, 
 
 Mey squitter. 
 
 ien, or 
 
 
 . 
 
 en aft 
 
 er i, making a 
 
 double sound 
 
 sounded like i in bit, fit, filial, &c. ien. 
 
 bien. 
 
 well. 
 
 
 
 lens. 
 
 tu vte/is, 
 
 thou comest 
 
 i. 
 
 id, 
 
 fore. ient. 
 
 il t/ew£, 
 
 he holds. 
 
 y- 
 
 ily a, 
 
 Mere 25. 
 
 
 
 ie. 
 
 la lie, 
 
 Me dreg. 
 
 oin 
 
 
 ies. 
 
 des pouh'es, 
 
 putties, or in 
 
 after o, making a double 
 
 ient. 
 
 ils lient, 
 
 Mej/ fie. sound pretty near like wen mi 
 
 id. 
 
 un nid, 
 
 a nest. went. 
 
 
 ids. 
 
 des maids, 
 
 hogsheads, oin. 
 
 du foz'ra, 
 
 hay. 
 
 il. 
 
 chem7. 
 
 a dogkennel. oins. 
 
 moews, 
 
 less. 
 
 ils. 
 
 le fils, 
 
 Me sow. oint. 
 
 point, 
 
 not. 
 
 is. 
 
 des aim's, 
 
 friends, oints. 
 
 des points, 
 
 stitches. 
 
 it. 
 
 il dit, 
 
 fo 5ays. oing. 
 
 le poing, 
 
 thefist 
 
24 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Sounds. 
 
 Words wherein the sounds 
 
 Woi^ds wherein the sounds 
 
 are found, 
 ouin. msLTspuin, a porpoise, ort 
 
 ouen 
 
 o. 
 oc. 
 op. 
 ot. 
 
 St. Ouen (a proper name), orts. 
 ore. 
 o ores. 
 
 sounded like © in not. orent 
 
 Todorat, 
 un croc, 
 
 Sounds. 
 
 arejouna. 
 
 fort, strong. 
 
 des ports, harbours. 
 
 hellebore, hellebore. 
 
 tu dores, thou gildest. 
 ils dorent, they gild, 
 
 smelling, horrent, ils abhorrent, they abhor, 
 a hook. aure. un Centawe, Centaur. 
 
 trop, too much, aures. les M.aures, the Moors. 
 
 un mot, a zvord. aurent. iLs restaurent, they restore 
 
 o ou 
 
 sounded like o in old, or oa in sounded like ou in you, cou'd, &c. 
 
 o. 
 
 OS. 
 
 6t. 
 
 ocs. 
 
 ots. 
 
 oths. 
 
 au. 
 
 aud. 
 
 auds. 
 
 aut. 
 
 auts. 
 
 ault. 
 
 eau. 
 
 aux or 
 
 eaux. 
 
 ao. 
 
 coast. ou. 
 
 C cdtc, coast, ou. 
 
 I cote, side. oud. 
 
 un 05, a bone. ouds. 
 
 bientoV, very soon. oug« 
 
 des crocs, hooks, ougs. 
 
 des mots, words, oup. 
 
 les Goths, the Goths, oups. 
 
 la Gaule, Gaul. ous. 
 
 chaud, hot. out. 
 r&chauds, chqffing-dishes. outs, 
 
 un deiaut, a defect, oux. 
 
 des d&iauts, faults, oue. 
 Perault (a proper name), oues. 
 
 de Yeau, water, ouent. 
 
 > des chapeaux, hats. °r ' 
 
 la Saone (a nver's name). 
 
 un fo?/, 
 
 afool. 
 
 cM, 
 
 whence. 
 
 elle couo!, 
 
 she sews. 
 
 tu couds, 
 
 thou sewest. 
 
 un joug, 
 
 a yoke. 
 
 jougs, 
 
 yokes. 
 
 un coup, 
 
 a blow. 
 
 des lowps, 
 
 wolves 
 
 noMS, 
 
 we, us. 
 
 tOM^, 
 
 all. 
 
 des igouts, 
 
 sinks. 
 
 doux, 
 
 szoeet. 
 
 unejowe, 
 
 a cheek. 
 
 les roues, 
 
 the wheels. 
 
 ils louent, 
 
 they praise, 
 out, August. 
 
 le mois d'A 
 
 soul, 
 
 drunk. 
 
 our 
 
 or 
 sounded as in Tudor, 
 or. de Yor, 
 ore. du pore, 
 ores, des pores, 
 ord. le hord, 
 orps. un corps, 
 ors. alors, 
 ords tu tordsj 
 
 sounded like oor in Moorish. 
 
 our. un iour, an oven. 
 
 gold. ours, le cours, the course. 
 
 pork. ourd. lourd, heavy. 
 
 pigs, ourds. sourds, deaf'. 
 
 the brim. ourg. un faubowrg, a suburb. 
 
 a body, ourgs. les faubowrgs/ta subw % bs 
 
 then. ourt. court, short 
 
 thou wringest. ourre. de la hourre, cow's hair* 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 25 
 
 Sounds Words wherein the sounds g oun j s Words wherein the sounds 
 
 are found. 
 
 ourres. tu iourres, thou stuffest. ues. 
 ourent. ils Gourent, they run. ut. 
 
 uts, 
 on uent. 
 
 sounded like on in won't. ux. 
 
 us. 
 
 on. 
 
 non, 
 one. done 
 
 no. 
 
 ■i 
 
 (in the middle of a eu - 
 sentence,) then. eus - 
 
 are found. 
 des statues, statues, 
 
 salut, a salute, 
 
 statuts, the statutes. 
 
 ils tuent, they kill. 
 
 le i\ux, the ebb. 
 
 du pus, corrupted matter. 
 ayant eu, having had. 
 
 ones 
 
 ons, 
 
 eon. 
 
 eons. 
 
 ond. 
 
 onds 
 
 ong. 
 
 ongs. 
 
 ont. 
 
 onts. 
 
 om. 
 
 omb. 
 
 ombs. 
 
 omps. 
 
 ompt. prompt, \ 
 
 ompts. prompts, J 
 
 urn. un factum 
 
 aon. 
 aons. 
 
 rushes. eut « 
 t/ie gifts. * fa- 
 a pigeon, 
 let us eat. 
 he bottom, 
 circles, ur. 
 7 urs. 
 lo "S- „re. 
 the forehead, ures 
 
 desjoncs, 
 
 les dons, 
 
 un pigeon, 
 
 mzngeons, 
 
 le iond, 
 
 des xomUy 
 
 long, I 
 
 longs, S 
 
 le ixont, 
 
 des ponts, 
 
 un worn, 
 
 du plomb, 
 
 des plombs, 
 
 tu romps, thou breakest. 
 
 quick. 
 
 un. 
 (a law term). uns< 
 an ox-fly. um .' 
 oxflies. ums . 
 
 unt. 
 unte. 
 
 feus, 
 il eut, 
 il eut, 
 
 I had. 
 he had. 
 lie might have* 
 
 ur 
 
 dlir, 
 
 des murs, 
 
 mure, 
 
 ordures, 
 
 bridges, eures. balayeures, 
 
 a name, urent. ils endurent, they endure 
 
 hard. 
 
 walls. 
 
 ripe 
 
 filth. 
 
 sweepings. 
 
 un taon, 
 des taons, 
 
 u 
 
 sounded almost as in prostitute ei 
 
 u. mure, 
 ue. une nue, 
 
 lead, eurent. lis eurent, 
 leads. 
 
 un. 
 
 chacttn, 
 les uns, 
 un paxium, 
 des p&riums, 
 deiunt, 
 des empiunts, 
 a jeun, 
 
 they had 
 
 every one 
 
 the ones. 
 
 a perfume. 
 
 perfumes. 
 
 deceased 
 
 loans 
 
 fasting 
 
 usury. 
 a cloud 
 
 Words difficult to pronounce. 
 
 car, gare, quality, casse, gai, geai, quai, gue, marque, guet, to, 
 quet, guetres, laquais, qu'est-ce, caisse, gain, Vulcain, publicain, 
 guinde, le quint, quintal, gueux, queue, belhqueux, vigueur, 
 vainqueur, aigii, cu, qu'un, re§u, gui, qui, quoi, aigiies, figue- 
 
26 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 vogue, guidant, figuier, viguier, Echiquier, Perruquier, moyen, 
 Roi, royal, voyons, voyions, payons, payions, pays, paye, Abbaye, 
 ayant, a'ieul, faience, Naiade, Pleiades, louions, suppleions, de 
 Fail, mail, eventail, attirail, eventails, travail, travailler, travail- 
 Ions, de la paille, des mailles, Versailles, qu'ils aillent, taille, 
 Tailleur, elle, une aile, soleil, pareil, abeille, bouteilles, veiller, 
 veillant, ils veillent, qu'ils veuillent, oseille, treille, seul, seuil, 
 deuil, feuille, cerfeuil, fauteuils, ecuelle, ecueil, linceul, recueil, 
 l'oeil, ouille, ouaille, veille, vielle, vieille, quille, anguille, 
 aiguille, du fil, le fils, une fille, coin, cogner, je cogne, baigner, 
 regnant, ils regnent, hargneux, une oie, monnoie, grenouille, ils 
 fouiiient. 
 
 After exhibiting, in the preceding tables, all the sounds and 
 articulations of the Frefich language, we shall, in the following 
 section, treat of each sound and articulation separately, and con- 
 sider, in the minutest manner, 1st, the Vowels ; Qdly, the Diph- 
 thongs ; Sdly, the Nasal Vowels ; 4thly, the Consonants ; and 
 othly, conclude with the several Marks used in writing French 
 Abbreviations, &c. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Of the sounds expressed by the six vowels, a, e, i, o, u, y, when not 
 attended in the same syllable by another vozvel, zvhich makes 
 them Diphthongs, nor followed by n or m, which makes them 
 Nasal. 
 
 a. 
 
 This letter receives two alterations or two sounds : the one 
 acute, slender, and commonly short; the other grave, broad, 
 and always long ; as they are expressed in these two words, 
 matin, and matin, and these English words, at, fat, rat, mad, 
 alley, and all, awe, law. a grave and broad is usually marked 
 over with a circumflex, thus (a) : or followed by a single s, thus 
 pas ; and its derivatives passer, surpasser, 8tc. though there are 
 two s's. Whenever a is named or spelt by itself, it is always by 
 the grave and broad sound, (un a, an a). 
 
 In the syllables ail, and aille, a keeps its sound, as we shall see 
 in its place ; and it is always short when it is followed by il only 
 (ail), and grave and long when followed by ille {aille). There- 
 fore it takes its acute and short sound in mail, a mall, and the 
 grave and long one in maille, a stitch ; except in medaille, ailleurs 
 fTailleurs, wherein a is acute and short. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 
 
 This observation is not so strictly applicable to ail and aille 
 when they meet in the middle of words. One may however say 
 in general, that if the word is a Derivative, whether noun or verb, 
 one must consider the final syllable of the Primitive, for ail and 
 aille keep in the Derivative the same sound which they have at 
 the end of the Primitive. Thus a is acute and short in il tra- 
 vaille, and ils travailienl (lie works, they work), though at the 
 end of words, because that verb is derived from travail, wherein 
 a is acute and short ; and for the same reason it is acute and short 
 too in the middle of the words of the same verb travailler to work, 
 nous travaillons, we work, &c. Thus again, a is grave and long 
 in tailler to cut, tailleur a tailor, paillasse a straw-bed, &c. be- 
 cause it is so too in the Primitive taille cut, paille straw. 
 
 As for these persons of oiler to go, qiCil aille let him go, qu'ils 
 aillent let them go, a must be grave and long there by its nature, 
 because these persons are irregularly formed, without being de- 
 rived from any Primitive of that termination. 
 
 a followed by y don't make altogether a vowel or a syllable, 
 because y stands for two i's, the first whereof is joined to a, and 
 makes the improper diphthong ai, and the second is blended with 
 the following vowel to make a liquid articulation, or sounds by 
 itself, as in pays country, which is pronounced as if it were 
 written pai-is : the spelling of such words with an i trema (that 
 is, with two dots over it), as is but too commonly met with in 
 books, is contrary to the analogy of the language. 
 
 The final aye of paye and abbaye are pronounced very differ- 
 ently : in paye the second i of y is blended with the following e, 
 and sounds yen (pai yea) ; in abbaye it sounds by itself as in 
 pays (a-bai-ie). 
 
 e. 
 
 This vowel expresses six different eounds, at least, in French; 
 i/hich, for clearness sake, I'll call the first e guttural, on account 
 of its receiving its sound so immediately through the throat ; the 
 second mute, because it is not sounded ; the third acute ; the 
 fourth grave; the fifth circumflex ; and the sixth intermediate, 
 that is, open and short ; as in belle, dentelle, blesser, peine, ha- 
 teine, effet, &c. Whenever this letter is named by itself, 'tis 
 always by the acute sound, (un e f an e.) 
 
 e guttural, 
 e guttural is never accented. It is found in the monosyllable* 
 je, me, ne : te, le, que, de, &c. in the two first syllables of recevoir 
 spelt by themselves, and in a great many other words, wheiein it 
 
28 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 cannot be sounded like one of the e's accented ; I mean, neither 
 acute nor grave, but has a sound peculiar to itself. That e is 
 usually dropt in common conversation when coming after another 
 syllable ; as sije dis, if I say, pronounce as if it were spelt j'dis. 
 But when two or three of these monosyllables meet together, one 
 ©f them at least must be sounded, either the first or the last, as 
 je ne le veux pas, I won't ; pronounce je rile veux pas. In this 
 last sentence, as well as in repeating verses, and especially in the 
 particle de in these words, ordre de demeurer dehors, order to stay 
 without doors, that e expresses a sound exactly the same as that 
 of the improper diphthong eu as expressed in the word jeu, play, 
 these two monosyllables je and jew being pronounced alike. And 
 the sound e ©r eu is almost the sante sound expressed in the Eng- 
 lish monosyllable her (which is pronounced almost like the French 
 word heure), and the last vowel of these words, dinner, summer, 
 maker, porter, parlour, &c. these English syllables answering 
 most precisely to the French ones neur, meur, heur, teur, leur. 
 The only difference is, that the English make it an obtuse, deaf- 
 ened, and exceedingly rapid sound, the last consonant of which is 
 articulated very strong ; whereas the French do not articulate the 
 Consonant so much, and express the sound quite full, and dwell 
 upon it longer. But whether the accent is upon a syllable or 
 no ; whether the consonants, which enter into the composition 
 of the syllable, are articulated or not ; the sound is, and must 
 needs be, the same. 
 
 There is such a vast variety in the contradictions of that e, and 
 wherein it is not pronounced, as can be learnt only by hearing- 
 one read and speak who has the true French accent. But be- 
 sides the dropping of e guttural in the aforesaid syllable, there 
 are more particular cases, as in the middle and end of words, 
 wherein it must not be sounded at all ; and 'tis in that quality 
 only it has been hitherto considered by our Grammarians, under 
 the appellation of e mute, or not sounded. 
 
 e mute. 
 
 e mute is more particularly met with in the middle and at the 
 end of words, either alone, as in nouns and adnouns of the femi- 
 nine gender and singular number, as dme soul, belle fine ; ©r 
 followed by 5, or even nt, as in all the plural numbers and in 
 verbs, as dmes souls, tu paries thou speakest, Us aiment they love ; 
 or, in fine, preceded by another vowel, as in vie life, armee an 
 army. In all which cases e discharges no other part than does the 
 final e of these English words, love, life, done, same, prince, 8cc. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 
 
 wherein it is not sounded at all ; only in the latter case it causes 
 the preceding vowel to be drawn out somewhat longer. 
 
 e is suppressed both in pronunciation and writing. 
 
 1st. In all monosyllables before a word beginning with a vowel 
 or h not aspirated, and it is supplied by an apostrophe thus : 
 l J enfant, the child, ^\ r le enfant, 
 
 Vhomme, the man, I • a\^ homme, 
 
 faime, I love, > » Jje aime, 
 
 il n 9 aime pas, he don't love, \ ° / M ne oxme pas, 
 
 I 9 amour qu 9 elle a, the love she has, J \,le amour que elle «Scc. 
 
 The apostrophe is also put after parce que, and j usque, when a 
 vowel follows : as parce qu 9 il est, because he is ; jusqu a demain, 
 till to-morrow : and likewise after lorsque, puisque, quoique. 
 
 2dli/, In the adnoun grande before the following nouns, tho* 
 beginning with a consonant, 
 
 grand'mere, grandmother, 
 grand 'chambre, large chamber, 
 
 grand'salle, large hall, 
 
 grand 'chtre, great cheer, 
 
 grand 7 faim, great hunger, 
 
 grand* soif great thirst, 
 
 granoVpeur, great fear or fright, 
 
 grand'pitie, great pity, 
 
 grand'part, great share, 
 
 grand'messe, high mass, 
 
 a grand 9 peine, with much diffi- 
 culty, hardly, 
 ce 11 est pas grand' chose, 'tis no 
 great matter. 
 
 It is better, in writing, to make no elision at the end of grande 
 before these words, especially when this adnoun is preceded by 
 one of these particles, une, la, plus, tres, fort : nay, excepting, 
 grand'mere, and grand'messe, when une comes before,'tis better to 
 pronounce grande than grand. Therefore, write and pronounce 
 une grande chambre, la plus grande chere, tres-grande peur, &c. 
 
 Those cases excepted, never suppress e in writing, nor spell 
 uti indign 9 action,! ? $ une indigne action, an unworthy action, 
 entr'eux, entr'elles, ) \entre eux, entre elles, amongst them ; 
 
 fair 9 un 9 eloquent 9 § merveilleus 9 histoire, for j aire une eloquente fy 
 merveilleuse histoire, to write an eloquent and marvellous history : 
 tho' e is not sounded in all those cases, and you must pronounce as 
 if it were written (in French*) fai ru nelokan, et merveilleu zistoire. 
 
 N. B. Whenever, to represent the true pronunciation of one or many words 
 together, I express them by other letters than those in use, that must always be 
 understood with respect to the French language; it being, strictly speaking, 
 absolutely impossible to represent such words or sentences as if they should be 
 pronounced so with respect to the English. It is sufficient to have shown, as 
 exactly as can possibly be, in the Tables prefixed to this Treatise, all the French 
 sounds with their combinations, and the English sounds that answer to them. 
 To pretend to more, that is, dressing French words and sentences in English 
 sounds and letters, would be willingly running headlong into those gross, shock- 
 ing absurdities, that are seen in a monstrous book extant, most impertinently 
 Dsuiping the title of a French Grammar. 
 
 D 2 
 
30 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 3dly, e is quite dropt in future and conditional tenses of verbs t 
 as, 
 
 Je serai, I shall or will be, "J CJesrai, 
 
 tu porteras, thou wilt carry, y Jtu portras, 
 
 il aimeroit, he would love, f ^ } il aimroit, 
 
 nous trouverons, we shall find, J \.nous trouvrons. 
 
 Except when it is followed by two consonants, the first ©f which is r, as in 
 je verrai I shall see, il enverroit he would send, wherein e has the sonorous 
 pronunciation that shall be described in the sequel 
 
 And in verbs ending in ier, as prier to pray, itudier to study, and even in 
 yer preceded by a vowel, as payer to pay, and employer to employ, it is better 
 to cut off the e not sounded in those tenses, and to write these words as they 
 are pronounced. Je prirai I shall pray, vous itudiriez you would study, il 
 emploiroit he would employ, instead of prierai, etudieriez, employ eroit. — It 
 is the same with the nouns derived from those verbs, as remerciment for remer- 
 ciement* from remercier to thank, fyc, . 
 
 Athly, e after g and followed by o, as in pigeon a pigeon, serves 
 only to give g the articulation of j, which otherwise would take 
 the hard articulation of g. For the same reason e is added in 
 spelling before a and o in gerunds, and preterite tenses of verbs 
 ending in ger, as changer to change, manger to eat, juger to 
 judge : in all which cases e is no more sounded than in these 
 words, pigeon, changeable. Therefore, don't write changant, il 
 juga, nous mangons, as according to the analogy ef the language, 
 you must write commenqant, and commen^a, from commencer to 
 begin ; but changeant,jugea, mangeons, and pronounce chanjant, 
 jvja, manjons, pijon, &c. 
 
 5thly, e is not sounded in the penultima (the last syllable but 
 one) of nouns ending in te and derived from adnouns ; as durete 
 hardness, konniteti kindness, derived from dur hard, and honnite 
 kind. 
 
 Except in such nouns in te as have e preceded by i, as impiett ungodliness, 
 sobriite sobriety, &c. which are derived from impie, and sobre, &c. e in these 
 words, takes both the acute sound and accent.. 
 
 6thly, In the penultima of nouns in ment derived from verbs : 
 asjugement judgment, mouvement motion, contentement content- 
 ment, derived from juger, mouvoir, contenter. 
 
 Except agrement liking, supplement supplement, and these three words 
 clement clement, ilement element, and v6h6ment vehement. Vide p. 33. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 31 
 
 7thty, In the penultima of adverbs in mcni ; as franchement 
 frankly, sottement sillily, #c. 
 
 Except 1st, these eight aveuglement blindly, commodement conveniently, 
 communement commonly, confusement confusedly, expressement expressly, 
 impunement with impunity, profondement deeply, uniformement uniformly : 
 2df/y, adverbs derived from adnouns ending in i (acute) : as aisement easily, 
 effrontement in a bold manner, <§rc. derived from aise and effronte, &c. 
 
 8thly, In the penultima of the infinitive of verbs ending in 
 eler, emer, ener, eser, eter, ever, enir: as celer to conceal, jeter 
 to throw, semer to sow, peser to weigh, venir to come, fyc. 
 
 Except in these verbs : 
 
 aliener, to alienate, 
 arriter, to stop, 
 
 biler, to bleat, 
 
 blasphemer, to blas- 
 pheme, 
 gangrener, to gan- 
 grene, 
 decreter, to decree, 
 egrener, to take out 
 
 the grain, 
 cmpieter, to incroach 
 
 upon, 
 itrenner, to hansel, 
 s'endetter, to run in 
 debt, 
 
 senqueter, (at present 
 very seldom used 
 for to inquire), 
 entiter, to cause the 
 head-ache, meaning 
 smells, 
 s 1 'entiter, to be obsti- 
 nately resolved, 
 exceller, to excel, 
 
 feter, to celebrate, 
 fouetter, to whip, 
 guetter, to spy, 
 
 hebeter, to besot, 
 
 inquieter, to disquiet, 
 
 interpreter, to ex- 
 pound, 
 miler, to mingle, 
 
 preter, to lend, 
 
 quereller, to quarrel, 
 queter, to go begging, 
 regretter, to grudge, 
 se rebeller, 
 rep eter, 
 
 refrener, 
 
 reveler, 
 
 sceller, 
 
 seller, 
 
 tempiter, 
 
 to rebel, 
 to repeat, 
 to refrain, 
 to reveal, 
 to sea!, 
 to saddle, 
 to storm. 
 
 Tis to be observed, that tho' e is not sounded in the penultima of those verbs 
 mentioned in the last observations, yet it takes the intermediate sound of e in 
 the penultima of such tenses ef the same verbs, wherein the final erof the 
 infinitive becomes « not sounded, or when it becomes the antepenultima ; as 
 jc slme I sow, je peserai I shall weigh, fappellerois I would call. 
 
 9thty, In the penultima of nouns in eur, derived from the verbs 
 of the same terminations as those of the last observation ; as re~ 
 celeur one that receives stolen goods, semeur a sower, from semer 
 and receler; as likewise in the penultima of nouns ending in 
 tier, as pelletier a skinner, cabaretier one who keeps an ale- 
 house, fyc. 
 
 IQthly, In the syllable re, in the beginning of words, wherein 
 it denotes reiteration or reduplication of the action expressed by 
 
32 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 the word : as redire to say again, refaire to make again, ressortir 
 to go out again, <Sfc. 
 
 Except, Jirst, when the reduplicative particle comes before words begin- 
 ning with e sounded, or any vowel, or h not sounded ; in which case c is 
 sounded, and marked over with the accent acute, and the particle re loses its 
 final e : as ricrire to write again, from ecrire ; ressuyer to wipe again, from 
 essuyer ; reunir to reunite, from unir ; rehabituer to use again to a thing, 
 from habituer, &c. 
 
 Idly, When the word implies reiteration or reduplication, tho' the particle 
 re cannot be said to be added to it, because, without it, it would not be a 
 French word ; such as these words and their derivatives, 
 
 reduplicative, reduplicative, rehabiliter, to reinstate, 
 
 recapituler, to resume, reparer, to repair, 
 
 redeliver, to relapse, reclamer, to reclaim, 
 
 reciter, to recite, to say by heart, ricolte, the crop, 
 
 repeter, to repeat, recollection, recollection, 
 
 re'iterer, to reiterate, reconcilier, to reconcile, 
 
 recollement, a re-examination, repercussion, repercussion, 
 recrimination, recrimination, 
 redimer, to free, to exempt, 
 reflechir, to reflect, 
 
 regenerer, to regenerate, 
 
 reintegrer, to restore, 
 
 In reconfronter and reformer, e also is sounded, tho' we say confronter 
 and former. 
 
 resipiscence, amendment of life, 
 resumer, to resume, to sum up, 
 reverberation, and reverbtre, 
 reverberation. 
 
 llthli/, In the syllable re followed by a doubles, as ressembler 
 to resemble, se ressouvenir to remember, #c. 
 
 Except ressusciter to rise again, and resurrection, wherein the first e is 
 acute. 
 
 \QMy, Sometimes, but in conversation only, e is not sounded 
 in the pronouns demonstrative, ce, cet, cette, ceci, cela, this, or 
 that ; nor in the pronoun personal le, after a verb at the impera- 
 tive, when the word is a polysyllable ; as cela that, ce livre this 
 book, cet enfant that child, cette femme that woman, cherchez-le, 
 look for it : pronounce sla, slivre, st enfant, stefemme, cherchez-l' ; 
 and never cherchez le or le. But when the verb is a monosylla- 
 ble, or ends with mute e, le is sounded ; as dis-le, fais-le ; dites- 
 le, faites-le. 
 
 1 Stilly, e is not sounded in the penultima and antepenultima of 
 these words and their derivatives : 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 genou, 
 
 the knee, 
 
 meneuse, a nurses 
 
 guenille, 
 
 a rag, 
 
 deputy, 
 
 guenon, a 
 hallebarde, 
 
 monkey, 
 
 menotte, handcuff, 
 
 an hal- 
 
 menoux, hog's feet, 
 
 bert, 
 
 
 neveu, nephew, 
 
 hamecon, 
 
 a rish- 
 
 passe-temps, pastime, 
 
 hook, 
 
 
 pelisse, a furred 
 
 hanneton, 
 
 a cock- 
 
 cloak, 
 
 chafer, 
 
 
 pelote, pincushion, 
 
 hequeton, 
 
 a sort of 
 
 petit, little, 
 
 Serjeant, 
 
 
 retour, eturn, 
 
 levain, 
 
 leaven, 
 
 secourir, to succour, 
 
 merlin, 
 
 a minion, 
 
 taffetas, taffety. 
 
 benet, booby, 
 
 besogne, work, 
 
 besoin, want, 
 
 caqueter, to prattle, 
 chaperon, a hood, 
 chenil, a dog-kennel, 
 chenille, vl caterpillar, 
 chenet, an hand-iron, 
 cftemin, a way, 
 
 cheminee, a chimney, 
 chemise, a shirt, 
 
 cheville, a peg, 
 
 fenetre, a window, 
 fenouil, fennel, 
 
 % It must be observed that the above words and such like should be preceded 
 by an article or another word not ending with an e mute : in le ehemin, la ehemi- 
 nee, ma chemise, ta besogne, safenitre, &c. the middle e is mute ; but not in voire 
 ehemin, grande ehemine'e, une chemise, bome besogne, cette fenMre, fyc. because e 
 not aceented cannot be dropt or mute in two successive syllables, and being- 
 final in voire, grande, une, bonne, ceite, it must be dropt in preference. 
 
 For the very same reason the middle e not accented cannot be mute in Arle- 
 quin Harlequin, 'arsenal an arsenal, arsenic arsenick, fortemsnt strongly, ferme- 
 ment firmly, fermett firmness, proprement neatly, propreti neatness, juslement 
 justly, simplement simply, Sec. because it comes after two consonants, the first of 
 which is sounded, and the sounding or a consonant always supposes the dropping 
 of an e mute. It seems, however, to be dropt mforgeron smith, forteresse fortress, 
 on account of the rapidity with which it is sounded ; but very few words admit 
 of such glibness of utterance.] 
 
 Lastly, e not accented is not sounded (save the exception 
 above stated) in any of the derived words that have it from their 
 primitives. As, therefore, all adnouns feminine end with an e 
 mute, and likewise the first person present tense indicative mood 
 of most verbs, "so that final e is not sounded neither in the words 
 derived from them ; as in na'ivement ingenuously, from naive 
 ingenuous, grandement greatly, from grande great, estrangement 
 strangely, from etrange strange, extremement extremely, from ex- 
 treme extreme, honnetete honesty, from honnite honest ; arrange- 
 ment ordering, jugement judgment, logement lodging, fyc. from 
 f arrange, jejuge, je loge, &c. 
 
 Except the adverbs mentioned above (7th parag. p. 31), aveuglement, com- 
 tnuncment, Sec. In agrcment an agreement, and fagrerai,fagrerois, I shall, 
 I should like, and supplement supplement, e is acute, because they are de- 
 rived from agreer and supplier t whose first persons are f 'agree, je supplee. 
 and the first c only is kept in the derivatives. 
 
 e acute. 
 This e, that has the sound of a in hate, face, fate, made, should 
 always be marked over with an acute accent, as it is really at the 
 
34 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 end of nouns of both numbers, and of the second person plural 
 of verbs, when it is spelt with an s; for it is at present gene- 
 rally spelt with z, leaving out the accent: as bonte kindness, aime 
 loved, bontes kindnesses, Us sunt dimes they are kved, vous aimez 
 you love. — In words wherein that e is before another vowel, as in 
 gea/tt a giant, reunir to reunite, Jpe. it denotes for certain, that 
 the two vowels keep each of them their proper sound. 
 
 er, at the end of infinitives, is sounded like e acute ; as like- 
 wise at the end of nouns in ger, eke?; ier, and ied : as, 
 
 parler, to speak, ^v rparle, 
 
 danger, danger, I \ dange, 
 
 cocker, coachman, V Pronounced coche, 
 
 barbier a barber, k j barbie, 
 
 pied, a f out, J \-pie. 
 
 Except 1st, In all monosyllables in er, as mer sea, cher dear, fer iron, <£c. 
 wherein e is grave, and r strongly articulated. 
 2dly, In these following words : 
 
 amer, bitter, cuillier, speon, hiver, winter, 
 
 belveder, a belveder, enfer, hell, hier, yesterday. 
 
 cancer, a canker, Jier, proud, 
 
 Zdly, At the end of all Latin, and foreign proper names, as Jupiter, Lu- 
 ther, Gunter : but not in French proper names, as Didier, Roger, &c. pro- 
 nounce Luter, Rogc, &c 
 
 At the end of a sentence, es in the pronoun les takes both the 
 grave sound and accent ; as also in des preposition ; as renvoyez- 
 les, send them back again, and not r envoy ez-le ; des qu'il eutfait, 
 as soon as he had done, and not de qu'il 9 &c. 
 
 As e is often met with in the beginning and middle of words, 
 but, through the carelessness of printers and authors, not marked 
 over with that accent which should denote its pronunciation, in 
 order to supply that defect, we make the following observations : 
 
 1st, All e's that have the sound of e acute at the eRd of a word, 
 keep it also in any syllable whatever, in the derivations and in 
 flexions of the same word. Thus e being sounded acute in the 
 end of aise easy, must be so too in aisement easily. Thus again 
 e having the resonant sound of e grave in amer bitter, must have 
 it too in the second syllables of amerement bitteily, and amertune 
 bitterness. 
 
 Except only in verbs in er, wherein e is never pronounced in future and 
 conditional tenses, as we have said. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 35 
 
 2dly, e is acute e, de, pre, and tre, first syllables of a word : 
 as eclat a crack, noise, ete been, ecrit writing, depit spite, detour- 
 ner to deter, prelude a prelude, preparer to prepare, trepas death, 
 tresor a treasure, #c. 
 
 Except, lsf, pre in premier first, and its derivatives, and these persons of 
 the verb prendre to take, prenons, prenez, prenois, &c. wherein pre is pro- 
 nounced with the guttural sound of e, but short. 
 
 %dly, de in the following words and their compounds, wherein t is not 
 sounded in a rapid conversation : 
 
 devancer, to outrun, 
 devise, motto, 
 
 deviner, to guess, 
 
 devoir, duty, 
 
 */ devient, he becomes, 
 
 tho' de in deventr has the guttural sound of e, and the second e is almost drop- 
 ped, e in de, first syllable of digouter, to make to loath, is acute, and in 
 degoutter to drop. 
 
 N. B. Words beginning with des fall under the last observation : as, dlsa- 
 buser to undeceive, desavouer to disavow, disespirer to despair, designer ta 
 denote, desist er to desist, desoler to vex. 
 
 3dly, e is sounded acute but short before rer in infinitives irr 
 irer : as esperer to hope, digerer to digest, moderer to moderate, 
 &c. 
 
 demam, 
 
 to-morrow, 
 
 depuis, 
 
 since, 
 
 demeurer, 
 
 to live, 
 
 Denis, 
 
 Dionysius, 
 
 demander, 
 
 to ask, 
 
 dedans, 
 
 within, 
 
 demi, 
 
 half, 
 
 dessus, 
 
 upon, 
 
 demeurant, 
 
 dwelling, 
 
 dessous, 
 
 under, 
 
 demoiselle, 
 
 a miss, 
 
 devant, 
 
 before, 
 
 4thly, e is sounded acute in the syllable re in the beginning of 
 words, wherein it denotes neither reiteration nor reduplication of 
 action : as recent recent, refugier to fly for refuge, almo' it is 
 mute in refuge. 
 
 Except the following words and their derivatives, wherein e is mute in re : 
 
 rebut, 
 
 cast out, 
 
 recommander, 
 
 to recommend, 
 
 rebelle, 
 
 rebellious, 
 
 reconnoissanee, 
 
 gratitude, 
 
 rebellion. 
 
 rebellion, 
 
 7ecourir, 
 
 to have recourse, 
 
 rebours, 
 
 the wrong side of a 
 
 recevoir, 
 
 to receive (but not 
 
 
 thing, 
 
 recipient, wor 
 
 rlception. 
 
 rebrousser, 
 
 to go back, 
 
 reculer, 
 
 to draw back, 
 
 rebufade, 
 
 rebuff, 
 
 redevable, 
 
 indebted to, 
 
 rebut er, 
 
 to dishearten, 
 
 redout e, 
 
 a redoubt, 
 
 reciter, 
 
 to receive stolen goods, 
 
 redoutable, 
 
 dreadful, 
 
 recoin, 
 
 a by-place, 
 
 refrain, 
 
 burden of a song, 
 
 recueil, 
 
 a collection, 
 
 refrogner, 
 
 to knit one's brows 
 
 recueillir, 
 
 to collect, 
 
 re/us, 
 
 denial 
 
m 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 regarder, 
 
 regimber, 
 
 regret, 
 
 relais, 
 
 relent, 
 
 releguer, 
 
 relegation, 
 
 relief, 
 
 relier, 
 
 relique, 
 
 reliquat, 
 
 religion, religion (but 
 
 irreligion, irreligion), 
 
 reluire, 
 
 remarqutr, 
 
 remede, 
 
 remercier, 
 
 remettre, to remit (but 
 
 remitting), 
 remuer, 
 renard, 
 renegat, 
 renier, 
 
 renifter, to snuff 
 
 renonccr, 
 
 to look, 
 
 to kick, 
 
 regret, 
 
 post-stages, 
 
 musty, 
 
 to banish, 
 
 banishing, 
 
 relievo, 
 
 to bind, 
 
 relick, 
 
 remnants, 
 
 e is acute in 
 
 to glitter, 
 
 to remark, 
 
 remedy, 
 
 to thank, 
 
 not remission, 
 
 to stir. 
 
 a fox, 
 
 a renegado, 
 
 to disown, 
 
 up one's snot, 
 
 to renounce, 
 
 renom, 
 
 renown, fame, 
 
 repaire, 
 
 a lurking hole, 
 
 repartir, 
 
 to set out again, 
 
 repas, 
 
 a meal. 
 
 se repent ir, 
 
 to repent, 
 
 repic, 
 
 repique, 
 
 replique, reply (but not repliquer, to 
 
 reply), 
 
 repos, rest, 
 
 reprendre, to correct, 
 
 reprtsailles, reprisals, 
 
 j^eproche, reproach, 
 
 retrancher, to cut off, 
 
 requite, a petition, 
 
 requerir, to request, (but not in re- 
 quisition, request), 
 rctenir, to keep (but not in reten- 
 tion, retention), 
 
 retenue, moderation, 
 
 retentir, to resound, 
 
 se retirer, to retire, 
 
 revanche, revenge, 
 
 reveche, froward, 
 
 revers, the reverse. 
 
 Some words have different significations, according as the e 
 of their first syllable re is pronounced and marked over with the 
 accent acute, or not pronounced at all ; as, 
 repondre, to answer, repondre, to lay eggs again, 
 repartir , to divide, repartir, to reply, or to go back again. 
 
 Observe besides, that ez denotes only the sound of c acute ; as 
 assez enough, nez nose : as doth likewise the conjunction et or 
 fy and. 
 
 e grave. 
 
 This e, the sound of which is sonorous, or resonant, is found* 
 1°. In the prepositions des from, pres near, the adverb fres 
 most, and in all nouns ending in es, as abces abscess, prqfes a 
 prcfessed monk. 
 
 2°. In all these monosyllables des, les, mes, tes, ses ; as like- 
 wise the syllables of words wherein it is followed by r pro- 
 nounced, as in mer the sea, fer iron, enfer hell, amer bitter, 
 ouvert open. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 37 
 
 But it has the sound of the following t in the last syllable of 
 the plural number of the words wherein it is indifferently re- 
 sonant in the singular ; as sing, effet effect, plur. effets effects ; 
 projet project, projets projects. 
 
 e circumflex, 
 e circumflex is always marked over with the accent which cha- 
 racterises it ; and it is exceedingly broad and long, especially when 
 it makes the penultima of a word, the last syllable whereof is e 
 mute, as may be observed in bete beast, ebete stupid ; grtlc hail, 
 greler to hail ; beche a spade, becher to dig ; peche a peach, pecher 
 a peach-tree : ttte head, entete strong-headed ; meme even, cham- 
 pttre rural, &c. And both the grave e and circumflex e express 
 the same sound as e in there and where ; or in these other English 
 words, fare, tare, which exactly correspond, as to sound, to these 
 French ones, faire, taire. 
 
 The intermediate sound of e. 
 
 It is found 1°. in monosyllables, and all syllables of words 
 where it is followed by any other consonant than r pro- 
 nounced. Thus e has the intermediate sound in bee beak, sel 
 salt, effet effect, projet project. I said in the last paragraph 
 but one, that the final syllable of these words is very broad and 
 long in their plural : I shall observe further here, that et is more 
 open in il met he puts, than in mettre to put, but not so broad as 
 je mets I put, tu mets thou puttest, which is the sound of the 
 conjunction mais but. 
 
 2°. Before two consonants, or x in the beginning and middle 
 of words, as infecter to poison, ils prennent they take, ancienne 
 ancient, examen examination, and examiner to examine, tho' in 
 these two last e takes a little of the acute sound. 
 
 Except when n or m is one of the two consonants with which it is followed: 
 for they then denote either the nasal sound, as in entrer to enter, emplir to fill ; 
 or the third person plural of verhs, where the final ent is mute. 
 
 This intermediate sound of e is expressed in the English words 
 bell, fed, /ess, progress, effect, protect, amen, examen, &c. 
 
 The e of the penultima of the words, the last syllable whereof 
 is c mute, is either most sonorous, as in grele hail, probUme a 
 problem, tempcte a tempest; or but a little sonorous, as mchan- 
 delle a candle, mcche match, trompette a trumpet. 
 
 Except in these five words, college college, liege cork, piege snare, privilege 
 privilege, and siege seat, wherein the e of the penultima is acute and long. 
 
 E 
 
38 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 All the words just mentioned prove how necessary the accents. 
 are to our e's, in order to show their pronunciation ; and that the 
 perpendicular accent proposed of late years by some Gramma- 
 rians would have been as necessary as the acute, the grave, and 
 the circumflex. But as it has not been adopted by the French 
 Academy, and it is not to be found in any book, we have omitted 
 it throughout in this present edition. See p. 89. 
 
 From these observations it follows, that the improper diph- 
 thong ai, which is naturally sounded like t acute, receives die 
 same alterations of sounds as e ; and is more or less resonant in a 
 word, according to the consonants that follow it : as f aire to do, 
 maitre master, naitrois from naitre to be born. 
 
 This vowel has almost the same sound in French as in the 
 English words, bit, fii t , pin, filial, &c. 
 
 i followed by n or m in monosyllables, or in the beginning of 
 words of two syllables, gives a sound like to that of an in thank, 
 en in length, or ain in saint ; as tin wine, Indes Indies, pro- 
 nounce raw, ainde; and likewise mimbu imbued, impur impure, 
 ingrat, ungrateful, infini infinite, imprudent imprudent. 
 
 i in the particle conditional si is contracted, both in writing 
 and speech, before and with the pronouns il and ils only ; ana 
 never before any other vowel, not even before i in any other 
 word : as s'il vient if he comes, instead of si il, &c. s'ils disent 
 if they say : but write and pronounce si elle vient if she comes, 
 si illustre so illustrious, si aprh cela if after that ; and not selle 
 vient, &c. 
 
 i is not sounded in encoignure corner, pronounce encognure. 
 
 i is not sounded, and makes no diphthong with the preceding 
 vowel, when it is followed by / or // ; it then serves only to give 
 / or // a particular articulation, called the liquid articulation of I: 
 as in sole'il the sun, travail work, veiller to sit up, travailler to 
 work. That liquid articulation of / is the same that is heard in 
 English in the articulation of the double // of the words million, 
 billiards : all the difference is, that that i which causes the liquid 
 articulation is in French before /, whereas it is after it in English. 
 
 This vowel receives two sounds as well as a ; the one acute, 
 slenaer, and commonly short ; and the other grave, broad, Mid 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 39 
 
 always long, as they are expressed in these words, cotte, or 
 cotillon, a petticoat, and cote a coast, o acute and short has 
 the same sound as in the English words bog, bottle, not, pot, 
 rob, &c. and 6 grave and long, as in globe, robe, old, &c. 
 or oa in coast, roast, &c. 6 long is usually marked over with a 
 circumflex thus (6), or followed by a single s, thus chose : gros, 
 and its derivative grosse, grossir, &c. tho' there be two s's. When- 
 ever o is named or spelt by itself, it is always by the long and 
 broad sound of 6 (un 6, an o.) 
 
 J . o is almost dropt in the second syllable of accommoder to 
 lit up, and raccommoder to mend ; and in the first of commander 
 to command ; is pronounced, as it were, cmande, acmodi ; but in 
 conversation only. 
 
 2. In cooperer to cooperate, coobligt, 8tc. each o makes a syl- 
 lable. 
 
 3. The pronunciation of notre and votre is worth observing. 
 These words are pronounced with the broad and long sound of 6 
 in the pronouns substantive, le voire, la votre, yours ; le notre, Ic. 
 notre, ours ; and o is marked over with a circumflex. When they 
 are only pronouns adjective, or rather possessive articles, they are 
 sounded with the short and slender sound of o, without being 
 marked over with a circumflex : and if the substantive begins 
 with a consonant, r is not pronounced in votre and notre ; as 
 voire livre your book, notre maison our house ; pronounce votte 
 livre, notte maison : but when the noun begins with a vowel, 
 pronounce as it is spelt, votre ami your friend, notre affaire our 
 affair: as also in Notre Dame Our Lady, and in the Lord's 
 prayer, Notre Pere, qui es, &c. Our Father, which art, #c. 
 
 This vowel, which is expressed in bu, tu, hi, statut, volume, 
 is the very same sound that the English express in prostitute, im- 
 vosthxxme, volume ; only the English u of these words is shorter 
 and more obtuse. 
 
 ui makes a proper diphthong in buisson a bush. 
 
 u in foreign or Latin words that are become French, followed 
 by m, takes the nasal sound of on ; as un factum a plea, pro- 
 nounce f acton. 
 
 un has likewise the sound of a nasal o mjunte a junto, but not 
 in dtfunt dead, wherein it is pronounced as in the monosyllable 
 un one. 
 
40 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 y, generally speaking, has no other sound but that of the 
 French i, and is used in French in the following circumstances 
 only: 
 
 ist, As adverb of place or pronoun, and then y makes a word 
 by itself; as il ya, there is ; y pensez-vous ? do you think of it? 
 
 %dly, In the beginning of these four words only, yacht, pron. 
 Iaque yacht, yeux eyes, and yeuse a holm-oak ; ypreau Dutch 
 elm. Some add indeed yvre got drunk, yvoire ivory, and yvraye 
 tare : but these words are now generally spelt with i by the best 
 writers, ivre, ivoire, ivraie. 
 
 Sdly, In the middle of some words wherein ?/ stands for two V s> 
 the former whereof makes with the foregoing vowel an im- 
 proper diphthong, and the latter with the following, or is 
 sounded by itself, as in royaume kingdom, pays country, and its 
 derivatives, paysage a landscape, and paysant a peasant, wherein 
 ay is sounded as ai, with another i before s ; Abbaye abbey, 
 essayer to try, voyons let us see, Royal, ayant, &c. which words 
 are pronounced as if they were written pai-is, pai-izant, abai-ie, 
 essai-ier, voi-ions, Roi-ial, ai-iant, &c. 
 
 The following words, wherein a keeps its natural sound, 
 making a vowel by itself, and i takes a liquid articulation as in 
 you, are written now with an % trema, that is marked over with 
 
 two dots : 
 
 a'ieid, grandfather, 
 baionnette,a. bayonet, 
 camaieu, a camaieu. 
 cdieu, a sucker. 
 
 co'ion,B. trifling fellow 
 co'ionner, to trifle, 
 co'ionnerie, trifling, 
 
 corn-flag,LB/fl/e, 
 a pagan,* Caienne, 
 
 faience, I)elf t-\vateryBa'ionne, 
 
 glaieul, 
 
 paten, 
 
 tavaiole, 
 
 A'ien, 
 
 Ba'iard, 
 
 Ba'ieux, 
 
 a mantle, 
 
 } 
 
 proper 
 names, 
 
 Ma'ienne, 
 Ma'ience, 
 Ca'iette, 
 La Faiette, 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 — 
 
 su 
 
 The two dots over i show that the vowel makes a syllable by 
 itself, as hair to hate, naif no way counter! e' t, heroique heroical,. 
 Lais, &c. whereas otherwise it makes, with the foregoing vowels 
 an improper diphthong, as in je hais I hate. 
 
 Most writers preserve still y in the words d erived from Greek, 
 to show the etymology ; as in these words, tiy motogie, analyse t 
 mystere, syllabe, &c. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 41 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Of Diphthongs. 
 
 lHE meeting of many vowels in one and the same syllable, 
 is called Diphthong. When many vowel* together keep each 
 of them in the syllable their particular and proper sound, they 
 are called Proper or Syllabic Diphthongs; as lui he, Her to 
 tie. When they all together make but one single sound, they 
 are called Improper or Orthographical Diphthongs ; as air air, 
 eau water. 
 
 Proper Diphthongs. 
 
 ia, iai, ian, it, it, ien, ieu, io, ioi, ion, iau ; oa, ot, ot, oi, eoi, oin, 
 oua, ouan, one, out; oui, ouen, owin; ua, we, ut, ui,nin. 
 
 All that can be said of these Proper Diphthongs amounts to 
 this : that though these vowels, united together, make really 
 two distinct syllables, each of which keeps its natural and pecu- 
 liar sound, yet they are sounded and pronounced as quickly, and 
 in as small a compass of time, as a single ordinary syllable. 
 Therefore never pronounce in two syllables Di-eu God, di-able 
 devil, li-er to tie, vi-olon a fiddle, jou-er to play, rou-et a spinning 
 wheel, fu-ir to avoid, ro-i king, ou-i yes, Rou-en : but sound the 
 two vowels in one syllable quickly : Dieu, diahle, jouer, ronet, 
 &c. N. B. ouen in St. Ouen is not pronounced as in Rouen (a 
 city in Normandy), but like oin mfoin hay. 
 
 There is an exception to this, viz. when those diphthongs 
 come after two consonants, the last ©f which is r or I ; as nous 
 prions we desire, vous voudriez you would, il plioit he bent, and 
 the word hier yesterday, which are pronounced like two syllables. 
 Nevertheless the adverb hier is sounded in one syllable only, 
 when it comes with the other adverb avant (avant-hier, the day 
 before yesterday). 
 
 In coadjuteur a coadjutor, coactif coercive, coaguler to coagu- 
 late, cloaque a common sewer, croasser to croak, Croatie Croatia, 
 Croate, retroactif retroactive, and in Goa, Moab, Soares, and other 
 foreign words, which are the only words wherein oa is found, 
 each vowel makes a particular syllable ; but in aio and Aiol, a 
 makes a syllable by itself, and io a proper diphthong. 
 
 E 2 
 
42 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Improper Diphthongs. 
 
 ae, ai, ay, ao, au; ea, eai, eau, ei, eo, eu ; ct, au,oi,ou; ui, ueL 
 Observe first, that when these vowels together do not make 
 the same syllable, but two distinct ones, two dots are put over 
 that which begins the last syllable ; as in hair, Pirithous ; or au 
 accent over the first vowel when it is an e : as in gcant a giant, 
 deisme deism, met tore a meteor, Giorgie Georgia, Ltonidas, Sec. 
 Qdk/, That, excepting eu and ou, the natural and peculiar 
 sound of the other improper diphthongs is quite the same as ? 
 and not at all different from, that of some of the live vowels 
 treated of before. 
 
 ae. 
 
 ae is found only in Caen, the name of a city, wherein a nasal 
 only is sounded (Can). 
 
 In aerien, acrtr, Danat, Ticho-Brat, and such other words, 
 the accent that is over t shows its pronunciation, and that it 
 makes a vowel by itself. 
 
 & or M is now out of use in French words derived from the 
 Greek and Latin, written formerly with a, being at present 
 written with an e sounded like c acute ; as Egypte for Mgypte, 
 Egypt, Equinoxe for Mquinoxe 
 
 ai and ay. 
 
 ai or ay denotes the sound of e, sounded sometimes acute, 
 sometimes grave, and sometimes intermediate. Nay, it is not 
 sounded at all in the gerund, present, and imperfect tenses of 
 the verb faire to do ; ai being now converted into e mute. 
 Faisant doing, jefaisois I did, nous faisons we do ; pronounce 
 fezant, fezois, fezons. 
 
 1st, ai or ay, being the two last letters of a word, is sounded 
 like e acute ; as je parlai I spoke, je dirai I say ; pronounce 
 parle, dirt. 
 
 Except in these four words, vrai true, essai an essay, dclai delay, Mai, May, 
 wherein ai has the intermediate sound, being pronounced as in English in the 
 word May. But observe that the adnoun vrai true, takes the grave and broad 
 sound of e long, when it comes before its noun, as in It vrai sens d'une loi, the 
 true sense of a law ; pronounce vres, or vrais : whereas, when it is not followed 
 by a noun, or when it terminates a sentence, it only has the short souud of c, 
 as in c'e&t vrai, it w true ; il est vrai que, it is true that, &c. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 43 
 
 2//(y, ai being followed by s, ts, x, (ais, aits, aix), or e not 
 sounded (aie) at the end of a word, takes the most resonant 
 sound of e grave ; as jamais never, des fails facts, paix peace, 
 pfaie a wound, vraie true, (fern). 
 
 odly, ai in the middle of a word, and followed by a consonant, 
 is more or less resonant according to the consonant that follows. 
 (See the observation at the end of the paragraph of h grave.) — 
 ai has the most resonant sound of e in hahte hatred, traitre a 
 traitor ; and in the words wherein ai comes before r, as injaire r 
 braire to bray, Sec. pronounce fcr, 8cc. 
 
 4thly, in ai followed by a double or single /, a keeps entirety 
 its proper sound, i serving only to give /or //a liquid articula- 
 tion ; as in bail a lease, vaillant courageous. 
 
 ai is likewise sounded as a single a in St. Aignan (a proper 
 name). 
 
 In the interjection ai (for pain), i takes the liquid articulation 
 of y, so that ai is pronounced like ai in a'ieuf, or Blaie. 
 
 ait has the same pronunciation in ilfait, plait, pait, nait, and 
 bra.it (third persons of faire to do, plaire to please, paitrc to 
 graze, naitre to be born, and braire to bray) : but fait (a partici- 
 ple or noun) has the pronunciation of the intermediate e : as J I 
 fait beau, It is tine weather ; J'aifait, I have done ; (Jest fait. 
 It is over ; C'est wijait, It is fact. On the contrary, ais in the 
 two tirst persons of savoir to know, and ait in the third, have 
 only the pronunciation of e acute. Je sais, tu sais, ilsait, pro- 
 nounce je se, tu se, il st. 
 
 ao. 
 
 ao is found in the following words : 1 st, In aorte (an artery), 
 aouara (a fruit), Aonie, Aonides, Aorne, Baao, Laocoon, Lao- 
 damie, Laodicee, Laomedon, Lao/iice (proper names), and ex- 
 traerdinaire extraordinary, wherein a and o make each a syllable, 
 and keep their proper sound. 
 
 2c?/y, In paon a peacock, faon a fawn, Laon (the name of a 
 city), which are pronounced with the nasal sound of a, as if they 
 Mere spelt pan, fan, Lan. 
 
 3dly, In aorasie, aoriste, aoste, Saoue, wherein a is quite lost, 
 these words being pronounced orasie, oriste, oste, Sone. 
 
 4thly, In taon ox-ny, which is sounded with the nasal sound 
 of o, like the pronoun ton. 
 
Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 bthly, In Aout August (a month), which is pronounced on, or 
 in English oo ; but a is sounded in its derivative aouter ; not 
 in the other derivative aouteron, wherein a is silent : pronounce 
 then Out, aouter, outeron. Raoul (a proper name) is pronounced 
 Ra-oul. 
 
 au and eau. 
 
 au and eau at the end of words are sounded a little more open 
 than the short and slender sound of o, as chapeau a hat, marteau a 
 hammer, fyc.. but not quite so broad as the word eau water, and 
 the particle au to the, which have the long and broad sound of 
 6, or au followed by d, t, x, iu the last syllable ; as chaud hot, 
 difaut, defect, chapeaux hats. 
 
 au, in the middle of dissyllables, always has the broad and long 
 sound of o, as in beaut t beauty, baudrier a be\t,faucher to mow : 
 but in the beginning of words it is pronounced sometimes like u 
 long, and sometimes like o short. 
 
 au has the slender and short sound of o in the beginning of the 
 following words : 
 
 auberge, 
 
 an eating-house. 
 
 ■audace, 
 
 audaciousness. 
 
 -audience, 
 
 audience. 
 
 auditoire, 
 auditeur, 
 
 congregation, 
 auditor. 
 
 augmenter, 
 
 to augment. 
 
 augure, 
 
 omen. 
 
 augurer, 
 Aurore, 
 
 to augurate. 
 Aurora. 
 
 But au has the broad sound < 
 
 lowing words 
 aubade, 
 
 waits. 
 
 aubaine, 
 
 escheat. 
 
 .aube, 
 
 dawn of the day. 
 
 ancune, 
 
 none. 
 
 auguste, 
 
 aujourd'hui, 
 
 -aulique, 
 
 august, 
 to-day, 
 aulick. 
 
 aumuce, 
 
 an amice. 
 
 aune, 
 
 an ell. 
 
 -auparavant, 
 Autriche, 
 
 before. 
 Austria, 
 
 austere, 
 austral, 
 authentique, 
 automate, 
 
 austeu 
 
 austral 
 
 authenticat 
 
 automaton 
 
 automne (m is silent), autumn, 
 autorite, authority. 
 
 autoriser, to authorise. 
 
 auxiliaire, auxiliary. 
 
 mauvais, bad. 
 
 f o in the beginning of the fol- 
 
 autruche, ostrich. 
 
 auteur, author 
 
 autour, about. 
 
 autre, other, with its derivatives. 
 
 auvent, a pent-house. 
 
 aumone, alms. 
 
 aupres, near, by. 
 
 auspice, auspice. 
 
 aussi, also. 
 
 autant, as much. 
 
 autel, altar. 
 Beau has the broad sound of 6: as Cela est beau, That's fine : 
 Voila nn beau coup, That's a fine stroke : pronounce sla t bo, 
 voila un bo cou. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 45- 
 
 Jieau a scourge, is pronounced like a proper diphthong, y&-tf« ; 
 as likewise preau a little meadow, and eanx in Despreaux (a pro- 
 per name), wherein 5 is mute ; and in feaux, plural of feal trusty, 
 (used only in royal patents, proclamations, $x\) 
 
 ea. 
 
 ea is found only in the words Jean and Jeanne, John, Jane ; 
 e is left out in the diminutives Janot, Janette, Janneton. Jean 
 is pronounced with the nasal sound of a, as Jan ; Jeanne with 
 the long and broad sound of a, as Jane ; and Janot, Janette, and 
 Janneton, with the short and slender one. 
 
 ea is also found in some verbs after g, as in mangea, wherein 
 (as we have seen before) e loses its sound, and serves only to 
 make g take the articulation of;, as if it were spelt manja. 
 
 eai. 
 eai is found only in the word geai a jack-daw, and in the 
 same verbs just mentioned after g, wherein eai, or rather ax, takes 
 the sound of e intermediate (unjt) ; e serving to the same pur- 
 pose as in the words of the last paragraph ; eai takes the sound of 
 t acute in jemangeai I did eat : pronounce manje. 
 
 ei and ey. 
 
 ei, or ey, denotes the same sound as in English e before a con- 
 sonant, as in the word pen, which answers exactly to the sound 
 of this French word peine pains. — Except in Reine a queen, seize 
 sixteen, and seizieme sixteenth, wherein ei has the most resonant 
 sound of e long. 
 
 In ei followed by / or //, e keeps its sound (the resonant sound 
 of the intermediate £), and i serves only to give / or // the liquid 
 articulation ; as in soleil sun, veiller to sit up. (See the para- 
 graph of i.) — eil in orgueil pride, recueil a collection, and cueillir 
 to gather, is not pronounced as in soleil, but as eu in deuil mourn- 
 ing : but it keeps its proper sound in its derivatives orgueilleux 
 proud, fyc. 
 
 eo. 
 
 eo is found in the verb asseoir to sit down, in the syllable geon 
 or geom of some verbs, and in the word geolier a jailor, and 
 George ; in which cases e quite loses its sound, and the preceding 
 g is sounded like j. Pronounce assoir, Jorge, &c. (See the 
 4th paragraph of e not sounded.) 
 
 Observe, that when there are two dots over o, or an accent 
 acute over e as in geographie and mcteore, both vowels keep their 
 proper sounds. 
 
46 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 eu. 
 
 eu receives two sounds ; the first of which is the guttural 
 sound of e, and is found in feu fire, Uncut he can, fyc. which is 
 {I say) the very same sound as e in the English monosyllable her. 
 (See page 28.) — # joined to eu (eux) gives it another peculiar 
 sound not to be found in English, but not hard to express. — eu 
 in jeune young, filleul and jilleule a. god-child, is sounded as in 
 feu ; but in jeune and jeuner fasting, it is sounded as eux, tho' 
 not in dejeuner to breakfast, eu in Hebreu is pronounced like 
 eux. 
 
 The second sound of eu is that of the vowel u, and is found 
 only in these two or three words, eunuque an eunuch, Eustache 
 (a proper name), gageure a wager, and eu had, and the other 
 tenses of avoir to have. Pronounce unuc, ustache, gajure, u, 
 vous utes. — We now write vu seen, vue sight, sur sure, mur ripe, 
 reliure binding, tu pusses thou could'st, and all participles with- 
 out e, instead of the old way of writing veu, veue, seur, relieure, 
 tu peusses, &c. eut in il veut he is desirous, is not sounded as in 
 il peut he can, but like eux inje veux, but it is in that word only : 
 and eus or eux injepeux I can, is not pronounced as inje veux. 
 but like eut in ilpeut he can. 
 
 it and oe. 
 
 ct is found in caur heart, and chozur choir or chorus, mceurs 
 manners, ozuf egg, ceuvres works, sozur sister, and vosu a vow, 
 in which words o quite loses its sound : and in ceil eye, its de- 
 rivatives aillade an ogle, and mlltre (les dents oeilleres, the eye- 
 teeth) ; as also in ceillet a pink, as takes the first sound of eu. 
 Some authors think it better to write all these words without o, 
 hut the contrary custom is prevailing. Therefore pronounce 
 keur, meur, euil, euille, &c. 
 
 <e denotes only the sound of t acute in ceconomie, cecumenique, 
 ;and (Edipe, which even now are spelt as pronounced with e, 
 tconomie oeconomy. 
 
 o and e in poete a poet, motile marrow, and other such like 
 words, wherein e is marked over with two dots, make a proper 
 diphthong, wherein e takes the intermediate sound of e; as 
 likewise in coercible, coercitif, and coertion. In coegal coequal, 
 coeternel coeternal, &c. the acute accent over the e shows its 
 pronunciation, and is a proof at the same time that the e of the 
 preceding words should be marked over with the straight accent. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 47 
 
 oi and oy. 
 
 oi and oy are sometimes improper diphthongs that take only 
 the resonant sound of e grave ; but more commonly they are proper 
 diphthongs expressing the two distinct sounds of o and £ or t. 
 
 oi is an improper diphthong ; 1st, in the imperfect and condi- 
 tional tenses of verbs : asfaimois I loved, tu dirois thou would'st 
 say, il parleroit he would speak, fyc. pronounce aimais, dirais, 
 parleret. 
 
 Qdly, In verbs which have more than two syllables in the in- 
 finitive, as paroitre to appear, connoltre to know, and their de- 
 rivatives ; pronounce parttre, connitre. 
 
 Sdly, In these words foible weak, foiblesse, weakness, foible* 
 merit weakly, affoiblir to weaken, roide stiff, roideur stiffness, 
 roidir to stiffen, harnois harness, and monnoie coin, pronounce 
 ftble,ftblesse, rede, harm, mount: but pronounce oy like a pro- 
 per diphthong, in monnoye coined, thus : monnoi-ie. 
 
 These persons of etre, sois, soit, soyons, soyez, soient, and even 
 the verb croire throughout, je crois, il croit, nous croirions, &c. 
 froid cold, froideur coldness, froidement coldly, adroit skilful, 
 adroitement skilfully ; the adnoun droit right ; the adverb tout- 
 droit straight along, endroit place, etroit narrow, nettoyer to clean, 
 croitre to grow, throughout, with its derivatives, and all mono- 
 syllables, are pronounced with the sound of the proper diph- 
 thong o-e. Some people, I know, thinking themselves fine speak- 
 ers, adopt the affected utterance of the pttites mattresses, and 
 pronounce in an effeminate way craire, croitre, f raid, sayons, que 
 je sais, quils sayent; which is very bad, as in repeating verses, 
 in the pulpit, and at the bar, those words are pronounced with 
 the double sound of o-e. In the conjunction of soit either, or 
 let it be so, soit que whether, in the phrase ainsi-soit-il so be it, 
 taut soit peu ever so little, and in the beginning of the Lord's 
 prayer, soit is pronounced with the two sounds of the proper 
 diphthong, even by those who pronounce oi like ai in the afore- 
 said words. 
 
 But oi and oy are always proper diphthongs sounded like o-e in 
 the noun droit right, in effroi fright, effroyahie frightful, nn noyer 
 a walnut-tree, and se noyer to drown oneself ; and before g and n, 
 as temoigner to show, joindre to join. Therefore pronounce, like 
 a proper diphthong with the two sounds, the following mono- 
 syllables and other words ■ 
 
48 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 rnoi, 
 
 I, 
 
 foire, 
 
 a fair, 
 
 poison, poison, 
 
 toi, 
 
 thou, 
 
 fois, 
 
 time, 
 
 une oie, a goose, 
 
 SQf, 
 
 oneself, 
 
 voir. 
 
 to see, 
 
 miroir, looking-glass, 
 
 (juoiy 
 
 what, 
 
 soin, 
 
 care, 
 
 mouchoir, handkerchief, 
 
 ?oi, 
 
 king, 
 
 soir, 
 
 evening, ' 
 
 mademoiselle, miss, 
 
 hi, 
 
 law, 
 
 joie, 
 
 j°y> 
 
 ecritoire, a standish, 
 
 frh 
 
 faith, 
 
 pois, 
 
 peas, 
 
 devoir, duty, 
 
 hois, 
 
 wood, 
 
 poids, 
 
 weight, 
 
 recevoir, to receive 
 
 choix, 
 
 choice, 
 
 poix, 
 
 pitch, 
 
 Je recois, I receive, 
 
 voix, 
 
 voice, 
 
 moitie, 
 
 half, 
 
 concevoir, to conceive, 
 
 croix, 
 
 cross, 
 
 poitrine, 
 
 breast, 
 
 appercevoir, to perceive, 
 
 foie, 
 
 liver, 
 
 poisson, 
 
 iish, 
 
 S)X. 
 
 oi takes only the sound of o short mpoignet wrist, poignte hand- 
 ful, poignard a dagger, and poignarder to stab, coignee a hatchet, 
 and coigner to knock (when these two last are spelt with i). 
 
 ois takes the most resonant sound of e grave in the following 
 names of nations and countries : 
 
 Anglois, English. 
 Francois, French. 
 Ecossois, Scotch. 
 Irlandois, Irish. 
 Hpllandois,Diitc\i. 
 Polonois, Pole. 
 
 Milanois, 
 Lionnois, 
 Bearnois, 
 Nantois, 
 
 Milanese, 
 of Lyons, 
 of Beam, 
 of Nantes, 
 
 Rouennois, of Rouen. 
 Caennois, of Caen. 
 
 Boarbonnois, \ 
 Charolois, 
 Orleannois, | 
 Nivemois, 
 Soissonnois, 
 Ferrarois, 
 Piemontois, 
 
 ^i CO 
 
 S w 
 
 a i 
 
 1 5 P 
 
 But it is sounded like the proper diphthong oe in 
 Bavarois, of Bavaria, Chinois, Chinese, Genevois, of Geneva, 
 Danois, Dane, Danish, *SWdojs,Swede,Swe- Gaulois, a Gaul, 
 
 Hongrois, Hungarian, dish, 
 
 Liegeois, of Liege, Hessois, Hessian, 
 Siamois, of Siam, G&nois, of Genoa, 
 
 Crttois, 
 
 Japonois, 
 
 Iroquois, 
 
 Maroquois, 
 
 Hibemois, 
 
 Faudois, 
 
 Malthois, 
 
 Camtois. 
 
 Dunois, 
 Navarrois, 
 Arragonois, 
 Narbonnois, 
 le Modenois, 
 le Barrois, 
 Crtmonois 
 Albigeois, 
 
 Franc-Comtois, Rochelois, 
 
 Re mo is, 
 Gatinois, 
 Angoumois, 
 Champenois, 
 le Blesois, 
 V Auxerrois, 
 Agenois, 
 Art ois, 
 Valentinok, 
 
 Gallois, Welsh, 
 Carthaginois, a Car- 
 thaginian, 
 Gantois, 
 Condomois, 
 Fermandois, 
 Rhttelois, 
 Valois, 
 Bazadois, 
 Bmxellois t 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY 49 
 
 Senonois and Chalomis, if ever used, as likewise all names of ei 
 ties and towns in France ending in oi, oie, or ois, are pronounced 
 like the proper diphthong o-£ ; as Blois, Croie, Folx, Mirepoix, 
 Roie, Rosoi, Rocroi, &c. But we say, un Maloin, and not 
 Malois (of St. Malo), mi Lorrahi, (of Lorrain), un Prussien, a 
 Prussian, un Russe a Russian, and un Moscovite a Muscovite, un 
 Suisse a Swiss, un Croate a Croatian, fyc. 
 
 Observe that ois in the proper name Francois, Francoise, 
 Francis, is sounded o-e, like a proper diphthong, and not with 
 one sound only as the noun or adnoun of the nation, un Francois 
 a Frenchman, une Francoise a French woman. 
 
 oit takes the most resonant sound of broad and long e in il pa- 
 roit it appears, and il connoit he knows, which are pronounced 
 like the first persons parois, connois : every where else oit has the 
 sound of e intermediate. 
 
 ou. 
 
 ou is sounded as u in pull: the French word poule a hen, being 
 pronounced exactly like the English word pull. Nay the English 
 have the same improper diphthong in could, would, should, you. 
 
 ui. 
 
 ui (improper diphthong) is found only in the words vuide and 
 vuider to empty, wherein u is quite lost. These words are now 
 written and pronounced vide, vider. 
 
 uei. 
 
 uei is found only before liquid /, and then it takes the first 
 sound of eu; as in recueil a collection, cueillir to pick. N. B. 
 These words are, and very properly, written by some cceuiltir, 
 recceuil ; orgccuil, orgccuilleux, &c. 
 
 cui. 
 
 eui is found in deuil mourning, feuillet a leaf, §c. wherein, as 
 in the above uei, i only serves to make / liquid. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Of ISasal Vowels. 
 
 Besides the vowels that have been considered m the lirst sec- 
 tion, the French have five others derived from them ; each of the 
 vowels having its nasal one that answers it, and makes really a 
 quite different vowel. (See the forms of those nasal vowels in 
 the Tables.) 
 
 That difference of sounds which the English are at a loss now 
 to express (tho' they have them in their language except nasal u or 
 
 F 
 
50 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 un), consists only in being formed through the nose, whence 
 they are called nasal; that is, in causing a part of the air, in 
 expressing them, driven by the lungs to pass through the nose, 
 instead of causing the whole to pass through the mouth ; but ob- 
 serve that your mouth must still be open, and your teeth not close. 
 
 The Nasal Vowels zcith their corresponding Sounds. 
 xr j Vtm&l English words where the same sounds are 
 
 expressed. 
 an, want. 
 
 en (after i) or 7 length, strength, 
 in and ain, ) thank, saint, 
 
 in and im, loving, doing, reading, fyc. 
 
 on, won't. 
 
 un, * * * 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, followed by n or m, take the nasal sound ; or 
 in other terms, n or m usually gives the nasal sound to the vowels 
 which come before them ; as an year, ambre amber, rien 
 nothing, instruire to instruct, hon good, un one. Except, 
 
 1st, In some proper names, as in Amsterdam, Cham, Abraham, 
 though not in Adam. 
 
 Qdly, When n and m are between two vowels ; as in animal, 
 tmeraude an emerald, wherein each of these three letters a, n, i, 
 and e, m, e, keeps its proper sound and articulation : whereas 
 in enfant a child, emploi an employment, rien nothing, en, an, 
 em, and ten, are nasal. 
 
 odly, When n or m are followed by another n or m ; for then 
 the foregoing vowels a, e, i, o, are not sounded nasal, but keep 
 their peculiar proper sounds ; as annte a year, homme a man, bonne 
 good, ennemi an enemy : pronounce a-nte, o-me, bo-ne, en-mi : 
 except that in ennui weariness, emmener to carry away, and in 
 the beginning of like words that have more than two syllables, 
 en and em are sounded like the nasal an. Thus pronounce an- 
 nul, am-mener ; but condamner to condemn, enftammer to inflame, 
 femme a woman, innocent innocent, innocence innocence, solemnel 
 solemn, solemnite, indemniser to indemnify, with indemnite,henmr 
 to neigh, hennissement neighing, are pronounced condant, enjiame r 
 fame, innocent, solanel, indamniser, indamnite, hanir, hanissement. 
 
 In Grammaire a Grammar, and Grammairien a Grammarian, 
 the lirst a is nasal ; but it is not nasal (and therefore the double m 
 is articulated) in Grammatical and Grammatkalement, Gramma- 
 tical, S)c. In lemme a lemma and dilemme a dilemma, the first 
 »* pronounced with the most resonant sound of e grave (dilcme > 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 5) 
 
 In some few words the two mtns or nn's are articulated, as in 
 inflammation inflammation, and annotation annotation. 
 
 Observe here, that the doubling of m in all adverbs derived 
 from adnouns in ent, causes the foregoing e to be sounded as a 
 short, as in innocemment innocently, from innocent : ardemment 
 eagerly, from ardent eager ; prudemment prudently, from prudent 
 prudent, #c. pronounce arda-rnent,pruda-ment, &c. 
 
 en and em before any other consonant but », take the nasal 
 sound of an : as enfant a child, emploi business : pronounce an 
 fan, amploi ; but to this rule there are three exceptions. 
 
 1st, In the syllable ien not ending with t in its original or root : 
 as rien nothing, tu viens thou comest, il tient he holds. I say 
 not ending zvith t in its original or root : for viens, tient, and 
 their compounds il convient, il soutient, &c. being derived from 
 their first persons je viens I come, je soutiens I maintain, the final 
 t serves only to characterise the third person of the singular that 
 keeps the same sound as the first, which I call here its original 
 or root. Whereas ent is sounded ant in Orient East, patient 
 patient, fyc. because t ends the last syllable of these words which 
 are not derived from any other. 
 
 Observe all along what has been said several times before, that 
 ent, in the plural of verbs, far from taking any nasal sound, is 
 quite dropt like e not sounded ; as Us disent they say, pronounce 
 il dize : and you may know that a word, the last syllable whereof 
 ends in ent, is the third person plural of a verb, and therefore 
 that ent is not sounded, when the e of the penultima, or the syl- 
 lable coming before (when 'tis e) has or should have either the 
 grave accent or the intermediate one, as in Us different they 
 differ, Us precedent they go before : whereas in the adnouns dif- 
 ferent different, and precedent foregoing, the accent acute of the 
 penultima shows that the last syllable is sounded with the nasal 
 sound of an. Again, the third persons plural of verbs have 
 always the pronouns Us, elles, or a noun plural before them, 
 which the other words ending with ent have not. 
 
 Qdly, en is pronounced ein, or ain, in Benjamin, Agen, benjoin, 
 placenta, agenda, and commensurable, as likewise when it is pre- 
 ceded by e (at the end of words in een), as in Europe-en, 
 Galile-en, &c. 
 
 Sdly, en and em keep the peculiar sound and articulation of e, 
 and n and m in foreign words, and such as have passed entire from 
 the Latin and Greek languages into French, both in the middle 
 and end of words ; as abdomen, amen, examen examination, hem, 
 item, Hymen, Jerusalem, Matusalem, Empedocle, Aga?nemuon,&c. 
 
52 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 but in Encyclope'die, enclitique, and nomenclature, Sec. en keeps 
 the nasal sound of a. Mentor is pronounced Maintor. 
 
 Observe, moreover, that the proper sound of e nasal (en) is 
 not (as one might happen to mistake it) the same as that of a nasal 
 (an)y but that which is in rien; e having two nasal sounds, which 
 must be carefully distinguished from one another, according to 
 the aforesaid observations. — The true sound of e nasal is never 
 found in the beginning cf words, but only in the middle and end, 
 and after i ; as bien well, il vient he comes, je viendrai I'll 
 come : whereas in enfant, and entendre, en takes the sound of a 
 nasal. The true sound of e nasal is in the words of the second 
 observation just mentioned, Benjamin, agen, benjoin, &c. 
 
 The nasal in and im, which (as has been said in the paragraph 
 of i) express a sound like that in the English termination ing, 
 take also the sound of ain and en in rien ; but in and im, begin- 
 ning a word, are pronounced with their proper nasal sounds in 
 and im, which one must take care not to mistake for the other 
 nasal sound of ain or ein. Thus pronounce imbu imbued, 
 inhumain inhuman, with the proper sound of i nasal, and not 
 as if it was spelt aimbu: but pronounce hides, as if it was spelt 
 aind. The true and proper sound of nasal in and im are found 
 only in the beginning of words, never in the middle nor end. 
 hide and htdien are the only words excepted. (See further 
 what has been said concerning the letter i.) 
 
 In final im and in, m and n are articulated in interim, and all 
 foreign names, as Ibrahim, Selen, Ain, the desert of Sin, &c. 
 
 There is hardly any thing to observe about the nasal un but its 
 sound, the only nasal French sound that is not in English : it is in 
 the French words parfum perfume, chaam every one. 
 
 But um and un are pronounced like the nasal on in factum, as 
 also in some proper names, as Humbert, Dmikcrke ; and like 
 omrne in these two Latin words frenchified, opium and Te Deum. 
 
 But concerning the spelling of those nasal vowels observe, 
 that as to the choice between the several combinations serving 
 to the same sound, m is always used before b, p, and n before 
 the other consonants ; as ambassade an embassy, empioi an em- 
 ployment, symbolique symbolical, tomber to fall, humble humble ; 
 antimoine antimony, endormi sleepy, inttrieur inward, songe 
 dream, $c. but in immole sacrificed, immense immense, im i» not 
 nasal, and the two irc's are sounded. 
 
 Again, ant is consecrated to the gerunds, and ent to the nouns 
 and adverbs. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. hb 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Of Consonants. 
 
 b. 
 B always keeps the same articulation as in English, except that 
 before s and t it sounds pretty near p ; as observer to observe, 
 obtenir to obtain. Pronounce opserver, optenir. 
 
 b is found at the end of these three words only, plomb lead, 
 romb de veil, (a sea term), and radoub the refitting of a ship. It 
 is not sounded in plomb ; but it is in romb and radoub, as also in 
 foreign names ; as Achab, Job, Caleb, &c. 
 
 b is hardly doubled but in these two words, besides foreign 
 names ; abbe an abbot, and Sabbat, wherein bb is pronounced 
 only like b ; but the two b's are strongly articulated in abbatial, 
 Sabbatique, Barabbas, and other foreign names. 
 
 c» 
 
 c before a, o, u, and the improper diphthong ai, and the con- 
 sonants /, r, t, denotes the articulation marked in the table, 
 which is properly that of k : but before e and i, it takes the hiss- 
 ing articulation of s ; camard a flat-nosed man, cochon a hog, 
 cure a cure, caisse a chest ; cider to yield, civil civil ; clou nail, 
 &c. pronounce kamar, koshon, kahse, kure; side, sivil; klou,8ic. 
 J t takes also the hissing sound of s before a, o, u, when there is 
 a cedilla under it thus (c) ,* as in for fa he forced, gar con a boy, 
 recu received ; pronounce gar son, ressu,forsa, &c. 
 
 c is kept in the word contracter to contract, though left out in 
 the root contrat contract. It is likewise dropt, as well as t, at 
 the end of instinct instinct, and succinct, and in succinctement suc- 
 cinctly, when spelt with c before t. It is quite turned out of 
 bienfaiteur benefactor, and bienfaiirice benefactress. It is pre- 
 served still in amict (a sort of vestment), but without being arti- 
 culated. 
 
 c takes the articulation of g, especially in conversation, in 
 Claude Claudius, and Claudine, Czar, and Czarine, second second, 
 secondement secondly ; seconder to second, to assist, secret secret, 
 secrettement secretly, secretaire a secretary, secretariat a secretary's 
 ofhee or place ; and in the second syll able of cicogne stork 
 
 F2 
 
54 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Therefore pronounce Glaude, Gzar, segon, segonde, segret, si- 
 gogne. 
 
 c is pronounced in respect, only at the end of a sentence, or 
 before a word beginning with a consonant ; and the second e 
 has the intermediate sound of e; as sans respect without any 
 respect, le respect que je lui dots the respect which I owe him ; 
 pronounce sans respec, le respec que je lui dois. When the next 
 word begins with a vowel, c likewise is articulated, but not the 
 final t ; as portez respect a qui il est du, respect or reverence 
 your betters : pronounce respec a qui il, &c. and in the plural 
 (respects) cts are altogether mute, the final s being not articu- 
 lated even before a vowel : but e has the most resonant sound 
 of e grave ; as prcsentez mes respects a madame, present my re- 
 spect to my Lady ; pronounce mes respc a Madame. 
 
 In lacs nets, c is mute and a is broad ; but it is articulated when 
 that word signifies lakes, and a is not broad. 
 
 c is articulated at the end of words, as roc a rock, sac a sack, 
 m:cc with, &c. Except, 1st, in un sac de blc, a sack of wheats 
 though it is articulated in un sac defarine, 8tc. 
 
 2dlu, At the end of the following words, accroc a rent, alma- 
 nack an almanack, arsenic arsenic, brock a large jug, cotignac 
 marmalade of quinces, clerc a clerk, croc a hook, estomac stomach,. 
 tabac tobacco, marc (weight of eight ounces, or the gross sub- 
 stance that remains of anything strained), and pore pork. But 
 in pore-epic porcupine, c is articulated at the end of pore, and 
 not at the end of epic ; as also in Marc (a proper name), and in 
 croc-en-jambe, the tripping up one's heels. 
 
 Sdly, At the end of such words as have a nasal vowel before c : 
 as banc bench : done then, in the middle of a sentence ; il con- 
 vainc he convinces. Except blanc white, and franc free, when 
 before a conjunctive beginning with a vowel ; as du blanc au uoir, 
 going upon extremes, franc arbitre free-will, franc alleu free-hold, 
 allodial lands : pronounce fran kalleu, du blanc kau noir, &c. but 
 pronounce ban, don, convain, and other like words ending in r, 
 without articulating final c ; unless in reading verses, when the 
 next word begins with a vowel. Except also done beginning a 
 sentence, which is a consequence drawn from two or more pre- 
 mises, as done vous vous imaginez, therefore you think, &;c. 
 
 c doubles in the beginning of words between the vowels a, n, 
 w, when one of them begins the word, and I or r comes between 
 the consonant and the latter vowel : as also when this last makes 
 a diphthong jointly with another ; as may be seen in accabler to 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 55 
 
 overcharge, accommoder to fit, a ecu tattler to heap up, occurrence 
 emergency, acclamation acclamation, accredits in authority, ac- 
 croissement increase, accoucher to lay in, accueillir to make wel- 
 come, S)C. 
 
 Except iu acabit good or bad taste in fruit, acunthe bear's foot, acurihtre 
 peevish, acre acrid, acrimonie acrimony, acre oker, acrustiche acrostic, academic 
 academy, with their derivatives. 
 
 After e and i, c is always single ; as in Scarier to scatter, 
 ecouter to hearken, ecolier a scholar, ecttme the scum, ecrevisse a 
 crawfish, iconoclastc image-breaker. 
 
 Double c is pronounced only before e and 2, the first with the 
 articulation of /;, and the other with the hissing articulation of 
 s ; as in accident accident, accclerer to accelerate, succcder to 
 succeed : pronounce ak-sidan, akselere, suksede. But the two 
 c 's are always articulated in proper names, as in Accaron. 
 
 d. 
 
 d is not articulated, nor even written at present in amiral ad- 
 miral, amiraute admiralty, bit wheat, and Piemont Piedmont. 
 
 d final is articulated only, 1st, at the end of sud south, and 
 foreign words, as Ephod, David, &c. 
 
 2dly, At the end of the word fori d, in this expression only, de 
 fond en comble utterly to the ground ; of quand when, beforer^ 
 pronouus of the third person ; and of adnouns before nouns 
 beginning with a vowel or h mute ; as grand esprit great wic, 
 grand homme a great or tall man, quand il or elle parle when he 
 or she speaks, quand on dit when they say : in which cases final 
 d has the articulation of t ; quan ton di, gran tespri, de fori tats 
 comble, gran tome, quan til parle. 
 
 Sdly, At the end of the third person singular of verbs, but 
 only when they are immediately followed by their pronouns, 
 subjective il, elle, on ; as prend-il or elle, does he or she take ? 
 repond-on, do people answer r pronounce, articulating d like t > 
 report ton, prenti: but pronounce il report en Norman, for il re- 
 pond en Norrnand, he answers like a Norman, without articu- 
 lating d at all. 
 
 d before re in the infinitive of verbs (dre), is cut off in the 
 two persons singular of the present of the indicative of the polysyl- 
 lables, but is kept in monosyllables, except in the same persons 
 of plaindre to pity, craindre to fear, and joindre to join. Thus 
 write je tends, tu vends, from vendre to sell ; je defens, tu defens,. 
 from defendre to defend; je reports, from rtpondre to answer, £fc. 
 
56 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 but write je plains, tu plains ; je crains, tu crains ; je joins, tu 
 joins; instead oije plainds,je crainds,jejoinds. 
 
 d is double in some words derived from the Latin only ; as 
 addition addition, reddition reddition, wherein the two d's are 
 articulated. 
 
 / 
 
 f is articulated at the end of words; as chef chief, vif alive, 
 soif thirst, suif tallow, bocuf an ox, nerf sinew, #c. 
 
 Exeept, 1st , in chef-cTauvrc a master-piece of work, clef a key, cerf a stag, 
 and at the end of apprentif an apprentice, and baillif bailiff, which are at pre- 
 sent spelt apprenti, bailli. 
 
 2dly, At the end of these words in the plural number, betuf an ox, neuf new, 
 and auf egg : as des batufs oxen, des habits neufs new coats, des trufs a la cogue 
 ejigs in the shell; un nerf de bauf a bull's pizzle; but pronounce with the 
 articulation oifde la cornede cerf, hart's horn. 
 
 f is articulated at the end of neufvime, when that word of 
 number is -alone, or at the end of a sentence ; as fen ai neuf 
 I have got niue. But when in a sentence neuf is followed by 
 a word beginning with a consonant, as neuf guinees, or neuf 
 livres sterling; nine guineas or pounds sterling, f final is not arti- 
 culated at all : and when it is followed by a vowel, as neuf ecus 
 nine crowns, neuf ans nine years, f takes the soft articulation of 
 v. Therefore pronounce neu guinees, neu recti, neuv an. 
 
 f doubles after the vowels a, e, o, and the syllables di and su 
 in the beginning of words; but double^/ is only articulated like 
 single^, as in affaire an affair, affront affront, effroi fright, effet 
 effect, offense an offence, office an office, diffamant defaming, 
 different different, difficile difficult, dijffus prolix, suffisant suffi- 
 cient, suffrage vote, 6$c. 
 
 Except in afin to the end that, bafouer to abuse, cafe coffee, defense defence, 
 rtforme reform, refuire to do again. 
 
 This consonant has three different articulations, all included 
 in the word gagnages (a hunting term which signifies the ploughed 
 ^grounds where cattle and deer are used to feed). 
 
 g immediately before a, o, u, and the improper diphthong ai, 
 
 rand consonants except n, takes an articulation very near like k, 
 
 ^except that it is not quite so hard. Nay, in gangrene gangrene, 
 
 theiirstg is articulated quite like /:: and very likely this word 
 
 will «be spelt in time with c, as it is pronounced ; as has been the 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 57 
 
 case with others. — There are two different articulations of g ex- 
 pressed in the word Gregory : the others are in garni garnished, 
 gorge throat, aigu acute, cargaison a cargo, fyc. 
 
 g before e, and t, ea, eo, and eu, denotes the articulation of j 
 consonant ; as manger to eat, regir to rule, mangeons let us eat, 
 iljugea he judged, gageure a wager ; pronounce manje,juja,ga- 
 jure, &c. e, in the improper diphthongs, serving only to give g 
 the articulation of j which falls upon a oro, it being quite dropt 
 before these two vowels, as has been already said, except it is 
 marked over with an accent, as in geant. 
 
 When after g there follows u, followed too by another vowel, 
 g keeps its hard articulation (in English ghee), which falls not 
 upon g, that is then quite dropt, and serves only (as Dr. Walks 
 says) to make g a palate letter, but upon the following vowel ; 
 as in gutrir to cure, guide a guide, anguille an eel : pronounce 
 gheri, ghid, anghille. Except in aiguille needle, aiguiser to 
 whet, and their derivatives : eigne hemlock, contiguc contiguous, 
 ambigue ambiguous, and ambiguitt ambiguity, arguer to argue, 
 Guise and Guide (propei names). In which case two dots are 
 put over the vowel that follows u, or rather upon u, as Guise, 
 Guide, Cigue ; to show that the articulation of g falls upon u, 
 which is drawn out upon the account of the final e not being 
 sounded : whereas, when that e or that u is not marked over with 
 two dots, as infigue, vogue, &c. g has no other articulation than 
 that of the final g in the English word^g : the English have the 
 same syllable and articulation in fatigue, vogue, plague, &c. 
 
 g is not articulated in doigt finger, legs legacy, vingt twenty. 
 
 gh is articulated like gu in these proper names, Berghen and 
 le G hi I an. 
 
 gn expresses a certain liquid articulation like that of n between 
 two i's in English (minion), as in mignon delicate, digne worthy, 
 
 Except in agnat and agnation, cognat and cognation, bagnauder and bag, 
 naudicr, Gnidien, Gnome, Gnomonique, Gnostique, magncsie, magnetisme 
 rignicole, Pregni, and other proper names, wherein g and n keep each theic 
 proper articulation. 
 
 g at the end of words is not articulated. 
 
 Except, 1st, in zig-zag, and at the end of proper and foreign names : as 
 Agag, Sarug. 
 
 idly, In these expressions, suer sang if eau, to labour with might and main, 
 le sung 4" le carnage, the blood and slaughter, long espace, a long space ; and 
 
58 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 at the end of the words sang blooJ, rang rank, joug yoke, only in repeating 
 verses when the next word begins with a vowel: in which cases g is quite arti- 
 culated like k. Therefore pronounce sen k'c eau, un Ion kespace, te sun kite 
 kurnage. 
 
 Double g is always pronounced, as in suggtrer to suggest ; 
 except however in aggrave, aggraver, and rtaggrave: but it is 
 not an easy matter to determine when g is double, and when it 
 is single. 
 
 //. 
 
 h in the beginning and middle of words is either aspirated, 
 or not aspirated ; that is, either it is pronounced with a hard 
 aspiration, as in host, hunting, or not pronounced at all, as in 
 hour, honour: for, strictly speaking, h is no letter, but onlv a 
 mark of aspiration, though not always so in our modern lan- 
 guages. 
 
 In order to know in what cases h must be aspirated, and when 
 it must not be heard at all, French Grammarians have laid for a 
 constant principle, that the words beginning with h, that are 
 derived from Latin, in the beginning of which Latin words 
 there is also h, have that h not aspirated ; and that, on the con- 
 trary, h is aspirated in words merely French, and by no means 
 derived from Latin. Thus honneur honour, being derived from 
 the Latin word honor, beginning with h, you must pronounce 
 without //, and write with the elision V honneur, and not le hon- 
 neur ; haut is indeed derived from alius ; but as there is no h 
 in the Latin word, you must pronounce it hard in French, and 
 read with aspiration en haut up, and not en nhaut ; la hauteur the 
 height, and not Vhauteur : honte shame, is not derived from La- 
 tin ; therefore you must pronounce with aspiration, and write 
 without elision la honte, and not Vonte, nor V honte. 
 
 From French words derived from Latin, beginning with h, 
 wherein however h is aspirated, seven are excepted ; htros 
 (though h is not aspirated in its derivatives heroine, htro'ique), &c. 
 hennir to neigh, hennissement neighing, harpe a harp, harpie a 
 harpy, hargneux morose, haleter to breathe short, haieng her- 
 ring. And from words merely French, or derived from Latin 
 words not beginning with h, wherein however A is not aspirated, 
 eight also are excepted : hermine an ermine, hermite an hermit, 
 huit eight (with its derivatives), huitre oyster, huile oil, huis a 
 door, huissier usher, and hitble wallwort. 
 
 This observation, though ever so infallible, being of no use to 
 youth, and especially to young ladies, wh > oftentimes prove the 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 59 
 
 best French scholars, I will, for their sake, make, at the end of 
 this treatise, an exact list of all the words of the language wherein 
 h is to be aspirated, and wherein it is not. You must only ob- 
 serve here, 
 
 1st, That h is not aspirated in the middle of words, or in 
 compound words, when it is not aspirated in the beginning of 
 the simple ; as honneur, honorer, deshonneur, deshonorer, to 
 dishonour ; pronounce onorer and dezonore. On the contrary, 
 as it is aspirated in the beginning of hardi bold, it must be so too 
 in hardiment boldly, and enhardir to embolden ; except in the 
 word exhausser to raise higher, which is pronounced as exaucer 
 to grant, though being derived from haut. — h in trahir to betray, 
 trahison betraying, envahir to invade, and other like words not 
 compound, is left out also in the pronunciation, and serves only 
 to cause both the vowels to be sounded as two distinct syllables 
 (tra-ir). 
 
 2dly, That h is aspirated in the plural of the word Henri (les 
 Henris), as likewise in its derivative la Henriade, in Hesse, and 
 m Hollande, Hongrie, when these words have not the particle de 
 before them ; for when they follow that particle, h is not aspi- 
 rated. Thus, though we say la Hollande &> la Hongrie, and not 
 I' Hollande fy I 3 Hongrie, yet we say de la toile d Hollande Holland 
 cloth, dufromage d' Hollande Dutch cheese, la Heine d 'Hongrie 
 the Queen of Hungary, du vin d Hongrie wine of Hungary, 
 and not la Heine de Hongrie, dufromage de Hollande. We say, 
 however, venir de Hollande to come from Holland. 
 
 3dly, Though h is not aspirated in huit eight, nor in its deri- 
 vatives, huitieme eighth, huitain (a stanza of eight verses), and 
 huitaine (a space of eight days), yet we don't say or write with 
 the elision Vhuit, U huitieme, as we do Vhuile, t'huitre; but h 
 huit, le huitieme, un huit, un huitieme, la huitaine, 8$c. as if h 
 were aspirated. 
 
 k following c (ch) answers the English sh, and expresses the 
 same articulation ; as chats cats, chtrir to cherish, chiffre cypher 
 &c. pronounce as in English shaw, shiffr, &c. We now write 
 as we pronounce colere anger, colique colick, caractere cha- 
 racter, without h ; but we write still chaos chaos, to distinguish 
 it from cahot jolt. 
 
 But the difference is however to be observed in regard to the 
 pronunciation of the following words derived from Greek and 
 Hebrew, as some being pronounced according to the proper 
 articulation of ch : 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Acheen, 
 
 Acheron, 
 
 Ac hi lie, 
 
 Alchymie, 
 
 Alchymiste, 
 
 Antioche, 
 
 Archidame, 
 
 Archipel, 
 
 Achitophel, 
 
 Anarchie, 
 
 Anchise, 
 
 Archeveque, 
 
 Archidiacre, 
 
 Archipretre, 
 
 Archiduc, 
 
 Archiduche, with 
 
 Archiduchesse, 
 
 Archimede, 
 
 Architecte, 
 
 Archives, 
 
 Achean, 
 
 Acheron, 
 
 Achilles, 
 
 Alchymistry, 
 
 Alchymist, 
 
 Antioch, 
 
 Archidamus, 
 
 Archipelago, 
 
 Achitophel, 
 
 Anarchy, 
 
 Anchises, 
 
 Archbishop, 
 
 Archdeacon, 
 
 Archpriest, 
 
 Archduke, 
 
 Archduchess, 
 
 Archimedes, 
 
 Architect, 
 
 Records. 
 
 Bachique, belonging to Bacchus, 
 
 Barachie, 
 Chembin, 
 C hero nee, 
 Caco chyme, 
 Chyle, 
 ■Chiron, 
 Cole hide, 
 Chimere, 
 
 Barachius, 
 
 Cherubim, 
 
 Cheronea, 
 
 ill complexioned, 
 
 Chyle, 
 
 Chiron, 
 
 Colchis, 
 
 Chimera, 
 
 Chymie, 
 
 Chymiste, 
 
 Chirurgie, 
 
 Chirurgien, 
 
 Eustochie, 
 
 Eutyche, 
 
 Eutycheen, 
 
 Eschyle, 
 
 EscKines, 
 
 Ezechias, 
 
 Ezechiel, 
 
 Hi er archie, 
 
 Joachim, 
 
 Malachie, 
 
 Machiavel, 
 
 Manicheen, 
 
 Melchizcdec, 
 
 Michee, 
 
 Michel, 
 
 Monarchic, 
 
 Patriarche, 
 
 Psyche, 
 
 Rachel, 
 
 Schisme, 
 
 Sichee, 
 
 Tetr archie, 
 
 Trochisque, 
 
 Tychique, 
 
 Zachee, 
 
 Chymistry, 
 Chymist, 
 Surgery, 
 Surgeon, 
 Eustochium, 
 Eutyche, 
 
 Eschyle, 
 
 Eschines, 
 
 Ezechiah, 
 
 Ezechiel, 
 
 Hierarchy, 
 
 Joachim, 
 
 Malachi, 
 
 Machiavel, 
 
 Manichean, 
 
 Melchisedeck, 
 
 Micah, 
 
 Michael, 
 
 Monarchy, 
 
 Patriarch, 
 
 Psyche, 
 
 Rachel, 
 
 Schism, 
 
 Sicheus, 
 
 Tetrarchy, 
 
 Ty chic us, 
 Zaccheus. 
 
 Rut ch is articulated like k in the following words, and all 
 other foreign names, which therefore should be better spelt with 
 k, especially if we consider what an idle letter k is in French. 
 
 Achaie, 
 
 Achelous, 
 
 Antiochus, 
 
 Archelaus, 
 
 Achilous, 
 
 Archetype, 
 
 Archange, 
 
 Archangel, 
 
 Achaia, 
 Achelous, 
 Antiochus, 
 Archelaus, 
 Achilous, 
 Archetype, 
 Archangel, 
 Archangel, 
 
 Archearnasse, 
 
 Archestratus, 
 
 Archiepiscopal, 
 
 Archiepiscopat, 
 
 Archigenes, 
 
 les Archontes, 
 
 Bacchus, 
 
 les Bacchantes, 
 
 Archearnassus, 
 
 Archestratus, 
 
 Archiepiscopal, 
 
 Archbishoprick, 
 
 Archigenes, 
 
 Archontes, 
 
 Bacch antes, 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 fil 
 
 Jes Bacchanales, Bacchanals, Choriste, 
 Charybde, Charybdis, Chorographie, 
 
 les Charites, Charities, Dyrrhachium, 
 
 Charron (the ferryman of hell) ; Echinades, 
 
 for ch is sounded like sh in un Epicharme, 
 
 charon, a cartwright. Exarchat, 
 
 Chelidoine, Celandine, Echo, . 
 
 Cham, Cham, Euchariste, 
 
 Chanaan, Canaan, Eucharistie, 
 
 Chus, Chus, Lcsches, 
 
 Calchas, Calchas, Michol, 
 
 Chelydre, a water-snake, Nabuchodonosoi 
 
 Chares, Chares, zar, 
 
 Charchedon, Charchedon, Orchestre, 
 
 Chosroes, Chosroes, Pulcherie, 
 
 Cliabrias, Chabrias, Rechabiie, 
 
 Chersonese, Chersonesus, Scholastique, 
 
 Chio, Chio, Scholiaste, 
 
 Chiliarqiie, Chyliarchus, Scholie, 
 
 Chiromancie, Chyromancy, Synecdoche, 
 
 Chorebe, Choreb, Tycho Brahe, 
 
 Chaur, Chorus, a Choir, Zacharie, 
 
 and the syllables in chal of foreign words become French ; as 
 Monachal, &c. 
 
 ch is pronounced in catechese, and catechisme a catechism, and 
 it is articulated like k in catechumene. We pronounce machine and 
 stomachique French like, and mechanique and stomachal, Greek- 
 like, when these words are spelt with h. 
 
 We now write pascal, instead of paschal. 
 
 Chypre Cyprus, is sometimes spelt and pronounced with ch, 
 and sometimes with c only, according to the circumstances of the 
 time spoken of ; for if one speaks of something relating to an- 
 cient geography, one must spell and pronounce rile de Cypre, th<f 
 island of Cyprus ; and Vile de Chypre, if what one says relates to 
 modern geography. Therefore we always say de la poudre de 
 Chypre, powder of Cyprus : as likewise, 
 
 Caion fat envoy t par le peuple Romain dans Vile de Cypre, 
 Cato was sent by the Roman people into the island of Cyprus. 
 Les Turcs se rendirent maitres de Vile de Chypre sous Selim II. 
 The Turks made themselves masters of the island of Cyprus 
 under Selim II. 
 
 G 
 
 Chorist, 
 
 Chorography, 
 
 Dyrrhachium, 
 
 Echinades, 
 
 Epicharmus, 
 
 Exarchate, 
 
 Echo, 
 
 Eucharist, and 
 
 Lord's Supper, 
 
 Lesches, 
 
 Michol, 
 
 , Nebuchadnez- 
 
 Orchestra, 
 
 Scholastic, 
 
 Scholiast, 
 
 Scholium, 
 
 Synecdoche, 
 
 Zachariah, 
 
62 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 ch, in common conversation, is articulated like j in jachete f 
 with the two other persons sing, of acheter to buy, and revenche 
 revenge. Pronounce revenje,fajete. 
 
 ch before r is articulated like k in chreme chrism, Christ, and 
 other words beginning with chr, wherein it is pronounced as in 
 English Christ. 
 
 Ih takes the liquid articulation of / in these two proper names, 
 Milhaut and Pardalhac. 
 
 h after p (ph) is articulated like f as in philosophe philosopher. 
 But ph is no longer found, except in proper names, and some 
 scientific words, as in Phaeton, Philippe, Physicien, Pharmacie 
 Phenomotie, Phthisie, Physionomie : as to the others used in com- 
 mon discourse, they are spelt French like, in spite of their Greek 
 derivation. Thus we write fantaisie fancy, fantome a phantom, 
 faisan a pheasant, frenesie phrensy, 8cc. 
 
 h after r or t is not pronounced at all ; as rhetorique rhetoric k, 
 these thesis ; pronounce the, retorique. 
 
 h in hierarchie is aspirated : it is not in hieroglyphe and hiero- 
 glyphique. We now write Jerusalem, Jerome, jacinthe, instead 
 of Hierusalem, Hierome, hyacinthe. 
 
 Final h is found only at the end of Auch (a city in France), 
 and some foreign and chiefly Hebraic words, wherein it is not 
 pronounced ; as in Abimelech, Enoch, &c. At the end of Jo- 
 seph, it forms with p the sound of f Pronounce Josef, Enoc, 
 &c. ch is dropt at the end of almanach: but Auch is pronounced 
 oche. 
 
 In the interjections ah, eh, oh ! h is sometimes pronounced with 
 aspiration, as if it were the first letter. 
 
 J- 
 j consonant is of the same use in French as in English, but is 
 articulated like s in the words pleasure, leisure, &c. It differs 
 from the English j, in that one must express no articulation of 
 d before, no more than before g ; for these two consonants are 
 pronounced in English with a double articulation. 
 
 k. 
 
 k is used in French only in the word kyrielle, which signifies, 
 in familiar discourse, a long and grievous series of things in a story, 
 and abusively formed from the litany Kyrie eleison. As to the 
 foreign words wherein k is found, as in Stockholm, k is articulated 
 as in English. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 63 
 
 I is not articulated iajfils son ; it is silent also in quelque some, 
 quelquefois sometimes, quelqu'un somebody, but only in conver- 
 sation ; though it is always pronounced in quelconque any body 
 whatever. Neither is it pronounced in Chaulnes (a proper name). 
 
 Double / is no otherwise articulated but as a single /, as in 
 mollir to soften, salle a hall. Except in the following words, 
 and when i comes before double I in the beginning of words, as 
 illustre illustrious, illegitime illegal, 
 
 )C 
 
 AUegorie, 
 
 allusion, 
 
 allision, 
 
 appellatif, 
 
 Apollon, 
 
 Bellone, 
 
 belligerant, 
 
 belliqueux, 
 
 bellissime, 
 
 allegory, 
 allusion, 
 allision, 
 appellative, 
 Apollo, 
 Bellona, 
 at war, 
 warlike, 
 extraordinary fine, 
 
 circonv dilation , circumvallation, 
 collateral, collateral, 
 
 collateur, one that has a living 
 
 in his gift, 
 collation, collation, 
 
 collationner, but not in collation, 
 
 a meal, fyc. 
 colloquer, to rank, 
 
 colliger, to collect, 
 
 recolliger, to recollect, but not 
 
 in recollection, 
 collusion, collusion, 
 
 collusoire, collusory, 
 
 constellation, constellation, 
 
 ebullition, 
 ellebore, 
 scourging, 
 to scourge, 
 Gallic, 
 imbecility, 
 understanding, 
 intelligent, 
 intelligible, 
 intellectual, 
 millenary, 
 millesime, the year or date of a 
 medal, 
 
 ebullition, 
 
 ellebore, 
 
 Hagellation, 
 
 Hageller, 
 
 Gallicane, 
 
 imbecillite, 
 
 intelligence, 
 
 intelligent, 
 
 intelligible, 
 
 intellectael, 
 
 millenaire, 
 
 Magellanique, 
 
 nullite, 
 
 Palladium, 
 
 Pallas, 
 
 pallier, 
 
 polluer y 
 
 Magellanic, 
 
 nullity, 
 
 Palladium, 
 
 Pallas, 
 
 to palliate, 
 
 to pollute, 
 
 Pollux (and all proper names 
 
 spelt with double I), 
 pusillanime, pusillanimous, 
 
 pusillanimite, pusillanimity. 
 
 Therefore pronounce il-lustre, il-legitime, Pal-las, bel-liqueux, 
 intel-ligent, pel-licule, &c. but pronounce rnolir, sale, Sec. 
 
 You may pronounce si/llogi$me a syllogism, as you please ; but 
 it is better to pronounce the two ll J s. 
 
 It is not therefore an easy matter to determine when I doubles 
 in words. It may be said only in general for the adnouns, when 
 the masculine ends in /, it is doubled in the feminine ; but re- 
 mains single, if the final / of the masculine is followed by e not 
 sounded ; as, 
 
64 Of PRONUN C1ATION 
 
 M. bel*, F. belle, handsome. M. cruel, F. cruelle, cruel. 
 M. wo/*, F.molle, soft. M.fol, F.folle, fool. 
 
 * Old Masculines still used before nouns beginning with a vowel. 
 
 M. and Y.jidelle faithful, tranquille quiet, utile useful, frivol e 
 frivolous, S)'c. 
 
 There is another exception from nouns in il, as vil vile, subtil 
 subtile, be. in whose feminine vile, subtile, I is not doubled. 
 
 i before double / in the middle of words, denotes only the li- 
 quid articulation of /; as in file a daughter, sillon a furrow, ex- 
 cept in these words, 
 
 Achille, 
 
 Achilles, 
 
 Gilles, St. Giles, 
 
 Seville, Seville, 
 
 argille, 
 
 clay, 
 
 imbccitle, feeble, an 
 
 syilabe, a syllable, 
 
 armillaire, 
 
 armillary, 
 
 idiot, 
 
 vactllant, vaciller, &c. 
 
 camomitle, 
 
 camomile, 
 
 mille,n. thousand(wkh 
 
 reeling, 
 
 il dhtille, 
 
 he distils, 
 
 its derivatives), 
 
 ville, city, town. 
 
 ittylle, 
 
 idyl, 
 
 pupille, an orphan, 
 
 
 / takes the liquid articulation at the end of Avril April, babil 
 rattling, beril, Bresil Brasil, grtsil (a sort of rime or hoar- 
 frost), mil millet, and peril peril ; as likewise at the end of the 
 improper diphthongs ail, eil, ueil, euil, and ouil : as de Vail gar- 
 lick, mail mall, soleil sun, deuil mourning, feiwuil fennel ; and in 
 gentilhomme nobly descended : but / is quite dropt in the pro- 
 nunciation of the plural of that noun gentih-hommes, which is 
 pronounced jantizom ; and likewise in jils son, which is pro- 
 nounced^' (as has been said before). 
 
 Double / takes likewise the liquid articulation in these two 
 proper names Nidli and Sulli ; as also Ih in these two others, 
 Milhaut and Pardalhac. 
 
 I is pronounced at the end of words ; as sel salt, fil thread, 
 royal royal. 
 
 Except, 1st, in 
 
 baril, barrel, gril, gridiron, pouls, pulse, 
 
 c/tenil, dog-kennel, nombril, navel, soul, fuddled, 
 
 fusil, a gun, outil, a tool, sourcil, eye-brow, 
 
 gentil, genteel, persil, parsley. 
 
 'idly, In the pronoun il before a consonant in common conversation, (nay 
 il coming after its verb don't articulate its / even before a vowel) ; and in the 
 plural Us, even before a vowel, and final s before a vowel is articulated like 2 : 
 as il dit he says, Us ontfait they have done, parle-t-il encere ? is he speaking 
 still ? Pronounce i di, i zonfai, pari ti encor : but to avoid double meanings, 
 the best is to sound / ; besides, in reading, it cannot be silent. In the phrase 
 ainsi soit-il, I must be articulated. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY 60 
 
 We spell and pronounce fou for fol a fool, sou for sol a 
 penny, cou for col 2l neck, and mou for mol soft. But we still 
 spell and pronounce sol soil, le col d'une chemise the neck of a 
 shirt, «?/ col a stock, as likewise when col signifies a defile, or 
 narrow passage between two hills ; as le col de Tende the straights 
 of Tend; as also le col de la vessie fy de la matrice the neck of the 
 bladder and matrice ; and un b mol a b flat in music. 
 
 We say, in terms of hawking, that un oiseau a fait un beau 
 vou for vol, the bird has made a fine flight. 
 
 m. 
 
 m after a vowel, and followed by a consonant, serves, like n, 
 to give the nasal sound to the vowel ; as prompt quick, sembler 
 to seem ; pronounce pron sambler. Except, 
 
 1st, amnistie amnesty, hijmne hymn, Amsterdam, and some other 
 foreign words, wherein m keeps its peculiar articulation, thougli 
 followed by a consonant. 
 
 Qdly, immediat immediate, immoler to sacrifice, and all words 
 beginning with im followed by another m, wherein both m's must 
 be articulated ; pronounce am-nislie, im-mediat im-moler. 
 
 odly, om followed by m is not nasal, but keeps its slender and 
 short sound, and the two m's are pronounced only by a single 
 one ; as in commun common, commander to command, commode 
 convenient, sommer to summon, i>;c. pronounce comande, comode, 
 &c. but articulate the double m in these four words, commuer, 
 commutation, commutatif, and incommuniquable. 
 
 Neither is am nasal in damner to damn, nor in its derivatives, 
 
 condamner to condemn, ipc. pronounce daner. mis articulated 
 
 in indemniser to indemnify, and indemnite indemnity; but it 
 causes the foregoing e to take the sound of slender a (indam-nite). 
 It is not articulated in solemnel solemn, though the fore- 
 going e is sounded like a (solanel). 
 
 m at the end of words sounds like «, to give the nasal sound 
 to the vowel : as nom name, parfum perfume ; pronounce non, 
 parfun. 
 
 Except in the interjection of hem, wherein h and m are articulated hard ; in 
 item, and in foreign words; as Matusalem, Amsterdam, Stockholm, wherein m 
 keeps its peculiar articulation : though at the end of Adam, and Absalom, final 
 m gives the preceding vowel the nasal sound ; as also doth n at the end of 
 Salomon. 
 
 m is commonly doubled after im, com, gom, pom, horn, som, 
 beginning a word : as immense immense, comme as, commerce trade, 
 
6Q Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 gomme gum, pomme an apple, sommet the top, homme a man, 
 sommer to summon, fyc. 
 
 Except in these words, comet e a comet, comite (an officer on board a galley), 
 comitc a committee, comedie a comedy, comique comical, concomitance conco- 
 mitancy, homogene homogeneous. 
 
 m is also doubled in these six words, dommage damage, femme 
 a woman, lemme lemma, dilemme a dilemma, nommer to name, 
 nommement namely ; pron. doma^e, fame, lime, dileme, nome, &c. 
 
 Double m is articulated in foreign words, as Ammoniac, Ammo- 
 nite, after the same manner as in French words beginning with 
 imm, as im-mediat immediate, im-mohr to sacrifice, immense. 
 
 n keeps its peculiar and proper articulation (such as it is ex- 
 pressed in the English monosyllables not and in), 1st, when it 
 begins a syllable, or is between two vowels, as in nonagenairt 
 one fourscore and ten years old, inimitie enmity. 
 
 Qdly, When in, beginning a word, is followed by another n ; 
 as in innover to make innovations : pronounce in-nover, in-i-mitic, 
 &c 
 
 Except innocent innocent (with its derivatives), which is pronounced as if it 
 were spelt with a single n, i-nocenl. 
 
 In all other cases n serves only to give the nasal sound to the 
 foregoing vowel, as has been said in the third section about na- 
 sals : where we have seen, that in beginning a word, and followed 
 by a vowel, is not nasal ; i and n keeping each of them its pecu- 
 liar sound and articulation, as in inattention want of attention, 
 inou'i unheard of ; pronounce i-nattention, i-noui. 
 
 n at the end of words is not pronounced before consonants ; 
 but as for those words beginning with a vowel, make these fol- 
 lowing observations : 
 
 bien well, and rien nothing, articulate in a particular manner 
 their final n before a vowel, even in common and familiar dis- 
 course. Therefore pronounce 
 
 bien neloquent, "} C bien eloquent, very eloquent. 
 
 bien netudier, f * J bien etudier, to study well. 
 
 ne rien napprendre, C or J ne rien apprendre, to learn nothing. 
 rien nau monde, J L rien au monde, nothing in the world. 
 
 But custom is against pronouncing final n in the noun hen, in 
 the pronouns mien, tien, sien : in vin wine, dessein design, and 
 rien before ou'i heard. Therefore don't pronounce 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 67 
 
 je n'ai rien noui dire, "\ f rien ou'i dire, I've heard nothing, 
 un dessein nadmirable, I \ dessein admirable, a marvellous design, 
 du vin nexcellent, >but< du vin excellent, mighty good wine, 
 h mien nest meilleur, V tie mien est meilleur, mine is better, 
 un Lien na desirer, J \-bien a desirer, a thing to be wished for. 
 
 en, either preposition or pronoun relative, always articulates 
 its n before a vowel ; as, 
 
 en un elm dUceil, in a trice, "j C en nun din d'atil, 
 
 en entrant, as he went in, f pro- j en nantrant, 
 
 en etes-vous sur, are you sure of it ? C nounce J en netes-vous sur, 
 fen ai dit assez, I've said enough on't, j V ew nai ^ assez. 
 
 Except after the imperative : as donnez-en a tous, give some to every body, 
 and not donnez en na tous. ParLez-en encore, not en nencore, speak of it 
 again. 
 
 on always articulates its final n before a vowel, except in sen- 
 tences of interrogation : as, 
 
 on observe, 1 C on nohserve, it is observed, 
 
 on en peut tire as- > pronounces on nen peut, &c. one may be 
 
 sure, ) t sure of it. 
 
 But when a question is asked, pronounce 
 apprend-on avee >*""-{ apprend-on nave joie, can one hear 
 
 en peut-on etre sur,l , C en peut-on nitre sur, can one be sure of it ? 
 -yprend-on avee > l < apprend-on navl : 
 joie, j t with gladness 
 
 un articulates its n before its noun beginning with a vowel : 
 but never when it is a noun of number. Therefore pronounce 
 un narbre for un arbre a tree, un nami for un ami a friend, il n'y 
 a quun homme there is but one man ; pronounce un nome. 
 But il y en cut un assez hardi, and not un nassez hardi there was 
 one so bold as to, fyc 
 
 As to the other final nasals, they articulate n before a vowel 
 in all words, especially adnouns immediately followed by their 
 nouns; as d'un commun accord unanimously, mon ame my soul, 
 certain auteur a certain author, ancien etablissement ancient esta- 
 blishment ; pronounce mon name, commun accord, certain nan- 
 teur, &c. 
 
 Nay bon and divin seem to lose entirely their nasal sounds before 
 their nouns beginning with a vowel ; as bon orateur a good ora- 
 tor, divin amour divine love ; pronounce bon orateur, divinamour ; 
 
68 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 as also bien aise very glad ; pronounce bie-naise. Benin be- 
 nign, and malin malign, are seldom met with before nouns be- 
 ginning with a vowel, except that malin esprit (an evil spirit) are 
 construed together. 
 
 n is pronounced at the end of foreign words, or those derived 
 from Latin ; e (as has been said) being not nasal in these words, 
 hymen, examen, &c. 
 
 n is quite dropt in all the third persons of the plural number of 
 verbs before e ; as Us aiment they love, Us aimoient they loved ; 
 pronounce izaime, izaime; nt serving to make that syllable a 
 little longer than it is in the third person singular ; il aime he 
 loves, il aimoit he loved. That final t is articulated in repeating 
 verses before the next word beginning with a vowel, as elles aiment 
 aparler they love speaking; pronounce el zaime td parler. 
 
 We write couvent a. convent, and Marmoutier, instead of the 
 old manner of content, Marmontier (a proper name). 
 
 n is, of all consonants, that which is most frequently doubled 
 in words, though it is single in a great many cases. Generally 
 speaking, it does not double between two o's. Thus we write 
 with a single n, sonore sonorous, honorable honourable, and ho- 
 norer to honour ; though we write with a double n sonner to ring 
 or resound, honneur honour, honntte honest, Sec. 
 
 We most commonly double it in derivatives, when the primi- 
 tives end in n coming after a, e, o ; as an, annee year, le mien, la 
 rrdenne mine, pardon pardon, par donnab I 'e what is to be forgiven, 
 occasion occasion, occasionner to occasion, marron a horse-ches- 
 nut, marronnier a horse-chesnut tree, savon soap, savonnette a 
 Mash-ball, fyc. But when that final consonant comes after i or w, 
 or any diphthong, it remains single in the derivative : as badin 
 wanton, badine; fin fine, fine; bran brown, brune; soin care, 
 soigner to take care, fyc. 
 
 Double n is pronounced in these words only, annale annal, an- 
 nuitt annuity, annulaire annular, annuler to annul, inne innate, 
 innover to innovate, connexitt connexion, connvcer to connive, 
 and their derivatives. 
 
 p is not pronounced in bapteme baptism, baptiser to christen, 
 baptisttre and baptiste : but it is in baptismal and baptismaux. — 
 It is not articulated in sept seven, but it is in its derivatives 
 septante seventy 7 , septuagenaire one seventy years old, and septua- 
 gtsime septuagesima. — Neither is it pronounced by some people 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 09 
 
 m pseaume psalm, pseautier psalter, nor in psalmiste psalmist, 
 tho' it is in psalmodie psalmody, and psalmodier to sing. 
 
 p is likewise dropt in 
 corps, body, manuscript, maim- sculpture, statuary, 
 
 compte, account, script, with its deriva- 
 
 cornpter, to reckon, prompt, quick, tives, sculpt er and 
 
 exempt, free, promptitude, quick- sculpteur, 
 
 exempter, to ex- ness, promptement, symptome, symptom, 
 
 empt, quickly, temps, time, 
 
 But p is pronounced in dompter to tame, exemption, impromptu, accepter, 
 ridempteur, contemptible. 
 
 p at the end of words is not articulated ; as drap cloth, loup 
 wolf, champ field, <3fc. 
 
 Except these, cap a cape, Gap (the name of a city), julep a julep, jalap jalap; 
 and the adverbs beaucoup much, and trop too much, before a word beginning 
 with a vowel; as beaucoup aime much loved, trop obligeant too obliging; 
 pronounce dra,lou, tro poligeant, julep, Gap, cap, jalap. 
 
 Good writers double p in most words, only to preserve ety- 
 mology : in proper names, as Appius, &c. it is sounded. 
 
 q is always followed in words by u (qu) even before another 
 u, and articulated like k or c in call ; as quatre four, quelque some, 
 qui who, quintal, piquure, pricking, fyc. pronounce katr, hi, &c. 
 but in questeur questor, equestre equestrian, equiangle equiangular, 
 the first syllables of Quinquagesime Quinquagesima, Quirinai, 
 Quintilien, Quinte-Curce Quintus Curtius, and the third of ubi- 
 quiste, with their derivatives, pronounce ku-esteur, ecu-estre, cu- 
 incouagesime, ubicu iste : and in aquatique marshy, quadragenaire 
 one forty years old, quadragesime quadragesima, quadrature 
 quadrature, quadruple four-fold, quadruple a quadruped, equa- 
 teur equator, equation, and the second syllable of quinquagenaire 
 one fifty years old, and quinquagesime, qua is pronounced like 
 quoua, or kwa. Therefore pronounce akwatic, ekwateur, kwa- 
 dratur, &c. It is not amiss to observe here, that ua is likewise pro- 
 nounced like oua, in linguale, la Guadeloupe, and la Guadiane. 
 
 qu followed by nasal i (quin), is pronounced in Charles-quiint 
 Charles the fifth, and Sixte-quint Sixtus the fifth, like Kent 
 without sounding the final t. 
 
 q takes the articulation of g hard in souquenille a frock, as alse 
 in Don Quixotic, which is pronounced Don Ghishot. 
 
70 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 q is articulated like k at the end of coq a cock ; but it is not 
 pronounced in coq aV lnde a Turkey-cock ; nor at the end of cinq 
 five, when in a sentence the next word begins with a consonant : 
 but when cinq comes before a vowel, or at the end of a sentence, 
 final q is articulated, as in coq. Therefore pronounce un coq, co- 
 dinde, cin solda for cinq soldats five soldiers, cin kofficic for cinq 
 qfficiers five officiers, fen ai cink for cinq I have got five. 
 
 Pronounce also cink in cinq pour cent, five per cent. 
 
 r is not pronounced in common discourse, in votre your, notre 
 our, quatre four ; as also most times in autre other, immediately 
 followed by their nouns beginning with a consonant. Thus 
 pronounce vote sozur your sister, note maison our house, quate 
 guintes four guineas, un aute cheval another horse. Otherwise, 
 that is, when those words meet before a vowel, or alone, or at 
 the end of a sentence, r is articulated ; as, cest votre ami S) le 
 notre he is your friend and ours, un autre ouvrage another 
 
 work, quatre ecus four crowns, il en a quatre he has four. 
 
 ?■ is also pronounced in Xotre-Dame Our Lady, and in the 
 Lords prayer, ]Sotre Pere qui es mix Cieux Our Father which 
 art in heaven. 
 
 Sometimes, in common conversation, r is not pronounced in 
 the first syllable of Mercredi Wednesday, in the second of chirur- 
 gien a surgeon (though it is articulated in chirurgie surgery), and 
 the last of voiontiers willingly (no more than the final s). Pro- 
 nounce Mecredi, volontit, chirugien, and chirurgie. It is 
 
 usually dropt in common conversation, in ttre to be, before a 
 word beginning with a consonant ; as il doit ttre convaincu queje 
 Vestime he ought to be persuaded that I esteem him ; pronounce 
 il doit tte convaincu, Sec. The ear only is to judge when r in ttre 
 sounds too harsh, as in the aforesaid example. 
 
 r is articulated at the end of words, as car for, bonheur good 
 fortune, pur pure, avoir to have, &;c. 
 
 Except, 1st, In monsieur, sir, and its plural messieurs gentlemen, though it 
 is articulated in sieur and sieurs : pronounce monsieu, messieu, le sieur, Its 
 sieurs. 
 
 It is indifferent to articulate it or no in sur, and to pronounce su la terre, 
 or sur la terre, upon the earth. 
 
 'idly, At the end of infinitives in er, even before a vowel, except in reading 
 verses; as chanter to sing, pronounce c/iante un air to sing an air. 
 
 3dly, At the end of nouns in er ; as danger danger. (See in the paragraph 
 of e acute, what concerns those words and their exceptions.) 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 71 
 
 r doubles after a } e, o : as in arracher to pluck out, guerre wai, 
 horrible horrid : except in some words, as araignee a spider, aride 
 dry, mere mother, sonore sonorous. It is doubled also in resur- 
 rection : but the two r's are articulated only in Corregidor, corro- 
 de?- to corrode, corrosif corrosive, corroboratif corroborative, 
 corroborer to corroborate ; errant, errata, errer, and erreur ; hor- 
 reur, (though not in horrible, &c.) irregulier, &c. irreligion, irre- 
 solu, and in all words beginning with ir followed by another r : 
 as likewise in the future and conditional tenses of courir and 
 mourir. Therefore pronounce courrois, mourra, snoring half a 
 dozen of r's between your teeth. 
 
 This letter has two articulations, s in the beginning of words, 
 and in the middle before a vowel, and after a consonant, expresses 
 the same articulation as s in so or slozv (which articulation I shall 
 call the hissing articulation of s), as si if, persecuter to prosecute, 
 
 Sic. 
 
 Except in these five words, Alsace, balsamine, balsamique, halsan, and haU 
 sane. 
 
 And when it is between two vowels, it has the articulation of 
 2 : as also at the end of the preposition trans, followed by a vowel, 
 as in transaction transaction, oser to dare, baiser to kiss : pro- 
 nounce oze, baize, transaction. 
 
 Double s between two vowels, denotes only the hissing articu- 
 lation of 5 ; as baisser to stoop, ressort a spring, fyc. s in the 
 
 following words keeps its hissing articulation, though between 
 two vowels, because, they being compounds, it is considered as 
 if it were in the beginning of the simples : 
 
 Melchisedech, resaisir, to seize again, 
 
 monosyllable, monosyllable, tournesol, turnsol, 
 
 polysyllable, polysyllable, vraisemblable, 1 yv ] • 
 
 preseance, precedence, vraisemblablement, J ^' 
 
 parasol, an umbrella, vraisemb lance, likelihood, 
 
 presupposer, to presuppose, 
 
 Pronounce presseance, &c. whereas it is pronounced with the 
 soft articulation of z in reserver to reserve, resister to resist, and 
 presumer to presume, though these words are compounds, be- 
 cause their simples are not in use. 
 
 sc are articulated before a, o, u, and any consonant, as in sca- 
 pulaire scapulary, scorpion scorpion, scrupule a scruple ; but before 
 
72 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 c and i, or when e has a cedilla under it f.scj, they take the hissing 
 articulation of s, as science science, sceau seal, scavoir to know, 
 (when so spelt, for it is generally spelt savoir). 
 
 s is not pronounced in the beginning of schisme schism, nor 
 in its derivatives ; pronounce chisme, and chismatique a schisma- 
 tic. But it is articulated in scholastique scholastic, scholiaste 
 scholiast, and scholie, when the words are so spelt. 
 
 s at the end of words is not pronounced, even before a vowel ; 
 as un bras estropie a maimed arm ; pronounce bra estropie . 
 Except, 
 
 1st, In un as an ace, Cas de pique the ace of spades, un ours a 
 bear, une vis a screw, and le cens (census) but not in deux cens, 
 trois cens, &c. two hundred, three hundred, fyc. 
 
 ( 2dly, At the end of foreign words and proper names, as Aloes, 
 Fabiu*, Venus, Daphnis, Ceres, Pallas, Esdras, Josias, &c. ex- 
 cept Barnabas, Judas, Lucas, Mathias, and Thomas. It is like- 
 wise pronounced in these Latin words, become French, anus, 
 agnus, bis, bibus, bolus, blocus, calus, fatus, iris, gratis, oremus, 
 ■pliebus, rebus, sinus, virus (but not chaos) at the end of which 
 
 5 is pronounced with its hissing articulation. s is articulated 
 
 in Mars, the name of the god of war. It is pronounced in The- 
 mis, des Jacobus (but not in des Carolus). It is articulated at the 
 end of Rheims, Sens, and Senlis (cities of France)-, but not of 
 Charles, Jules, and Paques, when spelt with s. 
 
 Sdly, At the end of articles, pronouns, and prepositions before 
 a vowel, or h not aspirated, and the imperative before the pro- 
 nouns en and y only, in the other persons of verbs, it is omitted 
 in common discourse ; as les enfans the children, nous aimons we 
 love, viens-y come thither, faites-en make some, des a present 
 from this time forward, favois etc I had been, vous avez eu mes 
 habits you have had my coats, nous irons a Paris, Sec. we shall 
 go to Paris ; give it the sound of z, and pronounce de za presen, 
 vien zi, nou zhnon, javoi zete, vou zave u me zabits, tiou ziron 
 a Paris, &c. But when nous and vous are used interroga- 
 tively, we don't pronounce their final 5 before the next 
 vowel. ' Therefore pronounce, without sounding s, avons-nous 
 a manger have we something to eat ? mens avec moi come 
 along with me, lis encore read again. Neither is s pro- 
 nounced at the end of the pronoun les before a vowel, but 
 only gives e the most resonant sound of e grave ; as donnez-les a 
 voire savur give them to your sister : pronounce donnez-le a 
 voire socur, tho' we pronounce il IS za donne for il les a domic* 
 he has given them. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 73 
 
 Athly, In the first syllable of vis-a-vis over against, and de 
 iemps en temps from time to time, as also most commonly in that 
 of pas a pas step by step, de pis en pis worse and worse, and de 
 plus en plus more and more. 
 
 5thly, s is not pronounced in puis then, nor depuis since, even 
 before a vowel. It is articulated in puisqne since, and lorsque 
 when. 
 
 Qthly, s is always pronounced at the end of adnouns plural, be- 
 fore their nouns beginning with a vowel ; but when the nouns 
 come first, their final s is seldom articulated before their adnouns, 
 except in repeating verses ; as les belles times noble souls, les grands 
 homines great men ; pronounce bel zames, gran zomet. 
 
 Observe besides, 1st, that excepting as, ours, viz, le cem, and 
 foreign wokIs wherein final s is pronounced with the hissing ar- 
 ticulation : in all other cases wherein it is pronounced at the end 
 of words, it is always with the soft articulation of z. 
 
 Qdly, There were formerly a great many French words spelt 
 with s, though not pronounced at all. They particularly used 
 to write with 5 all the preterite tenses of the subjuuetive ; fust for 
 fut were, vist for vit, aimast for aimat loved, and abysme for abyme 
 abyss ; chrestien for cretien christian, mesrne for mcme even, mature 
 for maitre master, naistre for naitre to be born, $•<-. But the new 
 orthography having suppressed s, which was useless in all those 
 words, and substituted in its place the syncope ( A ) over the fore- 
 going vowel, and there being no modern book or dictionary but 
 what is conformable to this new way of spelling, so 5 is not now 
 found in the middle of words, but when it is necessarily pro 
 nounced ; except in est is (3d pers. pres. of ttre to be), and Basle 
 (the name of a city when spelt with s). 
 
 3dly, s, which is pronounced in Christ (as well as t), when 
 that word is alone, is dropt with the final t when they come after 
 Jesus, the final s whereof is never articulated neither. Therefore 
 pronounce Jtsti and Jesu Cri. 
 
 4thly,s in the middle of words has the soft articulation of 2 
 before b, d, v, g, called weak consonants ; and the hissing arti- 
 culation before c and k,f, m, p, q, t. Thus Asdrubal, presbyter e. 
 parsonage, #c. are pronounced Azdrubal, prezb'yter : but do not 
 pronounce Jazpe,jazmin, auztere,prezque, for Jaspe Jasper, jas- 
 min jessamin, austere austere, presque almost, &c. 
 
 You may pronounce it or not in enregistrer to register ; but it 
 is never pronounced in registre, when this noun is spelt with s. 
 
 s is not sounded in this word tous all, when it is followed by 
 some other words ; as tens vos livres all vour books, pronounce 
 
 II 
 
74 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 tou vo livr: but when tous is at the end of a sentence, s is sounded, 
 as je les ai vus tous I have seen them all, pronounce je le zt vu 
 tous. 
 
 t. 
 
 t followed by i (ti) before a, e, o, in the middle of words, has 
 the hissing articulation of s ; as in action action, martial warlike, 
 patience patience, #c. pronounce pacience, accion f &c. but ti 
 keeps its proper articulation. 
 
 1st, After x and s ; which extends only to these twelve words : 
 bastion, a bastion, kostie, a victim, 
 
 bestial, bestial, indigestion, surfeit, 
 
 bestiole, a little beast, mixtion, mixture, 
 
 bestion, the head of a ship, question, a question, 
 
 combustion, combustion, suggestion, which is } 
 
 digestion, digestion, pronounced sug- > suggestion, 
 
 gestion, management, jestion, j 
 
 and these two proper names, Ephestion and Sebastien. 
 
 Qdly, Before en, being the proper sound of nasal e, and not 
 that of nasal a ; asjetiens I hold, soutien support. 
 
 3dly, After en pronounced like a nasal, or an, as in entier en- 
 tire, entitrement entirely. Therefore the spelling essencid and 
 essenciellement, penitencier and penitenciel, with t instead of c, is 
 contrary to all analogy. 
 
 Athly, In verbs ; as chdtier to chastise, nous etions we were, 
 tous battiez ye did beat, fyc. 
 
 othly, In words ending in tie, tie, and tier ; as partie a part, 
 amitie friendship, metier a trade. 
 
 Except minutie, impi itie, ineptie, inertie, and some names of countries ; as 
 T?almatie, Galmtie, Nigritie ; and other words derived from the Greek, as 
 primatie primacy, prophitie prophecy, ariitocratie : pronounce aristocraci, 
 prophcci, Dalmaci, &c. 
 
 But t keeps its proper articulation in Corinthie and Gothie, 
 wherein thie is articulated as in partie ; and these three proper 
 names, Fortia, Naniia, and Santia. 
 
 t as well as h is suppressed in asthme asthma, and asthmatique ; 
 pronounce asme, asmatic. 
 
 In the plural of monosyllables ending in nt in the singular ; as 
 sing, un enfant a child ; plu. des enfants children ; un batiment a. 
 building, des bdtiments buildings : sometimes t is left out, and you 
 may write likewise enfans, bdiimens : but monosyllables retain it ; 
 as unpont abridge, des pouts bridges; une dent a tooth, des dents 
 teeth. Except cent and tout, which makes in the plural cens and 
 tous. 
 
 t is put between two hyphens (-t-) between a verb and the pro- 
 nouns il, elle, on, when questions are asked and the verb endg in 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 7o 
 
 rough, 
 
 correct, 
 
 correct, 
 
 rit, 
 
 a rite, 
 
 ►ortion, 
 
 direct, 
 
 direct, 
 
 sot, 
 
 a fool, 
 
 exact, 
 
 un fail, 
 
 a fact, 
 
 tact, 
 
 touching, 
 
 check- 
 
 i'ndult, 
 
 indult, 
 
 zenit, 
 
 zenith, 
 
 
 lest, 
 
 ballast, 
 
 zest, 
 
 zest, 
 
 e, fop, 
 
 pact, 
 
 pact, 
 
 Jpt 
 
 (the name of 
 
 ast and 
 
 rapt, 
 
 a rape, 
 
 a to 
 
 wn). 
 
 a vowel ; y a-t-il is there ? parle-t-elle, does she speak ? va-t-on, 
 do they go? 
 
 t is pronounced at the end of these words only : 
 brat, 
 dot, 
 exact, 
 tehee fy mat, 
 
 mate, 
 fat, a dunce, 
 est and ou 
 
 west, 
 
 t is also pronounced at the end of the lmpersonais, iljaut, il 
 plait ; and of vingt twenty, pret ready, and some other adnouns; 
 but is only when the next word begins with a vowel ; as ilfaut 
 y tiller one must go thither, s'il plait a Dieu if God pleases, 
 vingt ecus twenty crowns, savant esprit a learned mind. — And yet 
 we do not only pronounce t in vingt 3$ un one and twenty, but 
 also in vingt-deux, vingt-trois, &c. and what is still more remark- 
 able, we do not pronounce it in quatre-vingt un, quatre-vingt-deux, 
 &c. pronounce vin-te-un, vint-deux; quatre-vin-un, quatrevin-deu, 
 &c: t is also pronounced in est is, before a vowel ; as likewise at 
 the end of a verb, when a question is asked ; as e'est tin grand fou 
 he is a great fool, que fait-on what are they doing \ doit-il does 
 he owe ? pronounce doi ti,fai ton, c'i tun gran fou. 
 
 t at the end of cent is pronounced only before a noun beginning 
 with a vowel : as cent ecus a hundred crowns, cent hommes a hun- 
 dred men ; but never in cent un one hundred and one, cent onze 
 one hundred and eleven, un cent on deux one hundred or two. 
 
 t is articulated in the first syllable of mot a mot word for word ; 
 pronounce mo ta mo. — t is not pronounced at the end of contrat; 
 c and t are articulated in contracter to contract. 
 
 In (want-hier the day before yesterday, some pronounce t, 
 but the best way is to drop it. 
 
 t is not pronounced in Dantzique (the name of a city), in Metz 
 (another name of a city), nor in Retz (that of a cardinal), wherein 
 e has the most resonant sound of e grave, and tz that of the 
 hissing articulation of 5 (mess). Neither is it pronounced in the 
 plural of nouns that end their singular in t : as un chat a cat, des 
 chats cats ; un habit a suit of clothes, des habits suits of clothes : 
 pronounce un sha, des shazi), de zabi ; s serving only to make the 
 syllable long in the plural, which was short in the singular. 
 
 This wordjbrt is sometimes an adnoun, signifying strong ; some- 
 times an adverb, signifying very. When it is an adnoun, as fort fy 
 
76 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 grand strong and tall, the final t is silent, and r only is joined to 
 the next word beginning with a vowel', and yon pronounce fo-e- 
 gran ; when it is an adverb, as fort aimab/e very amiable, t is 
 joined to the next word beginning with a vowel, and you say for 
 taimable : in fort fyferme stoutly, t is sounded likewise. 
 
 t is never pronounced in the enclitic et or 8c (and), which is 
 sounded like c acute ; and et at the end of words is sounded like 
 
 aim May; as net clean, placet a petition. 1 is articulated in 
 
 sept seven, and huit eight, when alone, or at the end of a sen- 
 tence, and before a word beginning with a vowel: -as sept ouhuit 
 seven or eight, pronounce both final t's ; as also in fen ai sept I 
 have got seven ; but do not pronounce it in sept guinees, seven 
 guineas. 
 
 Two t's together (tt) are sounded like a single one ; asfrotter 
 to rub, attirer to attract : t is doubled only to make the foregoing 
 syllable short 
 
 t hardly doubles but after a and o (tho' not always), as in atta- 
 quer to attack, combative to fight, botte a boot, sotte iooYish, sottise, 
 Sec. but write with a singled: etablir to establish, citron citron, 
 brutal brutish, tuttlaire tutelar, and other words wherein t comes 
 after e, i, u, &c. though we also spell with a single t : mature 
 matter, latitude latitude, and some others : and with a double t : 
 bette beet, better axe red beet. 
 
 The two t's (tt) are sounded in Attique, Atticisme, Atticus. 
 
 v. 
 There is no occasion for any particular observations upon the 
 consonant v, it having in French the same articulation, and being 
 of the same use as in English. 
 
 x. 
 
 x denotes either of these two articulations cs and gz. 
 
 x has the articulation of cs, in all proper names, both in the 
 beginning, middle, and end ; before consonants, except h ; and 
 between two vowels, except when the word begins with e ; as 
 Xavier, Xerxes, Ximencs, Alexandre, Mexiqtie, axiome, axe axis, 
 extrait extract, maxime, luxe luxury, flexible, &c. pronounce 
 acsiome, Alecsandre, Cserses, ecstrai, lucss, &c. 
 
 x has the articulation of gz between two vowels, the first 
 whereof is e, even tho' the second vowel should be preceded with 
 h, as in examen, exit, exarque, exaucer to grant, exemple example, 
 exhumer to unbury : pronounce egzil, egzume, Jcc. 
 
 x in soixante sixty, and soixantieme sixtieth, takes the hissing 
 articulation of s; but the soft one of z in deuxieme second. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 77 
 
 deuxiemement secondly, dixieme tenth, dixaine ten, dixain a stanza 
 of ten verses, and dixitmement tenthly, dix-huit eighteen, dix-neuf 
 nineteen, sixieme sixth, sixiemement sixthly, and sixain a stanza 
 of six verses. Therefore pronounce soissante, deuzilme, sizain, 
 &c. nay we write sizain and dizain. 
 
 x takes also the hissing articulation of s in the following names 
 of places, which even are commonly spelt with s ; Xaintes, Xain- 
 tonge, Bruxelles, Flexelle, Auxerre, Auxonne, St. Maixant, Uxell, 
 ou Uxelles, and the second x in Xerxes: pronounce Saintes, 
 Brussels, Xerses, &c. 
 
 x takes the articulation of sh in Don Quixote, which is pro- 
 nounced Ghishot. 
 
 x takes the articulation of k before ce and ci ; excellence excel- 
 lency, exciter to excite : pronounce ekciter, eksellance, &c. 
 
 x has the articulation of cs at the end of these Greek and Latin 
 names only, Ajax, Alix, Anthrax, Beatrix, du borax, Contumax, 
 Felix, index, Li?ix, Ldrinx, Phenix, Onyx, Pollux, Sphinx, Styx, 
 Storax, Syphax, prefix prefixed, and perplexe perplexed. — It has 
 the hissing articulation of s at the end of Cadiz, but that of z at the 
 end of adnouns before nouns beginning with a vowel, or h mute, 
 as doux amusement sweet amusement, heureux homme happy man : 
 as likewise at the end of plural nouns that have no x in their 
 singular, when they are followed by an adnoun beginning with a 
 vowel, as cheveux tpars dishevelled hair. Those aforesaid cases 
 excepted, x is not pronounced at the end of words ; as des choux 
 cabbages, toux cough : pronounce chou, tou : but in the former 
 dou zamuseman, &c. Aix (the name of a city) is pronounced 
 like Aisse, or est-ce. 
 
 There are three observations to make upon x at the end of 
 dix ten, six six. 
 
 1st, x is not pronounced at all in dix and six before nouns be- 
 ginning with a consonant ; as dix guinees ten guineas, six litres 
 sterling six pounds sterling. 
 
 Qdly, dix and six, being at the end of a sentence, or in the 
 middle before words beginning with a consonant, but not their 
 nouns, articulate their final x like hissing s ; as fen ai dix I have 
 ten, les six que vous avez the six which you have. It is also after 
 this manner that x is pronounced in dix sept seventeen. 
 
 Sdly, x in dix and in six, before nouns beginning with a vowel, 
 takes the soft articulation of z ; as also in dix-huit eighteen, and 
 dix-neuf nineteen. Therefore pronounce diz-huit, diz-neuf. 
 di-ztcu ten crowns, dis-set, siss, diss, diguine, si livres, &c. 
 
 H2 
 
78 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 z is used only in the four following cases : 1°, In the 
 end of the second person plural of verbs, as vous aimez you 
 love, vousfaisiez you did, fyc. 2°, In these three words only, 
 te nez the nose, assez enough, chez at : for we no longer write 
 with z tin dc a die, vn pre a meadow. 3°, In the beginning of 
 some words derived from the Greek ; as zele zeal, ztphire zephy- 
 rus, $c. and in the numbers onze, douze, treize, quatorze, quinzt, 
 and seize, with their derivatives. 4°, In the end of these proper 
 names, wherein it takes the hissing articulation of s ; Booz, Rho- 
 deZy Senez, Usez ; except Sees, Rez, Milantz, and Vivarez (when 
 so spelt, for they are better spelt with ots), wherein z is not pro- 
 nounced at all : but the foregoing e has the most resonant sound 
 of e grave. — In f Abruzze, the double z takes the hissing articu- 
 ation of s, as if it were TAbrusse. 
 
 z is not pronounced (except in solemn speech and reading verses) 
 at the end of the few words wherein it is used before a vowel : assez 
 aimable agreeable enough, vous avez eu you have had : pronounce 
 asse aimable, ave u; but it is never pronounced after nez nose. 
 
 All that has been said throughout this last section concerning 
 final consonants, is to be understood only of the pronunciation 
 practised in common conversation ; for in declamation, that 
 is, in the pulpit, or at the bar, as also in reading verses, we al- 
 ways pronounce before vowels final consonants that are quite 
 dropt in common conversation. And as we make it our chief 
 task in this treatise to instruct the learner in that true, familiar, 
 and ordinary way of speaking, which Tirtly calls Sermo quoti- 
 dianus, and make him perfect master of it, he must, in order to 
 speak properly and politely, observe the following rules as con- 
 stantly true : 
 
 1st, That when the final consonant of a noun is not pro- 
 nounced in the singular number, it is also mute in the plural, 
 as well as the final s, which only serves to make that syllable 
 ] ong, or longer, in the plural, which was short, or already long, 
 in the singular ; as sing, tin chat, a cat ; plur. des chats cats ; 
 sing, un bourg a borough ; plur. des bottrgs boroughs : pronounce 
 shaw and boorc. 
 
 Qdly, That final consonants are always pronounced in words 
 immediately before their conjunctives, beginning with a vowel ; 
 as. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 79 
 
 First, The article and adnoun before its noun (les amis the 
 friends, sot ouvrage silly work, franc animal mere brute 01 
 blockhead). 
 
 Secondly, The preposition or adverb before its regimen (chez 
 eux at their house, bien habile very learned, fort adroit very skil- 
 ful, trop irrite too much incensed.) 
 
 Thirdly, The pronoun personal before its verb (il aime he 
 loves, vous offrez you offer, on apprend we learn) : pronounce 
 on naprend, i laime, tro pirite, che zeux, so touvage, It, zamis, &c. 
 
 3dly, That final consonants are pronounced in proper and fo- 
 reign names ; as Jacob, Pericles, Stanislas, Norris, &c. Except, 
 1st, when it is s after e not sounded, as in Athhies; or after i in 
 common French names, as Paris, Louis (tho' 5 is pronounced in 
 Paris, Priamus's son). Qdly, When there is a nasal vowel before 
 the final consonant ; as in St. Cloud, St. Francois, Pharamond, 
 &c. pronounce St. Clou, la ville de Pari, le perjide Pariss, Athene, 
 Pericless, Stanislass, &c. 
 
 As to orthography, or spelling, we generally leave out 
 all those useless consonants which are not pronounced, when 
 the suppression of them causes no ambiguity. Thus we 
 write avis advice, ajouter to add, lait milk, sujet subject, re- 
 vondre to answer, tete head, fyc. instead of the old way of 
 spelling advis, adjouster, laid, subject, respondre, teste, &c. Some 
 authors write a circumflex over most of those syllables, to show 
 that a letter has been supprest; but first, to act consistently 
 with themselves, they should put the circumflex over all those 
 syllables, in avis as well as ajouter, and lait. In the next place, 
 it is using an useless mark to show, to no purpose, that an use- 
 less letter is supprest : the scholars don't want that mark to know 
 the etymology of the word, and the illiterate are not a bit the 
 wiser for it : and, finally, that mark may occasion a false pronun- 
 ciation ; for, as it is also used to denote long syllables, people 
 are apt to think that ou in ajouter is long, as e in tete, which is 
 the Norman accent and pronunciation. 
 
 If we keep still some useless consonants in some words, it is 
 both to denote their derivation (etymology), and distinguish them 
 from other words that are pronounced alike. Thus we spellpoids 
 weight, with d, to distinguish it from pois peas, poix pitch, which 
 have the same sound ; compte account, with p, to distinguish it 
 from comte earl, and conte a story. 
 
 And as to the double consonants (which are pronounced in 
 some cases only), observe, moreover, that these seven consonant* 
 
SO Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 never double h, j, k, v, x, z; neither do the others double 
 after a long vowel, or marked over with a circumflex, or after a 
 vowel nasal, or an improper diphthong (except however these 
 three, /, r, and s) ; and it is therefore after short vowels only 
 double consonants may come. Thus we write with single con- 
 sonants cote coast, bdtiment building, ttte head, encourager to 
 encourage, enfanter to be delivered, entendre to hear, traiter to 
 treat, gouter to taste, fyc. 
 
 But we spell these following with double consonants, bouffon 
 a buffoon, botle a boot, battre to beat, nette clean, affecter to 
 affect, syllabe syllable, fyc. 
 
 The characteristic consonant of verbs must be kept in the 
 tenses, such as it is in the infinitive ; that is, if it is single in the 
 infinitive, it must be so too all along the verb, and double if it is 
 double in that root. Therefore fabhorre I abhor, vous luttez 
 you wrestle, nous promettons we promise, ildonne he gives, Us se 
 rebellent, they rebel, fyc. are spelt with double consonants, be- 
 cause the consonants are double in their infinitives abhorrer, hit- 
 ter, promettre, &c. and je colore I colour, vous rebutez you re- 
 pulse, nous dotons we endow, Us volent they fly, fyc. are spelt with 
 a single consonant, because there is but one in their infinitive. 
 
 Except epeler to spell, appeler to call, and a few others. 
 
 I shall conclude this treatise with two tables of the Termi- 
 nations wherein the Penultima is pronounced short, and wherein 
 it is pronounced long ; which will be a great help to attain to 
 the harmony of the pronunciation. 
 
 TERMINATIONS zchose Penultima is short. 
 
 m . ., Words of the same terminations, with their ex- 
 
 Terminations. J ^^ 
 
 abe and able. syllabe, table, erable, aimable, agreable, fyc. 
 Except diable, sable, fable, cable, rable, and accable. 
 
 acre. diacre, fiacre, massacre, fyc. Except acre. 
 
 ade and adre. fade, malade, pommade, salade, ladre, £$c. 
 Except Cadre. 
 
 age and ache. page, courage, image, nage , rache, tache, pa- 
 nache, nager, fyc. 
 
 Except age, fache, tache, and othei^s, zehoee a is cir- 
 euftifiexed. — ais likewise long in age, facher, tacher,<S"<\ 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 81 
 
 r/ . • , Words of the same terminations, with their 
 
 1 emanations. J .> ' 
 
 exceptions. 
 
 afe and aphe. agrafe, epitaphe, geographe, paragraphe, fyc. 
 ague. campagne, montagne, Ascagne, §c. 
 
 Except gagne, with gugnev, and other derivatives. 
 
 ale, alle, and acle. balle, halle, scandale, ovale ; spectacle, recep- 
 tacle, 6)C. 
 Except rale, pale, le hale, male, racle, and racier, Sft. 
 
 ane, anne. cane, chicane, canne, fyc. 
 
 Except &ne, crane, mftnes, manne, and damne, §c. 
 
 ape and aque. attrape, frappe, cloaqne, fyc. 
 Except Jaques arid Paques. 
 
 arhe, arbre, arde. barbe, marbre, batarde, moutarde, fyc. 
 
 arme, arte, asrne, carte, charme, desastre, asthme, cataplasme, 
 
 astre. Sfc. 
 
 ame. dame, lame, polygame, nous aimames (and all 
 
 persons plural of the perfect tense of the 1st 
 conjugation. 
 
 Except Tame, flamme, infame, blame, pftme, p&mer, 
 blamer. 
 
 ate,atte,&ndattez. pirate, patte, agate, gratte, an d gratter ; battez, 
 battons, fyc. and the termination of the second 
 pers.plur.perf.ofthe 1st conjugation, priates, 
 animates, 'fyc. 
 Except pate (dough), gate, hate, hater, gater, 4'C 
 
 attre and aire. battre, quatre, fyc. 
 
 Except latre, theatre, blanch&tre, noir&tre, §c. chAtre, 
 and in chatrer, and chatier. 
 
 are. brave, cave, rave, lave, laver, fyc. 
 
 Except esclave ; but both a's are short in esclavage. 
 
 aite,ette,ede,va\d defaite, retraite, fyc, sonnette, remede, laide, £)c. 
 
 aide. Except falte. 
 
 eii,eiUe,oil,oile. soleil, veille, flwrfveiller ; poil, toile, voile, and 
 
 voiler, §c. 
 oihle and oide. foible, roide, S$c. with their derivatives, foiblesse, 
 
 roidir, fyc. 
 oine and oite. avoine, pivoine, il boite, boiter, with deriv. 
 ame and one. liomme, personne, colonne, Sfc. 
 
 Except atome, Dome, Jerome, Vendome, prone, ti-one, 
 and others wherein 6 is citxumjiexed. 
 
 ole, otte, oxe monopole, polyglotte, botte, cotte, paradoxe, 
 
 ifc. 
 
 Except p61e, cote, and others wherein o is circumjlexed. 
 
82 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 r r ... Words of the same terminations, with their 
 
 1 erminations. J . . 
 
 exceptions. 
 
 ouble,o\*plejOuille. double, couple, souple; rouille, la Tnmouille, 
 
 be. 
 ourse and ousse. bourse, je tousse, $c. 
 
 Except pouce, and]e pousse, SfC. 
 vurpre, ouve, and pourpre, couve, couvre, Louvre, as likewise in 
 
 ouvre. couver, couvrir, and their derivatives. 
 
 ougue,igue,ugue,uge. fougue, ngue, iugue, aeluge, ieiuge, Sec. 
 ique, uque, uffe. domestique, perruque, tartuffe, fyc. 
 
 TERMINATIONS whose Penultima is long. 
 
 abre. cabre, sabre, delabre, S)'c. (a is long likewise in 
 
 delabrer, and dtriv.) Except cinabre. 
 are and arre. barbare, barre, garre, Sec. 
 
 Except egare, mare, fanfare, pare, repare, compare, and 
 derivatives 6garer, Sf-c. N. B. These words are not excepted, 
 because the a of the Penultima is short ; hut because it is 
 sounded with the slender sound of a, though long. 
 
 ace,asse,ase,&aze. espace, grace, tasse, base, gaze, Sec. 
 
 Except besace, glace, coriace, becasse, liasse, cbasse and 
 chasser; agace and agacer. 
 
 aine and tne. chaine, entraine, gene, Sec. 
 Except vaine and veine. 
 
 aille. bataille, raille, taille, vaille, Sec. 
 
 Except medaille, and travaille, fyc.from travailler. 
 
 ape and apre. rape, as also raper, Sec. capre, fyc. 
 
 Except attrape, with its deriv.from attraper, and Satrape. 
 
 aindre,eindre,wde, contraindre, femte, feindre, coq d'Inde, cylin- 
 
 indre , einte. dre, Sec. 
 
 aire, erre, oire. chaire, faire, terre, Sec. 
 aise,aisse,est-ce,ese, bien-aise, these, baise, baisse (from baiser and 
 
 eze, oise, oisse. baisser, zvherein ai is long too), qu'est-ce, 
 l'Oise, croisse, Sec. 
 aitre and oitre. maitre, connoitre, cloitre, Sec. 
 aube, auce, ausse. daube, sauce, exauce, and exhausse, with deri- 
 vatives, 
 auche, ande, ause. gauche, Claude, cause, §c. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 8* 
 
 Terminations. 
 
 auge, aule, ble. 
 aume, aune. 
 aure, ore, ante, 
 
 autre, and otre. 
 auve and auvre. 
 eche and aiche. 
 
 erne. 
 
 enre and endre. 
 tpe and epre. 
 tte and ttre. 
 
 tune. 
 
 euse and euze. 
 ympe and uimpe 
 imple andymphe. 
 ingle and inte. 
 ire, uire, ivre. 
 ise and ize. 
 oindre, ointe. 
 oire, oivre. 
 ome and aume. 
 ose and osse. 
 
 oule and oudre. 
 ourre. 
 
 Words of the same terminations, with their 
 exceptions. 
 
 sauge, gaule, drole, &;c. 
 
 baume, jaune, with derivatives, embaumer, 
 
 centaure, aurore, haute, saute, apotre, 
 
 autre, &;c. 
 chauve, pauvre, fyc. 
 beche, fraiche, as also in becher. 
 Except brfeche, fteche, me.che, se.che. 
 
 un 
 
 creme, extreme, 
 
 but not in seme : and 
 
 others without a circumflex. 
 
 genre, entendre, def endre, fyc. 
 
 guepe, Vepres, fyc. Except lepre, and Dieppe. 
 
 bete, pretre, fenetre, fyc. but not in the termi- 
 nations in ete, or ette, as sonnette. 
 
 jeune (fast) but not without a circumflex, as 
 jeune young. 
 
 gueuse, heureuse, scrupuleuse, fyc. 
 
 olympe, guimpe, fyc. 
 
 simple, nymphe, fyc. 
 
 epingle, pinte, fyc. 
 
 lire, detruire, contire, vivre, suivre, fyc. 
 
 6glise, frise, dise,y*7'om dire, and friser, fyc. 
 
 joindre, pointe, fyc. 
 
 boire, croire, poivre, fyc. 
 
 dome, royaume, baume, fyc. 
 
 repose, grosse, fyc. Except bosse. o is also 
 
 long in engrosser. 
 
 Except boule. 
 
 ure 
 
 and 
 
 use. 
 
 foule, coudre, moudre, I 
 il f ourre, bourre, fyc. 
 blouse, croute, coute, goute, &c 
 Except doute, goutte, route, tonte. 
 
 coupure, foulure, muse, amuse, §c. but not u in 
 amuser. 
 
 Moreover, first, the penult i ma is long in terminations made of 
 two vowels, the latter whereof is e not sounded ; as in armte, 
 zoie,joie, vue, rue,jolie,aimce, and all participles feminine. 
 
 ( 2dly, The last syllable of words terminating in a consonant 
 or diphthong, which is short in the singular, becomes long in the 
 
84 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 plural, by the addition of s or x ; as sing, chef fagot, lieu, trait, 
 sac, &,c. plur. chefs, fagots, lieux, traits, sacs, &c. 
 
 Sdly, a being a monosyllable, or the last syllable of a word, 
 either absolutely, or with one or more consonants, is short and 
 slender, so 5 be not the final consonant ; as il a, sac, chat, ani- 
 mal, dard, magistrat, &c. but in the plural number, or with a 
 final s, it is long and broad ; as sacs, chats, magistrats, tu vas, tu 
 /eras, un bus. 
 
 Except les a^ts, darts, regards, renards, and the monosyllable bras in ti>e sin- 
 gular, with je bats, which are short. 
 
 So much concerning the termination of words, considered 
 with respect to prosody. As to the quantity that syllables bear 
 mi the middle of words, it may be said in general, that they are 
 all short ; as abiis, abrtger, babil, babiller, cacher, deviner, flatter, 
 thstie, plaider, juste, hger,peler, docile, j rapper, coupe rfanfaron, 
 cousin, douter, peste, quitter, triste, voisiner, &x. Except those 
 which consist of nasal vowels ; as entrer, chambranle, braider, 
 viontrer, instruire, tremblant, trompons, tomber, &c. 
 
 a is also long and broad in the middle of words before a dou- 
 ble r, or single r followed by e not sounded ; as barreau, bigar- 
 reau, parrain, &c. as likewise before the termination tion or ssion, 
 as in nation, creation, passion, &c. 
 
 a is short and slender in Paris (the name of the capital of 
 
 France), and long and broad in Paris (a man's name). It is 
 
 short and slender in Madrid, and long and broad in Cadiz and 
 Calais. 
 
 Most of the aforesaid observations would be needless, if the 
 long vowels were always marked with a circumflex ; which is the 
 true, and ought to be the only, use of that accent, as will be 
 proved in the following section. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Of the several Marks used in writing French. 
 
 These marks are of six sorts : the Elision, Hyphen, Cedtfla, 
 Dialysis or Diaeresis, Accents, Capital Letters, and Stops 
 
 Elision is the cutting off of a final vowel before a word be- 
 ginning with a vowel, or h mute ; and the vowel thus cut off is 
 supplied by a comma, called Apostrophe, and set above the empty 
 place, thus ('). 
 
 These three vowels, a, e } i, suffer elision in French. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 85 
 
 a and e are cut off in la and le, whether articles or pronouns ; 
 in all monosyllables, asje, me, se, te, de, ce, ne, que; and the con- 
 junctions composed of que, asjusque, parceque, puisque, &c. and 
 i in the conjunction si if, before if and Us only. 
 
 Thus wc 
 
 i write 
 
 
 
 Tame, \ 
 
 ' la ame, 
 
 the soul 
 
 F heroine, 
 
 
 la heroine, 
 
 the heroine 
 
 Fhomme, 
 
 
 le homme, 
 
 the man. 
 
 F esprit, 
 
 
 le esprit, 
 
 mind. 
 
 faime, 
 
 
 je aime, 
 
 I love. 
 
 je Festime, 
 
 
 je le or la estime, 
 
 I esteem him or her. 
 
 m'entendez-vous, 
 
 
 me entendez vous, do you understand me ? 
 
 sen aller, 
 
 
 se en aller, 
 
 to go away. 
 
 c 'est fait, 
 
 [instead 
 
 of « 
 
 ce est fait, 
 
 it is done or over. 
 
 Fdge dHor, 
 
 le age de or, 
 
 the golden age. 
 
 riallez pas, 
 
 
 ne allez pas, 
 
 do not go. 
 
 qu'a-t-il dit, 
 
 
 que a-t-il dit, 
 
 what did he say i 
 
 jusqu'au soir, 
 
 
 jusque au soir, 
 
 till night. 
 
 quoiqiCil dise, 
 
 
 quoique il dise, 
 
 altho' he says. 
 
 puisqu'il sait, 
 
 
 puisque il sait, 
 
 since he knows. 
 
 lorsqu'il vit, 
 
 
 lorsqueilvit, 
 
 when he saw. 
 
 s'il vient, 
 
 
 si il vient, 
 
 if he comes. 
 
 s'ils veulent, > 
 
 1 
 
 >. si Us veulent, 
 
 if they please. 
 
 But when si coming a 
 
 iter &; (fy si) signifies yet, i is not con- 
 
 tracted with the next vo 1 
 
 wel ; as il le sait, fy 
 
 si il n'en dit rien, he 
 
 knows it, yet h 
 
 e says n 
 
 LOthing of it. "W 
 
 T e also write and say 
 
 m'amie and m'amour (love), for ma, or rather mon amie, mon 
 amour, and quelqu'un for quelque un. 
 
 There are two cases wherein le and la and ce don't suffer elision . 
 
 1st, The articles le and la and the pronoun demonstrative ce 
 before onze and onzitme, and oui yes. Thus we spell and pro- 
 nounce le onze du mois the eleventh of the month, il est le on- 
 zitme, elle est la onzieme,he or she is the eleventh, le oui qiCilpro- 
 notica the yes which he spoke, ce oui-la lui a coute cher that yes 
 has cost him dear : but it is only le and la and ce which suffer no 
 elis on before these two words ; for all the other monosyllables 
 do. Thus we spell and pronounce Je w'e/i ai qiConze, and not que 
 onze, I have got but eleven, je dis qu f oui, and not que oui, I say 
 yes. 
 
 Observe moreover, concerning onze and oui, that the final con- 
 sonant of the particles coming before these two words, is not ar- 
 ticulated as it is before anv other wcrd beginning with a vowel. 
 
 I 
 
86 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Therefore pronounce without joining s, les onze milie vierges* uti 
 oui, des oui; not le zonze, &c. un noui, de zoui. 
 
 2dly, le and la being pronouns governed of an imperative, do 
 not suffer elision, unless they are followed by either of these two 
 other pronouns en and y : as Portez le au logis carry him or it 
 home (tho' we pronounce portel au logis) ; Mariez-la au plutot 
 marry her as soon as possible. But we write and pronounce Tirez 
 I'en au plutot get him, her, or it, from thence as fast as you can ; 
 Laisser I'y oiler let him or her go thither. 
 
 e suffers elision also at the end of the adnoun feminine grande, 
 before these words beginning with a consonant ; grand' chambre 
 great chamber, grand: messe high mass, grand' peur great fright;, 
 grand' chose a great matter, grand' chere a great cheer, grand' f aim 
 6^ grand' soif a great hunger and great thirst, grand' pitie ten 
 thousand pities, grand' peine great trouble, la grand' chambre the 
 high court of parliament at Paris, ma or sa grand' inert my or his 
 grand-mother, grand' salle a large room or hall, grand' 'part a 
 great share. 
 
 Hyphen is a short line across, marked thus (-), and used, 1st, 
 to join pronouns expressing the subject with their verbs, especially 
 in interrogations ; as likewise the particles en and y, and other 
 conjunctive pronouns, with an imperative : as que dit-elle what 
 does she say r irons-rious shall we go r vient-il does he come ? vas-y 
 go thither, prends-en take some,sauvons-?ious let us take to our heels, 
 alhns-nous-en let us go away, donnez-les-lui give them to him. 
 
 N. B. When the verb ends in a or e ? the expletive t ought to 
 be inserted between two Hyphens, between the verb and pro- 
 noun subjective or the particle on, in order to soften the pronun- 
 ciation ; as parla-t-elle did she speak ? va-t-on do they go ? 
 mange-t-il does he eat ? 
 
 Qdly, To join the particles ci, la, ga, to the words which are 
 attended by them, and from which they cannot be properly parted 
 in speech; as likewise ce after etre; ascelui-ci this, celui-la that, 
 cet-homme-ci this man, cette femme-la that woman, demeurez-la 
 stay there, la-haut above, la-bas below, venez-cd come hither, 
 est-ce-ld le litre is that the book ? sont-ce-ld vos gens are these 
 your servants ? 
 
 3dly, To join together the parts of a compound word : as 
 porte-manteau portmanteau, arc-en-ciel rainbow, c'est-d-dire that 
 is to say. 
 
 Athly, At the end of a line, to denote that a word is parted 
 which could not be writ entirely in the line, and that the remain 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 87 
 
 der of it is at the beginning of the next line ; as in this word pre- 
 sentement presently. But note, that whenever a word is thus 
 parted, the part which begins the next line must always begin 
 with a consonant. 
 
 Cedilla is a short curve line, or a comma, put under c be- 
 fore a, o, u, to divest it of the articulation of k, and give it the 
 hissing articulation of s, which it always has before e and i; as 
 in menaca he threatened, lecon lesson, confu conceived. 
 
 Dialysis ?is two dots put over the last of the two vowels 
 
 Diuresis j that meet together in a word, to part them into 
 two several syllables : as ha'i hated, makes two syllables ; whereas 
 je hais I hate, makes but one. In Saul the king of Israel, a and 
 ii make two syllables, and so distinguish it from Saul (Paul) 
 wherein au makes but an improper diphthong. 
 
 e, i, u, are the only vowels on which the two dots are marked, 
 custom having not as yet prevailed to put them over o in geome- 
 tre, and other such words wherein e and o make two distinct vow- 
 els, very differently pronounced from the same in geolier. It is there- 
 fore sufficient to mark the preceding e with an accent, to make 
 it keep its proper sound, and at the same time part it from o. 
 
 It is moreover usual to put the two dots over e final, not 
 sounded, in aigue, ambigue, eigne, &c. or better upon the u, as 
 aigue, cigue, to denote that the hard articulation of g falls upon u, 
 as it does in aiguille a needle, and so distinguish it from that 
 which gu has in Jigue, guide, guerir, guenon, &c. (See the letter 
 g in the treatise on the pronunciation.) These cases excepted, 
 never put the two dots over any vowel that makes but one and 
 the same syllable with the foregoing vowel, as in jouer to play, 
 avouer to own, &c. which some writers very viciously spell jouer, 
 avoiier, as if these words were to be pronounced avo-it-er,jo-u-er, 
 and not avoii-er, jou-er ; whilst, on the contrary, others, in omit- 
 ting, the two dots over the second syllable of aiguille, induce the 
 reader to pronounce it as in anguille an eel. 
 
 Accent is a note put chiefly over oar e's, to denote their se- 
 veral pronunciations ; as likewise over some words, to' distinguish 
 their nature and signification. 
 
 There are three sorts of accents ; Acute ('), Grave ( x ), and 
 Circumflex ( A ). 
 
 The accent acute is put over all e's which our Grammarians 
 have been pleased to call e masculine ; as in premtdite preme- 
 ditated. 
 
88 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 The accent grave over those called e open ; as in tres most, 
 pres near, des from ; and the last syllables of words ending in fa, 
 as exces excess, apres after, fyc. 
 
 With what ground our Grammarians have distinguished our e's 
 by these several appellations of e masculine, 6 feminine, e open, 
 e shut, e French, and e Latin, I am not able to apprehend, and 
 therefore have chosen to call them by that accent which distin- 
 guishes them. When two syllables made of e follow one another, 
 without having any accent over them, the first is always to be 
 pronounced grave, and the last is not sounded. 
 
 The nature of these following particles is distinguished by the 
 accent grave, being both articles and adverbs, verbs, or prepo- 
 sitions, or conjunctions. 
 
 a, 
 
 has, 
 
 a. 
 
 at or to, 
 
 la, 
 
 the, 
 
 la, 
 
 there, 
 
 de la, 
 
 of or from the, 
 
 dela, 
 
 from thence, 
 
 des, 
 
 of or from* the, 
 
 des, 
 
 from, 
 
 ca, 
 
 come on, 
 
 fa. 
 
 hither, 
 
 ou, 
 
 or, 
 
 oil, 
 
 where, 
 
 It is also usual to mark over with the accent grave these two 
 particles, hold hold, and oui da ay, ay. 
 
 The accent circumflex is used in words, over a syllable which 
 
 has lost a vowel or an s of its own spelling, and the circumflex 
 
 makes that syllable long ; as age age, bete beast, etre to be, le 
 
 notre ours, vu seen, 8cc. which were formerly spelt aage, beste, 
 
 stre, le nustre, veu, &c. 
 
 The last syllable of the 3d pers. sing, of the preterite subj. is 
 also marked over with a circumflex, to distinguish it from the 
 same person of the pret. iud. quilaimat, parldtfut, crut, enten- 
 dit, vit, 8cc. of which 5 is cut off; but these syllables are not pro- 
 nounced long. 
 
 Some other words take also the circumflex, to prevent one's 
 mistaking their signification ; as du, from devoir to owe, to dis- 
 tinguish it from du of the ; cru, from croitre to grow, to distin- 
 guish it from cru believed ; sur sure, to distinguish it from sur 
 upon : but this practice is not generally received. 
 
 The tone of words is not then the proper object of accents in 
 our language. Their office is not to mark the raising or sinking 
 of the voice on syllables : they were at first introduced only to as- 
 certain the pronunciation of our e's. Our forefathers, surprised to 
 see different sounds represented by the same sign, bethought them- 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. $9 
 
 selves of remedying that disorder, by adopting the accents which 
 the Greeks and the Latins had instituted, though for a different 
 purpose. This practice, had it been carefully observed, would 
 have effectually supplied the want of other signs : but it was no 
 sooner established, than it was again almost entirely laid aside, 
 through the negligence of Printers and Authors. .It has however 
 been insensibly re-established, and even perfected. A perpendi- 
 cular accent # has moreover been introduced for some years, to 
 mark the intermediate e, that e which has a middle sound between 
 the sonorous e and that which is most sonorous : so that as these 
 accents characterise our e's, so they are more essential to them 
 than the dots over our i's, of which I know not the use. 
 
 And indeed our e is either guttural, or mute, or acute, or 
 grave, or circumflex, or intermediate, or nasal. There can be 
 no possibility of mistaking the e guttural and mute in reading, if 
 the others are accented ; and a few observations will sufficiently 
 enable us to distinguish the mute e from the guttural. The whole 
 difficulty lies in being acquainted with the others, so as to pro- 
 nounce them according to their powers : now the accents entirely 
 remove this difficulty. The e which is called ferme is marked 
 with an acute accent. The e called ouvert, is (according to the 
 authors of these denominations) either simply open, or most open, 
 or keeps a medium between these two sounds. If it is simply open 
 it is marked with a grave accent, as in tres, apres, pere, mere. If 
 most open, with the circumflex, as in bete, grele, meme, peche. 
 And the intermediate e is marked with the perpendicular accent, 
 as in regie, Jidele,fleche, amene. As this same accent serves like- 
 wise to distinguish, without confusion, the true nasal e, from that 
 which has only the sound of nasal a, one can no longer mistake 
 the pronunciation of the following words, bien, rien, soutien, je 
 viens, iltient; prudent, entierement, orient, patient, Sic. ger is not 
 pronounced in leger, as in berger. As the termination eve is pro- 
 nounced quite differently in these three words seve, Genevieve, 
 Geneve, so the accent determines their true pronunciation. The 
 acute accent on the penultima of different shows it to be an ad- 
 noun, and the grave in different to be a verb. The same rule 
 holds good with respect to precedent adnoun, and precedent verb, 
 and many other words, which cannot be distinguished in writing- 
 otherwise than by the accent. The grave and perpendicular 
 accents show moreover, that the e following or preceding them is 
 
 * As custom has not authorised that perpendicular accent, we have laid it 
 aside in this new edition ; particularly as it is not to be found in any book 
 printed since the French Academy have published a new edition of their Dic- 
 tionary (in 1762). 
 
 12 
 
90 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 mute, as in amerement, tellement. They indicate also, that in the 
 words, fieri, manitre, tiers, muet, &c. the vowel that precedes the 
 e forms with it a proper diphthong, and not an improper one, as 
 happens very frequently in the English. 
 
 Custom has not yet authorised our affixing the acute accent to 
 the last syllable of the infinitive and nouns ending in er, as parler, 
 danger. It would certainly be more uniform to mark all the e's 
 with the accent that determines their pronunciation : but after all, 
 the omission of the accent on these occasions, where the eyes are 
 not accustomed to see it, can produce no great inconvenience, if 
 it is not omitted on the others. The true use and destination of 
 the circumflex is to mark a long syllable : therefore it ought to be 
 set over not only the long e's, but also over all the other long 
 vowels ; as in the words dme, tie, abime, cote, cdte, les autres, nos, 
 hure, Us purent ; as likewise over these improper diphthongs, 
 chaine, reine, haine, seize, jef ah, whose pronunciation is thereby 
 distinguished from the same syllables, when this improper diph- 
 thong is short, as in the following words, laine, peine, une plaine, 
 elle est pleine, font aine, treize*, ilafait, c'est un fait. 
 
 To conclude ; it is evident from the aforesaid observations, 
 that the accents show the pronunciation of our vowels, and 
 ought to be the most essential part of orthography. Their omis- 
 sion bewilders the reader : nay, I have strong reasons to believe 
 that it is often owing to the ignorance of the writer. I myself 
 have been sometimes at a loss how to read some words, which I 
 never heard read or spoken, and have therefore applied to the 
 French Academy, to be informed of their pronunciation. An 
 accent over an e would have cleared the point. 
 
 Such is the use of our accents ; from whence it appears, that 
 accent in French is of a very different use than in English, where- 
 in it denotes that the tone, or stress of the voice in pronouncing is 
 upon the syllable over which it is placed, and therefore serves only 
 to show the quantity of syllables. The French language has in- 
 deed its quantity : the length and shortness of syllables must be 
 so carefully observed in pronouncing, that the mistaking a long 
 vowel for a short one is enough, in some words, to change their 
 signification ; as aveuglement, which is a noun signifying blind- 
 ness when the penultima is short, or (as the English phrase it) 
 when the accent is over the last syllable but two ; and an adverb 
 signifying blindly, when e is long with an accent acute over it, or 
 (according to the English) when the accent is over the last syllable 
 
 * ei in treize is long, as in seize, but it has the acute sound. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 91 
 
 but one. Mr. Rollin observes, that the vowel e in these words* 
 severe severe, evtque bishop, repeche got out of water, and re~ 
 vttir to put on, has three different sounds, and three quantities, 
 of which perhaps no instance can be found in the Greek and La- 
 tin tongues ; and it is by their accent, so different from the true 
 French accent, that the people of the divers provinces in France 
 are known. But notwithstanding what I have said of that quan- 
 tity which syllables have in words, and the great help which I 
 have laboured to give the learner to attain the harmony of the 
 pronunciation, it is altogether impossible to become master of it, 
 otherwise than by hearing such speak and read who have the true 
 French accent, and are perfect masters of their language. 
 
 A late writer, who, some years ago, read Lectures on the 
 English Language in the City, the design of which was, as far as 
 I could apprehend, to convince his hearers and readers of this 
 great and important point, namely, that the English, as well as 
 other nations, spell otherwise than they pronounce; and who 
 has been since labouring very hard to make the two Univer- 
 sities learn reading English ; advances, in his Lectures on 
 Elocution, that the French have no quantity, or, which is the 
 same, that they make all their syllables long # . The contrary is 
 so evident to any body who has the least tincture ©f French, that 
 it is difficult to say which is the most amazing, the ignorance 
 or assurance of the author, who treats of matters to which he k 
 quite a stranger : for in those very lectures, all notions of Gram- 
 mar and Oratory are confounded and mistaken. The French 
 Language abounds in Dactyles, Iambes, Troches, Anapests, 
 and Choriambes. The Spondees are few in comparison of 
 the other metres, the variety of which makes it a most harmo- 
 nious language. And notwithstanding its nasal sounds, and gut- 
 tural e, which, though a little grating to the ear, an able Poet 
 
 * The best way of seeing clearly the difference between the genius 
 of the French tongue and ours in this respect, will be to sound a num- 
 ber of words immediately borrowed from them, and see in what the 
 diversity of pronunciation consists. Such as abandon, Abandon; 
 combat, com'b&t ; college, college ; com'mun, common ; compagnon, 
 companion ; Europe, Europe ; obstacle, obstacle ; solide, solid ; 
 Docteur, Doctor; faveur, favour; honneur, hon'our; &c. in most 
 of which words the syllables are all long in the French, and short in 
 the English, as the accents are placed on the vowels in the French, 
 and on the consonants in the English. This it is which makes most of 
 their words appear to an English ear to have as many accents as syl- 
 lables, by obliging them to give an equal stress to them. A Course 
 ef Lectures on Elocution, Led. 3d, on Accent. 
 
92 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 and Musician can nevertheless use to advantage, it may claim 
 the preference of all modern languages, without excepting even 
 the Italian. But this same writer has, by an extraordinary effort 
 of reason, found out that England never could have been, or con- 
 tinue to be, a flourishing nation without a revelation # . Risum 
 teneatis ? A true Comedian indeed ! 
 
 Capitals or Great Letters are used, 
 
 1st, In the beginning of a sentence in prose, and every line or 
 verse in poetry. 
 
 2dly, All Christian and proper names of persons, places, ships, 
 rivers, arts, sciences, dignities, titles of honour and professions; 
 as also adnouns derived from them, begin with the great letter ; 
 as George Roi George Rex, un MatMmaticien Anglois an English 
 Mathematician, un Tailleur Francois a French Taylor. 
 
 3dly, Such nouns in a sentence that bear some considerable, 
 stress of the author's sense upon it, to make it the more remark- 
 able and conspicuous. The introduction to this work contains 
 several examples of such words. Sometimes the Italic letters 
 are used for that purpose : tho' these are particularly appropriated 
 to distinguish the words and sentences cited as examples of 
 what is advanced. Those cases excepted, do not begin with a 
 capital any common noun, as was most generally, and abusively 
 too, done in English some years ago. At present the other 
 extreme is prevailing, and every noun is printed in a small 
 letter, even to the very names of countries and professions : yet 
 is it not as absurd to write king and god with a small k or g, t 
 as bread and beer with a capital B f The writing the initials 
 of the nouns mentioned in the second paragraph with a small 
 letter, or those of appellatives with a capital, is nothing less than 
 entirely disfiguring our writings, whether in manuscript or from 
 the press, and totally abolishing that distinction which different 
 characters should preserve. 
 
 * If ever a divine revelation was necessary to man, it was more particularly 
 so to the British nation, than to any other upon earth: it was impossible without 
 such a revelation, we should ever be, or continue to be, a great and flourishing 
 people : and the system now nominally established among-st us as the revealed 
 will of God, were it really believed to be such universally, and accordingly prac- 
 tised, would raise us above all other nations that either do, or ever did, exist 
 upon earth, and preserve us unalterably such to the end of time, provided that 
 system continued to retain its due influence. British Education, Book I. 
 ChaR. XIV. 
 
 This system was not only calculated in the most exact manner for all the pur- 
 poses of society in general, but peculiarly adapted to the particular circum- 
 stances of this country above all others. Ibidem. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. 93 
 
 Stops are of six sorts, whose names and shapes are thus : 
 
 une virgule 
 
 , a comma 
 
 un point-virgule 
 
 ; a semicolon 
 
 deux points 
 
 : a colon 
 
 un point 
 
 . a period or full stop 
 
 un point d 'interrogation 
 
 ? a note of interrogation 
 
 un point d y admiration 
 
 / a note of admiration 
 
 The use of these stops, which the French call Punctuation, 
 seems pretty arbitrary, and to differ not only according to the 
 genius of languages, but also according to the style of authors ; 
 yet as they are necessary to avoid obscurity, and prevent miscon- 
 structions, and therefore for the better understanding of what we 
 write and read, here follows the use which the generality of the 
 learned make of them ; which use is itself grounded upon reason. 
 
 A comma is used to distinguish the several parts of a sentence, 
 and give the reader a proper time for breathing ; as likewise to 
 distinguish, in enumerations, the things that are enumerated, 
 whether they be of the same or of a different kind : as, 
 
 Si tant de gens se plaisent a If so many people tata a 
 lire des bagatelles, c'est peut-etre pleasure in reading trifles, k is 
 que leur esprit ayant peu de perhaps because, being of a 
 force, Us aiment les choses aisees little genius, they like things 
 a comprendre. easy to understand. 
 
 Les neuf parties du discours The nine parts of speech 
 sont le nom, Tadnom, le pronom, are these ; noun, adnoun, pro- 
 le nombre, le verbe, Vadverbe, noun, number, verb, adverb, 
 la preposition, la conjonction, fy preposition, conjunction, and 
 laparticule. particle. 
 
 On ne devient point savant, One cannot get learning 
 que Von n'eludie constamment, without studying steadily, me- 
 methodiquement, fy avec applica- thodically, and with applica- 
 tion. tion. 
 
 A semicolon is used likewise to distinguish a part of a sentence 
 of a pretty good length, but in such a manner, that the remaining 
 part of the sentence is not necessary to make a complete sense, 
 which is perfect at the semicolon : as, 
 
 Le silcle d f Auguste a telle- The Augustan Age has in such 
 mentittceluidesexcellensPdites, a manner been that of excellent 
 qu'ils ont servi de modeles a tous Poets, that they have served as 
 lesautres; cependantil ri a point models to all others ; yet it has 
 produit de Poetes tragiques. produced no tragic writers. 
 
94 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 
 A colon marks a sense that seems to be complete, but so that 
 something may still be added to it. The colon and semicolon 
 may sometimes indeed be used promiscuously ; but when the 
 sentence is tolerably long, or the period composed of four or five 
 sentences, one must observe to make the pauses in the order of 
 the aforesaid stops ; finishing by the full stop, when the sense of 
 the sentence is quite out. More examples would be needless. 
 
 A note of interrogation is used when a question is asked ; as, 
 Quelle heure est-il? What o'clock is it? 
 
 A note of admiration is used when we express our wonder or 
 admiration of something ; as, temps ! O mccitrs ! O times ! 
 O manners! 
 
 There are besides some other figures in writing : as, 
 
 Parenthesis, which is a distinct sentence interposed in the 
 main sentence within these two figures ( ), which being left 
 out, the sense of the sentence is entire. If the occasional sen- 
 tence is a short one, it is not necessary to use the two aforesaid 
 figures, but only to inclose it in two commas. But the parenthe- 
 sis is of no use in French, because no long occasional sentence is 
 suffered in the style. 
 
 Index <&, the fore-finger pointing, signifies that passage to 
 be very remarkable against which it is placed. 
 
 Obelisk (4,) and Asterisk (*) are used to refer the reader 
 to some remark in the margin, or at the foot of the page. And 
 several stars set together ### signify that there is something 
 wanting, defective, or immodest in that passage of the author. 
 In dictionaries, Obelisk commonly denotes a word to be obsolete, 
 or little used. 
 
 Quotation (") of a double comma turned, is put at the 
 beginning and end of such lines as are quoted out of another 
 author in his own words. 
 
 Section or Division (§) is used in subdividing a chapter or 
 book into lesser parts. 
 
 Paragraph (51) is the part of a section or chapter, compre- 
 hending several sentences under one head or subject. 
 
 Caret ( a ) is placed underneath a line between two words, to 
 denote that some letter or syllable, or word, has, by inadvertence, 
 
 been left out in writing or printing. Several points , or a 
 
 dash -j denotes a reticence, or a sense that is imperfect. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY. Q5 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS sometimes used in writing and printing, 
 especially in foreign Gazettes. 
 
 S. M. Sa Majeste, his or her Majesty. 
 
 L. M. Leurs Majestes, their Majesties. 
 
 S, M. Imp. Sa Majeste Imperiale, his or her Imperial Majesty 
 
 L M. Imp. Leurs Majesteslmperiales, their ImperialMajesties. 
 
 S. M. T. C. Sa Majeste tres-Chretienne, his most Christian 
 
 Majesty. 
 
 S. M. Cath. Sa Majeste Catholique, his Catholic Majesty. 
 
 S. M. Brit. Sa Majeste* Britannique, his or her Britannic 
 
 Majesty. 
 
 S. M. Pruss. Sa Majeste Prussienne, his Prussian Majesty. 
 
 S. M. Polon. Sa Majeste Polonoise, his Polish Majesty. 
 
 S. A. R. Son Altesse Royale, his or her Royal Highness. 
 
 S. A. E. . Son Altesse Electorale, his Electoral Highness. 
 
 S. A. S. Son Altesse Serenissime, his most Serene Highness 
 
 L.N. 8c H. P. Leurs Nobles & Hautes Puissances, their High 
 
 Mightinesses. 
 
 S. E. Son Excellence, his or her Excellence. 
 
 S. S. Sa Saintete, his Holiness. 
 
 S. Emin. Son Eminence, his Eminence. 
 
 V. S. Vieux Style, Old Style. 
 
 .N. S. Nouveau Style, New Style. 
 
 J. C. J6sus-Christ, Jesus Christ. 
 
 N. D. Notre-Dame, Our Lady. 
 
 C. P. Constantinople. 
 
 M r * Monsieur, Sir or Master. 
 
 M de * or M e - Madame, Madam or Mistress. 
 
 M lle * Mademoiselle, Miss or Madam. 
 
 Mess, or MM. Messieurs, Gentlemen, Masters, Messieurs,, 
 
 MS. Manuscript, Manuscript. I 
 
 Sept. or 7 bre * Septembre, September. 
 
 Oct. 8 bie - Octobre, October. 
 
 Nov. 9 bro * Novembre, November. £ 
 
 Dkc. x bTe * Decembre, December. 
 
96 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION 
 A LIST of the words wherein h is 
 
 aspiratec 
 
 I 
 
 ha! 
 
 oh! ah! 
 
 habler, to 
 
 romance, tell stories. 
 
 hablerie, 
 
 romancing. 
 
 hableur, 
 
 a romancer, a liar. 
 
 hache, 
 
 axe. 
 
 hacher, 
 
 to mince. 
 
 hachette, 
 
 hatchet. 
 
 hachis, 
 
 chopped meat. 
 
 hachure, 
 
 hatching. 
 
 hachoir, 
 
 a chopping board. 
 
 hagard, 
 
 haggard, fierce. 
 
 hair, 
 
 to hate. 
 
 haine, 
 
 hatred. 
 
 hai'ssable, 
 
 hateful. 
 
 haie, 
 
 hedge. 
 
 haillon, 
 
 rag, tatter. 
 
 Hainaut, 
 
 (a country). 
 
 haire, 
 
 hair-shirt. 
 
 halage, 
 
 towage, or towing. 
 
 halbran, 
 
 a young wild duck. 
 
 hale, drying wind, or weather. 
 
 hale, 
 
 sunburnt. 
 
 halener, 
 
 to smell one's breath. 
 
 haler, 
 
 to tow, or hale. 
 
 halle, 
 
 market-place. 
 
 halebarde, 
 
 halberd. 
 
 halebardier 
 
 , halbardier. 
 
 haleter, 
 
 to pant. 
 
 hallier, 
 
 thicket. 
 
 halte, 
 
 halt. 
 
 hamac, 
 
 hammock. 
 
 hameau, 
 
 hamlet. 
 
 , C the staff or shaft of a 
 
 lampe, | halberd- 
 
 hanche, hip. 
 
 hanap, a sort of bowl. 
 
 hanneton, a cock-chafer. 
 
 hangar, a cart-shed. 
 
 hanter, to keep company with. 
 hapelourde, a false stone. 
 
 not aspirated 
 
 labile, fit, able* 
 
 /rabiller, to clothe* 
 
 s'Aabiller, to dress oneself, 
 habit, a suit of clothes. 
 
 Aabiter, to inhabit. 
 
 habitable, inhabitable. 
 
 /zabitant, inhabitant. 
 
 /jabitude, habit, custom. 
 
 habitue, used. 
 
 Aabituei, habitual. 
 
 /ialeine, breath. 
 
 Aamegon, a fishing-hook. 
 
 /iarmonie, harmony. 
 
 Aast, haft. 
 
 Aebdomadaire, weekly. 
 Aeberger, to harbour, lodge. 
 Aebeter, to besot, make dull. 
 
 Hebreu, Hebrew. 
 iiZebraique, 
 
 .Hecatombe, an hecatomb. 
 
 A6gire, hegira. 
 
 -fiTfelicon, Helicon. 
 
 heliotrope, turn-sol. 
 
 hellebore, hellebore. 
 
 Aemisphere, hemisphere. 
 
 7/emistiche, hemistich. 
 
 Aemorrhagie, bloody flux. 
 
 Aemorrhoides, piles. 
 
 Aepatique, hepatical. 
 
 Aeptagone, an heptagon. 
 
 Aerbage, grass, pasture. 
 
 Aerbe, herb, grass. 
 
 Aerboriste, an herbalist. 
 
 Aereditaire, hereditary. 
 
 Aeriter, to inherit. 
 
 A6ritage, inheritance. 
 
 Aeritier, an heir 
 
 A6resie, heresy. 
 
 Aeretique, heretic. 
 hermaphrodite, hermaphrodite. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY, 
 
 97 
 
 uspuiucu, 
 
 happer, 
 
 to snap. 
 
 haquen6e, 
 
 ambling nag. 
 
 haquet, 
 
 a dray. 
 
 hareng, 
 
 a herring. 
 
 harangere, 
 
 a fish-woman. 
 
 harangue, speech, oration. 
 
 haranguer, to make a speech. 
 
 harangueur, a speech-maker. 
 
 haras, stud or breed of horses. 
 
 harasser, to harass, tire. 
 
 harceler, to tire, teaze. 
 
 hardes, clothes. 
 
 hardi, bold, daring. 
 
 bardiesse, boldness. 
 
 hardimen, boldly. 
 
 hargneux cross, peevish. 
 
 haricots, French beans. 
 haricot, (a sort of French dish.) 
 haridelle* a sorry horse, a jade. 
 
 narnache to harness. 
 
 harnois, harness. 
 
 haro, a hue and cry. 
 
 harpe, harp. 
 
 harpon, a harping iron. 
 
 harpie, harpy. 
 
 hart, a faggot-band. 
 
 hasard* chance. 
 
 hasarder, to venture. 
 hase, a doe-hare, or, coney. 
 
 hate, haste. 
 
 hater, to hasten. 
 
 se hater, to make haste. 
 
 hatif, hasty, forward. 
 
 havage, hangman's fees. 
 
 have, wan, pale. 
 
 havir, to burn. 
 
 liavre, haven, harbour. 
 
 havre-sac knapsac. 
 
 haubert, a coat of mail. 
 
 haut-bois hautboy. 
 
 hausser, to raise. 
 
 not aspirated. 
 
 Aermetique, hermetical. 
 
 ^ermine, ermine 
 
 termite, an hermit. 
 
 hermitage, hermitage, 
 
 heroine, an heroine. 
 
 Aeroique, heroical. 
 
 ^esiter, to Ivesitate 
 
 hesitation, hesitation. 
 
 ^6teroclite, heteroclite. 
 
 Aeterodoxe, heterodox. 
 
 A6te>ogene, heterogeneous, 
 
 heure, hour 
 
 Aeureux, happy 
 
 Aeureusement, happily. 
 
 Aexagone, an hexagon. 
 
 ^exametre, hexameter. 
 
 hiatus, a gap. 
 
 Aieble, wall-wort, 
 
 hier, yesterday. 
 /a6roglyphique, hieroglyphick. 
 
 foppocras, hippocrass. 
 
 hypocrite, hypocrite, 
 
 farondelle, a swallow. 
 
 Aistoire, history. 
 
 Aistorien, historian. 
 
 Aistorique, historical. 
 
 Aistrion, a, buffoon. 
 
 //iver, winter 
 
 Aiverner, to winter, 
 hove and Aoirie, heir, inheritance. 
 /iolocauste, a burnt offering. 
 
 /jomelie, an homily. 
 
 homicide, an homicide. 
 
 Aommage, homage. 
 
 homme, man. 
 
 Aomogene, homogeneous. 
 
 /iomologuer, to confirm. 
 
 homologation, confirmation. 
 
 Aonnete, honest. 
 
 Aonnetement, honestly. 
 
 Aonneur, honour. 
 
 • We also say, une chose d'hasard a second-hand thins 
 
 K 
 
98 
 
 Of PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 aspirated. 
 hausse-col, a neck-piece. 
 
 haut, high. 
 
 haut-mal, falling-sickness. 
 
 hautain, haughty. 
 
 hau lenient, with a loud voice. 
 hauteur*, height. 
 
 hautesse, Grand Signors title. 
 haute-contre, counter-tenor. 
 he ! hem ! (interjections). 
 
 heaume, helm, helmet. 
 
 hennir (pron. hanir), to neigh. 
 hennissement, neighing. 
 
 herault, herald. 
 
 h6ros, an hero. 
 
 herisser, to stand on end. 
 
 herisson a hedge-hog, urchin. 
 hernie, rupture. 
 
 heron, a heron. 
 
 herse, harrow. 
 
 herser, to harrow. 
 
 herseur, a harrower, 
 
 hetre, beech-tree. 
 
 heurt, a knocking, a hit. 
 
 heurter, to knock. 
 
 hibou, an owl. 
 
 le hie, the difficulty. 
 
 hideux, hideous, dreadful. 
 
 hie, apaviour's beetle. 
 
 ho ! oh. 
 
 hobereau, hobby. 
 
 hoca, now. 
 
 hoche, notch. 
 
 hochement, shaking of the head. 
 hocher, to shake. 
 
 hochepot, hotch-potch. 
 
 nochequeue, a zeag-tail. 
 
 hochet, a coral. 
 
 hola, hold. 
 
 Hollande (V. p. 59-), Holland. 
 
 not aspirated. 
 /mnorer, 
 Aonnetete 
 honourable, 
 Aopital, 
 Aospitalier, 
 Aospitalite, 
 horizon, 
 //orlog 
 
 /iorloger, 
 
 horoscope, 
 
 /mrreur, 
 
 horrible, 
 
 Aorriblement, 
 
 Aostie, 
 
 /mstilite, 
 
 hote, 
 
 Aotesse, 
 
 hotel, 
 
 Aotellerie, 
 
 /mile, 
 
 /miler, 
 
 Auileux, 
 
 huis, 
 
 /missier, 
 
 Auit, (V. 
 
 /mitre, 
 
 Aumain, 
 
 Aumainement, 
 
 /mm aniser, 
 
 /mmaniste, 
 
 Aumanite, 
 
 Aumble, 
 
 Aumblement, 
 
 /mmecter, 
 
 /mmectation, 
 
 /mmeur, 
 
 Aumide, 
 
 Aumidite, 
 
 Aumilier, 
 
 to honour. 
 
 honesty. 
 
 honourable. 
 
 hospital. 
 
 hospitable. 
 
 horizon, 
 a clock, 
 watch-maker, 
 horoscope, 
 horror, 
 horrible- 
 horribly- 
 victim* 
 hostility* 
 landlord- 
 landlady, 
 a great man's house- 
 an inn- 
 oil 
 to oil- 
 oily- 
 door- 
 usher, door-keeper- 
 
 p. 59.) 
 
 eight- 
 oyster - 
 humane - 
 humanely. 
 to tame 
 humanist, 
 human nature, 
 humble, 
 humbly, 
 to moisten, 
 moistening 
 humour 
 damp, moist 
 dampness 
 to humble 
 
 * We write and pronounce la hauteur, though we nevertheless say in common 
 conversation, un homme de six pieds d'hauteur, a man six feet high. 
 
and ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 99 
 
 aspirated. 
 homard, a large lobster. 
 
 hongre, a gelding, 
 
 Hongrie, Hungary, 
 
 honni, dishonoured, evil. 
 
 honte, shame. 
 
 honteux, shameful. 
 
 honteusement, shamefully. 
 
 hoquet, hiccough. 
 
 hoqueton, a sort ofserjeant. 
 horion, a great blow. 
 
 hormis, but, besides. 
 
 hors, out. 
 
 hotte, scuttle, dorser. 
 
 hotteur, one who carries a dorser. 
 hott^e, a scuttle-full. 
 
 houblon, hops. 
 
 houblonniere, hop ground. 
 
 houe, hoe, a grubbing axe. 
 
 holier, to hoe, to dig. 
 
 houlette, a crook, a sheep-hook. 
 houppe, a puff, a tuft. 
 
 houppelande, a great coat. 
 
 hourdage, 
 hourder, 
 houx, 
 houspiller, 
 
 rough-walling. 
 
 to rough-wall. 
 
 holly. 
 
 to towse, tug. 
 
 not aspirated. 
 Aurniliant, 
 /mmiliation, 
 Aumilit6, 
 hyperbole, 
 //ypocondre, 
 //ypocrisie, 
 hypocrite, 
 /?ypostase, 
 Aypothequer, 
 Aypotheque, 
 Ayacinthe, 
 Ayades, 
 hydre, 
 hydrocele, a 
 
 swelling. 
 /jydrographie, 
 Aydromancie, 
 Aydromel, 
 //ydropisie, 
 Aydropique, 
 hymen, 
 hym&nee, 
 hynme, 
 Aypothese, 
 Ayssope, 
 Aysterique, 
 
 mortifying* 
 
 humiliation. 
 
 humility. 
 
 hyperbole. 
 
 hypochondriac. 
 
 hypocrisy. 
 
 hypocrite. 
 
 hypostasis. 
 
 to mortgage. 
 
 a mortgage. 
 
 a hyacinth. 
 
 hyades. 
 
 hydra. 
 
 sort of zvatery 
 
 hydrography. 
 
 hydromancy. 
 
 mead. 
 
 dropsy. 
 
 hydropic. 
 
 hymen. 
 
 hymeneus. 
 
 hymn. 
 
 hypothesis. 
 
 hyssop. 
 
 hysteric. 
 
 aspirated. 
 
 houssart,orhousard, ") 7 huguenote, 
 
 i , r a nussart. j 
 
 or nussart, j burner, 
 
 houssaie, a holly grove, hune, the 
 
 housse, case for a chair or bed. hunier, 
 
 houssoir, a hair-broom, huppe, 
 
 housser, to sweep, huppe, 
 
 houssine, a switc'h. hure, the 
 
 hoyau, a mattock, hurler, 
 
 huche, kneading-trough, hutch, hurlement, 
 
 hu6e, a hollow, or hooting, hutte, 
 
 huer, to hoot at. hutt£, 
 
 huguenot, huguenot. 
 
 a kind of kettle. 
 
 to sup up. 
 
 round top of a mast. 
 
 top-mast. 
 
 a whoop or hoop. 
 
 topping. 
 
 head of a wild boar. 
 
 to howl. 
 
 howling. 
 
 a hut. 
 
 lodging in a hut. 
 
100 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Of the Parts of Spefxh. 
 
 The French Tongue may be considered as composed of, and 
 every word of which is comprehended under, one of the nine 
 parts of speech following : 
 
 Noun, ~\ /'Adverb, 
 
 Adnoun, r \ Preposition, 
 
 Pronoun, /■ < Conjunction, 
 
 Number, \ / Particle. 
 
 Verb, J \. 
 Of which the first five receive several variations m theirter- 
 minations, and are therefore called declinable: the four last re- 
 ceive no such variations (except the Article), and are therefore 
 called indeclinable. 
 
 CHAP I. 
 
 Of NOUNS. 
 
 The Noun is a part of speech which serves to name every 
 thing that can be considered, as subsisting either in nature, 01 in 
 
 our ideas or imagination, which one can possibly speak of. 
 
 Nouns are also called substantives ; as un homme a man, une 
 femme a woman, une maison a house, un arbre a tree, fyc. 
 
 Three things called Accidents are to be considered in nouns ; 
 the Number, the Gen dee, and the extent of the sense in 
 which they are taken, denoted by the Article. 
 
 Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 
 
 A noun is said to be of the singular number, when it denotes 
 one thing only ; as un homme a man, une femme a woman, Sec. 
 It is said to be of the plural, when it denotes two or more things 
 at once ; as des hommes men, desfemmes women, fyc. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Of the formation of the plural number of Nouns. 
 
 Generally speaking, in French as in English, the plural num- 
 ber differs from the singular only by the addition of s : as, 
 
 i 
 
Of NOUNS. 101 
 
 Sing. Numb. Plur. Numb. 
 
 un homme, a man, des hommes, men, 
 
 une maison, a house, des maisons, houses, 
 
 unjour, a day, des jours, days, 
 
 une de, a thimble, des des, thimbles. 
 
 Nouns ending their singular in s, or x, have their plural alike, 
 without any alteration or addition : as, 
 
 Sing. Numb. Plur. Numb. 
 
 lefils, the son, lesjils, the sons, 
 
 une voix, a voice, des voix, voices, 
 
 un nez, a nose, deux nez, two noses. 
 
 Nouns ending- in 6 acute might formerly take indifferently for their plural 
 either s or z, leaving* out the accent of the singular, as bontS kindness, bontis or 
 bontez kindnesses ; which sort of spelling some authors keep to still. But the 
 best writers keep to the general rule of forming the plural by adding s to the 
 singular of nouns in i, reserving ez for the second person plural of verbs only j 
 as vous aimez ye or you love. 
 
 In nouns ending in nt, it is become usual to leave out the final t in the plural 
 before s; as enfant child, enfans children, instead of en/ants; prudent prudent, 
 prudens, &c. but monosyllables retain it'; as des ponts bridges, des dents teeth, 
 from pent and dent ; Except cent and tout, as deuxcens hommes two hundred men, 
 ious les ans every year. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 1st, Nouns ending in au or eau, eu or otu, and ieu, take x 
 instead of s for their plural : as, 
 
 chapeau, hat, {chapeaux, hats, 
 
 games, 
 lieux, places. 
 
 C chapeau, hat, C chap* 
 
 Sing.< jeu, game, Plur.< jeux, 
 
 t lieu, place, t lieux 
 
 Except the adnoun bleu blue, which keeps the s, and makes bleus. 
 
 Nouns in ou take also x instead of * ; as un chou a cabbage, des choux cabbages, 
 le genou the knee, les genoux the knees, fyc. Except trou hole, cou neck, clow 
 nail, filou pickpocket, fou fool, matou a large cat, mon soft, hibou owl, licou hal- 
 ter, and loupgarou a were-wolf, which follow the general rule, and make trous, 
 clous, matous, &c. 
 
 %dly, Nouns ending in al and ail, change al and ail into aux 
 for their plural : as, 
 q- C animal, a living creature, pi ( animaux, living creatures, 
 
 ®* \ travail, work, * \ travaux, works. 
 
 ail garlic, makes aulx, though very seldom used 
 
 Nevertheless these six, bal a ball or masojierade, cal (or rather calus} a hard 
 skin, carnaval carnival, pal pale (a term of heraldry), rSgala, noble treat, bocal a 
 kind of vessel or bottle, follow the general rule, and make in their plural beds, 
 
 K2 
 
102 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 bocals, cals, carnavals, pals, rigals : as also proper names in al ; as deux Juvenals 
 two Juvenals, trois martials three Martials. 
 
 The following- nouns in ail follow also the general rule : 
 attirail, train, eventail, fan. portail, front-gate of a 
 
 camail, a sort of priest- cpouvantail, scarecrow. church. 
 
 dress. gouvernail, helm, serail, seragTio, 
 
 detail, particulars, mail, mall. 
 
 These two, bercail sheepf old, and poitrail the breast of a horse, have no plural. 
 
 Retail cattle, is a noun of multitude singular without a plural ; as bestiaux, 
 
 a noun plural of the same signification without singular. 
 
 austral, 
 boreal, 
 
 claustral, 
 
 conjugal, 
 
 diametral, 
 
 fatal, 
 
 filial, 
 
 final, 
 
 Except that we say les arts liberasx liberal arts, and des cierges pascals (large 
 wax-tapers burnt in "churches at Easter among the Roman Catholics). — Neither 
 is martial warlike, used at all in the plural. 
 
 We do say des armees navales sea-armaments : but instead of combats navals, or 
 
 batailles navales, we say des combats sur mer. We say les pseaumes ptnitentiaux 
 
 the penitential psalms ; but not un pseaume penitential or penitentiel, but un des 
 pseaumes pinitentiaux, one of the penitential psalms, that adnoun being not used 
 »n the singular. 
 
 Sdtyyriel, heaven,"^ (cieux*, heavens, 
 
 eyes, 
 
 UWIU2 dUlIU 
 
 southern. 
 
 U11S 1U Ub HdVt 
 
 frugal, 
 
 frugal. 
 
 i u&e iui uie u 
 nuptial, 
 
 nuptial. 
 
 northern. 
 
 jovial, 
 
 jovial. 
 
 pastoral, 
 
 pastoral. 
 
 claustral. 
 
 lustral, 
 
 lustral. 
 
 pascal, 
 
 paschal. 
 
 conjugal. 
 
 litteral, 
 
 literal. 
 
 total, 
 
 total. 
 
 diametral. 
 
 matinal, 
 
 early. 
 
 trivial, 
 
 trivial. 
 
 fatal. 
 
 nasal, 
 
 nasal. 
 
 vtnal, 
 
 venal. 
 
 filial. 
 
 natal, 
 
 native. 
 
 special, 
 
 special. 
 
 final. 
 
 naval, 
 
 naval. 
 
 liberal, 
 
 liberal. 
 
 ail, eye, / make \ yeux, 
 
 a'ieul, grandfather, ^-in the-^ aieux, grandfathers, 
 
 ntils-hommes, nobly d 
 scended {I is silent). 
 
 gentil-homme, one nobly V plural J gentils-hommes, nobly de- 
 descended (/ is liquid), J \. 
 
 * However, we say, in painting, le ciel, les dels ; but we mean only the air, 
 the clouds, not the skies or heavens. 
 
 Loy and loix, as also Roy and Roix, are quite obsolete : we now-a-days spell lot 
 a law, and Roi a king, and their plural lois and Rois are regular. 
 
 When a compound noun is formed of a noun and adnoun, both take the mark 
 of the plural. Thus we say, 
 
 un arc-boutant, a buttress ; des arcs-boutans, buttresses. 
 un cerf -volant, a paper-kite ; des cerfs-volans, paper-kites. 
 des bouts-rime's, rhymes of verses given to fill up. 
 les gardes Francoises, the French guards. 
 When a compound noun is formed of a preposition and a noun, or of a verb 
 and a noun, the noun only takes the mark of the plural. Thus we say, 
 
 un avant-coureur, a fore-runner ; des avant-coureurs, fore-runners. 
 un entresol, an enter-sole ; des entresols, enter-soles. 
 un abat-jour, a sky-light ; des-abat-jours, sky-lights. 
 un cure-dent, a tooth-picker ; des cure-dents, tooth-pickers. 
 un tourne-broche, a jack ; des tourne-broches, jacks. 
 un garde-fou, a rail j des garde-fous, rails. 
 When a compound noun is formed of two nouns united by a preposition, the 
 first only must take,the mark of the plural. Thus we say, 
 
 un ceil-de bwuf, an oval window ; des ceils-de-bceiif, oral windows. 
 
Of NOUNS, 
 
 103 
 
 un-ciel-de-lit, a tester; des ciels-de-lit, testers. 
 
 unjet-d'cau, a water-spout ; desjets-d'eau, water-spouts. 
 
 un chef-d'oeuvre, a master-piece ; des chefs-d'oeuvre, master-pieces. 
 
 un cul-de-lampe, a tail-piece ; des culs-d^-lampe, tail-pieces. 
 
 tin urc-en-ciel, a rainbow ; des arcs-en-ciel, rainbows. 
 
 f I cannot help mentioning a gross mistake that has crept into the French 
 Academy's Dictionary, and misled some modern Grammarians, who write des 
 ehefs d'ceuvres, des arc-en-ciels, des ciels-de-lits ; which implies contradiction, and 
 even nonsense. Can the mark of the plural be affixed to a thing which is not 
 presented as numerable ? 
 
 Nouns compounded of the pronoun mon, ma, change mon, ma, into mes in the 
 plural, besides the characteristic final letter of that number; as, 
 
 Sing 
 
 ■{ 
 
 monsieur, 
 
 master, 
 
 madame, 
 
 madam, 
 
 monseigneur, 
 
 my lord, 
 
 mademoiselle, 
 
 miss, 
 
 , messieurs, 
 pi S mesdames, 
 1 messeigneurs, 
 mesdemoiselles, 
 
 gentlemen. 
 
 ladies. 
 
 my lords. 
 
 ladies. 
 
 In all languages several nouns have no plural ; such are, 
 
 1st, Nouns of virtues and vices ; as, la charitS charity, la haine hatred, lafoi 
 faith, I'orgueil pride, fyc. so far only as they express habits; for when they ex- 
 press acts, they are used in the plural : as f aire des chariUs to give alms. 
 
 2dly, Nouns of metals ; as de I'cr gold, du cuivre copper, du plomblead, fyc. but 
 in another sense we say des plombs leaden vessels, desfers fetters. 
 
 3dly, These following : 
 
 courroux, 
 Eucharisiie, ,Lon 
 Extrime onction 
 
 absinthe, 
 
 artillerie 
 
 attirail, 
 
 bonheur, 
 
 colere, 
 
 gloire, 
 
 honte, 
 
 ieunesse, 
 
 lait, 
 
 mollesse, 
 
 wormwood. 
 
 artillery. 
 
 implements. 
 
 happiness. 
 
 anger. 
 
 glory. 
 
 shame. 
 
 youth. 
 
 milk. 
 
 effeminacy. 
 
 leprochain,our neighbour. 
 reputation, reputation. 
 renomme'e, ■ fame. 
 
 faim, 
 
 fiel, 
 
 fumee, 
 
 disette, 
 
 fuite, 
 
 enfance, 
 
 la vue, 
 
 I'ouie, 
 
 Vodorat, 
 
 legottt, 
 
 wrath. 
 
 le toucher, 
 
 feeling. 
 
 I'sS upper. 
 
 repos, 
 
 rest. 
 
 * 
 
 naturel, 
 
 nature. 
 
 hunger. 
 
 noblesse, 
 
 nobility. 
 
 gall. 
 
 pauvreti, 
 
 poverty. 
 
 smoke. 
 
 soif, 
 
 thirst. 
 
 scarcitv. 
 
 sang, 
 
 blood. 
 
 flight. 
 
 salut, 
 
 salvation. 
 
 infancy. 
 
 sommeil, 
 
 sleep. 
 
 the sight. 
 
 ■ total, 
 vieillesse, 
 
 whole. 
 
 hearing. 
 
 old age. 
 
 smelling. 
 
 virility, 
 
 manhood. 
 
 the taste. 
 
 miel, 
 
 honey. 
 
 One of the seven sacraments of the church of Rome. 
 
 As also infinitives and, adjectives used substantively ; as le boire . 
 eating and drinking, futile fy fagrtable profit and pleasure. 
 
 le manger 
 
 4thly, Nouns of number have no plural in French ; or rather, though they are 
 plural by their nature, except un, yet they do not take the final s which charac- 
 terises that number : as trois deux three twos, deux quatre two fours, quatre six, 
 four sixes, dix mille ten thousand, fyc. Except vingt, cent, and million; as six 
 
 vingts hommes six score men, deux cens icus two hundred crowns, fyc. oui an 1 
 
 non used substantively, have no plural neither; as, jenemesoucie ni de vos oui ni 
 de vos non, I care neither for your yea's nor your no's. 
 
 Proper names have no plural, unless they are used metaphorically. 
 
 Thus we say, les deux Corneille, les Turenne, les Lamoigiion, fyc. but we say, Us 
 sont les C£sars § les Alexandres de lew siecle, they are the Cesars and Alexanders 
 of their age. 
 
104 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Alpes, 
 
 annates, anna*ls. 
 
 anceires, ancestors. 
 
 dieux, forefathers. 
 
 aguets (etre aux), to be 
 "upon the watch. 
 arrerages, arrears. 
 
 assises, assises. 
 
 atours, apparel. 
 
 avives vives (in horses, a 
 disease). 
 
 beatilles, 
 
 besides, 
 
 broussailles, 
 
 Calendes, 
 
 catacombes, 
 
 ciseaux. 
 
 The following nouns have only the plural in use : 
 Alps, dettces, delight, ma.tlria.ux, 
 
 depens, cost. 
 
 icroueUes, the king's evil. 
 entraves, shackles. 
 
 entrailles, entrails. 
 
 entrefaites, transactions. 
 eti'ivieres, soundly lashing. 
 epousailles, espousals. 
 
 fiancailles, betrothing. 
 funerailles, funerals. 
 
 fonts, the font for chris- 
 tening. 
 
 * matures, 
 mceurs, 
 mouchettes 
 munitions, 
 tions t. 
 nippes, 
 
 dainties, 
 spectacles, 
 briars. 
 
 Calends, 
 catacombs. 
 
 scissars. 
 
 * complies, closing pray- 
 ers of the day. 
 confins, confines. 
 
 confitures, sweet-meats. 
 de'combres, rubbish. 
 
 frais, 
 gallions, 
 
 hardes, 
 Mmorrho'ides, 
 immondices, 
 *laudes, morning-prayers. 
 limites, limits. 
 
 mures, the ghost of one 
 deceased. 
 
 expenses. 
 
 galleons. 
 
 people. 
 
 clothes. 
 
 piles. 
 
 filth. 
 
 materials. 
 
 matins. 
 
 manners. 
 
 snuffers. 
 
 ammuni- 
 
 goods, things. 
 
 the nones. 
 
 obsequies. 
 
 tears. 
 
 relations. 
 
 first-fruits. 
 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 reprisals. 
 
 a net. 
 
 rogations, rogation-day. 
 stigmates, prints, marks. 
 timbres, darkness. 
 
 * vepres, vespers. 
 
 vergettes, a brush. 
 
 vkres, victuals. 
 
 obseques, 
 
 plevrs, 
 
 proches, 
 
 premices, 
 
 Pyrenees, 
 
 represailles, 
 
 rets, 
 
 * Matines, laudes, nones, vepres, and complies, are part of the divine service, 
 called in the church of Rome the Canonical Hours. 
 t Except that we say du pain de munition, ammunition-bread. 
 
 The following nouns, merely 
 des alleluia, des libera, (church terms). 
 des alibi, (a law term). 
 
 des alinea, (new paragraphs). 
 
 des accessit, (certificates). 
 
 depetits item, small articles. 
 
 des duo, des trio, des quatuor, 
 trois errata, thr.ee errata's. 
 
 quatre duplicate, four duplicata's. 
 des Acacia, Acacias. 
 
 des exeat, (leave to go out). 
 
 des fac-totum, people who do all in a 
 family. 
 trois in-folio, three folio's. 
 
 six in-quarto, six quarto's. 
 
 Latin, are of both numbers : 
 huit in-octavo, eight octavo's. 
 
 cinq pater c? cinq ave,five pater-nosters 
 des ave, des ave Maria. 
 des oremus, collects 
 
 des Te Deum, Te Deum's. 
 
 ses ergo, his therefore's. 
 
 And des a-parte, aside (what an actor 
 speaks aside upon the stage). 
 We likewise say, 
 des in-douze. duodecimo, in twelves. 
 des in-seize, sixteens. 
 
 des in dix-huit, eigl.teens. 
 
 des in-vingt-quatre, twenty-fours. 
 des a, des b, des i, a's, b's, i's, &c. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Of the Gender of Nouns. 
 
 Nouns are either of the masculine or of the feminine gender. 
 Nouns relating to males, or he's, are masculine ; and those 
 relating to females, or she's, are feminine : as, 
 
Of NOUNS. 
 
 105 
 
 a God, 
 a King, 
 
 Masc. Gend. 
 un Dietty 
 un Roi, 
 le Jupiter de Phidias, Phidias's 
 
 Jupiter, 
 un male, a male, a cock, or a 
 
 buck, 
 un chien, 
 un cheval, 
 
 a dog, 
 a horse, 
 
 Fern. Gend. 
 une Deese, a Goddess, 
 
 une Reine, a Queen, 
 
 la Diane d'Ephese, the Diana 
 
 of Ephesus, 
 une femelle, a female, hen, or 
 
 doe, 
 une chienne, a bitch, 
 
 unejument, a mare. 
 
 Except these two, gardes guards, and troupes troops, which are feminine, 
 though they relate to men ; as les gardes Francoises sont de bonnes troupes, 
 the French guards are good troops. Except also tendron, which is masculine, 
 though it relates to a girl ; as unjeune tendron, a young lass. 
 
 Family, names, common to both sexes, are masculine or feminine, according 
 as they are said of a man or woman ; as le savant Dacier, the learned Mr. 
 Dacier, la savante Dacier, the learned Madam Dacier. 
 
 In other nouns the gender is known by their terminations. 
 
 Nouns of the following terminations are of the feminine 
 gender. 
 
 1st, Nouns in tie and te; as une amitie a friendship, la sante 
 health, fyc. 
 
 Except of those in tt these eight or nine : 
 
 nn arret c de compte, a settled account. 
 
 le cot 6, 
 
 the side. 
 
 un etc, 
 
 a summer. 
 
 un comtie, 
 
 a committee. 
 
 un comti, a county or earldom. 
 
 un pate, 
 
 a pye. 
 
 <ldly, Nouns 
 
 in ion; as unt 
 
 passion, fyc. 
 
 
 Except these 
 
 twenty-four : 
 
 un alerion, 
 
 an eaglet. 
 
 Valcyon, 
 
 the halcyon. 
 
 u-n bastion, 
 
 a bastion. 
 
 le bestion, 
 
 the head of a ship. 
 
 un camion, 
 
 a short pin. 
 
 un champion, 
 
 a champion. 
 
 le chorion, 
 
 the chorion. 
 
 le croupion, 
 
 the rump. 
 
 un embrion, 
 
 an embryo. 
 
 un /anion, 
 
 a standard. 
 
 un gabion, 
 
 a gabion. 
 
 les gallions, 
 
 the galleons. 
 
 gavion, (a low word,) throat. 
 
 un traite, a treaty. 
 
 du the, tea. 
 
 le benedicite, (the first word of the pray- 
 er said by the Roman Catholics be- 
 fore their meals. 
 
 action an action, une passion a 
 
 un horion, a blow. 
 
 un lampion, a sort of lamp for illumi- 
 nations in rejoicing nights. 
 
 un million, a million. 
 
 le morion, a sort of military punish- 
 ment. 
 
 un morpion, a crab-louse. 
 
 I'Orion, Orion (a constellation). 
 
 un pion, a man at chess or draughts. 
 
 le Septentrion, the North. 
 
 un scion, a sprig. 
 
 un scorpion, a scorpion, 
 
 le talion, retaliation. 
 
 N. B. Crayon and rayon, which are masculine, do not fall under 
 this rule 
 
106 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 3dly, Nouns in zon and son, after a vowel or diphthong ; as 
 une saison a season, une prison a prison, fyc. Except these eight : 
 le blason, heraldry. un oison, a young goose. 
 
 unfrison, an under-petticoat. un peson, a steel-yard. 
 
 un oison, 
 
 un peson, 
 ungason, a green plot. du poison, poison. 
 
 I'horizcn, the horizon. un tison, a brand. 
 
 N. B. Nouns in sson don't fall under this rule. 
 
 4thly, Nouns in eur, as also in eure : as une peur a fear, la 
 chaleur heat, une heure, an hour, fyc. 
 
 Except of the first these twelve : 
 un bonheur, good luck. VEquateur, the Equator. 
 
 tin malhmr, a misfortune. Vhonneur, honour. 
 
 le cceur, the heart. un deshonneur, a dishonour. 
 
 tin chccur, a choir or chorus. le labeur, the labour. 
 
 I'inUrieur, the inward part. le lecteur, the reader. 
 
 I'exle'rieur, the outside. lefaiseur (pron. feseur), the maker. 
 
 And all other nouns in eur, derived from verbs, which change eur into euse for 
 their feminine, or are only applicable to men ; un docleur a doctor, un voleur, 
 une voleuse, a thief, &c. 
 
 Except also pleurs tears, which is masculine. — Of nouns in eure, except these 
 three, du beurre butter, leleurre a lure (for a hawk), and dufeurre straw. 
 
 othly, Nouns ending in x : as la pair peace, une noix a walnut, 
 de la chaux lime, fyc. 
 
 Except these twelve : 
 du borax, borax. 
 
 lechoix,. the choice. 
 
 un crucifix, a crucifix. 
 
 lefaix, ' the weight. 
 
 du hoiu holly. 
 
 un plie'nix a phoenix. 
 
 leflujc, the flowing. 
 
 Gthly, The following nouns, which cannot be brought under 
 a particular class of termination : 
 une brebis, a sheep, de la glu, bird-lime, 
 
 la gent, the race or 
 nation *, 
 
 la hart d'un fagot, a 
 band for a faggot, 
 
 une iris, a crocus, 
 
 une dot, a portion, une part, a share, 
 
 de I'eau, water, la peau, the skin, 
 
 la f aim, hunger, une main, a hand, 
 
 la fin, the end, la merci, the mercy, une tribu, a tribe, 
 
 unefois, a time, la mer, the sea, la vertu, virtue, 
 
 lafoi, faith, la mort, death, une vis, a screw. 
 
 uneforet, a forest, la nef the body of a 
 
 unefourmi, an ant, church, 
 
 * la gent is a burlesque sort of word, used only in poetry. 
 
 t la nuitpassie, last night; il est minuit sonne, it has struck twelve (at night). 
 
 le reflux, 
 
 
 the ebb. 
 
 un lynx, 
 
 
 a lynx. 
 
 le prix, 
 
 
 the price. 
 
 le Styx, 
 du slorax, 
 
 the 
 a sweet 
 
 Stygian river. 
 smelling gum. 
 
 And the letter x. 
 
 
 une cle or clef, a key, 
 de la chair, flesh, 
 une cour, a court, 
 une miller, a spoon, 
 une dent, a tooth, 
 
 .a nuit, the night 
 
 (but not minuit, 
 
 midnight f ), 
 la hi, the law, 
 
 la soif, thirst, 
 
 unesouris, a mouse, 
 une tour, a tower 
 
 (but not un tour 
 
 a turn), 
 une tribu, 
 
Of NOUNS. 
 
 10? 
 
 As to the other nouns ending in e not sounded, as theie are 
 as many of them of the masculine gender as of the feminine, and 
 both in a very great number, 1 shall set down in the Appendix a 
 list of all the nouns masculine the end in e not sounded, as also 
 another of those which admit either gender, according to their 
 several significations. One must only observe here, that the 
 nouns of the following termination, with e not sounded, are of 
 the feminine gender. 
 
 1st, Nouns ending in any vowel or diphthong before e not 
 sounded : such as these terminations, ee, aie, ie and uie, oie and 
 oye, oue and ue: as une armte an army, uneplaie a wound, de la 
 wie silk, la joie joy, itne ortie a nettle, lapluie the rain, une rone 
 a wheel, de la morue cod-fish, fyc. 
 
 Except from nouns in ee these twenty : 
 
 V Apogee, Apogee. le nymphee, 
 
 un caducee, a caduceum. 
 
 un colisee, a collisseum. 
 
 le coryphee, the chief. 
 
 I'Empyree, the empyrean heaven. 
 les champs elysees, the elysian fields. 
 
 Ie gynecee, 
 un hymenee, 
 le Lycee, 
 tin mausolie, 
 le Musee, 
 
 AphUie, 
 un genie, 
 nn incendie, 
 le Messie, 
 un menstrue, 
 un parapluie, 
 
 Gynseceum. 
 
 marriage, wedlock. 
 
 the Lyceum. 
 
 a mausoleum. 
 
 the Museum. 
 
 le perigee, 
 le perinee, 
 le Pyree, 
 
 Athens. 
 les Pyrenees 
 un spondee, 
 un trochee. 
 
 Nympheum . 
 perigee, 
 the perineum, 
 a celebrated haven of 
 
 the Pyreneans. 
 a spondee. 
 a trochee. 
 les tesiacees, and les crustacees, testa- 
 ceous and crustaceous fish. 
 un trophee, a trophy. 
 
 And these twelve from those in ie, oie, and ue. 
 Aphelion, un pavie, 
 
 a genius. 
 
 a conflagration. 
 
 Messiah. 
 
 a menstruum. 
 
 an umbrella. 
 
 le p&rihclie, 
 
 un parhelie, 
 
 le bain-marie, 
 
 lefoie, 
 
 du pou de soie, 
 
 a nectarine 
 
 perihelium. 
 
 (mock-sun) . 
 
 balneum mariue. 
 
 the liver. 
 
 paduasoy. 
 
 Qdly, Nouns ending in ance or anse, ence or ense ; as une balance 
 a pair of scales, une anse an ear or handle (of a pot), la conscience 
 conscience, une defense a defence, fyc. Except le silence silence. 
 
 3dly, Nouns ending in aille, eille, and elh : as de la paille straw, 
 une oreiile an ear, une chandelle a candle, fyc. Except un cure- 
 oreille an ear picker, and un perce-oreUle an ear-wig : but those 
 in ail eil, and el are masculine 
 
 Mhly, All nouns ending in ace and asse: as de la glace jce, 
 une paillasse & straw-bed,&c. 
 
108 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 btlily, Nouns ending in He and Me, uille, mile, and euille, isse, 
 and ise or ize : as une ville a city, une anguille an eel, une aiguille 
 a needle, une f euille a leaf, de la reglisse liquorice, une tglise a 
 church, #c. 
 
 Except these twelve from those in He and Me : 
 un asyle, an asylum, a sanctuary, un domicile, 
 
 le cadrille, 
 le chyle, 
 un codicile, 
 codille, 
 un crocodile, 
 
 quadril. 
 
 the chyle. 
 
 a codicil. 
 
 codil. 
 
 a crocodile. 
 
 Vivangile, 
 spadille force, 
 un style, 
 un ustensile, 
 un vaudeville, 
 
 an abode. 
 
 the gospel. 
 
 spadil forced. 
 
 a style. 
 
 an utensil. 
 
 a ballad. 
 
 igue, 
 
 ougue 
 
 oure, 
 
 ine, 
 
 une, 
 
 ure, 
 
 iere, 
 
 yre, 
 
 Nouns ending in 
 une brigue, 
 lafougue, 
 la bravoure, 
 une cuisine, 
 ] la rancune, 
 une ordure, 
 une tabaticre, 
 ^une lyre, 
 
 Except from nouns in ure 
 un bon ou mauvais augure, a 
 good or bad omen; un mur- 
 mure, murmur ; du mercure, 
 mercury; un parjure, pei- 
 jury ; and les Colures, Co- 
 luri. 
 
 And these two from those in euille, du chevre-feuille honey- 
 suckle, and un porte-feuille a pocket-book. 
 
 6thly, 
 
 a cabal. 
 
 the fury. 
 
 valour. 
 
 a kitchen. 
 
 grudge. 
 
 filth. 
 
 a snuff-box. 
 
 a lyre. 
 
 And from those in ire, le delire, delirium ; un navire, a ship ; 
 
 un empire, an empire ; du porphyre, porphyry. 
 
 Though the aforesaid observations upon the nouns feminine might be suffi 
 cient to know the gender of the other nouns; yet, for a further help in this 
 matter, I shall also add the terminations of those in the masculine gender. 
 
 1st, All nouns in ail and al, eilsind el; as un bail a. lease, le carnaval the 
 carnaval, le soleil the sun, un autel an altar, Src. as also all nouns whose last 
 syllable is a followed by one or many consonants whatever ; as un a an a *, un 
 sopha a sofa, un sac a sack, un art an art, un almanack an almanac, unplat 
 a dish, SfC Except une part a share, and la hart the band of a faggot. 
 
 * The letters of the alphabet are masculine, except these seven consonants, 
 f, h, 1, m, n, r, s. 
 
 2dly, AH nouns ending in the nasal an, under whatever combination of letters 
 that sound may t»e considered, as under en, anc, ant, ang, ens, ent, merit, and 
 tent: as un an a year, un enfant a child, un accent an accent, le temps the 
 time, §c. Except une dent a tooth. 
 
 3dly, All nouns ending in ail, ueil, and euil ; as un ail an eye, un deuil a 
 mourning, un accueil, a reception, fyc. 
 
 4thly, All nouns ending in e acute without t before ; as du caffe coffee; as 
 also those in e followed by any consonant, with those in ier; aisand ois, air 
 and oir, ait : as du bled or bit, wheat ; un bee, a beak ; dn sel, salt ; un arrite, 
 a proclamation ; de Vacier, steel ; le biais, the obliquity ; un anchois, an an- 
 chovy ; un mouchoir, an handkerchief; un attrait, a bait; un balai, a broom, fyc. 
 Except une cli or clef, a key; une cuiller, a spoon ; laforet, the forest ; la 
 mer, the sea; lasoif, thirst; and lanef, the body of a church. 
 
 bthly, All nouns in eu and ieu ; as un aveu, a confession ; un lieu, a place, 4* c « 
 
 6thly, Nouns in au or eau ; as un chapeau, a hat ; un couteau, a knife, SfC 
 Except de Veau, water; and unepeau, a skin. 
 
Of NOUNS. 109 
 
 7thly, Nouns whose last syllable is o, followed by any consonant ; as de Vor, 
 £old ; un aok, a hook ; un pot, a pot ; le bord, the brim ; unfort, a fort, fyc. Ex- 
 cept une dot, a portion ; and la morl, death. 
 
 Sfhly, Nouns whose last syllable is i or ui, followed by any consonant ; as un 
 abii, a shelter ; un Lundi*, one Monday ; le lit, the bed; un ennui, a weariness; 
 ■un puits, a well ; du bruit, a noise, Sfc. ' Except unebrebis, a sheep ; unefourmi, 
 an ant ; la inerci, mercy ; la nuit, the night ; une souris, a mouse ; une vis, a screw. 
 
 * Nouns of days, months, and seasons, are masculine ; as un beau Dimanche, a 
 fine Sunday ; Lundi dernier, last Monday ; le mois prochain, tlie next month; un 
 £te sec 6c chaud, a dry and hot summer, Szc. Except automne, which is^ of both 
 gendets, une automne froide & pluvieuse, a cold and rainy autumn. But, when 
 nouns of months take mi before them, they are feminine, as la mi-juin, Midsummer ; 
 la ini-Aout (mi-ou), the middle of August. 
 
 Nouns of holidays are feminine, laToussaint, All-Saints; la Saint- Jean, Mid- 
 summer ; la Saint-Martin, Martinmas, &c. except Noel and Paques : Noel takes 
 no article. See in the Appendix the observation concerning Paque. 
 
 9thly, Nouns ending in ain, aim, in, ins, uin, oin, and ien ; as un bain, a bath ; 
 du vin, wine ; un be" gum, a bigging ; dufoin, hay ; du bien, wealth, fyc. Except 
 la main, the hand ; la fin, the end ; and la f aim, hunger. 
 
 lOthly, Nouns ending in ou, either alone or followed by a consonant ; as un 
 bijou, a jewel ; un coup, a blow ; un dttour, a by-way ; le cours, the course ; le 
 bourg, the borough, fyc. Except la cour, the court ; and une tour, a tower. 
 
 Uthly, Nouns ending in sson, or con, and all those of the nasal on, through all 
 its combinations that have not i or s or 2 before on; as le poisson, the f isn ; un 
 pomcon, a bodkin ; un baton, a stick ; un bourgeon, a bud ; du bouillon, broth, &c. 
 Except of nouns in sson, la uoisson, drinking ; and la moisson, a harvest ; and of 
 the otheia, une chanson, a song ; la fa^on, the making ; une lecon, a lesson ; la ran- 
 fon, the ransom ; which are feminine, as nouns in son. 
 
 lZthly, Nouns whose last syllable terminates in u, or have the u of the last syl- 
 lable followed by any consonant; as le but, the aim ; un aqueduc, an aqueduct ; 
 le tribut, the tribute ; du pus, matter out of a wound, fyc. Except de la glu, bird- 
 Jime j la vertu, virtue ; and une fribu, a tribe. 
 
 Lastly, Nouns ending in age, age, acle. erne, autne, dme, isme, isle; as un heri- 
 tage, an heritage ; le deluge, the flood; un tabernacle, a tabernacle ; le bapteme, 
 baptism; du baume, balm ; unddme, a cupola; le caUchisme, catechism yun an- 
 tagoniste, an antagonist. Except these nine, une cage, a cage : une image, an 
 image ; une page, a page ; la rage, the rage ; une plage, a flat shore ; de la crime, 
 cream ; la paume, the palm of the hand ; une list, a list ; une piste, a track. 
 
 Observe further, that nouns of countries, kingdoms, counties, and provinces, 
 ending in e not sounded, are feminine ; as VEurope, Europe ; la France, France ; 
 la Bretagne, Britain, fyc. except this one, le Mexique, Mexico. The others are 
 masculine ; as le Danemark Denmark, le Portugal Portugal, le Chili Chili, le 
 Poitou, &c. Those of cities, towns, and boroughs, most commonly follow the 
 gender of their terminations ; but in case of doubt, you need only add the word 
 ville to them, and so make them feminine. Thus, instead of saying Londres est 
 bien grand or grande, say Londres est une ville biengrande ; which is the best man- 
 ner of expression, even with respect to those nouns of cities whose gender (fe- 
 minine) is certain ; as la Rochelle est une belie ville, rather than la Rochelle est l>elle, 
 Rochelle is a fine city ; la Haye est un gi'os bourg ou un village bien peupU, and 
 not la Haye est grande, or bien peupUe, the Hague is a large or populous place. 
 
 Names of mountains are masculine : as le Caucase Caucasus, le Pamasse Par- 
 nassus, fyc. Except les Alpes couvertes de neige, the Alps covered with snow. 
 
 Names of winds are masculine ; as le Sud the South, le Nord the North, un 
 Ztphyr a Zephyrus, §c. Except la Bise the North-east wind, and 2a Tremon- 
 tane. 
 
 In poetry, ZSphv-e, a god, is spelt so, and goes without the article. 
 
 As to the names of rivers, they follow their termination ; as le Rhin the 
 Rhine, le Pb, le Nil the Nile, la Seiiw, la Tamise the Thames, 2a Moselle the 
 Moselle : but as there are a good many of the masculine gender, tho' ending in it 
 not sounded, as leRMne, le fibre, leDanube,8cc. I have set in theVocabulary the 
 
110 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 names of the most noted rivers ; and besides, exact lists of animals, birds, 
 fishes, fyc. trees, plants, and flowers, whose names are mostiv used. 
 
 Comte a county or earldom, and Ducht a duchy, formerly used in both gen- 
 ders, are now masculine : but we say in the feminine la Franche Comte (the 
 County of Burgundy), and une Vicomti a Viscounty, as likewise une Comle- 
 Pairie, and une Duche-Pairie. 
 
 Epithalame epithalamium, is masculine ; but ipigramme an epigram, and 
 theriaque treacle, are feminine. 
 
 Couple is feminine in the signification of number only ; as une couple dHazufs 
 a couple of eggs : but when it comprehends besides another accessory idea, as 
 of union, fyc. it is masculine ; as un beau couple a fine couple (meaning two 
 married people). 
 
 Amour love, and orgue organ, are masculine in the singular, and feminine in 
 the plural : as, 
 „• 5 V amour divin, the love of God. p, ( defolles amours, foolish amours. 
 
 =' ( un bel orgue, a fine organ. ' ( de belles orgues, fine organs. 
 
 But orgue is very seldom used in the singular ; and amours, signifying cupids, 
 are masculine ; as les amours rians Sc badins la suivent par-tout, wanton cupids 
 follow her every where. 
 
 anagramme, anagram, ~\ hymne, hymn, 
 
 enigme, an enigma, I dialecte, dialect, S are masculine. 
 
 '} 
 
 epitaphe, an epitaph, I , g feminine episode, an episode 
 epithtte, an epithet, ( 
 equivoque, equivocation, \ 
 horoscope, horoscope, J 
 
 Moreover, adjecttves used substantively ; nouns of number, ordinal, propor- 
 tional, and distributive ; infinitives, adverbs, and prepositions also, taken sub- 
 stantively, are masculine ; as, 
 
 le rouge, red. un cinq, a five, le manger, eating. 
 
 le noir, black, un cinquitme, a fifth, le devant, the fore-part. 
 
 le necessaire, what is requi- un dixitme, a tenth, le derrilre, the hind-part, 
 
 site, SfC, le double, the double. &c. 
 
 un deux, a two. le triple, the treble, lepeu queje sais, the lit— 
 
 un quatre, a four, le boire, drinking. tie I know. 
 
 Except that we make antique feminine (une antique), statue or mcdaille 
 being understood. We also say in mathematics, une courbe, a curve; une 
 verpendiculaire, a perpendicular ; une tan gent e, a tangent; ligne being like- 
 wise understood. 
 
 Nouns compound of a noun and a verb, are likewise masculine. Thus tho' 
 oreille, noisette, broche, &c. are feminine, yet we say un cure-oreille, an ear- 
 picker; un casse-noisette, a nut-cracker ; un tourne-broche, a jack; un passe- 
 velours, a velvet-flower. Except une gurderobe a wardrobe. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Of the Article. 
 
 The noun performs divers offices in speech. Sometimes it 
 expresses the subject of which something is spoken, and some- 
 times the object which particularises that which is said of the 
 subject. 
 
 At other times, we consider in the noun the relation which one 
 thing bears to another, or to an action : as le Roi aime lepeuple, 
 tiie king loves the people ; le peuple aime le Roi, the people love 
 the king ; la sagesse du Roi, the king's wisdom ; presenter un 
 
Of NOUNS.' Ill 
 
 placet au Roi, to present a petition to the king ; ressembler au Rot, 
 to be like the king ; un present pour le Roi a present for the king ; 
 aller chez le Roi, to go to the king, fyc. 
 
 Those different states or relations of the noun, those various 
 respects in which it may be considered, are denoted in Latin by 
 a variety of terminations in the noun, which they call cases. In 
 French, as well as in English, they are denoted by the place 
 which the noun has in the sentence, and by a particular sort of 
 words called prepositions. The noun, considered as the subject, 
 comes before verb, and after it, when considered as the ob- 
 ject. The abovementioned examples, where the same nouns 
 are used in different states, ought to make this plain, without any 
 other illustration. Roi is subject in the first, and object in the 
 second : on the contrary peuple is object in one and subject in the 
 other. In the other examples, the noun is not used either as 
 subject or object, but its other relations to the preceding noun 
 or verb are denoted by the words immediately coming before it : 
 things being always in relation to each other, either of union or 
 separation, fitness or unfitness, quality, effect, cause, end, order, 
 dependence, situation, fyc. 
 
 Therefore there are no such things as cases and declensions in 
 our languages, wherein the several states or relations of the noun 
 are marked by the place which they keep in the sentence, and by 
 prepositions. But as none of them denotes so many various re- 
 lations as these two de and a, which are contracted with the 
 article in two particular cases, though each of them remain the 
 same in English, I will set down examples of the ways of con- 
 sidering the noun in French, with respect to its chief relations, 
 for method's sake only, and to accustom the beginner to that 
 contraction, which is a little puzzling at first. 
 
 The article is a particle established to specify the extent of the 
 sense in which the noun is taken. 
 
 Sing. Numb. Plur. Numb. 
 
 Masc. Fern. M. # F. Masc. % Fern. 
 
 First 1 fie, la, Y les, the. 
 
 Second \ State < du, de la, del' des, of the. 
 
 Third ) t au, a la, a V aux, to the. 
 
 The article agrees with the noun in gender and number, the 
 being in French le, for the masculine gender ; la for the femi- 
 nine, when the noun begins with a consonant or h aspirate ; the 
 letter /' only, with the elision, when it begins with a vowel or h 
 mute ; and les for the plural number, with all sorts of nouns. 
 
112 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 The preposition de (in English of, from) and a (to) are con- 
 tracted with the article, when the noun is masculine, and begins 
 with a consonant or h aspirate ; so that, instead of de le, we say 
 du (for of the, from the), and instead of a le we say au (for to the), 
 and likewise we say, with all plural nouns, des instead of de les, 
 and aux instead a les. 
 
 Therefore, to make the article agree with the noun, consider, 
 1°. Whether the noun is masculine or feminine. 2°. Whether 
 it begins with a consonant or with a vowel : and if with h, whe- 
 ther that h is aspirate or mute. 3°. Whether or no the sense of 
 the noun is limited. 4°. Whether, in the limited sense, the noun 
 is attended with an adnoun, and which of the two comes first. 
 5°. Wliether the noun is common or proper : proper names taking 
 no article. 
 
 1st . Example of a noun masculine beginning with a consonant. 
 States. Singular Number. Plural Number. 
 
 1st. 4* 4£ h. le Prince, the Prince, les Princes, the Princes. 
 
 2d. du Prince, of the Prince, des Princes, of the Princes. 
 
 3d. au Prince, to the Prince, aux Princes, to the Princes. 
 
 ^1 N. B. The first state answers to the nominative of the Latins ; the 2d, to 
 their genitive and ablative; and the 4th, to their accusative : in French the 4th 
 state of nouns is like the 1st. 
 
 2d. Example of a noun masculine beginning with h aspirate. 
 1st. Sf 4th. le heros, the hero, les heros, the heroes. 
 
 2d. du heros, of the hero, des heros of the heroes. 
 
 3d. au heros, to the hero, aux heros, to the heroes. 
 
 3d. Example of a noun masculine beginning with a vowel. 
 1st. § 4>th. l'oiseau, the bird, les oiseaux, the birds. 
 
 2d. de l'oiseau, of the bird, des oiseaux, of the birds. 
 
 3d. a l'oiseau, to the bird, aux oiseaux, to the birds. 
 
 4th. Example of a noun masculine beginning with h mute. 
 1st. by 4th. l'homme, the man. les homines, the men. 
 
 2d. de rhomme, of the man. des hommes, of the men. 
 
 3d. a l'homme, to the man. aux hommes, to the men. 
 
 5th. Example of a noun feminine beginning with a consonant. 
 lst.fy4th.\aYr'mcesse,thePrincess. les Princesses, the Princesses. 
 
 2d.de la Princesse, of the Princess, des Princesses, of the Princesses. 
 3d. a la Princesse, to the Princess, aux Princesses, to the Princesses. 
 
 6th. Example of a noun feminine beginning with h aspirate. 
 1st. fy 4th. la harangue, the speech, les harangues, the speeches. 
 
 2d. de la harangue, of the speech, des harangues, of the speeches. 
 3d. a la harangue, to the speech, aux harangues, to the speeches. 
 
O/'INOUNS. 113 
 
 1th. Example of a noun feminine beginning with a vozcel. 
 
 States. Singular Number. Plural Number. 
 
 lst&L 4th. Tame, the soul, les ames, the souls. 
 
 %d. de l'ame, of the soul, des ames, of the souls. 
 
 3d. a Tame, to the soul, aux ames, to the souls. 
 
 8th. Example of a noun feminine beginning zmih h mute. 
 lst.&4th. l'habitude, the habit, les habitudes, the habits. 
 
 2d. de l'habitude, of the habit, des habitudes, of the habits. 
 3d. a l'habitude, to the habit, aux habitudes, to the habits. 
 
 9th. Example of a noun masculine taken in a limited sense, and beginning with 
 
 a consonajit. 
 
 1st. & 4th. du pain, bread. des pains, loaves. 
 
 Sri. de pain, of bread. de pains, of loaves. 
 
 3d. a du pain, to bread, a des pains. to loaves. 
 
 <I N. B. When a noun is used in a limited or partitive sense, the particles au 
 and aux cannot be used, because there is no possibility of contracting a with le 
 or les, on account of the preposition de happening to be betwixt them : a, there- 
 fore, is managed with the partitive art. de, du, de la, des; just as the other pre- 
 positions. 
 
 10th. Example of a noun feminine beginning with a consonant, and taken m a 
 
 limited sense. 
 1st. & 4th. de la viande, meat . des viandes, meats. 
 
 2d. de viande, of meat. de viandes, of meals. 
 
 3rf. a de la viande, to meat. a des viandes, to meats. 
 
 llth. Example of a noun masculine beginning with a vowel, and taken in a 
 
 limited sense. 
 
 1st. Sc 4th. de 1'esprit, wit. des esprits/ wits. 
 
 2d. d'esprit, of wit. ^ d'esprits, of wits. 
 
 3d. a de 1'esprit, to wit. a des esprits, to wits 
 
 11th. Example of a noun feminine beginning zvith a vowel, and taken in a 
 
 limited sense. 
 
 1st. & 4th. de l'eau, water. des eaux, waters. 
 
 2d. d'eau, of water. d'eaux, of waters. 
 
 3d. a de l'eau, to water, a des eaux, to waters. 
 
 13th. Examples of nouns taken in a limited sense, when the adnoun comes first. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Sing. Fern. 
 
 1st. & 4th. de bon pain, good bread. de bonne viande, good meat. 
 
 c 2d. de bon pain, of good bread. de bonne viande, of good meat. 
 
 3d. a de bon pain, to good bread. a de bonne viande, to good meat. 
 
 lst.Sc 4th. d'excellent vin, excellent wine. d'excellente eau, excellent water. 
 
 2d. d'excellent vin, <f excellent ivine. d'excellente eau, of excelleni water. 
 
 3d. a d'excellent vin, to excellent wine, a d'excellente eau, io excellent water. 
 
 14th. Examples of nouns taken in a limited sense, when the adnoun comes last. 
 
 1st . & 4th. du pain blanc white bread. de la viande crue, raw meat. 
 
 2rf. de pain blanc, of white bread. de viande crue, of raw meat. 
 
 3d. a du pain blanc, to white bread. a de la viande crue, to raw meat 
 
1 14 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 1st. & 4th. dii vin excellent, exceeding de l'eau excellente, exceeding good 
 
 good trine. ivater. 
 
 2d. de vin excellent, of exceeding good d'eau excellente, of exceeding good 
 
 wine. ivater. 
 
 3d. a du vin excellent, to exceeding good a de l'eau excellente, to exceeding 
 
 wine. good water. 
 
 See p. 214, the examples of that limited sense. 
 15^7*. Example of nouns taking no article before them. 
 States. Sing. Numb. Plur. Numb. 
 
 1st. & 4th. Dieu, God. Londres, London. Newton, Newton. 
 
 2d. de Dieu, of God. de Londres, of London. de Newton, of Newton. 
 
 3d. a Dieu, to God, a Londres, to London. a Newton, to Newton. 
 
 1st. & 4th. Monsieur, master. Messieurs, gentlemen* 
 
 2d. de Monsieur, of master, de Messieurs, of gentlemen. 
 
 3d. a Monsieur, to master, a Messieurs, to gentlemen., 
 
 16th. Example of nouns used zcith the particle un, and une. 
 
 1st. & 4ih. un Roi, a King. des Rois, Kings. 
 
 2d. d'un Roi, of a King. ^ de Rois, of Kings. 
 
 3d. a un Roi, to a King, a des Rois, to Kings, 
 
 1st. & 4th. une Reine, a Queen. des Reines, Queens, 
 
 2d. d'une Reine, of a Queen. de Reines. of Queens, 
 
 3d. a une Reine, to a Queen, a des Reines, to Queens, 
 
 CHAP. II 
 
 Of Adnouns. 
 
 Ihe Adnoun is a part of speech serving to express the qua- 
 lities of things, or what they are. 
 
 They are called adnouns or adjectives, because they are as 
 added to the nouns or substantives, which they are either joined 
 with, or supposed in the sentence, to qualify the things which 
 the others serve to name : as savant learned, beau and belie hand- 
 some, commode convenient, fyc. which are qualities that may be 
 considered in, and affirmed of, the nouns man, woman, house : as 
 un homme savant a learned man, une belle femme a handsome 
 woman, une maison commode a convenient house, fyc. 
 
 The adnouns agree with the nouns in gender and number ; and 
 therefore it is of moment to know how to form their genders. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Of the Formation of the Feminine Gender of Adnouns. 
 
 Adnouns ending in e not sounded, are of both genders ; that 
 is, the same for the masculine and feminine : as, 
 
 Masc. Gend. Fern. Gend, 
 
 un honnete homme, an honest une honnete femme, an honest 
 
 man. woman. 
 
 an procede indigne, unzvorthy une conduite indigne, unworthy 
 
 proceeding. way of behaving. 
 
0/* ADNOUNS. 115 
 
 The others, generally speaking, only add e not sounded for 
 their feminine gender ; as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 grand, great, grande. savant, learned, savante. rond, round, ronde. 
 This rule never varies with respect to the adnouns that end 
 with a vowel, and all participles : as, 
 
 Masc, Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 aise, easy, aisee. aime, loved, aimee. fait, done, faite. 
 joli, pretty; jolie. perdu, lost, perdue, pris, taken, prise. 
 
 Except however beni holy, and favori darling, which make 
 benite mid favorite in their feminine. 
 
 Here follow rules for forming the feminine gender of the 
 other adnouns, which all end their masculine with one of these 
 consonants, c, f, I, n, t, or in eux and eur. 
 
 1st, Adnouns ending in eur and eux, change eur and eux into 
 euse for the feminine : as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. Blase. Fern. 
 
 raillewr, jeering, raiUeuse. heureux, happy, heureuse. 
 
 Except these eleven, anterieur, foregoing, former ; posterieur, 
 hind, latter ; citerieur, citerior ; ulttrieur, furthermost ; interieur, 
 inward ; exterieur, outward ; majeur, senior ; mineur, junior ; supe- 
 rieur, superior ; inferieur, inferior ; and meilleur, better ; which 
 follow the general rule, and make anterieure, interieure, <§rc. 
 
 Except also vieux, which makes vieille, from its old masculine vieil, still used 
 before some substantives beginning with a vowel, or h not aspirate : as un vieil 
 habit an old suit of clothes. We use it with homme only in this phrase of the 
 Gospel, dtpouiller le vicil homme to put off the old man ; otherwise we express 
 an old man by vieillard, as an old woman by the feminine of vieil, taken substan- 
 tively, line vieille ; that word being the feminine of vieux : as une vieille inaison an 
 old house. 
 
 Qdly, Adnouns ending with c, wliicn are only eight in num- 
 ber, form their feminine, the three first, in changing their final c 
 into che, and the five others into que : as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 blanc, white, blanche. public, public, \)\\b\\que 
 
 franc, sincere, tranche. Grec, Greek, Grecque. 
 
 sec, dry, seche. Turc, Turkish, Turque. 
 
 caduc, in decay, caduque. ammoniac, ammoniac, ammonia^Ke. 
 
116 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 3 dly, Adnouns ending with/, form their feminine in changing 
 their final y into ve : as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 neu/, new, neute. \'\f quick, xive. 
 
 Athly, Of adnouns ending with I, those which have a or i be- 
 fore / follow the general rule ; and the others which have e, o, u, 
 or ei before /, double that final / before e ,• as does also gentil : 
 as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 fatal, fatal, fatale. nwl, no man, nz/lle. 
 
 subtil, subtle, subtile, paral, alike, parezlle. 
 
 cruel, cruel, cruelle. gentil # , genteel, gentalle. 
 
 * 1 is silent in gentil, and liquid in gentille. 
 
 mou, soft, \ form their rmol, ^ and double rmolle, 
 fou, foolish,' feminine J fol, {also I before e, } folle, 
 
 beau, fine,{ of their old ibel, t making 1 in l belle, 
 
 nouveau, new, J masculine C nouvel ; j their feminine Cnouvelle; 
 which old masculines are still used before nouns beginning with a vowel ; as un 
 fol entetement a foolish infatuation, un bel esprit a wit, un nouvel amant a new 
 lover, fyc. — The masculine bel is not only retained in this phrase, cela est bel fy bon 
 that is very well, "or very good, but also in the surname of some of the French 
 kings, without being followed by a word beginning with a vowel ; as Charles le 
 Bel Charles the Fair, Philippe le Bel Philip the Fair, fyc. 
 
 bthly, Of adnouns ending with n, those only double n in their 
 feminine which have o before n, Or end in ten ; the others follow 
 the general rule : as, 
 
 Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern, 
 
 bon, good, bo?ine. divin, divine, divine. 
 
 ancie?z, ancient, anciewze. plein, fully pleine. 
 
 Qthly, Of adnouns ending with t, those only double i in their 
 feminine which have e or o before it (few only being excepted, 
 such as secret, complet, divot) ; the others that have i or a, or an 
 improper diphthong, or a consonant before t, follow the general 
 rule ; as, 
 
 Masc. . Fern. Masc. Fern. 
 
 net, clean, nette. ingrat, ungrateful, ingrate. 
 
 sot, foolish, sotte. droit, right, droite. 
 
 petit, little, petite, constant, constant, constante. 
 
 These six following double their final s before e : the eleven 
 others are not so regular : 
 
 Masc. bas, epais, expres, gras, gros, las, 
 
 low, thick, express, fat, big, tired, 
 Fern, basse, epaisse. expresse. grasse. grosse. lasse. 
 
Of ADNOUNS 
 
 117 
 
 Masc. 
 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fenv 
 
 benin, 
 
 benign, 
 
 benigne. 
 
 jaloux, jealous, 
 
 jalouse 
 
 malin, 
 
 malignant, 
 
 maligne. 
 
 nu, naked, 
 
 nue 
 
 ong, 
 
 long, 
 
 longue. 
 
 vert, green, 
 
 verte 
 
 doux, 
 frais, 
 roux, 
 
 sweet, 
 cool, fresh, 
 reddish, 
 
 douce, 
 fraiche. 
 rousse. 
 
 To which add these 
 ciples. 
 
 two parti- 
 
 rru, 
 
 raw, 
 
 crue. 
 
 absous absolved, 
 
 absoute, 
 
 faux, 
 
 false, 
 
 fausse. 
 
 dissous, dissolved, 
 
 dissoute, 
 
 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 
 Of the Comparison of Adnouns. 
 
 As an adnoun expresses the quality of a thing, and, when 
 compared with that of another, that quality may be found more 
 or less such, or equal others, or exceed them all ; hence arise 
 what Grammarians call the three degrees of comparison, the po- 
 sitive, the comparative, and the superlative : which they should 
 have rather called degrees of signification ; since the positive is 
 never used with comparison, and the signification of the adnoun 
 is most times increased to the highest pitch, without any com- 
 parison at all. However, 
 
 The adnoun, in as much as it expresses only the quality of a 
 thing, is called positive ; as sage wise, beau handsome, mediant 
 bad, fyc. 
 
 The quality of a thing compared with another's, and affirmed 
 to equal it, or exceed, or come short of it, is called comparative : 
 which therefore is threefold ; as aussi sage que lui as wise as he, 
 plus beau quelle handsomer than she, moins mediant queux less 
 bad than they. 
 
 The quality of a thing affirmed in the highest degree is called 
 superlative ; which is either absolute, as tres-sage most wise, fort 
 beau very handsome, bien mechant very bad ; or relative, as leplus 
 sage, le plus beau, le plus mechant de tons, the wisest, the hand- 
 somest, the worst of all. 
 
 That comparison of adnouns, that is, the rising or lessening 
 their signification, or denoting equality in the quality of things, is 
 made in French by placing some of these particles before them, 
 plus more, moins less, aussi, si, as, so, tant, autant (so much, so 
 many, as much, as many), and mieux better, before participles : 
 as aussi sage que lui, plus beau quelle, moins mechant queux, mieux 
 
118 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 fait better made, il n'est pas si grand quW/e, he is not so tall as 
 she. 
 
 Elle n'a pas tant d' esprit que She has not so much wit as 
 sa sozur, mais elle a autant de her sister, but she has as much 
 vivacite, § elle est aussi aima- liveliness, and is as amiable as 
 hie. she. 
 
 And for denoting the highest or lowest degree of the adnoun, 
 we put one of the adverbs of excess before it, tres most ; bien, 
 fort, very ; injiniment, extremement, prodigieusement (extremely, 
 vastly, mightily) ; or if there is relation, we put the article be- 
 fore the comparative adverbs, which we make agree in gender 
 and number with the noun ; as masc. le plus sage, fern, la plus 
 sage, the wisest; masc. le mieuxfait,fem. la mieux faite, the best 
 made ; masc. les moins mauvais, fern, les moins mauvaises, the 
 least bad. 
 
 Three adnouns only, in French, denote by themselves the 
 comparison ; meilleur better, pire worse, and moindre less. 
 
 Meilleur is the comparative of bon good, whose relative super- 
 lative is formed by putting the article before its comparative ; as, 
 
 Pos. bon good ; Comp. meilleur better ; Sup. le meilleur the 
 best. . 
 
 After the same manner, mauvais bad, has for its comparative 
 pire worse ; and for its superlative le pire the worst : and petit 
 little, for its comparative moindre less ; and for its superlative le 
 moindre the least ; though we also say, 
 petit, plus petit, 7i le plus petit, 1 the 
 
 little, or moindre, $ ' or le moindre, 3 least. 
 mauvais, plus mauvais, 7 le plus mauvais,! the 
 
 bad, or pire. j W ' or le pire, 3 worst. 
 
 mechant, plus mechant, ")more, le'plus mechant,} the most 
 
 wicked, or pire, 3 wicked, or le pire, 3 wicked. 
 
 But we don't say bon, plus bon, leplus bon, 
 
 instead of bon good, meilleur better, le meilleur the best. 
 
 Observe that the pronouns adjective have the same effect as 
 the article in making the superlative degree ; and mon meilleur 
 ami is equal to le meilleur de mes amis the best of my friends. 
 
 Adverbs increase or decrease also in their signification ; as tres- 
 sagement, very wisely \fort habilement very artfully ; plusjinement 
 qu'on nepeut dire, more cunningly than can be said ; leplus sub- 
 tilement qu'on puisse imaginea, with the greatest subtlety one can 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 119 
 
 imagine. And these three form their comparative and super- 
 lative irregularly. 
 
 Posit. Comp. SuperL 
 
 bien, well, mieux, better, le mieux, the best. 
 
 raal, ill, pis, or> Ue pis or j the 
 
 plus maty 3 'I le plus mat, ) 
 
 peu, little, rnoins, less, le moins, the least. 
 
 bien denotes either the quality or the quantity : if it is used in the former 
 sense, its comparative ismieux; if in the latter, it is plus; as bien fait well 
 made, mieux fait better made; bien fatigue much tired, plus fcttigue, more 
 tired. 
 
 These two adnouns, prochain and voisin, next, near, can be used only in 
 the positive, and never in the comparative or superlative. They are supplied 
 by the comp. and superl. of the other adnoun proche near, plus proche nearer, 
 le plus proche the nearest, instead of plus prochain, le plus prochain, plus voi- 
 sin, le plus voisin. — However, voisin may well take fort or trop before it: as 
 nous sommes fort voisins we live very near one another, nos maisons sont trop 
 voisines our nouses are too near one another. 
 
 There are besides six other words of a superlative kind and signification, that 
 end in issime : as sirtnissime most serene, eminentissime most eminent, reve- 
 rendissime most reverend, illustrissime most illustrious, generalissime generalis- 
 simo, and savantissime most learned : this last is of the burlesque style. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of Pronouns. 
 
 Pronouns are words which usually stand for the particular 
 noun of a thing or person. 
 
 There are four sorts of Pronouns : the Personal, the Relative, 
 the Demonstrative, and the Intermediate. 
 
 Of Pronouns Personal. 
 Pronouns Personal are divided into five orders or classes ; 1st, 
 ihose of the first person ; Qdly, of the second ; 3dly t of the third 
 masculine ; Athly, the third feminine ; 5thly, the third indeter- 
 minate. 
 
 Pronouns of the first Person. 
 State, Sing. Numb. Plur. Numb. 
 
 1st. Je, moi, J. Nous, we* 
 
 Zd. de moi, of me. de nous, of us. 
 
 yd. a moi, moi, me, to me. a nous, nous, to us. 
 
 4th. me, moi, me. nous, us 
 
120 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Pronouns of the second Person. 
 State. Sing. Numb. Plur. Numb. 
 
 1st. Tu, toi, thou. Vous, you. 
 
 Qd. de toi, of thee, de vous, of you. 
 
 3d. a toi, toi, te, to thee, a vous, vous, to you. 
 
 4th. te, toi, thee. vous, you. 
 
 Pronouns of the third Person Masculine. 
 1st. II, lui, he, it. lis, eux, they. 
 
 2d. de lui, of him, of it. d'eux, of them. 
 
 3d. a lui, lui, to him, to it. a eux, leur to them. 
 
 4th. le, lui, him, it. les, eux, them. 
 
 Pronouns of the third Person Feminine. 
 1st. Elle, she, it. Elles, they. 
 
 Qd. d'elle, of her, of it. d'elles, of them. 
 
 3d. a elle, lui, to her, to it. a elles, leur, to them. 
 
 4th. la, elle, her, it. les, elles, them. 
 
 Pronouns of the third Person Indeterminate. 
 1st. On, soi, oneself. 3d. St. a soi, se, to oneself . 
 
 Q.d. de soi, of oneself. 4th. se, soi, oneself 
 
 Out of the pronouns personal are made some adnouns called 
 Possessive, because they show, that the thing spoken of belongs 
 to the person or thing which they serve to denote. It is wrong- 
 fully they are reckoned a particular class of pronouns, since their 
 office is not to stand for the name of a thing, but only to qualify 
 it. These pronominal adnouns are of two sorts, absolute and 
 relative. 
 
 Pronominal adnouns absolute, or rather possessive articles, al- 
 ways come before the nouns which they qualify, doing the office 
 of the article. They are six in number, viz. 
 Sing. M. # F. Plur. M. # F. 
 
 f mon, ma, mes, my. } 2d. State, de mon, de ma, de 
 
 1st. State. < ton, ta, tes, thy. \ Mt a mon/a^ma, a 
 
 t son, sa, ses, his, her, its. ) mes, to my. 
 
 Sing.M.fyF. Plur.M.fyF. 
 
 C notre, nos, our. 1 2d. St. de notre, de nos, 
 
 1st. State. < votre, vos, your, r of our. 
 
 (.leur, leurs, their.) 3d.St.knotre,2inoa, to our. 
 
 Promina! adnouns relative, or rather possessive pronouns, are so 
 called, because they, not being joined to their noun, suppose it 
 either expressed before or understood, and are related to it. 
 They are also six, which answer to each of the pronominal 
 adnouns absolute, and take the article. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 121 
 
 Stat. Sing. Masc. Fern. Plur. Masc. Fern. 
 
 fie 
 
 ^le 
 
 tie 
 
 le mien, lamienne, les miens, les miennes, mine. 
 
 1st. •{ le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes, thine. 
 
 sien, la sienne, les siens, les sieimes, his, hers. 
 
 2d. du mien 
 de la mienne 
 des miens, 
 des miennes 
 of mine. 
 
 3d. au mien, 
 to mine, 6cc. 
 
 2d. du n&tre, de la n6tre, 
 
 des notres. 
 
 3d. au n«)tre, a la ndtre, 
 
 aux notres, §c. 
 
 Masc. and Fern. 
 C le notre, la notre, les notres, ours. 
 1st. < le votre, la votre, les votres, yours. 
 t le leur, la leur, les leurs, theirs. 
 
 Of Pronouns Relative. 
 Pronouns relative are used after nouns and pronouns personal, 
 as part of their retinue ; and to which they are so nearly related, 
 that without them they have no signification. 
 
 There are four pronouns relative, qui, quel, quoi, and le : qui, 
 quoi, and le, are for both genders and numbers, and take no ar- 
 ticle ; but quel takes the article, and forms with it but a single 
 word, viz. lequel, &c. 
 
 1st. State. qui who, what. quoi, que, what 
 
 c ld. de qui, dont, of whom, de quoi, dont, of what 
 
 of that, zohose. 
 3d. qui, to whom, to that, a quoi, to what. 
 
 4th. que, qui, whom, that, que, quoi, what. 
 
 Sing. Masc. Fern. Plur. Masc. Fern. 
 1st. lequel, laquelle; lesquels, lesquelles, which 
 
 c ld. duquel, de laquelle ; desquels,desquelles,dont,o/WMC^,^/jos£. 
 3d. auquel, a laquelle ; auxquels auxquelles, to which. 
 
 1st. State, le, him, it. 
 
 Qd. en, of him, of her, of it, of them. 
 
 3d. y, to him, to her, to it, to them. 
 
 These pronouns, (except le) are used for asking questions, to 
 which add quel, another pronominal adnoun, which is never used 
 without a noun or pronoun after it : as, 
 
 Quel est cet homme-la ? Who is that man ? 
 
 Quels sonts-ils? Quelles sont elles? Who or what are they ? 
 Sing. Masc. Fern. Plur. Masc. Fern. 
 1st. State. quel, quelle ; quels, quelles, what. 
 
 2d. de quel, de quelle ; de quels, de quelles, of what. 
 
 3d. a quel, a quelle ; & quels, a quelles, to what 
 
 Of Pronouns Demonstrative, which are, 
 ce, cet, cette, ces. \\ ceci, cela. || celui, celle, ceux, celles. \\ celui-ci, 
 celle-ci, ceux-ci, celles-ci. || celui-ld, celle-la, ceux-lu, celles-la. || ce 
 que, ce qui. 
 
 M 
 
122 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 These pronouns are called Demonstrative, because they de- 
 note more precisely, and, as it were, demonstrate either the nouns 
 before which they come, or those they stand for ; therefore they 
 have no article, but with great propriety may be called demon- 
 strative articles. The pronoun ce, from which the others are 
 derived, and which is for that reason called Primitive, is used 
 only before nouns masculine beginning with a consonant, or h as- 
 pirate : cet is used before nouns masculine beginning with a 
 vowel or h not aspirate ; cette before all nouns feminine ; and ces 
 before all nouns of the plural number, and for both genders. 
 States. Sifig Masc. Fern. Plur. M. 8? F. 
 
 1st. ce, or cet, cette, this or that. ces, these or those. 
 Qd. dece, cet, de cette, of this, that, de ces, of these, those. 
 3d. a ce, cet, a cette, to this, that. a ces, to these, those. 
 
 1st. celui, he or thai, celle, she or that, ceux, celles, they or those. 
 
 2d. de celui, efKim, de celle, of her, de ceux, de celles, of them. 
 
 3d. a celui, to'him, a celle, to her, a ceux, a celles, to them. 
 
 1st. celui-ci, celle-ci, this, ceux-ci, celles-ci, these. 
 
 2d.de celui-ci, de celle-ci, of this, de ceux-ci, de celles-ci, of these. 
 
 3d. a celui-ci, a celle-ci, to this, a ceux-ci, a celles-ci, to these. 
 
 1st. celui-la, celle-la, that, ceux-la, celles-la, those. 
 
 2d. de celui-la, de celle-la, of that, de ceux-la, de celles-la, of those. 
 
 3d. a celui-la, a celle-la, to thai, a ceux-la, a celles-la, to those. 
 
 1st. ceci, this, cela, thai, ce qui, * ce que, which, ,that which, what. 
 
 2d. de ceci, of this,dc cela, of that, de ce qui, de ce que, of which, of thai, &c. 
 
 3d. a ceci, to this, a cela, to that, a ce qui, a ce que, to which, to that, Sec. 
 
 Of Pronouns Indeterminate. 
 These pronouns are called Indeterminate, because they denote 
 and express their object in a general indeterminate manner. Be- 
 sides on already mentioned, these pronouns are quelquun, quel- 
 qu'une ; chacun, chacune ; nul, nulle ; pas un, pas une ; aucun, au- 
 cune ; quiconque, personne, Fun V autre, Vun fy V autre, Vun ou 
 V autre, ni Vun ni ' V autre, plusieurs, tout, and rien. 
 States. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1st. chacun, chacune, every body, or every one. 
 
 2d. de chacun, de chacune, of every body, everyone, 
 3d. a chacun, a chacune, to every body, every one. 
 States. Sing. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1st, quelqu'un, quelqu'une, somebody, or some one. 
 
 9.d. de quelqu'un, de quelqu'une, of somebody, someone. 
 3d. a quelqu'un, a quelqu'une, to somebody, some one. 
 
 Plur. Masc. Fern. 
 
 1st. quelques-uns, quelques-unes, some ones. 
 
 %d. de quelques-uns, de quelques-unes, of some ones. 
 
 3d. a quelques-uns, a quelques-unes, to some ones 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 
 
 123 
 
 States. Sing 
 
 1st. 
 
 2d. 
 
 3d. 
 
 1st. 
 
 2d. 
 
 3d, 
 
 1st. 
 
 2d. 
 
 3d. 
 
 Masc 
 
 aucun, 
 
 d'aucun, 
 
 a aucun, 
 
 mil, 
 
 de mil, 
 
 a nul, 
 
 pas un, 
 
 de pas un, 
 
 a pas un, 
 
 Fern. 
 
 aucune, 
 
 d'aucune, 
 
 a aucune, 
 
 nulle, 
 
 de nulle, 
 
 a nulle, 
 
 pas une, 
 
 de pas une, 
 
 a pas une, 
 
 1st 
 
 2d. 
 
 3d. 
 
 1st. 
 2d. 
 
 3d. 
 
 1st. 
 2d. 
 Sd. 
 
 1st. 
 2d. 
 3d. 
 
 1st. 
 2d. 
 3d. 
 
 1st. 
 2d. 
 3d. 
 
 1st. 
 2d. 
 3d. 
 
 ]st. 
 2d. 
 S<7. 
 
 Sing. Masc. 
 Fun I'autre, 
 1'unde Tautre, j 
 l'un a I'autre, 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 les uns les autres, 
 les uns des autres, 
 les uns aux autres, 
 Si/ig. Masc. 
 Fun & I'autre, 
 de l'un & de I'autre, 
 
 a Fun Sc a I'autre, 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 les uns & les autres, 
 des uns &, des autres, 
 aux uns & aux autres, 
 
 Sing. Masc. 
 Fun ou Fautre, 
 de Fun ou de Fautre, 
 a Fun ou a Fautre, 
 Plur. Masc. 
 les uns ou les autres, 
 des uns ou des autres, 
 aux uns ou aux autres, 
 
 Sing. Masc. 
 11 i Fun ni Fautre, 
 ni de Fun ni de Fautre, 
 ni a Fun ni a Fautre, 
 
 Plur. Masc. 
 ni les uns ni les autres, 
 ni des uns ni des autres. 
 
 ni aux uns ni aux autres 
 
 nobody, or none. 
 
 of nobody, none* 
 
 to nobody, none. 
 
 none, or nobody 
 
 of none, nobody. 
 
 to none, nobody, 
 
 not one, never a one, none, nobody 
 
 of not one, or none, &c 
 
 to not one, or none, &c 
 
 Fern- 
 une Fautre, one another. 
 
 une de Fautre, of one another. 
 
 une a Fautre, to one another. 
 
 Fern. 
 les unes les autres, one another. 
 
 les unes des autres, of one another. 
 les unes aux autres, to one another. 
 Fern. 
 Fune & Fautre, both. 
 
 de Fune 8c de Fautre, of both. 
 
 a Fune Sc a Fautre, to both. 
 
 Fern. 
 les unes & les autres, both. 
 
 des unes 8c des autres, of both. 
 
 aux unes 8c aux autres, to both. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Fune ou Fautre, either. 
 
 de Fune ou de Fautre, of either. 
 
 a Fune ou a Fautre, to either. 
 
 Fern. 
 les unes ou les autres, either. 
 
 des unes ou des autres, of either. 
 aux unes ou aux autres, to either. 
 Fen i. 
 
 ni Fune ni Fautre, neither. 
 
 ni de Fune ni de Fautre, of neither. 
 
 ni a Fune ni a\ Fautre, to neither. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 ni les unes ni les autres, neither. 
 
 ni des unes ni des autres, of neither. 
 
 ni aux unes ni aux autres, to neither 
 
124 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Stat. Sing. Masc. Fern. PL Masc. 
 1st. tout, toute, tous, 
 L 2d. de tout, de toute, de tous, 
 3d. a tout, a toute, a tous, 
 
 Fern. 
 
 toutes, all, every thing. 
 de toutes, of all, every thing. 
 a toutes, to all, every thing. 
 
 These two are of the Singular number only, and both Genders. 
 1st. quiconque, any body. personne, nobody. 
 
 Q,d. de quiconque, of anybody. de personne, of nobody. 
 
 3d. a quiconque, to any body. a personne, to nobody. 
 
 These are likewise of both Genders. 
 1st. plusieurs, many. rien, riothing. 
 
 Qd. de plusieurs, of many. de rien, of nothing. 
 
 3d. a plusieurs, to many. a rien, to nothing . 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Of NUMBERS. 
 
 .Numbers are words established to denote the computation, 
 that is, to reckon the things and actions spoken of, and are of 
 five sorts, namely, Cardinal, Ordinal, Collective, Distributive, 
 and Multiplicative. 
 
 Cardinal numbers join units together ; such are, in their se- 
 veral forms, 
 Un (femin. une), 
 Deux, 
 Trois, 
 Quatre, 
 
 Cinq (q is sounded), 
 Six (pron. siss), 
 Sept (pron. set), 
 Huit (t is sounded), 
 Neuf (f is sounded), Nine, 
 Dix (pron. diss), 
 Onze, 
 Douze, 
 1 reize, 
 Quatorze, 
 Quinze, 
 
 Seize (sei is broad), 
 Dix-sept (pron. | 
 
 diss-set), 
 Dix-huit (pron 
 
 diz-uit), 
 
 -} 
 
 One, 
 
 1. 
 
 I. 
 
 Two, 
 
 2. 
 
 II. 
 
 Three, 
 
 3. 
 
 III. 
 
 Four, 
 
 4. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Five, 
 
 5. 
 
 V. 
 
 Six, 
 
 6. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Seven, 
 
 7. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Eight, 
 
 8. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Nine, 
 
 9- 
 
 IX. 
 
 Ten, 
 
 10. 
 
 X. 
 
 Eleven, 
 
 11. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Tzoelve, 
 
 12. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Thirteen, 
 
 13. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Fourteen, 
 
 14. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Fifteen, 
 
 15. 
 
 XV. 
 
 Sixteen, 
 
 16. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 Seventeen, 
 
 17. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 Eighteen, 
 
 18 
 
 XVIII, 
 
Of NUMBERS. 
 
 125 
 
 Dix-neuf (pron. 7 
 diz-neuf ), j 
 
 Vingt (gt are 7 
 
 dropped), j 
 
 Vingt 8c un, 'JO 
 Vingt-deux, a. 
 Vingt-trois, *§ 
 Vingt-quatre ^ 
 Vingt-cinq, «. 
 
 Vingt-six, z- 
 
 Vingt-sept, § 
 
 Vingt-huit, |^ 
 
 Vingt-neuf, & 
 
 Trente, 
 Trente 8c un, 
 Trente-deux, fa. 
 Quarante, 
 Cinquante, 
 Soixante (pron. 7 
 soissante), j 
 
 Soixante & un, 
 Soixante 8c deux, 7 
 
 Soixante 8c dix, 
 Soixante 8c onze, 
 Soixante 8c douze, } 
 fa- \ 
 
 Quatre-vingts, (gts^ 
 are dropped, and r 
 in the following r 
 too), ) 
 
 Quatre-vingt-un, 
 Quatre-vingt-deux, 7 
 
 *«. . j 
 
 Quatre-vingt-dix, 
 Quatre-vingt-onze, 1 
 
 tie. \ 
 
 Cent (t in cent 
 
 dropt, and in 
 
 following too). 
 Cent-un, fa. 
 Cent-vingt, 
 Cent-vingt 8c un, 1 
 
 fa. 1 
 
 the}- 
 ), ) 
 
 Nineteen, 
 
 Twenty, 
 
 One and Twenty, 
 Two and Twenty, 
 Three and Twenty, 
 Four and Twenty, 
 Five and Twenty, 
 Six and Twenty, 
 Seven and Twenty, 
 Fight and Twenty, 
 Nine and Twenty, 
 Thirty, 
 Thirty-one, 
 Thirty-two, fa. 
 Forty, 
 
 Fifty, 
 
 Sixty, 
 
 Sixty -one, 
 
 Sixty-two, fa. 
 
 Seventy, 
 Seventy-one, 
 
 Seventy-tzeo, fa. 
 
 Eighty, 
 
 Eighty-one, 
 Eighty-two, fyc. 
 Ninety, 
 Ninety-one, fa. 
 
 an Hundred, 
 
 19. XIX 
 
 20. XX. 
 
 21. XXI. 
 
 22. XXII. 
 
 23. XXIII. 
 
 24. XXIV. 
 
 25. XXV. 
 
 26. XXVI. 
 
 27. XXVII. 
 
 28. XXVIII. 
 
 29. XXIX. 
 
 30. XXX. 
 3}. XXXI. 
 S2,&c.XXXII,&c 
 40. XL. 
 
 50. L. 
 
 60. LX. 
 
 61. LXI 
 62,8cc.LXII, &c. 
 
 70. LXX. 
 
 71. LXXL 
 
 72,8cc.LXXII. 8cc. 
 
 80. LXXX. 
 
 81. LXXXL 
 82,&c.LXXXIT. 
 
 &c. 
 90. XC. 
 
 91,8cc.XCI, &c 
 ]00. C. 
 
 an Hundred and one, 101. CI, Sec. 
 an Hundred 8) Twenty, 120. CXX. 
 
 an Hundred and fc , &c .CXXI,&c 
 
 1 zcenty-one. • J 
 
 M 2 
 
126 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Cent-trente, fyc. at 
 
 , Hundred % Thirty, 130, &c. CXXX,&c. 
 
 Deux cents, or^ 
 
 
 
 rather cens (x is 
 
 
 
 dropped,and the 
 
 
 
 final consonants 
 
 
 
 in the following 
 
 >Two Hundred, 
 
 200. CC. 
 
 also, as before 
 
 
 
 any other word, 
 
 
 
 beginning with 
 
 
 
 a consonant), _, 
 
 
 
 Trois cens, 
 
 Three Hundred, 
 
 300. CCC. 
 
 Quatre cens, 
 
 Four Hundred, 
 
 400. CD. 
 
 Cinq cens, 
 
 Five Hundred, 
 
 500. Dor 10. 
 
 Six cens, 
 
 Six Hundred, 
 
 600. DC. 
 
 Sept cens, 
 
 Seven Hundred, 
 
 700. DCC. 
 
 Huit cens, 
 
 Eight Hundred, 
 
 800. DCCC. 
 
 Neuf cens, 
 
 Nine Hundred, 
 
 900. CM or DCCCC. 
 
 Mille, 
 
 a Thousand, 
 
 1000. M or CIO. 
 
 Deux Mille, 
 
 Two Thousand, 
 
 2000. IIO orll.M. 
 
 Trois Mille, 
 
 Three Thousand, 3000. III.M. 
 
 Quatre Mille, 
 
 Four Thousand, 
 
 4000. IV.M. 
 
 Cinq Mille, 
 
 Five Thousand, 
 
 5000. V.M. 
 
 Six Mille, 
 
 Six Thousand, 
 
 6000. VI.M. 
 
 Sept Mille, 
 
 Seven Thousand, 
 
 7000. VII.M. 
 
 Huit Mille, 
 
 Eight Thousand, 
 
 8000. VIII.M 
 
 Neuf Mille, 
 
 Nine Thousand, 
 
 9000. IX.M. 
 
 Dix Mille, 
 
 
 Ten Thousand, 
 
 10000. 
 
 
 XMorCCIOOorXCIO, 
 
 Vingt Mille, 
 
 
 Twenty Thousand, 
 XXCIO. 
 
 20000. 
 
 
 Trente Mille 3 
 
 
 Thirty Thousand, 
 
 30000. 
 
 
 XXXCIO. 
 
 Quarante Mi 
 
 He, 
 
 Forty Thousand, 
 
 40000. 
 
 
 XLCIO. 
 
 Cinquante Mille, 
 
 Fifty Thousand, 
 
 50000. 
 
 
 LCIO. 
 
 Cent Mille. 
 
 
 an Hundred Thousand, 
 
 100000. 
 
 
 CCCIOOO. 
 
 Deux Cent jV 
 
 [ille, 
 
 Two Hundred Thousand, 
 
 200000. 
 
 
 CCM or CCoo. 
 
 Cinq Cent Mille, 
 
 Five Hundred Thousand, 
 
 500000. 
 
 
 DM.orD. oo. 
 
 un Million, 
 
 
 a Million, 
 
 1000000. 
 
 
 CCCICOOOO. 
 
 - 
 
Of NUMBERS 
 
 127 
 
 Ordinal numbers denote the order and rank of things : sueh are 
 
 le Premiei, l r 
 
 le Second, le Deuxieme, 2 e 
 le Troisieme, 3 e 
 
 le Quatrieme, 4 e 
 
 le Cmquieme, o e 
 
 le Sixieme, 6 e 
 
 le Septieme, 7 e 
 
 le Huitieuie, 8 e 
 
 le Neuvieme, 9 e 
 
 le Dixieme, 10 e 
 
 le Onzieme, ll e 
 
 le Douzieme, 12 e 
 
 le Treizieme, 13 e 
 
 le Quatorzieme, 14 e 
 
 le Quinzierne, 15 e 
 
 le Seizieme, I6 e 
 
 le Dix-septieme, 17 e 
 
 le Dix-huitieme, 18 e 
 
 le Dix-neuvieme, 19 e ' 
 
 le Vingtieme, 20 e 
 
 le Vingt 8c unieme, 
 le Vingt-deuxieme, fyc. 
 le Trentieme, 
 le Quarantieme, 
 le Cinqtiantieme, 
 le Soixantieme, 
 le Soixante & dixieme, 
 le Quatre-vingtieme, 
 le Quatre-vingt-dixieme, 
 le Centieme, 
 le Cent-cinquantieme, 
 le Deux-centieme, 
 le Millieme, 
 
 the First. 1st. 
 the Second. 2d. 
 the Third. 3d. 
 the Fourth. 4th. 
 the Fifth. 5th. 
 the Sixth. 6th. 
 the Seventh. 7th. 
 the Eighth. Sth. 
 the Ninth. 9th. 
 the Tenth. 10th. 
 the Eleventh. 11th. 
 the Twelfth. 12th. 
 the Thirteenth. 13th. 
 the Fourteenth. 14th. 
 the Fifteenth, loth, 
 the Sixteenth. 16th. 
 the Seventeenth. 17th. 
 the Eighteenth. 18th. 
 the Nineteenth . 1 9th . 
 the Twentieth. 20th. 
 the Twenty-first, 
 the Tzcenty-second, fyc. 
 the Thirtieth, 
 the Fortieth, 
 the Fiftieth, 
 the Sixtieth, 
 the Seventieth, 
 the Eightieth, 
 the Ninetieth, 
 the Hundredth, 
 the Hundred and Fiftieth, 
 the two Hundredth 
 the Thousandth. 
 
 Collective Numbers denote a plurality of things expressed by 
 a denomination of the singular number. Such are, 
 
 Un tercet, 
 une tierce, 
 un tricon, 
 
 a stanza of three verses. 
 
 a tierce, a sequence of three cards 
 
 a prial or pair royal. 
 
128 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 un quatrain, 
 line quarte, 
 
 un sixain (pron. sizain), a 
 un huitain, 
 une huitaine 
 un huitieme, 
 une huitieme, 
 une octave, 
 une neuvaine, 
 un neuvieme, 
 un dizain, 
 une dizaine, 
 un dixi^me, 
 une douzaine, 
 une demi-douzaine, 
 un quinzain, 
 une quinzaine, 
 une quinte, 
 une vingtaine, 
 un vingtieme, 
 une trentaine, 
 un trentain, 
 une quarantaine, 
 une cinquantaine, 
 une soixantaine, 
 une centaine, 
 un millier, 
 un million, 
 un milliar, 
 
 une milliasse (a term of 
 or of familiarity), 
 
 armee an army, peuple 
 but they differ from the 
 quantum. 
 
 a quatrain, a stanza of four verses, 
 
 a quart, a fourth. 
 
 stanza of six verses, also six packs of cards. 
 
 a stanza of eight verses. 
 
 se'nnight, eight days together. 
 
 the eighth part. 
 
 a sequence of eight cards. 
 
 an octave, a stanza of eight verses, &c. 
 
 a novena, a nine days devotion. 
 
 the ninth part. 
 
 a stanza of ten verses. 
 
 ten, tithing. 
 
 the tenth part. 
 
 a dozen. 
 
 half a dozen. 
 
 (terms of tennis-court), fifteen all. 
 
 a fortnight, fifteen things. 
 
 a quint, fifth. 
 
 a score, or twenty. 
 
 a twentieth part. 
 
 thirty. 
 
 (terms of teimis-court), thirty all. 
 
 forty, quarantain. 
 
 the number of sixty. 
 
 an hundred. 
 
 a thousand. 
 
 a million. 
 
 ten hundred thousand millions. 
 
 contempt, 7 thousands and thousands, a 
 
 j vast number. 
 
 peopie, fyc. are also collective nouns ; 
 numbers in this, that they indicate no 
 
 Distributive Numbers are those that express the parts of a 
 totum or whole divided ; as la moitie the half, le tiers, le quarts 
 &c. the third or fourth part. 
 
 Multiplicative Numbers, also called Proportional, indicate an 
 increase both of number and quantity ; as le double double, le 
 triple treble, le centuple an hundred fold. 
 
129 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Of VERBS. 
 
 A he Verb is a part of speech which serves to express that which is attributed 
 to the subject, in denoting the Being or Condition of the things and persona 
 spoken of, the Actions which they do, or the Impi'essions they receive. 
 
 Four sorts of verbs may be distinguished in French. 
 
 1st, The verb substantive, which 'declares what the subject is, and is always 
 followed by an adnoun, that particularises what that subject is : as U re ricks, 
 sage, savant, &c. to be rich, wise, learned, fyc. 
 
 "Idly, The verb active, which denotes the action or impression of the subject, 
 and is attended by a noun which is the object of that action or impression ; as 
 aimer la vertu to love virtue, recevoir des lettres to receive letters. 
 
 odly, The verb neuter, which is neither substantive nor active, tho' it often has 
 the same signification ; that is, it comprehends in itself the term of the action, 
 impression, or condition, which it serves to denote, but without being followed 
 by any noun, specifying still more that action ; as agir to act, marcher to walk, 
 obeir to obey ? languir to languish ; which signifies as much as faire quelque chose 
 to do something, exercer Vobeissance to practise obedience, eire languissant to be 
 languishing. 
 
 4thly, The verb reflected, whose subject and object, the principle and term of 
 the action, have a reflected relation to each other ; and which governs no other 
 noun, but that which it is governed by : asjem'ennuie I am weary, from s'ennuyer 
 to be weary ; vous vous plaignez you complain, from seplaindre to complain ; il se 
 blesse he hurts himself, from se blesser to hurt oneself. In the first instance it is /, 
 who am both the principle and term of weariness ; in the second it is yov, who 
 are the principle and term of complaint ; in the third it is he, who hurts and is 
 
 hurted. Sometimes the preposition entre is put between the two pronouns and 
 
 the verb, or the pronoun Vun I'autre after the verb, as this makes the relation 
 quite reciprocal : as Us s'entretuent, they kill one another ; Us se ruinent Vun I'au- 
 tre, they ruin each other. 
 
 As to the verbs Passive and Impersonal, they are not particular sorts of verbs in 
 French. 
 
 The verbs passive (so called, because they express not the action produced by 
 the subject, but that which it suffers from, and is occasioned by a foreign cause 
 acting upon it) are composed of the veil) substantive to be, and a participle. 
 
 The verbs impersonal are only verbs neuter ; so called from their being conju- 
 gated with the third person singular only ; as il pleut it rains : whereas the four 
 other sorts of verbs are also called personal, because they are conjugated with all 
 the pronouns personal, both in the singular and plural number. 
 
 It is to be observed, that any verb active may become a reflected one, when- 
 ever the principle of the action acts upon itself ; and therefore that many re- 
 flected verbs, as also impersonal, are so only grammatically, or arbitrarily, with 
 respect to language, and not by their significations : as je me plains I complain, 
 ilfaut one must, ^c. 
 
 One must distinguish in verbs the Mood, the Tense, the Number, and the 
 Person. 
 
 They call Moods the divers uses that are made of a verb, in using it either di- 
 rectly and positively, or indirectly and conditionally or in an indeterminate and 
 unspecified manner. 
 
 In each verb there are four moods : the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Sub- 
 junctive, and the Imperative. 
 
 The Infinitive expresses the very action of the verb, but in an indefinite, 
 indeterminate sense, without specifying any particular agent or time, and is the 
 root of the tenses of the verb ; as aimei' to love,/<iire to do. 
 
 The Indicative shows, in a direct and positive manner, the divers tenses of the 
 verb; that is, the particular times wherein any action may happen : asjefais I 
 <lo,jefis I did, jeferai I shall or will do 
 
130 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 The Subjunctive shows also divers tenses of the verb ; but indirectly and con- 
 ditionally, always supposing another verb affirming directly (or in the indica- 
 tive), which it follows and belongs to : or after conjunctions (that shall be taken 
 notice of in the Syntax), and by which it is governed ; as il faut quejefasse I 
 must do, afin qu'il "vienne that he may come. 
 
 The Imperative commands, desires, entreats, exnorts : as faites cela do that, 
 qu'il parle let him speak. 
 
 Tenses are the periods of time, denoting when such actions of verbs are, were, 
 or shall be done ; or impressions made ; or conditions any one is, was, or shall 
 be under ; and properly are only three, Past, Present, and Future : tho' these 
 are again subdivided, for a erreater distinction, as will be seen in the tenses 
 themselves. 
 
 Each tense has two mimDers, the singular and the plural ; as j'aime I love, nous 
 aimons we love : and each number three persons. The first is that who speaks, 
 expressed by je I, for the sing, and nous we, for the plur. The second that is 
 spoken to, expressed by tu thou, and vous you or ye. The third that is spoken 
 of, expressed by il he, for the sing. masc. ils they, for the plur. elle she, for the 
 sing. fem. dies they, for the plur. or on. or some noun ; which noun always de- 
 mands the third person, and regulates the sing, or plur. of the verb, according to 
 its own number. 
 
 Observe, that in French, as in English, the second pers. plur. (vous) is used 
 in speaking to one single person : the second sing, (tu) being used (in prose), 
 only either with familiarity, intimacy, and tenderness, or out of scorn ; in which 
 two respects it is of great use ; but the following adnoun referring to vous, must 
 be of the singular : as vous etes sage fy prudent, or belle § vertueuse, you are wise 
 and prudent, or beautiful and virtuous. 
 
 In the Indicative mood there are ten tenses, five of which are simple, and fire 
 compound. 
 
 The Present. } f The Compound of the Present. 
 
 The Imperfect. / \The Compound of the Imperfect 
 
 The Preterite. > < The Compound of the Preterite. 
 
 The Future. I J The Compound of the Future. 
 
 The Conditional, j 'The Compound of the Conditional 
 
 The Subjunctive has four tenses, two whereof are likewise compound of the 
 two first. 
 
 The Present. > < The Compound of the Present. 
 
 The Preterite. 5 (. The Compound of the Preterite. 
 
 As there are in French ten sorts of verbs, that have divers terminations in 
 their infinitive, so I shall divide the regular verbs into ten Conjugations ; and as 
 those verbs form their compound tenses by the help of two others, called from 
 thence Auxiliaries, so I shall begin with those Auxiliary verbs, and first with 
 avoir, which serves itself to conjugate etre, and even itself. 
 
 Observe, that to conjugate a verb, is to express all its natural forms, in going 
 through all the inflexions and variations, which it can admit of in Speech ; that 
 is, considering the action which it expresses, in all the different periods of time, 
 wherein it may take place, and in the various divers subjects to which it may be 
 applied. And here it may not be amiss to mention the necessity of having the 
 Auxiliary verbs fixed in the memory to the utmost exactness ; since the com- 
 pound tenses of all the verbs, and the expressing, what the Latins called the Pas- 
 sive verbs, so entirely depend upon them. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 AVOIR. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense ••• •• • • avoir, 
 
 Gerund • ayant, 
 
 Participle eu, 
 
 Compound of the Present • • • • avoir eu, 
 
 Compound of the Gerund • • • • ayant eu, 
 
 131 
 
 to have. 
 
 having: 
 
 had. 
 
 to have had. 
 having had. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. J'ai, I have. 
 
 P. Nous avons, we 
 have. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 
 tu as, thou hast. 
 
 vous avez, ye or you 
 
 have. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il a, he has, 
 
 ils ont, they have. 
 
 S. J'avois, I had. 
 P. Nous avions, we 
 had. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 tu avois, thou had'st. 
 vous aviez, ye ox you 
 
 had. 
 
 il avoit, he had, 
 
 ils avoient, they had. 
 
 S. J'eus, I had. 
 P. Nous eumes, we 
 had 
 
 Preterite Tense. 
 tu eus, thou had'st. 
 vous eutes, ye or you 
 
 had. 
 
 il eut, he had^ 
 
 ils eurent, they had. 
 
 S. J'aurai, I shall or 
 
 wiH have. 
 P. Nousaurons, we 
 
 shall or will have. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 tu auras, thoushalt 
 
 or wilt have. 
 vous a.urez,ye or you 
 
 shall or will have. 
 
 il aura, he shall 01 
 
 will have. 
 ilsauront, they shall 
 
 or will have. 
 
 S. J'aurois, I should, 
 would, could, or 
 might have 
 
 Conditional Tense. 
 
 tu aurois, thou il auroit, he should, 
 
 should 'st, would 'st, would, could, or 
 could 'st,or mi ghfst might have, 
 have. 
 
 P. nous aurions, we vous a.nrlez, ye or you ils auroient, they 
 should,would,coidd, should,would,could, should,would,could, 
 or might have. or might have. or might have. 
 
132 
 
 ACCIDENCE, 
 
 Compound of the present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 SSviievL,! have had. tu as e\i,thou hast had. il a en, he has had. 
 
 P. Nous avons eu, vous avez eu, ye or ils ont eu, they have 
 
 we have had. 
 
 vous avez eu, 
 you have had. 
 
 had. 
 
 Compound of the Imperfect Tense. 
 
 S. J'avois eu, I had tuavoiseu, thou il avoit eu, he had 
 
 had. had'st had. had. 
 
 P. Nous avions eu, 
 
 zee had had. 
 
 vous aviez eu, 
 
 you had had. 
 
 ye or 
 
 ils avoient eu, 
 had had. 
 
 they 
 
 Compound of the Preterite Tense. 
 
 S. J'eus eu, I had tu eus eu, thou il eut eu, he had 
 
 had. had'st had. had. 
 
 P. Nous euiues eu, vous eutes eu, ye or ils eurent eu, they 
 
 we had had. you had had. had had. 
 
 Compound of the Future Tense. 
 
 S. J'aurai eu, I shall tu auras eu, thou il aura eu, he shall 
 
 have had. shalt have had. have had. 
 
 P. Nous aurons eu, vous aurezeu,j/e or ils auront eu, they 
 
 we shall have had. you shall have had. shall have had. 
 
 Compound of the Conditional Tense. 
 S* J'aurois eu, I tu aurois eu, thou il auroit eu, 
 
 should, would ,could , 
 or might have had. 
 P. Nous aurions eu, 
 toe zoould, could, 
 &c. have had. 
 
 should 'st, would 'st, 
 couldUst, or, fyc. 
 vous auriez eu, ye 
 or you zoould, &c. 
 have had. 
 
 he 
 
 should,would,could, 
 or might have had. 
 ils auroient eu, they 
 would, could, &c. 
 have had. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 S. fJ'aie, I may tu aies, thou may'st il ait, he may have* 
 que ) have. have. 
 
 that j Nous ayous, vous ayez, ye or you ils aient, they may 
 
 P. (. we may have. may have. have. 
 
Of VERBS 
 
 lo3 
 
 First Persons, 
 S. r J 'eusse, I had, 
 que j or might have, 
 
 Preterite Tense. 
 
 Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 tueusses,thouhad'st, ileut, he had, or 
 
 or might 'st have. might hat^e. 
 
 that "S Nous eussions, vouseussiez, ye or ils eussent, they had, 
 P. (. zee had, or, fyc. you had, or, c\c. 
 
 or m/g/rf have. 
 
 Compound of the Present. 
 
 S. rJ''d\eeu,Imay, tu aies eu, Y/jom, 
 que 1 or can have mayest have had. 
 that J had. 
 
 P. J Nous ayonseu, vous ayez eu, ye or 
 V. we may, &c. you may have had. 
 
 il ait eu, 
 have had. 
 
 he may 
 
 ils aient eu, they 
 may have had. 
 
 Compound of the Preterite Tense. 
 
 S. rj'eusseeu, I tu eusses eu, thou 
 
 had,or might had'st had, or 
 
 que J have had. mighfst have had. 
 
 that j Nous eussions vous eussiez eu, ye 
 
 P. eu, we had or you had ha d, ©r 
 
 he had 
 
 might 
 
 had, or, fyc. 
 
 might have had. 
 
 il eut eu, 
 
 had, or 
 
 have had. 
 ils eussent eu, they 
 
 had had, 01 might 
 
 have had. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 S. Aie, have, or have 
 
 thou. 
 
 P. Ayons, let us ayez, have, or have ^ u 
 have. ye. 
 
 rilait, /<tf/ 
 »3 have. 
 j ils aient, 
 C them have. 
 
 let him 
 let 
 
 ETRE. 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense • • • etre, 
 
 Gerund etant, 
 
 Participle ete. 
 
 Compound of the Present • avoir ete, 
 
 Compound of the Gerund ayant ete, 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. Je suis, I am. 
 P. Nous sommes, 
 tve are. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 
 tu es, thou art. 
 
 vous etes, ye or you 
 
 to be. 
 
 being 
 
 been. 
 
 to have been. 
 
 having been. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il est, he is. 
 
 ils sont, they are 
 
 are. 
 
 N 
 
134 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. J'etois, I was. tu 6tois, thou wast, il 6toit, he was, 
 
 P. Nous etions, zve xousetiez, ye or you ils etoient, they 
 
 were. were. were. 
 
 Preterite Tense. 
 
 S. Je fus, / was. tu fus, thou wast, il fut, he was. 
 
 P. Nous fumes, zee vous futes, ye ox you ils furent, they zoere. 
 were. were. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 S. Je serai, J shall tu seras, thou shalt il sera, he shall or 
 
 or zcill be. or zcilt be. will be. 
 
 P. Nous serous, zee vousserez, ye or you ils seront, they shall 
 
 shall or will be. shall or will be. or will be. 
 
 Conditional Tense. 
 
 S.Jeserois, I should, tu serois, thou ii seroit, he should , 
 
 would, could, or should' st, would' st, zvould, could, or 
 
 might be. could'st, &c. might be. 
 
 P. Nous serions, we vous seriez, ye or you ils seroient, they 
 
 should, would, 8cc. should, would, fyc. should, would, &c. 
 
 Compound of the Present Tense. 
 S. J'ai ete, / have tu as ete, thou hast il a ete, he has been. 
 
 been. been. 
 
 P. Nous avons ete, vous avez ete, ye or ils out ete, they have 
 
 we have been. you have been. been. 
 
 Compound of the Imperfect Tense. 
 S. J'avois ete, I had tu avois ete, thou il avoit ete, he had 
 
 been. had'st been. been. 
 
 P. Nous avions ete, vous aviez ete, ye or ils avoient 6te, they 
 
 we had been. you had been. had been 
 
 Compound of the Preterite Tense 
 S. J'eus ete, I had tu eus ete, thou il eut ete, he had 
 
 been. had'st been. been. 
 
 P. Nous eumes ete, vous eutes ete, ye or ils eurent et£, they 
 
 we had been. you had been. had been. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 135 
 
 Compound of the Future Tense. 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. J 'aurai ete, i shall tu auras ete, thou 
 
 have been. shalt have been. 
 
 P. Nous aurons ete, vousaurezete,yeor 
 we shall have been, you shall have been. 
 
 il aura ete, he shall 
 
 have been. 
 ils auront et6, they 
 
 shall have been. 
 
 Compound of the Conditional Tense 
 S. J'aurois ete, / tu aurois ete, thou il auroit et£, 
 slwuld'st, would'st, 
 could' st, or, &c. 
 vous auriez ete, ye 
 should, zcould, fyc. 
 
 shoidd,zwu Id, could, 
 
 or might have been. 
 
 P. Nous aurions ete, 
 
 we should, would, &c. 
 
 he 
 
 shou ld,would,co uld, 
 
 or might have been* 
 
 ils auroient ete, they 
 
 should, would, fyc. 
 
 que 
 that 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 3 esois, I may tusois, thoumuyst il soit, 
 
 C J esois, 1 may 
 
 j be, or / be. 
 
 I Nous soy ous, 
 
 P. C. we may be* 
 
 be. 
 
 vous soyez, ye or ils soient, 
 voamuybe, be. 
 
 he may be. 
 they may 
 
 S. rJeiusse,Iwas, 
 \ or were, or 
 que J might be. 
 that 1 Nous fussions, 
 P. v we were. &c* 
 
 P'telente Tense. 
 to fusses, thou wast, 
 or zvett, or mighlat 
 be. 
 vous fussiez, ye or 
 
 you were, oi,#c. 
 
 il fut, he was, were, 
 or wz/gfa be. 
 
 llsfussent, theyzcere, 
 or might be. 
 
 that 
 P 
 
 Compound of the Present Tense. 
 
 S. ^J'aieete,/wa?/ tu aies ete, thou 
 
 que V Atf^t; been. mayest have been. 
 
 J Nous ayons vous ayez ete, ye or 
 
 J ete, »x» may you may have been. 
 
 V. have been. 
 
 il ait ete, he may 
 
 have been. 
 ils aient 6te, they 
 
 may have been. 
 
 Compound of the Preterite Tense. 
 
 que 
 that 
 P. 
 
 J'eusseete, / 
 had been, or 
 might, fyc. 
 
 1 Nouseussions 
 ete, we had 
 
 ^ been, or, $>c. 
 
 tu eusses ete, Mow 
 
 had'st been, or 
 
 might 'st, fyc. 
 vous eussiez ete, 
 
 ?/e or you had 
 
 'Sec. 
 
 il eut ete, he had 
 been, or might have 
 been. 
 
 ils eussent et£, Me^ 
 A«d 6eew, fyc. 
 
\3G ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 First Person. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Sois, be, or be thou, qu'il soit, let him be, 
 
 P. Sovors, let us be. soyez, be, or be ye. qu'ils soient, let them 
 
 be. 
 
 It is not with the French Verbs as with the English ones. The English dis- 
 tinguish the moods and tenses of their verbs by these particles, do, did; shall, 
 mil ; can, may ; should, could, would, might, and hi, prefixed to the word of the 
 verb, which is the same throughout, except in the participles and preterites ; 
 whepeas French verbs change their inflections and terminations, not only in 
 every mood and tense, but even in every person ; the different ways of express- 
 ing- the action of the verb amounting to no less than ninety-four ; which makes 
 the conjugation of them pretty barer; though it is at the same time so important, 
 that Foreigners cannot too much apply themselves to it. In order therefore to 
 do it more effectually, I shall set down rules whereby the Learner may easily 
 arrive at the exact and ready formation of the tenses of the verbs, and the per- 
 sons of those tenses : which being once well considered and learnt, the conju- 
 fating of the verbs will be freed from that difficulty which otherwise it would 
 e necessarily attended with. 
 
 Besides that, I have joined a table of all the conjugations, wherein one may 
 see at one view how each tense simply is derived, and formed from its infinitive, 
 I cannot too much recommend the Students to.make themselves familiar with it, 
 since tho' one could not lay down principles common to all verbs in the forming 
 of their several tenses, those ten conjugations include an infallible way of con- 
 jugating above 3000 Regular Verbs : so that after knowing in what consists the 
 ditference of those called Irregular, which shall be also set in order, one will be 
 thoroughly acquainted with the French verbs. 
 
 Before I lay down rules for the forming of the verbs, it is to be observed, that 
 there will be none about the forming of the Participle, and Preterite and Pre- 
 sent tenses : not that there can be no rules contrived for the forming of those 
 tenses ; but because the ten different conjugations would require twice ten dif- 
 ferent and particular rules ; and the perusing of the following table, with ever 
 so little attention, will sufficiently supply the want of such further rules. It will 
 therefore be enough to take notice of all that is general to the regular verbs. 
 
 Rules for the Formation of the Tenses of the French Verbs. 
 
 1st Rule. In all verbs the Gerund ends in ant, the Imperfect in ois, the Future 
 in rai, and the Conditional in rois. 
 
 2d R. The Imperfect is formed from the Gerund, by changing ant into ois : as, 
 
 ,, < Parl-ant, speaking. ) 1mnar . f $ J e parl-ois, / did speak. 
 
 Ger ' \ Lis-ant, reading. \ lm ^' \ Je fis-ois, / did read. 
 
 od R. The Future is formed from the Infinitive, by adding ai to the final r, or 
 if it ends in an e mute, by changing that e into ai; as, 
 
 »„%,> Parlor, to speak. $ P „, M ,.. $ Je narler-ai, I shall speak, 
 
 .njinit. i Lirej t(/ readf J Future ^ Jc g"^ j shaU rmd 
 
 th 7?. The Conditional is likewise formed from the Infinitive, by adding c 
 the final r, or changing the final e mute into ois : as, 
 
 r-fi -t $ Parlor, to speaJt.) c,-*:*:^ 5 Je parler-ois, I would speak 
 Inftmt. ) UrQf tQ ^ I Condition. J Je g^ j wouU ^ 
 
Of VERBS. 137 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1st The verb /aire to do, changes at into e mute in its future and conditional 
 tenses. Thus spell and read je ferai I shall do, je/erois I would do. In its ge- 
 rund, present, and imperfect tenses, though you spell faisant doing, nous faisons 
 we do, jefaisois I did; you pronounce all these words as if they were written 
 with/e instead of fai. 
 
 2dly. Verbs ending in enir, as tenir to hold, change enir into iendrai and ien- 
 drois, for their future and conditional ; je tiendrai I will hold,je tiendrois I would 
 hold, instead of ienirai and tenirois. 
 
 Sdly. Verbs in evoir, as recevoir to receive, change evoir into evrai and evrois y 
 for their future and conditional ; jerecevrai I shall receive, jerecevrois 1 would 
 receive, instead of recevoirai and recevoirois. 
 
 5th R. The Present of the Subjunctive is formed from the Gerund, by changing 
 ant into e mute : as, 
 
 *> $Parl-ant, speaking.) Pres.} $ je parl-e, I may speak. 
 
 ' ) Lis-ant, reading. $ Subj. $ HUC ( je lis-e, I may read. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1st. The verb faire changes aisant of its gerund, into asse for its subjunctive 
 present : as from faisant doing, que jef asse that I may do, instead of faisse. 
 
 2dly. Verbs in enir form their subjunctive, by changing enant into iernie: tenant 
 holding, que je tienne that I may hold, instead of tene. 
 
 Sdly. Verbs in evoir change evant into oive for the subjunctive : recevant re- 
 ceiving, que je recoivel may receive, instead of receve. 
 
 6th R. The Pretei'ite of the Subjunctive is formed from the second person of the 
 Preterite of the Indicative, by adding se (mute), as, 
 
 Prei. 5 t„ parlas, .» • spok'st. $ Pret. $ que 5 parlas-se, / might speak. 
 
 Indie. I m lus, mou read'st. } Subj. \ je ( lus-se, I night read. 
 
 And though the final s of the preterite of the indicative is preceded by n, as in 
 preterites of verbs in enir, that s is doubled in the subjunctive, and the third 
 person takes t instead of sse: as tu tins thou heldest, queje tinsse that I might 
 hold, qxCil tint he might hold. 
 
 Rules for forming the second and third Persons of the Sing. Numb, in all Verbs. 
 
 1st Rule. The first person of every tense always ends either in e mute, or 
 in s or x, or in ai. When it ends in e mute, the second person adds s to it, 
 and the third is like the first : as, 
 
 1st. P. Je parle, I speak.~\ rje sonffre, I may suffer. 
 
 2d. Tu paries, thou speakest. > que < tu souffres, thou may est suffer. 
 3d. II parle, he speaks, j vj ; sou fire, he may suffer. 
 
 Q,d R. When the first person ends with s oi x, the second is like the first, 
 and the third takes t instead of the final s or x : as, 
 
 1st. Je lis, I read. ~\ c Je \eux, I am willing. 
 
 Id. Tu lis, thou readest. > < Tu veiu', thou art willing. 
 
 3d.J\lit, he reads, j (_Ilveu£, he is willing. 
 
 In verbs that have d or t immediately before the final s of the first person, 
 that s is left out in the third person : as, 
 
 1st. J'entends, I hear. \ $ Je mets, I put. 
 
 2d. II entend, he hears. $ (II met, he puts. 
 
 N2 
 
13S ACCIDENCE. 
 
 3d R. When the first persons ends in ai (as in the Preterite and Future 
 tenses), the second changes the final i into s, and the third leaves it out quite : as, 
 
 1st. Je parlai, I spoke. ~\ rJeparlerai, I shall speak. 
 
 2d. Tu parlas, thou spokest. > < Tu parleras, thou shalt speak. 
 
 3d. 11 parla, he spoke. J I II parlera, he shall speak. 
 
 Except the third person of the preterite of the subjunctive, which ends with 
 t in all verbs, sse of the first person being changed into t with a circumflex 
 i*ver the preceding vowel : as, 
 
 lsL n„ n * J e parla«*, I mig/if speak. \ n $ je fisse, I might do. 
 2d. wu " * il parldf, he might speak. J wue ( ll fi7, he might do. 
 
 Rules for forming the three Persons of the Plural Number of Tenses in all Verbs. 
 
 1st Rule. The plural number of the present tense of the indicative is formed 
 from the gerund, by changing ant into ons for the first person, into ex for the 
 second, and into ent (mute) for the third : as from 
 
 Ger. parl-ant, speaking. "\ s- lis-ant, reading. 
 
 Pres. Flur. / V Pres. Plur. 
 
 1st. P. Nous parl-ons, zee speak. > J Nous lis-ons, zee read. 
 
 2d. Vous parl-e.r, ye speak. V J Vous lis-ez, ye read. 
 
 3d. lis pnrl-ent, they speak. J V.Us lis-ent, they read. 
 
 Except, 1st. The two last persons of the present of f aire, which, though it 
 forms its first plural faisons from its gerund faisant, yet makeshifts in the 
 second, instead offaisez, and in the third font, instead oifaisent. 
 
 The same exception takes place for the second person plural of the same 
 tense in the verb dire, disant, which makes dites instead of disez. 
 
 2dly. The last person of verbs in enir, which ends in iennent, as from tenant 
 holding, nous tenons we hold, vous tenez you hold, Us tiennent they hold, 
 instead of tennent. 
 
 3dly. The last persons of verbs in evoir, which ends in oivent, a3 from rcee- 
 vant receiving, nous rccevons we receive, vous recevez you receive, Us recoi- 
 •vent they receive, instead of recevent. 
 
 2d R. The plural of the imperfect is formed from the first person singular, 
 by changing ois into io7is for the first person, into iez for the second, and into 
 oient (pronounced like the first person) for the third : as from 
 
 Sing. Je parl-ois, I^\ -^ rJe lis-ois, I did~\ 
 
 Plur. Nous parl-ions, zee ' |[3 Nous Jis-ions, we did { ~a 
 
 2d. P. Vous parl-iez, 2/ e iS§ ^ r ° us lis-iez, ye did ( | 
 
 3d. lis parl-oient, they J ^ v.Us lis-oient, they did J 
 
 3d R. The plural of the preterite is formed from the first person singular 
 (always ending in ai or s), by changing ai into ames for the first person, into atcs 
 for the second, and erent (sounded only as the letter r) for the third ; or by 
 changing s into mes (mute) for the first person, into fts(mute) for the second, 
 and rent (ent also mute) for the third; as from 
 
 Sing. Je parl-ai, I spoke. -\ fJe lu-s, I reid. 
 
 Plur. Nous parl-ames, we spoke, f 1 Nous lu-mes, zcervid. 
 
 2d. Vous parl-ates, ye spoke, t "i Vous lu-tes, ye or you fad. 
 
 5d. Us parl-erent, they spoke. J vJls lu-rent, they read. 
 
 4th R. The plural of the future is formed from the first person singular, by 
 changing rai into rons for the first person, into rez for the second, and into 
 ront for the third ; as from 
 
Of VERBS. 139 
 
 Plur. Nous parle-roHS, we f ..-•;; c DPa jt J Nous li-rons, we will read. 
 
 2d. Vous parle-rez, ye? ^ * 1 Vous li-rez, ye will read. 
 
 3d. lis parle-ront, they J vlls li-ront, they will read. 
 
 Sing. J e parle-rai, /\ rJe li-rai, I will reed. 
 
 >r 
 
 5* h R. The plural of the conditional is formed from the first person singular, 
 by changing rois into riovs for the first person, into riez for the second, and into 
 roient (pronounced like the first person) for the third ; as from 
 
 Sing. Je parle-rois, Iicould^ {Je li-rois, /} 
 
 Plur. Nous parle-rions, we would f „,,„„». r Nous li-rions, we" ,, . 
 
 2d. Vous parle-riez, y<m would 4 *"*•) Vous li-riez, ye .-tcouWraid. 
 
 3d. lis parle-roient, they would) Clls li-roicnt, </uy * 
 
 6th R. The plural of the present and preterite of the subjunctive is formed 
 from the first person singular, by changing e mute into ions for the first person, 
 into iez for the second, and into ent (mute) for the third ; as from 
 
 Sing. Que je parl-e, that I \ 4 Que je parlass-e, that I mighty . 
 
 Plur. Nous parl-ions, we ' m „.. . n . flJ . JNous parlass-ions, we might f "§ 
 
 2d. Vous parliez, ye£ mayspeah% )Vom parlass-iez, yc might !/•§, 
 
 3d. lis parl-ent, f/tey* v lis parlass-ent, they might) * 
 
 Except again, 1st, In the verbs in enir, the plural number of the present, which 
 is not formed from the first pers. sing, ending in ienne, but makes enions, eniez, 
 iennent ; queje tienne I may hold, nous ttvions we may hold, vous tenicz you may 
 hold, Us tiennent they mayhold. 
 
 2dZy, In verbs in evoir, the plural of the present, which is not formed from the 
 first person ending in oive, but makes erions, eviez, oiveni ; queje recoive I may 
 receive, nous rececions we may receive, vous reccviez you may receive, Us recoi. 
 rent they may receive. 
 
 Observe moreover, 1st, That the verbs of the first conjugation, ending in er, 
 have the three persons singular, and the third plural of the subjunctive, like the 
 same persons or the indicative: as, 
 
 1st. Sing. Je parle, / speak, q £ je parte, I may speak. 
 
 2d. tu paries, thou speak'st. f tn paries, thou may' st speak. 
 
 3d. il parle, he speaks, q , i il parle, he may speak. 
 
 3d. PI. ils parlent, they speak. w I ils parlent, they may spsak. 
 
 Verbs of the other conjugations have only the third plural alike. 
 
 'idly, The first and second persons plural of the subjunctive are in all verbs 
 alike to the same persons plural of the imperfect of the indicative : as, 
 
 Ind. Imperfect. Sub. Present, 
 
 lsl. Nous parlions, we did speak, q ( nous parlions, we may speak. 
 
 2d. Vous parliez, ye did speak. \ vous parliez, ye may speak. 
 
 Except again in /aire, which, as it does not form regnlarly its subjunctive 
 from its gerund faisant , but makes fasse in the first person sing, so consequently 
 makes in the plural fassions, and fassiez. Seethe 6th Conjugation. 
 
 As for the Imperative mood, the second person singular (for it has no first 
 person) and the first and second plural are the same as those of the present of 
 the indicative : leaving out the pronouns ; tufais tliou dost, nousfaisons we do, 
 vousfaites ye do, and the third persons of both numbers the same as those of the 
 subjunctive; qu'il fosse let him do, qu' ils f assent let them do. 
 
 But take notice, 1st, that the verbs of the first conjugation, and others tco 
 ending the first person of the indicative in e not sounded, leave out in the se- 
 cond person of the imperative the final * of the same of the indicative, unless 
 that second person be immediately followed by the relative pronouns en and y, 
 
140 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 in which case it keeps s : as cherches-en, seek for some ; vas-y, go thither ; but 
 say without s, cherche un meilleur ami, seek for a better friend ; va en France, go 
 to France ; en being here a preposition. 
 
 2dty, Verbs of the other conjugations keep in the second person of the impe- 
 rative the final s of the indicative. 
 
 Tenses compound are always formed from the participle of the verb in ques- 
 tion, joined to the tenses simple of the auxiliary avoir ; as in parler to speak. 
 
 The compound of the present tense is formed from the present of avoir, and 
 the participle parU spoken : as, 
 
 J' ai fl have-. 
 
 Sing. <?tu as J Vthou hast J 
 
 8 
 
 Plur. ? vous avez \ rye have\ 
 
 Cils out ■* y they have J 
 
 The Compound of the Imperfect is formed from the imperfect of the auxiliarv, 
 find the participle : as, 
 
 f J' avois -v si had-. 
 
 Sing. s tu avois J \thou had'stJ 
 
 til avoit ' ,, J he had! , 
 
 *-Tinii« »vnn« / paiie v hnJ S s P ohen ' 
 
 fnous avions f F \tce hadi 
 
 •? vous aviez \ wye had' 
 
 Cils avoient ' ^ihey had 
 
 The Compound of tlie Preterite is formed from the preterite of the auxiliary 
 and the participle : as, 
 
 ( J' eus . 
 
 Sing. < tu eus J 
 
 t il eut V 
 
 tils eurent ^ 
 
 fnous eumes 
 Plur. -v vous eutes 
 
 p"i«> <" TS> »<*»• 
 
 The Compound of the Future is formed from the future of the auxiliary and 
 the participle : as, 
 
 C J' aurai -. , I shall have 
 
 ■Sing. ] tu auras J \thou shalt have 
 
 til aura t „~„.a J he shall have 
 
 shall have> s P° ken - 
 shall have\ 
 Cils auront they shall have' 
 
 rnous aurons f 
 Plur. ' vous aurez \ f ye shall have 
 
 The Compound of the Conditional is formed from the conditional of the auxi- 
 liary and the participle : as, 
 
 Sing. * tu aurois j I thou would' st have j 
 
 Plur. -^ vous auriez ^ lye would have 
 
 r l would have^ 
 \ thou would' st have 
 
 P"W. It =S lZi> spcken. 
 
 we would have 
 ye would have 
 thev would have 
 
 ! 
 
 Likewise m the Subjunctive, the Compound of the Present is formed from th* 
 present of the subjunctive of the auxiliary, and the participle : as, 
 
 5 J' aie ^ A may have^ 
 
 tu aies thou may'st have 1 
 
 «« Jnous % m \ ^ « Zl 1S?e\ **«* 
 
 Plur. ' vous ayez | ye may have J 
 
 Cils aient-"' ^they may have J 
 
A T 
 
 Con 
 tion. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 4. 
 
 Infinitive 
 Mood. 
 
 Parl — er. 
 
 Ag — ir. 
 
 Sent — ir. 
 
 T — enir. 
 
 RE9 — evoir. 
 
 Fa i — re. 
 
 Cra • , 
 t -indre. 
 Jo 
 
 CoNN-oitre. 
 
 9.lNSTR-uire. 
 
 10. 
 
 Ven , 
 R E poN" dre - 
 
 ZLa© 
 
 Ge- 
 rund. 
 
 ant. 
 
 issant. 
 
 ant. 
 
 -enant. 
 
 -evant. 
 
 -sant. 
 
 -ignant 
 
 Par- 
 
 tici- 
 
 ple. 
 
 enu 
 
 -t 
 
 -int 
 
 ■oissant -u 
 
 uisant. 
 
 -dant. 
 
 -uit 
 
 -du 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 ■e, 
 
 -is 
 
 es, e, 
 
 > is, it, 
 
 ss-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 ■s, s, t, 
 
 ons, ez, ent. 
 
 -lens, iens, ien 
 -en-ons, ez, tiennent 
 
 -OlS, ois,oit, . 
 
 -ev-ons, ez, repoivent 
 
 -S, s, t, 
 
 -s-ons, faites,font. 
 
 -ins, ins, int, 
 -ign-ons, ez, -ent. 
 
 -ois, ois, oit, 
 
 -oiss-ons, ez, -ent. 
 
 •UIS, uis, int, 
 
 uis-ons, ez, -ent. 
 
 ■ds, ds, d, 
 -d-ons, ez, -ent. 
 
 -ois 
 
 ion 
 
 1S5 
 
 -iss- 
 
 OlS 
 -ion 
 
 en 
 -en- 
 
 -ev 
 -ev- 
 
 -s-( 
 -s-i( 
 
 -ign 
 
 -oi: 
 -ois 
 
 -ui; 
 
 uis 
 
 -d- 
 
 d-i 
 
 [I 
 
1ABLE OF THE FORMATION OF THE SI TENSES OF THE FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 Conditio Gerund. 
 
 ftStl \Prderitt TaatlnM* i 
 is formed the Subjtmc • 
 I Preterite. 
 
 th e Second P« * **"* K«~ 1 ^l^™' 
 
 M*l 
 
Of VERBS. 141 
 
 The Compound of the Preterite is formed from the preterite of the subjunc- 
 tive of the auxiliary, and the participle : as, 
 
 TJ' eusse ^ A had ^ i 
 
 Sing. < tu eusses 1 j thou hadst j 
 
 Cil eftt ^ w J he had I or might have 
 
 rnouseussions f p * \ we had f spoken. 
 
 Plur. *? vous eussiez I I ye had j 
 
 Ols eussent J ^they had J 
 
 In the Infinitive mood the Present and Gerund have also each its compound : 
 to wit, from the present of the infinitive, and the Gerund of the auxiliary, and 
 participle: as, 
 
 Pres. S avoir £ Mr .\t, S t° hove ) JL *.!«. 
 
 ■ Part.l ayant $ P arI6 » } having \ s P oken ' 
 
 First CONJUGATION. 
 
 \ 
 
 Of Verbs in er. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense Parler, to speak. 
 
 Gerund Parlant, speaking. 
 
 Participle Parle, spoken. 
 
 Compound of the Present • • • • Avoir parle, to have spoken. 
 
 Compound of the Gerund • • • • Ayant parle, having spoken* 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Je parle, I speak *. tu paries, thou speak 'st. il parle, he speaks. 
 
 P.Nous parlons, vous parlez, ye ox you ils parlent, they 
 
 zee speak. speak' speak. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je parlois, I did tu \)'jL\\o'is,thou did' st il parloit, he did 
 
 speak'f. speak. speak. 
 
 P. Nous parlions, vous parliez, ye or ils parloient, they 
 
 we did speak. you did speak. did speak. 
 
 * or I do speak, or I am speaking ; thou dost speak, or thou art speaking, 8fc. 
 t or I spoke, or I was speaking ; thou wast speaking, Sfc. 
 % It may not be amiss to observe that the French imperfect answers better to 
 this English locution / was speaking, than to the two others. 
 
142 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Je parlai, I spoke, tu parks, thou spokest. il parla, he spoke. 
 
 P. Nous parkmes, vous parktes, ye or ils parlerent, they 
 
 we spoke. you spoke. spoke. 
 
 S. Je parlerai, I shall 
 
 or will speak. 
 P. Nous parlerons, 
 we shall or will, &c. 
 
 tup&r\eras,thoushalt il parlera, he shall 
 
 or a^fr speak. or o?z7/ speak. 
 
 vous parlerez, ye or ils parleront, they 
 you shall or mill fiic . s^a// or «?i7/ speak. 
 
 S. Je parlerois, J 
 should, would, could, 
 or migA£ speak. 
 P. N ous parlerions, 
 ate should, would, %lc. 
 Comp. of P res. J'ai 
 Comp. of Imp. J 'avois 
 Comp. of Pret. J'eus 
 Comp. of Fut. J'aurai 
 Comp. of Cond. J'aurois 
 
 Conditional. 
 tu parlerois, thou 
 
 should'st, could: sty 
 would' st, or, fyc. 
 to us parleriez, ye, 
 or you should,&c. 
 I have 
 
 il parleroit, he should, 
 would, could, or, 
 
 ils parleroient, they 
 should, would, &c. 
 
 spoken, 
 &c. 
 
 Subjunctive 
 
 Present. 
 Je parle, J tu paries, £/jcm may'st 
 
 may speak. speak, &c. 
 Nous parlions, vous parliez, j/e or 
 we may, ^c. yo u m ay speak. 
 
 il parle, he may 
 
 speak. 
 ils parlent, they may 
 
 speak. 
 
 Preterite. 
 S. f Je parlasse, 1 tu parlasses, thou il parlat, 7*e spoke 
 spoke, or might spokest, &c. 
 
 <» ue J ^ s . 
 
 that Nous parks- vous parkssiez, ye ils parkssent, fAey 
 P. lesions, z#e, &c. or you spoke. spoke. 
 
 Comp.ofPres.que J J'aie 7 parle, C I have or wmj/ /ia^e ") spoken, 
 Comp.of Pret. that \ J'eusse j . &c. \ Ihador might have J &c. 
 
 * or! spoke, or I did speak, or I have been speaking. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 143 
 
 First Persons. 
 & 
 
 P. Parlons, 
 speak 
 
 Imperative 
 Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 Parle, speak thou*. ,il parle, let him speak, 
 let as Parlez, speak, or* ils parlent, let them 
 speak ye f. speak, 
 
 or do thou speak. t or do ye speak. 
 
 Alter the same manner are conjugated about 2700 verbs end- 
 ing in er, most of which are inserted in the Vocabulary, there- 
 being but two irregular in the language. (See page 168.) 
 
 % The manner in which Chambaud has presented the French verbs is merely 
 mechanical, and of course the best contrived to learn them, but at the same time, 
 asjie says (page 167), is of no great service for the use of the tenses, which, how- 
 ever, the scholar cannot know too soon ; it may not be amiss, therefore, to insert 
 here the table annexed to the Exercise-book (page 270) in which the verbs an 
 exhibited in the progressive order of their tenses. 
 
 fc« 
 
 BO 
 
 3ft 
 
 Tenses. 
 
 1st Auxiliary. 
 
 Auxiliary. 
 
 A Verb regular 
 of the 1st Conjw 
 gabion. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Gerund. 
 Participle. 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Gerund past. 
 
 avoir, to have. 
 ayant, having. 
 eu or eue, had. 
 avoir eu, to have 
 
 had. 
 ayant eu, having 
 
 had. 
 
 etre, to be. 
 
 etant, being. 
 
 ete, been. 
 
 avoir ete, to have 
 
 been. 
 ayant et£, having 
 
 been. 
 
 parler, to speak, 
 parknt, speaking. 
 parle, spoken. 
 avoir parle, ta 
 have spoken, 
 ayant parl6, hav- 
 ing spoken.. 
 
 1st Pers. Sing. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 b. 
 c. 
 
 d. 
 
 f 
 
 g- 
 h. 
 k. 
 1. 
 
 m. 
 a. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect Indef. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 Perfect Definite 
 
 or Historical. 
 Pluperfect Def. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Future Relative. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Conditional past. 
 
 4 a, » . 
 
 j'avois, 
 
 I have. 
 I had. 
 
 j'ai eu, 
 
 I have 
 had. 
 
 j'avois eu, I had 
 had. 
 
 j'eus, I had. 
 
 j eus eu, 
 j'aurai, 
 
 I had 
 
 had. 
 
 I shall 
 
 have. 
 
 j'aurai eu, I shall 
 
 have had. 
 
 j'aurois, I should 
 
 have. 
 
 j'aurois eu, I 
 
 should have had. 
 
 jesuis, 
 j'etois, 
 
 lam. 
 I zcas. 
 
 j'ai ete, 
 
 I have 
 been. 
 
 j'avois ete, I had 
 been. 
 
 je fus, J zvas. 
 
 j'eus et£, I had 
 
 been. 
 
 }e serai, I shall be. 
 
 j'aurai etd, Ishall 
 have been. 
 je serois, I should 
 be. 
 j'aurois 6te, I 
 should have been. 
 
 je parle, I speak. 
 
 je parlois, I was, 
 
 speaking-.. 
 
 j'ai parle, I have 
 
 . spoken. 
 
 j'avois parte, I 
 
 had spoken. 
 
 je parlai, I spoke. 
 
 j'eus parle, I had 
 
 spoken. 
 
 jeparlerai, Ishall 
 
 speak, 
 
 j'aurai parl£, / 
 
 shall have spoken. 
 
 je parlerois. I 
 
 should speak. 
 
 j'aurois paile, 1 
 
 should have 
 
 spoken. 
 
144 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 queje sois, 
 
 Pres.Tense. quej'aie, that I 
 
 may have. 
 
 Imperfect, que j'eusse, I 
 
 might have. 
 
 Perfect. quej'aie eu, J 
 
 may have had. 
 
 Pluperfect, que j'eusse eu,I 
 
 might have had. 
 
 Imperative 
 J Pres.Teme. | aie, nave thou, j sois,- 
 
 that I 
 
 may be. 
 
 queje fusse, I might 
 
 be. 
 
 que j'aie £t£, I may 
 
 have been. 
 
 que j'eusse £te", I 
 
 might have been. 
 
 queje parle, that I 
 
 may speak, 
 
 que je parlasse, I 
 
 might speak. 
 
 que j'aie parle, I may 
 
 have spoken. 
 
 que j'eusse parle, I 
 
 might have spoken. 
 
 be thou. | parle, speak thou. 
 
 Conjugate after Parler. Infinitive Mood. 
 Pres. Lever, to raise. Ger. Levant, raising. Part. Leve, raised. 
 
 C. Pres. Avoir lev£, to have raised. Ayant lev6, having raised. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Pres. Je leve, I raise. Imperf. Je levois, I did raise. Pret. Je levai, I raised. 
 Tut. Je leverai, I shall raise. Cond.' Je leverois, J should raise. Compound. 
 J'ai leve, I have raised. J'avois lev£, I had raised. J'eus leve, J had raised. 
 J'aurai lev£, I shall have raised. J'aurois levd, J should have raised. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Pres. Queje leve, that I may raise. Pret. Queje \evnsse,t7iatl might raise. 
 Comp. Quej'aie lev€, that 1 may have raised. Que j'eusse levd, that I might have 
 raised. 
 
 Imperative. 
 Leve, raise thou. Qu'il leve, let him raise. Levons, let us raise. Levez, raise, 
 Qu'ils levent, let them raise. 
 
 Conjugate the same verb reflectively. 
 
 It has been said, (page 129), that reflected verbs are so called, because the> 
 govern no other object but the subject they are governed by. They are tliere- 
 fore conjugated with a double pronoun before each person, one of which go- 
 verns the verb as its subject, and the other is governed as its object; as se 
 blesser, to hurt oneself; je me blessc, I hurt myself; in which instance the 
 English verb answers exactly to that which the French call Reflected. But 
 we have a great many more that are rendered into English by mere neuter ; 
 as se lever to rise, which shall be set down here as an example of conjugating 
 this sort of verbs. 
 
 ^T It must be observed tnat a verb activ used reflectively has the true force 
 of a verb passive ; consequently it does not form its compound tenses from 
 avoir y as in English, but from the other auxiliary itre. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Pres. Se lever, to rise. Ger. Se levant, rising. Part. Lev6, risen, 
 
 C. Pres. S'&tre lev£, to have risen. C. Ger. S'etant lev€, having risen. 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. Je me leve, I rise. 
 P. Nous nous levons, tee 
 rise. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 tu te leves, thou risest. 
 vous vous levez, ye or you 
 
 rise. 
 
 Thira jfersons. 
 il se leve, he rises. 
 ils se Ihventfthey rise. 
 
Of VERBS. 145 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Je me levois, I did rise, tu te levois, thou didst il se levoit, he did rise 
 
 or better, I was rising. rise. 
 
 P. Nous nous levions, we vous vous leviez, ye did ils se levoient, tliey did 
 
 did rise. rise, rise. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 S. Je ine levai, 1 rose, tu te levas, t hou, &c. il se leva, he rose, 
 
 P. Nous nous levames, vous vous levates, ye ils se leverent, they rose 
 we rose. rose. 
 
 Future. 
 
 S. Je me leverai, I shall tu te leveras, thou shall il se levera, he shall or 
 
 or will rise, or wilt rise. will rise. 
 
 P. Nous nous leverons, vous vous leverez, ye ils se leveront, they shall 
 
 we shall, &c shall or xcill, &c. or will rise. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 S. Je me leverois, I should tu te leverois, thou il se leveroit, he would 
 
 or would rise. would'st or, fyc. or should, &c. 
 
 P. Nous nous leverions, vous vous leveriez, ye ils se leveroient, they 
 
 we should or 2$c. would or, fyc. would or should, &c, 
 
 Compound of Present. 
 
 S. Jc me suis leve, I have tu t'es leve, thou hast il s'est hv6, he has risen. 
 
 risen. risen. 
 
 P. Nous nous sommes vous vous etes leves, ye ils se sont leves, they 
 
 loves, we, &c. have risen. have risen. 
 
 Compound of Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je m'^tois leve, I had tu t'etois leve, thou il s'^toit leve, he had 
 
 risen. had'st risen. ?*i$en. 
 
 P» Nous nous etions leves, vous vous etiez leves, ye ils s'etoient leves, they 
 
 we had risen. had risen. had risen. 
 
 Compound of Preterite. 
 
 S. Je me fus levd, I had tu te fus leve, thou il se fut leve, he had 
 
 risen. hadsl risen. risen. 
 
 P. Nous nous fumes lev^s, vous vous futes \ev6s, ils se furent lev6s, they 
 
 xve had, &c. ye, &c. had i-isen. 
 
 Compound of Future. 
 
 S. Je me serai leve", I tu te scras lev£, thou il se reia leve, he shall 
 
 shall have risen. shalt have risen. have risen. 
 
 1 \ Nous nous serous \ev6s, vous vous serez leves, ils se seront lev£s, they 
 
 wc shall, &c. ye., &c. shall, &c. 
 
 Compound of Conditional. 
 
 S. Je me serois leve, I tu te serois leve, thou il se sero'itlevi, he would, 
 
 should have risen. would'st have risen. have risen. 
 
 P. Nous nous serions le- vous vous seriez Iev6s, ils se seioient leves, they 
 
 v6s, we, Sec. ye, &c. would, Arc. 
 
 O 
 
146 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 8 
 
 que 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 rJemeleve, I may tu te leves, thou may st ilseleve, he may rise, 
 
 they may 
 
 rise. rise, 
 
 that ^ Nous nous levions, vous vous leviez, ye or 
 
 P- v. 4"c« you, &c. 
 
 ils se levent, 
 rise. 
 
 Preterite. 
 S. rJe me levasse, I tu te levasses, thou, Sec. il se levat, he rose. 
 
 que ) rose or might rise. 
 that\ Nous nous levas- vous vous levassiez, ye ils se levassent, they rose. 
 
 P. v sions, we, Sfc. 
 
 or, %e. 
 
 S. 
 que 
 that 
 P. 
 
 
 he may 
 
 Compound of the Present. 
 Je me sois lev6, I tu te sois leve, thou il se soit le\i, 
 
 may have risen. mayest have risen. have risen. 
 
 Nous nous soyons vous vous soyez leves, ils se soient leves, they 
 
 leves, we may, ye may, he. may have risen. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Compound of the Preterite. 
 Je me fusse leve, I tu te fusses lev<?, thou il se fut lev£, he might 
 S. I might have risen. mightest have r isen. have risen. 
 
 que < Nous nous fussions vous vous fussiez leves, ils se fussent leves, they 
 that ( lev£s, zee might, ye might, &c. might have, &c. 
 
 &C. 
 
 [Imperative. 1 
 Leve-toi, rise, or rise thou. 
 
 V 
 
 1 se leve, let him 
 
 P. Levons-nous, let us levez-vous, m\", or rise ye,^ ") ils se levent, let 
 rise. or you. V. them rise. 
 
 The same Imperative negatively. 
 Ne te leve pas, rise thou 
 not. 
 P. Ne nous levons pas, ne nous levez pas, do ?iot® 
 let us not rise. Wse. 
 
 ri\ ne 
 ) hi 
 "S ils n 
 C le, 
 
 1 ne se leve pas, let 
 ' im not rise. 
 ne se levent pas, 
 let them rise. 
 
 Observe that I am risen, I was risen, &c. that are seen in some grammars to 
 answer the French of the compound tenses, and signify properly in French jt: 
 suis leve, fctois leve, &c. imply quite another sense than that of I have risen, 
 I had risen, &c. 
 
 11 It is not unworthy of notice that these reflected pronouns me, te, se, &c- 
 serve to express sometimes the object of the action, or the accusative, and 
 sometimes the term to which the action tends, or the dative. (See Exercises, 
 p. 16.) In this phrase, Je me donne d, vous, I give myself up to you, me is the 
 object; whereas in this, Je me donne bien de la peine, I give myself much 
 trouble, me is the term, and signifies to myself, to being understood in English. 
 
 f Many persons have judiciously observed that Chambaud has gone rather 
 too far in his Grammar (see p. 240), before he acquaints the scholar with the 
 manner of managing the verbs negatively and interrogatively, and the more so, 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 147 
 
 as lie himself in his examples makes use of negative and interrogative phrases. 
 In order, therefore, to v make amends for this delay, we shall here present the 
 learner with the following tables. 
 
 1st Table. The French Verbs used negatively. 
 
 Tenses. 1st Auxiliary. 2d Auxiliary. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pres.Tense. n'avoir pas or ne pas 
 avoir, not to liave. 
 
 n'etre pas or ne pas 
 etre, not to be. 
 
 A Verb active or neuter. 
 
 ne pas parler, not to 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 n'ayant pas, 
 
 not n'etant pa?, 
 
 not 
 
 ne parlant pas, 
 
 not 
 
 
 having. 
 
 being. 
 
 
 speaking. 
 
 
 Perfect ) 
 
 n'avoir pas eu, 
 
 not n'avoir pas ete, 
 
 not 
 
 n'avoir pasparlG, 
 
 not 
 
 Tense $ 
 
 to have had. 
 
 to have been. 
 
 
 to nave spoken. 
 
 
 Gerund ) 
 past. > 
 
 n'ayant pas eu, 
 
 not n'ayant pas et£, 
 
 not 
 
 n'ayant pas parle 
 
 not 
 
 having had. 
 
 having been. 
 
 
 aving spoken. 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 
 Pres. tense, je n'ai pas, 1 have not. 
 
 Imperfect, je n'avois pas, I had 
 
 not. 
 Perf. indef.je n'ai pas eu, I have 
 
 not had. 
 Pluperfect, je n'avois pas eu, J 
 
 liad not had. 
 Peif.def. > je n'eus pas, 7 had 
 or hist. $ not. 
 Pluperf. ) je n'eus pas eu, I had 
 def. S n °t '"*«• 
 
 Future. je n'aurai pas, 1 shall 
 
 not have. 
 Fut. relat. je n'aurai pas eu I 
 
 shall not have had. 
 Conditional.^ n'aurois pas, J 
 
 should not have. 
 Condit.pastje n'aurois pas eu, / 
 
 should not have had. 
 
 je ne suis pas, lam 
 
 not. 
 je n'etois pas, I teas 
 
 not. 
 je n'ai pas ete, / have 
 
 not been. 
 jenavois pas ete, I 
 
 had not been. 
 je ne fus pas, . I was 
 
 not. 
 je n'eus pas 6te, Iliad 
 
 not been. 
 je ne serai pas, IsJiall 
 
 not be. 
 je n'aurai pas ete, J 
 
 shall not have been. 
 je ne serois pas, I 
 
 should not be. 
 je n'aurois pas ete, I 
 
 should not have been. 
 
 j e ne parle pas, I do 
 
 not speak. 
 je ne pailois pas, I 
 
 did not speak. 
 je n'ai pas parl£, / 
 
 have not spoken. 
 je n'avois pasparl£, / 
 
 had not spoken. 
 je ne parlai pas, 2" 
 
 did not speak. 
 je n'eus pas parlS, I 
 
 had not spoken. 
 je ne parlerai pas, / 
 
 shall not speak. 
 je n'aurai pas parl£, I" 
 shall not have spoken. 
 je ne parlerois pas> / 
 
 should not speak. 
 je n'auroig pas parle, 
 
 I should not have 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Pres. tense, queje n'aie pas, that 
 I may not have. 
 
 Imperfect. — je n'eusse pas, — / 
 might not have. 
 
 Perfect. -— je n'aie pas eu, — 
 I may not have had. 
 
 que je ne sois pas,£/i<rf 
 / may not be. 
 
 — je ne fusse pas, — 
 I might not be. 
 
 — je n'aie pas ete, — 
 / may not have been. 
 
 Pluperfect. — je n'eusse pas eu,— — je n'eusse pas et£, 
 J might not have 
 
 had. 
 
 I might not have 
 been. 
 
 que je ne parle pas, 
 that I may not speak. 
 
 — je ne parlasse pas, 
 
 — J might not speak. 
 
 — je n'aie pas parl£, 
 
 — / may not have 
 spoke. 
 
 — je n'eusse pas parle, 
 
 — I might not have 
 spoken. 
 
 Present. 
 
 n'aie pas, 
 not. 
 
 have thou 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 ne sois pas, 
 not. 
 
 be thou 
 
 ne parle pas, 
 
 thou not. . 
 
 speak 
 
148 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 2d TA3LE. The French verbs conjugated interrogatively* 
 Teases. 1st Auxiliary, 2d Auxiliary. A Verb active or neuter 
 
 No olher mood but the Indicative can be used in interrogations. 
 
 1*re$.Tense.ii-}c, have I? suis-je, ami? parle-je, do I speak ? 
 
 as-tu, hast thou? es-tu, art thou? parles-tu, dost thou 
 
 speak ? 
 a-t-il, has he? est-il, is he? parle-t-il, does he 
 
 speak ? 
 hnper/ect. avois-je, had I? 6tois-je, was I? parlois-je, did II speak? 
 
 Perfect ?ai-jeeu, -have I had? ai-je ete, have I been? ai-je parle, have 1 
 indefinite. $ spoken ? 
 
 Pluperfect, avois-je eu, had I had? avois-je et£, had 1 avois-je parle, had I 
 
 been ? spoken ? 
 
 Perfect "1 • parlai-je, did I speak ? 
 
 definite or > eus-je, had ". / fus-je, was I?, parla-t-il, did he 
 
 historical, j speak? 
 
 Pluperf. ) eus-je eu, had i had ? eus-je ete, had I been? eus-je par!6, had I 
 definite. ) ^ spoken ? 
 
 Future. aurai-je, stiall I have? serai-je, shall I be? parlerai-je, shall 1 
 
 speak ? 
 aura-t-il, will he have? sera-t-il, will he be? pavlera-t-il, will he 
 
 speak ? 
 Future rel. aurai-je en, shall I aurai-je ete, shall I aurai-je parle\ shall i 
 
 have had ? have been ? have spoken ? 
 
 Conditional.aurois-je, sliould I serois-je, should I be? parlerois-je, should I 
 
 have ? • • . • speak ? 
 
 Condi' ) aurois-je eu, should I aurois-je 6t£, should I aurois-je parle, should 
 tionalpast $ have had ? have been ? 1 have spoken ? 
 
 The French verbs used interrogatively and negatively. 
 
 n'ai-je pas, have I not ? ne suis-je pas, am I not ? ne parle-je pas, do I not 
 
 speak ? 
 
 n'avois-je pas, had Inot ? n'etois-je pas, was I ne parlois-je pas, did I 
 
 not V not speak ? 
 
 n'ai-je pas eu, have 1 not n'ai-je pas ete, have I n'ai-je pas parle, hare I 
 
 had V not been ? not. spoken ? 
 
 n'avois-je pas eu, had I n'avois-je pas Cte, had I n'avois-je pns parle, had 
 
 not had ? not been ? I not spoken ? 
 
 n'eus-je pas, had Inot ? ne fus-je pas, was I ne parlai-je pas, did 2 
 
 noli not speak ? 
 
 n'eus-je pas eu, had I n'eus-je pas ete, had * n'eus-je pas parle, had I 
 
 not had ? not been ? not spoken ? 
 
 n'aurai-je pas, shall I ne serai-je pas, shall 1 ne parlerai-je pas, shall 1 
 
 not hare ? not be ? not speak ? 
 
 n'aurai-je pas eu, shall I n'aurairje pas dte, shall n'aurai-je pas parle. shall 
 
 not have had ? I not have been ? I not have spoken Y 
 
 n 'aurois-je pas, should I ne serois-je pas, should I ne parierois-je pas t should 
 
 not have ? not be f I not speak i 
 
 n'aurois-je pas eu, should n'aurois-je pas ete,s/iow Id n'aurois-je pas parte, 
 
 J not have had ? I not have been ? should Inot have spoken? 
 
Of VERBS. 149 
 
 Second CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of Verbs in ir in general ; Gerund in issant. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pres. Agir, to act. Ger. Agissant, acting. Part. Agi, acted. 
 C.Pres. Avoir agi, to have acted. C. Ger. Ayant agi, having acted. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. J'agis, 1 act. tu agis, thouactest. il agit, he acts. 
 
 P. Nous agissons, vous agissez, ye or ils agissent, they act. 
 
 we, &c. Sfc. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. J'agissois, I did tu agissois,£//o//,&c. il agissoit, he did act. 
 
 act. 
 
 P. Nous agissious, vous agissiez, ye or ils agissoient, they 
 
 we did act. you did act, did act. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 S. J'agis, I acted, tuagis, thou ac ted st. il agit, he acted. 
 
 P. Notts agimes, vous agites, ye or, ils agirent, they, &c. 
 me, &c. #c- 
 
 Future. 
 
 S. J'agirai, I sJiall tu agiras, thou shalt il agira, he shall or 
 
 or will act. or will act. will act. 
 
 P. Nous agirons, zee vous agirez, ye or ils agiront, they shall 
 
 shall or zvill act. you shall or, fyc. or will act. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 S. J' agirois, I should, tu agirois, thou il agiroit, lie should, 
 
 would, could, 8cc. shouMst act. would, could, &c. 
 
 P. Nous agirions, vous agiriez, ye or ils agiroient, they 
 
 we should, would, you should, &c. should, would, 8tc. 
 
 &c, 
 
 02 
 
150 
 
 Comp. of P res. J'ai -\ 
 Comp. of Imp. J'avois I 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 / have 
 
 Cornp. of P ret. 
 Comp. ofFut. 
 Comp. of Cond. 
 
 J ai -\ r l nave *\ 
 
 J'avois I • \l had I 
 
 J'eus V^ Jihad y acted, 
 
 J'aurai I ^ c ' s I shall have y 
 
 J'auroisJ \-I should, &c. have J 
 
 &G 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. C J 'agisse, jfwitfy tu agisses, thou il agisse, he may act, 
 que j act. mayst act. 
 
 that \ nous agissions vous agissiez, ye or ils agissent, they 
 
 P. v. zee may act. you may act. may act. 
 
 fJ : 
 
 Preterite. 
 agisse, / tu agisses, thou ilagtjt, 
 acted or actest. 
 
 que 
 
 that J might act. 
 
 P. j nous aglssi- vous agissiez, ye or ils agissent, 
 
 acted. 
 
 ons, 
 acted. 
 
 zee you acted. 
 
 he acted, 
 they 
 
 Comp. ofPres. que j J'aie 7 agi, C / have or may have 1 acted, 
 Comp. of P ret. that 1 J'eusse j §c. \ I had or might have j &c. 
 
 Imperative." 
 
 5. Agis, act thou ,il agisse, let him act. 
 
 P. Agissons, let us ngissez, act or act ye" ils agissent, let them 
 
 act. act. 
 
 About 200 verbs in cir, dir, mir, ?iir, tir, fyc. are conjugated 
 after this verb, and are set down in the Vocabulary. 
 
 Conjugate after agir. Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Diver tir to divert, divertissant diverting, diverti diverted, 
 avoir diverti to have diverted, ayant diverti having diverted. 
 
 Indicative. Je divertis, je divertissois, j'ai diverti, j'avois 
 diverti; je divertis, j'eus diverti; je divertirai, j'aurai diverti; 
 je divertirois, j'aurois diverti. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je divertisse, que je divertisse, que j'aie 
 diverti, que j'eusse diverti. 
 
 Imperative. Divertis, qu'il divertisse; divertissons, diver- 
 tissez, qu'ils divertissent. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 151 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. Se divertir to divert oneself, to be merry ; 
 se divertissant diverting oneself) diverti diverted, s'etre diverti to 
 have diverted oneself, s'etant diverti having diverted oneself. 
 
 Indicative. Je me divertis I divert myself, je me divertissois 
 I was diverting myself, je me suis diverti / have diverted myself, 
 je m'etois diverti ; je me divertis, je me fus diverti ; je me 
 divertirai, je me serai diverti ; je me divertirois, je me serois 
 diverti. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je me divertisse, que je me divertisse, 
 que je me sois diverti, que je me fusse diverti. 
 
 Imperative. Divertis-toi, qu'il se divertisse; divertissons- 
 nous, divertissez-vous, qu'ils se divertissent. 
 
 Conjugate the above Verbs negatively, then interrogatively i 
 (See the Tables at the end of the 1st Conjug. page 147 4f 148). 
 
 Third CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of more particular Verbs in ir; Gerund in ant. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pres. Sentir, to smell. Ger. Sentant, smelling. Part. Senti, smelt- 
 C. Pres. Avoir senti, to have smelt. C.Ger. Ayant senti, having 
 smelt. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Je sens, I smell, tu sens, thou smellest. il sent, . he smells* 
 
 P. Nous sentons, we vous sentez, ye or ils sentei\t,they smelL 
 smell. you smell. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je sentois, I did tu sentois, thou didn't il sentoit, he did 
 
 smell. smell. smell. 
 
 P. Nous sentions, vous sentiez, ye ox ils sentoient, they 
 
 we did smell. you did smell. did smell. 
 
152 
 
 ACCIDENCE 
 
 Preterite. 
 First Persons. Second Persons. 
 
 S. Je sentis, I smelt, tu senUs,thou smelfst. 
 P. Nous sentimes, vous sentites, ye or 
 we smelt. you smelt. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il sentit, he smelt, 
 ils sentirent, they 
 
 smelt. 
 
 Future. 
 
 S Je sentirai, 1 shall tuseniiraSj (houshalt. il sentira, he shall or 
 
 or Will smell. or zrilt smell. will smell. 
 
 P. Nous sentirons, vous sentirez, ye or ils sentiront, they 
 we shall or will, you shall or, &;c. shall or will smell. 
 
 Sf€. 
 
 S. Je sentirois, I 
 should ] ,would,could, 
 or might smell. 
 P. Nous sentirions, 
 
 we should, would, 
 
 Ssc. 
 
 Comp.qfPres. J'ai 
 Comp. of Imp. J'avois 
 Comp. qfPret. 3 'eus 
 Comp. of Fut. J'aurai 
 Comp. ofCond. J'aurois 
 
 Conditional 
 tu sentirois, thou 
 
 sho uld'st,would'st, 
 could'st, or, fyc. 
 vous sentiriez, ye or 
 you should, fyc. 
 
 il sentiroit, he should, 
 would, could, or 
 
 might smell. 
 
 ils sehtiroient, they 
 should, zcould, fyc. 
 
 senti, 
 Sec. 
 
 I have 
 
 I had 
 
 I had 
 
 I shall haze 
 
 I should, S<c. have 
 
 smelt, 
 Sfc. 
 
 S. /-Je sente, I 
 que \ may smell, 
 that \ nous sentions, 
 P. (_ we may smell. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 tu sentes,thou mafsi 
 
 smell. 
 vous sentiez, ye or 
 
 you may smell. 
 
 il sente, he may 
 
 smell. 
 ils sentent, they may 
 smell. 
 
 S. r Je sentisse, I smelt, 
 que \ or might smell, 
 that j Nous sentissions, 
 P. (, zee smelt. 
 Comp. ofPres. que 1 J'aie 
 Comp. of P ret. that j J'eusse 
 
 Preterite. 
 tu sentisses, thou il sentit, #e smelt. 
 
 smelt si. 
 vous sentissiez, ye ils sentissent, they 
 
 ox you smelt. smelt. 
 
 7 senti, ( J have or ??z«j/ /*#t> e ") smelt, 
 c. \l had or w/g/tf fox«e j #c. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 153 
 
 First Persons, 
 S. 
 
 P. Sentons, let us 
 smell 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 Sens, smell thou. ,il sente, let him, &c. 
 sentez, smell, &c.° ils sentent, let them 
 smell. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb reflectively. 
 Infinitive mood. Se sentir to feel oneself, se sentant 
 feeling oneself, senti felt ; " s'etre senti to have felt oneself, s'etant 
 senti having felt oneself. 
 
 Indicative. Je me sens I feel myself, je me sentois I was 
 feeling myself, je me suis senti J have felt myself, je m'etois 
 senti ; je me sentis, je me fus senti ; je me sentirai, je me serai 
 senti ; je me sentirois, je me serois senti. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je me sente, que je me sentisse, que je 
 me sois senti, que je me f usse senti. 
 
 Imperative. Sens-toi, qu'il se sente , sentons-nous, sen- 
 tez-vous, qu'ils se sentent. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verbs negatively, then interrogatively (See 
 the Tables, pages 147 & 148). 
 
 Of this conjugation there are eighteen verbs both Primitive and Derivative, 
 to wit : 
 
 servir to serve, ressentir, to resent, or 
 
 se server, to make use. feel again. 
 desservi*, to clear a 
 table, or do an ill office. 
 sentir,£o smell, or to/eel. 
 consentir, to consent. 
 
 raentir, to lie. 
 
 dementir, to give a lie. 
 partir, to set out. 
 
 repaitir, to set out again, 
 
 or to reply. 
 sortir, Jo go, or get out. 
 ressortir, to get out again. 
 se repentir, to repent, 
 
 pressentir, 
 foresight. 
 
 to have a 
 
 dormir, to sleep. 
 
 redoruair, to sleep again. 
 endormir, to lull asleep. 
 s'endormir, to fall asleep. 
 se rendormir, to fall 
 asleep again. 
 
 partir, and report ir, sortir, and ressortir, are conjugated with etre. 
 
 Fourth CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of Verbs in enir. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pres. Tenir, to hold. Ger. Tenant, holding. Part, Tenu, held, 
 C. Pres. Avoir tenu, to have held. C, Ger. Ayant tenu, having held. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 S. Je tiens, I hold, tu tiens,thou boldest. 
 
 P. Nous tenons, fyc. vous tenez, ye or, 8$c. 
 
 ii tient, he holds. 
 
 ils tiennent, they hold* 
 
i54 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 tu tenois, thou didst 
 
 hold, 
 vous teniez, ye or 
 
 you did hold. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 tu tins, thou held' st. 
 vous tintes, ye or you 
 held. 
 
 Future. 
 SJetiendrai, I shall tutiendras, thoushalt 
 
 or will hold. or wilt hold. 
 
 P. Nous tiendrons, vous tiendrez, ye or 
 we shall or will hold. you shall, or, fyc. 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. Je tenois, J did 
 
 hold. 
 P. Nous tenions, we 
 
 did hold. 
 
 S. Je tins, / held, 
 P. Nous tinmes, we 
 held. 
 
 S. Je tiendrois, J 
 should jZeoiddfCOuld, 
 or might hold. 
 
 P. Nous tiendrions, 
 
 we should, fyc. 
 Comp. of P res. J'ai 
 Comp of Imp. J'avois 
 Comp. ofPret. J'eus 
 Comp. of Fut. J'aurai 
 Comp. ofCond. J'aurois 
 
 Conditional. 
 tu tiendrois, thou 
 should 7 st, would' st, 
 could' 'st, &c. 
 vous tiendriez,3/e or 
 you should, fyc. 
 I have 
 
 Third Persons. 
 ii tenoit, he did hold. 
 
 ils tenoient, they did 
 hold. 
 
 il tint, he held. 
 
 ils tinrent, they held. 
 
 il tiendra, he shallot 
 
 will hold. 
 ils tiendront, they 
 
 shall or will hold. 
 
 
 tenu 
 
 ft* 
 
 I had 
 
 I had 
 
 I shall have 
 
 I should, 8cc. 
 
 il tiendroit, he should, 
 would, could, or 
 might hold 
 
 ils tiendroient, they 
 should, wouta, &c. 
 1 
 
 \held, 
 
 have 
 
 S. 
 que 
 that 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 
 rJe 
 Jn< 
 
 v. u 
 
 Je tienne, J 
 may hold. 
 ous tenions, 
 we may hold. 
 
 C J etinsse, I held 
 que J or might hold, 
 that J Nous tinssions, 
 P. (. we held. 
 Comp. of Pres. que C 
 Comp. of Pret. that \ 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 tu tiennes, thou il enne, he may 
 
 may'st hold. hold, 
 
 vous teniez, ye or ils tiennent, they 
 
 you may hold. may hold. 
 
 Preterite. 
 tu tinsses, thou il tint, he held 
 
 heldest. 
 vous tinssiez, ye ils tinssent, they 
 
 or you held. held. 
 
 J'aie 1 tenu, { I have or may have 1 held 
 J'eusse ) &c. \ I had or might have J fyc. 
 
Of VERBS. 155 
 
 t Imperative. 
 
 First Persons, Second Persons, Third Persons. 
 
 S. Tiens, hold, or fyc. >il tienne, let him, &c. 
 
 P. Tenons, let us tenez, hold or, hold* ils tiennent, let them 
 hold. ye. hold. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive mood. Setenir to hold oneself, se tenant hold- 
 ing oneself, tenu held; s'etre tenu to have held oneself, s'6tant 
 term having held oneself. 
 
 Indicative. Je nie tiens I hold myself, je me tenois I was 
 holding myself, je me suis tenu I have held myself, je m'^tois tenu ; 
 je me tins, je me fus tenu ; je me tiendrai, je me serai tenu ; 
 je me tiendrois, je me serois tenu. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je me tienne, que je me tinsse, queje 
 me sois tenu, queje me fusse tenu. 
 
 Imperative. Tiens-toL, qu'il se tienne; tenons-nous,, 
 tenez-vous, qu'ils se tiennent. 
 
 N. B. The same verb tenir, when speaking of assemblies, &c. is 
 also used reflectively, but impersonally, that is, with thepron. of the 
 3d pers. sing, or actively, with the particle on (See Oram, page 
 242 & 340.); which plainly shows, 1st, that, speaking of things, 
 an English verb passive is elegantly rendered into French by a 
 verb reflected, or by a verb active used with on, when speaking 
 of persons or things ; 2dly, that a verb reflected, as we said be 
 fore, page 144, has the true force of a verb passive. 
 
 Conjugate the same verbs negatively, then interrogatively ; (See 
 the tables, pages 147 & 148). 
 
 Infinitive mood. Se tenir to be held, se tenant beingheld, 
 tenu held; s'etre tenu to have been held, s'etant tenu having been 
 held. 
 
 Indicative. II se tient un conseil, or On tient un conseil, a 
 council is held, or holden ; and so on for the other tenses. 
 
 The verbs of this Conjugation, to the number of twenty-four, are, 
 s'abstenir, to abstain, venir, to come, se souvenir, to remember. 
 
 appartenir, to belong, intervenir, to intervene, se ressouvenir, to recol- 
 contenir, to contain, devenir, to become. led, to call to mind. 
 
 detenir, to detain, convenir, to agree or to favenir, to happen. 
 
 obtenir, to obtain. become. parvenir, to attain to. 
 
 retenir, to re tain, t o keep, disconveni r, to disagree, prevenir, to prevent. 
 soutenir, to maintain, to provenir, to proceed, to re venir, to come again. 
 
 hold, to uphold. come from subvenir* to relieve. 
 
 entretenir. to keep up. *contrevenir* to contra- survenir, to befal, to hap- 
 inaintenir, to maintain. vene, to infringe. pen unexpectedly. 
 
 venir, revenir, devenir, convenir, disconvenir, provenir, parvenir, and *«r- 
 venir, are conjugated with itre. 
 
J 56 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 * contretenir is a law-term, and used in few tenses too : its compound tenses, 
 when used, are formed from acoir, thong-h its primitive venir has them of eire. 
 
 t otenir is an obsolete verb impersonal. We now say il arrive it happens, il 
 atrica it happened, instead of il avient, il atinl, See. 
 
 binir to Dless, is of the second conjugation, hftving the same inflections as 
 iigir. — The part, of bdmr is Mm and benie blessed ; but we also say Mnit and be- 
 nite, speaking- of such Church ceremonies ; as du pain Mnit hallowed bread, de 
 I'cau benite holy water, fyc. 
 
 Fifth CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of T erhs in evoir. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pr. Recevoir, to receive. Ger. RfecfeVant, receiving. Part. 1 Rec\x,^c 
 ijr.Per. Avoir recu, to have received. C. Ger. Ayant regu, having 
 
 received. 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Je recois, /, tu recois, thou re- iliegoit, he receives. 
 
 receive. ceivest. 
 
 P. Nous recevons, vous recevez, ye or ils regoivent, they 
 
 zee receive. you receive. receive. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je recevojs, I did tu recevois, thou il recevoit, he did 
 receive. didst receive. receive. 
 
 P. Nous recevious, vous receviez, ye or ils recevoient, they 
 we did receive. you did, &c. did receive. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 S. Je regus, / re- tu regus, thou re- il regut, he received. 
 
 ceived. ceived'st. 
 
 P. Nous reeumes, vous regutes, ye or ils regurent, they 
 
 we received. you received. received. 
 
 Future 
 
 S. J erecevrai, I shall tu recevras, thou il recevra, he shall 
 
 or will receive. shah or zcilt, &c. receive. 
 
 P. Nous recevrons, vous recevrez, ye or il recevront, they 
 
 ne shall or mill, &c. you shall or, &c. shall receive. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 157 
 
 First Persons, 
 S. Je recevrois, J 
 
 should, would, fyc. 
 P. Nous recevrions, 
 
 we would, &c. 
 Comp. of Pres. J'ai 
 Comp. of Imp. J'avois 
 Comp. of Pret. J'eus 
 Comp. of Fut. J'aurai 
 Comp. of Cond. J'aurois 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 tu recevrois, thou 
 
 should' st &c. 
 vous recevriez, ye or 
 
 you should, &c. 
 
 regu, 
 
 C)C 
 
 I have 
 
 I had 
 
 I had 
 
 I shall have 
 
 . I should, &c. have 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il recevroit he 
 
 should, zcould, &c 
 ils recevroient, they 
 
 should, &c. 
 
 } 
 
 received, 
 &c. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 «S. C Je regoive, / may 
 que j receive, 
 that} Nous recevions, 
 P. C ae wztfj/ receive. 
 
 que 
 
 Je regusse / re- 
 ceived, or might 
 receive. 
 
 Nous regussions, 
 c^e received. 
 
 Present. 
 
 tu receives, Mow 
 mayest receive. 
 
 vous receviez, ?/e 
 or you, &c. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 tu regusses, Mow 
 
 receivedHst. 
 
 1 regoive, 7*e w^ 
 receive. 
 
 ils regoivent, Mejf 
 may receive. 
 
 il regut, fo received. 
 
 vous regussiez, ?/e 
 received. 
 
 ils regussent, 
 received. 
 
 they 
 
 Comp. 
 Comp. 
 
 of Pres. que (" J'aie 
 
 r I have, or 
 
 ") regu, j might have, 
 of Pret. that \ J'eusse j 
 
 $c. 
 
 i I had, 
 
 (^ might have 
 
 received, 
 &c. 
 
 S. 
 
 P. Recevons, let 
 us receive. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Regois, receive, &c. ,il regoive, Ze£//zY//,&G 
 
 recevez, receive, or " ils regoivent, let them 
 
 receive ye. receive. 
 
 Conjugate the verb appercevoir after recevoir, then the reflected 
 verb s'appercevoir. 
 
 Infinitive mood. S'appercevoir 'to perceive, s'appercevant 
 perceiving, appergu perceived: s'etre appergu to have perceived, 
 s'etant appergu having perceived. 
 
15B 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Indicative. Je m'appercois 1 perceive, Je m'appercevcis 
 I zvas perceiving, je me suis appergu I have perceived, je m'etois 
 appercu ; je m'appercus, je me fus appergu ; je m'appercevrai, 
 je me serai appercu ; je m'appercevrois, je me serois appercu. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je m'appercoive, que je m'appergusse, 
 que je me sois appergu, queje me fusse appercu. 
 
 Imperative. Apperc,ois-toi, qu'il s'appercoive ; apperce- 
 'ons-nous, appercevez-vous, qu'ils s'appergoivent. 
 
 Conjugate the above verbs negatively, then interrogatively, 
 ( See the tables, pages 147 & 148. J 
 
 The seven regular verbs of the fifth Conjugation are 
 appercevoir, to perceive, devoir, to owe. recevoir, to receive. 
 
 s'appercevoir, to perceiv e. redevoir, to owe again, percevoir, (a law term 
 concevoir, to conceive, decevoir, to deceive. for recevoir.) 
 
 dicevoir is quite out of use ; we now make use of tromper. 
 
 See in the Appendix another signification of devoir, as also its true use and 
 conjugation. 
 
 Sixth CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of Verbs in aire. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Pres. Faire, to do. Ger. Faisant, doing. Part. 
 
 C. Pres. Avoir fait, to have done 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Fait, done. 
 C. Ger. Ayant fait, having done. 
 
 First Persons. 
 JSj 3"e fais, I do. 
 
 P. Nous faisons, we 
 do. 
 
 S. Je faisois, I did. 
 P. Nous faisions, 
 we did. 
 
 Sjtfe ns, / did. 
 P. Nous fimes, we 
 did. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Second Persons. 
 tu fais, thou doest 
 
 or do'st. 
 vous faiteSjj/eon/em do. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 tufaisois//*ow did'st. 
 vous faisiez, ye or 
 you did. 
 
 Preterite. 
 tu fis, thou didst. 
 vous fites, ye or, 
 4r. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il fait, he does. 
 
 ils font, they do, 
 
 il faisoit, he did. 
 ils faisoient, they did. 
 
 il fit, 
 
 ils firen*, 
 
 he did. 
 they did 
 
Of VERBS, 
 
 159 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. Je ferai, I shall or 
 
 will do. 
 P. Nous ferons, we 
 
 shall or will do. 
 
 Future. 
 Second Persons. 
 tu feras, thou shalt 
 
 or xoilt do. 
 vous f erez, ye or you 
 shall or will do. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il fera, he shall or 
 
 will do. 
 ils feront, they shall 
 
 or will do. 
 
 S. Je ferois, [should, 
 
 would, could, &c. 
 
 P. Nous ferions, a# 
 
 should, &c. 
 Comp. ofPres. J'ai 
 Comp. of Imp. J'avois 
 Comp. of Pret. J'eus V- 
 Comp. of Fut. J'aurai I 
 Comp. of Cond. J'aurois J 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 tu ferois, thou 
 should'st, &c. 
 vous feriez,ye or yow 
 should,would, &c. 
 
 il feroit, he should, 
 
 would, could, &c. 
 
 ils feroient, they 
 
 should, would, &c. 
 
 fait, 
 
 <Sfc. 
 
 I had 
 
 I had 
 
 I shall have 
 
 I should, &c. have 
 
 } 
 
 done, 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 S.que Je fasse,/wz#y do . tu fasses, thou,&c. il fasse, Ae jwcry do. 
 
 P. that Nous fassions, vous f assiez, ye or ils fassent, they may 
 
 we may do. you may do. do. 
 
 Preterite. 
 S. Je fisse, 1 did, tu fisses, thou didst, il fit, he did. 
 
 que or might do. 
 P. Nous fissions, vous fissiez, ye, &c. ils fissent, they did. 
 
 we, &c. 
 Comp.ofPres.que f J'aie 7 fait, ( I have or may have 1 done, 
 Comp. of Pret. that \ J'eusse j fyc. \ Iliadov might have ) &c. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 S. Fais, do or Jo £Aoz*. ,il fasse, let him do. 
 
 P. Faisons, let us do. f aites, do or do ye.^ ils f assent,Zel them do. 
 
 Conjugate the same verb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive mood. Se faire to make oneself, se faisant 
 making oneself, fait made; s'etre fait to have made oneself, 
 s'etant fait having made oneself. 
 
160 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Je me fais / make myself, je me faisois / was 
 je me suis fait / have made myself, je m'etois 
 
 Indicative 
 making myself, 
 
 fait ; je me fis, je me fus fait ; je me f erai, je me serai fait ;' je 
 me ferois, je me serois fait. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je me fasse, que je me fisse, quejeme 
 sois fait, que je me f usse fait. 
 
 Imperative. Fais-toi, qu'il se fasse; faisons-nous, faites- 
 vous, qu'ils se fassent. 
 
 Conjugate the same verb negatively, then interrogatively ; (See 
 the Tables, pages 147 & 148.) 
 
 The Derivatives of '/aire, which are six, and of a very extensive use, are the 
 only regular verbs of the 6th Conjugation. 
 
 contrefaire, to counterfeit, refaire, to do again, surfaire, to exact or to ask 
 defaire, to undo. to make up again. too much. 
 
 redefaire, to undo again, satisfaire, to satisfy. 
 
 to which add forj aire to trespass or fail, though used only in the infinitive and 
 comp. of the pres. as in this phrase; unefilk qui a forjait a son honneur, a 
 maid that has forfeited or lost her honour. 
 
 Seventh CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of Verbs in aindre, eindre, and oindre. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pr.Craindre, to fear. Ger.Cra.igna.nt fearing. Part. Craintfeared. 
 C.P. Avoir cramt, to have feared. C. Ger. Ayant craint, having 
 
 feared. 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Je crains, I fear, tu crains, thou, &c. il craint, he fears. 
 
 P.Nous craignons,^ ;c. vous craignez, fyc. ils craignent, §c. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 S. Je craignois, 1, &c. tucraignois, fyc. il craignoit, he, &c. 
 P.Nous craignions,<2fc. vous craigniez, $fc. ils craignoient, fyc. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 S.Je craignis, I feared, tu craignis, thou, &c. il craignit, he feared, 
 P.Nous craignimes,<3fc. vous craignites, fyc. ils craignirent, fyc. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 161 
 
 ThirdPersons. 
 il craindra, he shall or 
 
 will fear. 
 ils craindront, Sfc. 
 
 Future. 
 First Persons. Second Persons. 
 
 S. Jecraindrai, I shall tucraindras, thou 
 or will fear. shalt or wilt fear. 
 
 P.Nous craindrons^fc. vous craindrez. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 S. Je craindrois, I tu craindrois, thou il craindroit, he should 
 
 should, would, &c. shouloVst, or, fyc. fear. 
 Nous craindrions, 3fc. vous craindriez,#c. ils craindroient, $t. 
 
 Comp. of P res. J'ai 
 
 Comp. of Imp. J'avois 
 
 Comp. of P ret. J'eus 
 
 Comp. of Fut. J'aurai 
 
 Comp. of Cond. J'auroisJ 
 
 cramt, 
 
 I have 
 
 I had 
 
 I had 
 | I shall have 
 \^Ishould, &c. have ) 
 
 
 feared, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. 
 
 S. Je craigne, I may tu craignes, thou il craigne, he may 
 
 que fear. may'st fear. fear. 
 
 P. Nous craignions, vous craigniez, ye ils craignent, they 
 
 we may fear, may fear. may fear. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 S. Je craignisse, / tu craignisses, thou il craignit, he 
 
 que feared or might. feared 'st. feared. 
 
 P.Nouscraignissions, v6uscraignissiez,?/e ils craignissent, 
 
 zee feared. feared. they feared. 
 
 Comp. of Pres. que J'aie ") craint, C / have or may have 1 feared, 
 Comp. of P ret. that J'eusse ] §c. \ I had or might have j Stc. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 S. Crains,fear, or fear il craigne, let him 
 
 P. Craignons, let us thou. qu' fear, 
 
 fear. craignez, fear ye. ils craignent, let, &c. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pres. Joindre, to join. Ger. Joignant, joining. P "art. J oint, joined. 
 C. Pr.Avoir joint, to have joined. C.Ge;*. Ayant joint, havingjoined. 
 
 P2 
 
162 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. Je joins, I join. 
 P. Nous joignons,$T. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 tu joins, thou join st, 
 vousjoignez,ye,&c. 
 
 Third Persons 
 il joint, he joins. 
 i\sjo\gnent,theyjoin. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 SJejo\gno\s,Idid$c. tu joignois///OM,#c. il joignoit, he did, #c. 
 P. Nousjoignions,#c. vousjoigniez,?/e,<Sfc. ilsjoignoient,fAey,$c 
 
 Preterite. 
 S. Je joignis, I joined, tu joignis, thou, fyc, il joignit, he joined. 
 P.Nousjoignimes,$fc. vousjoignites,ye,<Sfc. ils joignirent, fyc. 
 
 Future. 
 S. Je Joindrai, I,fyc. tujoindras, thou,fyc. il jomdra, he will fyc 
 P.Nous joindrons, fyc. vousjoindrez, ye, &c. ils joindront, #c. 
 
 Conditional. 
 S. Je joindrois, /, fyc. tu joindrois, thou, fyc. il joindroit, he, fyc. 
 P.Nous joindrions,<3fc. vousjoindriez, ye,<$fc. ilsjoindroient, #c. 
 
 Comp.ofPres. J'ai 
 Comp. of Imp. J'avois 
 Comp. of P ret. \ J 'eus 
 Comp .ofFut. J 'aurai 
 Comp. ofCond. J'aurois. 
 
 joint, 
 
 8$c. 
 
 I have 
 
 I had 
 
 I had 
 
 I shall have 
 
 I should, fyc. have 
 
 {joined, 
 
 C ^ c * 
 
 S. Je joigne, I, fyc. 
 que Nous joignions, 
 P. we may join. 
 
 S. Je j oignisse, I join- 
 
 que ed or might join. 
 
 P.Nousjoignissions, 
 
 we joined. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. 
 tujoignes, thou,&c. ,il joigne, he, &c. 
 vous joigniez, ye" ils joignent, they 
 may join . may join . 
 
 Preteiite. 
 
 tu joignisses, thou 
 
 joined'st. 
 vous joignissiez, ye 
 
 joined. 
 
 il joignit, he joined. 
 
 ils joignissent, they 
 joined. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 163 
 
 Comp.of Pres. que ") J'aie *) joint, C I have or may have \ joined, 
 Comp.of Pret. that ) J'eusse ) fyc. \ I had ox might have \ fyc. 
 
 First Persons 
 S. 
 
 P. Joignons, 
 join. 
 
 let us 
 
 Imperative. 
 Second Persons. 
 Joins, join thou. , 
 joignez, join or* ils joignent, let them 
 
 join ye. join. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 ,il joigne, let him join. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive mood. Sejoindre to join, se joignant joining, 
 joint joined ; s'etre joint to have joined, s'etant joint having 
 joined. 
 
 Indicative. Je me joins I join, je mejoignois I was join- 
 ing, je me suis joint 1 have joined, je m'etois joint ; je mejoi- 
 gnis, je me fus joint ; je me joindrai, je me serai joint ; je me 
 joindrois, je me serois joint. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je me joigne, que je me joignisse, que 
 je me sois joint, que je me fusse joint. 
 
 Imperative. ' Joins-toi, qu'il se joigne ; joignons-nous, 
 joignez-vous, qu'ils se joignent. 
 
 Conjugate the above Verbs negatively, then interrogatively (See 
 the Tables, pages 147 & 148.) 
 
 t e oblige, to 
 
 The verbs of the 7 th Conjugation, to the number of nineteen, are, 
 
 $ oindre, to anoint. 
 
 peindre, to paint, to draw* 
 plaindre, to pity. 
 
 se plaindre, to complain. 
 § poindre,lo peep, to dawn. 
 restreindre, to astringe, 
 
 to restringe, to limit. 
 teindre, to dye, or to co- 
 lour. 
 
 astreindre, 
 
 tie up. 
 atteindre, to reach, to hit. 
 *aveindre, to take, reach, 
 
 or fetch out. 
 ceindre, to gird. 
 
 contraindre, to constrain, 
 
 to compel. 
 craindre, to fear. 
 
 enceindre, to inclose, to 
 
 incompass. 
 t enf reindre, to infringe. 
 enjoindre, to enjoin. 
 
 eteindre, to extinguish, 
 
 to put out. 
 feindre, to feign, to dis' 
 
 setnble. 
 joindre, tojoin. 
 
 * aveindre is confined to some common forms of speech, but quite banished 
 from all style. Its preterites are never used. 
 
 + enfreindre is seldom used in common conversation, and is only of the sub- 
 lime style. 
 
 t oindre is used only in speaking of sacred ceremonies (particularly in the 
 church of Rome) wherein oil is used ; otherwise we say y rotter to rub. The only 
 phrase wherein oindre is kept, is in this proverbial saying (which also grows ob- 
 solete) Oignez vilain, il vous poindra, save a thief from hanging, and he'll cut 
 your throat. 
 
 $ poindre is another obsolete word, used only in the infinitive, and that too in 
 poetry, after the verb commencer : as Lejour commencoit a peindre, the day began 
 to peep : in which case it is neuter, and of quite another signification than the 
 just mentioned proverb, wherein it signifies to hurt. 
 
164 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Eighth CONJUGATION 
 
 Of Verbs in oitre. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 P.Connoitre, to know. Ger. Connoissant, knowing. Part. Comm,$>c 
 C.Pres. Avoir connu/o have known.C*Ger.Ayzat comm,having,S)C 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 5. Je cormois, I know, tu connois, thou, &c. ilconnoit, he knows 
 
 P. Nous connoissons, vous comioissez, ye ils connoissent, they 
 
 we know. know. knozv. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je connoissois, I tu connoisois, thou il connoissoit, he 
 
 did know. did'st know. did know. 
 
 P. Nous commissions, vous conuoissiez, ye ils connoissoient,f^ey 
 
 zee did know. or you did know. did knozv. 
 
 Preterite, 
 
 S. Je cormus, 1 knew, tu connus, thou, &c. il connut, he hiew.. 
 
 P. Nous connumes, vous connutes, ye or ils connurent, they 
 we knew. you knezv. knew. 
 
 Future. 
 S.JeconnoitraijJsAtfZ/ tu connoitras, thou il connoftra, he shall 
 
 or will know. shalt or wilt, &c. or will know. 
 
 P. Nous connoitrons, vous connoitrez, ye ils connoltront, they 
 
 we, &c. shall or will know. shall or will knozv. 
 
 Conditional. 
 S. Je connoitrois, I tu connoitrois, thou il connoitroit, he 
 
 siiould, fyc. shoidd'st, &c. should, &c. 
 
 P. Nous counoitrions, vous connoitriez, ye ils connoitroient,f//ey 
 
 we should, fyc. shoidd, &c. should, fyc. 
 
 Comp.ofPres. J'ai -n r I have -\ 
 
 Comp.of'Imp. J'avois I \ I had I 7 
 
 n J rr» 4. t> V connu, t, , ( known. 
 
 Lornp. oj Pret. J eus > , VJ had V „ 
 
 Comp.ofFut. J'aurai k ^ c * } I shall have i 
 
 Comp.ofCond. J'auroisJ *L I should, &c. have J 
 
First Persons. 
 S. Je connoisse, / 
 que may know. 
 P. Nous connoissi- 
 
 ons, we,tyc. 
 
 S.Je connusse, I knew, 
 que or might know. 
 P. Nous connussions, 
 
 we knew. 
 Comp.qfPres. que C J 
 Comp.qfPret.that \ J 
 
 Of VERBS. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 
 tu connoisses, thou 
 
 may'st, fyc 
 vous connoissiez, ye 
 or you, §c. 
 
 Preterite. 
 tu connusses, thou 
 knewest. 
 
 vous connussiez 
 
 knew. 
 aie 
 eusse 
 
 165 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il connoisse, he may 
 
 know. 
 ils connoissent, they 
 
 may know. 
 
 il connu t, he knew. 
 
 ils connussent, 
 knew. 
 
 they 
 
 } connu, C I have or may have 1 known, 
 $c> 1 1 had or might have ) &c. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 S. Connois, know thou, il connoisse, let him 
 
 qu' know. 
 P. Connoissons, let connoissez, 
 
 know, or 
 
 us knozv. 
 
 ils connoissent, 
 them know. 
 
 let 
 
 know ye. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. . Se connoitre to knozv oneself, se con- 
 noissant knowing oneself, connu known ; s'etre connu to have 
 known oneself, s'etant connu having known oneself. \ . 
 
 Indicative. Je me connois i" knozv myself j je me con- 
 noissois / xvas knowing myself, je me suis connu / have known 
 myself, je m'etois connu; je me connus, je me fus connu ;je 
 me connoitrai, je me serai connu ; je me connoitrois, je me 
 serois connu. 
 
 Subjunctive Que je me connoisse, que je me connusse, 
 que je me sois connu, que je me fusse connu. 
 
 Imperative. Connois-toi, qu'il se connoisse; connoissons- 
 nous, connoissez-vous, qu'ils se connoissent. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb negatively, then interrogatively ; 
 (See the Tables, page 147 # 148.) 
 
 The eleven verbs of the eighth Conjugation are, 
 connoitre, to know, paroitre to appear, croltre, to grow. 
 
 meconnoitre, to forget, to disparoitre, to disappear, accroitre, to accrue. 
 
 know no more. *apparoitre, to appear, decroitre, to decrease, to 
 
 reconnoitre,fo know again, * comparoitre, to appear. grow less. 
 to acknowledge, toreconnoitre. to make one's appearance.' recroitre, to grow agaim 
 * ApparoUre and comparoUre, are only used in law. 
 
166 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Ninth CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of Verbs in uire. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pies. Instruire, to Ger. instruisant. in- Part. Instruit, in- 
 instruct. structing. structed. 
 
 C. Pres. Avoir instruit, to have C. Ger. Ayant instruit, hating 
 instructed. instructed. 
 
 Indicative. 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 S. J'instruis, I in- tu instruis, thou in- il instruit, he in- 
 struct, struct est. structs. 
 P. Nous instmisons, vous instruisez, ye ils instruisent, they 
 we instruct. instruct. instruct. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. J'instruisois, I did tu instruisois, thou il instruisoit, he did 
 didst instruct. instruct. 
 
 vous instruisiez, ye ils instruisoient, they 
 
 instruct. 
 P.Nous instruisions, 
 we did, &c, 
 
 S. J'instruisis, / in- 
 structed. 
 
 did instruct. did instruct. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 tu instruisis, thou il instruisit, he in- 
 instructedst. structed. 
 
 P.Nous instruisimes, vous instruisites, ye ils instruisirent, they 
 we instructed. instructed. instructed. 
 
 S.J'instruirai, / shall 
 
 or will instruct. 
 P. Nous instruirons, 
 
 we shall or will,S)C. 
 
 S. J'instruirois, J 
 
 should, fyc. 
 P.Nous instruirions, 
 
 we should, fyc. 
 Comp. of Pres. J'ai 
 Comp of Imp. J'avois 
 Comp.ofPret. J'eus 
 Comp. of Put. J'aurai 
 Comp. ofCond. J'aurois 
 
 Future. 
 tu instruiras, thou 
 
 shalt or wilt, &c. 
 vous instruirez, ye 
 
 shall or will, fyc. 
 
 Conditional. 
 tu instruirois, thou 
 
 should'st, fyc. 
 vous instruiriez, ye 
 
 would, fyc. 
 
 il instruira, he shall 
 
 or will, &c. 
 ils instruiront, they 
 
 shall or will, fyc. 
 
 he 
 
 instruit, 
 
 il instruiroit, 
 
 would, fyc. 
 ils instruiroient, they 
 
 would instruct. 
 
 I have ~\ ^ 
 
 I had I -22 
 
 I had 
 
 I shall have 
 
 I should, &c. have J ' 
 
 tcJd 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 16? 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. J'instruise, / may 
 
 que instruct. 
 P. Nous instruisions, 
 we may, fyc. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 
 tu instruises, thou 
 
 may' sty fyc. 
 vous instruisiez, ye . 
 may, fyc. 
 
 Preterite. 
 S. J'instruisisse, / in- tu instruisisses, thou 
 que struct ed or might &c. 
 that instruct. 
 P. Nous instruisis- vous instruisissiez, 
 
 sions, we, fyc.ye, fyc. 
 Comp.qf Pres. que C J'aie 1 instruit, C I may have 7 instructed 
 Comp.of Pret.that \ J'eusse } #c. \ I might have } 6)c. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il instruise, he may 
 
 instruct. 
 ils instruisent, they 
 
 may instruct. 
 
 il instruisit, he in 
 structed. 
 
 ils instruisissent, 
 they, 6)C 
 
 S. 
 
 P. Instruisons, let us 
 
 instruct. 
 
 Imperative, 
 
 msixms, instruct thou, il instruise, let him 
 
 qu' instruct. 
 instruisez, instruct ils instruisent, lei 
 
 you ox ye, §c. them instruct. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive mood. S'instruire to get acquainted, to he *»<• 
 structed or informed, s'instruisant being instructed, instruit in 
 structed; s'etre instruit to hav° been instructed, s'etant instruit 
 having been instructed 
 
 Indicative. Je m'instnris I am instructed, jem'instruisois 
 / was instructed, je me suis instruit J have been instructed, je 
 m'etois instruit ; je m'instruisis, je ne fus instruit ; je m'instruiraij 
 je me serai instruit ; je m'instruirois, je me serois instruit. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je m'instruise, que je m'instruisisse, que 
 je me sois instruit, que je me fusse instruit. 
 
 Imperative. ; Instruis-toi, qu'il s'instruise ; instruisons-nous, 
 instruisez-vous, qu'ils s'instruisent. 
 
 Conjugate the same verb negatively, then interrogatively; (See 
 the tables, page 147.) 
 
 The nineteen verbs of the ninth Conjugation are, 
 * bruire, towstle. introduire, to introduce, instruire, to instruct 
 
 * bruire is said of thunder, wind, and waves, and used only in the imperfect 
 and part, which is a mere adnoun. As the gerund bruyant is irregular, so is the 
 imperfect bruyoit. 
 
168 
 
 ACCI1 
 
 )ENCE. 
 
 
 conduire, to conduct. 
 
 produire, 
 
 to produce. 
 
 detruire, 
 
 reconduire, to reconduct. 
 
 reduire, 
 
 to reduce, to 
 
 t luire, 
 
 t cuire, to boil, to bake. 
 
 bring to. 
 
 
 X reluire, 
 
 recuire, to boil again. 
 
 seduire, 
 
 to seduce. 
 
 j mure, 
 
 enduire, to plaster, or to 
 
 traduire, 
 
 to translate. 
 
 d6duire, 
 
 do over. 
 
 construire, 
 
 to construct, 
 
 to abate. 
 
 induire, to induce. 
 
 or to build 
 
 
 
 to destroy 
 to shine 
 to shine, 
 to hurt 
 
 tv deduct . 
 
 t cuire besides boiling and baking, is also cnglished by to do : Cela n'est pas 
 cuit, That is not done enough : Faites recuire cette viande-la, Get that meat done 
 better. — cuire, used in the third persons only, signifies to smart. 
 
 $ luire, reluire, and nuire take no t at the end of the participle as the others do 
 and therefore make lui, and nui. 
 
 
 Tenth CONJUGATION. 
 
 Of Verbs in endre, and ondre. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Pres.\ endre, to sell. Ger. Vendant, selling. Part. Vendu, sold. 
 C.Pres.Avoir vendu to have sold.C.Ger. Ayant vendu, having sold 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons. 
 
 S. Je vends, I sell, tu vends, thou, fyc. il vend, he sells. 
 
 P.Nous vendons, we vous vendez, ye or ils vendent, they sell. 
 
 sell. you sell. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je vendois, / did tu xendois,thou did'st il vendoit, he did sell, 
 
 sell. sell. 
 
 P. Nous vendions, vous vendiez, ye or ils vendoierrt, they 
 
 we did sell. you did sell. did sell. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 S. Je vendis, Isold, tu vendis, thou, fyc. il vendit, he sold. 
 
 P. Nous vendimes, vous vendites, ye or ils vendirent, they 
 we sold. you sold. sold 
 
 Future. 
 
 S. Je vendrai, shall tuvendras, thoushalt ilvendra, he shall or 
 
 or will sell. or wilt sell. zcill sell. 
 
 P.Nous vendrons,a;e vousvendrez,^esfo*// ils vendront, they 
 
 shall or will sell. or will sell. shall or will sell. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 160 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. Je vendrois, J 
 
 would, could, &c. 
 P. Nous vendrions, 
 
 we would, fyc. 
 Comp. qfPres. J'ai 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 
 tu vendrois, thou 
 
 would' st, &c. 
 vous vendriez, ye 
 would, §c 
 
 Comp. of Imp J'avois I vend 
 Comp. oj rret. J eus > a 7 
 Comp. of Put. J'aurai 
 Comp. of Cond. J'aurois J 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il vendroit, he would, 
 
 could, #c. 
 ils vendroient, they 
 
 would, fyc. sell. 
 1 have 
 I had 
 
 I had ysold, fyc. 
 
 I shall have 
 I should, £$c. have 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 
 S. Je vende, 
 que sell. 
 
 I may tuxendeSjthoumay'st il vende, he may sell, 
 sell, 
 that Nousvendions, vous vendiez, ye may ils vendent, they may 
 P. we may sell. sell. sell. 
 
 S. Je vendisse, / 
 que sold or might 
 that sell. 
 P. Nous vendissions, 
 
 we, fyc. 
 
 Preterite. 
 tu vendisses, thou, 
 
 4-c. 
 
 vous vendissiez, ye 
 sold. 
 
 il vendit, he sold. 
 
 Comp. of Pres. que J'aie 7 vendu, C I 
 
 Comp. of P ret, that J'eusse ) 3>c. \ I might have 
 
 ils vendissent, 
 sold, 
 may have 
 
 they 
 
 sold 
 
 S. 
 
 P. Vendons, let us 
 
 sell. 
 
 Imperative. 
 Vends, sell or sell il vende, let him 
 
 thou. qu' sell. 
 
 vendez, sell or sell ils vendent, let them 
 ye. sell. 
 
 Conjugate the same Verb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive mood. Se vendre to sell oneself, se vendant 
 selling oneself vendu sold ; s'etre vendu to have sold oneself, 
 s'etant vendu having sold oneself 
 
 Indicative. Je me vends / sell myself je me vendois / was 
 selling myself je me suis vendu / have sold myself je m'etois 
 vendu ; jo me vendis, je me fus vendu ; je me vendrai, je me 
 serai vendu ; je me vendrois, je me serois vendu. 
 
170 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Subjunctive. Queje mevende, que je me vendisse, queje 
 me sois vendu, que je me fusse vendu. 
 
 Imperative. Vends-toi, qu'il se vende ; vendons-nous, 
 vendez-vous, qu'ils se vendent. 
 
 Conjugate the sam-e verb negatively, then interrogatively ; (See 
 the Tables, pages 147 # 148.) 
 
 N. B. Se vendre is also said of things, but in a passive sense, 
 and means to be sold, as le ble se vend wheat is sold, la dentelle 
 s'est vendue lace has been sold. (See the N. B. at the end of 
 tenir, page 155.) 
 
 The regular verbs of this termination are, 
 attendre to expect, to 
 
 waitfor. 
 condescendre, to conde- 
 scend, to comply. 
 descendre, to go, come, or 
 get down. 
 
 entendre, to hear, to 
 
 understand. 
 etendre, to stretch out. 
 fendre, tocleave,to split. 
 pendre, to hang. 
 
 vendre, to sell. 
 
 tend re, to tend, to bend. 
 pretendre, to pretend, 
 
 to claim. 
 rendre, to give way, to 
 
 return, to render. 
 repandre, to spill, to pour 
 
 down. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Ger. Repondant, an- 
 
 Ptfrt.Repondu, an- 
 swered. 
 
 Pres. Repondre, to 
 
 answer., 
 C. Pres. Avoir repondu, to have C. Ger. Ayant repondu, having 
 
 answered. answered. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 First Persons. Second Persons. 
 
 S. Je reponds, I an- tu reponds, thou an- 
 swer, swer'st. 
 P. Nous repondons, vous repondez, ye 
 tee answer. answer. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il repond, he answers. 
 
 ils repondent, they 
 anszcer. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je repondois, I tu repondois, thou il repondoit, he did 
 
 did answer. didst anszcer. answer. 
 
 P. Nous repondions, vous repondiez, ye ils repondoient, they 
 
 we did anszcer, did answer. did answer. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 S. Je repondis, / tu repondis, thou an- il repondit, he an- 
 
 answered. sweredht. szcered. 
 
 P. Nous rSpondimes, vous repondites, ye ils repondirent, they 
 
 zve answered. answered. anszcered. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 171 
 
 First Persons, 
 S. Je repondrai, 1 
 
 shall or will, &c. 
 
 P. Nous repondrons, 
 
 we shall j or will, ^ic. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 
 tu repbndras, thou 
 
 shalt or wilt ,&c. 
 
 vous repondrez, i/e 
 
 s^«/Z or will, &c. 
 
 TAird Persons. 
 
 il repondra, Ae s^a// 
 
 or arc'// answer. 
 ils r&pondront, Mey 
 
 5^«// or willy &c. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 S. Je repondrois, / tu repondrois, thou 
 would, could, &c. would! st, &c. 
 
 P. Nous repondrions, vous repondriez, 3/e 
 ate would, &c. would, &c. 
 
 il repondroit, Ae 
 
 would, &c. 
 ils repondroient, Mej/ 
 
 would, &c. 
 
 Comp. of P res. 
 Comp. of Imp. 
 Comp. of Pret. 
 Comp. of Put. 
 Comp. of Cond. 
 
 J'ai * 
 
 J'avois 
 J'eus 
 J'aurai 
 J'aurois 
 
 
 H3 
 
 o 
 
 Oh 
 
 j < 
 
 / have 
 
 I had 
 
 I had yfl ei " 
 
 I shall have \ ed > &c * 
 
 I would, &c. ^zaej 
 
 «S. Je reponde, I 
 que mat/ answer, 
 that Nous repon- 
 P. dions eye, &c. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 tu repondes, jf/ioz* 
 
 may' st, &c. 
 vous repondiez, j/e 
 may, &c. 
 
 il reponde, Ae may 
 
 answer. 
 ils repondent, fAej/ 
 
 may answer. 
 
 Preterite. 
 S. Je repondi&se, I tu repondisses, £/*o*/, il repondit, he an- 
 que answered, or #c. swered. 
 
 that might answer. 
 P. Nous repondis- vous repondissiez, ils repondissent, they 
 
 sions, we, fyc. ye, fyc. answered. 
 
 Comp. of Pres. que J'aie } repondu, C / may have 1 answered, 
 Comp. of Pret. that J'eusse ) fyc. . \ I might have ) &c 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 S. Reponds, answer, or il reponde, let him 
 
 answer thou. qu' answer. 
 P. Repondons, let repondez, a nswer, or ils repondent, let 
 us answer. answer ye. them answer. 
 
172 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 The regular verbs of this termination are, 
 confondre, to confound. refondre,£o cast, nezo mould, pondre, to lay eggs. 
 correspondre,£o correspond. morfondre, to make catch repondre, to answer. 
 fondre, to melt. cold. tondre, to shear. 
 
 perdre, o lose. Ger. perdant, losing. Part, perdu, lost. 
 
 mordre, to bite. Ger. mordant, biting. Part, mordu, bit. 
 
 follow also the tenth conjugation; to which one may add tordre to twist, of 
 which the participle is tordu ; its old participle tors, is at present an adjective, 
 used in these expressions du Jils tors, twisted thread ; une colonne torse, a 
 wreathed column ; bouche torte, wry mouth. 
 
 We shall treat elsewhere (p. 288.) of the use of the tenses, and 
 then observe how the English commonly use the preterite in- 
 stead of the three first compound tenses of the French : but it 
 must be sufficient now to conjugate all the tenses grammatically, 
 for the best learning of the verbs. 
 
 The following verbs neuter form their compound from ttre : 
 accourir, to run, to go. retourner, to return, tomber, to fall down. 
 entrer, to enter, to come, venir, to come. 
 
 or get in. revenir, to come again. 
 
 monter, to go up, to devenir, to become. 
 
 come, or get up. convenir. to agree. 
 
 mourir, to die. disconvenir, to disagree. 
 
 naitre, to be born, provenir, to come from. 
 
 partir, to go, to depart, parvenir, to attain. 
 
 to set out. survenir, ••. to befall. 
 
 sortir, to go out. intervenir, to intervene. 
 
 Therefore you should say : Je suis airive" ce matin, I arrived this morning: ; not 
 J'ai arrive", &c. Elle est venue cetle apres midi, she came this afternoon ; not 
 Elle a venu, &c. 
 
 Some of these verbs are also use actively, that is, attended by a noun as their 
 object : then they form their compounds from avoir. Therefore, though we say 
 when the verb is neuter,E£/e est month, she is got up ; Elle est descendue, she has 
 come, or got down ; yet when the verb is attended by a noun, we say, Elle a 
 descendu Vescalier plus aistment qu'elle ne V a monte, she went, or got down the 
 stairs more easily than she got up 
 
 Croitre to grow, sortir to go out, demeurer to live, rester to stay, are equally 
 well conjugated with it re or avoir ; as il est, or il a fort cru, he is very much 
 grown ; j'ai sorti, or je suis sorti ce matin, I went out this morning. We say- 
 equally well J'ai aceouru, and Je suis accowu a son secours, I ran to his assistance. 
 But avoir and Ure construed with sortir and demeurer, imply two different things. 
 
 II est sorti signifies that he is not at home, or within the place where one is r 
 and is englished thus, he is gone out or alroad ; and il a sorti signifies that he has 
 been out on some business or other, but is come back again since : il a sorti ce 
 matin, he went out this morning. 
 
 In the same manner il a demeurk a Paris, signifies that he has lived at Paris for 
 a while, and is no more there : and il est demeure' a Paris, that he remained at 
 Paris, to continue to live there ; or at least that he is there still. 
 
 Again sortir and promener are also used actively : as sortez ce cheval de l'ecurie T 
 If le promenez, get the horse out of the stable and walk him. 
 
 When the verb passer is attended by a noun and a preposition, it is conjugated 
 with avoir, and with etre when it is used absolutely without any retinue ; as j'at 
 passe par VAllemagne, I passed through Germany ; vous attendez le courier, il est 
 passe, you stay for the express, he is passed, or gone. 
 
 alter, 
 
 
 to go. 
 
 aborder, 
 
 
 to land. 
 
 arriver, 
 
 
 to arrive. 
 
 choir, 
 
 
 to fall. 
 
 dechoir, 
 
 
 to decay. 
 
 decider, 
 
 
 to die. 
 
 descendre, 
 
 to go, come, 
 
 or get down, 
 
 
 rester, 
 
 
 to stay. 
 
Of VERBS 173 
 
 Verbs Irregular. 
 
 As to the verbs called Irregular, because they don't form all their tenses 
 according to the aforesaid rules ; observe that their irregularities fall only upon 
 either of these tenses, present (of both moods), preterite, and future : and 
 therefore I should only need to set down their irregularities, were this Gram 
 mar designed for scholars only. But as it is calculated for learners of all sorts, 
 and those of the meanest capacity can't have too much help in this matter, I 
 shall take notice of those verbs in such a manner as will make the conjugation 
 of them very easy to any learner, setting down (for abbreviation sake) the ter- 
 mination of each person only.* 
 
 Observe further, that in verbs irregular, the preterite is ordinarily like the 
 participle, in adding s when it has none : as Je mis I put, from mis put; Je con- 
 clus I concluded, from conclu concluded. 
 
 There are but two # verbs irregular in the first conjugation • 
 aller to go, and puer to stink ; which is irregular only in the 
 spelling of the three persons sing, of the pres. of the indicative. 
 Je pus, tupus, il put, instead oijepue, tu pues, ilpue, all the rest 
 being regular. However, French politeness dislikes the very- 
 word puer, and instead of it, we, in conversation, make use of 
 sentir mauvais. 
 
 Aller is very irregular throughout ; and as it is of a very exten- 
 sive use with the explicative particle en and a double pronoun, it 
 shall be set down here at length ; but children must first learn 
 the plain verb aller, before they conjugate the reciprocal s'en aller, 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Pres. S'en aller, to go Ger. S'en allant, go- Pari, alle, gone 
 
 away. ing away. away. 
 
 C.Pr. S'en etre all.6, to have C. Ger. S'en etant alle, having 
 
 gone away. gone away. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 First Perso?is. Seco?id Persons, ThirdPersons. 
 
 S. Je m'en vais, I tut'envas, thou goest il s'en va, he goes 
 
 go away. away. away. 
 
 P. Nous nous en al- vous vous en allez,?/e ils s'en vont, they go 
 Jons, we go away. or you go away. away. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. Je m'en allois, / tu t'en allois, thou il s'en alloit, he did 
 
 did go awa y did! si go away. go away. 
 
 P. Nous nous en al- vous vous en alliez, ils s'en alloient, they 
 
 lions we did &c. ye or you did, &c. did go away. 
 
 * J'enverrai and fenverrois have prevailed instead of the regular future and 
 conditional of envoyer (J'envoyerai, T envoy erois). 
 
 Q2 
 
174 
 
 ACCIDENCE 
 
 First Persons. 
 S. Je m'en allai, / 
 
 zvent away. 
 P. Nous nous en al- 
 lames, we went, fyc. 
 
 S.Jem'enirai, I shall 
 
 or will go azvay. 
 P. Nous nous en 
 
 irons, we shall, fyc. 
 
 S. Je m'en irois, 1 
 
 should, fyc.go away. 
 
 P. Nous nous 
 
 irions, zee, &c. 
 
 Preterite. 
 
 Second Persons. 
 
 tu t'en alias, thou 
 
 wentest away. 
 vous vous en allates, 
 ye or you, fyc. 
 
 Future. 
 tu t'en iras, thou shalt il s'en ira, he shall 
 
 or wilt, fyc. or will go away. 
 
 vous vous en irez, ye ils s'en iront, they 
 
 or you shall, fyc. 
 
 Conditional. 
 tu t'en irois, thou 
 would'st, Sfc. 
 
 Third Persons. 
 il s'en alia, he went 
 
 away. 
 ils s'en alle rent, they 
 
 went away. 
 
 shall, $)C. go azvay. 
 il s'en iroit, he would, 
 
 en 
 
 cfc. go away. 
 ils s'en iroient, they 
 would, S^c. go azvay. 
 
 vous vous en Inez, 
 ye or you, fyc. 
 
 Compound of the Present. 
 S. Je m'en suis alle, tu t'en es alle, thou il s'en est alle, he has 
 
 * I have gone azvay. hast gone away. gone away. 
 
 P.Nousnousensom- vous vous en etes ils s'en sent alles, 
 
 mes alles, zee, fyc. alles, ye have, fyc. they have, fyc. 
 
 Compound of the Imperfect. 
 S. Je m'en etois alle, tu t'en etois alle, thou il s'en etoit alle, he 
 
 f 1 had gone azvay. 
 
 P.Nous nous en eti- 
 
 ons alles, we, fyc. 
 
 had'st, fyc. 
 vous vous en etiez 
 alles, ye had, fyc. 
 
 Compound of the Preterite. 
 S. Je m en fus alle, tu t'en fus alle, thou 
 J / had gone away. had'st gone away. 
 P. Nous nous en fu- vous vous en futes 
 mes alles, we, §c. alles, ye, &c. 
 
 Compound of the Future. 
 S. Je m'en serai alle, tu t'en seras a\\e,thou il s'en sera alle, he 
 
 § I shall have, #c. wilt have gone, fyc. will have gone, Sfc. 
 
 P. Nous nous en se- vous vous en serez ils s'en 'seront alles, 
 
 rons alles, we, fyc. alles, ye, fyc. they will have, fyc. 
 
 had gone away. 
 ils s'en etoient alles, 
 they had gone, #c. 
 
 il s'en fut alle, he 
 
 had gone away. 
 
 ils s'en furent alles, 
 
 they had gone azvay. 
 
 * or I have been gone away, or I am gone away. 
 
 \ or I had been gone away, or I was gone away. 
 
 \ or J had been gone away, or was gone away. 
 
 § or I shall have been gone away, or shall be gone away, 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 175 
 
 Compound of the Conditional. 
 
 First Persons. Second Persons. Third Persons 
 
 S. Je m'en serois alle, tu t'en serois alle, 
 / should, &c. thou would' st, &c. 
 
 P. Nous nous en se- vous vous en seriez 
 rions alles, we, &c. alles, ye, &c. 
 
 il s'en seroit alle, he 
 would have, &c. 
 
 ils s'en seroienc alles^ 
 they would, &c. 
 
 S. C Je'm'en aille, 
 que j I may go away, 
 that j Nous nous en 
 P. (.al lions, a?e,&c. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. 
 
 tu t'en ailles, thou 
 
 may'stgo away. 
 
 vous vous en alliez, 
 
 ye or you, &c. 
 
 il s'en aille, he may 
 
 go azvay. 
 ils s'en aillent, they 
 
 may go away. 
 
 P reterite. 
 S. f Je m'en a\\asse,Iz£ent tu t'en allasses, thou il s'en allat, he 
 que J or might go azvay. zcenfst away. went away, 
 
 that ) Nous nous en alias- vous vous en alias- ils s'en allassent, 
 P. v. sions, we, &c. siez, ye, or, &;c. they zvent, &c 
 
 Compound of the Present. 
 S. C Je m'en sois alle, tu t'en sois alle, il s'en soit alle, he 
 que ) I have gone, due. thou hast, &c. has, &c. 
 
 that) Nous nous en soy- vous vous en soyez ils s'en soient alles,. 
 P. v. ons alles, we, &c. alles, ye, &c. they, &c. 
 
 5. 
 que 
 that 
 P. 
 
 Compound of the Preterite. 
 Je m'en fu?se alle, tu t'en fusses alle, ils s'en fut alle, he 
 
 I had or might thou hadUst, &c. 
 
 have gone away. 
 Nous nous en f us- vous vous en fus- 
 
 sions alles, fyc. siez alles, ye, &c. 
 
 had gone away. 
 
 ils s'en fussent 
 16s, they, &c. 
 
 al- 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 S. \ &-t-en,go thou away . ,il s'en aille, let, fyc. 
 
 P. Allons-nous -en, or get you gone. ^ u ils s'en aillent, let 
 
 let us go away or allez-vous-en, go azvay, them go azvay. 
 
 be gone away. get away, &c. 
 
 
176 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Conjugate the same verb negatively, then interrogatively ; (See 
 the tables, pages 147 & 148.) 
 
 Imperative. Net'envapas, qu'il ne s'en aille pas ; ne nous 
 en allons pas, ne vous en allez pas, qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas. 
 
 Observe, 1st, that all the compound tenses of alter are double, they being 
 equally well formed with the verb substantive etre and the participle alii ; as 
 je suis (die, j'itois alii ; and with the auxiliary avoir, and the part, iti ; as 
 fai iti. favois iti, &c. 
 
 'idly, One must very warily distinguish the proper compound tenses of alter 
 (fai iti, favois iti,) &c. from the use that the participle of the same verb 
 (alii) is put to with the verb etre (je suis alii, fitois alii) which imply quite 
 another sense than that signified by the action of the verb. For il est alii & 
 Paris (for example), far from expressing the action signified by the compound 
 of the present of alter, intimates that either he is at Paris, or at least is still on 
 his journey thither, which is properly englished thus, he is gone to Paris. But 
 II a iti a Paris, he has been at Paris (which is the proper compound of the 
 present of alter), signifies that he has travelled to Paris, and is returned from 
 thence. I have therefore set down the two ways in English, (lam gone away, 
 and I have been gone away, for je m'en suis alii), which may be both used con- 
 formably to this observation. 
 
 3dly, The preterite tenses of oiler and sen alter are also doubled, those of 
 the verb etre being equally well used. J'allai or Jefus ; J'allasse or Jefusse, 
 I went ; Je m'en allai, or Je ?7i'en fus, I went away. But we don't say with 
 the double pronoun and the particle en, Je m'en ai iti, as we say without them 
 J'ai iti I have been, or have gone. 
 
 4thly, The difference between alter and s'en alter is this : The first is used 
 to denote only the going from one place to another ; whereas s'en alter de- 
 notes the very departure, the just going away directly ; or at least shows the 
 specified time of setting out from one mentioned or supposed place. 
 
 bthly, s'en alter is also said of liquors, to signify their running away from the 
 vessels where they are kept ; le vin s'en va, le tonneau ne vaut rien, the wine 
 runs away, the vessel is good for nothing. 
 
 6thly, venir to come, revenir to come back again, and retourner to return, 
 are also conjugated with a double pronoun and the particle en ; as Je m'en 
 reviens, I am coming back again; II s'en retourne, he is returning; and either 
 way must be used according to the aforesaid difference between alter and s'en 
 alter. 
 
 Ithly, Though the participle of recouvrer to recover, or to get again, is ai. 
 present recouvri, as usual to all verbs of the first conjugation, yet custom keeps 
 still the old participle reconvert in law-style, as likewise in this proverb, Pour 
 unperdu deux recouverts, for one lost two recovered, or found again. 
 
 Verbs Irregular of the Qd and 3d Conjugation, 
 viz. in ir. 
 Inf. ACQUERIR, to acquire, to get, to purchase. 
 acquerir, to acquire. Ger. acquerant, acquiring. Part, acquis, 
 acquired. C. Pres. avoir acquis, to have acquired. C. Ger. 
 ayant acquis, having acquired. 
 Pres. J'aequi-ers, iers, iert ; Nous acque-rons, rez, acquitment 
 Imp. J'acquer-ois, ois, oit ; Nous acquer-ions, iez, oient. 
 
Of VERBS. 177 
 
 Pret. J'acqu -is, is, it ; Nous acqui-mes, tes, rent. 
 Fut. J'acquer -rai, ras, ra ; Nous acquer-rons, rez, ront. 
 Cond. J'acquer-rois,rois,roit ; Nous acquer-rions, riez, roient. 
 S.P.uJ'acquier-e, es, e; Nous acquer-ions, iez, acquierent. 
 
 Pr. S-J'acqu-isse, isses, it; "Nous acqui-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Acquiers, qu'il acquiere ; acque-rons, rez, qu'ils ac- 
 quierent. 
 
 Tlie other veros tnat foliow the same conjugation are conquerir to conquer, 
 and requerir to require, which last is only used in law : conquerir is used only 
 in the infinitive, both preterite and compound tenses. As for querir to fetch r 
 it has but the infinitive in use, and that too immediately after the verbs oiler to 
 go, venir to come, and envoyer to send ; and s'enquerir de to enquire after, 
 is become obsolete; instead of which we now say *' 'informer. 
 
 BOUILL1R. 
 
 Inf. bouillir, to boil. Ger. bouillant, boiling. Part. hoxu\Yi,boiled+ 
 C.Pm.avoir bouilli, to have boiled. C.Ger. ay ant bouilli, having 
 
 boiled. 
 Pres. Je bous, bous, bout ; Nous bouill-ons, 
 Imp. Je bouill-ois, ois, oit ; Nous bouill-ions, 
 Pret . Je bouill-is, is, it ; Nous bouilli-mes, 
 Fut. Je bouilli-rai, ras, ra ; Nous bouilli-rons, 
 Cond. Je bouilli-rois,rois,roit ; Nous bouilli-rions, 
 S.P.vJe bouill-e, cs, e; Nous bouill-ions, 
 Pr. °*Je bouill-isse, issies, it ; Nous bouilli-ssions, ssies, ssent. 
 Imper. Bous, qu'il bouille ; bouill-ons, ez, qu'ils bouillent. 
 
 Its compound is rebouiUir, to boil again. That verb is seldom used but 
 
 in the infinitive and 3d persons of its tenses : and it is always neuter. There- 
 fore don't say bouillir de la viande, as in English, to boil meat, bixtfaire bouil- 
 lir de la viande. 
 
 COURIR. 
 
 Inf. courir, to run. Ger. courant, running. Part, couru, ruru 
 CPm.avoircouru, to have run. C.Ger. ayant couru, having run, 
 Pres. Je cours, cours, court ; 
 Imp. Je cour-ois, ois, oit ; 
 Pret. Je cour-us, us, ut ; 
 Fut. Je cour-rai, ras, ra ; 
 Cond. Je cour-rois, rois, roit ; 
 S.P.vJe cour-e, es, e; 
 
 Pr. °"Je cour-usse, usses, ut ; Nous couru-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 Imper. Cours, qu'il coure ; cour-ons, ez, qu'ils courent. 
 
 After the same manner are conjugated tlrese seven verbs : 
 accourir, to run to. discourir, to discourse, lieve. But the compound 
 
 concourir, to concur, to parcourir, to run over, to tenses of accourir are con- 
 
 conspire. survey. jugated with ctre. Sec 
 
 enconrir, to incur, to fall recourir,fa> have recourse tc. pajje 172. 
 
 under. secourir, to succour, to re- 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 tez, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient, 
 
 iez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Nous cour-ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Nous cour-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Nous couru-mes, 
 
 tes, 
 
 rent. 
 
 Nous cour-rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 Nous cour-rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 Nous cour-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 ient. 
 
178 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 CUEILLIR, to gather, to pick up. 
 
 Inf. cueillir, to gather. Ger. cuelllant, gathering. Part, cueilli, 
 
 gathered. C. Pres. avoir cueilli, to have gathered. C. Ger. ayant 
 
 cueilli, having gathered. 
 
 Pres. Je cueill-e, " es, e ; Nous cueill-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je cueill-ois, ois, oit; Nous cueill-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je cueill-is, is, it ; Nous cueilli-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. Je cueille-rai, ras, ra ; Nous cueille-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je cueille-rois, rois, roit ; Nous cueille-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 *S.P.ojJe cueill-e, es, e; Nous cueill-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je cueill-isse, isses, it ; Nous cueilli-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Cueille, qu'il cueille ; cueill-ons, ez, qu'ils cueillent. 
 
 accueillir, to make welcome is very little used : in lieu thereof we say faire accueiL 
 and /aire bon accueil. Recueillir, to collect, to gather together, is conjugated 
 after the same manner. 
 
 FUIR and s'ENFUIR. 
 
 Fuir is both active and neuter : when it is neuter, 'tis to run 
 away ; and to shun, to avoid, when active. 
 
 Inf. fuir, to shun. Ger. fuyant, shunning. Part, fui, shunned. 
 C. Pres. avoir fui, to have shunned. C.Gr. ayant fui, having shunned. 
 Pres. Je fuis, fuis, fuit : Nous fuy-ons, ez, fuient. 
 
 Imp. Je fuy-ois, ois, oit ; Nous fuy-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je fuis, fuis fuit; Nous fui-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 This Preterite is seldom used; instead of je fuis, andje m'en- 
 fuis, we say (when the verb is neuter), je pris la fuite, from pren- 
 dre la fuite, to run away : and j'evitai, from eviter to avoid, to 
 "hun (when it is active). 
 
 Put. Je fui-rai, ras, ra; Nous fui-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je fui-rois, rois, roit; Nous fui-rions, riez, roient. 
 S.P.vJe fui-e, es, e; Nous fuy-ions, iez, fuient. 
 
 Pr. =kJe fui-sse, sses, fuit ; Nous fui-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 The Pres. tense is very little used, and the Pret. tense still less : 
 instead of them we say, Je prenne la fuite, je prisse la fuite ; 
 j'evite, j'evitasse. 
 
 Imper. Fuis, qu'il fuie ; fuy-ons, ez, qu'ils fuient. 
 
 HAIR. 
 
 Inf. hair, to hate. Ger. haissant, hating. Part, hai, hated. 
 C. Pres. avoir hai, to have hated. C. Ger. ayant hai, having 
 
 hated. 
 Pres. Je hais, ais, it; Nous haiss-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imper. Hai, qu'il haisse ; Hai'ssons, ez, qu'ils haissent. 
 
Of VERBS. 179 
 
 Tfie irregularity of this verb falls only upon those tenses. All 
 the other tenses are regular. (See the 2d conjug.) Its Pret. tenses 
 are never used ; its compounds very little. 
 
 MOURIR, and se MOURIR, to be a dying. 
 Inf. mourir, to die. Ger. mourant, dying. Part, mort, dead. 
 C. Pres. etre mort, to have died. C. Ger. etant mort, having died. 
 Pres. Je meurs, meurs, meurt ; Nous mour-ons ez, meurent. 
 Imp. J e mour-ois, ois, oit ; Nous mour-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je mour-us, us, ut ; Nous mouru-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. Je mour-rai, ras, ra ; Nous mour-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je mour-rois, roit, roit ; Nous mour-rions, nez, roient. 
 S.P.vJe meur-e,» es, e; Nous mour-ions, iez, meurent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je mou-russe, russes, rut ; Nous mouru-ssions,ssiez, ssent. 
 Imper. Meurs, qu'il meure ; mour-ons, ez, qu'ils meurent 
 
 OUVRIR. 
 
 Inf. ouvrir, to open. Ger. ouvrant, opening. Part, ouvert, open. 
 
 C.Pres. avoir ouvert, to have opened. C. Ger. ayant ouvert, 
 
 having opened. 
 
 Pres. J ouvr-e es, e ; Nous ouvr-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. J'ouvr-ois, ois, cit ; Nous ouvr-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. J'ouvr-is, is, it ; Nous ouvri-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. J'ouvri-rai, ras, ra ; Nous ouvri-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. J'ouvri-rois,rois,roit ; Nous ouvri-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 A$.P.ajJ'ouvr-e es, e; Nous ouvr-rions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^J'ouvr-isse, isses, it ; Nous ouvri-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Ouvre, qu'il ouvre ; ouvr-ons, ez, qu'ils ouvrent. 
 
 Souffrir to suffer, or to bear, and offrir to offer, with its derivative mteoffrir to 
 underbid (very little used), couvrir to cover, dtcouvrir to discover, and recouvrir 
 to cover again, are conjugated after ouvrir. 
 
 SAILLIR, to gush out, is out of use ; as also ASSAILLIR, 
 to assault, except perhaps in the participle assailli, assaulted. 
 And TRESSAILLIR, which is commonly attended by de, as 
 tressaillir de joie to leap for joy, tressaillir de peur to start out of 
 fear, is more used in the infinitive, the gerund, and the pres. 
 imp. and pret. than in the other tenses. 
 
 Inf. tressaillir, to start. Ger. tressaillant, starting. Part, tres- 
 sailli started. C. Pres. avoir tressailli to have started. C. Ger. 
 ayant tressailli, having started. 
 
 Pres. Je tressaill-e, es, e ; Nous tressaill-ons, ez, ent. 
 Imp. Je tressaill-ois, ois, oit; Nous tressaill-ions, iez, oient 
 
ISO ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Pret. Je tressaill-is, is, it; Nous tressailli-nies, tes, rent. 
 Fut. Je tressailli-rai, ras, ra ; Nous tressailli-rons, rez, ront. 
 Cond. Je tressailli-rois, rois, roit ; Nous tressailli-rions,riez, roient 
 S.P.uJe tressaill-e, es, e; Nous tressaill-ions, iez, ent. 
 Pr. ^Je tressaill-isse, isses, it ; Nous tressailli-ssions,ssiez,ssent. 
 No Imperative. 
 Saillir may still be used in these persons, les eaux saillissent, the waters 
 gush out; le sang saillissolt, the blood gushed out; mon sang asaillifort Icm, 
 my blood has gushed out a great way. 
 
 REVETIR, 
 
 to invest with, to bestow ; or to confer a dignity upon one ; is 
 
 always used in a figurative sense. 
 Inf. revetir, to invest. Ger. revetant, investing. Part, revetu, 
 invested. C. Pres. avoir revetu, to have invested. C. Ger. ayant 
 revetu, having invested 
 
 Pres. Je rev-ets, ets, et , Nous revet-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je revet-ois, ois, oit; Nous revet-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je revet-is, is, it ; Nous reveti-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. Je reveti-rai, ras, ra ; Nous reveti-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je reveti-rois,rois,roit : Nous reveti-rions, riez, roient. 
 S.P.vJe revet-e, es, e; Nous revet-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. & Je revet-isses,isses,it ; Nous reveti-ssions,ssiez,ssent. 
 
 Imper. Revets, qu'il revete ; revetons, ez, qu'ils revetent. 
 
 Ve.tir to clothe, is used only in the infinitive, and part, vetu clothed : as to 
 the other tenses, we make use of habiiler. — se revetir to put on one's clothes, 
 is sometimes used, though not throughout. Travestir to disguise, and investir to 
 invest, are regular verbs of the second conjugation, although they are seldom 
 used but in the infinitive, the participle, future, conditional, and preterites. 
 
 FaiUir to fail, and difaillir to faint away, are become quite obsolete. We 
 have substituted to the former manquer, and to the latter s'evanouir, or tomber 
 ■tit dtf alliance. 
 
 Ou'ir to hear, is used only in the compound tenses, and that too with tlie 
 verb dire after it ; Tal ou'i dire, I fiave heard, Tavois ou'i dire, I had heard, &c. 
 In all other cases we make use of entendre or apprendre. Its imperative, Oyez 
 hear, is still used i-n the English courts of justice. 
 
 Ferir an old obsolete verb. Its infinitive is kept in this phrase only, sans 
 coupfcrir, without striking one blow. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the 5th Conjugation, or in oir. 
 
 s'ASSEOIR. 
 
 Inf. s'asseoir, to sit down. Ger. s'asseyant, sitting down. Part. 
 
 assis, sit down. C. Pres. s'etre assis, to have sat down. C. Ger. 
 
 s'etant assis, having sat down. 
 
 Pr. Je m'ass -ieds, ieds, ied ; Nous nous assey-ons, ez, ent. 
 ImpJe m'assey-ois, ois, oit ; Nous nous assey-ions, iez, oient. 
 Pr. Je m'ass -is, is, it ; Nous nous assi -mes, tes, rent. 
 
Of VERBS. 181 
 
 Fu. Je m'assierai, m'asserai, % m'asseyerai, <Sfc. Authors are 
 Co. Je m'assierois, m'asserois, m'assey erois, fyc. divided about 
 the spelling and pronouncing of these two tenses, but it is better to 
 avoid using them. 
 
 Sub. Je m'assey-ejes, e; Nous nous assey-ions, iez, ent. 
 Pr. ^ ue Je m'ass-isse,isses, it ; Nous nous assi-ssions,ssiez,ssent. 
 Imper. Assied-toi, qu'il s'asseye ; asseyons-nous, asseyez-vous, 
 
 qu'ils s'asseyent. " 
 
 Instead of using the three persons singular and the third plural 
 of the Pres. of both moods, it is better to take another turn, and 
 use the persons of either of these verbs se mettre sur, se reposer, se 
 placer, prendre place, according to the sense. But, 
 
 The following regular way of conjugating s'asseoir begins to 
 prevail, zehich is doubtless occasioned by the difficulties attending 
 the irregular way of conjugating it. Hozcever, I don't recom- 
 mend it before it be entirely established by use. (This way is 
 rather confined to the high style ; the other suits the conversa- 
 tion best. 
 
 Inf. s'asseoir, to sit down. Ger. s'assoyant, sitting down. Pari, assis, sat down. 
 Pres. Je m'ass -ois, ois, oit ; Nous nous assoy-ons ez, [ent. 
 Imp. Je m'assoy-ois, ois, oit ; Nous nous assoy-ions, iez, oient. 
 Pret. Je m'ass -is, is, it ; Nous nous assi -mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Je m'ass -ois, 
 
 ois, 
 
 oit; 
 
 Je m'assoy-ois, 
 
 ois, 
 
 oit; 
 
 Je m'ass -is, 
 
 is, 
 
 it; 
 
 Je m'assoi-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 ra ; 
 
 Je m'assoi-rois, 
 
 ro is, 
 
 roit ; 
 
 Je m'assoi-e, 
 
 es, 
 
 e; 
 
 Je m'ass -isse, 
 
 isses. 
 
 ,it; 
 
 Fut. Je m'assoi-rai, ras, ra ; Nous nous assoi-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 C-ond. Je m'assoi-rois, rois, roit ; Nous nous assoi-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S.P. nllp Je m'assoi-e, es, e; Nous nous assoy-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr ™ Je m'ass -isse, isses, it ; Nous nous assi -ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 asseoir is used also actively ; as assoyez, or asseyez cet enfant, sit down tlie chikl. 
 
 rasseoir, besides its reduplicative signification of sitting again, is also used 
 neutrally in the sense of settling; as laisser rasseoir une liqueur, or ses esprits, to 
 fft a liquor, or one's spirits settle, in which sense its use is confined to the infi- 
 nitive. 
 
 surseoir to adjourn, is used only in Law, in the infinitive, the participle sursis, 
 and perhaps the future surseoira. On the contrary, 
 
 seoir to become, or fit well, is never used in the infinitive, but only in the third 
 persons of both numbers of the subjoined tenses : as, 
 
 Cette couleur vous sied bien, That colour fits you well, 
 
 Ces couleurs ne vous sieent pas, Those colours don't fit you well ; and 
 
 never sient or seyent. It being- not therefore conjugated like asseoir, I'll set 
 down here the tenses wherein the verb is used. It has no preterite or compound 
 tenses, and is said both with respect to manner, dress, colours, or any thing like, 
 relating to persons. Its gerund should be seyant ; as, 
 
 Cette couleur vous seyant hien, vous rten devriez jamais changer. 
 
 Since that colour fits you well, you should never change ft. 
 But it is better to avoid the using of it. 
 
 Seont, sis, sise, thought by some the right participles of seoir, are only veroai 
 adnouns and participles of another obsolete verb used only in some phrases like 
 these : 
 
 Le Ro£,s£ant en son lit de justice, The Kiner silting upon his throne ; 
 
 Le Parlement seant a Windsor, The Parliament sitting at Windsor ; 
 
 Un heritage sis en tel endroit, An estate lying in such a place. 
 
 R 
 
182 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 But the verbal adnoun seant fs used in the sense of the verb before our consi- 
 deration; as, . - 
 Jln'est pas searit de siffler en compag-nie, It is not decent to whistle in company. 
 Cette perruque courte n'est pas seante a un Iiomme de son rang, That short bob is 
 BOt decent for one of his dignity. 
 
 Pres. II sied, that fits. ils silent, they fit. 
 
 Imp. II seyoit, that fitted. ils seyoient, they fitted. 
 
 Fui. II siera, thai will fit. ils sieront, they will fit. 
 
 Cond. II sieroit, that would fit. ils sie roient, they ivould fit. 
 
 This verb is also used impersonally : as, 
 H sied mal a un homme sage de, Sec. It ill becomes a wise man to, 8fc. 
 
 POUVOIR. 
 
 Inf. pouvoir, to be able. Ger.pou\ant,behig able. Part. pu, been able 
 C.Pres, avoir pu, to havebeen able. C. Ger. Ayant pu, having 
 
 been able. 
 Pres. Je puis, peux, peut; Nous pouv-ons, ez, peuvent. 
 
 Conversation and poetry allow Je peux. 
 Imp. Je pouv-ois, ois, oit ; Nous pouv-ions, iez, oient 
 Pret. Je pus, pus, put ; Nous pu- mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Put. Je pour-rai, ras, ra ; Nous pour-rons, rez, ront. 
 Cond. Je pour-rois, rois, rote ; Nous pour-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 One r only is sounded in these two tenses. 
 
 S.P.uJe pui-sse, sses, sse ; Nous puiss-ions, iez, eut. 
 
 Pr. ^Je pusse, pusses, put ; Nous pu-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 No Imperative. 
 
 See in the Appendix the right use and conjugation of that verb. 
 
 SAVOIR, formerly Scavoir. 
 
 Inf. savoir to know. Ger. sachant, knowing. Part, su, known. 
 C. Pres. avoir su, to have known. C.Ger. ayant su, having known. 
 Pres. Je sai, or je sais, sais, sait : Nous sav -ons, ez, ent. 
 Imp. Je sav- ois, ois, oit; Nous sav -ions, iez, oient. 
 Pret. Je sus, sus, sut ; Nous su -mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. Je sau -rai, ras, ra ; Nous sau-rons, rez, ront. 
 Cond. Je sau -rois, rois, roit ; Nous sau-rions, riez, roient. 
 S.P.vJe sach-e, es, e; Nous sach-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je susse, susses, sut ; Nous su -ssions,s"siez,sseut. 
 Imp. Sache, qu'il sache ; Sachons, sachez, qu'ils sachent. 
 
 VOIR. 
 
 InJ. voir, w see. KJer. voyant, seeing. Part.wx, seen. 
 C. Pres. avoir vu, to have seen. C. Ger. ayant vu, having seen 
 
 Pres. Je vois, vois, voit ; Nous voy-ons, ez, voient 
 
 Imp. Je voy-ois, ois, oit ; Nous voy-ions, iez, oient. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 is; 
 
 vit : Nous vi -mes, 
 
 tes, 
 rez, 
 
 rent, 
 ront. 
 roient. 
 
 voient. 
 vissent 
 
 Pret. Je vis, 
 
 Fut. Je ver-rai, ras, ra ; Nous ver-rons, 
 
 Cond. Je ver-rois, rois, roit ; Nous ver-rions, riez, 
 In those two tenses pronounce double r like a single one. 
 
 S.P.vJe voi-e, es, e; Nous voy-ions, iez, 
 
 Pr. . ^Je visse, visses,vit ; Nous vissions, vissiez, 
 
 Imp. Vois, qu'il voie; Voy-ons, ez, qu'ils voient. 
 
 After vow are conjugated, entrevoir^o have a glimpse of; pourvoir, to pro- 
 vide ; prevoir, to foresee ; and revoir to see again : but pourvoir and prevoir 
 don't make their future and conditional in errai and errois as their primitive 
 does ; but in oirai and oirois (je pourvoirai, tu prevoiras, il pourvoir oit, nous 
 prevoirions, &c.) ; pourvoir differs also from all others in its preterite tenses, 
 which are not ended in is and isse t but in us and usse (je pourvus, jepour~ 
 vusse). 
 
 VOULOTR. 
 
 J?zf.vouloir, to be willing. Ger .voulant, being willing. Part, vou- 
 lu, been willing. C. Pres. avoir voulu, to have been willing. 
 C. Ger. ayant voulu, having been willing. 
 
 Pres. Je veux, veux, veut ; Nous voulons, ez, veulent. 
 
 Nous voulions, iez, oient. 
 
 Imp. Je voul-ois, ois, oit; 
 Pret. Je voulus, us, ut ; 
 Fut. Je voud-rai, ras, ra ; 
 Con d. Je voud-rois, rois, roit ; 
 S.P.vJe veuill-e, es, e; 
 Pr. °"Je voul-usse, usses, ut ; 
 No Imperative. 
 See in the Appendix the true use and conjugation of that Verb 
 
 Nous voulu-mes, tes, rent. 
 Nous voud-rons, rez, ront. 
 Nous voud-rions, riez, roient. 
 Nous voul-ions, iez, veuillent. 
 Nous voulu-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 VALOTR 
 
 Inf. valoir, to be zoorth. Ger. valant, being worth. Part, valu, 
 been worth, C. Pres. avoir valu, to have been worth. C. Ger. 
 ayant valu, having been worth. 
 
 Pres. Je vaux, vaux, vaut ; 
 Imp. Je val-ois, ois, oit ; 
 Pret. Je val-us, us, ut ; 
 Fut. Je vaud-rai, ras, ra ; 
 Cond. Je vaud-rois, rois, roit ; 
 S.P.yJe vaill-e, es, e; • 
 Pr. SJe val-usse, usses, ut ; 
 Imper. Vaux, qu'il vaille ; 
 
 Nous val-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Nous val-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Nous valu-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Nous vaud-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Nous vaud-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 Nous val-ions, iez, vaillent. 
 
 Nous valu-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Val-ons, ez, qu'ils vaillent. 
 Revaloir, to be even with one : and prcvaloir to prevail, follow the same 
 conjugation, except that prcvaloir makes in the present subj. private, and not 
 prevaille. 
 
184 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 MOUVOIR. 
 
 Inf. mouvoir, to move. Ger. mouvant, moving. Part, inu, moved. 
 C. Pres. avoir mu, to have moved. C. Ger. ay ant mu, having moved. 
 Pres. Je meus, meus, meut ; Nous mouv-ons ez, meuvent. 
 Imp. Je mou-vois, vois, voit, fyc. Fut. fy Cond. (if used) mouv- 
 
 rai, and mouvrois, fyc. 
 Sub. Jemeuv-e, es, e; Nous mouv-ions, iez, meuvent. 
 
 The preterite tenses, Je mus, Je musse, are very seldom used. 
 Imper. Meus, qu'il meuve ; Mouv-ons, ez, qu'ils meuvent. 
 
 Mouvoir is a technical term, which also has few tenses in use. In common 
 conversation we use retnuer. Its derivatives are tmouvoir, dimouvoir, and pro- 
 mouvoir^ 
 
 dtmouvoir is a law-term,. used only in the infinitive in such phrases as these : se 
 dimouvoir, to desist ; demouvoir quelqu'un de ses pretentions, to make one desist of 
 his pretensions. 
 
 promouvoir has only the part, in use, and that too speaking of Church-prefer- 
 ments and holy orders : as promu d. I'Episcopat, promoted to a Bishoprick. 
 
 emouvoir is used only in the infinitive, and in the sense of working with respect 
 to purges : as II est difficile a emouvoir, he is hard to be purged ; tmoxevoir is used 
 also for exciter, to excite ; as Smouvoir les passions, une sedition. Its part, as also 
 compound tenses, are used in the last sense, to wit, that of being concerned (emut 
 concerned) ; s'tmouvoir is sometimes also used in the third pers. of the pres. in 
 the same sense ; as II s'emeut de rien, the least thing concerns him ; II ne s'emeut 
 de rien, he is concerned at nothing. 
 
 apparoir,v. n. a law-term, is used only in the infinitive, and third person sing. 
 as Cmnme il appertpar un telaete, as it appears by such an act. 
 
 As for choir and dtchoir they are quite out of use, except in the infinitive, and 
 participles elm and de'ehu ; to'mber to fall, has taken their place.— Its derivative 
 echoir, is only used in the part. 4chu ; in the third person sing, in the pres. and 
 fut. and perhaps the gerund (echeant), as in phrases like this : 
 Si le cas y Ichoil (pron. sometimes ichet), If the occasion occurs, if there be occa- 
 sion. 
 Le terme ichoit (not 6chet) le six du mois, The rent expires the sixth of the month. 
 Mon terme icherra demain, My rent will be out to-morrow. 
 
 Le terme est 6chu, The rent or quarter is out or expired. 
 
 Cela lid est ichu par le sort, That fell to him by lot. 
 
 avoir, to have, has also its derivatives ; ravoir, to have again ; and se ravoir, to 
 recover one's strength, but they are used in the infinitive only : as, 
 II veut le ravoir, He desires to have it again. 
 
 i7 a de la peine tl se ravoir, He recovers his strength but slowly. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the 6th Conjugation, or in aire. 
 
 PLAIRE. 
 
 Inf. plaire, to please. Ger. plaisant, pleasing. Part, plu, pleased. 
 C.Pres. avoir plu, to have pleased. C. Ger. ayant plu, having 
 
 pleased. 
 Pres. Je plais, plais, plait ; Nous plais-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je plais-ois, ois, oit ; Nous plais-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je plus, plus, plut ; Nous plu-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. Je plai-rai, ras, ra ; Nous plai-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je plai-rois, rois, roit ; Nous plai-rions, riez, roient. 
 
Of VERBS. 185 
 
 S.P.vJe plais-e, es, e; Nous plais-ions, ez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je pl-usse, usse, plut ; Nous plu-ssions, iez, ssent. 
 Imper.Pla.is, qu'ilplaise ; Plai-sons, sez, qu'ils plaisent. 
 
 Conjugate the same vwb reflectively. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. Se plaire to be pleased. Ger. Se plaisant being- pleased. 
 Part, plu, been pleased. C. Pres. or Pret. s'etre plu, to have been pleased. C. Ger. 
 or Ger. past. s'etant plu, having been pleased. 
 
 indicative. Je me plais I am pleased. Je me plaisois I was pleased. Je me 
 suis plu J have been pleased. Je m'etois plu ; Je me plus / ivas pleased. Je me fus 
 plu ; Je me plairai, Je me serai plu ; Je me plairois, Je me serois plu. 
 
 Subjunctive. Que je me plaise, que je me plusse, que je me sois plu, que 
 je me fusse plu. 
 
 Imperative. Plais-toi, qu'il se plaise, plaisons-nous, plaisez-vous, qu'ils se 
 plaisent. 
 
 This verb is also used impersonally : 
 il me plait, I please, il te plait, tlwu pleasest. il lui plait,/tc or shepleases. 
 
 il nous plait tve please, il vous plait, you please, il leur plait, they please. 
 and so on for the other tenses. 
 
 Its derivatives diplaire, to displease ; and complaire, to comply; as also taire, 
 to conceal ; and se taire, to hold one's tongue, follow the same conjugation. 
 
 TRAIRE. 
 
 Inf. traire, to milk. Ger. trayant, milking. Part, trait, milked. 
 C. Pres. avoir trait, to have milked. C. Ger. ayant trait, having 
 
 milked. 
 Pres. Je trais, trais, trait ; Nous tray-ons, ez, traient. 
 Imp. Je tray-ois, ois, oit ; Nous tray-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Fut. Je trai-rai, ras, ra ; Nous trai-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je trai-rois, roit, roit ; Nous trai-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S.P. o>Je trai-e, es, e; Nous tray-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Imp. <Trais, qu'il traie ; Tray-ons, ez, qu'ils traient. 
 
 Traire has no preterite in use. — Its derivatives, abstraire, to abstract ; distraite, 
 to divert from ; extraire, to extract ; and souslraire, to subtract, or take from 
 have only the infinitive, pres. and fut. in use (and that too in the singular num- 
 ber), as "also the part, distrait, exirait, abstrait, soustrait, and the compound 
 tenses. Instead of the tenses and number out of use, we use a paraphrase, say- 
 ing, nous faisons abstraction. The part, of traire is used in these expressions, 
 
 de I'or ou de V argent trait, gold or silver-wire. Rentraire to f inedraw, is also 
 
 conjugated like traire, without preterite tenses. 
 
 Braire, to bray like an ass, is used in the infinitive and third persons of the 
 pres. only (il bruit, Us braient). 
 
 BOIRE. 
 
 Inf. boire, to drink. Ger. buvant, drinking. Part, bu, drunk. 
 C. Pres. avoir bu, to have drunk. C. Ger. ayant bu, having 
 
 drunk, 
 Pres. Je bois, bois, boit Nous buv-ons, 
 
 Imp Je buv-ois, ois, oit ; Nous buv-ions, 
 
 Pret. Je bus, bus, but ; ■ Nous bu-mes, 
 
 Fut. Je boi-rai, ras, ra ; Nous boi-rons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 boivent 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient 
 
 tes, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront 
 
136 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Cond. Je boi-rois, rois, roit ; Nous boi-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 .S.P.SiJe boiv-e es, e; Nous buv-ions, iez, boivent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je busse, busses, but ; Nous bu-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 Imper. Bois, qu'il boive ; Buv-ons, ez, qu'ils boivent. 
 
 CROIRE. 
 
 Inf. croire, to believe. Get: croyant, believing. Part, cru, believed- 
 C.Pres. avoir cru, to hate believed. C. Ger. ayant cru, having 
 
 believed. 
 
 Pres. Je crois, 
 
 crois, 
 
 croit ; 
 
 Nous croy-ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 croient. 
 
 Imp. Je croy-oisj 
 
 ois, 
 
 oit; 
 
 Nous croy-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Pret. Je crus, 
 
 us, 
 
 ut; 
 
 Nous cru-mes, 
 
 tes, 
 
 rent. 
 
 Put. Je croi-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 ra; 
 
 Nous croi-rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 Cond. Je croi-rois 
 
 , rois, 
 
 roit ; 
 
 Nous croi-rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 S.P.vJe croie, 
 
 croies, 
 
 croie ; 
 
 Nous croy-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 croient. 
 
 Pr. ^Je crusse, 
 
 crusses 
 
 , crut ; 
 
 Nous cru-ssions, 
 
 ssiez 
 
 , ssent. 
 
 Imper. Crois, qu'il croie ; Croy-ons, ez, qu'ils croient. 
 
 Its derivative accroire is used in the infinitive only, and that too with the verb 
 faire before it ; asfaire accroire, or en /aire accroire, to impose upon one • and s'en 
 fairs accroire, to be self-conceited. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the 8th Conjugation, or in aitre. 
 
 NAITRE. 
 
 Inf. naitre, to be born. Ger. naissant, being born. Part, ne, born 
 
 C.Pres. etre ne, to have have been born. C. Ger. etant ne, having 
 
 been born. 
 
 Pres. Je nais, nais, nait ; 
 Imp. Je naiss-ois, ois, oit ; 
 Pret. Je na-quis, quis, quit ; 
 Put. Je nait-rai, ras, ra ; 
 Cond. Je nait-rois, rois, roit ; 
 S.P.vJe naiss-e, es, e; 
 Pr. ^Je naqu-isse, isse, it ; 
 
 Nous naiss-ons, ez, ent. 
 Nous naiss-ions, iez, oient. 
 Nous naqui-mes, tes, rent. 
 Nous nait-rons, rez, ront. 
 Nous nait-rions, riez, roient. 
 Nous naiss-ions, iez, ent. 
 Nous naqui-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imp. Nais, qu'il naisse ; Naiss-ons, ez, qu'ils naissent. 
 
 The derivative of naitre is renaUre to be born again. Paitre to graze, fol- 
 lows the same conjugation, but has no participle nor preterite tenses in use : 
 though se repattre to feed upon (very little used), has repu for its participle, and 
 repus, repusse, for its preterite. L'oiseau a pu, the bird has fed, is a phrase o c 
 Falconry. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the 9th Conjugation, or in ire. 
 
 DIRE. 
 
 Inf. dire, to say } or tell. Ger. disant, saying. Part, dit, said. 
 
 C. Pres. avoir dit, to have said. C. Ger. ayant dit, having said. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 Pres. Je dis, 
 Imp. Je dis-ois, 
 Fut. Je dis, 
 Pret. Je di-rai, 
 Cond. Je dirois, 
 S.P.vJe dis-e, 
 Pr. ^Je disse, 
 
 dis, 
 
 ois, 
 
 dis, 
 
 ras, 
 
 rois, 
 
 es, 
 
 dit; 
 
 oit; 
 
 dit; 
 
 ra; 
 
 roit ; 
 
 e; 
 
 Nous disons, dites, 
 
 Nous dis-ions, iez, 
 
 Nous di-mes, tes, 
 
 Nous di-rons, rez, 
 
 Nous di-rions, riez, 
 
 Nous dis-ions, iez, 
 
 187 
 
 disent. 
 
 oient. 
 
 rent. 
 
 ront. 
 
 roient. 
 
 ent. 
 
 disses,dit ; Nous dissions, dissiez, dissent. 
 
 Imper. Dis, qu'il dise ; Disons, dites, qu'ils disent. 
 
 eontredire, to contradict, maudire, to curse, pr£dire, to foretell. 
 
 se dedire, to unsay, to retract, interdire, to interdict, redire, to tell. 
 
 medire, to slander, to speak ill. to forbid, confire, to preserve fruit, 
 
 follow the same conjugation; with this exception, that except redire, which is 
 conjugated all throughout like its primitive, they form regularly the 2d pers. 
 plur. of the pres. and make disez instead of dites ; and maudire doubles its s 
 *h rough the whole verb ('maudissant, nous maudissons, maudissois, Sec. J 
 
 LIRE. 
 
 Inf. lire, .to read. Ger. lisant, reading. Part, lu, read. 
 C. Pres. avoir lu, to have read. C. Ger. ayant lu, having read. 
 
 Pres. Je lis, lis, lit ; 
 
 Imp. Je lis-ois, ois, oit ; 
 
 Pret. Je lus, lus, lut ; 
 
 Fut. Je li-rai, ras, ra ; 
 
 Cond. Je li-rois, rois, roit ; 
 
 S.P.uJe lis-e, es, e; 
 
 Pr. °\Je lusse, lusse, lut ; Nous lu-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Lis, qu'il lise ; Li-sons, sez, qu'ils lisent. 
 
 Hire to elect, and retire to read again, are conjugated after the same manner : 
 to which you may add circoncire, to circumcise; and suffire, to suffice ; which, 
 however, differ in this : their participles are circoncis, (with a final s) and suffi, 
 (without a final s), and they make in their pret. Je circoncis, je circoncisse, I cir- 
 cumcised; Jesvffis,jesuffisse,\ sufficed. 
 
 Nous lis-ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent, 
 
 Nous lis-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Nous lu-mes, 
 
 tes, 
 
 rent. 
 
 Nous li-rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 Nous li-rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 Nous lis-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 RIRE. 
 
 Inf. rire, to laugh. Ger. riant, laughing. Part, ri, laughed. 
 C. Pres. avoir ri, to have laughed. C. Ger. Ayant ri, having 
 
 Pres. Je ris, 
 Imp. Je ri-ois, 
 Pret. Je ris, 
 Fut. Je ri-rai, 
 
 ois, 
 ris, 
 ras, 
 
 nt; 
 oit; 
 rit; 
 ra; 
 
 Cond. Je ri-rois, rois, roit ; 
 
 laughed. 
 
 Nous ri-ons, 
 Nous ri-ions, 
 Nous ri-mes, 
 Nous ri-rons, 
 
 N 
 
 ez, ent. 
 
 iez, oient. 
 
 tes, rent, 
 
 rez, ront. 
 
 ous n-nons, riez, roient. 
 
 
188 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 S.P. gJe ri-e, es, e; Nous ri-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ~Je risse, risses, rit ; Nous ri-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Ris, qu'il rie ; Rions, riez, qu'ils rient. 
 
 sourire, to smile, is conjugated like rire. 
 
 ECRIRE. 
 
 Inf. ecrire, to write. Ger. ecrivaut, writing. Part, ecrit, written. 
 C. Pres. avoir ecrit, to have written. C.Ger. Ayant ecrit, having 
 
 written. 
 
 Nous ecriv-ons, 
 
 Nous ecriv-ions, 
 
 Vous ecri-vimes, 
 
 Vous ecri-rons, 
 
 Nous ecri-rions, 
 
 Nous ecriv-ions, 
 
 Nous ecrivi-ssions,ssiez,ssent. 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 tes, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient 
 
 lez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Pres. J ? e-cris, cris, crit; 
 
 Imp. J'ecriv-ois, ois, oit; 
 
 Pret. J'ecri-vis, vis, vit; 
 
 Fut. J'ecri-rai, ras, ra; 
 
 Cond. J'ecri-rois, rois, roit ; 
 
 *S'.P.uJ'ecriv-e, es, e; 
 
 Pr. "^J'ecri-visse, visses, vit ; 
 
 Imper. ecris, qu'il ecrive ; ecri-vons, vez, qu'ils ecrivent. 
 
 After the same manner are conjugated, 
 
 dewire, to describe, proserin, to proscribe, to souscrire, to subscribe. 
 
 inscrire, to inscribe. out-law. transcrire, to transcribe. 
 
 prcscrire, to prescribe, recrire, to write again, circonscrire, to circumscribe. 
 
 VIVRE. 
 
 Inf. vivre, to live. Ger. vivant, living. Part, vecu, lived. C. Pres. 
 avoir vecu, to have lived. C. Ger. ayant vecu, having lived. 
 
 Pres. Je vis, 
 
 vis, 
 
 vit; 
 
 Nous viv-ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Imp. Je viv-ois, 
 
 ois, 
 
 oit; 
 
 Nous viv-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Pret. Je vecus, 
 
 cus, 
 
 cut; 
 
 Nous vecu-mes, 
 
 tes, 
 
 rent. 
 
 Fut. Je viv-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 ra; 
 
 Nous viv-rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 Cond.Je viv-rois, 
 
 rois, 
 
 roit; 
 
 Nous viv-rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 SJP.gJeviv-e, 
 
 es, 
 
 e; 
 
 Nous viv-ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je ve-cusse, cusses,cut ; Nous vecu-ssions,ssiez, ssent. 
 Imper. Vis, qu'il vive ; Vi-vons, vez, qu'ils vivent. 
 
 its derivatives are revivre, to revive ; and survicre, to out-live. 
 
 SUIVRE. 
 
 Inf. suivre, to follow Ger.suivant, following. Part, suivi, followed. 
 C. Pres. avoir suivi, to have followed. C. Ger. ayant suivi, 
 
 having followed. 
 Pres. Je suis, 
 Imp. Je suiv-ois, 
 Pret. Je sui-vis, 
 Fut. Je suiv-rai, 
 
 suis, 
 
 suit; 
 
 Nous suiv-ons 
 
 ez, ent. 
 
 ois, 
 
 oit; 
 
 Nous suiv-ions, 
 
 iez, oient. 
 
 vis, 
 
 vit; 
 
 Nous suivi-mes, 
 
 tes, rent. 
 
 ras, 
 
 ra; 
 
 Nous suiv-rons, 
 
 rez, ront. 
 
 rois, 
 
 roit ; 
 
 Nous suiv-rions, 
 
 riez, roient. 
 
Of VERBS. 18() 
 
 S. P.^Je suiv-e, es, e; Nous suiv-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je sui-visse, visses,vit ; Nous suivi-ssions,ssiez, ssent. 
 Imper. Suis, qu'il suive ; Suivons, ez, qu'ils suivent. 
 
 Its derivatives are, paursuivre, to pursue ; and s'ensuivre, which is used only in 
 the third persons of both numbers: it is also used impersonally; as, II s'ensuit 
 de la que, &c. from whence it follows that, fyc. 
 
 Frire, to fry ? is used only in the infinitive, the participle frit with the com- 
 
 fiound tenses, in the sing, of the pres. Jefris, tufris, ilfrit ; and perhaps in the 
 ut. Jefrirai, ras, ra, See. . In many other circumstances one must make use of 
 a periphrase ; as faisant frite, frying, instead of its gerund : Vous faites trop 
 frire ce poissmt, You fry that fish too much. 
 
 Bruire, to rustle, is used only in the infinitive, and the third persons of the 
 imperfect, II bruyoii, it rustled ; Les flats brupoienl, the billows roared, although 
 the gerund be bruissant ; bruyant, ante, being a verbal adnoun. 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the 10th Conjugation, 
 or in endre, ompre, ettre. 
 
 PRENDRE. 
 
 Inf. prendre, to take. Ger. prenant, taking. Part, pris, taken. 
 
 C. Pres. avoir pris, to have taken. C. Ger. ayant pris, having taken. 
 
 Pres. Je prends, prends, prend ; Nous pren-ons, ez, nent. 
 
 Imp. Je pren-ois, ois, oit ; Nous pren-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je pris, pris, prit; Nous pri-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Put. Je prend-rai, ras, ra; Nous prend-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je prend-rois, rois, roit ; Nous prend-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S.P.uJe prenn-e, es, ' e; Nous pren-ions, iez, nent. 
 
 Pr. S-Je prisse, prisses, prit; Nous pri-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Prends, qu'il prenne ; Pren-ons, ez, qu'ils prennent. 
 
 Its derivatives are apprendre, to learn ; desappr endre, to unlearn ; compfrendre y 
 to understand ; entreprendre, to undertake ; se meprendre, to be mistaken ; re- 
 prendre, to rebuke, to chide, also to take again ; and surprendre, to surprise : all 
 which are conjugated like their primitive. 
 
 ROMPRE. 
 
 lnf:rompre,to break. Ger.rompant, breaking. P art. rompu, broken. 
 CPres. avoir rompu, to have broken. C.Ger. ayant rompu, having 
 
 broken. 
 Pres. Je romps, romps, rompt ; Nous rom-pons, ez, ent. 
 Imp. Je romp-ois, ois, oit; Nous romp-ions, iez, oient. 
 Pret. Je rom-pis, pis, pit ; Nous rompi-mes, tes, rent. 
 Fut. Je romp-rai, ras, ra ; Nous romp-rons, . rez, ront. 
 Cond: Je romp-rois, rois, roit; Nous romp-rions, riez, roient. 
 S.P.vJe romp-e, es,». e; Nous romp-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. °\Je rompisses,pisses,pit ; Nous rompi-ssions,ssiez,ssent. 
 Imper. Romps, qu'il rompe ; Rom-pons, ez, qu'ils rompent. 
 Its derivatives are corrompre, to corrupt ; and interrompre, to interrupt. 
 
Pres. Je bats, 
 
 bats, 
 
 bat; 
 
 Imp. Jebat-tois, 
 
 ois, 
 
 oit; 
 
 Pret. Je bat-tis, 
 
 tis, 
 
 tit; 
 
 Fut. Je batt-rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 ra; 
 
 Cond. Je batt-rois 
 
 , rois, 
 
 roit 
 
 «S.P.o,Je batt-e, 
 
 es, 
 
 e; 
 
 190 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 BATTRE. 
 
 Inf. battre, to beat. Ger. battant, beating. Part, battu, beaten. 
 C.Pres.avoir battu, to have beaten. C.Ger. ayant battu, having. 
 
 Nous batt-ons, ez, eni. 
 
 Nous batt-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Nous batti-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Nous batt-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Nous batt-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 Nous batt-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. £Je bat-tisse,tisses,tit ; Nous batti-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Bats, qu'il batte ; Batt-ons, ez, qu'ils battent. 
 
 Abattre, to pull down ; combattre to fight ; seddbattre, to struggle ; s'tbattre, to 
 sport (an expression of the burlesque style) ; rabuttrt, to bate, abate ; and re- 
 battre, to beat again, are conjugated like battre. 
 
 METTRE. 
 
 Inf. mettre, to put. Ger. mettant, putting. Part, mis, put. 
 C. Pres. avoir mis, to have put. C. Ger. ayant mis, having put. 
 Pres. Je mets, mets, met ; Nous mett-ons, ez, ent. 
 Imp. Je mett-ois, ois, oit ; Nous mett-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je mis, mis, mit ; Nous mi-mes, tes, rent. 
 Fat. Je mett-rai, ras, ra ; Nous mett-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je mett-rois,rois, roit ; Nous mett-rions, riez,roient. 
 
 S.P. vje mett-e, es, e; Nous mett-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. °"Je misse/ misses,mit; Nousmissions,missiez,missent. 
 Imper. Mets, qu'il mette ; Mett-ons, ez, qu'ils mettent. 
 
 The following are conjugated after the same manner : 
 
 admettre, to admit, s'entremettre, to inter- compromettre, to com- 
 
 commettre, to commit. meddle. promise. 
 
 demettre, to remove, turn permettre, to permit, soumettre, to submit, 
 
 out. promettre, to promise, transmettre, to transmit, 
 
 f>e demettre, to resign, remettre, to deliver, to to convey. 
 
 omettre, to omit. put again. 
 
 CONCLURE. 
 
 Inf. conclure, to conclude. Ger. concluant, concluding. Part. 
 conclu, concluded. C. Pres. Avoir conclu, to have concluded. 
 
 C. Per. ayant conclu, having concluded. ■ 
 Pres. Je con-clus, clus, clut ; Nous conclu-ons, ez, ent. 
 Imp. Je conclu-ois,ois, oit ; Nous conclu-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je conclus, clus, clut; Nous conckwnes, tes, rent. 
 Fut. Je conclu-rai, ras, ra ; Nous conclu-rons,rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je conclu-rois,rois, roit; Nous conclu-rions,riez,roient. 
 S.P.vJe conclu-e, es, e; Nous conclu-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je conclu-sse, sses,conclut ; Nous conclu-ssions,iez,ssent. 
 Imper Conclus, qu'il conclue ; Conclu-ons, ez, qu'ils concluent. 
 
Of VERBS. 191 
 
 Exclure, to exclude, is conjugated after the same manner, except that the part. 
 is exclus with a final s, and the feminine is both exclue and excluse ; as, II fut 
 exclus de Vassemblie, he was excluded from the assembly : Elk en fut aussi exclue, 
 or excluse, she was also excluded from it. 
 
 CONVAINCRE. 
 
 Inf. convaincre, to convince. Ger. convainquant, convincing. 
 Part, convaincu, convinced. C. Pres. avoir convaincu, to have 
 convinced. C. Ger. ayant convaincu, having convinced. 
 
 Pres. Je con-vaincs, vaincs, vainc ; convainqu-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je convainqu-ois, ois, oit ; convainqu-ions, ez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je convain-quis, quis,quit; convainqui-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. Je convainc-rai, ras, ra ; 3 convainc-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je convainc-rois, rois, roit ; £ convainc-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S.P.vJe convain-que, ques, que; convainqui-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. °Me convain-quisse,quisses,qult ;convainqui-ssions,ssiez,ssenL 
 
 Imper. Convaincs, qu'il convainque ; Convainqu-ons, ez, qu'ila 
 
 convainquent. 
 
 Vaincre, to vanquish, or to overcome, is conjugated after the same manner, 
 but it is not used, in the pres. nor jn some other tenses, instead of which we say 
 triompher, or etre victorieux. You may also spell convaincant and convaincans 
 with a c instead of qu. 
 
 COUDRE. 
 
 Inf. coudre, to sew. Ger. cousant, sewing. Part, cousu, sewed. 
 
 C. Pres. avoir cousu, to have sewed. C. Ger. ayant cousu, having 
 
 sewed. 
 
 Pres. Je couds, couds, coud ; Nous cous-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je cous-ois, ois, oit ; N'ous cous-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je cou-sis, sis, it ; Nous cousi-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Fut. Je coud-rai, ras, ra ; Nous coud-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je coud-rois, rois, roit ; Nous coud-rions, riez, roient- 
 
 •S.P.cuJe cou-se, • ses, se ; Nous cous-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je cou-sisse, sisses, sit ; Nous cousi-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Couds, qu'il couse ; Cou-sons, sez, qu'ils cousent. — 
 
 In the preter tense beware of saying Jecousus, je coususse, as 
 
 some people do. 
 
 The only compounds this verb has are de'coudre, to uusew j and recoudre, to 
 sew again. 
 
 MOUDRE. 
 
 Inf. moudre, to grind. Ger. moulant, grinding. Part. moulu> 
 
 ground. C. Pres. avoir moulu, to have ground. C. Ger. ayant 
 
 moulu, having gorund. 
 
 Pres. Je mouds, mouds, moud ; Nous moul-ons, 
 
 Imp. Je moul-ois, ois, oit ; Nous moul-ions, 
 
 Pret. Je mou-lus, lus, lut ; Nous moulu-mes, 
 
 Fut. Je moud-rai, ras, ra ; Nou? moud-rons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 tes, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront, 
 
J92 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Cond. Je moud-rois,rois,roit ; Nous moud-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S.P.vJe moule, es, e; Nous moul-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. 5J e mou-lusse, lusses,lut ; Nous moulu-ssions, ssiez, ssent. 
 
 Imper. Mouds, qu'il moule ; Moul-ons, ez, qu'ils moulent. 
 
 Its derivatives are tmoudre or rimoudre, to whet, to get an edge : and remoudre, 
 to grind again. 
 
 RESOUDRE. 
 
 Inf. resoudre, to resolve. Get. resolvant, resolving. Part, resolu, 
 resolved. C. Pres. avoir resolu, to have resolved. C. Ger. ayant 
 
 resolu, having resolved. 
 Pres. Je resouds, souds, soud ; Nous resolv-ons, ez, ent. 
 Imp. Je resolv-ois, ois, oit ; Nous resolv-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je reso-lus, lus, lut ; Nous resolu-mes, tes, rent. 
 
 Put. Je resoud-rai, ras, ra ; Nous r£soud-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je r6soud-rois,rois,roit ; Nous resoud-rions,riez, roient. 
 S.P.vJe resolv-e, es, e; Nous resolv-ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pr. ^Je reso-lusse, lusses, lut ; Nous r£solu-ssions,ssiez,ssent. 
 Imper. Resous, qu'il resolve ; Resolv-ons, ez, qu'ils resolvent. 
 
 Soudre, to solve, is used in the infinitive only. Absoudre, to absolve, and dis- 
 soudre, to dissolve or liquify, follow the same conjugation : but they have no pre- 
 terite in use, and their part, are absous and dissous; as likewise that of resoudre is 
 re'soast when that verb signifies changing a thing into another. Example un brouil- 
 lard resous en pluie, a mist resolved into rain. Absous is not used in the feminine, 
 but disseus makes dissoute. Mais de quelle maniere, fy en quel temps a-t-elle ete 
 dissoute? But in what manner, and when was it dissolved? 
 
 As for clorre, to close, or shut close ; dhlorre to unclose ; enclorre, to enclose : 
 and eclorre, to be hatched, or to blow open; they are verbs defective, and very 
 seldom used but in the inf. and part, with both avoir and etre: as, 
 J'ai enclos monjardin d'un bon mw 3 I have enclosed my garden with a good wall, 
 Je n'ai pas clos Vceil de la nuit, I did not shut my eyes last night. 
 
 Mes vers a soie sont Mos, My silk-worms are hatched. 
 
 clorre is used only in the infinitive, participle, the three pers. sing, of the pres. 
 Je clos, tu clos, il clot ; the fut. Je clorrai ; and the cond. Je clorrois. 
 
 Eclorre may also be used in the fut. as (speaking of the same insects), Ilsrte'clor- 
 ront jamais sans chaleur, they will never be hatched without heat. In any other 
 tense we make use of a periphrase with the verb faire, and the inf. of the verb, 
 as Mettez-les au soleil pour lesfaire Sclorre, instead of pour qu'ils e'closent, set them 
 in the sun to make them hatch : though we also not improperly say in the present 
 indie. Mes vers a soie iclosent a merveille, my silk-worms come out charmingly. 
 
 From three other obsolete verbs, there remain some tenses and persons conse- 
 crated by custom to certain sciences, and phrases, though their infinitive is now 
 hardly known. 
 
 I. The third persons of the pres. and imperf. of g6sir,.gissant (git, gissent, gis- 
 soit), chief by used in epitaphs : as Cigit, here lies, fyc. 
 
 II. The participle of issir fissuj, used in speaking of Lineage and Genealogy : 
 as, II se prttend issu des anciens Comtes de, he pretends that he is descended from 
 the ancient Counts of, §c. Cousinissu de germain, second cousin ; as likewise the 
 gerund of the same (issantj, used in Heraldry only : as, Bporte de sinople un lion 
 issanl de gueules, he bears sinople a lion rising out of gules. 
 
 III. The part, of tistre (tissu), generally used in all compound tenses wilh 
 both avoir and etre: as Ce drap-la est bien tissu, that cloth is well woven 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 19S 
 
 Pres. 
 
 11 y ^ 
 
 Imp. 
 
 11 y avoit, 
 
 Pret. 
 
 11 y eut, 
 
 Put. 
 
 11 y aura, 
 
 Cond. 11 y auroit, 
 
 Verbs Impersonal are conjugated thus 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 f there is. 
 
 \ there are. 
 
 {there was. 
 there were. 
 {there was. 
 there were, 
 there shall 
 or will be. 
 there would ', 
 &c. 
 
 II faut, 
 
 II falloit, 
 II fallut, 
 
 {one, or it must, or 
 it is necessary. 
 
 !it was req 
 needfu 
 
 uisite. 
 
 II faudra, it will be necessary, 
 
 &c. 
 II faudroit, it would, &c. be, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Pres. ,il aitfthere be,or may be. ,i\ faille, it may be "1 
 Pret.^ u il y eut, there were, or* il fallut, it were, > 
 
 be. ) 
 
 necessary, 
 
 requisite, 
 
 &c. 
 
 might be. or might 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Pres. y avoir, there to be. See in the Syntax what concerns 
 Ger. y ayant, there being. this impersonal. 
 
 Which impersonal verbs have also their compound tenses,, 
 formed by adding eu to each tense ; as il y a eu there has or have 
 been, ily avoit eu there had been, fyc. T-he others form them 
 from avoir, and their participle : as il afallu it has been requi- 
 site, il avoit fallu it had been, S^c. II faut has no infinitive in 
 use ; but the others have one, as also gerunds and participles, 
 which shall be set down here. 
 
 Indicative. Infinitive, 
 
 from pleu-voir, 
 brui-ner, 
 
 II pleut 
 II brume, 
 
 II ge'e, 
 11 grele, 
 II neige, 
 II tonne, 
 II eclaire 
 II est, 
 c'est, 
 II fait 
 
 9 
 
 it rains ; 
 it drizzles ; 
 it freezes f ; 
 it hails; 
 it snows; 
 it thunders ; 
 it lightens; 
 
 gre-ler, 
 
 Ger. 
 vant, 
 nant, 
 lant, 
 lant. 
 
 nant, 
 
 rant, 
 
 Part. 
 
 plu.* 
 
 ne. 
 
 le. 
 
 16. 
 
 ge. 
 
 ne. 
 re. 
 
 it is ; 
 
 ton-ner, 
 6clairer, 
 il fait is used with adnouns and some nouns de- 
 noting the disposition of the weather ; as il fait 
 chaud, beau, crotte, it is hot, fine, dirty; 
 \\ fait du vent, the wind blows ; il fait soleil, 
 the sun shines, &c. 
 
 * The future and conditional of pleuvoir, are pleuvra, il pleuvroit, not 
 vleuvoira. 
 f IJ a gele" cette nuit, itfieezed last night. 
 
 S 
 
194 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Indicative. Infinitive* Ger. Part. 
 
 II arrive, it happens ; from arriver, vant, ve. 
 
 II convient, it becomes; conve-nir, nant, nu. 
 
 II est a propos, convenable, 8?c. it is Jit, proper, meet, &c. 
 
 II importe, it matters, it concerns ; impor-ter, tant, te. 
 
 U semble, it seems ; sem-bler, blant, ble. 
 
 II paroit, it appears ; paroi-tre, ssant, paru. 
 
 II sied, it is decent, or becoming. 
 
 II s'ensuit que, it follozcs that ; s'ensui-vre, vant, vi. 
 
 II s'ao-it de cela, that is the matter in } 
 
 hand; }« lssant > «• 
 
 II vaut mieux que, it is bett&r that ; va-loir, lant, lu. 
 
 II ne tient pas a lui que, it is not his 7 . 
 
 ,• n -£ C te-nir, nant, nu. 
 
 fault if; j 
 
 II m'ennuie de, fyc. it tires me to, &c. ennuy-er, ant, e. 
 
 II plait a Madame de, my Lady likes, ) , . -, 
 
 r • 7 7 . « 7 J J 7 > plai-re. sant, piu. 
 
 or is pleased to, &c. j r ' r 
 
 II se peut que, C it may bel 
 
 II se peut faire que, \ that, &c. ) 7 ^ 
 
 II suifit que, <Sfc. it is enough that, &c. suffi-re, sant, suffi. 
 
 II y va de la vie, life is at stake ; al-ler, lant, le. 
 
 II se tint hier un conseil, a council! 4 
 
 was held yesterday; j te - mr > nant > nu ' 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Of ADVERBS. 
 
 JLhe Adverb is a part of speech invariable, which neithei 
 governs nor is governed by any other, and serves to denote some 
 circumstance of that which is signified by a Noun, an Adnoun, a 
 Verb, or even an Adverb : as, 
 
 Veritablement ami, truly friend, tres-souvent, very often. 
 
 aimer bien,.- to love well, etroitement unis, strictly united. 
 
 infiniment juste, infinitely just, toujours a contre temvs, always 
 
 unseasonably. 
 
 Adverbs are either simple, as hier yesterday, beaucoup much, 
 presentement presently ; or compound, as avant-hier the day be- 
 fore yesterday, en quantitt in plenty, a present, tout-a-Vheure, at 
 present, instantly. 
 
 Adverbs may be considered with respect to Time, Place, 
 Order, Quantity and Number, Quality and Marnier, Affirm- 
 
Of ADVERBS. 
 
 i95 
 
 ation, Negation, and Doubt, Comparison, Collection, or Divi- 
 sion, 
 
 ,, and Interrogation. 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 I. Of the present Time. 
 
 A present, at present. 
 
 pourle present, for the present. 
 
 presentement,.- presently. 
 
 maintenant, now. 
 
 aujourd'hui, to-day, now a-days. 
 
 ^ ^ , C at this hour, or 
 
 a cette lienre, < . ' ., 
 
 7 \ time, presently. 
 
 this minute, 
 
 even nozc. 
 
 tout-a-Pheure, -j 
 
 sur 
 
 i i S directly, upon 
 
 le champ, j ^^ 
 
 a l'instant, 
 vite, 
 
 instantly, 
 quick. 
 
 II. Of the Time past. 
 
 hier, yesterday. 
 
 . i • C £fo «foy before 
 
 avant-hier, j ^J^. 
 
 lejour precedent/Ae day before. 
 autrefois, formerly, once. 
 
 jadis (s sounds) t» times of yore. 
 anciennement, anciently. 
 
 dernierement, lately. 
 
 depuis-peu, of late. 
 
 auparavant, before. 
 
 recemment, recently. 
 
 tout recemment 7 , 
 
 nouvellement, 3 "' 
 
 la derniere fois, the last time. 
 l'autrejour, the other day. 
 
 hier matin, \ yesterday morn- 
 hier au matin, ) ing. 
 hier au soir, last night. 
 
 la semaine passee, the last week. 
 le mois dernier, the last month. 
 l'annee passee, 7 7 
 l'annee demise, \ /ast V ear - 
 
 of Time. 
 
 jusqu'ici, hitherto. 
 
 jusqu'a present, till now. 
 
 il y a huit jours, a w-eek ago. 
 
 il y a qumze jours, a fortnight ago 
 
 •11. C a great 
 
 ily a long-temps, j whil f ag0 . 
 
 il n'y a pas Ions- 7 * 1 
 
 A J r ° > not long ago. 
 
 temps, j & * 
 
 il y a quelque 7 some time 
 
 temps, j ago. 
 
 il n'y a qu'un 7 • , 
 
 J ^ . f ?MS£ 720227. 
 
 moment, 3 
 il y a trois jours, £/zree days ago. 
 il y a un mois, a month ago. 
 il y a un an, a year ago. 
 
 III. Of the Times to come. 
 
 demain, to-mojTow. 
 
 > , S the day after 
 
 apres demain, < , y J 
 r ' l to-morrozi) 
 
 le lendemain, £fo next day. 
 
 le sur-lendemain/a^o Jtfj/s after. 
 
 lejour si\ivant,thefollowing day. 
 
 ce matin, 
 
 this m ung. 
 
 ce soir, 
 
 (" £fo's, or £0 night, this 
 
 X evening. 
 
 cette apres-midi, ") £/ms o/ter- 
 
 cette apres-dinee £ ftoow. 
 
 cette apres-sou- 7 this after 
 
 pee, 3 supper. 
 
 , • f to-morrow 
 
 demain matm, 1 
 
 7 \ •• morning. 
 
 , • ? to-morrow 
 
 demain au soir, I ^ 
 
 h' t A t 5 S00W > very soon, in a 
 
 ' "[ 5A0 r£ fr'me. 
 dans pen, shortly. 
 
196 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 i j . C within c 
 
 dan.peudetemp.| a//ewAj . /e 
 
 . .*. C anon, by and by, nozo communement 
 tantot, < \ A yi 
 
 " ' I and then. 
 
 within a a l'ordinaire, usually, as usual. 
 ordinairement, ordinarily. 
 
 l'annee qui vient, the uext year. 
 le rnois prochain, the next month. 
 desormais, hereafter. 
 
 dorenavant, henceforth. 
 
 a l'avenir, for the future. 
 
 dans deux ou trois 1 two or three 
 jours d'ici, ) days hence. 
 dans six mois, six months hence. 
 dans un an d'ici, a year hence. 
 avant qu'il soit \ before it is 
 h 3 
 
 frequemment, 
 
 commonly, 
 frequently. 
 
 long temps, 
 
 long . 
 
 TV. Of a Time unspecified. 
 
 d'abord, first, at first. 
 
 souvent, often, often limes. 
 
 quelquefois, sometimes. 
 
 rarement, seldom. 
 
 soudain, on a sudden. 
 
 subitement, suddenly. 
 
 au plutot, the soonest. 
 
 au plutard, the latest. 
 
 au plutot, as soon as possible. 
 au plus vite, ") with all 
 
 en toute diligence, j speed. 
 jamais, never, eve?', at any time. 
 a jamais, for ever. 
 
 toujours, always. 
 
 pour toujours, for ever and ever. 
 a toute heure, every moment. 
 a tout moment, every minute. 
 a tout bout de \ ever and anon, 
 champ, j at every turn. 
 continuellement, continually. 
 
 C without ceasing, 
 sans cesse, < r & ' 
 
 I J or wer* 
 cependant, in the mean while. 
 d'ordinaire, mostly, most times. 
 
 presque tou- 1 almost always, 
 jours, 3 most commonly. 
 presque jamais, never hardly. 
 la plupart du temps, most times. 
 tot, soon. 
 
 tard, late. 
 
 trop tot ; too soon. 
 
 trop tard, too late. 
 
 de bonne heure, early, betimes. 
 
 debon matin, ) * *. A 1 
 
 A j J < ear lij m the 
 
 de srrand matm, ) y • 
 
 ° (_ morning. 
 
 pas encore, not yet. 
 
 bien long-temps, mighty long. 
 
 alors, then. 
 
 pour lors, at that time. 
 
 des lors, from that time. 
 
 depuis, since. 
 
 depuis ce temps-la, ever since. 
 
 encore, again. 
 
 de nouveau, a-new. 
 
 de plus belle, afresh. 
 
 a loisir, leisurely. 
 
 quand, when. 
 
 le matin, 1 in the morn- 
 
 dans la matinee, J ing. 
 
 dans Tapres-dinee, -5 ^~ 
 
 le soir, in the evening. 
 
 t • C towards night, or 
 sur le soir, <> ,, to • 
 
 ' I the evening. 
 
 en m&me temps, at the same time. 
 
 de jour, by day, in the day-time. 
 
 , . { by night, in the night- 
 de nuit, j Hme 
 
 jour & nuit, 7?/g7tf a^c? day, 
 
 en plein jour, 7 , j 
 
 i • -j- f «£ ^oow day 
 en plein midi, j 
 
Of ADVERBS. 
 
 197 
 
 de deux jours Fun, 1 every other 
 tous les deux jours, \ day. 
 
 C all at once, at 
 tout d'un coup,< one dash, all 
 
 t on a sudden. 
 
 - > $ suddenly, all of 
 
 tout-a-coup, < Xj 
 
 r ' I a sudden. 
 
 plus que jamais, more than ever. 
 
 \ • . / (in the nick 
 
 a point nomme, < r .. 
 r L of time. 
 
 a propos, seasonably, a-propos. 
 
 fort a propos, uery seasonably. 
 
 dans roccasion,«pcm Me occasion 
 
 en moins de rien, tra a trice. 
 
 en un clin 7 in the twinkling of 
 
 d'ceil, ) an eye. 
 
 tous les jours, everyday. 
 
 tout le jour, all the day. 
 
 tout le long du 7 a// Me day 
 
 jour, 
 
 long. 
 
 tant que le jour ") as long as it is 
 dure, j day-light. 
 
 toute la nuit, «// Me night. 
 
 de jour en jour, daily. 
 
 au premier jour, Me next day. 
 
 a la premiere 7 6y the first 
 
 occasion, 3 opportunity. 
 
 a temps, iw good? time. 
 
 avec le temps, z'w time. 
 
 C now and 
 
 de temps en temps, < then, from 
 
 en tout temps, «£ a// times. 
 en temps & 7 ma proper time 
 lieu, ) and place. 
 
 Adverbs of Place. 
 
 ou, where, whither. 
 
 d'ou, whence. 
 
 de quel endroit,yVom what place. 
 par ou, aMicA &My, Mro' where. 
 par quel endroit,thro'zvhat place. 
 
 ici, Aere, hither, to this place. 
 d'icij Aewce, y)om /jere. 
 
 par ici, this way, thro 1 this place. 
 la, Mere. 
 
 de la, thence. 
 
 par la, Ma£ ay«y, Mro' that place. 
 la haut, above. 
 
 en haut, ?/p, wp stairs. 
 
 ici dessus, Aere above. 
 
 bas, a bas, doaw. 
 
 en bas, doow on the ground, 
 la bas, below there, yonder. 
 ici dessous,2M der here,here below 
 d'en haut, from above. 
 
 d'en bas, ^/Vom below. 
 
 par haut, ] 
 
 upzvard. 
 downward. 
 
 S2 
 
 par en haut, 
 
 par bas, 7 
 
 par en bas, 3 
 
 de cote & d'autre, up and down* 
 
 dedans, 1 
 
 en dedans, > within 
 
 la dedans, ) 
 
 dehors, out, without doors. 
 
 en dehors, without. 
 
 jusqu'ou, how far. 
 
 so far, down to 
 
 jusqu ici, ^ here, as far as 
 
 this place. 
 
 so far, down to 
 
 jusquesla,^ Mere, as far 
 
 £ as that place. 
 
 a Pentour, 7 j 1 
 
 L y y round about. 
 tout autour, 3 
 
 ici autour, hereabout 
 
 . ' > thereabout. 
 
 aux environs, 3 
 
 teus les lieux 7 all p laces round 
 
 d'alentour, 3 about. 
 
 loin, far 
 
 bien loin, very far. 
 
 pres, near. 
 
 bien pr£s, very near. 
 
 proche, by. 
 
198 
 
 ACClJDJUJNCJfc. 
 
 tout proche, 
 tout aupr&s, 
 tout contre, 
 pres d'ici, 
 ici-pres, 
 tout pres d'ici, 
 la porte joi- 7 
 gnante, 3 
 de pres, 
 de plus pres, 
 vis-a-vis, 
 a cote, 
 de cote, 
 a terre, 
 par terre, 
 devant, 
 par devant, 
 
 r 
 
 hard by. 
 
 just by. 
 door 
 
 d'un cote & 7 
 d'autre, 3 
 
 the next 
 to it. 
 
 near, b.y. 
 
 nearer. 
 
 over aminst. 
 
 aside. 
 
 down. 
 
 down to the ground. 
 
 > before. 
 
 about and 
 about. 
 au meme en- 7 in the same 
 
 droit, 3 place. 
 
 dans ce lieu-la, 7 in that 
 
 dans cet endroit-la, j place. 
 
 sur le de- lo?i the fore part, or 
 3 forwards. 
 
 vant, 
 denier. , 
 par derriere, 
 
 } 
 
 sur le derriere, 
 
 I 
 
 behind, 
 on the hind- 
 
 dans ce meme 
 
 endroit-la, 
 par de la, 1 
 plus loin, 3 
 §a&la, \ 
 dans le voisi- 
 
 f nage, 
 ceans, 
 a droite, 
 sur la droite 
 a main droite 
 a gauchq, 
 sur la gauche 
 & main gauch 
 tout droit, 
 tout du Ions: 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 -■ \ 
 
 ite, J 
 
 & 
 
 part, or tout le long. 
 
 dessus, 
 dessous, 
 
 quelque part, > 
 
 nulle part, 
 
 en aucun endroit, 
 
 ailleurs, 
 
 backwards. 
 
 upon. 
 
 under. 
 
 somewhere, 
 
 any where. 
 
 no where. 
 
 in no place. 
 
 elsewhere. 
 
 !' 
 
 in that very 
 someplace. 
 
 farther. 
 
 up and down, 
 in the neigh- 
 bourhood, 
 here, within. 
 on the right, 
 or on the 
 right hand. 
 on the left, 
 or on the left 
 hand, 
 straight along. 
 
 all along. 
 
 depuis le haut lfrom the top to 
 jusqu'en bas, j the bottom. 
 
 autrepart, 
 
 somewhere else. 
 
 au dedans & au de- 
 hors, 
 
 dans le royaume & 
 hors du royaume, 
 
 dans les pays etran- 
 gers, 
 
 at home 
 and a- 
 broad. 
 
 v 
 
 broad. 
 
 } 
 
 par-tout, all about, every where 
 
 dega, 
 
 en deca, ^ o?i this side. 
 
 de ce cote-ici, 
 
 de-la, 
 
 en de 
 
 de ce 
 
 des deux cotes, 7 
 
 de part & d'autre, 3 
 
 La, } 
 
 de-la, ^ V 
 
 ce cote-la, J 
 
 on that 
 side. 
 
 de tous cotes, 7 
 de toutes parts, | 
 
 on both 
 sides, 
 every side, 
 on all sides. 
 
 Adverbs of Order. 
 
 premierement, first, or firstly. 
 
 secondement, 7 ji 
 
 , -v \ > Seconal ii 
 
 deuxiemement, 3 
 
 troisiemement, fyc. thirdly, &c. 
 
 en premier \ieu,i?i the first place. 
 
 en second \ieu,i?i the second place 
 
 , r 7 lastly, in the 
 
 en dernier lieu, > 1 J \ 7 
 
 '3 last place. 
 
 avant, before. 
 
 apres, after 
 
Of ADVERBS. 
 
 199 
 
 lite J 
 
 . . , i 1 above all 
 
 avanttoutes choses, j ^^ 
 
 de suite, one after another. 
 
 tout de suite, together. 
 
 afterwards, next to 
 
 that, or in the 
 
 next place. 
 
 of a breath, at 
 
 tout de suite, <* once, without 
 any stop. 
 
 ensemble, together. 
 
 a la file, one after another. 
 
 de front, ? , 
 
 i ' > a-oreast. 
 
 de rang, j 
 
 tour a tour, #y turns. 
 
 & la ronde, round about. 
 
 alternativement, alternately. 
 
 v v i, , C owe a/fer 
 
 1 un apres 1 autre, < /, 
 
 r ' £ another. 
 
 a la fois, 
 
 ute,-j 
 
 ctf owce. 
 C af length, in short, 
 \ in the end. 
 
 a la fin, in fine, finally, at last. 
 
 pour conclusion, to conclude. 
 
 d'ordre, ") -, 7 
 
 parordre, S- "rderk, m or 
 
 enordre, 3 ™ rt( "'*'-- 
 
 confusement? confusedly. 
 
 7 \ jumble. 
 en foule, in a crowd. 
 
 de fond en comble, j Jjj^' 
 
 sens dessus des- ") upside down, 
 sous, j" fopsj/ turvy. 
 
 sens devant der- 1 preposterous- 
 neve, 3 fy. 
 
 toutarebours,j MeW0 ^^ 
 7 (. or 5?ae. 
 
 pareillement, likewise. 
 
 semblablement, } i« Me ft/ce, or 
 de la raeme ma- > same man- 
 mere, S ner. 
 
 Adverbs of Quantity and 
 Number. 
 combien, how much, hozv many. 
 peu, little, few. 
 
 un peu, a little, some. 
 
 tant soit peu, ever so little. 
 
 beaucoup, much. 
 
 gueres, but little. 
 
 pas beaucoup, not much. 
 
 assez, enough. 
 
 suffisamment, sufficiently. 
 
 trop, too much. 
 
 trop peu, too little. 
 
 peu a peu, little by little. 
 
 \ v C near about, 
 
 P P > | 'pretty near. 
 environ, about. 
 
 a peu de choses 1 zcithin a 
 
 pres, ) small matter. 
 
 tant, so much. 
 
 autant, as much. 
 
 plus, 7 
 
 davantage, j 
 moins, less. 
 
 i i C moreover, over 
 
 P ' ' | #wd above. 
 
 tout au plus, of wos£. 
 
 par dessus \ over, or tnto Me 
 
 le marche, 3 bargain. 
 au moins, ") 
 du moins, > at least. 
 
 pour le moins, ) 
 en abondance, 2/j plenty. 
 
 abondamment, plentifully. 
 
 en grand nom- } in a great 
 
 bre, 3 number. 
 
 en grande quan- 1 in a great 
 
 more. 
 
 tite, 
 
 a pleines mains, 
 a foison, 
 cher, 
 trop cher, 
 
 quantity. 
 
 plentifully. 
 
 largely. 
 
 dear. 
 
 too dear. 
 
200 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 cherement, dearly, 
 
 k bou marche, cheap. 
 
 a grand marche, very cheap. 
 a vil prix, at a low price. 
 
 entierement, entirely, wholly. 
 a plate couture, totally. 
 
 a demi, half, by half, by halves. 
 infiniment, infinitely. 
 
 a l'infini, vastly. 
 
 tout-a-fait, quite, altogether. 
 etrangement, strangely. 
 
 admirablement, admirably. 
 merveilleusement, wonderfully. 
 
 P res 1 ue > X almost. 
 
 quasi, 3 
 
 , i «. S absolutely, by all 
 absolument, < J7 * 
 
 7 I means. 
 
 ul , C tolerably, in- 
 
 passablement, | ^J^ 
 
 mediocrement, indifferently. 
 combien de 1 how many times, 
 
 fois, ) how often. 
 
 one fois, once. 
 
 deux fois, tzmce. 
 
 trois fois, thrice, or three times. 
 dix fois, ten times. 
 
 vingt fois, twenty times. 
 
 cinquante fois, fifty times. 
 
 cent fois, a hundred times. 
 
 mille fois, a thousand times. 
 
 Adverbs of Quality and Man- 
 ner. 
 bien, well, right. 
 
 mal, bad, wrong. 
 
 £ ^ u- C very well, or very 
 fort bien, j ^ > 
 
 fort mal l vet y bad > ™ry ill, 
 tort mal, j verywr ong. 
 
 >, -n S admirably well. 
 
 amervedles^ MtdSf^g. 
 
 ni bien 
 
 c neither well nor bad ; 
 
 tn 
 
 ie I 1 neither right nor par 
 
 
 sagement, 
 
 justement, justly 
 
 joliment, prettily. 
 
 galamment, cleverly. 
 
 prudemment, prudently 
 
 civil ement, civilly 
 
 constamment, constantly 
 
 vivement, briskly. 
 
 \ j, • C easily, at ease, com- 
 
 7 I fortably. 
 
 nonchalamment, carelessly. 
 
 negligemment, negligently. 
 
 au prealable, previously. 
 
 prealablement, first of all. 
 
 de but • Wane, {fj-Jg* 
 
 a fond, thoroughly. 
 
 a plomb, perpendicularly. 
 
 a nu, 6«re, naked. 
 
 & plein, /wZ/y. 
 
 a plaisir, ^br pleasure sake. 
 a faux, falsely. 
 
 a moitie chemin, halfway. 
 a peine, hardly, scarce, scarcely. 
 a re-ret j grudgingly, with 
 
 ° ' | reluctancy. 
 a contre-coeur,tfgams£ the grain. 
 a contre- ") against one's will, or 
 
 gre, j ?mW. 
 de bon coeur, heartily. 
 
 de bonne volont6,t;ery willingly. 
 de gaite, ") ow purpose, for the 
 de coeur, j sa&e of mischief. 
 de guet fi-pens, wilfully. 
 
 de gre, willingly. 
 
 de plein gre, ") o/' o/ze's oe^/* ce- 
 de bon gre, j cord. 
 & mon gre, /o wj/ mind. 
 
 & votre gre, £o yowr mind. 
 
 a son gre, to fo's, or #e;' m/W. 
 a leur gr6, to their mind. 
 
 de force, 7 /.. 7 7 , ^ 
 force, \f^cibly, by force 
 
 wrong 
 
Of ADVERBS. 
 
 201 
 
 v f secure, under a co- 
 
 9 \ ver, or shelter. 
 
 openly, 
 to the life. 
 
 backwards. 
 
 a bon droit, 
 
 a decouvert, 
 
 au naturel, 
 
 a reculons, 1 
 
 en arriere, 3 
 
 a la renverse, upon one's back. 
 
 a tatons, groping. 
 
 a l'endroit, on the right side. 
 
 du bons sens, the right way. 
 
 \' v {the wrong side out- 
 
 a 1 envers, 1 j & 
 
 ' £ wards. 
 
 du mauvais 1 the wrong way, or 
 
 sens, 3 the wrong side. 
 de tout sens, 7 
 de tous les sens, 3 J "' 
 
 • ( deservedly j 
 
 ' \ justly, rightly. 
 a tort, wrongfully. 
 
 avec raison, with a cause. 
 
 sans raison, without a cause. 
 C in emulation of one an- 
 a 1'envi, < other, with a conten- 
 ts tion who shall do best. 
 a la rigueur, strictly. 
 
 3 • f with a sound 
 
 desens rassis, j judgmmt 
 
 de sang froid, in cool blood. 
 
 exmes,$ 0U P Ur P° Se > f or the 
 r 7 I purpose. 
 
 a dessein, designedly, purposely. 
 par malice, S maliciously, mis- 
 
 7 I cnievousty. 
 de propos 7 
 deliblre,} onset purpose. 
 
 tout de bon, in good earnest. 
 serieusement, seriously. 
 
 pour rire, in a joke. 
 
 pour badiner, in a jest. 
 
 en riant, ") r r 
 
 enbadinant, \ f or f a "- 
 
 de son chef, (ofhisorherown 
 de sa tete, i head, mmd, or 
 (. accord. 
 
 etourdiment, giddily 
 
 a Fetourdie, heedlessly 
 
 sottement, sillily 
 
 temerairement, rashly. 
 
 a la legere. lightly. 
 
 alavolee, \ headlong incon- 
 9 I siderately. 
 
 ii a Mte,\ has * il y>i n ?J urr y> 
 
 9 I in a huddle. 
 
 precipitamment, -J .. /T 
 r r ' | pitation. 
 
 brusquement, bluntly. 
 
 • ■. f inadvert- 
 
 par inadvertence, I ^ 
 
 par megarde, by oversight. 
 
 par m6prise, through mistake. 
 
 au hasard, at random. 
 
 1 , C by chance, acci- 
 par hasard, j * j^fc 
 
 a l'aventure, fl£ a venture. 
 
 a tout hasard, 7 let theworst come 
 au pis aller, j £° ^e ^orst 
 goutte a goutte, by drops. 
 
 a l'etroit, narrowly 
 
 d'accord, agreed. 
 
 con one's knees, with 
 agenoux,^ my, his, her, their, 
 
 £ bended knees. 
 
 a mort, mortally. 
 
 a la mort, 1 at the 
 
 a Particle de la mort, > point of 
 
 au point de la mort, j death. 
 
 tout au long, at large. 
 
 tout a fait, quite. 
 
 & la bonne foi.) dncerd 
 
 de bonne 101, 3 
 
 de bon jeu, 
 
 de bonne guerre, m 
 
 de necessite, necessarily. 
 
 a toute force, by all means. 
 
 de toutesles manieres, all ways. 
 
 x . , , { to all intents 
 a tons egards, j andpurpom 
 
 a Timproviste, unawares 
 
 h } /«%. 
 
202 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 an depourvu, unthought on. 
 
 sans y penser, ") unexpected- 
 
 sans s'y attendre, ) ly. 
 
 inopinement, flapping. 
 
 a 1'amiable, amicably. 
 
 en ami, friendly. 
 
 \ a j> C between wind 
 a fieur d eau, -J 7 . 
 
 ' I «wa water. 
 
 a l'etuv£e, stewed. 
 
 en paix, in peace. 
 
 paisiblement, peaceably. 
 
 en repos, quietly. 
 
 a vide, empty. 
 
 a sec, dned z/p. 
 
 sans facon, without ceremony. 
 
 de travers, cross, across. 
 
 liebiais, fo'«s, across., slopingly. 
 
 ie guingois, #o;r^. 
 
 tie niveau, even with. 
 
 avec soin, carefully. 
 
 exactement, exactly accurately. 
 
 grossierement, rudely. 
 
 d'une maniere 7 7 
 
 . N y unmannerly. 
 
 grossiere, 3 J 
 
 fort et ferme, stoutly. 
 
 en diligence, in haste. 
 
 A pied, on foot. 
 
 a cheval, ow horseback. 
 
 a caiifourchon, astraddle. 
 
 en carrosse, tn a coach. 
 
 en bateau, mi « ooctf. 
 
 a la mode, after the fashion. 
 
 a la Fran- 7 after the French 
 
 coise, 3 way or fashion. 
 
 v pa 1 ■ $ after the English 
 
 alM Z lmse >{ J fashion. ^ 
 
 Adverbs of Affirmation. 
 oui, 3/es. 
 
 oui d*t, ay, ay, marry. 
 
 oiiitiaiment,} ves , illdeed . 
 oui en vente, 
 
 , 3 assuredly. 
 
 certamement, 
 en verite, 
 a la verite, 
 vraiment, 
 veritablement, 
 
 certainly 
 
 in truth* 
 
 indeed* 
 
 verily^ 
 
 truly' 
 
 sans doute, without doubt. 
 
 volontiers, readily, willingly. 
 sans faute, without fail. 
 
 immanquablement, ") r -.y, 1 
 infailliblement, 3 J 
 indu bitablement, undoubtedly. 
 
 Of Negation. 
 
 * }"°' 
 
 not. 
 
 certes, ( sure, to be sure, 
 
 assurement 
 
 non, ne, ni, 
 point, pas, non pas, 
 point du tout, not at all. 
 
 nullement, by no means. 
 
 en nulle ma- 1 in no wise, not in 
 mere, } the least. 
 
 Of Doubt. 
 Peut-etre, perhaps. 
 
 probablement, probably. 
 
 vraisemblablement, very likely. 
 
 Adverbs of Comparison, &c. 
 ainsi, thus, 
 
 de meme, so. 
 
 comme cela, like this, or that. 
 de cette ") after this manner, 
 
 maniere, 3 or in that manner. 
 en partie, partly. 
 
 tout autant, as much, exactly so. 
 tout a la fois, altogether. 
 
 separement, separately. 
 
 a part, apart, by oneself 
 
 a l'ecart, out of the zvay. 
 
 a quartier, aside. 
 
 plus, more, moins, less. 
 
 pis, worse, mieux, better. 
 
 de pis en pis, worse and worse. 
 
 > better and better. 
 nneux, 3 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS 
 
 203 
 
 ni plus ni *) neither more nor 
 
 moins, 5 less. 
 de part & d'autre, on both sides. 
 a plus forte 1 much more or 
 
 raison, j "much less. 
 
 universellement, universally. 
 
 generalement, generally. 
 
 doucement, so ftty> gently. 
 
 autrement, otherwise. 
 
 particulierement, particularly. 
 
 .. v C especially. 
 
 en partioulier, I • r /' 
 
 r 7 ^ m private. 
 
 principalement, chiefly. 
 
 sur-tout, above all. 
 
 anrps-tout J after all, upow 
 apres-tout, j the whole. 
 
 au contraire, on the contrary.. 
 
 Of Interrogation. 
 
 quand, when, pourquoi, why* 
 combien, how much, how many. 
 combien de \ how often, how 
 fois, ) many times. 
 
 comment, how^ 
 
 ou, where^ 
 
 CHAP. Vli. 
 
 Of Prepositions. 
 
 A. Preposition is apart of speech invariable, which denotes 
 the several relations of Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, and 
 even Prepositions, and without which it has no complete sense : 
 as, 
 
 Avecla permission du lioi, with the King's leave; pour moi, 
 for me ; apres avoir dine, after having dined ; jusqu'a present,, 
 till now ; jusqu' apres minuit, till past midnight. 
 
 Prepositions are either simple ; as, devant before, sur upon 
 par by, §c. or compound; as, au devant de, vis a-vis, over 
 against, par dessus above, #c. 
 
 The following Prepositions are immediately followed by their 
 regimen, or the noun which they govern : 
 
 A 
 
 Londres, 
 
 At London. 
 
 De 
 
 France, 
 
 From France. 
 
 Dh 
 
 ce temps la, 
 
 From that time. 
 
 Avant 
 
 vous, 
 
 Before you. 
 
 Devant 
 
 lui, 
 
 Before him. 
 
 Derridre 
 
 elle, 
 
 Behind her. 
 
 Avec 
 
 moi, 
 
 With me. 
 
 Attendu 
 
 sa promesse, 
 
 Considering his promise. 
 
 Vu 
 
 son &ge, 
 
 Seeing his age. 
 
 Chez 
 
 nous, 
 
 At, or to our house. 
 
 Apres 
 
 les Fetes, 
 
 After the holidays. 
 
 Depuis 
 
 Noel, 
 
 Since Christmas. 
 
 Dans 
 
 la ville, 
 
 In the city 
 
204 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 En 
 
 ete, 
 
 In summer. 
 
 Durant 
 
 l'hiver, 
 
 During the winter. 
 
 Pendant 
 
 la cer£monie, 
 
 During the ceremony. 
 
 Entre 
 
 vous &, moi, 
 
 between you and me. 
 
 Par mi 
 
 eux, 
 
 Among them. 
 
 Environ 
 
 dix hommes, 
 
 About ten men. 
 
 Vers 
 
 la nuit 
 
 Towards night. 
 
 Enters 
 
 ses amis, 
 
 To, or towards his friends. 
 
 Selon, 
 
 son avis, 
 
 According to his advice. 
 
 Suivant 
 
 ce qu'il fera, 
 
 According to what he will do 
 
 Comme 
 
 sa mere, 
 
 Like his, or her mother 
 
 Contre 
 
 la porte, 
 
 By the door. 
 
 Touchant, 
 
 l'ouvrage, 
 
 Concerning the work. 
 
 Concernant 
 
 l'affaire, 
 
 About the matter. 
 
 Sans 
 
 raison, 
 
 Without any reason. 
 
 Pour 
 
 les frais, 
 
 For the charges. 
 
 Moyennant 
 
 cela, 
 
 By that means. 
 
 Nonobstant 
 
 cela, 
 
 Notwithstanding that. 
 
 Excepte, 1 
 Hormis > 
 Hors ) 
 
 la science, 
 
 Except, or 1 7 
 
 But Reaming. 
 
 Malgre 
 
 tout le monde, 
 
 In spite of all the world. 
 
 Outre 
 
 ce sujet, 
 
 Besides that subject. 
 
 Par 
 
 la fenetre, 
 
 By, or at the zcindow. 
 
 Stir 
 
 la table, 
 
 Upon the table. 
 
 Sous 
 
 la chaise, 
 
 Under the chair. 
 
 de Dessus 
 
 son visage, 
 
 From her face. 
 
 de Dessous 
 
 le Jit, 
 
 From under the bed. 
 
 par Dessus 
 
 ia tete, 
 
 Above the head. 
 
 par Dessous 
 
 le carrosse, 
 
 Under the coach. 
 
 par Deed 
 
 les monts, 
 
 On this side the Alps. 
 
 par Deld 
 
 la riviere, 
 
 On that side the rive*. 
 
 a Travers 
 
 le corps, 
 
 Through the body. 
 
 sauf 
 
 son recours, 
 
 But with a remerly. 
 
 The following 
 
 require the other Pr 
 
 eposition de before tlie next Noun 
 
 ./hipres 
 
 de moi, 
 
 By me. 
 
 Prh 
 
 du feu, 
 
 Near the fire. 
 
 Proche 
 
 du Palais, 
 
 Near the Palace. 
 
 Fdute 
 
 de pavement, 
 
 For want of Payment. 
 
 Hors 
 
 de la viile, 
 
 Out of the city. 
 
 Loin 
 
 du bois, 
 
 At a distance from the wood 
 
 Le long 
 
 de la prairie, 
 
 Along the meadow. 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 199* 
 
 Ensmtc 
 A cause 
 A regard 
 A Vinson 
 A I 'exception 
 4 moins 
 A la reserve 
 A convert 
 A Vabri, 
 Au deed > 
 En deed > 
 Au deld 
 Au dessus 
 Au dessous 
 Au devant 
 4u derriere 
 Autour } 
 A Ventour, 5 
 Aux environs 
 A V exclusion 
 A force 
 A rebours 
 Au prix 
 A raison 
 Vis-a-vis 
 A V opposite 
 Au tr avers 
 Ait lieu 
 Au moyen 
 Au peril ^ 
 Au risque \ 
 Au milieu 
 Afeur 
 Au niveau 
 Arez de terre, ou 
 A cote 
 A la faveur 
 An dtpens 
 En dtpit 
 A la mode 
 Pour V amour 
 Au grand regret 
 
 de cela, 
 d'elle, 
 de la fille, 
 de son pere, 
 de son mari, 
 <f un ecu, 
 d'une pension, 
 de Forage, 
 des coups, 
 
 After that. 
 On her account. 
 As to the girl. I father. 
 
 Without the knowledge of his 
 Her husband excepted. 
 Under a crown. 
 Excepting a pension. 
 Sheltered from the storm. 
 Secure from the blows. 
 
 de la haie, On this side of the hedge. 
 
 du Rhin, On the other side the Rhine. 
 
 d'elle, Above her. 
 
 de lui, Below him. 
 
 dequelqu\in(aller), To go and meet one. 
 de la porte, Behind the door. 
 
 du pot, 
 
 de sa maison, 
 
 de sa femme, 
 
 de bras, 
 
 de poil, 
 
 de son honneur, 
 
 About the busk. 
 
 (Prov.) 
 
 Round about his house. 
 
 Excepting his zvife. 
 
 By strength of arms. 
 
 Against the hair. 
 
 At the expense of his honour. 
 
 <fecinq # pour cent,At the rate oifive per cent, 
 de la Bourse, Over against the Exchange, 
 de sa maison, Opposite to his house, 
 de la cuisse, Through his thigh, 
 
 de cela, Instead of that, 
 
 de quoi, In virtue whereof. 
 
 de sa vie, At the peril of his life. 
 
 de la rue, In the middle of the street. 
 
 <feau, Betwixt wind and water, 
 
 de la cour, Even with the yard, 
 
 de chaussee, Even or level with the ground, 
 de sa femme, By his wife, 
 de la nuit, By means of the night, 
 
 de la compagnie, At the expense of the society, 
 de son mari, In spite of her husband, 
 de France, After the manner of the French. 
 
 eTelle, For the sake of her. [body, 
 
 de tout le monde, To the great regret of every 
 * q is sounded. 
 
 T 
 
200* ACCIDENCE. 
 
 These four require the other Preposition a before their Noun : 
 
 Jusqu' aux Indes, As far as the Indies 
 
 Par rapport a lui, With respect to him. 
 
 Quant a moi, As for my part. 
 
 Sauf a la part a But the plaintiff is at liberty to 
 
 se pourvoir, sue (a law-phrase). 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Of Conjunctions. 
 
 A Conjunction is a part of Speech invariable, which serves 
 to join the members and parts of speech together, showing the 
 dependency- of relation, and coherency between the words and 
 sentences. 
 
 Most of them are Adverbs or Prepositions attended by que or 
 de : and therefore it is to be observed here, that many and the 
 same words are Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions, accord- 
 ing to the divers respects with which they are used grammati- 
 cally ; that is, according to the divers relations they have to the 
 other parts of speech to which they are joined. 
 
 Conjunctions are either simple) ©r compound. They are di- 
 vided into Comparative and Copulative, or of Collection ; Dis- 
 junctive, Adversative, or of Opposition ; : Conditional and Ex- 
 ceptive; Dubitative, Declarative, and Concessive; Causal, 
 Concluding, or of Conclusion, and Transitive. 
 
 Conjunctions Copulative are those that join, and, as it were, 
 couple two terms together ; as two Adnouns with one aud tlie 
 same Noun or Verb ; or two Prepositions with the same affirma- 
 tion or negation; and the Comparative are those that denote 
 besides a respect of Comparison between things. Such are 
 
 et, &, and. de meme que, as, just as. 
 
 comme, as, whereas. • • \as, as also, as like- 
 
 ? . .A j7 » ainsi que, f • 
 
 comme si, as if, as tlw ^ 7 J wise. 
 
 de sorte que, -\ so that, in 1 as much as, as 
 
 en sorte que, / such a man- j many as. 
 
 de maniere que, V ' ner that, non plus, neither. 
 
 tellement que, I insomuch non plus que, no more than. 
 
 si bien que, J . that. en tant que, as, as much as. 
 
 aussi (followed by que), as. non-seulement, not only. 
 
 aussi bien que, as well as. 
 
Of CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 201* 
 
 but also, or but 
 even. 
 
 mais encore, 
 
 mais meme, 
 
 mais aussi, 
 
 j i f moreover, besides, fur- 
 
 de P lus '{ ther. 
 
 outre cela, ~\ besides, besides 
 
 outre que, > that, add to 
 
 joint que, j that. 
 
 savoir, to wit. 
 
 d'autant 7 whereas, for as much 
 
 que, J as. 
 ni plus m moins ") jws£ as, even 
 
 que, 3 «5. 
 
 and si so, in the sense of aussi : 
 
 as, si savant que, so learned 
 
 that, or as, £fc. 
 
 The Disjunctive show a respect of separation or division ; as, 
 ni, neither, nor. au lieu de, instead of. 
 
 soit, zvhether. au lieu que, whereas. 
 
 soit que, 
 
 or. 
 
 ou, or ou bien, 
 
 or else. 
 
 The Adversative denote restriction or contrariety : 
 
 mais, 
 
 neanmoins, 
 pourtant, 
 toutefois, 
 
 cependant, \ 
 
 but. 
 
 nevertheless. 
 
 yet, however 
 
 yet, for all that. 
 
 yet, however, in 
 
 the mean while. 
 
 nonobstant 1 notwithstanding 
 
 que j that. 
 
 bien loin de ? ") far from, 
 tant s'en faut que, 3 so far from. 
 
 quoique, 1 although, or 
 
 bien que, > though, or 
 
 encore que, 3 ^0'. 
 
 The Conditional, which suppose a condition, serve to restrain 
 and limit what has been just said : as, 
 
 si, if, whether, en tout | however, or whatever 
 
 si non, if not, or else. 
 
 comme si, as if, as tho\ 
 
 pourvu que, provided that, so. 
 
 ;\ condition que, (upon condi- 
 
 bien entendu que, | Hon or with 
 
 supposez que, . a proviso, 
 
 posez le cas que, -^ that sup- 
 
 au cas que, pose,putthe 
 
 en cas que, case, or in 
 
 en cas de, I case that. 
 
 cas, 3 happens. 
 a moins que, ") 
 a moins de, 3 
 sans, sans que, 
 si ce n'est que, 1 
 h 3 
 
 excepte que, 
 quand, 
 
 quand meme, 
 quand bien 
 meme, 
 
 unless. 
 
 without. 
 
 except that. 
 
 tho' altho' (fol- 
 lowed in French 
 by the condi- 
 tional tense). 
 
 The Dubitative show some doubt or suspension of the mind ; 
 as, si, whether ; savoir si, whether or no, the question is whether. 
 
 The Declarative, \i\i\c\\ serve to illustrate and explain a thing : as, 
 
 pour lors, then. savoir, to wit. sur-tout, especially. c'est-a- 
 dire, that is to say. comme par exemple, as for instance or example. 
 
202* 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 The Concessive, which show the assent we give to a thing, are, 
 
 > i , - , C indeed, to speak d'accord, done, agreed. 
 
 veri e, | ^ tru ^j lm so ^ we n an j g 00 j # 
 
 en effet, in effect, really. t6pe, done, I consent to it. 
 
 non que, non pas que, ce n'est pas que, not but. 
 
 car, 
 
 parce que, \ 
 a cause que, 3 
 & cause de, 
 vu que, 
 
 attendu que, < 
 
 The Causal show the reason of something: 
 jor. 
 because. 
 
 as, 
 
 on account of. 
 considering that, 
 seeing, 
 
 that. 
 
 d'autant que,") the more because, 
 d'autant plus > so much the more 
 que, ) as, that, because. 
 
 aiin que, that, to the end that. 
 ami de, in order to. 
 
 puisque, since. 
 
 comme, as. &c. 
 
 The Concluding denote a consequence drawn from what is 
 before : as, 
 
 c'est pourquoi, therefore. 
 
 par consequent, consequently. 
 pour cet effet, to that end, or but. 
 done, therefore, then. 
 
 sibienque, l ^rf 
 
 de sorte que, 3 
 
 ' )■ so. and so, therefore. 
 aussi, j > j 
 
 enfin, in fine, in short, at last. 
 
 or est-il que, now, but, 
 
 d'autant que, for as much as. 
 
 c'est a dire que, < 
 
 that is to 
 
 say that. 
 
 il s'en suit de la lfrom thence it 
 
 que, 3 follows that. 
 
 pour conclusion, to conclude. 
 
 c'est pour } 'tis therefore, or for 
 
 cela que, 3 that reason that. 
 
 cla etant, 1 it being so, these 
 
 cela 6tant > things 
 
 ainsi, J 50. 
 
 being 
 
 The Transitive, which serve to pass from one sentence to an- 
 other, and called also Continuative, because they denote conti- 
 nuation of the speech, are, 
 
 en effet, in effect, indeed. 
 
 d'ailleurs, besides. 
 
 de plus, moreover. 
 
 d'un autre 1 on the other side, on 
 
 cote, 3 the other hand. 
 
 outre cela, besides that. 
 
 v . . f after all, upon the 
 
 a P restout > [whole, in de main. 
 
 ensuite, then, afterwards. 
 
 puis, then, & puis, and besides. 
 
 meme, even. 
 
 de memc, likewise. 
 
 sans doute, without doubt. 
 sans mentir, *) truly, to speak the 
 
 a dire vrai, 3 truth. 
 
 la-dessus, thereupon. 
 
 en un mot, in one word 
 
 au reste, as for the rest 
 
Of PARTICLES. 
 
 203* 
 
 il est vrai que, it is true that. 
 
 r I allo7i) it, I 
 J 'en conviens, } grant it, I 
 
 I grant that. 
 
 r in the mean 
 
 sur ces entre- j while, while 
 
 faites, j these things 
 
 (_ were doing. 
 To these Conjunctions add 
 Time : as, 
 
 pourquoi ? why ? wherefore ? 
 par quelle 1 zohat for? for what 
 
 raison ? j reason ? 
 a quel propos? to what purpose? 
 d'ouvient 1 how comes it to pass? 
 que ? j howcomes that about? 
 des que, } 
 
 sitot que, > as soon as. 
 
 aussitotque, j 
 toutes les fois que, as often as. 
 en attendant que, till, until. 
 jusqu'a ce que, till. 
 
 en attendant, in the mean time. 
 depiiis, since. 
 
 depuis que, since or since that. 
 
 vi c however, however it 
 ^ ^ -. ) be, or let it be as 
 ensolt 'l it will. 
 
 C nozo I think on't, oi 
 a propos, < now we are speak- 
 t ing of that. 
 
 some others of Interrogation and 
 
 avant que, \ 
 avant de, j 
 loin que, 
 loin de, 
 apres que, 
 quand, 7 
 lorsque, j 
 pendant que, 
 
 before 
 
 far from, 
 after, 
 when. 
 
 cependant 
 
 whilst, 
 yet, nevertheless, 
 in the mean 
 zvhile. 
 
 & peine (followed by } hardly, 
 que in the second S- scarce, 
 part of the sentence) J scarcely 
 
 ■i 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Of Particles. 
 
 I he Particle is a part of speech which serves less to repre- 
 sent a thought, than the state or situation of the mind in the 
 exhibition of its thoughts. Particles are divided into Discursive 
 and Interjective, making a particular species of words, which 
 cannot be ranged in any of the other parts of speech, and have a 
 specirical signification peculiar to them. 
 
 
 Discursive Particles. 
 
 ci, 
 
 la, 
 
 cet homme-ci, this man. 
 cette femme-la, that woman. 
 
 S,*> 
 
 or qa, voyons, now, let's see, 
 
 TO, 
 
204* 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 oui da, 
 
 ay, ay. Besides the articles le, la, les ; 
 
 eh bieiij 
 
 well. and these, invented to imitate 
 
 adieu, 
 
 farewell. the sounds of dumb creatures, 
 
 voici, 
 
 here is, behold. and the noise which is occa- 
 
 voila, 
 
 there is, or there are sioned by the clashing of bo' 
 
 
 dies against one another, Bee, 
 
 
 Cric, Crac, Tick, Tac, Pouf, 
 
 
 Patatras. 
 
 Interjective Particles. 
 
 ah ! ha, ha ! (for almost all the motions of the mind, 
 
 as joy, fear, grief, fyc. but differently uttered, 
 according to the emotion which it expresses). 
 
 helas ! alas ! (for grief). 
 
 ouf, ai, or aye, pho ! (for pain). 
 
 bon, well, right, (for both assenting and dissenting to 
 
 something, liking or disliking). 
 
 ouais ! edod, pshazv (for discontent). 
 
 fi, fye upon (for dislike and aversion). 
 
 oh ! oh ! oh ! (for derision.) 
 
 how ! what ! (for exclamation). 
 
 (for surprise). 
 
 ""? *"* ' \ Dear Sirs ! \ 
 ne! j J 
 
 allons, "J come on, 1 
 
 courage, > cheer up, > (for encouraging those we speak to). 
 
 alerte, ) courage, j 
 
 bis (s sounds), encore, again, (for repeating). 
 
 hola, hold, 1 (for repressing, checking, and stopping some 
 
 tout beau, softly, ) emotion). 
 
 paix, chut, 'st, hist, hush, (for silencing). 
 
 Garre, have a care, clear the way, (for making people go out 
 
 of the way). 
 
 hola, ho, hem, o, ho, soho, (for calling). 
 
 Vive le Roi, ^ 
 
 Vive la joie, > Huzza, (for shouting). 
 
 Vivat, J 
 
 Zest, fiddlestick, pshaw, (for derision and dislike). 
 
205 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Of Syntax or Construction. 
 
 Syntax is the regular joining of the Parts of Speech together, 
 conformably to the genius of a language. 
 
 In the construction of the French speech, two things are most 
 accurately to be considered : Concord and Government. 
 
 Concord is the absolute agreement of, 
 
 I. The Article and Adnoun with the Noun. 
 
 II. The Verb with its Subject. 
 
 III. The Relative with the Antecedent. 
 Government is the influence which some parts of speech 
 
 have over others : as, 
 
 I. A Verb, Adnoun, or Preposition, over a Noun or Pronoun, 
 in requiring it to be in such or such a state rather than in another. 
 
 II. A Conjunction, or Preposition over a Verb, which they 
 govern in such or such a Mood. 
 
 III. A Noun over an Adnoun, by which sometimes it will be 
 followed, and another time will give the Adnoun the precedency ; 
 as likewise Verbs over Adverbs, or Adverbs over themselves ; 
 some having the special privilege of coming before others, when 
 they meet together in a sentence. 
 
 Herein consists the whole mystery of the French Tongue. 
 Therefore, after having seen hitherto the form and nature :>f the 
 words of which it is composed, we shall, in the same order, con- 
 sider their Use and Construction. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Of NOUNS. 
 
 I. When two or more Nouns come together, without a comma 
 between them, they all govern each the next in the second state 
 (or genitive case), and so on (that is, the first is always followed 
 by the preposition d$ 9 either alone, or contracted with the article 
 before the next noun) ; but that second state can never come in 
 French before the noun that governs it, as in English, but after : as, 
 
 Les Gardes da Roi, the King's guards. 
 La porte de la maison, the house's gate. 
 La Philosophic de Newton, Newton's Philosophy. 
 Pour le service de lafiotte du Roi, for the service of the King's 
 fleet. 
 
206 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Void la maison de Vassocie dufrere de mafemme, here's my 
 wife's brother's partner's house. 
 Elle avoit mediocrement d? esprit, she had a moderate under- 
 standing. 
 Sometimes of is left out in English, and the latter noun, 
 instead of the preposition, is put former, and ends in s ; as in 
 the example, my wife's brother's partners house, instead of the 
 
 house of the partner of the brother of my wife. Sometimes 
 
 also the two nouns come together without qfbeiore the latter, 
 or 's after the former, and like a compound word : as the 
 B chamber-door : but the first of them is governed of the second, 
 which must always come first in French with one of these par- 
 ticles, de, du, des, before the governed, as in the said instauces. 
 
 II. The Article and Adnoun agree with the Noun in gen- 
 der and number : as, 
 
 Un beau Prince, a handsome Prince. 
 Une belle Princesse, a handsome Princess. 
 Le mechant homme, the wicked man. 
 La mechante femme, the wicked woman. 
 De mtchantes gens, wicked people. 
 
 Nevertheless we say still Lettres royaux (a law term), instead of Lettres 
 ?C ptUentes, or Patentes du Roi, Letters patent, used on all other occasions. 
 
 III. When two or more nouns of different numbers and gen- 
 ders, or genders only, have an adnoun common to both, it 
 agrees in number and gender with the last ; as, 
 
 11 avoit lesyeux fy la bouche ouverte, } His eyes and mouth 
 
 or il avoit la bouche 4f lesyeux ouverts, ) were opened. 
 
 17 trouva les Hangs fy les rivieres glacees, He found the 
 ponds and rivers frozen. 
 
 But when there is one, or many words, between the last 
 
 noun and the adnoun, that adnoun (common to all) agrees with 
 
 the noun masculine, though the last noun be feminine : . and if 
 
 D the nouns are singular, then the adnoun common shall be put 
 
 in the plural number, and the masculine gender : 
 
 Uetang # la riviere etoient glaces, 
 
 The pond and river were frozen. 
 
 Les etangs 6$ les rivieres qu'il trouva glaces. 
 
 The ponds and rivers which he found frozen. 
 
 Le travail, la conduite, $ la fortune joints ensemble, and not 
 jointes (on account of the word ensemble, \\\i\oh presents a whole) 
 
 Pains, conduct, and fortune, joined together. 
 
 And when the adnoun (common to three or more nouns 
 whether of the same or of different genders) is preceded and 
 
Of the ARTICLE. 207 
 
 governed by the verb ttre, it must have another noun plural, A 
 as choses, avantages, biens, maux, &c. to agree with : as, 
 
 TJoVy V argent, la renommee, les honneurs, ty les dignites, sont 
 ies choses incertaines fy perissables, or sont des biens inceriains 
 fy perissables ; Gold, silver, fame, honours, and dignities, are 
 uncertain and perishable. 
 
 f The above rule may hold good for metaphysical adnouns, as certain, tn- 
 cerjtain; utile, inutile, &c. But verbal or rather participial adnouns, do not 
 fall under it ; as Sous un gouvernement corrompu, les emplois, les pensions, les 
 honneurs, \fy les dignites sont souvent accordes fy meme prodigues d ceux qui les 
 mhitent lemoim; Under a corrupt administration, places, pensions, honours, 
 and ; dignities are often bestowed and even lavished upon those who deserve 
 them the least. Here the intermediate noun choses, &c. could not be used, 
 unless the sentence should be made active ; as, sont des choses que Ton ac- t> 
 corde, &c. For the same reason, in the preceding- paragraph, we say : L'e~ 
 tang Sf la riviere itoient glacis, not des choses glace es. 
 
 Chose, a thing (noun feminine), joined to quelque (quelque chose something J, 
 is masculine, and therefore requires the next adnoun or pronoun relative to 
 agree with that gender : as, 
 
 Je suis assis sur quelque chose, qui me parolt dur, I sit upon something that 
 feels hard ; Quand j'ai perdu quelque chose, je le cherche, when I have lost 
 something, I look for it. 
 
 Partie, a part (a noun fem.), governing a noun masc. and attended by an 
 adnoun, won't have the adnoun agree with it, but with that noun masc. which 
 it governs in the second state : as, 
 
 II a une partie du bras cassi, and not cassee, a part of his arm is broken. 
 
 II trouva une partie de ses hommesmorts, and not morte, he found apart of his 
 men dead. 
 
 It is the same with these words, la plupart, the most part ; foule, crowd ; 
 troupe, multitude, multitude ; nombre, number ; moitii, half ; espece, kind ; C< 
 sorte, sort ; governing a noun masc. and attended by an adnoun : as, 
 
 Quand il vit la plupart, or la moitii de ses soldats etendus par terre or tuis, and 
 not itendue and tuie, when he saw the most part, or half of his soldiers lying 
 do.wn or killed j une troupe de gens itourdis, and not itourdie, a multitude of 
 giddy people ; une espece de bois qui est fort dur, and not dure, a kind of wood 
 which is very hard ; une sorte de vin qui est assez bon, not bonne, a pretty good 
 sort of wine. 
 
 But the other collective nouns are not liable to that construction, and we 
 say : 
 
 Le tiers desvignesestgele, not gelies, the third part of the vines are frozen ; 
 les trois quarts du chateau furent brUles, and not fut brUle, three parts out of 
 four of the castle were burnt. 
 
 And if the noun governed in the second state be feminine, the adnoun agrees 
 likewise with its gender ; as, 
 
 Quand il vit une partie de son armee difaite, when he saw a part of his army 
 defeated ; une espece de pierre qui est fort dure, a kind of stone very hard ; une D 
 sorte de liqueur assez bonne, a tolerable good sort of liquor. 
 
 (See also page 284, and foil.) 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Of the Article. 
 
 INouns express things, 1°, in a general and universal sense, 
 including the whole species of the thing signified by the word : 
 as Man was born, or Men were born for society, Uhomme 
 est ne, or les hommes sont nespour la socittc. Man and Men 
 is said of human kind, and signifies every man and woman. 
 
208 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 2°. In a particular and individual sense, denoting a particular 
 object, one individual only of a species : as The earth turns, and 
 not the sun, Le terre tourne, fy non le soleil ; The man of whom 
 I speak is not sociable, L'homme dontjeparle n' est pas sociable. 
 The e-arth, the sun, denote particular objects ; and the man is taken 
 in an individual sense, for I speak of one man only, and I show 
 who that man is who is not sociable, to zcit, he I speak of. 
 3°. In a limited or partitive sense, denoting neither the totality 
 or universality, nor any particular individual of the species, but 
 only part of it : as bread is enough for me, D u pain mesuffit ; 
 Give me some meat and beer, Donnez-moi de la viande fy de la 
 
 B bitre. We daily see men that have less reason than brutes, On 
 voit tous les jours des homines qui ont moins de raison que des 
 betes : Bread, meat, beer, men, and brutes, are not taken in the 
 general sense, that includes the totality of the substance and 
 species ; for I do not speak of all the bread, meat, beer, in the 
 world, nor of all men and brutes, but only of part of those sub- 
 stances, and some of those species. — Neither do I speak of any 
 particular part of those substances, nor of any individual man 
 or brute. Therefore these words are taken in a limited sense. 
 4°. Nouns express things in an indefinite and unspecified 
 sense, not so much serving to name any particular thing, as to 
 
 C qualify that which has been named before ; as Kings are men 
 as w r ell as others, lues Rois sont hommes comme les autres ; 
 She is a woman, Elle est femme : Man and woman are not 
 used, in these and other like sentences, in order to name the 
 things which are the subject of the speech, but only to qualify 
 this noun Ki?igs, and pronoun she, which are spoken, of, in 
 showing what both are. 
 
 It appears from these observations, wherein the ways of using 
 nouns are carefully analysed, that they require the article in 
 all the senses but one, in which they may be taken ; that the 
 article is the same in all relations and circumstances of the 
 
 Dnoun, being leior the masc. la for the fern, and les for the plur. 
 masc. and fern, and that the limited sense, which excludes both 
 the universality and individuality, is expressed by the particle 
 de before the articles, with which it is contracted, according to 
 the genius of the language, when the noun is masculine, and 
 begins with a consonant. 
 
 Nothing therefore is more plain, and easy to explain, than 
 the construction of the article, and yet nothing has been 
 more perplexed by our Grammarians, who are at a loss how 
 to treat it, making it several fold, and all dividing it into defi- 
 nite and indefinite, and subverting it besides, without being 
 
Of the ARTICLE. 209 
 
 able to define what they mean, or to account for the construe- A 
 
 tion of the article. The following are clear, exact, and easy 
 
 rules concerning the whole matter. 
 
 f Proper Names of Persons and Places, as Towns, Villages, &c. take no 
 Article. See p. 214. 12°. 
 
 The Article is used, 1°, before the names of the things which 
 are spoken of. Therefore nouns of Substances, Arts, Sciences, 
 Metals, Virtues and Vices, nouns of Countries, Kingdoms, and 
 Provinces, Mountains, Rivers, and Winds, and others like,having 
 no article before them inEnglish,require the article in French; as, 
 
 L'or fy V argent ne sauroient faire le bonheur de I'homme, R 
 
 Gold and Silver cannot make the happiness of man. 
 
 La vertu seule pent le rendre heureux, fy il riy a que le vice 
 qui puisse le rendre malheureux, 
 
 Virtue alone can make him happy, and nothing but vice can 
 make him unhappy or miserable. 
 
 La France est leplus beau pays de l'Europe, 
 
 France is the finest country in Europe. 
 
 Le sort de YEspagne depend de la Havanne, 
 
 The fate of Spain depends upon the Havanna. 
 
 C'est a V Angleterre quon doit la decouverte de la circulation 
 du sang, 
 
 It is to England the world is beholden for the discovery of C 
 the circulation of the blood. 
 
 From the nouns of Countries, Kingdoms, and Provinces, except these, 
 which take their names from their capital city, besides some Republics. 
 Alger, Algier. Florence, Florence. Monaco, Monaco. 
 
 Avignon, Avignon. Grenade, Grenada. Naples, Maples. 
 
 Babylone, Babylon. Genes, Genoa. Orange, Orange. 
 
 Caiidie, Candia. Geneve, Geneva. Rome, Rome. 
 
 Cordoue, Cordova. Lucques, Lucca. Seville, Seville. 
 
 Corse, Corsica. Leon, Leon. Tolede, Toledo. 
 
 Comminges, Comminges. Matte, Maltha. Tunis, Tunis. 
 
 Cornouailles, Cornwall. Maroc, Morocco. Tripoli, Tripoli. 
 
 Chypre, Cyprus. Murcie, Murcia. Valence, Valentia. 
 
 Carthage, Carthage. Marfagascar,Mada2:ascar. Venice, Venice, -pv 
 
 Except some few, taken notice of in my Exercises; those proper names -^ 
 of countries are commonly used with one of these before them, repnblique, 
 pnncipaute', elai, pays, tie; as Vile de Candie ou de Matte, the island of Can- 
 dia or Malta ; le pays d' Avignon, the country of Avignon ; la principality 
 d' Orange, the principality of Orange ; la ripublique de Geneve, the republic 
 of Geneva, fyc. 
 
 2°. When the w'ords attending the names of Countries and 
 Kingdoms (in Europe), respect them immediately as to coming 
 from, or going out, the names of those countries are used with- 
 out the article. 
 
 Therefore we say with the preposition de only, Venir de France, 
 to come from France : Sortir d' Angleterre, to go out of England. 
 
210 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 A With words denoting the country one lives in, and whither 
 one is going or coming to, we use the preposition en before the 
 names of those countries, because this preposition does not 
 admit of the article : as, 
 
 Demeurer en France, to live in France ; Aller en Italie, to 
 go to Italy ; Venir or Passer en Angleterre, to come over or 
 pass over to England. 
 
 % This rule respects only the names of Countries ; for with the names of 
 Towns, Places, fyc. the preposition a is used instead of en, and we say : 
 
 Aller a Rome, to go to Rome ; Venir a Londres, to come to London ; 'De- 
 meurer a Paris, to live at Paris. 
 B When the name of a Kingdom or Province expresses the 
 country of the noun coming immediately before, it is used also 
 without the article, and with the preposition de only, because 
 it is used adjectively. 
 
 Roi or Royaume $ Angleterre, King or Kingdom of England. 
 
 Gouverneur ou Gouvernement d'Irlande. 
 
 Viceroy or Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, or his place. 
 
 Vin de Bourgogne, ou de Champagne, Burgundy or Cham- 
 paign wine. 
 
 L'Electeur de Bavitre, The Elector of Bavaria. 
 
 Une mode de France, A French fashion, fyc. 
 
 These follow ing names of Countries always keep the article : 
 
 India, le Zangue'bar, Zangaebar. le Pont-Euxin, the Black 
 
 VInde, 
 VIndostcm, 
 C le Malabar, 
 les Indes, 
 la Chine, 
 la Nigritie, 
 la Guin^e, 
 la Malaguette, 
 
 guette. 
 le Conge, 
 la Cochinchine, 
 
 china. 
 lePig&, 
 le Tonquin, 
 U Tibet, 
 
 Indostan. le Mexique^ 
 Malabar, le Paraguai % 
 the Indies, le Chili, 
 China, le Pirou, 
 "Nigritia. le Br6$il, 
 Guinea, le Canada, 
 Mala- la Louisiane, 
 le Mississipi, 
 Congo. I'Acadie, 
 Cochin- la Caroline, 
 la Barbade, 
 Pegu, la Jamai'que, 
 Tonquin. le Maryland, 
 Thibet, la Pensilvanie, Pensylva 
 Japan, nia. 
 
 Mexico. Sea. 
 Paraguay, le Peloponnese, Pelopon- 
 Chili. nesus. 
 
 Peru, les Philippines, the Phi- 
 Brasfl. lippine Islands. 
 Canada. Vile Bourbon, the Isle of 
 Louisiana. Bourbon. 
 Mississipi. les ties Moluques, the Mo- 
 Acadia. lucca Islands, &c. 
 Carolina, les Antilles, the Antilles. 
 Barbadoes. le Caire, Cairo. 
 
 Jamaica, le Levant, the Levant. 
 Maryland, la Mecque, Mecca. 
 
 VAbbruzze, Abbruzze. 
 la Pouille, Apulia. 
 
 le Japon, 
 
 VAbyssinic, ' Abyssinia, In Virginie, Virginia, le Mantouan, Mahtuan 
 t\ le Mogol, the Mogul's C. 7a Martinique, Martinico. Duchy. 
 ^ le Monomolapa,Monomot. la Guadeloupe, Guada- le Milanes, the Milanese. 
 
 leMono6?nugi,M.onomu£i. loupe. leParmezan, theParmezan 
 
 laCafrerie, Coast of the la Havanne, the Havanna. le Spitzberg, ^Spitzberg # 
 Cafres. 
 
 * VAnjou, le Catelet. la Flcche. 
 
 * VArtois. le CuteauCambresis. la Guerche. 
 
 * le Maine. la Fere. la Hogue. 
 
 * la Marche. la Ferte. le Mans. 
 
 * le Perche. la Charitc. le Plessk. 
 
 * la Capelle. le Havre de Grace. 
 
 * These six are names of countries, and the others of cities of France, 
 except la Have. 
 
 le Gro'eniand, Greenland* 
 
 le Puy (a word sig- 
 nifying Mount), 
 le Qutnoi. 
 la Rochelle. 
 la Haye, the Hague. 
 
Of the ARTICLE. 211 
 
 Therefore, instead of the prepositions en and de, used alone in the cases J^ 
 mentioned in the second paragraph, with respect to all other countries, when 
 we speak of these last, we use both the preposition a, or de, and the article : 
 as, 
 
 Voyager aux Indes, to travel to the Indies. Alter au Japon, to go to Japan. 
 Demeurer a la Chine, to live in China. Partir du Mexique, to set out from 
 Mexico. Revenir du Maine, de VArtois, de YAnjou, to return from le Main, Sec. 
 
 Nevertheless we say, alter dans YAnjou, dans VArtois, dans le Perche, to so 
 into Anjou, &c. le Due d'Anjou, the Duke of Anjou, and leDuc du Maine, the 
 Duke of Maine. We say too Empereur or Empire de la Chine, and not de 
 Chine, Emperor or Empire of China ; Porcelaines de la Chine, China-ware ; 
 Marchandises du Japon, Japan-goods. 
 
 3°. When a River's name is preceded by the word riviere, 
 it takes no article, and is contented with the preposition de 
 only, if it is of the feminine gender : otherwise they all take the 
 article: as, B 
 
 La riviere de Seme, the river Seine : or, la Seine, la Tamise, 
 &c. 
 
 But it is to be noted, 1st, that some rivers cannot be construed with the 
 word riviere before them, but they all take the article, as, le Rhin, le Rhone, 
 Sec. we don't say la riviere du Rhin, lu riviere de la Tamise, as in English, tlie 
 river Thames. Idly, That the word fleuve (synonymous with riviere) can never 
 be put before the proper name of a river ; so that we don't say le fleuve de 
 Seine, or de la, Seine, le fleuve du Rhftne, or de Rhone. Sdly, The French call 
 fleuve a river that carries its waters to the sea ; and riviere any river that dis- 
 charges itself into another : though they use the word riviere before the names 
 of such rivers as they call fleuves. One might perhaps say, without impro- 
 priety, le fleuve Scamandre, le fleuve Simo'is (two rivers in Troas ;) but it is still 
 better, as being more sure, to say only le Scamandre, le Simo'is, le Danube, la 
 3toselle, VEscaut, and so of all other rivers, without putting the word ri- 
 viere before, which, as we have observed, cannot be put before a great many 
 rivers. /-« 
 
 4°. When a Mount's, Mountain's, or Hill's name is preceded 
 by the word mont, it has neither article nor preposition : as le 
 mont Vesuve, Vesuvius ; le mont Apennin, the Appenine ; les 
 monts Pyrenees, the Pyreneaa mountains. After the word 
 montagne, it takes the preposition de (which is contracted with 
 the article, when the name of the hill has it), as la montagne 
 du Potosiy mount Potosi ; la montagne de Sion, mount Sion ; 
 la montagne du Calvaire, the mount of Calvary. Otherwise 
 they all take the article : as, le Vesuve, V Apennin, les Pyre- 
 nees ; le Calvaire, le Pic, &c. 
 
 Some nouns of hills and mountains will always be preceded by either of J) 
 these two words, mont, montagne, as la montagne du Potosi, la montagne de Sion, 
 or le mont Sion ; we also say, le Potosi, but never le Sion, la Sion : some others 
 can never be construed with those words, as les Alpes, les Cordillieres, the Cor- 
 dilleras. We neither say les montagnes des Alpes, nor les monis Alpes, as we 
 say les monts Pyrtnies ; although we denote les Alpes by les monts in this 
 phrase ? un bel esprit de dela les monts, or un bet esprit ultramontain, ultramon- 
 tane wit, or genius. 
 
 5°. The noun of the Measure, Weight, and Number of the 
 things that have been bought, requires the article le in French, 
 whereas the indefinite article a is used in English : as, 
 Le ble se vend un ecu le boisseau, wheat is sold for a crown a 
 bushel. 
 
 U 
 
avant, 
 
 before. 
 
 enxers, 
 
 aprts, 
 •" chez, 
 
 after. 
 
 excepte, 
 
 at, to. 
 
 hors, 
 
 dans, 
 
 in. 
 
 hormisy 
 
 depuis, 
 dexant, 
 
 since, 
 before. 
 
 nonobstant, 
 
 derriere, 
 
 behind. 
 
 par mi, 
 
 durant, 
 
 during. 
 
 
 212 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Le beurre xaut six sous la lixre, butter costs six-pence a pound. 
 Les ceufs valent quatre sous la douzaine, eggs cost a groat a dozen. 
 
 IT In the following phrases, and the like, the French article le is likewise 
 used, instead of the English indefinite article a : 
 
 Dans la prosperity on pent difficilement reconnoitre Yami, it is difficult to 
 know a friend in prosperity ; Yair. spirituel dans les hommes, a sprightly mien 
 in men; le c'hien est Yami de Vhojnme, the dog is a friend to man. 
 
 6°. These following prepositions (twenty-one in number) 
 generally will have the article before the next noun. 
 
 towards, pendant, for 
 
 except, selon, according. 
 
 out. sous, under. 
 
 except, suixant, according. 
 
 J" notwith-szjr, upon. 
 
 1 standing .fouc/jaMf 7 concerning. 
 
 among, vers, towards. 
 
 As chez le Prince, at the Prince's ; dans la chambre, in the 
 room ; sous la table, under the table, fyc. 
 
 En will have no article before the next noun ; as en xille in 
 town, en campagne in the country, fyc. and 
 
 The following prepositions sometimes require the article 
 before the next noun (when it is used as a Demonstration or 
 Appellation) ; and sometimes not (when it is used only as a 
 ^ Modification or Qualification) : 
 
 a, at, to. contre, against. pour, for. 
 
 de, of, from. entre, between. outre, besides. 
 axec, with. par, by. sans, ■ zcithout. 
 
 Examples will make this rule more plain to those who are 
 not used to abstract observations. 
 
 Sans les passions oil servient la xertu &; le xice ? 
 
 Without passions, where would virtue and vice be ? 
 
 Vixre sans passions e'est xixre sans plaisirs, 
 
 Living without passions is living without pleasures. 
 j^ Passions, xertu, and xice, in the first sentence, are used as de- 
 nominations, or names of the thing which are the subject of our 
 speech. Passions and plaisirs, are not used in the second, as deno- 
 minations : for they are not the things of which something is 
 said ; xixre (living) is the thing spoken of : but they are used 
 as modifications or qualifications, showing what sort of living 
 is spoken of. 
 
 7°. The article is used before all nouns of Dignities, Qua- 
 lities, Offices, and Professions, even before Names or abusing 
 
Of the ARTICLE. 213 
 
 words, so they come after such names as Monsieur, Mon- A 
 seigneur, Madame, Mademoiselle : as, 
 
 Monsieur le Dauphin, the Dauphin ; Madame la Duchesse, 
 my Lady Duchess ; Mr. le Docteur, Doctor ; Mo?iseigneur 
 YArcheveque, my Lord Archbishop ; Monsieur le Paresseux, 
 Mr. Lazy-bones or Idle-back ; Madame la Coureuse, Mrs. 
 Gad-about ; Mademoiselle la Libertine, Miss Romp, fyc. 
 
 Except with nouns of Trades and mechanical Professions, 
 which never take Monsieur or Madame before them. Thus 
 we do not say of or to Merchants, Taylors, Shoemakers, fyc. 
 Mr. le Marchand, Mr. le Tailleur Mr. le Cordonnier. 
 
 The article is used in speaking and casing to the people ; which relation 
 of the noun answers to the Vocative of the Latin : 
 Ecoutez, la belle file, hark ye, pretty girl. 
 Parlez Yhomme ; parlez, \^ femme, Speak to me, man or woman. 
 
 We also say without the article, but with an adnoun before, the noun, or 
 without any noun at all : Ecoutez, ban homme, ou bonne femme, hark ye, 
 good man or woman; Etudiez, paresseux, study, you idle fellow. — Calling 
 to a coachman we say without the article, Cocker, etes-vous lout f Coach- 
 man, are you hired ? though we call to a man that sells rabbits about the 
 streets, or to an herb- woman, with the article, V homme aux lapins, la femme 
 aux kerbes. ' This oddness of expression will be the best learnt by practice. 
 It is enough to have taken notice of it. 
 
 As for the particle interjective 6 before nouns, it is used only with excla- 
 mation : as, infortune queje suis ! O unhappy me ! femme, que ta 
 vertu est grande ! How great is thy virtue, O woman ! 
 
 8°. The article is used with nouns having an adnoun before 
 them in sentences of admiration and exclamation ; in which 
 case the noun is always repeated with que between, without any 
 verb. These ways of speaking are rendered in English as follows : 
 
 Uillustre maison que la maison de Bourbon I 
 
 What an illustrious house the house of Bourbon is ! 
 
 Le sage Roi que le Roi de Prusse ! 
 
 What a wise and prudent king the king of Prussia is ! 
 
 Uindigne traitement que celui quelle m' a fait souffrir I 
 
 How unworthy is the treatment I have received from her ! 
 
 9°. When the noun is not taken in a general and universal 
 sense, including the whole species ; nor in the particular and in- 
 dividual sense, denoting a particular object, one particular in- 
 dividual of the species ; but denotes only part of the substance 
 or thing signified by the noun ; that limited sense is expressed 
 by the particle de before the article, or contracted with it, if the 
 noun is masculine. (See p. 1 1 1. & 1 13.) Nouns taken in that 
 sense imply the word some, which in English is sometimes ex- 
 pressed, sometimes not, and in French is never understood : as, 
 
214 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Donnez-rnoi du pain, del&viande, de V argent, des habits; 
 
 Give me some bread, some meat, money, clothes. 
 
 Cette liqueur ressemble a du vin, that liquor is like wine. 
 
 J'ai affaire a des gens fort honnetes, 
 
 I have to do with very honest people. 
 
 Apportez-moi un morceaudzpain, une bouchte de viande,une 
 
 bouteille de vin, Sc un carajm d'eau ; bring me a bit of bread, 
 
 a mouthful of meat, a bottle of wine, and a decanter of water. 
 
 II y a de Y esprit dans cetouvrage. C'est un ouvrage d' esprit: 
 
 There is some wit in this work. It is a work of wit or genius. 
 
 But when the noun is preceded by an adnoun, it loses its ar- 
 ticle, and is contented with the particle de : as, 
 Donnez-moi de bon pain, de bonne viande, de bons habits; 
 Give me good bread, good meat, good clothes. 
 
 J'ai affaire a defort honnetes gens, I have to do with very, &c. 
 J5 Again, On Va depouille de belles charges qu'il possedoit, he has been divested 
 of fine places which he enjoyed; Onl'a depouille des belles charges qu'il posse"* 
 doit, he has been stript of the tine places which he was possessed" of. The word 
 charge, is restrained in the first sentence, by the limiting particle de, and sig- 
 nifies only some of his places ; whereas, in the other sentence, the article con- 
 tracted with the preposition (des for de les) shows that the word is taken in 
 the universal sense, and signifies all his places. From whence you may ob- 
 serve, that some expressions that seem to be alike in French, are very far from 
 being- so. 
 
 10°. In many cases either of these two particles, du or un y 
 may be used, but with this difference : 
 
 When the noun is used without an adnoun, it requires du ; 
 and un, when with an adnoun : as, 
 C II y a du danger a aller sur mer, there is danger in going to sea . 
 Ceux qui vont sur mer, courent un grand danger, or de grands 
 
 dangers, those who go to sea run a great danger, or great 
 
 dangers. 
 J'entends du bruit (and not un bruit), I hear a noise. 
 J'entends un grand bruit (and not du), I hear a great noise. 
 
 The particle un (which is no more an article than quelque, tout, &c.) is used 
 in speaking- of things that can be told one by one ; or are denoted by oppo- 
 sition to two or more ; as, J'ai un pain, I have a loaf ; Jene veux qu'une pomme, 
 I will have but one apple. 
 
 11°. The pronouns moi, toi, soi ; ce, celui ; qui, quel (taken in 
 
 the sense of what); rnon, ton, son, &c. used either with or without 
 
 D the prepositions, de, a, &c. take no article : But mien, tien, sien T 
 
 &c. meme, and quel in the sense of which, always require it : as, 
 
 De quiparlez vous ? De quel homme parlez-vous ? 
 
 Who are you speaking of ? Of what man are you speaking ? 
 
 Duquel? De laquelle? Delui, D'elle, D'eux. 
 
 Of which? Of him. Of her, Of them. 
 
 J 2°. No article is used with proper names of Persons, Places, 
 and Planets (except la terre the earth, le soleil the sun, la lune 
 the moon), and before these nouns of honour which use has 
 pitnxed to proper names. 
 
Of the ARTICLE. 215 
 
 Monsieur, Sir, Master, Maitre, Master, A 
 
 Madame, Madam, Messire, 1 a particular title of 
 
 Mademoiselle, Miss, Saint, > some persons of dis- 
 
 Monseigneur, my Lord, Sainte, J tinction, and Saints. 
 
 When these nouns are used without the pronoun of which 
 they are composed, they take the article: as, le Sieur, la 
 Dame, la Demoiselle, &c. We also say, le Monsieur qui est 
 venu, the gentleman who came ; les Messieurs qui sont ici, the 
 gentlemen who are here ; and never les Mesdames, nor les 
 Messeigneurs : but les Dames, les Seigneurs. 
 
 From proper names, except some of renowned Poets and Painters of J$ 
 Italy, which keep the article : 
 
 Le Tasse, VArioste, le Titien, le Poussin, VAritin. 
 
 du Tasse, de VArioste, du Titien, du Poussin, de VAritin. 
 
 au Tasse, a VArioste, au Titien, au Poussin, a VAritin. 
 
 Add to them le Bourdon, le Brugle, le Car ache, le Corrtge, le Guide, le 
 Guerchin, le Mutien, le Tintoret, VAlbane, le Bernardin, le Dominicain, 
 V Espagnolet,lePinturicchio. But we don't say leMichel-Ange,leRapha'el,6fC. 
 
 When any of these particles, le, la, de, du, des, make part of the proper 
 name, it is never contracted with the prepositions : 
 
 Du Pre, Le Maitre, De Tourville, La Place, 
 
 de Du Pre, de Le Maitre, de De Tourville, de La Place. 
 
 a Du Pri, a Le Maitre, a De Tourville, &c. a La Place. 
 
 And when we speak in a contemptuous manner of a woman (it is always r* 
 the case when we speak o.f a woman of the town), we use the article, besides 
 the particle of the proper name : as, Jt ne veux plus voir la Du Pri, I will 
 see Du Pre's wife no more. 
 
 That contemptuous manner of expressing was formerly used also in speak- 
 ing of an actress, but now it ceases to prevail, since talents are more re- 
 garded than the private life of the person ; and we say, in speaking of a 
 celebrated actress, Madame, Mademoiselle. 
 
 The preposition de is sometimes left out before the word saint, for abbre- 
 viation sake ; as VEglise St. Paul, St. Paul's Church ; le Cimetiere St. Jean 
 (a famous place in Paris), lafoire St. Laurent. St. Laurence's fair : la 
 porte St. Denis, St. Denis's gate ; le Faubourg St. Germain (one of the 
 suburbs of Paris). We also say le Quai Pellet ier (a key at Paris), le Cours 
 la Reine, and le Bourg la Reine (proper names of places). 
 
 13 9 . When proper names are used in a determinate sense, 
 that is, when they are applied to particular objects, or qualified 
 by an adnoun, they take the article : as, 
 
 Le Dieu des Chretiens, the God of Christians ; le bon Dieu nejy 
 sauroit etre cruel, God Almighty cannot be cruel ; V Archimede 
 d'Angleterre, the Archimedes of England ; V Amphitrion de Mo- 
 Here, the Amphitrion of Moliere ; les Cicerons fy les Demos- 
 thenes (and sometimes les Ciceron, les Demosthene), the Cicero's 
 and the Demosthenes's ; Monsieur le Brun, Master Brown. 
 
 We say without the article : Jean bpousera Marie, John will 
 marry Mary ; and with the article le vieux Janot aime lajeune 
 Babet, old Jack loves young Betty. 
 
 U2 
 
216 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 1 cannot help anticipating here the construction of the preposition de, and 
 considering some of the relations which it denotes. 
 
 14°. The preposition de only, without the article, is used, 
 ~\st. Before nouns following one of these, sorte, espece,. genre, 
 and any other noun of which they express the Kind, Character, 
 Cause, Matter, Quality, Nature, and Country : which tribe of 
 nouns are usually englished by an adnoun, or even by the noun 
 itself, placed adjectively, and making together, as it were, but 
 a word compound : as, 
 
 U?i mal de ttte, the head-ache ; une sorte de fruit, a sort of 
 fruit ; une ttoffe de soie, a silk-stuff; -une montre d 'or, a gold- 
 f$ watch ; de la laine d'Espagne, Spanish wool : une conduite de 
 fou, a foolish conduct, 3fc. 
 
 Sometimes the English adnoun may be rendered likewise by an adnoun in 
 French ; as in the last example, une conduite folk, a foolish conduct ; but some- 
 times too the Trench have no adnoun of the same nature as the English ad- 
 noun, and therefore express the English adnoun by a noun of the same signi- 
 fication with de before the other noun : as, 
 
 Ma diablesse defemme, My devilish wife. 
 
 Mon vauvien defite & sa coquine de My good-for-nothing son, and his 
 mere, worthless mother. 
 
 Sometimes the English express themselves after the same manner as the 
 French, except that the French have no other particle before the second noun 
 but de: is, 
 
 C'est un Diable d'homme, 
 He is a Devil of a man. 
 C 
 
 2Jfy,Before the word of the measure of Magnitude or Increase : 
 as il croit tous les jours d'unpouce, it grows an inch every day. 
 3dlu, After pronouns indeterminate, Personne, Quelquun, Sec. 
 Quoi, ce qui, ce que, tout ce qui, Je ne sais quoi, and the imper- 
 sonal il y a : as, 
 
 liny a personne de blesse, there is nobody wounded. 
 
 Y en avoit-il quelqu'un d'ivre? Was any of them drunk ? 
 
 II y a dans son style je ne sais quoi de dur, his style has I 
 don't know what harshness in it. 
 
 Ce queje remarque de drble, What I observe comical, fyc. 
 
 Athly, Before a participle when a noun of number precedes : 
 D as, II y a trente vaisseaux d'acheves, there are thirty ships fi- 
 nished : il y eut cent hommes de tuts, there were an hundred 
 men killed. 
 
 It may be sometimes left out, when the noun is expressed 
 before the participle, as in the aforesaid sentences, cent hommes 
 tuts, trente vaisseaux acheves ; but those sentences are more 
 usually and elegantly construed with the particle de ; whereas 
 it cannot be omitted after the noun of number, when the rela- 
 live pronoun en stands in the sentence for the noun : as, 
 
 II y en a trente d'acheves, thirty of them are finished. 
 
Of the ARTICLE. 
 
 217 
 
 // y en eut cinquante de tues fy cent de blesses, there were A 
 fifty men killed and an hundred wounded. 
 
 othly, The preposition de, without the article, is used after 
 these words of quantity : 
 
 abondance, abondance de vivres, "plenty of victuals, 
 
 assez, assez de provisions, provisions enough, 
 
 beaucoup, beaucoup d'esprit, much wit. 
 
 combien, combien de vaisseaux, how many ships, 
 
 disette, disette de savans, scarcity of' learned men. 
 
 gueres, gueres d'argent, very little money, 
 
 peu, peu de gens croient, few people think, 
 
 pius & moiriSf plus d'effets & nioins more deeds and fewer B 
 de paroles, words. 
 
 Je iien ai pas davantage, I have no more of it. 
 quantite de fruit, a great deal of fruit. 
 
 grand nombre de a vast number of 
 
 Grammaires, Grammars. 
 
 tant cTecrivains le disent,so many writers say so. 
 autant de femmes que as many women as 
 
 d'hommes, men. 
 
 trop de peine, too much trouble. 
 
 As likezeise after, C 
 
 {point de sens commun, no common sense. 
 pas de monnoie, no change. 
 
 il n'a jamais eTargent, he never has any money. 
 que de peines & de soins ! what care and trouble ! 
 quoi de plus juste ! ivhat can be fairer ! 
 rien de remarquable, nothing remarkable. 
 quelque chose de bon, something good. 
 
 Bien is also used for beaucoup, with this difference, that bien requires after 
 it the article ; as, 
 
 bien de la peine, ~\ C beaucoup de peine, much pain. 
 
 bien du temps, > or < beaucoup de temps, much time. 
 
 bien de Yargent, J C beaucoup d'argent, much money. 
 
 Observe, that assez is never put in French after the noun which it governs, p* 
 as in English, but always before : as, assez de temps, time enough. 
 
 But if the noun that comes after those words is determined by what fol- 
 lows, it requires the article besides : as, 
 
 Donnez-moi unpeu de vin, Un peu du tin qui est dans cette bouteille, 
 
 Give me a little wine. A little of the wine which is in that bottle. 
 
 J'ai encore beaucoup oVargent, Beaucoup de Yargent que fai apporlc de 
 I have a good deal of money still. France. 
 
 A good deal of the money which I brought 
 from France. 
 15°. Nouns are used without either article or preposition in 
 these following cases. 1st, At the title of a performance ; m 
 
 davantage, 
 quantite, 
 grand nombre, 
 
 tant, 
 autant, 
 
 trop, 
 
 point & pas, 
 
 jamais, 
 
 que, 
 
 quoi, 
 
 rien, 
 
 quelque chose, 
 
218 SYNTAX. 
 
 A the middle of sentences, where they characterise in a particular 
 manner the person or thing spoken of ; and when they are 
 used by apposition ; in which eases the English use especially 
 the participle a : as, 
 
 Discours sur les obligations de la Religion naturelle, 
 
 A Discourse concerning the obligations of natural religion. 
 
 Premiere partie Preface, Table des Matieres, 
 
 The first part The Preface, The Contents. 
 
 Le Comte de Clermont, Prince du sang, mourut le, &c. 
 
 The Count of Clermont, a Prince of the blood, died the^c. 
 
 Le St. George, vaisseau de guerre de quatre-vingt-dix pieces 
 de canon, 
 R The St. George, a ninety-gun ship. 
 
 Les plus belles fieurs sont de The handsomest flowers last 
 bien peu de duree. La moindre but a very short time. The 
 pluie les ternit, le vent les fane, least rain tarnishes them, the 
 le soleil les brule, fy acheve de wind withers them, the sun 
 les secher ; sans parler d'une in- scorches them, and completes 
 finite d'insectes qui les gdtent £g the drying of them ; without 
 les incommodent : naturelle fy mentioning an infinite number 
 veritable image de la beaute des of insects that spoil and hurt 
 Dames ! them : a natural and true image 
 
 of Ladies' beauty ! 
 ^ Qdlu, When they come after a pronoun interrogative, or e» 
 clamative ; as also in sentences of exclamation ; as, 
 Quel esprit elle a I Quelle beaute ! Quelle Dame avez-vous vue f 
 What a wit she has ! What a beauty ! What Lady have you 
 
 seen ? 
 
 3dly, When they meet with a noun of number, whether it 
 comes before or after them ; which noun of number, when it is 
 used as a surname to Kings and Sovereigns, always comes the 
 last, and is the Cardinal .Number, and not the Ordinal (except 
 in two cases), as in English : as, 
 
 Mille cavaliers contre cent fan tassins, la partie n' est pas egale, 
 ■^ A thousand horse against an hundred foot, is not fair. 
 
 Louis quinze, Lewis the fifteenth. Henry quatre, Henry the 4th. 
 
 But if, besides the number, the noun had a^relation to some- 
 thing else, it would take the article : as, 
 
 Les cent fan tassins qui se sont defendus contre les mille cava- 
 liers quon avoit envoyes contre eux, &c. The hundred foot who 
 fought with the thousand horse that were sent against them, fyc. 
 
 Athly, After the verb etre, having not ce for its subject (c'est) ; 
 as likewise after devenir to become, etre estime, etre pris pour, 
 passer pour, to be reckoned, to be accounted, to pass for : be- 
 
Of the ARTICLE. 219 
 
 cause the noun serves then only to qualify something spoken of, A 
 and not to name : as, mes paroles sont esprit # vie, my words are 
 spirit and life ; les Rois sont hommes, Kings are men ; elle est 
 J'emme, or c' est unefemme, she is a woman ; it passe pour ma- 
 telot, he passes for a sailor ; il deviendra Docteur avec le temps, 
 he will prove a Doctor in time. (See p. 329, and 335.) 
 
 But if the noun coming after etre, or any of the said verbs, is 
 attended by an adnoun, or any other appurtenance, it takes the 
 particle un : as, Dieu est esprit, God is a spirit ; Dieu est un 
 esprit infini, God is an infinite spirit ; Dieu est un Etre qui a 
 toutes les perfections possibles, God is a Being who has all pos- 
 sible perfections, #c. B 
 
 bthly, When nouns are used in an undeterminate and unspe- 
 cified sense, as likewise in a pathetical way of speaking, or pro- 
 verbially : as, 
 
 Le sage n'a ni amour ni haine, the wise man has neither love 
 nor hatred. 77 est plein de vin, it is full of wine. Interet, hon- 
 neur, conscience, sont sacrifies, interest, honour, conscience, are 
 sacrificed. Plus fait douceur que violence, gentle means are 
 more successful than violent ones. 
 
 16°. No article is put before an adnoun separated from its C 
 noun ; as, Les hommes sont mtchans, men are wicked ; unless, 
 1st, the adnoun is used substantively, or the noun is under- 
 stood : as, speaking of wine and colours, 
 J'aime mieux le rouge que le blanc, I like red better than white. 
 Le verdblesse moins la vue que le rouge, green hurts the eyes 
 
 less than red. 
 II faut prefer er V utile a Vagreable; we must prefer useful 
 
 things to those that are agreeable. 
 
 %dly, Unless it is to quality a proper name, and distinguish 
 between several persons who could go by the same name : as, 
 Louis le bien-aime, Louis the well-beloved ; Chilperic le fai- 
 neant, Chilperic the sluggish. D 
 
 If Verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions may also be used sub- 
 stantively ; in which case they take the article masculine : as, 
 
 Le boire, le manger, le dormir ; Drinking, eating, sleeping. Sometimes 
 the article is likewise left out in French). 
 
 Le pourquoi Sf le comment de toutes choses ; The why and the how of 
 every thing. 
 
 Le pour 4- le contre ; The pro and con. 
 
 11 ne hue gucres sans quelque mais ; He seldom praises without some re- 
 striction. 
 
 II n y y faut pas mettre tant de si Sf de mais : You must not use so many 
 ifs and ands. 
 
 17°. When a noun has two adnouns joined together by a con- 
 junction, the article is sometimes repeated before each adnoun, 
 and sometimes not. If the adnouns are synonymous, or near-a- 
 
220 SYNTAX. 
 
 A kin in their signification, the article is put only before the first 
 
 as, 
 
 La belle fy savante harangue qu!il afaite, 
 
 The fine and learned speech which he made. 
 
 But if the adnouns are of a contrary signification, or have a 
 
 quite different sense, the article must be repeated : as, 
 
 Le savant fy le pieux personnage, the pious aud learned man : 
 
 because pious and learned signify two different things. 
 
 Monsieur VAbbe Girard, one of onr best Grammarians, words this rule thus : 
 " Whenever many adjectives qualify a noun in such a manner that they, be- 
 " tween them, divide its totality, each of them denoting but part of the sense 
 " of the substantive, then the article is repeated before each adjective : as, 
 " Les vieux £f les nouveaux regimens ont fait des merveilles, 
 B " Both the old and new regiments have done wonders. 
 
 " Les belles if les laidesfemmes, ont egalement envie deplaire, 
 " Both the handsome and homely women want to please. 
 " But when the adjectives denote no division of the sense of the substantive, 
 " but barely make an addition of qualities, the article is not repeated : as, 
 
 " Les grands et tastes projets, joints a la prompte 8f sage execution, font le 
 " grand ministre, Great and vast projects, together with a speedy and wise 
 " execution, make the great minister." 
 
 18°. Articles are repeated in French before as many nouns 
 (requiring the article) as there are in the sentence : as, 
 
 IS or, Yargent, la sante, les honneurs, # lesplaisirs ne sau- 
 roient rendre Yhomme heureux, sans la science fy la vertu. 
 q Gold, silver, health, honours, and pleasures, cannot make a 
 man happy, without wisdom and virtue. 
 f Prepositions are also repeated before every noun. 
 
 There are a great number of nouns that take no article after some verbs, 
 with which they form particular ideas and idiomatical expressions. I will 
 give a list of them in a more proper place. (See p. 416.). 
 
 Moreover, observe, that we may sometimes indifferently use the noun with 
 or without the article, when with respect to what one intimates, it is indif- 
 ferent to modify or restrain the signification of the noun, so that it exhibits 
 any sense in which it may be taken. Thus, on some occasions, we may say : 
 
 or vL^L^esmit X f ont t™J™rs plaisir, . Ingenious people are 
 
 or ves gens a espru, ? agreeable at all times : 
 
 or even Gens d'esprit, 3 fe c ai a * i m^o 
 
 ^ because the subject implies only the idea of the ingenious people. 
 -*-' The practice of these 18 or 20 observations on the article being pretty diffi- 
 cult to Foreigners, and even such as are daily unregarded, on most occasions, 
 by the generality of the French, I have enlarged much upon them in my ex- 
 ercise to these rules, wherein the learners will Be made sensible by practice ©f 
 what they may possibly find hard to understand in this treatise. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of Adnouns. 
 
 § I. Of Adnouns, some are put before the noun, and some 
 after, and others may be put indifferently either before or 
 after it. 
 
0/ ADNOUNS. <22i 
 
 1°. Pronominal adnouns {or rather possessive articles), mon, A 
 ton, four, &c. Pronouns indefinite, quel, autre, chaque, p/u- 
 sieurs, quelque, &c. except quelconque; and Numbers, both 
 cardinal, ordinal, and proportional, come before the noun, as 
 in English : as, 
 
 Monptre my father, four maison their house, quelle femme 
 what woman, chaque homme every man, deux personnes two 
 people, le premier homme the first man, la dernier e place the 
 last place, un double profit a double profit, fyc. 
 
 But when the Number stands for a Surname, or meets with 
 a Proper or Christian name, it comes after the noun without 
 article ; as George second, George the second ; Louis quinze, B 
 Lewis the fifteenth. 
 When a book, or some part of a book, as chapter, article, page, fyc. is 
 
 3uoted, the number may come either before or after the noun ; but with this 
 ifference, that if it comes after, the two words are construed without the ar- 
 ticle; as, livre premier, chapitre second, article troisieme, book i. chapter ii. arti- 
 cle iii. if before, it takes the article. It may also come after the noun with the 
 article before ; as, le troisieme chapitre, or le chapitre troisieme, the third chapter 
 
 2°. These following adnouns come after the noun : 
 
 1st, Verbal adnouns : as, un homme divertissant a comical or 
 merry man, la mode regnant e the fashion in vogue, un pays 
 habite an inhabited country, une femme estimee a woman es- 
 teemed. 
 
 Qdly, Adnouns of names of nations : as, un Mathematicien C 
 Anglois an English Mathematician, un Tailleur Francois a 
 French Tailor, la Musique Italienne Italian Music, fyc. 
 
 3dly, Adnouns of colour : as, un habit noir a black coat, 
 un manteau rouge a red cloak, #c. 
 
 Except these three, when joined to these nouns, with which they make but 
 a compound noun : : un blanc-manger, blan-mange (a sort of dainty dish) ; un 
 roiige-bord, a brimmer; une rouge-trogne, a red face ; un rouge-gorge, a Robin- 
 red-breast ; un rouge-queue, a red tail ; un verd-galant, a brisk spark ; and les 
 Blancs-Manteaux (the name of a Friary). 
 
 Athly, Adnouns of figure : as, une table ronde a round table, 
 une chambre carrte a square room, &;c. 
 
 bthly, Adnouns expressing some physical, or natural quality ; D 
 such as chaud, hot ; froid, cold ; pur, pure ; hwnide, wet ; amer, 
 bitter ; bossu, hunch-back ; and others respecting taste, hearing, 
 feeling, &c. as, un temps froid ou chaud, cold or warm weather; 
 du vin pur, pure wine ; un arbre fruitier, a. fruit-tree ; du fruit 
 amer, bitter fruit ; desjambes crochues, crooked legs ; de la chair 
 vive, quick flesh ; la religion naturelle, natural religion, #c. 
 Except du vifargent, quicksilver (pronounce vivarjaii). 
 
 Qthly, Adnouns ending in esque, il, He, and ule: as, une fi- 
 gure grotesque, an odd sort of figure ; un discours putril, a 
 childish discourse; un enfant docile, a tractable child; une 
 femme credule, a credulous woman, #c. 
 
fine. 
 
 grot, 
 
 big. 
 
 moindre, 
 
 less. 
 
 good. 
 
 jeune, 
 
 young. 
 
 petit, 
 
 little. 
 
 brave. 
 
 mauvais, 
 
 bad, ill. 
 
 saint, 
 
 holy. 
 
 dear. 
 
 mechant, 
 
 naughty. 
 
 vieux, 
 
 old. 
 
 sorry. 
 
 meilieur, 
 
 better. 
 
 vrai, 
 
 true. 
 
 great. 
 
 
 
 
 
 222 SYNTAX. 
 
 A lihly, Adnouns ending in ic, ique, and if (tho' some may 
 also come before the noun) ; as le Men public, the public good ; 
 un esprit pacijique, a pacific mind ; un enfant vif a quick 
 child ; §c. Except, again, du vif-argent. 
 
 Sthly, Adnouns ending in able (mostly derived from verbs) : 
 for tho' some may also come before the noun, yet one can never 
 speak improperly in placing them after ; as, une terre laboura- 
 ble, arable land ; un pays inhabitable, an uninhabitable coun- 
 try ; une personue aimable, or une aimable personne, a lovely 
 person; <§c. 
 
 J5 3°. Of common adnouns these sixteen generally come be- 
 fore the noun : 
 beau, 
 bon, 
 brave, 
 cher,' 
 chttif, 
 grand, 
 
 As un beau garfon, a fine boy ; un gros ventre, a big belly ; 
 de bon pain, good bread ; un petit visage, a little face ; un 
 brave officier, a brave officer ; un chttif cheval, a sorry horse ; 
 
 C six beaux chevaux bais, six fine bay horses. 
 
 Most other adnouns are almost indifferently placed before or after the 
 noun ; at least it is oniy by reading- good books one can learn which are bet- 
 ter put before, and which after. Thus use will have you say : le haut style, 
 and le style sublime, the lofty style ; les campagnes voisines, the neighbouring- 
 fields ; les bords lointains, the remote shores ; un habit vieux, an old coat ; du 
 vin vieux, old wine ; and never du vieux vin, le style haut, le sublime style, &c. 
 
 Nu (naked) is one of the adnouns that comes after the noun ; yet it comes 
 before, and is indeclinable, in one "particular case, when jointly with its noun 
 it makes a compound word. Thus we say la t'ete nue, lespieds nus (with one's 
 head or feet bare), we nevertheless say also etre nu-tete (to be uncovered), 
 marcher nu-pieds (to walk without shoes or stockings). 
 
 1[ In general, the fear must be consulted for the construction of adnouns ; 
 Ahey come first, if they are less harmonious than their substantives ; they 
 come last, if they are more harmonious. 
 
 They must also come first, when they are used figuratively ; See next page. 
 
 D 4°. When the noun is attended by two adnouns, it is some- 
 times indifferent to put them before or after it : as un homme 
 mechant fy ingenieux, or un ingenieux fy mechant homme, an 
 ingenious and wicked man ; but it is more sure to put them 
 after, for we don't say un mechant fy ingenieux homme. 
 
 If the noun has three or more adnouns belonging to it, they 
 must absolutely be put after it with the Enclitic <3f before the 
 last : which must likewise be observed, even when there are but 
 two adnouns ; for we do not say un ingenieux mechant homme, as 
 
Of ADNOUNS. 
 
 223 
 
 the English do, an ingenious wicked man, nor un desagreable A 
 cnnuyeux ouvrage, a disagreeable tedious work. 
 
 Some adnouns being- construed with certain nouns will come first, when 
 construed with others Will come last. Thus we say, 
 
 homme juste, a just man. juste prix, reasonable rate. 
 
 action juste,' a just action. juste defense, a just defence. 
 
 action basse, a mean action. u bas prix, cheap, or at a low rate. 
 
 We likewise say : le has Languedoc, la basse Normandie, lower Languedoc «^ 
 Normandy ; la haute ou basse Saxe, upper or lower Saxony ; la basse Autriche, 
 lower Austria ; le bas Rldn. the lower' Rhine, Sec. and les 'Pays-bos, not Its bos 
 pays, the low countries ; nor le Rhin bas, le Rhm haut, See. 
 
 Some other adnouns, which will be put after the noun when they are taken 
 in the proper sense, must be put before it when they are taken in' the figura- 
 tive; as, 
 
 Proper Sense. 
 tin fruit mur, ripe fruit. 
 
 un homme maigre, a thin man. 
 
 unefemme vice, a quick woman. 
 
 un homme bon, a good-natured man. 
 un homme pauvre, a poor man. 
 
 Figurative Sense. 1> 
 
 une mure dUmhation, a matin e deli- 
 beration, 
 une maigre chere, poor fare. 
 
 une vice douleur, a smart or sharp pain. 
 un bon homme, one who means no harm. 
 un pauvre homme, a sorry fellow. 
 
 Many adnouns may be used substantively in French, which the genius of 
 the English Tongue does not allow ; I shall take notice of them in a more 
 proper place, (p. 450.) 
 
 § II. Of adnouns, some always require after them either a 
 noun or a verb, which they govern : as, digne de louange, 
 praise worthy ; digne d'etre aime, worthy to be loved ; capable 
 dtenseigner, capable to teach \propre a tout, fit for any thing; 
 il n'est pas propre a commander en chef, he is not fit to com- 
 mand in chief ; §c. 
 
 Some will be used absolutely without being ever attended 
 by any noun or verb : as sage, wise ; vertueux, virtuous ; in- 
 curabie, incurable ; intrepide, undaunted ; fyc. q 
 
 Others may be construed both with amTwithout a noun : as, 
 Oest une femme insensible, She is a woman without any sensi- 
 bility, hlle est insensible a V amour, She is insensible, and a 
 stranger to the passion of love. II vit content, He lives con- 
 tent ; II est content de sa condition, He is contented with his 
 condition. 
 
 1°. The following adnouns require the preposition de before 
 the next noun. Observe that some of them require in English n 
 the preposition at or with before it. 
 digne, worthy, mecontent, discon- enrage, 
 
 indigne, unworthy. tented 
 capable, capable, comble, 
 incapable,inc2ipab\e. heapt up. 
 aise, glad, taxe, 
 
 ravi, overjoyed, charge, 
 
 joyeux, joyful, accuse, accused. . aualifie, one that has 
 content, contented, contrit, sorrowful, the character of, §c. 
 
 X 
 
 avide, 
 loaded, las, 
 
 fatigue., 
 
 taxed., ennuye, 
 
 loaded, libre, 
 
 enraged. 
 
 greedy. 
 
 tired. 
 
 fatigued. 
 
 weary. 
 
 free. 
 
224 SYNTAX. 
 
 A as likewise adnouns signifying Fulness, Emptiness, Plenty, or 
 Want: as II est digne de louange, he is worthy of praise. In- 
 digne de Vestime que fat pour lid, unworthy of the esteem which 
 I have for him. Capable ou incapable de servir sa patrie, ca- 
 pable or incapable to serve one's country. Comble tThonneurs, 
 loaded with honours. Taxe d* avarice, charged with avarice. 
 Charge de dettes, deep in debt. Accuse de mensonge ou oV avoir 
 menti, • accused of lying. Je suis aise ou ravi de son succes, I 
 am glad or overjoyed at his success. Fatigue de courir, fa- 
 tigued with running. Ennuye de la vie or de vivre, weary of 
 life. II est qualifie oVivrogne, he has the character of a drunk- 
 ard. Avide de gloire, needy of glory, fyc. 
 
 B 2°. The following adnouns require the preposition a before 
 
 the next noun. 
 
 adivit, dexterous, vigenieux, ingenious, propxe, fit. 
 
 bon, good, contraire, contrary, ardent, ~) 
 
 z. c. ' •*. * r eager. 
 
 beau, tine, oppose, opposite, apre, j ° 
 
 laid, ll gly« conforme, conform- occupe, busy. 
 
 agreable,2igreeMe. able' lent, slow. 
 
 desagrtable, dis- semblable, like. ?iuisible, hurtful. 
 
 agreeable. pareil, alike, prompt, quick. 
 
 comparable, com- enclin, ■ inclined, prfa, ready. 
 
 C parable. adonne, given, ad- sensible, sensible. 
 
 agile nimble. : dieted. insensible, insensible. 
 
 alerte, brisk, pert, porte, apt, prone, souple, pliant. 
 
 habile, skilful.* sujet, subject, liable, aise, facile, easy. 
 
 And all adnouns signifying Inclination, Aptness, Fitness, and 
 Unfitness, Advantage and Disadvantage, Profit or Disprofit 7 
 Due Submission, Resistance, Difficulty, 8tc. as, 
 
 Je suis sensible aufrdid, I am sensible of cold, jf/ est insen- 
 sible aux affronts, he is insensible of affronts. Etre porte ou 
 enclin a quelque chose, to be apt or inclined to something. Lent 
 au travail, slow to work. Prompt aujeu ou ajouer, quick to 
 Dplay Propre a tout, fit for any thing. Nidsible a la santt, 
 hurtful to health. Souple au marteau, malleable, tyc. 
 
 3°. These adnouns, signifying Dimension, haut, high, tall ; 
 prqfond, deep; epais, thick; gros, big; large, wide, broad; 
 and long, long, which come after the words of the measure of 
 magnitude in English, come before in French, and are attended 
 by the preposition de : as, 
 
 Vne colonne haute de soixantepieds. A column sixty-feet high, 
 Le fosse est prof ond de vingt-pieds, fy large de dix, 
 The ditch is twenty feet deep, and ten broad. 
 
Of ADNOUNS. 225 
 
 Or (which is much better, and more generally used) the ad- A 
 noun of the dimension is turned into its noun in French, with 
 the word of the measure before, as in English, but so that both 
 the word of the measure, and that of the dimension, are pre- 
 ceded by the preposition de : as, 
 
 Un homme de six pieds de hauteur, A man six feet high. 
 Un fosse de vingt pieds de prqfondeur, A ditch twenty feet deep. 
 
 And the verb substantive to be is also turned into the verb to 
 have, governing the noun of the measure, with the preposition 
 de before the noun of dimension : as, 
 
 Le fosse a vingt pieds de prqfondeur, & dix de largeur, g 
 
 The ditch is twenty feet deep, and ten broad. 
 
 The words of measure are, 
 
 une aune, an ell. un arpent, an acre, une brasse, a fathom. 
 
 une verge, a yard, uneperche, a rod. another 
 
 unpied, afoot, un pas, apace. C measure 
 
 un pouce, an inch, une lieue, a league. , • } contain- 
 
 ?• v '77 -i une toise. < 
 
 une hgne, a line, un miile, a mile. ' \ mg six 
 
 unecoudte, a cubit. . , fastadeor f feet in 
 
 ' un stade, < - i v i ^, 
 
 un empan, a span. \ i iurlong. length. 
 
 f Adnouns are sometimes used substantively ; in which case they take the 
 article. (See page 219.) 
 
 § III. 1°. We have seen that the highest or lowest degree C 
 of comparison is expressed in French by the particles, le, la, 
 les, put before the adverbs plus, moins, mieux, followed by the 
 adnoun. But as (according to the first observations of the 2d 
 section of this chapter) some adnouns come before the noun, 
 and others after, so whenever it is the case of the adnoun in 
 the highest or lowest degree to come after the noun, it requires 
 the article before plus or moins, tho' the noun that comes before 
 has it already, either with or without a preposition : as, 
 
 Oest la coutume des peuples les plus barbares, p 
 
 It is the custom of the most barbarous nations. 
 
 II a obei au commandement le plus injuste qu'on puisse faire, 
 
 He has obeyed the most unjust command that can be made. 
 
 Je compte sur Yami le plus obligeant, 
 
 I rely upon the most obliging friend. 
 
 Oest une desfemmes les plus belles de Paris. She is one of 
 the most beautiful women in Paris ; which is equal to c'est une 
 des plus belles ftmmes de Paris. 
 
226 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 2°. The noun that follows the adnoun in the highest or 
 lowest degree, is always preceded by the preposition de (or the 
 \ particles du, des) generally rendered into English by in ;' as, 
 
 Leplus savant homme du monde, 
 
 The most learned man in the world. 
 
 La plus impertinente des femmes. 
 
 The most impertinent of women. 
 
 3°. When the superlative is followed by a verb, if that verb 
 is in English the present, or preterite tense, or their com- 
 pounds, it must be put in French in the subjunctive, preceded 
 t> by the relative pronoun qui, dont, &c. as, 
 U homme le plus savant qui soit, 
 The most learned man that is. 
 La plus belle personne que f me jamais vue, 
 The handsomest person / have ever seen. 
 And if the superlative is of an adverb, and not of an adnoun, 
 the verb must be preceded by the conjunction que : as, 
 
 Le plus soigneusement qu'il sepuisse, or qn'onpuisse, 
 The most carefully that can be. 
 
 4°. The particle than that follows the comparative in Eng- 
 lish, is rendered in French by que before the next noun or pro 
 q noun : as, 
 
 II est plus habile que sonfrtre, 
 
 He is more ingenious than his brother. 
 
 // agit mains sinctrement que vous f 
 
 He acts, or deals less sincerely than you. 
 
 5°. If than is followed by a verb in the infinitive, it must be 
 made in French by the infinitive with the particle de after que : 
 or by the imperfect of the indicative, or its compound, with the 
 conjunction si after que : as, 
 
 // aime mieux demeurer a ricnfaire que de travailler, 
 He rather chooses to be idle than work. 
 ^ II est plus heureux que s'il regnoif, 
 
 He is happier than if he reigned. 
 
 And if the verb that follows than in English is not in, nor 
 can be rendered by the infinitive, it must take in French the 
 negative ne before it : as, 
 
 II est plus habile queje ne croyois, 
 He is more ingenious than I thought. 
 ^ That is to say, Je ne le cro'jo'm pas si habile. 
 
Of ADNOUNS. <2£7 
 
 But if there comes before the verb a conjunction governing A 
 it, the negative may be left out : as, 
 
 Je le trouve a present moins beau que quandje Vachetai, 
 
 I now find it less handsome than when I bought it. 
 1f That is ; Qii'il ne l'etoit quand, &c. than it was when, &c. 
 
 6°. The simple comparative plus and moins meeting with a 
 number, are attended by the preposition de : as, 
 
 II aphis de vingt ans, and never plus que, 
 He is above twenty. 
 
 Therefore the pieposition above before a noun of number must 
 always be rendered into French by plus de, or au dessus de. B 
 
 7°. The preposition by and the conjunction than, used to 
 join a certain definite quantity to the adnoun or adverb of 
 the comparison, are expressed in French by de : as, 
 
 II est plus grand de toute la tete, 
 
 He is taller by a whole head, or he is a head taller. 
 
 Nous en sommes plus d'a moitie persuades, 
 
 We are more than half convinced of it. 
 
 Beaucoup and peu, denoting comparison, have likewise the 
 particle de before them : as, C 
 
 II est de beaucoup plus grand, He is much taller. 
 Si vous ttes plus gros que lui, e'est de peu, 
 If you are bigger than he is, it is but a little. 
 % However, we sometimes say, il est beaucoup plus grand, without de. 
 
 8°. The particles comparative si and aussi, which are always 
 followed by que after the adnoun, are englished, si and aussi by 
 so before the adnoun, and que by that or as after it, or, by as, 
 both before and after ; but aussi gives more force to the com- 
 parison than si : as, 
 
 Je ne le croyoispas si brave or aussi brave qv'il Pest, 
 
 I did not think him so courageous as he is. 
 
 Est-il si mtchant qu'ow le dit ? Is he so wicked as they say ? J) 
 
 Elle est aussi belle que sa sceur, She is as handsome as her 
 sister. 
 
 Tant and autant, followed likewise by que (as much, so much 
 as,) are construed with verbs and nouns, as si and aussi with 
 adnouns : as, 
 
 Elle ria pas tant d! esprit que sa saur, mais elle a autant de 
 vivacite, fy elle est aussi aimable ' She has not so much wit as 
 her sister, but she has as much liveliness, and is as amiable as 
 she. X 2 
 
22S SYNTAX. 
 
 A Je Yestime autant que voire frere, 
 
 I esteem him as much as I do your brother. 
 Uun est aussi savant que V autre, 
 1 The one is as learned as the other. 
 
 Si is used in negative sentences ; and in affirmative, only 
 when there is no comparison of equality made between two 
 things : but in affirmative sentences implying comparison, aussi 
 must be used : as, // riest rien de si doux que la liberie : No- 
 thing is so sweet as liberty. 
 
 Elle aime si violernment qn'elle en perd la raison: She loves 
 so excessively that it disturbs her reason, or she grows dis» 
 B tracted. 
 
 Le plaisir de C etude est unplaisir aussi tranquille, que celui 
 des passions est agite : The pleasure of studying is as calm, as 
 that of the passions is tumultuous. 
 
 9°. The particles comparative si and aussi, plus and le plus, 
 must be repeated before each adnoun or adverb governed, as 
 likewise tant before each noun, and autant before each verb, 
 when there are many in the sentence : as, 
 
 17 est si sage, si prudent, si eclaire S; si discret, avion pent en 
 s&rete lui conjier un secret : He is so wise, so prudent, en- 
 lightened, and discreet, that one may safely entrust him with a 
 C secret. 
 
 Unjeune homme aussi sage, aussi capable, fy quiprend tant de 
 peine, merite quon le protege : So sober a young man, so capa- 
 ble, and who takes so much pains, deserves to be protected. 
 Son amant est plus beau, \Ausjeune, # plus riche qu'elle, 
 Her lover is handsomer, younger, and richer than she is. 
 
 Observe all along that the verb substantive to be f which ordinarily follows 
 than, and the comparative or superlative in English, is always left out iu 
 French, and that we are then contented with que and the pronoun, without a 
 verb after it (plus riche qu'elle, and not qu'elle est, as in English, richer than 
 she is). 
 
 10°. As, repeated with an adverb between, is rendered into 
 n French either by aussi and que, or le plus and que, with the 
 adverb between : as, Come as often as you can. 
 
 Venez aussi souvent que vous pourrez, or, le plus souvent 
 que vous pourrez. 
 
 Lastly, these comparative ways of speaking : 
 
 a The more an hydropick drinks, the more thirsty he is. 
 
 b The more I see her, the more 1 hate her. 
 
 c The richer men are, the happier they are ; or, 
 
 d Men are so much the more happy, as they are more rich. 
 
 e The poorer people are, the less care they have, &c. 
 are rendered into French by plus or moins y beginning each part 
 of the sentence, and followed by the noun, or pronoun which is 
 
Of pronouns. m 
 
 the subject of the verb ; then the verb ; then the adnoun of the A 
 comparison, if there be any, or even the noun, if there be one 
 governed by the verb : thus, 
 
 a Plus un hydropique boit, plus il a soif, 
 
 * Plusje la vols, ptusje la hais, 
 
 c Plus on est riche, plus on est heureux ; or, 
 
 d On est d'autant plus heureux qu'on est plus riche, 
 
 e Plus on estpauvre, moins on a d'embarras, &c. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Of Pro nouns, and first of the Pronouns Personal. B 
 
 § I. Of Pronouns Personal, some (viz. je, tu, il, &c.) are 
 Conjunctive, that is, always coming before the verb, whether 
 they govern or are governed ; the others (viz. moi, tot, lui, Sec.) 
 Disjunctive, that is, governed of prepositions, and following the 
 construction usual to nouns. But the chief thing to be ob- 
 served is the order in which the conjunctives are placed, when 
 several of them meet together before the verb, especially with 
 the negatives ne and pas. C 
 
 1°. The personal Conjunctives, je, nous ; tu, vous; il, elle ; 
 ils, elles ; come before the verb as its subject, either imme- 
 diately, as Je dis I say, or with one or more pronouns, or the 
 negative ne between ; as Je vous dis I tell you, Je ne dis pas 
 I do not say ; but they will not admit of any adverb, or other 
 word, between themselves and the verb, as they do in English. 
 Therefore we say Je vois toujours I always see, Je lui dis 
 dans ce temps-la, or Je lui dis alors I at that time, or I then 
 told him ; and never Je toujours vois, Je dans ce temps-la lui 
 dis, or J'alors lui dis. 
 
 Only in certain forms, the word soussigne, and the title and O 
 quality of the person that speaks, is put between the Conjunc- 
 tive and the verb, thus : Je soussig?ie declare I underwritten 
 declare, 
 
 Je, Jean Smith, Docteur en Medecine, certifie, Sec. 
 
 I, John Smith, Doctor of Physick, do certify. 
 
 The same personal conjunctives come after their verbs in the following 
 cases : 
 
 Is*, After the six verbs, dire to say, rtpondre to answer, repliqmr to reply, 
 continuer to continue, poursuhre to pursue, and s'e'erier to cry out, by Paren- 
 thesis (as is practised in English with to say, tho' not so generally as in 
 French) : as, 
 
 Vous etudiez, (Htes-youSj or dit-il, You study, say you, or you say, wsays he. 
 Vousvoyez, disent-ils, or rtpondit-il, or s , hria-t-il,Ve'tat ok nous sommes rMuits y 
 You see, they say, or answered he, or cried he out, the condition we are re- 
 duced to. 
 
■SSO SYNTAX. 
 
 J± 2t%, With the Preterite subjunctive of devoir, and poiwoir ; which way of 
 speaking (with devoir) may be resolved by the conjunction quand with the 
 Conditional: as, 
 
 Dussiez-vous me condamner, or Quand vous devriez me condamner, 
 
 Tho' you should condemn me. 
 
 Pussiez-vous, and puissiez-vous etre heureux, May you live happy. 
 
 Ne valilt-il qu'un sou ? Were it worth but one penny ? 
 
 3dly, After these Conjunctions ainsi, aussi, peut-etre, du moins, aa moins, en 
 vain, and a peine: as, 
 
 Ainsi, or aussi me'rite-t-ild'etreavance', Therefore he deserves to be preferred. 
 
 Du moins deviez-vous m'en avertir, At least you should have tcld me of it. 
 
 Envain cherche-t-il des excuses, In vain he seeks for an excuse. 
 
 Peut-etre s'imagine-t-il, Perhaps he thinks. 
 
 A peine ent-il park, flue . . . He had hardly spoken, when . . . 
 
 But observe, that in this last case it is an elegance only, and not a law of 
 g Grammar, to put the conjunctives after their verbs, and that we say too : aussi 
 il merite d'etre avance ; du moins vous deviez m'en avertir, Sec. And dussiez-vous 
 me condamner is said by ellipsis for quoique vous dussiez mercondamner ; and 
 puissiez-vous Hre content, for je souhaite que vous soyez content, that tense of 
 pouvoir being then used as and for what Grammarians call the Optative Mood 
 ot souhaiter to wish. 
 
 2°. % The English personal pronouns, I, thou, he, Sec. when unaccompa- 
 nied by a verb, or answering to the verb to be, are always rendered into 
 French by the pronouns disjunctive, moi, toi, lui, Szc. 
 
 It is I,.c'est moi ; It is he, e'est lid ; It is we, e'estnous ; It is they, ce sont eux, 
 ce sojit elles. 
 
 Who is there ? qui est la ? 7, e'est moi. 
 
 Who has done thai ? qui a fait cela? /, Sir, moi, Monsieur. 
 
 If in the same sentence one or more pronouns of the other persons meet 
 with one of the first, politeness requires, in French as in English, that the 
 first person, being the person who speaks, should be named the last. 
 C Vous fy moi, you and I ; lid if moi, he and I ; elle et moi, she and I.; eux et 
 moi, they and I ^ vous if nous, ye and we ; lui if nous, he and we ; eux Sf nous, 
 they and we. 
 
 It is the same, when the first person joins with nouns or names of persons. 
 
 Pierre fy moi, Peter and I ; vosfreres if moi, your brothers and I ; son cousin 
 if nous, his cousin and we. 
 
 The same politeness requires that the person spoken to should be 
 named before the person spoken of ; hence the pronouns disjunctive of the 
 second persons always come before those of the third, and before nouns. 
 
 Toi if tonfrere, thou and thy brother ; Vous if mon pere, you and my father • 
 Vous if voire ami, you and your friend ; Vous Sf Pierre, you and Peter ; Vous $< 
 lui, you and he ; Vous if eux, you and they; avecvous if avec eux, with you 
 and them. 
 
 However, in spite of politeness, as the first person, to speak the language 
 of Grammarians,, is the noblest of the three, and the second is more noble 
 than the third, if there be a verb expressed in the sentence, the first perso:;, 
 i) in preference to the two others, must be its leader, or the second in the ab- 
 sence of the first. Therefore, 
 
 5f When one or more nouns, and one or more pronouns meet 
 together with a verb as its virtual subject, those pronouns must 
 be disjunctive, either singular or plural ; but in any case the 
 verb must be in the plural number, and besides have for its 
 grammatical subject, or nominative, a conjunctive pro- 
 noun plural, of the noblest persons among the disjunctive 
 pronouns, which then, together with the nouns connected 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 23 1 
 
 with them, may come indifferently, either before or after the A 
 verb : as, 
 
 Lui ty moi, nous apprenons le Francois ; 1 Both he and I 
 Or, Nous apprenons le Francois, lui §moi; j learn French. 
 
 Fous fy lui, vous apprendrez Vltalien ; \ Both yon and he 
 Or, Vous apprendrez Vltalien, vous fy lui ; ) will learn Italian. 
 
 Mon frere., ma saur, ma cousine $ r/zoH My brother, my 
 nous allames hier a la comedie ; ( sister, my cousin 
 
 Or, Nous allames hier a la comedie,mon ( and 1 went to the 
 frere, ma sxur, ma cousine ty moi ; J play last night. 
 
 Vous, voire cousin, safemmefy moi, now\ Yon, your cousin, 
 irons ce soir a la comedie ; f his wife and I, B 
 
 Or, Nous irons, 8tc. — Vous, voire cou- f will go to the 
 sin, &c. 3 play to-night. 
 
 Vous, M. Adam, sa cousine, ty moi, nous~\ You, Mr. Adam, 
 irons dans la meme voiture ; f his cousin, and 1, 
 
 Or, Nous irons, &c. — Vous, M. Adam, f will go in the 
 &c. J same carriage. 
 
 Noils sommes contens, lui # moi ; \ He and I are aa- 
 
 Or, Lui fy moi nous sommes contens ; ) tisfied. 
 
 Je suis content, fy lui aussi ; I am satisfied, and so is he. 
 
 Vous <3f voire frere, vous ties heureux ; you and your brother 
 are happy. C 
 
 Vous # lui, vous ties toujoursa vous quereller ; you and he 
 are always quarelling.] 
 
 To this rifle there is an exception ; for though the disjunctives of the first 
 and second persons moi and toi, can never be construed as subjects of a verb, 
 without another conjunctive, yet when the disjunctives are put before the 
 verb, and the last of them is a pronoun of the third person (lui or eux), the 
 con umc tive (il or Us) is sometimes left out, and sometimes expressed before 
 rhf following verb (and therefore the disjunctive lui and eux are then only 
 subject of, and coming before the verb), and sometimes also it is indifferent 
 to express it or not. It is not possible to determine positively when after 
 those disjunctives the conjunctive must be left out, and when notj nor when it 
 is indifferent to express it or not. But these cases occurring very seldom, 
 and being almost always confined to common conversation, it inust suffice to 
 take notice here of the following instances : 
 
 D 
 
 We say : Mon frere Sf luisont arrives, My brother and he are arrived ; not 
 ils sont arrive's. % The conjunctive ils is suppressed, because the noun frere, 
 and the disjunctive pronoun lui are both of the same person, viz. the third.] 
 
 On the contrary, we say : Je demeure, Sf lui il part : I stay, and he goes. Je 
 partirai, § toi tu resteras ; "I shall set out, but you will stay. % The conjunctive 
 il, tu, can by no means be suppressed, because the subjects are of Different 
 persons. As for the suppression of the disjunctive, see the last paragraph 
 next page. C] 
 
 However, it is indifferent to say ; Je demmrai, Sf lui il s'en alia, ox Je de- 
 meurai, $ lui s'en alia ; I staid, and he went away ; Vous en etesfi'ichc, fy eu.v 
 s'en rejouissent, or Sf eux Us s'en rejouissent ; you are sorry for it, but they re- 
 joice at it. f The conjunctive il, ils, may be left out, notwithstanding the 
 
*232 SYNTAX. 
 
 ^ difference of persons, because the second verb is reflected, and the pronoun 
 st', which accompanies it, is sufficient to indicate the third person.] 
 
 But observe, 1st, That it is only in common conversation you may express 
 the conjunctive or not. 
 
 2dly, That, as in the first instance, the noun and pronoun may equally well 
 come after the verb, and you may say : lis sont arrives monfrerefy lui (which 
 is the best way to avoid the difficulty) ; so it is always safe, and never impro- 
 per, to begin the sentence, with the conjunctive, even in common conversa- 
 tion, and say : Nous apprenons le Francois, lui fy moi : He and I learn French. 
 
 3dly, That the disjunctives lui and eux, as has been seen in some of the pre- 
 ceding phrases, may in a regular speech be the subject of and come before 
 the verb, without any conjunctive : But, 
 
 1°. Either the disjunctives must be attended by the adnoun seul : as, Plus 
 
 je vis avec le Cacique if sa sosur, plusj'ai de peine a me persuader qu'ils soient de 
 
 cetie nation; eux seuls connoissenl fr respecteut la vertu. The more I live with 
 
 13 the Cacick and his sister, the less I can believe that they are of that nation : 
 
 they alone know and respect virtue. 
 
 2°. Or it must be separated from its verb, by another middle sentence join- 
 ing to it, by the means of a relative or gerund : as, Lui qui ne savoit pas qu'ils 
 itoient reconcilUs, fut sort surpris de les voir ensemble: He, who did not know 
 that they were reconciled, was much surprised to see them together. 
 
 Eux, voyani que lapluralite des suffrages Vemporteroit, commencerent par pro- 
 tester : They, seeing that the majority of votes would carry it, began with a 
 protest. 
 
 3°. Or the sentences wherein they are used, relate the particulars of some 
 fact, declared in general in the former member (but distributed, in the latter, 
 among the agents of it) : as, 
 
 Les deux freres fy le cousin ont commis le meurtre ; eux ont lie" Vhomme, fy lui 
 Va assomme, The two brothers and the cousin have committed the murder ; 
 they have tied the man, and he has knock'd him on the head. 
 *jP ^ In this phrase : Elle est contente, fy lui Vest aussi ; She is satisfied, and so 
 is he : the verb is repeated because the two subjects elle and lui are not of the 
 same gender. In conversation, however, we may make the ellipsis of Vest, 
 and say : Elle est contente, fy lui aussi. 
 
 And in this, with much more reason : Elle est contente, mais lui ne Vest pas. 
 She is satisfied, but he is not so ; because, besides the difference of gender, 
 the second member of the phrase is negative. 
 
 But when there is no distribution of action to make : no contrast, opposi- 
 tion, or comparison to express, the disjunctive is by no means necessary, and 
 the verb is contented with a conjunctive : as, 
 
 Je re qnitte, fy tu nen temoignes point de regret ; I leave you, and you show 
 no regret for it. Je ha ai parle, fyila promis de venir ; I spoke to him, and he 
 has promised to come. 
 
 3°. If the pronouns are governed by the verb, either as its 
 object, or end. the first must be a conjunctive, coming before 
 the verb, and the other, or others, disjunctive, and put after it : 
 as, 
 D On meparle aussi bien q\jC a. vous &$ a eux : I am spoken to 
 as well as he and they, or They speak to me, as well as to you 
 and to them. 
 
 4°. Observe that the conjunctives of the third person of both 
 genders, il, Us ; elle, elles, are used with respect to irrational 
 and inanimate creatures ; which pronouns are englished by it, 
 and they for the plural : as, 
 
 a tree, ~\ il porte beaucoup de fruit, It bears much fruit. 
 
 an apple, ( Elic it est pas mure, It is not ripe. 
 
 ahorse, til boite, He is lame. 
 
 a hen, 3 Ell e ne pond plus, It or she lays no more eggs 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 23S 
 
 Moreover il is used before verbs impersonal, or rather verbs are very often _A^ 
 used impersonally with this pronoun, which is commonly rendered into Eng- 
 lish by it or there ; as il arriva, it or there happened : as likewise before verbs 
 neuter, followed by another subject besides, which second subject is the only 
 one in English ; as, 
 
 Il est arrive un accident ; 
 An accideut has happened, or 
 There an accident happened. 
 II viendra tantdt quelq&'un; 
 Somebody will come by and by. 
 It is the same when questions are asked • as, 
 Est-il arrive" qnelque accident? 
 Did some accident happen ? 
 
 Viendra-t-il dumonde, ou viendra-t-il quelqu'un tantot? 
 Will somebody come by and by ? 
 But in this last case il most times comes the last, and the noun the first, as t> 
 we shall see when we treat of Questions. But observe further, that in these J> 
 impersonal ways of speaking, the noun that follows the verb requires before 
 it the particle de or un, or some pronoun or adnoun indeterminate, such as 
 quelqu'un, divers, certain, and never takes the article (except with the limiting 
 particle), as in these instances : 
 
 II est arrive, un accident, for 
 Un accident est arrive. 
 II viendra quelqu'un, d'u monde, des gens, certames ou diverses personnes, 
 instead of 
 Quelquun, du monde viendra ; des gens, certaines personnes vienchont, 
 Somebody, some people will come. 
 
 The disjunctives moi, lui, eux, as likewise nous, and vous, which are both 
 conjunctives, and disjunctives, may come both before and after a verb, but 
 with another conjunctive, unless the verb be in the infinitive, or imperative ; 
 a-s, 
 
 Vous dites cela, fy moi je Vai ru, 
 
 You say that, and I have seen it. 
 
 Lui il s'ouiient cela, or // soutient cela, lui? 
 
 He maintains that, doth he ? 
 
 Moi, /aire cela ! ~ 
 
 Should, or could I do that ! V-» 
 
 Me soiipconner de cela, moi ! 
 
 Should, or could I be suspected of that ! 
 
 Faiies-moi, Faites-nous celacomme ilfaut, 
 
 Do that as it should be. 
 Which pronouns, thus used as a redundancy, serve to give more weight to 
 what one says, especially with the infinitive : for thus we intimate a sort of 
 reproach to those we speak to, for their believing us guilty of w r hat is men- 
 tioned ; but observe, that in the last instance, moi and nous are the disjunc- 
 tives of the third relation, that is implying the preposition «, and standing for '. 
 a moi, a nous ; that they are used only with the imperative ; and that it is only 
 in familiar conversation they maybe thus used as a redundancy. 
 
 5°. The second state of the pronouns personal (viz. de moi, de T> 
 lui, de vous, &c.) cannot be, strictly speaking, used after a noun 
 in the second relation to which they are joined by the Enclitic 
 &; : but one must make use of a possessive pronoun, or a pro- 
 noun relative. Therefore, instead of saying 
 
 C'est le sentiment de mon frere § de moi, or & de lui, it is 
 better to say C'est le sentiment de mon frere Sj le mien, or le 
 sien, or take this turn, C'est mon sentiment fy celui de mon 
 frere • That is the opinion of my brother, and mine too. 
 
234 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Except in the following expressions, wherein the possessive 
 pronoun cannot be used as in English, but in the second rela- 
 tion of the person, governed by a noun that comes first. 
 
 Four Vamour de moi, Pour rumour de lui,d'elle, d'eux, 
 
 For my sake. For his, her, their sake. 
 
 A cause de moi, En dtpit de moi, 
 
 On my account. In spite of me. 
 
 Or when the pronoun personal is compound, viz. of moi, lui, &c. and 
 mime : as, Je ne veux pas etre homicide de moi-meme, I won't be my own 
 self's murderer. And tho' we say pour V amour de moi, yet we don't say, 
 Vamour de soi self-love, but Vamour de wi-meme, or V amour propre : but we 
 say as the English do, pour mon plaisir for my pleasure, pour son plaisir 
 jy for her or his pleasure. 
 
 ** % Likewise, un portrait de moi, means a portrait drawn by me; whereas 
 mon portrait, my portrait, means a portrait representing my person. 
 
 § II. 1°. When the verb governs the pronoun personal, it 
 must come between the subject and the verb : as, 
 Je le vois, I see him : Vous lui parlez, You speak to him, or 
 
 to her. 
 // leur est avantageux, it is advantageous to them ; and not 
 Je vois lui , or le, Jeparle a lui, or a elle, II est avantageux a 
 
 eux. 
 
 Except, 1st, When the verb is in the imperative, without a 
 negation ; for then the pronoun comes last : and if it is of the 
 first or second person, and in the third state, the second dis- 
 junctives moi, toi, are used instead of the conjunctives me, and 
 te : as, 
 
 Portez-le, carry him ; voyez-la, see her ; parlez-lui, speak to 
 him ; dites-moi, tell me : and not dites me nor me dites, nor 
 dites a moi : though we say with the two pronouns, donnez- 
 raen, give me some ; vous me parlez, you speak to me ; parlez 
 moi, speak to me ; and with a negation, ne me parlez pas, do 
 not speak to me. Voyons-les, let us see them ; ne les voyons 
 pas, don't let us see them. 
 
 But if two imperatives come together with a conjunction co- 
 pulative, the latter will have the pronoun come before it : as, 
 
 Voyez la fy la consolez, and not voyez-la fy consolez la, see her 
 D and comfort her. At least the first construction is much better. 
 
 2dly, With the verbs etre (signifying belonging), avoir, pen- 
 ser, songer, viser, (respecting a person and not a thing), aller, 
 veuir, courir, accourir, boire ; as likewise with reciprocal verbs, 
 the pronoun governed in the third state must be a disjunctive, 
 and come after them : as, 
 
 Ce litre est moi, and not mi! est, 
 
 That book is mine, or belongs to me. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 23$ 
 
 Vous en avez un a lui, and not vous lui en avez un, A 
 
 You have one of his. 
 
 In these instances, we don't use the pron. possess, mien, as in English, 
 instead of the personal moi, because, in the first instance, ttre signifies ap- 
 partenir, which governs the third state ; and, in the other, un livre ti lui 
 is said by ellipsis for un livre qui est a lui ; tho' with appartenir we say, 
 qui lui appartient not qui appartient a lui, that belongs to him. 
 
 Je songe, or Jepense a vous, and not Je vous songe, &c. 
 1 am thinking of you. 
 
 // vise a eux, he aims at them. 
 Elle boit a vous, she drinks to you. 
 Je vais a vous, I go to you. lis viennent a moi, they come to me. B 
 Nous nousfionsa vous, we trust you, and notnous7iousvousfions. 
 Cela s'adresse a moi, that is directed to me, and not cela se 
 madresse. 
 
 3dly, When the verb governs two pronouns in the third state, 
 so that they are used as by opposition ; as likewise, when it 
 rather denotes the order in which a thing must be done, the 
 pronouns must be disjunctive, and come after the verb : as, 
 
 Je park a lui <$r non a vous, (or) Oest a lui que je parle fy 
 non pas a vous : I speak to him and not to you. 
 
 Buvez a elle, puis a la compagnie : drink to her, then to the 
 company. 
 
 Donnez a lui dtabord, ensuite a elle, puis aux autres : C 
 
 Give to him first, then to her, then to the others. 
 
 2°. In all other cases, disjunctives must be used, as in an- 
 swer to questions, and after prepositions : as, 
 
 Qui est-ce qui dit cela f lui fy eux, or c'est lui, ce sont eujc : 
 
 Who says that ? He and they, or it is he, it is they. 
 
 Qui cherchez-vous ? elle # safille ? 
 
 Whom do you seek for ? her and her daughter ? 
 
 Oest lui, it is he. Oest elle, it is she. Ce n' est pas moi, It is 
 not I. 
 
 Pour moi, for me. Apres lui, after him. Devant elle, before j^ 
 her. (See p. 230. B. 2°.) 
 
 3°. Ne and pas or point are particles answering the English 
 negative not . The French put ne before the verb, and pas or 
 point after it, if the tense is simple, and between the auxiliary 
 
 and the participle, if it is compound. Ne must always 
 
 come immediately after the word that expresses the subject, 
 whether a noun or pronoun conjunctive : as, 
 Je ne parle pas, I do not speak. Vous ne dites point, you don't say. 
 TJhomme riest pas venu, the man is not come. 
 
 Y 
 
236 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Except, \st, When the verb is in the second person of the 
 imperative ; in which case ne, that always comes before the 
 verb, comes besides before the pronoun, if the verb is recipro- 
 cal ; but pas always follows the verb : as, Ne vousfdchez pas, 
 don't be angry. 
 
 2 dly, In sentences of Interrogation : as, 
 Nefais-je pas ce que vous me dites? Don't I do what you bid me? 
 
 Sdly, On such occasions when the Pronouns conjunctive go- 
 verning the verb come after it : as, 
 
 Aussi nepretend-il pus cela ? Neither does he pretend to that. 
 See those cases page 230. A. 
 
 3 1[ 4tthly, When there is a conjunctive governed by the verb : as, Je ne I' at 
 pas dit, I have not said it ; ne lej'uiteapas, do not do it.] 
 
 4°. When the verb is attended by two pronouns personal,!'/:, 
 one in the fourth state, and the other in the third, the pronoun 
 in the third state must come before that in the fourth : as, 
 Je vous le dis, I tell it you. On me le donne, it is given me. 
 Except only when the pronoun in the third state is of the third 
 person {lid or leur), or when the verb is in the imperative ; for 
 then the conjunctive of the fourth relation comes before that 
 of the third : as, 
 
 Vous le lui dites, you tell it him or her. II la leur refuse, he 
 q refuses it to them. Donnez-le-moi, give it me. Whereas we 
 say in the indie. 11 me le donne, he gives it to me. 
 
 5°. y and en come after other pronouns, and immediately 
 before the verb : as, 
 Je vous les y enverrai, I will send them to you there. 
 Je ne -vous en parle pas, I don't speak to you of it, or of them. 
 And when y and en meet together, y comes before en ; as, 
 Je vous y en enverrai, I will send you some there. 
 Jene vous y enferai pas tenir, 
 I will remit you none there, (money, for instance.) 
 6°. The pronouns governed of the verb come after it in this 
 jx following case (but in the same order as when they come be- 
 fore it) : 
 
 When the verb is in the second persons, and first piur. of the 
 imperative, without negative. Thus, tho' we say in the third 
 persons, Qu'il lefasse, let him do it : Qu'ils lui en parlent, let 
 them mention it to him ; or in the other persons, with a nega- 
 tive, 
 
 Ne nousyfions pas, let us not trust to that ; 
 Ne lui en donnez pas, do not give him any : yet we say in the 
 first person plur. and the second persons, without negative, 
 Fions-nous-y, let us trust to that. Donnez-lui-en, give him 
 some. 
 
Ne les 
 
 y meuez pas, 
 
 Ne\ 
 
 y menez pas, 
 
 Ne nous 
 
 y menez pas, 
 
 Neva' 
 
 y menez pas, 
 
 Nc m' 
 
 y envoyez pas, 
 
 Ne m' 
 
 y portez pas, 
 
 Of PRONOUNS. 237 
 
 With the negative we say, A 
 
 Don't carry them there. 
 Don't carry him there. 
 Don't carry us there. 
 Don't carry me there. 
 Don't send me there. 
 Don't oarry me there. 
 
 Without the negative we say, 
 Menez-lts- y, Carry them there. 
 Menez-Y- y, Carry him there. 
 
 Menez nous-y, Carry us there. J$ 
 
 But, with a pronoun of the first person singular, we say, 
 Menez-y-moi, Take me there. 
 Ejivoyez-y-moi, Send me there. 
 Portez -y-moi, Carry me there, 
 and never Menez-moi-y, nor menez-my, 8cc. 
 
 % However, for the sake of harmony, we say, Conduisez-moi-la, conduct 
 me there ; not conduisez-y, to avoid the repetition of z in two contiguous 
 syllables.] 
 
 In sentences of Interrogation the conjunctive pronouns come 
 also after the verb. 
 
 § III. 1°. The several ways of asking questions in French are, C 
 
 1st, With the pronoun Interrogative qui, and leauel, as Qui 
 croit cela ? W 7 ho believes that ? Lequel des deux vous a phi? 
 Which of the two has pleased you ? 
 
 Qdly, With the adnoun or incomplete pronoun quel, and the 
 noun of the subject of the question before the verb, as in the 
 declarative form : as, Quel homme seroit assez hardi pour, &c. 
 What man should be so bold as to, fyc. 
 
 Sdly, If the subject of the question is a pronoun personal, or 
 the primitive demonstrative ce, it comes after the verb, if the 
 tense is simple ; or between the auxiliary and participle, if it 
 is compound: as, Est-ce voire livre? Is it your book ? D 
 
 Avez-vous fait ? Have you done ? 
 Connoissez-vous Monsieur? Do you know the Gentleman r 
 
 4thly, If the subject of the question is a noun or a pronoun, 
 intermediate, the sentence begins with that noun or pronoun, 
 then the verb, if the tense is simple, or the auxiliary, if it is com- 
 pound, and moreover the conjunctive il or elle, Us or elks, or 
 on, agreeing in gender and number with the subject : as, 
 Uhomme vient il ? Does the man come : 
 La femme es£-elle venue? Is the woman come ? 
 
238 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Les enjans peuvent-i\s s'appliquer? Can children apply them- 
 selves ? 
 Quelquunfait-W ce que vousfaiteSj or Fait-on ce que vousfaites ? 
 Does any body do what you do 1 
 
 Personne mfait-il cela? Does nobody do that ? 
 5thly, If the verb of the question is recipocral, the sentence 
 begins with one of the two pronouns, if the subject is expressed 
 by a pronoun ; or with a noun and a pronoun, if it is ex- 
 pressed by a noun ; • and the other pronoun comes after the 
 verb, or between the auxiliary and participle, according to the 
 tense being either simple or compound : as, 
 
 B Vous souvenez-vous de cela ? Do you remember that ? 
 
 Ma femme se repetit-elle de safaute ? 
 
 Does my wife repent her fault ? 
 
 Les matelots se sont-ils enrichis dans cette expcaition ? 
 
 Did the sailors grow rich in that expedition ? 
 
 And if the verb of the question ends with a vowel, t must be 
 added to it between two hyphens (-£-) in order to avoid the 
 hiatus. Therefore write and pronounce Aime-t-il f does he love ? 
 Va-t-elle, does she go ? and never aime il, va elle. ' 
 
 2°. The pronouns attending the verb keep the same order in 
 the interrogative fonn, as in the declarative, as Le ferai-je? 
 C shall I do it? Le lui direz-vous? will you tell it him? Me le 
 commandzz-vous? do you command it me? Y en porterons- 
 nous? shall we carry some thither? Ne vous Va-t-il pas dit c l 
 did he not tell it you ? 
 
 It is to be noted, that it is usual in French, among polite well-bred people, 
 and when we speak to one of a higher station, or to whom we show respect, 
 to speak to them with the pronoun of the third person, as if we were speaking 
 of somebody else. Thus, to ask you how do you do, well-bred people say 
 Comment se porte Monsieur, or Madame ? 
 How does your honour do ? 
 Monsieur apprend-il le Francois? 
 Do you learn French ? 
 Monsieur a-t-il voyagi en Italie ? 
 instead of arts-rows voyagS, Sec. 
 D Have you traveled to Italy ? 
 
 Sa Majeste Vordonne-t-elle ? 
 Does your Majesty order it? 
 
 (or) Si sa Majeste' Vordonne, 
 If your Majesty orders it. 
 We have said, that when the question is asked with a pronoun personal of 
 the first person, that pronoun comes after the verb thus, suis-je ? am I ? en- 
 tends-je i Do I hear ? But observe, 1st, that in verbs of the first conjugation, 
 wherein the first person ends in e not sounded, that e is changed into e acute, 
 before the pronoun, which ends also in e not sounded ; as, 
 
 Aimi-je? do I love? N'etudit-je-pas? don't I study? 
 
 Sdly, That no question can be asked in this manner wiUi some verbs, espe- 
 cially these five, mentir to lie, perdre to lose, rompre to break, sentirto feel, 
 ' to sleep : so that we neither say : 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 239 
 
 Ment4-je, } ( mens-je, do I lie ? J^ 
 
 Perdi-je, f \perds-je, do I lose ? 
 
 Rompi-je,\ nor <romps-je, do I break ? 
 
 Senle-je, C Jsens-je, do I feel? 
 
 Dorme-je, j f dorsje, do I sleep ? 
 
 the former, because e acute cannot be used in this manner but with verbs of 
 the first conjugation : and the latter (mens-je), because it sounds too harsh, 
 and can besides occasion some ambiguity in speech. Therefore, in the case 
 of these verbs, the question must be asked after another manner : as, Est-ce- 
 queje mens] or Croyez-vous queje mente? Do you think that I lie? Trouvez- 
 vous que je rompe cela comme ilfaut ? Do you think that I break that as it 
 should be? or speak without interrogation? 
 
 3dlu f This way of asking a question (Est-ce-que) is of great 
 use in French : but it is less used in order to be informed 
 merely of any thing, which is the chief purpose of interrogations, ]3 
 than to assure others that we need not be informed of it, or 
 that the case is not as they think. As likewise when we don't 
 expect a thing, or we fear lest it should happen, we show our 
 surprise or fear by Est-ce-que. For instance, when I ask this 
 question, Pleut-it ? Does it rain ? I only want to know whe- 
 ther it rains or no. But when I say Est-ce quil phut? I be- 
 sides show my surprise at it, which is thus englished : It don't 
 rain, does it ? Again, when I say, A-t-il du jugement f Has 
 he any judgment ? I want to be informed whether the person 
 spoken of has any judgment or no. But by this other question, 
 Est-ce quil a du jugement? I intimate that I know very well 
 that he has no judgment. p 
 
 By this question, Viendra-t-il? Will he come ? I want to 
 know whether he will come or no : and by this other, Est-ce 
 qiiil viendra? I show my surprise at, or fear of his coming. 
 
 Again, by this question, Est-ce aujourd'hui fete? Is this day 
 a holy-day ? I desire to be informed whether or no this is a 
 holy-day; but by this other, Est-ce que cest aujourd'hui fete? 
 I show my wonder and surprise at this being a holy-day. 
 
 Sometimes, also, this way of speaking is used to deter peo- 
 ple from believing what is said ; as, Est-ce que jejoue? which 
 is as much as ,/c ne joue point, and cannot be (I think) pro- 
 per 
 (i 
 
 perly englished thus, Do 1 game? or Am I a gamester? but rv 
 jf I am not very much mistaken) thus, Who games? not I. 
 
 % This way of asking a question (Est-ce-que) is hardly used but with the 
 first person singular of the present and preterite tenses in the indicative 
 mood of some verbs wherein Ihe simple way is too harsh, and never with the 
 other persons ; unless we want to show surprise or fear. Therefore never say 
 in France, as a great many people do in England, speaking to a hosier for in- 
 stance, est-ce que rous vendez des has de soief do you sell silk-stockings? but 
 only vendez-vous des bus de soie ? for the hosier, instead of answering : yes, Sir ; 
 would laugh, and answer you : AVhy not, Sir? 
 
 We never say in French parle-je do I speak ? with an e grave, as some peo* 
 pie do : but parle-je? with an e acute.] 
 
 Y2 
 
240 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 4thh/j The same way of asking a question with a negative 
 (n'est-ce pas que) signifies always, that we take that for certain, 
 which is the subject of the question, and want only to be con- 
 firmed in it, or to have it approved by others ; and n'est-ce pas 
 may equally well come at the beginning of the sentence with 
 que f or at the end with a comma before ; as, 
 
 B 
 
 N'est-ce pas qu'il phut? 
 
 N'est-ce pas qu'il a dujuge- 
 
 ment? 
 N'est-ce pas qu'il viendra? I , 
 
 N'est-ce pas qu'il joue? 
 
 qu'il fait 
 
 II pleut, n'est-ce pas? It rains, 
 
 don't it ? 
 // a dujugement, n'est-ce pas? 
 
 He has judgment, ha'n't he ? 
 II viendra, n'est-ce pas? He 
 
 will come, won't he ? 
 11 joue t n'est-ce pas? He 
 
 games, don't he ? 
 // fait froid, n'est-ce pas ? 
 
 It is cold, i'n't it ? 
 
 we only want 
 to be inform- 
 ed of what we 
 ask. 
 
 N'est-ce pas 
 
 froid? J 
 
 Whereas, by these questions. 
 Ne pleut-il pas ? Don't it rain ? 
 
 N'a-t-ilpas dejugement?Yias he no judgment? 
 Ne viendra-t-il pas ? Won't he come ? 
 Nejoue-t-il pas? I'n't he a gamester? 
 
 C Nefait il pas froid ? I'n't it cold ? 
 
 It will not be amiss, when the scholar has learnt so Jar, to make him con- 
 jugate every day a regular verb with an Interrogation, then with a Nega 
 live, then both with an Interrogation and Negative together, and with tnc 
 j)artkles en and y ; which will both make him more ready in the conjuga- 
 tions, and render the dependence of those particles upon the verb more fa- 
 miliar to him. 
 
 Examples. 
 J'en envoie, 
 Je n'en envoie pas, 
 J'y en parte, 
 Je riy en porte pas, 
 Y en porU -je, 
 IVy en porU-je pas, 
 
 Je parle, I speak. 
 
 ParU-je? do I speak. 
 
 Je ne parle pas,' I don't speak. 
 
 NcpnrU-jepas] don't I speak. 
 
 J'en parle, I speak of it. 
 
 En parlt-je ? do I speak of it. 
 
 Je n'en parle pas, I don't speak 
 
 of it. 
 
 U N'en parte' -je pas? don't I speak 
 
 of it. 
 
 I send some. 
 
 I send none. 
 
 1 carry some thither. 
 
 I carry none thither. 
 
 do I carry any there. 
 
 don't I carry "some there. 
 
 Vous y enporierai-je? t shall I carry, 6cc 
 
 Ne vous y en porierai je pas ? shall I no t 
 
 carry, <&c. 
 
 >5 IV. The Pronouns Conjunctives, whether governing, ur 
 governed of the verb, that is, whether its subject or object, are 
 sometimes repeated, and sometimes not. 
 
 1st, These Conjunctives,^, tu,nous, vous, are repeated be- 
 fore each verb, when the verbs are in different tenses ; as, 
 
 Je dis § je dirai toujours, I say, and will always say. 
 
 Nous avons parle 4f nous parlerons encore pour lui, 
 
 We have spoken for him, and will speak again. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 241 
 
 When the tenses are the same, they need not be repeated : as* A 
 Je pense fy dis qu'il a bienfait, or Je pense fyje dis qu'il, &c. 
 
 I think and say that he has done very well. 
 
 Nous Vavons vu # touche, we have seen and touched it. 
 
 The pronouns of the third person, il, elle ; Us, dies, need not 
 be repeated in common conversation, tho' the tenses vary : as, 
 
 // ri a jamais rien valu, <$f nevaudr a jamais rien, 
 
 He never was good for any thing, and will always be good 
 for nothing. 
 
 Elle est toujoursjille, fy la sera toute sa vie, or elle la sera, See. 
 
 She is a maid still, and will be so as long as she lives. (See 
 page 249, C.) . . . . B 
 
 2dli/, All conjunctives governing are repeated, when in the 
 same sentence one passes from the affirmative to the negative, 
 and so reciprocally : as likewise when the second verb is pre- 
 ceded by one of these conjunctions, mats but, mtme even, 
 cependant yet, ncanmoins nevertheless, ainsi so, aussi therefore, 
 ou or, and que (standing for a conjunction) : as, 
 
 II Vaime 6f il ne veutpas en convenir, 
 He loves her, and won't own it. 
 
 // le dit, mais il ne le pense pas, 
 
 He says so, but he don't think so. q 
 
 Elle n'en croit rien, fy cependant elle ne veutpas Vcpouser, 
 
 She believes nothing on't, and yet she won't marry him. 
 
 1/ lefait, fy m&me il s'en vante, (or) aussi il en convient, 
 
 He does it, and even boasts of it, or and therefore owns it. 
 
 Nous le trouverons, ou nous ne le trouverons pas, 
 
 We shall find him, or not. 
 
 Lorsque vousferez votre devoir, fy que vous vous comporterez 
 
 bien, 
 When you will do your duty, and behave well. 
 
 3dlj/, All conjunctives governed are repeated before their D 
 verbs : as, 
 
 J7 meprie& me conjure, He desires and entreats me. 
 
 Je vous dis # vous declare, I say and declare to you. 
 
 Except when the second verb is of the same signification, 
 and composed of the first, or denotes only repetition of its ac- 
 tion : as, 
 
 IV nej'ait que nous dire fy redire la meme chose, 
 
 He does nothing but tell us the same thing over again. 
 
 Elle le fait fy defait, or refait quand bon lui semble, 
 
 She does it and undoes, or does it again when she thinks fit 
 
242 SYNTAX. 
 
 A The Lse and Construction of the Pronoun Indeterminate on. 
 § V. This pronoun (formed, by corruption, of the word 
 homme) is called Indeterminate, because it is used to speak in 
 general, without specifying any person particular ; it is of a 
 very extensive use. 
 
 1°. on is rendered into English several ways. Sometimes by 
 one, as, on croiroit, one would think ; sometimes by the pro- 
 noun of the third pers. plur. thej/, or that of the first, zee; as on 
 B dit, they say ; on apprend, we hear ; sometimes also by these 
 indeterminate words, people, men, a body, &c. as on s J imagine, 
 people or men think : but on is more generally and better 
 englished by converting the verb from the active voice into the 
 passive ; as, on croit, it is thought. 
 
 2°. Now the Passive voice, both in French and English, is 
 expressed by the verb substantive {ttre to be), through all its 
 tenses, joined to the participle of a verb active. For instance, 
 the participle of to hold, being held, if you put to be before it, 
 you have the verb passive to be held, and all the tenses of the 
 same, in this manner : 
 
 Active voice. Passive voice. 
 
 C Inf. To hold, tenir. To be held, etre tenn. 
 
 Pref. I hold, Je tiens. I am held, Je suis tenu. 
 
 Imp. I did hold, Je tenois. I was held, J'etois tenu, 
 
 Pret. I held, Je tins. I was held, Je fus tenu. 
 
 Put. I shall or will hold,Jetiendrai. I sh.^c.be held, Je serai tenu. 
 Cojid.I should$c.hold, Jetiendrois. I should, #c. Je serois tenu. 
 Comp. I have held, J'ai tenu, &c. I have,<^c. J'aitte tenu, &c. 
 
 3°. In order, therefore, to put into English a sentence with 
 the particle on, if the French verb governs no noun, or is fol- 
 lowed by que, you need only English on by it, and convert the 
 active state of the verb into the passive, thus : on croit it is 
 D thought, on avoit dit que, Sec. it had been reported that, fyc. — 
 Sometimes the English pronoun is left out : as, comme on a 
 deja dit, as has been said already ; in which sentence it is ne- 
 cessarily understood. 
 
 4°. If the French verb governed of on is a verb active, attend- 
 ed by a noun or pronoun as its object, that noun or pronoun 
 must be made the subject of the verb in English, and the verb 
 active converted into the passive state, and put in the same tense 
 as in French : as, 
 
 On tint hier un conseil a Whitehall, 
 Yesterday a council was held at Whitehall. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 243 
 
 nn conseil (a council) being the noun that expresses the object A 
 
 of the French verb, must be that of the subject in English : tint 
 
 (held) being the preterite of the verb active, must be changed 
 
 into the same tense of the passive state, jut tenu (was held) 
 
 Again; 
 
 On le tiendra aupalais de St, James, it will be held at St.J ames's. 
 
 Le conseil qu'on tint hier, the council that was held yesterday. 
 
 5° If the verb governed of on is not immediately followed 
 by a noun or pronoun, but by another verb in the infinitive, 
 then it is the noun or pronoun, the object of the second verb, 
 that must be made the subject in English, and the second verb 
 active converted into a passive state : as, 
 
 On doit tenir aujourdHhui un conseil a Whitehall, B 
 
 This day a council is to be held at Whitehall. 
 
 On doit le tenir a St. James, it is to be held at St. James's. 
 
 Le conseil qu'on doit tenir demain, 
 
 The council that is to be held to-morrow. 
 
 In those instances on is the subject coming before the verbs 
 tint, tiendrai, and doit : and the pronouns le and que, governed 
 of the same verbs as object, are made the subject in English. 
 
 IT The manner of translating on into English hy they, is very improper ; 
 unless on be the consequent of an antecedent, in the plural number, expi essed 
 before; as, 
 
 Hierles Communes s 'assembler ent, or le Parlement s'assembla; on delibe'ra d'a- 
 bord, &c. The House of Commons, or, The Parliament met yesterday : they Q 
 deliberated at first, Sec. 
 
 Every where else, the safest is to turn on into the passive voice.] 
 
 ()°. On the other hand, as the passive voice is very seldom 
 used in French (for the expressing of which we make use of the 
 particle on with the active voice), in order to put into French 
 such sentences as are expressed by the verb substantive to be, 
 and the participle of another verb, one need only consider the 
 noun that expresses the subject of the verb in English ; if that 
 subject is the particle it, (not relating to any thing before), it 
 must be rendered by on, and the verb converted from its passive 
 state into the active, as it is thought, on croit. D 
 
 7°. If the verb has a noun or pronoun relative for its subject, 
 after changing the passive state into the active, one must give 
 it on for its subject, and the English subject for its object : as, 
 
 Yesterday a council was held at Whitehall, 
 
 On tint hier un conseil a Whitehall. 
 
 It is to be held at St. James's, on doit le tenir a St. James. 
 
 The council that was held yesterday, le conseil qu'on tint hier. 
 
244 SYNTAX. 
 
 A In which instances the verb passive was held, and to be held, is 
 changed into tint and tenir governed of the subject on, 
 and the words a council, it, and that, expressing the subject 
 in English, are made the object of the French verb. 
 
 <Z Which evidently shows that the only difference between a phrase passive 
 and a phrase active, is, that, in the latter, the object of the action is governed 
 of the verb, whereas it is its leader in the former. 
 
 L'on is the same pronoun as on, which takes sometimes the article le, but 
 for better sound's sake only ; as will appear from the following observations : 
 
 1st, In the beginning of a speech or sentence, on must be used, and Von 
 never. 
 
 2dly, In the middle of a sentence after a word ending with a consonant, or 
 JJ enot sounded : as, Celui dont on park, he that is spoken of; Quand ilparle on 
 tcoute avec attention, when he speaks every body listens attentively. 
 
 On the other hand Von is used, 1st, after all w ords ending with a vowel, ex- 
 cept e not sounded; as En cette extremite Ton we sauroit fair e autre chose, in 
 this necessity nothing else can be done. % However, 'V might be left out, 
 because there is naturally a little pause after extrhnite, which would even re- 
 quire a comma.] 
 
 Nevertheless we say si on le veut, and not si Von le veut, if they will have it 
 so : si on le offendingless the ear than si Von le. 
 
 2dhj, After &,; et, and the particle ou, as likewise other words ending in ou : 
 as, Voila ce queje crois, & Ton ne me persuadera jamais le contraire, that's what 
 I think, and nobody shall ever persuade me to the contrary ; C'est un lieu oil 
 1'on vit a bon marcM, it is a place very cheap to live in. 
 
 Sdly, When the pronoun on comes' after que, one must consider the other 
 
 words that make up the sentence ; for whenever the word coming before que 
 
 ends also in que, or there are already, or upon the whole will be too many 
 
 que's in the sentence (this particle being also of great use in French), one must 
 
 C then make use of qu'on, and not que Von : as, 
 
 11 remarque qu'on ne Va jamais fait auparavant, he observes that it has never 
 been done before ; II n 'est que tropvrai que depuisle temps qu'on a commence, Sec. 
 and not que Von because of the great number of que's, it is but too true that 
 since they begun, Sfc. 
 
 Athly, For the same reason we make use of que Von, and not qu'on, before 
 verbs beginning with com or con : as, Que Von commence, let them begin ; Que 
 Von couduise Monsieur a, Sec. let them take the gentleman to, <Sfc. But we say, 
 QiVon le cond uise let them take him, fye. and not que Von le conduise, because of 
 the pronoun between qu'on and the verb, Von must never be used before a 
 word beginning with L 
 
 8°. On must always be repeated in the sentence before every 
 verb of which it is the subject, and must continue the same 
 without any variation, and notwithstanding the aforesaid obser- 
 D vations concerning on and Von : as, 
 
 On le hue, on le blame, on le menace : on emploie avec lux la 
 douceur §■ la rigueur : £j malgre tout cela on n'en sauroit venir 
 a bout. 
 
 They commend, they blame, and threaten him ; gentle and 
 severe means are used, and for all that he cannot be reclaimed. 
 
 In this instance the first iour on's are conformable to the 
 rules, but after tout cela we should say Von, if it w T ere not for 
 the first on, which determines the others throughout the sen- 
 tence. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 245 
 
 Observe, that it is usual with French Authors, when they mention them- ^ 
 selves, to make use of on and nous instead of je, out of modesty, and not to 
 name their ownselves with the pronoun of the first pers. sing, or not to repeat 
 it too often. 
 
 f On is sometimes used for je and nous. Speaking- to a friend whom we 
 have not seen for a long- while, we say in a familiar style : II y a long-temps 
 qu'onne vous avu,vre have not seen you for this great while.] 
 
 IF On, though of itself a masculine singular, and always governing its verb 
 in the singular number, yet admits of an adjective feminine, when it refers to 
 a woman ; as, 
 
 Quund on aime Men son mari, on souffre de se toir separ£e de lui ; on est im- 
 patiente de recevoir de ses nouvelles ; One who loves her husband really, suffers 
 in being separated from him, and is impatient to hear of him. 
 
 When on refers to a plurality, it may be reputed a collective word, which 
 requires the adjective or pronoun to bein the plural, though the verb remain 
 in the singular number ; as, JJ 
 
 On se battit en desesper6s, they fought like desperate men. 
 
 On se me'fioit les uns des autres, they mistrusted each other. 
 
 In the same manner as vous, a pronoun plural, being used for tu, requires 
 the adjective and participle in the singular, though the verb be in the plural ; 
 as, Vous etes fort obligeant, you are very obliging. Vous etes venu, you are 
 come.] 
 
 % For the same reason, there is no fault of concord in the following sen- 
 tence : 
 m II est impossible de n'etre pas hnue, quand on voit son mari trait e' d'une maniere 
 si outrageante ; it is impossible not to be affected, when one sees her husband 
 bo contumeliously used. 
 
 But this is not the case with the supplying pronoun le, signifying so, as will 
 be seen hereafter, page 247.] 
 
 9°. On has for its relations soi, de soi, a soi, se. 
 
 Soi is used in sentences, the subject whereof is a noun, taken C 
 in an universal indefinite sense, or a pronoun indeterminate : as, 
 
 L'homme riaime que soi ; Man loves himself only. 
 
 Chacnn agit pour soi; Every body acts for himself. 
 
 Qui n'est bon que pour soi, n'est pas digne de vivre ; 
 
 He who minds nobody but himself, does not deserve to live. 
 
 Especially with inanimate objects ; for the pronoun lui is 
 used with animate objects only, except in few cases : as, 
 
 Le vice est odieux de soi ; Vice is hateful of itself. 
 
 La terreest de soi fertile ; The earth is fruitful of itself. 
 Tho' we can as well use elle instead of soi with nouns femi- D 
 nine : as, 
 
 La terre renferme en soi, or en elle, toutes les semences ; 
 
 The earth contains in itself all seeds. 
 
 But if the noun is taken in a particular definite sense, lui is 
 used instead of soi : as, 
 
 C'est un homme qui n'est bon que pour lui, fy qui parle de 
 lui sans cesse ; 
 
 'Tis a man who minds himself only, and is constantly speak- 
 ing of himself. 
 
 Except in some sentences like this, wherein soi refers to 
 something out of us ; 
 
246 SYNTAX. 
 
 A II ne porte jamais d 'argent sur soi ; He never has money 
 about him. 
 
 Se oneself (the 4th state of on) is chiefly used with verbs reflected, as we have 
 seen in the second part : but it is besides used with verbs impersonal, which 
 will be considered, when we treat of those verbs. 
 
 Soi is sometimes subject, but then it is only the repetition of another indefi- 
 nite subject, put in opposition, and it must come immediately after the verb, 
 and be attended by the word mfone: as, Chacunpeut soi-meme faire sonbonheur; 
 every body can make his own happiness. 
 
 Soi-meme can never be used in the plural, though soi can with a preposition : 
 
 as Ces choses sonl bonnes de soi ; These things are good of themselves. But 
 
 we do not say Ces choses sont bonnes de soi-meme. 
 
 y> If the pronoun relates to animate things, we say cux-memes or elles-mhnes ; 
 
 •° as, Vcs filles devroient prendre plusde soin aelles-mcmcs ; your daughters should 
 
 take more care of themselves. 
 
 10°. Mime is a sort of pronoun, though not of itself, but when 
 it is joined to pronouns personal disjunctives, pronominal ad- 
 nouns relative, and other nouns indeterminate ; in which last 
 case mime denotes, in a more special manner, the person or 
 tiling spoken of : as, 
 
 moi-mime, myself, nous-mimes, ourselves. 
 
 toi-mime, thyself, vous-mimes, yourselves. 
 
 lid-mime, himself, eux-memes, ") , ^i 
 
 elle-mime, herself, elles-mimes, ) 
 
 Q soi-mime, oneself, la vertu mime, virtue itself. 
 
 Vhomme mime, man himself. 
 
 % Soi-m&me widely differs from hd-meme; for instance : Use loue soi-meme, 
 be praises his own person ; il se loue, lui-meme, he is his own trumpeter.] 
 
 11°. Mime is besides an adnoun signifying the same, with 
 the article, thus : le mime, la mime, les mimes, relating to 
 some noun expressed or understood : as, le mime homme, the 
 same man. 
 
 Mime is also an adverb, answering to either of these, even, 
 also, nay: as, Je crois mime quon lui a fait son proces; I 
 even think, or nay I think that he has been tried. 
 
 When meme is an adverb, it is sometimes spelt with an s at the end, but 
 
 only in poetry ; authors having then regard to the style to make it more 
 
 fluent and less" harsh. 
 
 rv The adverb de mime (so, likewise, after the same manner) is always spelt 
 
 ■^ without s ; likewise the adverb a meme; as, Buvez a meme le pot ; dnnk out 
 
 of the mug. 
 
 The Use and Construction of the Pronoun Relative le. 
 
 § V # . 1°. This pronoun stands not only for nouns, as it is 
 common to all pronouns personal, but also for whole sentences. 
 
 Le, en, y, are chiefly used instead of the pronouns, lui, e/le, 
 eux, which (as we shall see in the next section) cannot alwavs be 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 247 
 
 said of irrational creatures, and relate to the person, thing, or A 
 place spoken of. Le is rendered into English by it or so, or a 
 whole sentence expressed or understood : en by some, any ; of 
 him, of her, of it, of them ; for him, for her, for it, for them ; 
 with him, with her, with it, with them ; about him, about her, it, 
 them ; thence, from thence ; or a whole sentence : and y, by 
 the same pronouns personal with other prepositions, as will 
 appear in these following examples : 
 
 f En implies the preposition de ; y, the preposition <i ; and le, no prepo. 
 sition.1 
 
 Vous ties le maitre, fy moije ne le suis pas; •} le stands for 
 You are the master, and I am not, (o/) I am not .so. ( le maitre y> 
 lis sont heureux, fy nous ne le sommes pas ; f and lieu- 
 
 They are happy, and we are not, (or) are not so. j reux. 
 
 Newton vous plait, vous enparlez toujours ; "\ en stands for 
 You like Newton, you always speak of him. I de Newton, 
 Ce sont des orgueilleuses, ne m'enparlezjjoint ; f & de ces or- 
 They are proud creatures, don't tell me of them, j gueilleuses. 
 Comme elle ne vouloit pas se taire, il prit un baton, Sf lui en 
 
 donna un coup ; 
 As she would not hold her tongue, he took a stick, and gave 
 
 her a blow with it. 
 
 Quand un homme est mort, on n y y penseplus ; -\ y stands for C 
 When a man is dead, he is n© more thought of (a cet homme, 
 Ce sont desfolies, ne vous yfez pas ; f and a ces 
 
 These are foolish things, don't trust to them. jfolies. 
 
 In which instances le, en, y stand for nouns of both genders 
 and numbers, en in the fifth instance stands besides for a 
 preposition and a noun (with a stick). 
 
 On tie me trompe point, je They don't deceive me, I 
 nc puis le croire, or je w'en cannot believe it, or, I can be- 
 puis rien croire. lieve nothing of it. 
 
 Nous fumes maltraitees, fy We were ill used, and ar e | 
 nous le sommes encore. so still (women speak). 
 
 On a tout tente pour faire Every thing has been tried 
 passer le Bill, mais on w'y a to make the Bill pass, but they 
 pu reussir. could never succeed. 
 
 On le ait, maisje n'y ajoute They say so, but I give no 
 pasfoi. credit to it. 
 
 In which instances le, en,y, stand for 
 Je tie puis croire qu'on veuille me tromper ; 
 Nous sommes encore maltraitees ; 
 
 Z 
 
248 SYNTAX. 
 
 A On n'a pn rfrussir a faire passer le Bill ; 
 
 Je 71'ajontepasfoi a ce qu'on dit. 
 
 These pronouns express always the object or end of the verb. They are 
 used both for things and persons : en and y are indeclinable ; le is generally 
 so too, except in these two cases. 
 
 Le is declinable, 1st, whenever it relates to a noun : as Est-ce-la votre pen- 
 se"e? Pouvez-vous douter que ce ne la soit ? Is that your thought? Can you doubt 
 that it is, or but it is ? wherein la relates to, andstands for voire pensie. 
 
 Etes-vous Madame une telle I Oui,je la suis, 
 
 Are you mistress such a one? Yes, I am. 
 
 Etes-tous lesfilles de Mr. A ? Oui, nous les sommes t 
 
 Are you the daughters of Mr. A ? Yes, ive are. 
 
 Sont-ce la vos chevaux, vos outils ? Oui, ce les sont , 
 
 Are these your horses, or tools ? Yes, it is, or they are. 
 JB If the question is about rational creatures, we answer with the pronoun 
 personal: as, Sont-ce la vos gens? Oui, ce sont eux? Are these your people? 
 Yes, it is they : Sont-ce la les f Hies de M. A? Oui, ce sont elles. Are these Mr. 
 A's daughters? Yes, it is they. But with irrational and inanimate objects, 
 we always use the pronoun les. 
 
 2dly, le is declinable, but in the singular only, in these and such like in- 
 stances spoken by women : Je suismalade fy je la serai long-temps, I am sick, 
 and shall be so long : Jefus effrayee fy je la suis encore, I was affrighted, and 
 am so still. 
 
 But those sentences must be spoken by women themselves, and therefore 
 expressed with the pronoun of the first person ; for with any other pronoun 
 tho' women are spoken of, the pronoun relative is indeclinable. Therefore 
 we don't say Elle est malade fy elle la sera long-temps, but elle le sera, &c. she 
 is sick, and will be so long. 
 
 In all other cases, that is, when the pronoun supplying relates .•» an ad- 
 noun, or many adnouns together, it is indeclinable t as, 
 r^ Elle etoitjalouse deson autorite", Sf elle le devoit etre, 
 
 ^ She was jealous of her authority, and ought to have been so. 
 
 Nous avons etS malades, fy nous \e sommes encore, 
 We have been sick, and are so still, (women speak.) 
 
 The French Academy and the best Grammarians do not admit of that ovei- 
 nice distinction for a woman who speaks of herself, and say that, in any case, 
 le is indeclinable when it relates to an adjective, and declinable only when to 
 a noun.] 
 
 If A very judicious grammarian, and particular friend of mine, Mr. Stttit. 
 in his notes upon Holder's Chambaud's Grammar, has quoted the above re- 
 mark, but at the same time expressed his disapprobation. His great argu- 
 ment is the law of concord, and Madame de Sevigne his chief supporter. 
 
 But 1°. Why should not the law of concord respect the number, as well as 
 the gender ? In this phrase : lis sont heureux, fy nous ne le somtnes pas : Mr. S. 
 does not object to le being indeclinable ; it would be the same, if the first 
 y\ member of the sentence were to run thus: Elles sont heureuses. The truth is 
 *-* that le is indeclinable because it supplies an adjective ; as will be seen here- 
 after. 
 
 2°. As to Madame de Sevigne, her authority has certainly great weight in 
 point of elegance and diction ; but the very reason he alledged to justify her 
 false concord, rather invalidates her testimony. " Je croirois, dit-elle, que 
 j'ai de la barbe au menton, sije disois, je le suis. " I would readily think, said 
 she, that my chin is furnished with a beard, if I were to say, je le suis." This 
 answer is a mere sophism, which borders too much upon self-conceit, and of 
 course renders her authority exceptionable. The French Academy t though 
 perfectly aware of Madame de SevignS's justly deserved fame, yet, in spite of 
 her animadversion, gave their verdict against the declinability of le when it 
 relates to an adjective ; and certainly most of the members of that corps, as 
 a d'Olivel, a Duclos, a Marmontel, so highly commendable for their learning 
 bad not forfeited their share of common sense and natural logic. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 249 
 
 Therefore the safest is to abide by their decision, and say : J^ 
 
 Je suis malade, cy je le serai long-temps. 
 
 Je suis mal-heureuse, Sfje le serai toujours. 
 
 Jefus effrayte, Sfje le suis encore. 
 
 Vous ctes enrhumc, Sfje le suis aussi. (a woman speaks.) 
 
 Kites sont heureuses, S} nous ne le sommes pas. (women speak. 
 
 The reasons upon which the decision of the French Academy is grounded, 
 are, in my humble opinion, as follows : 
 
 lo. Le, being of itself an article, and becoming a pronoun merely by acci- 
 dent, that is, through the ellipsis of the substantive which it pointed out when 
 an article, cannot assume its declinable form but when it relates to a substan- 
 tive, because substantives are the only words which of themselves have a 
 gender ; in all other cases le must be clad in the livery of the masculine sin- 
 gular ; a gender devolved to words which have none of their own, nearly in 
 the same manner as il impersonal resembles il personal, that is, assumes the 
 dress of the masculine singular : as, il arrive, it happens ; il arrive, he arrives. i> 
 
 2°. The phrases considered before, and the like, are never construed but 
 with a verb substantive : as, etre, paroltre, devenir, &c. 
 
 5°. In such phrases, the supplying pronoun le supplies their predicate only, 
 and has nothing to do with their subject, either virtual or actual. 
 
 4°. The predicate of such phrases is always either a mere adjective, or an 
 adjective phrase, that is, a whole sentence, or a substantive used adjectively. 
 
 Now, when le supplies a mere adjective, it must remain indeclinable ; be- 
 cause an adjective has no gender nor number of its own, but only jointly with 
 a substantive, to which it is subservient, and in the livery of which it is clad. 
 
 When le supplies a whole sentence, it must, by all means, be indeclinable, 
 because a sentence has no gender nor number of its own. 
 
 But when le supplies a substantive, it must be observed whether that sub- ~ 
 itantive be used as a denomination or a qualification. v> 
 
 If it be used as a qualification, it has the true force of an adjective, and is 
 preceded by no article ; consequently le, its representative, is indeclinable j 
 as in this phrase : 
 
 Elle est encore fille a son age, Sc ily apparency qu'elle le sera toute sa vie ; at 
 her age she is a maid still, and very likely she will remain so for all her life. 
 
 If the substantive be used as a denomination, it preserves its true force, and 
 then is preceded by an article, which of course is clad in its livery ; conse- 
 quently le, its representative, must appear in the same dress : as in this 
 phrase : 
 
 Etes-vous la fille de Mr. A ? Oui, je la suis. Are you Mr. A.'s daughter ? Yes, 
 I am. 
 
 So true is this assertion, that when the predicate is a substantive masculine, 
 le, its representative, wears its livery, though the subject of the sentence be 
 feminine : as in these phrases : 
 
 Mademoiselle A. est le bijou de lafamille: oui, ellele seroit, si elle etoit aussi 
 aimable qu'elle estjolie. Miss A. is the jewel of the family : yes, she would be ±5 
 so, if she were as amiable as she is pretty. 
 
 Mademoiselle B. est le plus riche parti de la province : oui, elle le sera, si son 
 oncle vient a mourir sans enfans; Miss B. is tlie richest match in the province : 
 yes, she will be so, if her uncle should happen to die without issue. And like- 
 wise in the plural : 
 
 Mesdemoiselles B. sont les deux plus riches partis de la province : oui, elles ies 
 seroient si leur oncle venoit, &c. 
 
 And in this likewise, the subject of which is masculine, and the predicate 
 feminine : 
 
 B itoit la consolation de ses parens, fy il la seroit encore, si, &c. He was the 
 comfort of his parents, and he would be so still, if, &c. 
 
 I confess that such phrases, though grammatically right, present, at the 
 first aspect, a kind of harshness, which a good writer knows how to avoid, by 
 taking another turn 
 
250 SYNTAX, 
 
 J^ I must beg- the reader's pardon, for having expatiated so long upon this 
 matter ; but having been in some measure challenged, I thought it my duty 
 to g-ive all the elucidation in my power. The error of Chambaud, Madame 
 de Sevigne', and Mr. Satis, proceeds from their having attended more to the 
 subject than to the predicate or attribute of the sentence.] 
 
 2°. % En is usually the second state of the pronoun relative 
 le, that is to say, always implies the preposition de ; therefore 
 it generally stands for a noun construed with that preposition ; 
 even for a noun taken in a limited sense, and governed of the 
 verb as its object ; for instance : 
 
 Whenever something is spoken, that has been named in the 
 
 B first part of the sentence, or in the question which is answered 
 
 to, instead of repeating the name of that thing, the particle 
 
 en is used, if that name has already been construed with de : 
 
 as, 
 
 Si vons toulez voir de beaux tableaux, il en a ; if you wish to 
 see fine pictures, he has some. 
 
 En stands for de beaux tableaux (limited or partitive sense). 
 
 It is the same if the words of the second phrase require de or imply it : as, 
 J*ai He voir le Panorama : Nous en parlions dans le moment (2d state) ; 
 I went to see the Panorama : We were just speaking of it. 
 Vous avez vu le Panorama ; en Hes-vous content! 
 You have seen the Panorama ; have you been pleased with it ? 
 C En is used because we say, parler de, etre content de. 
 
 As also in this phrase wherein de is implied : La patience est urie grande 
 vertu ; Out, e'en est une grande; Patience is a great virtue ; yes, it is a great 
 one. En stands for des vertus, and the answering phrase is elliptical, viz. e'est 
 une grande vertu des vertus.] 
 
 En refers also to the place: as En venez-vous? Ouifen 
 viens; Do you come from thence ? (a place mentioned before.) 
 Yes, I come from that place. 
 
 Moreover en is used through exaggeration, as in this phrase, Jen'en puis phis, 
 I am quite gone ; and others like, which are inserted in my Dialogues and 
 Dictionary. 
 
 3°. The partide y relates to Places, Persons, and Things, 
 jj) considered as a Condition, State, Disposition, Obligation or 
 Necessity, under which one is ; the Subject or Matter which 
 one applies oneself to ; and the End one aims at ; .in all which 
 acceptations it is rendered into English, by there, thither, or 
 within (when it has a reference to place), or by the pronouns 
 it or them, with one of these prepositions, at, by, for, in, of, to^ 
 with: as, 
 
 Cest une belle charge, il y aspiroit depuis long-temps ; 
 
 It is a fine place, he aimed at it a great while ago. 
 
 77 V a fait, mais il w'y gagnera rien ; 
 
 He has done it, but he will get nothing by it. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 251 
 
 II n'aime pas sa profession, il n'y est paspropre : A 
 
 He does not like his calling or business, he is not fit for it, 
 
 U affaire dont vousparlez merite bien qu'on y songe ; 
 
 The affair you are speaking of is well worth thinking of. 
 
 Ilaime son devoir, il s'y applique entierement ; 
 
 He loves his duty, he is entirely applied to it. 
 
 II s'est engage dans une Strange affaire, il n'y reussira pas ; 
 
 He is engaged in an odd sort of affair, he will not succeed in 
 it. 
 
 I have said that when y and en meet together, y goes first : 
 but en is then a pronoun ; for when it is a preposition (in which 
 case it is never used with verbs, but before their gerunds) it B 
 goes before y ; as, En y allant, by the way, or when I go by. 
 
 % En may refer to persons : but y very seldom does, and never hardly, ex- 
 cept in giving an answer ; for instance, having- spoken of a man, we may say 
 very properly, Jen'enfais point de cas ; I have no esteem for him. 
 
 But in this phrase, He is an honest man, court him ; we should say c'est un 
 honnete homme, altacliez-vous a lui ; and by no means, attachez-vous-y ; (which 
 phrase would be very proper in speaking of any thing, as a science, an art, 
 &c.) In this likewise ; I know that man, I will not trust him ; je connois cet 
 homme-la,je ne veux point mejier a lui. (Je ne m'yfie pas, savours too much of 
 a proverb.) 
 
 Whereas to this phrase, Mr. A. is your friend, you should think of hira ; 
 M. A. est voire ami, voas devriez penser a lui ; the answer may be given thus, 
 oui, j'y penserai ; yes, I will; or to this: Pensez-vous avotreami? Are you 
 thinking of your friend ? Oui, j'y pense ; Yes, I am. 
 
 However, in this phrase : When a man is dead, he is no longer thought of ; r-» 
 quand un homme estmort, on n'y pense plus ; ymay be used, because the phrase 
 presents an indefinite sense ; but it would be improper, if the sense were de- 
 terminate ; and you should say in this phrase : Mrs. B. is dead ; Madame E. 
 est morte: you no longer think of her ; vous ne pensez plus a elle; or in this, My 
 friend is dead, I think of him every day ; mon ami est mort, je pense a lui tous 
 les, jours ; the expression j'y pense would imply another meaning, viz. his or 
 her death. 
 
 Moreover y is used in some particular phrases, which it is difficult te reduce 
 to rules, with respect to the Genius of the English tongue ; but which are 
 inserted in ray Dialogues and Dictionary. 
 
 Particular Observations upon the Construction of the Pronouns 
 Personal of the third Person, il, lui, elle. 
 
 § VI. 1°. The pronouns il, Us; elle, elles ; le, la, les: either 
 governing, or being governed of a verb, are indifferently used ^ 
 for all sorts of objects, rational and irrational, animate or in- 
 animate. Therefore we say, 
 
 "a Rock, | _/7 est acarpe ; it is stiff 
 a Mountain, c Elle est haute ; it is high. 
 
 r lis sontjleuris ; they are in blossom. 
 •JL 7 <v \Je le ferai couper ; I will get it cut 
 
 Trees and < down- 
 Meadows. I II faut les couper; they must be cut 
 V- down. 
 Z2 
 
252 SYNTAX. 
 
 A But when the same pronouns attend the verb ttre to be, the 
 pronoun relative indeclinable le must be used, in speaking of 
 irrational and inanimate things. Thus, in answer to this question, 
 
 Est-ce-la la montagne dont vous parliez? 
 Is that the mountain that you were speaking of? 
 We say ce Vest it is it, (or) that's it ; not c'est elle. 
 Est-ce-la voire livre ? Oui ce Vest, and never c'est lui. 
 Is that your book ? Yes, it is. 
 
 2°. i/, Us ; elle, elle* ; are used through all their states, when 
 objects are personified, and one attributes to them what is 
 attributed to persons ; which the French frequently do in 
 
 B speaking of virtues and vices : as, 
 
 L' amour-propre est captieux : Self-love is deceitful : It se- 
 c'est lui qui nous seduit; de lui duces us ; from it most of our 
 viennent la plupart de nos evils proceed : and upon it 
 maux ; fy ce riest qu'a lui qu'il only we must lay the blame of 
 faut sen prendre. them. 
 
 La vertu est precieuse; a" elle Virtue is precious : from it 
 seule nous devons attendre de alone true blessings ought to 
 veritables biens : c'est a elle be expected : to it we owe 
 que nous devons notre vraie our true glory ; and for it our 
 
 C gloire ; fy c'est pour elle qu'il cares must be sacrificed. 
 faut sacrifier nos soins. But, 
 
 3°. Usage, the only Master of the Rules in point of Lan- 
 guages, and the only rule of speaking properly, has, as it were, 
 consecrated the other states of that pronoun (lui, leur, de lui, a 
 elle, &c.) to such odd ways of construction, as are impossible 
 to be reduced to rules, and can be learnt only by use. Thu? 
 speaking of inanimate things, we must sometimes use lui and 
 leur, and sometimes we must not, tho' speaking of the same 
 things. Thus we say of a sword, Je lui dois la vie ; I owe my 
 life to it (because tpee sword, is personified) ; but it is not so 
 E> in the following phrase, and we must say : 
 
 J'y aifait mettre une nouvelle garde ; T have got a new hilt 
 put to it ; not Je lui aifait mettre. 
 Again we say of mineral waters, 
 Je leur suis redevable de ma sante ; 
 I am indebted to them for my health (they are personified) ; 
 
 but we say, 
 On y a fait de beaux reservoirs ; 
 Eine reservoirs have been built for them; not on leur a fait. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 253 
 
 The conjunctives lui and leur are generally said of animate A 
 things, as horses, birds, and other living creatures : as, 
 speak- \ a bird, j Coupez-\m les ailes, cut his wings, 
 
 ing of j chickens, \ Donnez-leur a manger, give them to eat. 
 
 However, the practiceqf these Constructions is so much the easier to learn, 
 as they don't extend to a great many cases, which I have taken care to insert 
 in my Exercises. 
 
 4°. The disjunctive pronouns lui and elle, eux and elles, 
 governed by a preposition, can never be said at all of irrational 
 and inanimate creatures. Thus we don't say D'abord on plapa 
 le poteau, (or lapoutre) fy apres lui (or elle) une barre defer-, 
 but B 
 
 D'abord on plapa le poteau, or lapoutre, fy ensuite une barre de 
 
 fir; 
 They first placed the post, or beam, and then (after it) an iron- 
 bar. 
 
 Therefore in those cases, to remove the difficulty, one must 
 make use of an adverb, whose signification comprehends, and 
 answers to that of both the preposition and pronoun. Thus 
 we say : 
 
 Prenez ce cheval, fy montez dessus ; not sur lui. 
 
 Take that horse, and mount or ride him. 
 
 Ouvrez ce cabinet, fy mettez-vous dedans ; not dans lui. 
 
 Open that closet and get in. 
 
 lis ttoient a Tentour ; not autour de lui. q 
 
 They were round it (speaking of a tree, for instance). 
 
 5°. These following, being both prepositions and adverbs ac- 
 cording as jhey are or are not followed by a noun or pronoun, 
 when any of them meet with such a pronoun which can't be 
 said of inanimate things, one need only suppress the pronoun, and 
 the word which was a preposition becomes thereby an adverb. 
 a cote, aside, by. dessous, underneath. 
 
 a convert, sheltered, au dessous, below. 
 
 a Vabri, under shelter, par-dessous, under. 
 
 en deed, on this side, loin, far. j} 
 
 au de-ld,on that side,or beyond, proche, for pres de, near. 
 
 au travers,fora travers de,cross. 
 tout contre, hard by. 
 
 tout auprh, just by. 
 
 vis d-vis, over-against. 
 
 aux environs, round about. 
 
 Therefore, when speaking of a brute or a tree, we say : 
 
 Mettez-vous vis-d-vis t put yourself over-against it ; not vis- 
 d-vis de lui, or d*elle. 
 
 aupres, 
 
 near, by. 
 
 avec, 
 
 with. 
 
 dessu*, 
 
 upon. 
 
 au-dessus, 
 
 above, over. 
 
 par-dessus, 
 
 over and above. 
 
254 SYNTAX. 
 
 A The Use and Construction of the Pronominal Adnouns. 
 § VII. We have seen that they are of two sorts, the Abso- 
 lute and Relative. 
 
 1°. Pronominal adnouns absolute (or rather possessive a rti- 
 cles,see p. 3890 mon, ton, son, &c. do not agree in French in 
 gender with the noun of the possessor, as in English, but with 
 that of the thing possessed: as, La mere aime son Jils, $ lepere 
 safille, The mother loves her son, and the father his daughter. 
 2°. When a noun feminine (which should naturally take be- 
 fore it the feminine of these adnouns, ma, ta, sa) begins with 
 a vowel, or h mute, it takes the masculine, mon, ton, son, in 
 B order to avoid the meeting of two vowels : as, 
 
 mon ame, my soul, son elevation, his or her rise. 
 
 ,-, • ,• i . sa haute elevation, his great 
 
 soji nistoire. his or her story. - 
 
 preferment. 
 
 son habilete, his or her skill, sa hont, his or her shame. 
 
 3°. We always use these pronominal adnouns before nouns 
 of relations and friends, when we address ourselves to them ; 
 whereas such particles are in general left out in English : as, 
 Venez-ccL, majille, mon enfant ; Come hither, daughter, child. 
 Tout a r/ieure, ma mere ; mon pere ; oui, ma tante, fyc. 
 C Presently, mother, father; yes, aunt, &,c. 
 
 4°. Pronominal adnouns absolute, coming after a verb with 
 a noun, are resolved in French by their primitive pronoun per- 
 sonal in the third state : as, He has cut off his head, II lui a 
 coupe la tete, and not il a coupe sa tete. You cut my finger, 
 Vous me coupez le doigt ; and never vous coupez mon doigt. 
 Twist his neck, Tordez-hii le cou, and never tordez son cou, &c 
 
 5°. When nouns are preceded by a personal pronoun, which 
 sufficiently denotes whose is the thing you speak of, the prono- 
 D minal adnouns are wholly left out, and supplied by the article : 
 as, 
 
 Je lui dois la vie ; I owe my life to him ; or to it (never ma 
 vie). 
 
 II grince les dents; he gnashes his teeth (never ses dents): 
 the pronouns je and il, specifying enough whose life and teeth 
 are meant, and therefore making the possessive unnecessary. 
 
 For the same reason we say : J'ai mal a la tete ; I have a 
 pain in my head, I have the head-ach, <5)*c.; Elle a mal aux 
 dents ; she has the tooth-ach : II a le piedfoule ; his foot is 
 sprained, fyc. not fai mal a ma tete: son pied est joule. 
 
 But we say : Je vois que nmjambe s'enjie; I see that my leg 
 swells; because, in saying only Je vois que la jambe s'enfle,ihe 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 255 
 
 pronoun se cannot denote that I mean my own leg, since I can A 
 likewise see that another's leg swells. 
 
 Nevertheless, if the pain is become, as it were, habitual, we 
 may say (in speaking to somebody who knows it) Ma tete, 01 
 Majambe me fait mal, my head, or leg pains me ; Ma migrai- 
 ne m'a fort tourmente aujourdhui, my megrim has tormented 
 me much to-day ; Sajievre le consume, his fever consumes him : 
 because the pronominal adnoun denotes the particular habit 
 which one has contracted with the aching part of the body, or 
 the disease itself. 
 
 It is for the same reason we say, II ne se tient pasferme sur 
 ses pied, he don't stand firm upon his feet ; Tenez-vous ferme ft 
 sur VQSjambes, stand firm upon your legs ; because this ought 
 to be habitual and natural. 
 
 We say in a proverbial way of speaking-, se trouver svr ses pieds, to signify 
 that one cannot be the worse for undertaking- seme particular things : and 
 retomber sur ses pieds, to signify, that one always gets off clear and safe, what- 
 ever he attempts. 
 
 Pronominal adnouns are also very properly used with the names of the 
 members of the body in some few sentences like these ; II lui donna sa tnatn H 
 baiser, he gave him his hand to kiss ; Elle a donnt hardiment son bras au Chi- 
 rurgien, she boldly gave her arm to the Surgeon ; II perd tout son sang, he 
 loses all his blood* fyc. But they must be learnt by practice, as well as when 
 it is indifferent to use or riot the pronominal adnoun; as, Eiever la voix, 01 
 Elever sa voix, to raise one's voice, fyc. 
 
 But observe here ; that son, sa, ses, are not always englished by his^ her, Us, 
 nor the English pronoun oneself rendered into French by soi,or s'oi-rin'eme ; but f ^ 
 that one must consider the terra of its relation ; for if it relates to the pronoun V-* 
 indeterminate on, or some of its oblique relations, asin the instance se trouver 
 sur ses pieds; or in other words, if considered with its substantive, it relates 
 to nothing specified, as in the other instance, retomber sur ses pieds, then son, 
 sa, ses, cannot be rendered in English by his, her, Sec. which has a reference 
 to something specified, but by the pronoun indeterminate oneself, or only one's 
 followed by a noun ; as, on the other hand, oneself must be rendered into 
 French by se, as se blesser, to hurt oneself, and one's followed by a noun, by 
 a pronominal adnoun absolute agreeing with it, as in the same instances 9t 
 trouver sur ses pieds {word for word),. to be put upon one's feet still ; retomber 
 sur ses pieds, to light upon one's feet again. 
 
 2dly, As the pronouns personal of the third person, il, elle, hii, leur,Szc. can- 
 not be used in some particular cases, when we speak of irrational and inani- 
 mate things ; so in like case we do not use the pronominal adnouns, son, sa, 
 ses ; leur, leurs, le sien, Sec. instead whereof we use the relative (en), and we 
 say, Cette maladie est fort cacMe, cependant j'en connois Vorigine ty les effets (not 
 son origine) ; This illness is much hid, yet I know its origin and effects, or I 
 know both the origin and effects of it. Though we say, Je connois cette ma- 
 ladie, son origine, ses symptomes, § ses effets ; I know this illness, its origin, 
 symptoms, and effects. J) 
 
 IT The reason of this difference is, that in the first sentence there are two 
 verbs, one governed by the premised substantive maladie, the other governing 
 the subsequent substantives origine, effets. Whereas in the second s'entence 
 there is but one verb, governing both the premised and subsequent substan- 
 tives.] 
 
 We. say, likewise, Voild. de bonne eau, j'en connois toutes les quality's (not ses 
 qualites) ; This water is good, I know all its qualities. Voyez-vous cette mai- 
 sm ? la situation en est belle, les pavilions en soni grands (not sa situation, ses 
 pavilions J ; Do you see that house ? It is pleasantly situated : its pavilions are 
 large. Though we say, Cette maison a ses commodity 8f ses inconviniens* 
 That house has its conveniences and inconveniences. Likewise, we say of a 
 tree : Les fruits en sont bons, &c. Us sont meilleurs que ceux d'un autre, fyc. Its 
 fruit is good ; it is better than another's. 
 
^6 SYNTAX. 
 
 1[ The above exception and distinction hold good when the substantive 
 pointed out by the possessive is either the subject or object of the sentence, 
 but when it is used as a compound regimen, that is, with a preposition, the 
 possessive must not be supplied by the relative en, because en represents 
 a compound regimen, and two compound regimens of the same kind cannot 
 take place in the same sentence. A short example will elucidate the mat- 
 ter. On admire Paris, ses bdtimens, ses promenades, &c. (in this sentence 
 there is but one verb, ses is used). Paris est beau, on en admire les bdti- 
 mens, les promenades, &c. (in this there are two verbs, en is used, not ses). 
 Paris est beau, on admire la grandeur de ses bdtimens, de ses promenades, 
 &c. (in this bdtimens, promenades, form a compound regimen, ses is used, 
 and by no means en.] 
 
 The pronominal adnouns* are safely used when the term of their relation 
 is expressed before, in the same sentence, by a noun or pronoun ; as, 
 Remettez-ce livre a sa place ; Put this book in its place again. 
 Mettez-le en sa place ; Put it in its place. 
 
 B 6°. The Pronominal adnouns absolute must always be re- 
 peated in French before every noun, when there are many in 
 the sentence, with which they are grammatically construed ; as, 
 Son plre # sa mire, his father and mother (not sonperefy 
 mire). Nos amis fy nos ennemis, our friends and foes (not nos 
 amis # ennemis), 
 
 Elle luifit voir ses plus beaux fy ses plus vilains habits ; 
 She showed him her best and worst clothes. 
 U Except when the two adnouns have almost the same signification : as, 
 Elle luifit voir ses plus beaux § plus magnifiques habits ; She showed him 
 her finest and most maguificent clothes.] 
 
 7°. The Pronominal adnouns relative, le mien, le voire, &c. 
 C are of the same use, and have the same construction as in 
 English, being never put before a noun, but always relating to 
 a foregoing one ; as, 
 
 Est-ce la voire livre ? Oui, e'est le mien, or ce Vest, 
 Is that your book ? Yes, it is mine. or Yes, it is. 
 
 But when this adnoun (referring to its antecedent expressed 
 in the same sentence) comes after to be, in the sense of to be- 
 long, it must be resolved in French by a pronoun personal dis- 
 junctive, in the third relation : as, 
 
 That book is mine ; That house is his or yours ; 
 
 Ce livre est a. moi. Cette maison est a lui, or a vous. 
 
 ,D 8°. The noun in the 2d state that comes after to be, used in 
 the same signification, must likewise be put in the third state ; 
 as, 
 
 This hat is the Gentleman's • This fan is the Lady's ; 
 
 Ce chapeau est a Monsieur. Cet eventail est a Madame. 
 
 Moreover, we use the Pronominal adnouns in the follow 
 ing case, when the English use the adnoun relative. 
 A friend of mine ; Un de mes amis (not un ami des miens). 
 A book of his ; Un de ses livres (not un livre des siens, #c/> 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 257 
 
 Of the Construction of the Pronouns Relative qui, lequel, fyc. A 
 
 so called as always referring to some Noun or Pronoun 
 
 which precedes, and then is styled Antecedent. 
 
 § VIII. 1°. The Relative qui always comes next to the An 
 tecedent : as, Ces gens qui demeuroient chez moi sont partis, 
 Those people are gone who lodged at my house. 
 
 Except when the antecedent is a pronoun personal, coming 
 before its verb : as, II la trouva qui pleuroit a chaudes larmes ; 
 He found her weeping most bitterly. 
 
 % The antecedent, when a pronoun demonstrative, is sometimes left out ; 
 as, Qui rdpond, paye ; He who bails (or the security) must pay. Celui, nomi- 
 native to paye, is understood, and qui is said to be used absolutely. (See qui- 
 conque, p. 270. C.) 3 
 
 Sometimes the two verbs are elegantly inverted ; as, Travailioit qui powoit ; 
 They worked that could. Joua qui voulut ; They that chose played at cards.] 
 
 2°. The relative qui is used only in the first and fourth states 
 for both genders and numbers, with respect to all sorts of ob- 
 jects ; but in the other states, that is, after a preposition, it is 
 said of personal objects only, or considered as such. When we 
 speak of irrational and inanimate objects, we use the other 
 pronouns lequel and quoi. Thus we say : 
 
 L'homme, (or) lafemme qui vous aparle, (or) que vous voyez : 
 
 The man (or) woman who spoke to you, (or) whom you see. 
 
 Le Prince, (or) la Princesse de qui il a rem tant defaveurs ; C 
 The Prince, (or) Princess of whom he has received so many 
 favours. 
 
 Le maitre, (or) la maitresse a qui il appartient ; 
 
 The master, (or) mistress whom he belongs to. [most. 
 
 Le choses qui lui plaisent leplus ; The things that please him 
 
 Le cheval que vous montez ; The horse that you ride upon. 
 
 Les malheurs que vous apprehendez ; The misfortunes which 
 you fear. 
 
 But speaking of irrational and inanimate creatures, we say : 
 
 Le cheval duquel (or) dont je me sers ; The horse that I use 
 (or) use to ride (not de qui). 
 
 1! opinion a laquelle (or) a quoi je m' attache ; The opinion D 
 which I adhere to (not a qui). 
 
 La chose sur laquelle (or) sur quoi jefaisfond ; The thing 
 which I rely upon (not sur qui). 
 
 We say : La Fortune, de qui f attends tout ; Fortune, from 
 which I expect all. 
 
 Le del, de qui fespere ; Heaven, from which I hope, <^c. — 
 because la Fortune and le Ciel are there personified. 
 
 3°. Dont is used for both genders and numbers, instead of the 
 second state of the three pronouns relative, qui, lequel, quoi. It 
 
<258 SYNTAX. 
 
 A always comes before the conjunct! ves,Je, nous; tu, vous, il, ih ' 
 elle, elles ; and is said both of persons and things : as, 
 
 C'est Vhomme dont je parte ; He is the man whom I am 
 speaking of. 
 
 C'est une charge dont il ne se soucie pas ; It is a place which 
 he does not carefor. [he spoke of 
 
 Vons voyez tesfemmes dont il parloit ; You see the women 
 
 Except when questions are asked, for they cannot begin 
 With dont: as, De qui (or) de quoi parlez-vous? Whom (or) 
 what are you speaking of ? 
 B De qui is used as well as dont, but with this difference, that 
 it expresses the Ablative of the Latins, and is denoted by from 
 in English : as, 
 
 JJhomme de qui fai recu une lettre; The man from whom 
 t have received a letter. 
 
 Whereas of wlvom, of zchich, wnose, must always be rendered 
 by dont, which expresses the Genitive of the Latins : as, 
 
 La personne dont la reputation vous ttonne ; The person 
 whose reputation you wonder at. 
 
 But dont must have immediately before it the term which it 
 refers to, and be followed by a subject, either noun or pro- 
 noun, and a verb, or by a verb impersonal followed by another 
 Q verb : as, 
 
 Le del, dont le secours est necessaire ; Heaven, whose aid 
 is necessary. 
 
 Le Ciel, dont le secours ne manque jamais ; Heaven, whose 
 assistance never fails. 
 
 LeCiel, dont il faut implorer le secours; Heaven, whose 
 aid must be implored. 
 
 However, this phrase, and the like : Heaven, without whose 
 assistance we cannot prosper, must be expressed with the pro- 
 noun de qui or duquel, thus : Le Ciel, sans le secours duquel 
 nous ne pouvons reussir ; not dont sans or sans dont le secours, 
 because though dont would have immediately before it the 
 j)noun which it relates to, yet it would not be followed imme- 
 diately by the subject of the verb. 
 
 4°. Ou is likewise used for the third state of the three pro- 
 nouns relative, to whom, to which, to what; as also when they 
 are governed by any of these prepositions, at, in, into, with. 
 It serves for both genders and numbers, and relates to things 
 denoting Time, Place, Condition, Disposition, Design, End, 
 and Aim ; but never to persons : as, 
 
 Voila le but ou il tend ; That is the end which he aims at. 
 
 Le siccle ou nous vivons ; The age wherein we live. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 2S9 
 
 Une affaire ouje tie veux pas entrer ; A 
 
 A thing in which I won't be concerned. 
 I*es malheurs ou il est plongt ; the misfortunes into which he is 
 
 plunged. 
 
 Oil in the first instance stands for auquel; in the 2d, for 
 danslequel; in the 3d, for dans laquelle ; and in the 4th, for 
 dans lesquels. 
 
 From oil are formed the adverbs of place d'oii from whence, 
 and par oil through where, through which place. 
 
 5°. Que is sometimes used instead of de qui and a qui : so 
 that que, besides its being the fourth state of qui, is also used 
 for the second and third, for both genders and numbers ; when- 
 ever there comes immediately before it the second or third B 
 state of a noun or pronoun personal for which it is a substitute ; 
 but the sentence must begin with ce and the verb etre : as, 
 
 C'est de vous qu'onparle (instead of de qui or dont) ; 
 
 It is you they are speaking of. 
 
 Oest a vous qu'ow s'adresse (instead of a qui) ; 
 
 It is you they make application to. 
 
 Oest a vous qu'?7 appartient, de . . . (not a qui) ; 
 
 It is to you that it belongs, to . . . 
 
 ^ In such phrases que is rather conductive, and answers to ce : the following 
 verb is to determine what preposition must be employed after the verb itre ; 
 hence the complement of that preposition is the virtual regimen of the fol- 
 lowing verb.] 
 
 6°. Que among a great many other constructions which shall Q 
 be mentioned in the Appendix, ha>J a particular one, which may 
 be called Conductive, being a Conjunction then used to bring 
 the sense of the sentence to its perfection : que, so used, is 
 engli.shed by that, when expressed, for it is very often left out 
 in English, even when it is relative ; but it must be always ex- 
 pressed in French, where it always governs, or is governed : as, 
 Je crois que vous parlez ; I think you speak, or that you speak. 
 Vhomme que vous voyez ; The man you see, or that, or zehom 
 
 you see. 
 
 In the first instance, the verb Je crois, coming before que, D 
 requires another verb to make the whole sentence, the conti- 
 nuity of the sense whereof is performed by que.. In the other, 
 que is governed of vous voyez, and relates to Vhomme. 
 
 That que Conductive, (See p. 332, A.) is used in a very emphatical manner, 
 before a noun terminating a sentence, or a verb, thus : 
 C'est une passion dangereuse que lejeu ; Gaming is a dangerous passion. 
 Vest une sorte de honte que d'etre mal- It is a sort of shame to be misera< 
 
 heureux ; ble. 
 
 But observe, 1st, that those sentences wherein que is thus used, always be- 
 gin with the demonstrative c'est it. is, or at least the pronoun primitive ce, and 
 end with the noun which begins the sentence in English, and before which 
 que is put. 
 
 tdly, That que alwavs requires de after it, when it comes before the infinitive* 
 
 Ad 
 
260 br;NIAX. 
 
 J± Moreover, 1st, Qui, besides its being relative, is also interrogative and de- 
 clarative, signifying quelle personne ? what person ? and then it takes gut 
 and not que for its fourth state ; as Qui a fait cela ? or Qui est-ce qui a 
 fait cela ? Who has done that ? Je sais qui vous voulez dire ; I know 
 whom you mean. Qui verrez-vous tantbt ? Whom are you to see this 
 evening. 
 
 Idly, Sometimes qui, in asking a question, signifies quelle chose (what 
 thing) : as Qui fait Voiseau ? or Qui est-ce qui fait Voiseau ? What makes 
 the bird r 
 
 3dly, Sometimes also qui between two verbs, and even in the beginning 
 of a sentence, signifies celui qui, he who, he that, and quiconque whosoever, 
 any body who : when it meets between two verbs, it is governed of the first, 
 at the same time that it governs the second ; as in these phrases : C'est lex- 
 eme ordinaire de qui rCen a point de bonne ; It is the usual excuse of those 
 who have not a good one. II le dit a qui veut V entendre ; He says it to 
 any body who is willing to hear it. 
 J} «fT Where it seems that at the same time qui is both governed and er overnibg ; 
 but the truth is (see p. 257, B.), that its antecedent is understood.] 
 
 If This elliptical construction is an elegance, because it favours the brevity 
 of diction ; but it is allowed only when there is no clashing of regimen: the 
 ellipsis may take place in the above phrases, or in this : 
 
 Voulez-vous que j em' attache a qnije n'ai jamais su plaire ? Do you wish me to 
 pav my addresses to the person whom I never was able to please ? • 
 
 S'attacher and pMre have the same regimen, thai is, both are construed with 
 the preposition a. 
 
 But in this phrase, Voulez-vous queje m'dloigne de la personne a quij'ai tou- 
 jours su plaire? Do you want me to break off correspondence with the per- 
 son whom I have always been able to please? the ellipsis cannot take place, 
 because s'tloigner requires the preposition de, and plaire the preposition <}. 
 C This phrase, a qui mieux mieux (the meaning of which is, in emulation of 
 one another), may likewise ,be accounted for, by rectifying the ellipsis of 
 celui.] 
 
 Athly, The relative qui and lequel can never agree with a noun that has no 
 article before it. Therefore these English sentences : 
 
 He did that through avarice, which is capable of any thing ; 
 I know that by experience, which is a great master ; 
 must be rendered into French without the relative, and make two distinct 
 sentences, one of which ends with the noun, and the other begins with et or 
 mais with the noun repeated, instead of the relative, thus : 
 
 II a fait cela par avarice ; mais V avarice est capable de tout. 
 
 Je sais cela par experience ; Et V experience est un grand maitre ; or 
 
 Et vous savez, or Et Von suit Hen que V experience est un grand maitre. 
 
 % Because, in French, the relative cannot refer to a substantive taken ad 
 verbially, and in an unlimited sense.] 
 £) Except from this rule ; 1st, Proper names, which are sufficiently deter 
 mined and specified by themselves, without taking the article : as, Je lis Ci 
 ceron, qui est aussibon Philosophe qu'Orateur ; I read Cicero, who is as good a 
 Philosopher as Orator. 
 
 Tai vu Paris, qui est une des plus belles villes du monde ; 
 
 I have seen Paris, which is one of the finest cities in the world. 
 
 %dly, Such nouns as have de before them, on account of some previous word 
 that requires it, and thereby sufficiently determines the next noun ; as the 
 adnouns capable, coupable, the'nouns sorte, espece, &c. the adverbs assez, point, 
 &c. as, 
 II est coupable de crimes qui miritent He is guilty of crimes which deserve 
 
 la mort ; death. 
 
 11 riy a point d^homme qui n'ait son There is no man but has his weak 
 
 foible ; side. 
 
 Une sorte de liqueur qui est bonne a A serf of liquor that is good tc 
 
 boire ; i drink. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 26J 
 
 Sdly, Such Nouns of the things which are called to, and answer the vocative J{ 
 of the Latins, before which the particle exclaraative 6 may come : as, 
 Homines, qui vivez en betes I Men who live like brutes ! 
 
 Avarice, qui causes tant de niaux ! Oh, Covetousness, that causest so many 
 
 mischiefs. 
 
 4thly, Such other nouns that have before them any number, as un, deux, 
 trois, vingt, 6cc. any of these pronouns, ce, quelque, plusieurs, tout, nul, aucun 
 (which perform there the office of the article), or the particle en signifying 
 as or like ; as, 11 en vir<t un, or plusieurs qui n'etoieni pas invites ; There came 
 one, or many, who were not invited. 
 
 II parte en Philosophe qui sait la raison des choses ; 
 
 He speaks like a Philosopher who knows the reason of things. 
 
 The reason both of this ruli and exception is, that the Genius of the 
 French language does not alloio the relative qui to be used after a noun, un- 
 less it is specif ed'by the article, or by some other specifying uord, or by its 
 ozvn signification. 
 
 % For the same reason, which, referring to a whole sentence, cannot be 
 translated into French by the mere relative qui or que, but by ce qui or ceque; J£ 
 the intervention of the pronoun ce being necessary to individuate, as it were, 
 the whole phrase related to.] 
 
 7°. The pronoun lequel, laqaelle, is used for the sake of 
 avoiding the too frequent repetitions of qui, and of removing 
 the ambiguities that may arise from that pronoun, which is of 
 both genders and numbers, and said, in the first state, both of 
 persons and things ; as in these sentences : 
 
 Alexandre fih de Philippe, qui regno, le premier en Asie, 
 
 Alexander, Philip's son, who reigned the first in Asia. 
 
 One cannot tell whether it was Alexander or Philip who q 
 reigned : whereas lequel, used instead of qui, will denote that 
 it w r as Alexander ; because, when two nouns of the same gen- 
 der come together, the relative lequel refers to the former, and 
 therefore removes the ambiguity that may be occasioned by 
 qui. 
 
 C'est la cause de cet effet dont je wis traiter, (or) queje vais 
 examiner-, It is the cause of that effect which I am going to 
 treat of, (or) to examine. 
 
 One cannot see whether dont or que, which are used for both 
 genders, relate to effet or cause ; therefore lequel, or laquelle, 
 must be used, according to the gender *A its antecedent. 
 
 However, it is much better to repeat qui, though ever soJJ 
 often, when it causes no ambiguity, than to use lequel, which is 
 quite appropriated to the style of proclamations, edicts, trea- 
 ties, contracts, and other acts of that nature, wherein less 
 regard is to be had to the purity, than to the perspicuity of the 
 language. 
 
 8°. Qui must be repeated before every verb of which it is 
 the subject ; as, 
 
 Oest un homme qui est savant, qui danse bien, qui joue de plu- 
 sieurs insirumcns, #qui se fait aimer de tout le monde. He is a 
 
262 SYNTAX. 
 
 A learned man, who dances well, plays upon several instruments, 
 and makes himself beloved by every body. 
 
 % Qui and lequel 'are sometimes used to imply indecision, choice compa- 
 rison between several persons or things ; in which case the names of such 
 persons or things are each pointed out by the preposition de ; whereas, in 
 English, they admit of no preposition ; as,, 
 
 1. Je ne sais a qui m'adresser, de Pierre, de Paut, ou de Jean, I do not 
 know whom I should apply to, Peter, Paul, or John. 
 
 2. Choisissez laquelle vous voudrez, de la monire ou de la bague ; choose which 
 you like best, the watch or the ring. 
 
 Such phrases are elliptical. The 1st stands for Je ne sais a qui des trois 
 m'adresser ; &c. which itself stands for, Je ne sais quel est celui des trois a qui 
 ie dois m'adresser, &c. As celui (see p. 264, A.) requires the preposition de 
 Jd before the next noun, and it is the genius of the French (see p. 375, B.) to re- 
 peat most prepositions before each noun governed, it may account for the 
 prefixing of deto each subsequent noun. 
 
 The same may be said of the second phrase, which stands for, choisissez la- 
 quelle des deux vous voudrez, or choisissez celle des deux que vous voudrez, &c. 
 
 Sometimes the same preposition prefixed to the relative, may also be pre- 
 fixed to the following nouns ; but then the phrase will imply quite a different 
 sense. 
 
 For instance, the 1st phrase construed with the preposition de means that I 
 should apply to one of the three persons, and auquel might be used instead of 
 d qui. Whereas this phrase : 
 
 Jenesais a qui m'adresser; a Pierre, a Paul, ouaJean: non,jem'adres8e- 
 rai a Philippe; means no intention, no obligation of applying to any of them, 
 since I determined to apply to Philip ; and auquel cannot be. substituted to a 
 qui. Again, 
 
 Avec qui sortirez-vous, de Pierre ou de Paul ? With whom will you go out 
 C Peter or Paul? des deux, of the two, is understood ; therefore the phrase is 
 very different from this : 
 
 Avec qui sortirez vous, avec Pierre ou avec Paul ? in which the ellipsis of 
 celui may be rectified, but not that of des deux ; and to which the answer may 
 be : Avecni I'unni V autre, with neither.] 
 
 9°. The pronoun quoi is also used for both genders and 
 numbers. .* It is said of things only, and never of persons, and 
 is sometimes used instead of lequel: as, Le plus grand vice k 
 quoi il soit mjet, instead of auquel il soit sujet, The greatest 
 vice which he is addicted to. Cesont des choses a quoi ilfaut 
 penser, instead of auxquelles il faut, &c. These are things 
 which one must think of. 
 
 f Quoi has of itself an indeterminate signification ; therefore, though it 
 t\ may ^sometimes be used for lequel, laquelle, &c. yet there are cases wherein 
 •^ lequel, &c. cannot be employed instead of quoi. In such phrases for instance : 
 
 C'esi a quoi je vous exhorle ; This is what I exhort you to. 
 
 II n'y a rien 4 quoi je ne sois dispose ; There is not any thing I am not dis- 
 posed for. • . . 
 
 On account of the ellipsis of its antecedent, quoi sometimes appears to be 
 used absolutely, or rather substantively ; as, 
 
 Je n'aipasde quoi vivre; I have nothing wherewith to live upon. 
 
 En quoi il est doublement coupable ; In that he is in a double manner culpa- 
 ble.] 
 
 % As qui sometimes signifies queue personnc (what person) ; so qxioi some- 
 times signifies quelle chose (what thing) ; as, De quoi par lez-vous? What are 
 you speaking of ? A quoi pemez-vous ? What are you thinking on ? II y aje 
 ne sais quoi ; There is l don't know wtiat.J 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 263 
 
 Quoi makes que in its first and fourth state, and sometimes A 
 in its second state ; it is then chiefly used interrogatively : as, 
 — Qu' est-ce que c'est ? What is it ? and never Quoi-est-ce, &c. 
 Que dites-vous? What do you say ? — Que serf, or de quoi sert 
 d 'avoir du bien, si Von nen suit pas jouir? What avail riches, 
 if one knows not how to enjoy them ? 
 
 If somebody said, II truest arrive une etrange affaire, An odd sort of affair 
 has befallen me, one should ask quoi? what? or quelle affaire? what affair? 
 But quoi is never used before a verb; and it is for that reason we say, Que 
 vous est-il arrive? What has happened to you? Que dites-vous? Quoi is 
 never used in such phrases. 
 
 1°. The same pronouns relatives are used to ask questions, g 
 to which add quel : as, Qui est cet homme-la, or Quel est cet 
 homme-la ? Who is that man, or what is that man ? De qui 
 ne medit-on pas? Who is not traduced? A qui sefier? Who 
 can one trust to? (an ellipsis for A qui peut-on sefer?) Quelle 
 est cette femme-la ? Who is that woman ? Duquel, de laquelle, 
 desquels parlez-vous f Which do you speak of ? 
 
 But qui is said of persons, and quel of things. Therefore to 
 this preposition Voila des gens, (or) des femmes qui vous de- 
 mandent, There are people or women who ask for you, we 
 answer, 
 
 Qui sont-ils? or Qui sont elles? Who are they ? But to these 
 others, 
 
 11 court d'etranges bruits, Strange reports are spread, we ask q 
 Quels sont-ils? What are they ? and not Qui sont-ils? 
 J'ai appris de grandes nouvelles, I have heard great news. 
 Quelles sont-elles? What are they ? Quelles sont ces nouvelles? 
 
 The pronoun interrogative quel (without the article) answers 
 to the what of the English ; and lequel to their which : lequel 
 being followed by the second state, when it comes before a 
 noun? as. Quel homme voulez-vous dire? Whatman d© you 
 mean ? Lequel choisissez-vous ? Which do you choose ? La- 
 quelle des deux souhaitez-vous? Which of the two wil 1 vou 
 have ? (See p. 262, B.) 
 
 Moreover we observe a very remarkable Pleonasm most commonly, and 
 sometimes necessarily, used in asking questions with the pronoun, qui and p. 
 quoi.— The most natural (and the best) French for these questions and the ±> 
 the other like, is — Who is there ? Qui esl-la ? — Who has done that ? Qui a 
 fail cela? — What do you say ? Que dites-vous ? — What do you ask? QueUe- 
 mandez-vous ? 
 
 Yet the common idiom of the language is to express them thus : Qui est-ce 
 qui est-la? — Qui est-ce qui a fail cela? Qu' est-ce que vous dites? Qu' est-ce 
 que vous-demandez ? Nay, we often say, — Qu' est-ce que c'est que vous dites ? 
 — Qu'est-ce que c'est que vous demandez} 
 
 And to this Preposition, J'ai quelque chose a vous dire, I have something to 
 say to you, the most natural and common answer is, Qu'est~ce-que c'est ? What 
 is it? And not Qu'est-ce f nor Quoi est-ce, nor Quoi what? which last would 
 rather intimate that we did not hear what was said to us. 
 
 Aa 2 
 
264 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Of the Use and Construction of the Pro?i. Demonstrative, ce, 
 celui, ceci, cela, fyc. 
 
 \ IX. 1°. The particles demonstrative, ce, cet, ceite, ces, are 
 mere adnouns : celui-ci, celle-ci ; celui-la ; celle-la, ceux-ci, celles- 
 ci, ceux-la, celles-la, are used absolutely without any noun , and 
 celui, celle, ceux, celles, always require after them a noun in the 
 second state, or the relative qui (in any of its states) : as, 
 
 Ce tableau this or that picture, cet ouvrage that work, cet 
 homme that man, ceite femme that woman, ces gens those peo- 
 B pie, ces files those girls. 
 
 Celui-ci est meilleur que celui-la, This is better than that. 
 Celles-la ne sont pas si belles que celles-ci, 
 Those are not so good as these. 
 
 Voire cheval est aussi beau que celui du Maquignon, 
 
 Your horse is as fine as that of 'the Jockey (or as the Jockey's). 
 
 Celui qui aime la vertu, He that loves virtue. 
 
 Ci and la are sometimes added to the noun that comes after 
 the demonstrative ce, cet, cette, ces, in order to specify and par- 
 ticularise it still more ; as cet homme-ci this man, cette femme-la 
 that woman ; ci, denoting a near or present object, and la a 
 distant and absent one ; and ce, thus followed by a noun at- 
 tended by ci or la, answers to this or that before a noun. 
 
 C 1 The same must be said of the pronouns ceci (this), and cela (that), which 
 relate to things only, and are formed of the pronoun ce prefixed to the parti- 
 cles ci and la ; as, 
 Ceci est pour moi, and cela est pour vous ; This is for me, and that is for you. 
 This and that are sometimes well rendered into French by ce or cet only ; 
 but one cannot in some cases leave out ci or la, and those cases must be de- 
 termined by judgment only. Thus, if being at London I write a letter, and 
 after mentioning Paris or Vienna, I add something that has happened there, 
 I must necessarily say en cette viUe-la, la added to ville specifying the distant 
 city which I have been mentioning. For should I say only en cette ville, these 
 words would intimate that it was at London where the thing I am speaking 
 of happened. 
 
 D 2°. The pronouns celui, celle, ceux, which relate both to per- 
 sons and things, being followed by the relative qui are englished 
 by he who, or he that, she who or that, they who or that, and celui 
 is the subject of one verb, and qui that of another : as, Celui 
 qui aime la vertu est heureux ; He who loves virtue is happy. 
 Celle qui refuse un mari n'est pas toujours sure d'en retrouver 
 
 un autre ; 
 She who refuses a husband is not always sure to get anothe 
 
 again. 
 
 Ceux qui meprisent la science n'en connoissent pas leprix • 
 
 They who despise learning know not the value of it. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 265 
 
 Observe, therefore, 1st, that he who, he tnat, she who, she that, A 
 fyc. are never rendered into French by il qui, elle qui, Us or eux 
 qui, but by celui qui, celle qui, ceux qui, celles qui. 
 
 Qdly, That though these two words may be separated in 
 English, and come before their respective verb, yet they must 
 always come together in French before the first verb, unless Id 
 is added to the first : as, 
 
 They know not the value of learning who despise it ; 
 
 Ceux-la ne connoissent pas le prix de la science qui la mepri- 
 sent, (or better) Ceux qui meprisent la science n'en connoissent 
 pas le prix. 
 
 3dly, He who, or ne that, they who, or they that (separated 
 in English) are also elegantly rendered into French by the im- B 
 perftmal cest, with an infinitive followed by que de before a 
 second infinitive : as, 
 
 They know not the value of learning who despise it; 
 
 Cest ne pas connoitre leprix de la science que de la mepriser. 
 
 Cest se trompar que de croire ; He is mistaken who thinks, 
 or they, or those are mistaken who think, fyc. 
 
 Athly, The pronominal adnouns absolute, his, her, their, 
 construed in English with a noun followed by the pronoun re- 
 lative who or they before a verb, is made into French by the 
 second state of celui, celle, ceux, followed by qui, and the pos- 
 sessive is left out : as, Q 
 
 All men blame his manners who often says that which him- 
 self does not think ; 
 
 Tout le mojide blame les mxurs de celui qui dit souvent ce 
 quil ne pense pas. 
 
 Providence does not prosper their labours that slight their 
 best friends; 
 
 La Providence ne benit point les travaux de ceux qui mepri- 
 sent leurs meilleurs amis. 
 
 5thly, The pronoun indeterminate such, followed by as or 
 that (but not governed of the verb substantive to be), is also 
 rendered into French by ceux qui, or celui qui : as, £) 
 
 Such as don't love virtue don't know it, 
 
 Ceux qui n'aiment pas la vertu, ne la connoissent pas. 
 
 &hly, These two words, the former, the latter, referring to 
 nouns mentioned in the foregoing speech, are made by V.uh and 
 Vautre, or celui-ci and celui-la, agreeing in gender with the 
 noun ; and celui-ci relates to t'he noun last mentioned, and 
 celui-la to the first mentioned ; but Vun and Vautre may relate 
 to either you please, according to its gender : as, 
 
£66 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Virtue is nothing else but an La vertu n'est autre chose 
 entire conformity to the eternal qiiune entiere conformite a la 
 rule of things ; Vice is the in- regie eternelle des ckoses ; Le 
 fringement of that rule : This vice est I infract ion de cette 
 causes the misery of men : That regie : Celui-cifait le malheur 
 makes them happy : Therefore des homines ; Celle-la les rend 
 let us love the former, and de- heureux ; Aimons done Tune, 
 test the latter. S$ ayons l'autre en horreur. 
 
 3°. The Primitive ce coming before qui or que is englished 
 by that which, or what ; these two words making a sort of pro- 
 noun that points and relates to something either spoken of be-^ 
 B fore, or to be mentioned after : as, 
 
 17 dit ce quil sait, He says what he knows. 
 
 Cest ce qui ne sera jamais. It is what will never be. 
 
 4°. When ce qui or ce que, in the beginning of a sentence of 
 two parts, is, jointly with the verb, the subject coming before 
 the verb est in the second part of the sentence, ce must be re- 
 peated before est, and est followed by de, if it comes before 
 an infinitive, or by que if it is another mood : as, 
 
 Ce queje crains, cest d'etre surpris, and not est d'etre surpris, 
 
 What 1 fear, is to be surprised. 
 
 f It is the same with the other tenses of etre; as, Ce que je craignois, Q'etoit 
 C cTitre surpris. ,] 
 
 Ce qui Vafflige, e'est qu'o/j le croit coupable, 
 
 What concerns him, is that he is thought guilty. 
 
 But ce must not be repeated before est, when there comes 
 next an adnoun : as, Ce que vous dites est vrai, what you say is 
 true ; and when it is a noun, it is indifferent to repeat it or to 
 leave it out : as, Ce queje dis est la verite, or e'est la verite, 
 what I say is the truth. 
 
 Except when the verb substantive is in the plural ; for then 
 ce must be repeated : as, Ce que je nepuis souffrir, ce sont les 
 insolences § les trahisons, what I cannot bear are insolences and 
 treacheries. 
 
 J) f Ce, both in asking and answering a question, signifies sometimes cette 
 personne, sometimes cette chose. 
 
 Quiest-ce qui est venu? Who is come? ce stands for qui est cette personne 
 qrti, &c. Qu' est ce que je vols la ? What do I see there ? ce stands for quelle est 
 eeite chose que, &c. 
 
 Qui est la ? Who is there ? c 'est Pieire ; ce stands for cette personne ; viz. 
 Pierre est cette personne qui est la ? Que vois-je la, or qu'est-ce queje vois Id ? 
 What do I see there? C'est mon canif, It is my penknife : that is, mon canif 
 est cette chose queje vois Id. 
 
 From which it appears that in such phrases the virtual nominative to the 
 verb Hre is not ce, but the following substantive.] 
 
 The pron. primit. ce is besides of a very extensive use with eire, as we shall 
 see p. 327. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 267 
 
 Of Pronouns Indeterminate. A 
 
 Quelqu'un, chacun, quiconque, personne, nul, pas tin, aucun, 
 Tun l'autre, Tun & Fautre, plusieurs, tout, <5fc. 
 
 § X. 1°. If Quelqu'un and chacun are formed of quelqueun, 
 chaque un ; both take the mark of gender, and we say quel- 
 qu'un quelqu'une, chacun chacune ; but chacun has no plural, 
 whereas the plural of quelqu'un quelqu'une, is quelques-uns 
 quelques-unes. 
 
 Both quelqu'un and chacun may be used either absolutely or 
 relatively ; absolutely, when there is no noun or pronoun to 
 which they refer ; relatively, when they refer to a noun or pro- 
 noun expressed before or after. B 
 
 When used relatively, they require the preposition de after 
 them, before the noun or pronoun to which they refer. Some- 
 times quelqu'un is contented with being preceded by the parti- 
 cle en (which implies de) ; but chacun never admits of it for its 
 antecedent, even it is often used by apposition, and sometimes 
 without the preposition de. 
 
 Quelqu'un and chacun, used absolutely, are said of persons 
 only ; and relatively, they are both said of persons and things. 
 
 Quelqu'un always presents an indefinite sense : used abso- 
 lutely, it signifies somebody, any body, has no plural, and is 
 generally of the masculine gender : used relatively, it signifies C 
 some or any, and takes the mark of gender and number. 
 
 Chacun, used absolutely, denotes sometimes a collective, 
 sometimes a distributive sense : when collective, it signifies 
 every body, and is of the masculine gender ; when distributive, 
 it signifies every one, each, and takes the mark of gender. 
 
 Chacun, used relatively, is always distributive, refers to a noun 
 or pronoun plural which it is to distribute, takes the mark of 
 gender, and is englished by every one and mostly by each.] 
 
 fl Examoles of quelqu'un and chacun used absolutely. jv 
 
 Quelqu'un m'a dit que ; Somebody told me that ^ 
 
 Sije vois quelqu'un ; If I see any body. 
 
 Tai ou'i dire cL quelqu'un ; I heard somebody say. 
 
 Je parte de quelqu'un que vous connoisses : I speak of somebody you know. 
 
 Est-ilvenu quelqu'un? Did any body come? 
 
 Quelqu'un est-il venu me demander 2 Has any body called on me ? 
 
 Chacun veut etre heureux ; Every body wishes to be happy. 
 
 Chacun sent son mal ; Every one feels for himself. 
 
 Chacun en parle ; Every body speaks of it. 
 
 Chacun s' en plaint ,• Every one complains of it. 
 
 Ilfaut rendrf *> chacun ce qui lui appartient ; We must give to every one 
 
 his due. 
 Chacun se gouverne dsa mode; Every one lives after his own manner. 
 
268 SYJNTAX. 
 
 ^\ Chacun pour soi ; Every one for himself. 
 Chacun a son tour ; Each in his torn.] 
 
 If Examples of quelqiiun and chacun used relatively. 
 Quelques-uns de ses units vmrent « sa rencontre; Some of his friends came 
 
 to meet him. 
 Cest quelqu'une d' elles qui vous I' aura dit ; None hut some of them must 
 
 have fold you of it. 
 J'uppercois quelques-uns de vox nouveaux livres ; I perceive some of your 
 
 new books. 
 Avez-vous de bons amis V out, fen ai quelques-uns ; Have you good friends ? 
 
 yes, I have some. 
 Adressez-vons a quelqu'un d'e?/.r, or a quelques-uns d'enlre eux; Apply to 
 
 some o/*them. 
 Vous avez de beaux livres, prttez-nien quelques-uns ; You have fine books, 
 
 lend me some of them. 
 13 Voila de belles oranges ; achetons-e\\ quelques-unes ; There are fine 
 
 oranges; let us buy some. 
 Ghacun de vous fail ce qicil lui plait; Every one oj you does what he 
 
 pleases. 
 Chacuu d'eux se dispute ; Each of them is quareXmg. 
 Chacune d"ellesjouera son role ; Each of them will play her part. 
 Cliacun de ces tableaux-la est d"un grand prix ; Each of these pictures is 
 
 very valuable. 
 Chacune de ces statues est parfaile ; Each of these statues is accomplished.] 
 H As the pronouns disjunctive eux and elles cannot be said of things, they 
 are, together with the preposition de, entirely left out after cliacun, when they 
 do not relate to persons ; and we say, speaking of cards, for instance, Voild 
 trois cartes, je mels tant sur chacune ; There are three cards, I stake so much 
 upon each of them. Speaking of horses ; Vous avez achete quatre chevaux, com* 
 bien avez-vous dome de chacuu? You bought four horses, how much have you 
 paid for each? 
 C Whereas we say of persons : J'ai partt a cliacun d'eux, a chacune d'elles, I 
 have spoken to each of them. 
 
 H As chucun, when referring to things, is not used absolutely, it cannot then 
 be the subject of a sentence, and we sav, speaking of knives, Vor instance ; lis 
 content un ecu cliacun ; They cost half-a-crown each: not chacuu coute. A. 
 personal pronoun plural is there used instead of chacun, which is placed, as it 
 were, by apposition, and has the same import as chacuu de ces couteaux coute 
 w« hut.)' 
 
 % Chacun, though used relatively, is sometimes employed as above by ap- 
 position, and unaccompanied with de, but placed in the" middle of the sen- 
 tence which it is to distribute: as, 
 
 Qu'on s'en rctourne chacun chez soi ; Let every one return to his own home. 
 Reloumons-nous-en chacun chez nous; Let every one of us return to his own home. 
 Vous vous en retournerez chacun chez vous ; Every one of you will return to his 
 own home. 
 J) lis s'en retournerent chacun chez eux ; elles s'en retournerent chacune chez elles ; 
 Each of them returned to their own home. 
 
 The above sentences might be construed without chacun ; but then they 
 would imply quite a different sense. For instance : Retournons-en chez nous; 
 Let us return home, means that we all live in the same house ; whereas, by 
 inserting chacun, it means that each of us lives in a separate house. 
 
 The same may be said of the following phrases : 
 Nous danserons chacun a notre tour ; We shall dance every one in turn. 
 Vous aurez chacune le votre; Each of you will have her own. 
 lis auront chacun leur part ; Each of them will have his share. 
 Nous avons chacun nos droits ; Each of us has his rights. 
 Ce deux auteurs ont chacun leur merite; Each of these two authors have 
 
 their worth. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 269 
 
 Les matelots allerent chacun d leurs fonctions ; Each of the sailors went to A 
 
 their functions 
 Us ont apporti chacun leur offrande, fy ont rempii chacun leur devoir de 
 
 religion ; Each of them brought his offering, and fulfilled his religious duty. 
 Appliquons-nous a menter Vestime du public, chacun dans notre itat ; Let 
 
 every one of us try to deserve the public esteem, each in his station of life. 
 Qu'ils sappliquent a meriter Vestime du public, chacun dans leur Uat ; Let 
 
 them try to deserve the public esteem, each in his station of life.] 
 
 f From the foregoing examples it appears that chacun, either in the mid- 
 dle, or at the end of a sentence which it is to distribute, sometimes meets 
 with a noun pointed out by a possessive. Now, when chacun relates to the 
 subject of the sentence, the possessive must be of the same person as the sub- 
 ject ; and such is the case in the above phrases. • 
 
 It is the same when chacun relates to the term of fene sentence, that is, a 
 pronoun construed with, or implying the preposition a: as, 
 
 Dieu rendra a chacun selon ses auvres; • 
 
 God will reward every one according to his works. 
 
 Dieu nous rendra a chacun selon nos auvres ; 
 
 God will reward each of us according to our works. 
 
 Dieu vous rendra a chacun selon vos auvres ; J> 
 
 God will reward each of -you according to your works. 
 
 Dieu leur rendra a chacun selon leurs auvres ; 
 
 God will reward each of them according to their works. 
 
 Donnez a chacun sa part ; Give every one his share. 
 
 Don?iez-nous a chacun notre part ; Give every one of us our share. 
 
 Donnez leur a chacun leur part ; Give every one of them their share.] 
 
 1T But if chacun relate to the object of the sentence, and that object be of 
 the third person, the possessive must, by all means, be of the third person 
 singular; as, 
 
 Otez ces livres, 4* les mtltez chacun a sa place ; Take these books away, 
 and put each of them in its place. 
 
 Serrez ces medailles, chacune dans sa case; Lay up these medals, and Q 
 place each of them in its case. 
 
 Us ont tous apporte des offrandes, chacun selon ses moyens c}- sa devotion; 
 They have all brought offerings, each of them according to their abilities and 
 devotion. 
 
 In the above phrases chacun relates to livres, mi dailies, offrandes, the'objects 
 of their respective sentences ; it is the nominative to a verb understood, the 
 subject of another sentence distributive of the former. (N.B. As the offer- 
 ings, viz. their quantity and quality, are according to the abilities of the 
 bnngers, it cannot be said that chacun relates to another word.) 
 
 Girard, Wailly, and other grammarians say, that, in such distributive 
 phrases, son, sa, ses, must be used, when chacun comes after the regimen of 
 the verb ; and leur, when chacun comes before ; or, in other words, when the 
 sense of the sentence distributed by chacun, is either complete or incomplete. 
 
 But this rule is more ingenious than accurate ; for many instances may 
 occur, in which son, sa, ses, would be improper ; and others, in which either 
 leur, or son, s« t ses, may be used ; for instance : 
 
 Les arbres portent leurs fruits, chacun dans leur saison ; Trees bear their J) 
 fruits, each in their season : Sa would be improper, because chacun relates to 
 arbres, not to fruits. Vous taillerez ces arbres, chacun dans sa saison ; you will 
 cut these trees } each in its season : the phrase is grammatical : however leur 
 would not be improper, because there are not as many seasons as trees. 
 
 A coachman may say, Je les' prendrai dans ma voiture, c\ les descendrai 
 chacun a sa porte ; I will take them in my coach, and let down each of 
 them at his door ; but you could not say of him, il les prendra dans sa 
 voiture, Sc les descendra chacun o sa porte; The two sa's would clash; 
 Chacun & leur porte will prevent the ambiguity : or take another turn ; viz. 
 Chacun chez eux!\ 
 
270 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 11 When the object, to which ckaeun relates, is a pronoun of the first of 
 second persons, the possessive, which comes after e/iacun, is generally of 
 the same persons : The coachman may say, for instance, Je vous prendrux 
 tous dans ma voiture, 4* W vous descendrai chacun a votre porte, or je de- 
 scendrai chacem de vous a sa porte ; because he speaks to the very persons 
 he is to take. 
 
 Likewise many persons may bring offerings, and their spokesman will say ; 
 Nous vous apportons des offrandes, chacun selon nos moyens, or chacun de 
 nous selon ses moyens ; because he speaks collectively. 
 
 N. B. Chacun relating to a collective noun of the feminine gender, re- 
 mains of the masculine, when the collective refers to men ; as, Les com- 
 munes se separerent tout irritces, Sf se retirerent chacun chez soi (les mem- 
 bres is understood) ; the Commons, quite enraged, parted and retired, each 
 to his respective home. 
 
 But we say ; Les Provinces y envoyerent chacune leur depute; The pro~ 
 vinces sent thither each its deputy ; because the provinces are many, where- 
 _ as the commons is said of one single body, composed of men. 
 
 {fc$T This explanation of quelqu'un and chacun will perhaps appear pretty 
 long; but it has been thought that in a professed Grammar matters 
 could not be presented too clearly. 
 
 2°. Quiconque signifies and is said of any body whatever, and 
 is only of the singular number : as, 
 
 Quiconque meprise les belles-lettres se rend lui-meme meprisable ; 
 Whoever despises polite learning makes himself despicable. 
 
 In which phrase quiconque is the subject of, or nominative to 
 the two verbs. 
 
 Quiconque de vous sera assez hardi (or hardie) pour mtdire de 
 C moi, je Tenferai repentir, 
 
 If any of you is so bold as to slander me, I'll make him (or 
 
 her) repent it. 
 
 Quiconque, as well as its substitute qui (see p. 257), having 
 the force of toute personne qui, contains in itself the relative 
 with its antecedent ; therefore it is sometimes the object of one 
 verb, at the same time that it is the subject of another : as, 
 
 // a ordre d'arreter quiconque pass&ra par la ; 
 
 He has orders to arrest any body that shall go by. 
 
 En depit de quiconque y trouvera a redire ; 
 
 In spite of any body that will find it amiss. 
 D Ce reproche s'adresse a quiconque se croit coupabje ; 
 
 This reproach is addressed to any body who thinks he de- 
 serves it. 
 
 For the same reason we do not say en dkpit de quiconque, to 
 signify in spite of any body, whatever ; but en depit de tout le 
 monde, or de qui que ce soit. 
 
 3°. Personne (nobody) is directly opposite to quiconque, and 
 is never used but with verbs attended by a negative, or in exclu- 
 sive prepositions : as, 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 271 
 
 Nefaire tort a personne. To wrong nobody. A 
 
 Vivre sans j aire tort a personne, To live without wronging any 
 
 body. 
 Personne is used without a negative in sentences of interro- 
 gation, or rather of admiration, wonder, and doubt ; and where 
 the adverb trop is used ; wherein it does not signify nobody, 
 but any body : as, 
 
 Y a-t-il personne au monde qui vous estime plus que moi ? 
 
 Is there any body in the world that esteems you more than I do ? 
 Je doute que personne ait jamais mieux connu les hommes que La B 
 Bruytre ; 
 
 I doubt if ever any body knew men better than La Bruyere. 
 
 II est trop liar di pour craindre personne ; 
 He is too bold to fear any body. 
 
 Personne a-t-il jamais pu trouver la pierre Pkilosophale ? 
 Could ever any body find the Philosopher's stone ? 
 
 In which instances one does not only inquire after the thing 
 in question, but also shows one's doubt and wonder at it : 
 
 Whereas in this following, one only inquires after the thing 
 in question : 
 
 Personne if a-t-il jamais pu trouver la pierre Philosophale? 
 Could never any body find out the Philosopher's stone ? C 
 
 Though personne is said of both genders, yet it requires the 
 adnoun or pronoun which refers to it, in the masculine, even 
 in speaking of a woman : as, 
 
 Personne n'est venu, and not venue ; Nobody is come. 
 II n'y a personne d'assez hardi pour oser ; There is nobody 
 
 so bold as to dare. 
 Personne n'est si malheureux qu'elle ; Nobody is so unhappy 
 
 as she is. X) 
 
 Nevertheless, if the pronoun personne is applied to a woman, or to wo- 
 men, in such a manner that it ceases to be indefinite, and becomes specified, 
 then it requires the adnoun in the feminine, as speaking to women : 
 
 II ri!y a personne de vous asses bardie pour, fyc. 
 
 There is none among you so bold as to, &c. 
 
 4°. Nul, pas un, aucun, are a-lso pronouns negative requiring 
 another negative before the verb, except in sentences of inter- 
 rogation, or doubt : as, 
 
 Nul n'ose en, approcher ; No one dares come near him, or her. 
 Pas un ne le croit ; No one believes it ? 
 
 Y a-t-il aucun de vous qui le souffrit? 
 Is there any of you that would bear it ? 
 
 Bb 
 
272 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Aucun is hardly used but in sentences of interrogation; and 
 is followed by the second state, as in the last instance. 
 
 N. B. IT Aucun, in the nominative case, is said of persons only : as, Aucun 
 ne Va vu ; No one has seen it. 
 
 But in the oblique cases, it is said both of persons and things: as, II a 
 beaucoup de livres, & il n y en lit aucun : He has many books, and reads 
 none of them.] 
 
 Any body signifies tout lemonde, and never aucune personne : 
 which (if it were a French expression) would require a negative ; 
 and imply quite the contrary, to \xh,?iobody. Therefore this phrase, 
 
 Ask upon Change where he lives, any body will tell it you ; 
 •q must be translated thus : Demandez a la Bourse ou il demeure, 
 tout le monde vous le dira, or, II ?i'y a personne qui ne vous le 
 dise, (not by aucune personne). 
 
 5°. Ni Van ni V autre will have the verb in the singular, if 
 it comes after it ; and in the plural, if it comes before : but 
 Van <3f V autre will always have it in the plural : 
 
 Ni Vunni Vautre ?i'estvenu, "j Neither of them is 
 
 or, lis ne sont venus ni Van ni V autre f } come. 
 
 JJun § V autre ont raison, ") Both are in the right, or 
 or, lis ont raison Van # V autre, j They are both in the right. 
 
 p il When there is a preposition used before Vun, the same must be repeated 
 ^ before Vautre', as, II est ami del'un fy de V autre ; He is a friend to both.] 
 
 6°. The verb construed with Van V autre must be a recipro- 
 cal one, except it is the verb etre: as 17 sefont des grimaces Van 
 a V autre, They make faces to one another. 
 
 lis sont ennemis Vun de V autre ; They are enemies to each 
 
 other. 
 
 5[ The prepositions are placed between Vun and V autre. 
 
 IJun Vautre are sometimes separated : as, Hun est riche, Vautre est 
 pauvre ; One is rich, the other poor. Sometimes Vun signifies the former, 
 and Vautre the latter. 
 
 After reflected verbs, to which the particle entre is prefixed to make them 
 r\ reciprocal, Vun Vautre must be omitted, as redundant, Us s'entre-tuent ; 
 They kill one another; lis s'entre-frappent ; They strike each other; has 
 the same meaning as Us se iuent Vun Vautre, &c] 
 
 Some, repeated in a sentence, is expressed in French by les wis 
 in the first part of the sentence, and les autres in the other : as, 
 
 Les uns aiment une chose &, les autres une autre, or # les autres 
 en aiment une autre ; some like one thing, and some another. 
 
 7°. Plusieurs is of both genders, and of the plural number 
 only: as plusieurs hommes many men, plusieurs femmes many 
 women ; — many a man, is rendered into French by plusieurs 
 hommes, or plus d'un homme. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 273 
 
 8°. Tout is construed several ways ; 1st, It is an adnoun signi- A 
 
 fying all and zvhole, and always coming before the article of 
 
 its noun, besides the preposition de and a, which it requires 
 
 before itself ; as tout le monde, all the world, or the whole 
 
 world ; de tout le mo?ide, of the whole world ; a tout le monde, 
 
 to the whole world ; toute une ville, a whole city ; tous mes 
 
 livres, all my books. 
 
 It is to be observed, that when this adnoun is construed with the name of 
 a city or town of the feminine, it does not agree with it in gender, and besides 
 causes the other adnoun (if there be any) to be masculine : as, Tout Rome le 
 sait, not toute la Rome, as you should say toute la ville le salt, all Rome, all the 
 city knows it ; tout la Haye en est alarmi, not toute . . . alarme'e, All the 
 Hague is frighted at it. 
 
 Qdly, It signifies any or every, and its noun has no article : as, 
 Toute veritt tl est pas tovjours bonne a dire, B 
 
 All truth (i. e. any truth) is not to be told at all times. 
 Tout homme est mortel, Every man is mortal. 
 
 Sdly, Tout construed with some verbs, especially with ttre, 
 is taken substantively, and signifies most times every thing: as, 
 tout est vanite en ce monde, every thing is vanity in this world. 
 Sometimes it signifies the whole: as, le tout est plus grand que 
 sa par tie, the whole is bigger than its part. It signifies also 
 every in these words, tous les jours every day, toutes les semaines 
 every week, tous les mois every month, tous les ans every year, 
 a toute heure every hour, a tout moment every moment ; but C 
 we do not say a tout instant, or a toute minute, but a chaque 
 instant, a chaque minute. 
 
 Tout, being adnoun, must be repeated before each noun of 
 which it can be said, especially when they are of different gen- 
 ders : as, 
 
 Je suis, avec toute Vardeur fy tout le respect possible, Sec. 
 
 I am, with all possible zeal and respect, #c. 
 
 Tout, besides its construction of noun, adnoun, and pronoun, has three 
 others : 1st, It is used before an adnoun followed by que, and is rendered by 
 although, or however, or by as, repeated with an adnoun between, or only 
 coming after an adnoun. In this signification it is indeclinable, except (which 
 is worth observing) when the adnoun feminine, before which it comes, begins 
 with a consonant ; for then it is used in the feminine gender and plural num- 
 ber ; but when the adnoun, though feminine and plural, begins with a vowel, J) 
 tout remains indeclinable ; as, 
 
 Tout Philosophe qu'il est, iljuge souvent de travers ; 
 Though he is a Philosopher, he often judges very wrong. 
 Tout ignorant qu'il est, il a beaucoup dejugement ; 
 As ignorant us he is, he has much judgment. 
 Toutes laides quV//es sont, elle.s sont bienfieres ; 
 
 As ugly as they are, (or) for all they are ugly, they are very proud creatures. 
 Toute petite qu'esf son armie, il leur donnera bataille ; 
 Small as his army is, he will give them battle. 
 Tout ctonnantes que sont ces aventures, on les a vues arriver ; 
 However surprising these adventures are, they have been seen to happen. 
 
274 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 2dly, Tout is also used before an adnoun, without being followed by que: 
 but it is liable to the same rules and restrictions just mentioned, and iseng- 
 lished by the adverbs quite, entirely, &c. as, 
 II est tout autre. He is quite another man. 
 
 Elleest tout abattue de sa disgrace, She isentirely cast down by herdisgrace. 
 lis sont tout transports de joie, } They are quite overjoyed, or tr an s- 
 Elles sont toutes transportees dejoie, $ ported with joy. 
 Elles sont tout eperdues, They are quite affrighted. 
 
 Ce sont des nouvelles toutes fraiches,These news are quite fresh. 
 But when the adnoun is preceded by aussi, tout is indeclinable ; as, 
 Elles sont tout aussi fraiches que si on nefaisoit que de les cueillir, 
 They are quite as fresh as if they had been pick'd just now. 
 Sdly, Tout is besides used before these adverbs, has and doucement ; as, 
 Parlez tout has, speak quite low ; Marchez tout doucement, walk softly. 
 B Tout is explet4ve, and only energetic in, Tout comme vous voudrez \ Just as 
 you please. 
 
 9°. To these pronouns is added autrui, which has neither gender nor num- 
 ber. It is used in the second and third state in these and such like expressions : 
 Dcsirer,or Convoiter le bien (T autrui, To covet another man's property. 
 JAffliger du mal d 1 autrui, To be sorry for another's trouble or misfortune. 
 Dependre d'aut>rui, To depend upon others. 
 Nuire & autrui, To wrong, hurt, or prejudice others. 
 
 Faire ct autrui comme nous voudrions quon nous fit ; 
 To do by others as we would be done by. 
 As to quelconque, quelque, and chaque, they are mere adnouns, insepa- 
 rable from a noun — Quelconque signifies any whatever, and always follows 
 its noun, being used only in some law-phrases like this, Nonobstant opposi- 
 tion, or appellation quelconque, notwithstanding any opposition or appeal 
 whatever ; and such sentences like this, 
 
 II riy a raison quelconque qui puisse le convaincre, 
 C There is no reason whatever can convince him. 
 
 N. B. Aucun is preferred to quelconque ; as, II n'y a aucune raison . . . 
 
 10°. Quelque, in the singular, denotes an Object ; in the 
 plural, a Kumber indeterminate ; it also indicates a Quality, or 
 Quantity indeterminate. In the first signification, it answers to 
 the word some; as, Quelque fripon, some knave; quelques 
 hommes, some men ; quelquesfemm.es, some women. 
 
 In the other signification it answers to these expressions, 
 
 whatever, whatsoever, though with ever so, or ever so muck : as, 
 
 Quelque merite q\Con ait, on ne reussit gueres dans le monde sans 
 
 r\ protecteur : 
 
 Whatever merit a man has, or though a man has ever so much 
 
 merit, or though a man is ever so deserving, he very seldom 
 
 meets with success in the world without a patron. 
 
 Quelque, signifying some, is always an adnoun ; but when it 
 signifies whatever, &c. it is sometimes an adverb, and therefore 
 indeclinable ; and sometimes a pronoun incomplete adjective, 
 which agrees in gender and number with the following noun 
 or adnoun. 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 27j 
 
 Quelque is only an adverb, when it comes before an adnoun A 
 and a noun governed of etre, or only when it comes before an 
 adnoun ; which can never happen but with etre, and it then 
 signifies however; as, 
 
 Quelque riches qu'il soient ; 
 
 However rich they be ; though they are ever so rich. 
 
 Quelque belles que soient ses actions; 
 
 However fine his actions may be. 
 
 Quelque grandes que soient les actions qu'il a faites ; 
 
 How great soever may be the actions that he has done. 
 
 But when quelque comes before a noun attended by an ad- £ 
 noun, or before a noun only, but with any other verb than etre, 
 it is an adnoun following the same rule as others ; as, 
 
 Quelques richesses qu'il possede ; 
 Whatever riches he is possessed of. 
 Quelques grandes actions qu'il ait faites : 
 Whatever great actions he has done. 
 
 Note, 1st , That quelque signifying whatever, followed immediately by a noun 
 or adnoun, always requires, if indeclinable, the particle que, and if declinable, 
 the relative qui, before the next verb, which it governs in the subjunctive, 
 and of which it is governed, as to its state. In the aforesaid sentences, and 
 most of the same kind, the relative is the fourth state (que) which has made 
 our Grammarians lay it down as a rule, that quelque is always followed by que ; 
 but these following instances prove that it is by the relative qui that quelque 
 is always followed, when it is declinable ; as, Q 
 
 Quelque chose qui arrive, Whatever happens. 
 
 Quelques e'venemens qui puissent arriver, Whatever events may happen. 
 
 Mly, That in those sorts of sentences, quelque with its noun and adnoun, or 
 with either, makes a sort of nominative absolute, i, e. a subject which goes for 
 nothing in the grammatical order of the sentence, and that the verb must be- 
 sides have another noun coming before it for its subject, and another for its ob- 
 ject, unless it be neuter. Which again evinces that it is not que (as it should 
 be, were the rule of our Grammarians true), but qui that follows quelque, and 
 is the subject coming before the verbs neuter in the last instances. 
 
 Mly, That as whatsoever is a pronoun compound, which is sometimes sepa- 
 rated in two parts by a word between ; as in what condition soever I be (en 
 quelque 6tat queje me trouve), so is likewise quelque separated in two words, 
 viz. quel and que, but without any word between as in English ; and quel que 
 must be immediately followed by a verb, or a pronoun personal in the first 
 state : then quel must agree in gender ajid number with the following noun or D 
 pronoun, that comes before the verb. (N. B. If the word that expresses the 
 subject is a noun, it comes after the verb ; and the verb requires no other 
 state of the relative qui before it, though it is still governed in the subjunctive 
 by que): as, 
 
 Quels que puissent ) , • h amounts to the same of $ Quelques desseins que 
 tire vos desseins, J wnicn araounis xo lue same or } V0U s puissiez avoir, 
 
 Whatever your designs may be, or whatever designs you may have. 
 Quel queje sois, Whatever I am. 
 
 Quels que nous soyons, Whatever we are. 
 
 Quelles qu'elles puissent etre, Whatever they may be (speaking of women). 
 
 Vide Tel . . . que, page 277, A. 
 
 Bb2 
 
276 SYNTAX. 
 
 ^ ^tlily, Whatever and whatsoever cannot always be rendered by quelque. 
 We have seen before that they express sometimes quelconque. They are 
 moreover rendered by quoi que, tout ce qui, tout ce que : as, 
 Whatever it may be, Quoi que ce soit. 
 
 Whatever happens, Quoi qu y il arrive. 
 
 Whatever pleases, Tout ce qui plait. 
 
 Whatever you will, Tout ce que vous voudrez. 
 
 Note, That quoi que in the two first instances, is very different from the 
 conjunction quoique, although ; the former being a pronoun composed vf 
 quoi and que, signifying whatever. 
 
 From qui and quoi are formed these two other pronouns indeterminate ; 
 qui que ce soit, qui que cefut ; 
 
 quoi que ce soit, quoi que cefut ; 
 
 J3 the two first are said of persons, the two others of things; qui que ce sovt 
 answers to any body, whosoever : and when its verb is attended by a nega- 
 tive, it signifies no man in the world, no man living, nobody at all : as, 
 Qui que ce soit qui vous parle, pensez a ce qu'on vous dit ; 
 Whosoever speaks to you, mind what is said to you. 
 Qui que ce soit ne men a parlc ; No body at all spoke to me of it. 
 Je n'ai vu qui que ce soit ; I have seen no body in the world. 
 
 Qui que cefut, is the same pronoun used with the other tense of the sub- 
 junctive, according as the construction requires it; as, 
 Qui que cefut qui lui parlat, il ne repondoit rien ; 
 Whosoever spoke to him, he auswered nothing. 
 II ne se difioit de qui que cefut ; He mistrusted no body at all. 
 These two pronouns, used without a negative, make a sort of nominative 
 absolute, which must be followed by the pron. personal il ; and when the 
 sentence lias two parts, qui que ce soit, qui que cefut, must be immediately 
 C followed by the relative qui, before the verb of the first part, and il must 
 come besides before that of the second ; as, 
 Qui que ce soit qui me trompe, il sera decouvert ;~\ 
 
 Whosoever cheats me shall be found out. f qui que ce soit is put in 
 
 Qui que ce soit, il s'en repentira ; r apposition, as also quot 
 
 Whoever he be, or let him be who he will, he V que ce soit, hereafter, 
 shall repent it. ** 
 
 Quoi que ce soit, quoi que cefut, without a negative, signifies any thing 
 whatsoever : and with a negative, nothing in the world; as, 
 Quoi que ce soit qui arrive, faites-le-moi savoir, 
 Whatever happens, let me know it. 
 
 Quoi que ce soit n'est arrive; Nothing in the world has happened. 
 Those pronouns are used in their three states, viz. with de and a. 
 
 D H 11°. Chaque, each, every, implies separation and distribution, is said 
 both of persons and things, is of both genders, and has no plural. 
 
 Chaque citoyen doit contribuer au bien de Vetat ; Every citizen ought to 
 contribute to the welfare of the state. 
 
 Chaque science a ses principes ; Every science has its principles.] 
 
 % 13°. Itien nothing, ttl such, and certain certain, may also pass for pro- 
 nouns indeterminate, in sentences like these; 
 
 11 ne dit rien ; He says nothing. 
 
 Je ne saurois vous rien donner ; I cannot give you any thing. 
 
 II n'a rien de grand que la naissance ; There is nothing great in him but 
 his fcirth. 
 
 II nefaxt rien qui soit digne de sa reputation ; 
 
 He does not do any thing worthy of his character. 
 
Of NUMBERS. 277 
 
 Tel seme, qui ne recueille pas ; Such sow as do not reap. A 
 
 Otherwise tel is an adnouu, generally followed by que, and signifying 
 such as ; such that ; like, &c. as, 
 
 II est tel qu'on le dit ; He is such as they say. 
 
 It est tel que son pere, He is like his father. 
 
 1V.1 maitre, tel valet (a prov.) ; Like master, like man. 
 
 N. B. There are many other ways of using tel, both with and without que, 
 which may be seen in Chambaud's Dictionary.] 
 
 % Tel . . . que always implies comparison ; therefore it must not be mis- 
 taken for quelque . . . que or quel que ; for instance : 
 
 A quelque degri d'honneur qu'on Vcleve, il ne sera jamais content ; To 
 whatever degree of honour he may be raised, he will never be content (not 
 £ tel degri). 
 
 Un titre, quel qu'i7 soit, n'est rien, si ceux qui le portent ne sont pas 3 
 grands par eux-memes ; A title, whatever it may be, is nothing, unless they 
 who bear it be great of themselves, (not tel qu J '\\ soit.] 
 
 IT Certain, certain, considered as a pronoun, is said both of persons and 
 things, and has generally the force of quelque.'. 
 
 Certain philosophe, a certain philosopher. 
 
 Cerhaines qualitis, certain qualities. 
 
 Certaine nouvelle, a certain piece of news. 
 Whereas in une nouvelle certaine, certain news, certaine is an adjective. 
 
 In ne quit tez. jamais le certain pour Uncertain, never quit a certainty for 
 an uncertainty, certain is used substantively.] 
 
 CHAP. V. D 
 
 Observations upon Nouns of Number. 
 
 1°.Cardinal numbers are indeclinable, except cent and 
 million, which take an s in the plural, as also vingt, but only 
 when it comes after quatre and six, before a noun : as deux 
 quatre, trois cinq, deux-cens guintes, trois-mil lions, quatre-vingts, 
 litres, six-vingts hommes: but we say, quatre-vingt-dix 
 hommes, quat re-vingt-un. 
 
 *fi Cent is indeclinable before anotlier number; as, Deux-cent-cinquante p. 
 guintes, two hundred and fifty guineas.] ^ 
 
 These numbers always come immediately before the things 
 numbered, and cannot be preceded by any noun or adnoun, 
 except the adnouns possessive mon, ma, mes, fyc. as ses deux 
 amis his two friends, mes trois freres my three brothers, leurs 
 six chevaux their six horses. 
 
 The first number is the only one liable to gender, making 
 une in the feminine. 
 
278 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 2°. The conjunction fy (and) is put before the unity only, as 
 vingt fy un, trente # un, quarante # un, and le vingt § unieme, 
 le cinquante fy unieme, &c. but it is not put before the other 
 combined numbers, except those that follow soixante ; we sav 
 vingt-deux, vingt-trois, trente-quatre, quarante-cinq, cinquante- 
 six, &c. but it is put after all the numbers that follow soixante; 
 as soixante fy un, soixante et deux, soixante S) dix, soixante fy 
 quinze, till you come to quatre-vingts. But after quatre-vingts 
 there is no fy put even before the unity quatre-vingt-un, quatre- 
 vingt-deux, quatre-vingt-dix, cent-un, cent-deux, cent*unitme 9 
 cent-deuxihme, &c. However, some good writers and speakers 
 
 B never use the conjunction copulative in the aforesaid cases, ex- 
 cept before the unity, and they say vingt fy un, trente 8) un, soix- 
 ante # un, soixante-deux, soixante-dix, &c. We don't say six- 
 vingt-un, but cent-vingt fy un. We don't say sept-vingt, huiU 
 vingt, &c. as the English do seven-score, eight-score, &.c. but 
 ceiit-quarante, cent-soixante. We say mille, and never dix-cens, 
 nor vingt-cens ; but we say onze-cens eleven hundred, douze- 
 cens twelve hundred, and so on to deux-mille, deux-mille cent, 
 deux mille deux cens, &c. un million, and never dix-cent- 
 mille. 
 
 3°. We don't say septante for soixante fy dix, seventy ; hui- 
 tante for quatre-vingt, eighty or four score ; and nonante 
 £ for quatre-vingt-dix, ninety ; as the Swiss, the Gascons, and 
 others of the south of France say. Except in Geometry, 
 where nonante is preserved. — We mean by les Septante, the 
 Septuagint, or the seventy-two translators of the Bible. 
 
 4°. When we speak of Time, we say huit jours, a week, and 
 not une semaine ; quinze jours, a fortnight, and not quatorze* 
 nuit ; trois semaines, three weeks ; quatre, cinq semaines, un 
 mois, a month ; six semaines, six weeks ; deux mois, deux mou 
 & demi, and not neufox dix semaines ; trois mois, six mois, an4 
 never un quartier, un demi-an ; sept, huit, neuf mois, and no ( t 
 j)trois quarts, nor trois quartiers oVan ; un an, un an & demi, 
 deux ans; &c. We don't say un an &; un mois, un an % deux 
 mois, &c. but treize mois, quatorze mois, &c. 
 
 o°. When we speak of an indeterminate number, of which 
 we are not sure, we say un ou deux, deux ou trois, down to 
 sept ou huit, seven or eight ; then we say huit ou dix, dix ou 
 douze, douze ou quinze, quinze ou vingt, vingt ou trente, trente 
 ou quarante, as far as sixty ; then soixante ou quatre-vingts 
 
Of NUMBERS. 279 
 
 quatre-vingts ou cent ; but we say environ cent-vingt, environ A 
 cent-trente, &c. and not cent ou cent vingt, cent-trente ou cent- 
 quarante. When we know the number very near, we say dix 
 ou onze, onze ou douze, douze ou treize, &c. 
 
 6°. We say trente et un jours, thirty-one days ; vingt fy un ans, 
 one-and-twenty years ,• vingt # un ecus, twenty-one crowns ; 
 vingt fy un chevaux, one-and-twenty horses, fyc. but never 
 vingt 4f un cheval, vingt fy un an, &c. ; and when the noun is 
 attended by an adnoun, that adnoun is plural likewise : II a 
 vingt # un ans accomplis, He is full one-and-twenty years old ; 
 II y a quarante fy un jours passes, It is about one-and-forty B 
 days ; Trente fy un ecus bien comptes, One-and-thirty crowns 
 well told ; Vingt et une guinees bien comptees, One-and-twenty 
 guineas well told. 
 
 7°. The Cardinal numbers take not the article, except when 
 they are used substantively, as le dix du mois, the tenth of the 
 month (in which ease le dix stands for le dixieme jour) ; See 
 paragraph 10°. hereafter, the other numbers always do. The 
 collective are commonly preceded by un or une, and must, be- 
 sides, be followed by the preposition de before the next noun : 
 as, J'ai douze noix, ou une douzaine de noix, fy vous en avez 
 trente, I have twelve walnuts, or a dozen of walnuts, and you C 
 have got thirty : Donnez-m'en la moitie, ou le tiers, Give me 
 half, or the third part of them : Prenez-en une douzaine, Take 
 a dozen. 
 
 8°. From the Cardinal numbers the Ordinal are formed, in 
 adding time to the last consonant of the Cardinal, and cutting 
 off therefore the final e in those that have it : as from deux, 
 deuxieme ; dix, dixieme ; quatre, quatrieme (except premier <^ 
 second), that are formed by the Cardinal numbers. In neuf, 
 the f is changed into v in neuvieme, the ninth. Though we 
 say le premier ^ le second ; yet we don't say le vingt fy premier, 
 le vingt second), but le vingt fy unieme, le vingt-deuxieme. To 
 the Ordinal numbers belong these three, le dernier the last,j) 
 le pznulti&me, or V avant-dernier before the last, the last but 
 one, and V antepenultieme the last but two. 
 
 1T We use the Ordinal number without the article in these cases : 
 Livre premier, Book the first ; Chapitre troisieme, Chapter the third, fyc. 
 As also in such phrases : 
 
 Ty allai moi cinquitme, I went thither with four others. 
 
 II s'enfuit lui troisieme, He fled with two others. 
 But a personal pronoun disjunctive must precede the number.] 
 
£80 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 9°. Ordinal numbers form also each an adverb, with the ad- 
 dition of ment to their feminine ; as premierement firstly, se- 
 condement, or deuxiement, secondly, troisiemement thirdly, and 
 so on to twenty. We also say, en premier lieu, en second lieu, 
 en troisieme lieu, in the first place, #c. 
 
 10°. We use the Cardinal number, not the Ordinal, in dating 
 and speaking of the years of the world, and we do not write 
 mille nor cens, but mil and cent, as Van mil sept cent quatre- 
 vingt dix-sept de VEre Chretienne, the year one thousand seven 
 hundred and ninety-seven of the Christian iEra Van mil huit 
 cent douze : but we say la seconde, la quatrieme annte de la cen- 
 
 B tieme, ou de la dixitme Olympiade, the 2d or 4th year of the 
 100, or 10th Olympiad. We also use the Cardinal number, 
 when we name the days of the month, fyc: as le deux the se- 
 cond, le trois the third, le six the sixth, le onze the eleventh, le 
 quinze the fifteenth, le vingt the twentieth, le vingt fy un the 
 twenty-first, #c. and not le deuxieme, le vingtieme du mois, &c. 
 but we do not say, Vun du mois, but le premier, the first day of 
 the month. Observe, besides, that we put no particle before 
 cent and mille, as in English, except it be to denote unity in 
 opposition to many ; as un cent de plumes, a hundred pens ; 
 
 C J'en ai cent, J'en ai mille, I have got a hundred, a thousand. 
 We say le onze, du onze, au onze ; and likewise vers les onze 
 heures about eleven o'clock, sur les une heure about one o'clock, 
 without sounding s at all, as if the first syllable of onze fy une 
 were aspirated, #c. We also say, le onzieme, la onzieme, the 
 eleventh, not V onzieme. 
 
 11°. When two Ordinal numbers come together, we make 
 the first Cardinal, and say le dix ou douzieme, the tenth or 
 twelfth, le sept ou huitieme, the seventh or eighth, instead of 
 dixitme ou douzieme, &c. 
 
 12°. Speaking of Kings and Sovereigns, we use the Cardinal 
 number without the article, instead of the Ordinal, with the 
 
 D article, as in English ; as Henri trois, Henri quatre, Henry the 
 third, the fourth; Alexandre sept, Alexander the seventh; 
 Charles neuf, Charles the ninth ; Benoit treize, Benedict the 
 thirteenth, Louis quinze, Lewis the fifteenth. But we say Henri 
 premier, Henri second, Francois premier, George second, 
 George the second, and not Francois un, Henri deux, George 
 deux. We say Charles-quint, Charles the fifth (Emperor of 
 Germany), to distinguish him from the Kings of the same 
 name. We also say Sixte-quint, Pope Sixtus the fifth. 
 
 13°. Huitaine and neuvaine are said of the interval of eight or 
 nine days. Octave is said both of the interval of eight days during 
 
Of NUMBERS. 281 
 
 which a Church festival is kept, and of eight musical notes to- A 
 gether. Tercet, quatrain, sizain, huitain, and dizain, are terms 
 of Poetry, said of staves of three, four, six, eight, and ten verses. 
 Quintain and trentain are Tennis-terms, signifying fifteen or 
 thirty all ; as quinte, tierce, and quarte, are Card-terms, to de- 
 note a sequence of three, four, or five cards. Tierce and quarte 
 are also said of a periodical fit of an ague, returning every 
 third or fourth day, lafievre tierce ou quarte, the tertian or 
 quartan ague. Tricon, another Card-term, signifies aprial or 
 pair royal. Tierce, quinte sixieme, septieme, are likewise mu- 
 sical terms. 
 
 14°. Besides the distributive numbers la moitie, le tiers, le B 
 quart, we also say la troisieme fy la quatrilme partie, the third 
 and fourth part ; then we say un cinquieme, a fifth, un ou deux 
 sixiemes, a sixth or two, un dixieme, a tenth, &c. La dixrm, 
 the tithe, is said only of the tenth part of the fruits of the earth ; 
 and decime, of the tenth part of the ecclesiastical revenues. 
 
 15°. Demi half, is a sort of adnoun indeclinable, when it 
 comes before its nouns, making together a compound word, as 
 une demi-heure half an hour, Demi-Dieux Semi-Gods ; but 
 when the noun comes first, it agrees with it in gender, to which 
 it is joined with the conjunction fy, as un muid fy demi % a hogs- 
 head and a half, une livre fy demie, a pound and a half. Demi C 
 is said of things sold by the hundred, as un demi-cent de plumes, 
 half an hundred of quills. 
 
 16°. Mi, another distributive word, used only with the fol- 
 lowing nouns, of which it makes compound words, signifies 
 also moitie half, or rather milieu middle : but (what is worth 
 observing) it requires the article feminine, though the noun 
 before which it comes be masculine ; as la mi-Aout, (pron. 
 mi-ou,) la mi-Mai, the middle of August or May, la mi-Qor 
 reme, the middle of Lent : and is never construed without the 
 article feminine, except in some adverbial expressions used j 
 without the article : as a mi-jambe to the middle of the leg ; 
 d mi-chemin, in the middle of the way. J> 
 
 1 7°. Quartier, the fourth part of a thing, is said of those that 
 are cut into parts, and quarteron of those that are sold by the 
 hundred or the pound ; un quartier d! orange, the fourth part 
 of an orange, un quarteron de the, a quarter of a pound of tea, 
 trois quarterons dlmitres three quarters of a hundred of oys- 
 ters. — Quintal is an hundred weight, un quintal deux quintaux 
 de poudre, one or two hundred weight of powder; and 
 millier is said of things sold by the hundred, as un millier 
 
in 
 
 282 SYNTAX- 
 
 A tfcpingles ten hundred of pins. We also say un quartier, deux ou 
 trois quartiers de loyer, instead of trois mois, six ou neufmois 
 de loyer, a quarter, two or three quarters-rent. We also say 
 quartier and semestre of three or six months waiting at a 
 prince's : as, etre en quartier, to be in waiting, sortir de semes- 
 tre, to go or be out of waiting. 
 
 H N. B. We say, figuratively, Je m'en vais dans le quartier ; I am going 
 the neighbourhood : quartier signifying part of a city.] 
 
 18°. We say couple and paire for two, but not promiscu- 
 ously : couple is said of two natural things of the same kind 
 that can be parted, as 'une couple daufs, a couple of eggs ; 
 
 g une couple de poulets, a couple of chickens ; une couple de 
 guinees, a couple of guineas. We do not say une couple de 
 gens, une couple de personnes, a couple of people : but speak- 
 ing of two persons connected by marriage, for instance, we 
 say, un beau couple, a fine couple ; un heureux couple, a happy 
 match ; voila un beau couple d'amans, there is a fine couple of 
 lovers : in which case couple is of the masculine gender. 
 
 Paire is said of two artificial things that always go together, 
 being fellows, and are in that respect inseparable, as une paire 
 de gants, de bas, de Soulier s, a pair of gloves, stockings, shoes , 
 une paire de ciseaux, une paire de manches, a pair of scissars, 
 
 q sleeves, fyc. We do not say une paire de culottes, as the Eng- 
 lish do of a pair of breeches, but only une culotte, 
 
 % N. B. Une paire de baufs is said of two bullocks yoked, for instance, to 
 the same plough; whereas a butcher,, who wants two oxen, will express 
 himself by une couple de ba>ufs.~\ 
 
 19°. Les Vingt-quatre is said of the four-and-twenty violins 
 belonging to the chapel of the King of France ; les Quarante, 
 of the forty members of the French Academy ;• les Sept ante, 
 the seventy-two translators of the Bible , and les Quinze-vingt, 
 the three hundred blind people belonging to an hospital ef 
 D that name founded by St. Louis at Paris. 
 
 20°. Moreover, we say centenaire, millenaire, and millesvme ; 
 as aiso sexagenaire, septuagenaire, octogenaire, and nonagenaire. 
 
 Centenaire is mostly an adnoun, as le nombre centenaire, the 
 centenary number, prescription centenaire ou de cent ans, a hun- 
 dred years prescription. — Millenaire is sometimes an adneun, 
 as le nombre millenaire, the millenary number, and sometimes 
 a noun, as le premier, le second millenaire (the ten first centu- 
 ries, or the ten next). MilUsime, said only of the date set on 
 
Of VERBS. 2S3 
 
 medals is always a noun ; as le millesime de la medaille est A 
 efface j the date or year of the medal is erased. Sexagcnaire, 
 septuagenaire, and the two others, are used both as nouns and 
 adnouns ; as un bon vieillard septuagenaire, a good old man 
 of seventy ; On voit peu d'octogenaires: les nonagenaires sont 
 encore plus rares, We see few people eighty years old : those 
 of ninety are still more uncommon. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Of VERBS. 
 
 § I. 1°. I he verb always has a noun or pronoun before it, B 
 for its subject, with which it agrees in person and number ; 
 as, 
 
 Je vols, J see ; II croit, he thinks ; Vous faites, you do ; 
 lis disent, they say. 
 
 Le matt re ensei'gne, fy Vecolier apprend; 
 
 The mastei teaches, and the scholar learns. 
 
 And when the subject is a relative, it is of the same person 
 with the pronoun personal, or noun, which it refers to : as, 
 Cest moi qui 21 fait cela; C'est lui qui a vu cela : C 
 
 It is I who have done that. It is he who has seen that. 
 
 C'est nous qui ne le croyons pas ; Je vois un homme qui boit ; 
 It is we who do not believe it. I see a man who is drinking. 
 
 2°. Many nouns singular will have the verb in the plural ; 
 as, 
 
 Son esprit, sa douceur, fy sa patience V abandonnerent ; 
 His understanding, good nature, and patience, forsook him. 
 Ni la douceur ni la force ne Vy feront consentir ; 
 Neither gentle nor forcible means will make him consent to it. 
 
 Except when the two nouns singular are joined by the con- 
 junction disjunctive ou; for then the last noun is supposed to]) 
 govern the verb : as, 
 
 Ou la douceur ou la. force le fera, and not le feront ; 
 
 Either gentle or forcible means will do it. 
 
 IT When of two substantives connected by ni repeated, one only is to do or 
 receive the action, the verb must be in the singular : as, Ce ne sera ni M. le 
 Due, ni M. le Comte qui sera nomme Ambassadeur ; Neither the Duke nor the 
 Count is to be nominated Ambassador (because only one Ambassador is sup- 
 posed to be appointed). 
 
 Whereas if two Ambassadors were to be appointed, the phrase should be 
 worded thus : Ni M. le Due, ni M. le Comte ne seront nommes Ambassadeurs ; 
 Neither, &c. without ce ne sera 
 
 Cc 
 
284 SYNTAX. 
 
 J^ Likewise with regard to the conjunction ou, when the nominative consists 
 of different persons, though in the singular number, the verb must be in the 
 plural : as, Ou lui ou moi nous irons ; Either he or I shall go. Ou toi ou lui 
 vous leferez ; Either you or he will do it. 
 
 If one of the nouns is in the plural, the verb must agree with 
 it : as, 
 
 Le Prince autant que hspeuples souhaitent la paix: 
 The Prince as much as the people wish for peace. 
 
 But if the last noun is preceded by mais, the verb must agree 
 with it, though it be singular, and there be many plural before : 
 as, Non-seulement ses honneurs § ses richesses, mais sa vertu 
 J$meme s'tvanouit; Not only his honours and riches, but also 
 his very virtue vanished away (because mais indicates the ellip- 
 sis of s'evanouirent after richesses). 
 
 Some pretend that when the last noun is preceded by tout, the verb must 
 agree with it too : 
 
 Ses Mens, ses wantages, 8c tout sen reposful saerifie ; 
 His riches, advantages, and all his quiet were sacrificed. 
 But it is more correct to put the verb in the plural, and to say : 
 Ses honneurs, ses richesses, # toute sa vertu s'evanouirent, 
 His honours, riches, and all his virtue vanished away ; 
 besides the phrase is more harmonious. 
 
 1[ Tout or rien, completing, and, as it were, summing up a phrase enume- 
 rative, even composed of many substantives plural, is the leader of the verb, 
 and governs it in the singular : as, 
 £ Dignites, richesses, a?nis, tout en/in Vabandonna ; Dignities, riches, friends, 
 all in fine forsook him. 
 
 Ni les livres, ni les promenades, ni ma belle maison, rien de tout cela ne m'oc- 
 cupe; Neither books, nor walking, nor my handsome house, none of all these 
 engage my attention.] 
 
 3°. When the verb has many pronouns of different persons 
 for its subject, it must agree with the first person rather than 
 the second, and the second rather than the third : as, 
 
 Vous et moi nous sommes d 'accord; You and I agree. 
 
 Vous vous Jerez des affaires, vous # lui ; 
 
 You and he will bring yourselves into trouble. 
 
 J-* Note, that in French, the person who speaks, always names 
 himself last : as, Vous if moi nous sommes dH accord, and never 
 moi 4f vous nous sommes d' accord. (See p. 230, and £31.) 
 
 il Of the Concord of Verbs with Collective Nouns. 
 
 A collective noun is a substantive which expresses a multitude, though itself 
 be singular. 
 
 Collective nouns are either general or partitive : general, when they express 
 a multitude considered as a whole, a body ; as, le peuple, the people ; Varmee, 
 tfie army ; le Parlement, the Parliament ; Sec. : partitive, when they express 
 a multitude, but considered as making part of a whole ; as, tin grand nombre 
 
Of PRONOUNS. 285 
 
 de soldats, a great number of soldiers ; la plupart des membres, most of the J^ 
 members. &c. whereby a number of soldiers is expressed, who all make but a 
 part of the army ; a collection of members, who all make but a part of the 
 Parliament. 
 
 N. B. The noun which follows a collective partitive is always attended by 
 the preposition de, of. 
 
 In English, collective nouns, both general and partitive, govern their verbs 
 in the plural number ; as, the people are, the army were, the Parliament have 
 met, akreat number of soldiers were, most of the members wish. &c. 
 
 In French, a collective noun general, though followed by a noun plural, 
 governs its verb in the singular, because it presents, of itself, a single idea 
 independent on the following noun ; and we say : 
 
 L'armSe des infidelles f ut entierement d6faite ; the army of the infidels were 
 entirely defeated. 
 
 Le p'euple souhaite la paix ; the people wish for a peace. t> 
 
 Le Parlement s'est assemble ; the Parliament have met. 
 
 L'ennemi se pr£senta aux partes de la ville ; the enemy presented themselves 
 before the gates of the town. 
 
 N. B. What is said of verbs must be understood of adnouns, &c. ; a reason 
 why de'faite, assemble', agree likewise with the subject of their respective sen- 
 tences. 
 
 But a collective noun partitive, followed by a noun plural, governs its verb 
 in the plural, because it depends on the following noun, from which it bor- 
 rows all its import, and with which it forms, as it were, a compound word : 
 as, 
 
 Une infinite de gens pensent ; an infinite number of people think. 
 
 Un grand nombre de savans, or un nombre infini de savans soutiennent cette 
 opinion ; a great number of learned men maintain that opinion. 
 
 Un petit nombre rf'amis lui resterent attaches; a small number of friends 
 remained attached to him. 
 
 The same may be said of adverbs of quantity used substantively. (See /-» 
 p. 217.) ^ 
 
 Tant d'ann£es d'habitude £toient des chalnes de fer, qui me lioient a ces deux 
 hommes; so many years of acquaintance were iron-chains, which tied me to these 
 two men. 
 
 Beaucoup de personnes sont capables defaire une action sage ; on en voit un 
 plus grand nombre qui sont capables de faire une action d'esprit fy d'adresse ; 
 mais bien peu sont capables defaire une action ginereuse ; Many persons are ca- 
 
 Eable of doing a prudent action, a great many more are to be met with, capa- 
 le of doing an ingenious and clever action ; but very few are capable of doing 
 a generous one. 
 
 Peu de jours se sont ecoules depuis voire dipart ; a few days have elapsed 
 since your departure. 
 
 Plus d'enfans lui seroient a chaige; more children would be a charge to him 
 or to her. 
 
 The verb is still in the plural, though it precede its nominative : as, 
 
 Ainsi furent accomplies tant de predictions ; thus were so many predictions r\ 
 accomplished. *-* 
 
 When the verb is impersonal, it must of course be singular ; as, 
 
 II parut alors un grand nombre de soldats ; then avast number of soldiers 
 appeared. 
 
 But every other word depending on the collective must agree with it ; as, 
 
 II y a peu de personnes qui soient de voire sentiment ; there are but few per- 
 sons of your sentiment. 
 
 Many good writers use likewise the verb in the plural number after other 
 collective partitives : as, foule, troupe, multitude, 6cc. which are always fol- 
 lowed by a noun plural : as, 
 
 Une foule de lettres en font mention; a vast number of letters make mention 
 of it. 
 
 Une troupe d'enfans le poursuivirent a coup$ de pierre; a ba?id of children 
 pelted him. 
 
 Une multitude d'habitans allerent a sa rencontre ; a multitude of inhabitants 
 went to meet him. 
 
286 SYNTAX. 
 
 J^ But such collective nouns, to govern their verbs in the plural, must be pre- 
 ceded by the indefinite particle un, une ; for, if they were pointed out by the 
 del initeparticle le, la, the case would be different •* and we say, for instance, 
 
 La f oule de soldats qui survint, Z'obligea de se retirer ; the crowd of soldiers 
 which came on, obliged him to retreat. 
 
 And with much more reason, when the noun plural is, itself, preceded by 
 the definite particle les; as, 
 
 La foule des soldats qui survinrent, Tobligea, &c. the crowd of the soldiers 
 who came on, obliged him, fyc. 
 
 However, there are some peculiarities to observe, which render the col- 
 lective infinite* widely different from the other collectives foule, treupe, multi- 
 tude, &c. 
 
 J$ lo. Infinite', in this sense, cannot take the definite particle la, it is always 
 preceded by the indefinite particle une. 
 
 2°. After infinite, the ellipsis of the next preposition and noun may take 
 place, which is not allowed after foule, troupe, &c. and we may say, 
 
 Une infinite* s'imaginent (de gens is understood) ; a vast number of people 
 fancy. 
 
 3o. The collective foule, multitude, &c.may be accompanied with an adjec- 
 tive ; as, une foule immense, une multitude innombrable, &c. whereas infinite 
 can never admit of any adjective. 
 
 To the above collective nouns partitive must be added, la plus grande partie, 
 and its vice-gerent la plupart : but with this difference, that, as it is always 
 preceded by the article la, the next noun must also be preceded by an article j 
 as, 
 
 La plus grande partie des femmes ont envie deplaire ; the generality of women 
 wish to please. 
 
 La plupart de ses amis Z'abandonnerent ; most of his finends forsook him. 
 
 La plupart may be used absolutely ; that is, like une infinite*, it allows the 
 ellipsis of the next preposition and noun, but still requiring its verb to be in 
 the plural, because the noun understood is supposed to be in that number : 
 C as. 
 
 La plupart coururent aux armes ; most part ran to arms. 
 
 Dans cette assemble, la plupart vouloient j in this assembly jtie 
 
 most part wished 
 
 Un grand nombre is seldom used absolutely. 
 
 When the aforesaid collective partitives la plupart, une infinite*, as also ad- 
 verbs of Quantity are prefixed to a noun singular, the verb is, of course, in 
 the singular number ; as, 
 
 Une infinite de monde y accouroit de toutes parts ; a vast number of people 
 resorted thither from all parts. 
 
 La plupart du monde fait cela : most people do that. 
 
 Tant de beaute sera saperte: so much beauty will be her ruin. 
 
 Plus d'esprit ne lui mesieroit pas; more wit would not be amiss in him. 
 
 Le plus grand nombre, not being used ^definitively, requires the article 
 
 before the next noun, and the verb in the singular ; as, 
 r\ Le plus grand nominee des membres, or simply, leplusgrand nombre 6toit de cet 
 * J avis; the greatest number of the members, or simply, the greatest number was 
 
 of that opinion. 
 
 The collective partitives, just considered, are of a tribe which may be 
 called indeterminate, but there are other collective partitives, as fa moitie*, the 
 half ; le tiers, the third part ; les trois quarts, three parts out of four, &c. which, 
 expressing a positive quantity, may be called determinate ; and consequently 
 follow the general rule, that is, require the verb to agree with them in num- 
 ber; as, 
 
 La moitie des ennemis d£serta ; Half of the enemies deserted. 
 
 Le tiers des vignesest gele ; The third part of the vines are frozen. 
 " Les trois quarts du chateau furent brules ; Three parts out of four of the 
 castle were burnt. 
 
Of VERBS. 287 
 
 However, there are some instances which seem to deviate from the above \ 
 rule : as. 
 
 Pins de la moiti6 de ses depens, sont payes ( said of an old man) : The best 
 part of his bread is already eat. 
 
 La moiti£ de ces bouteilles sont vides : Half of these bottles are empty ; (very 
 different from ces bouteilles sont a moitU vides ; these bottles are half empty. 
 
 The reason is that in such phrases, a determinate number is employed for 
 an indeterminate one. 
 
 This may likewise account for the apparent irregularity of concord in the 
 phrases mentioned, p. 207, B.C. une partie du bras casst; une partie de ses 
 liommes morts, &c. 
 
 N. B. Buffier and other Grammarians would rather say, une partie des sol- 
 dais s'enfuit, than s'enfuirent; part of the soldiers ran away ; and in that re- 
 spect advise to consult the ear and taste.] 
 
 4°. The noun expressing the subject comes after the verb 
 (or between the auxiliary and the participle, if the subject is a B 
 pronoun, and the verb in a compound tense), in a short sen- 
 tence, used by a parenthesis, and as an accessary member to 
 the chief sentence. (See p. 229, D«) ; as also after some con- 
 junctions (See p. 230, A.), and some verbs in the optative 
 mood, or resolved by a conjunction : as, Tous les hommes sont 
 fous, dit Boileau: All men are mad, says Boileau. Vousavez 
 fini f nia-t-il dit ; You have done, said he to me. Ainsi fut 
 termine le differend ; Thus the difference ended. Erifiu, disoit 
 ce bon Roi, je ne me croirai heureux, qu'autant quejeferai le 
 bonheur de mespeuples; In short, said that good King, I will 
 not think myself happy, only as much as I shall make the hap- 
 piness of my people. Puissent nos jours sereins ignorer la C 
 iristesse ! May our days be serene and strangers to sorrow i 
 La Vanite, fut-elle dans I 'esprit des Dieux, est toujours mt- 
 prisable ; Vanity, were it in the minds of the gods, is always 
 despicable. 
 
 ^The subject (especially when accompanied by many words 
 depending on it) is likewise better put after the verb in the 
 narrative discourse, when the verb has no object ; or when the 
 object is expressed by one of these conjunctive pronouns, se> 
 que, dont, le, oil, or when the adjective tel comes before the 
 verb : as, La coulent mille ruisseaux qui distribuent par-tout 
 une eau claire, There flow a thousand rivulets that distribute D 
 a clear water every where. Sur cela parut le Prince ; There- 
 upon the Prince appeared. L' argent que wHenvoya monpere: 
 The money which my father sent me. A notre arrivte y se 
 pr&senta un Lcuyer pour nous conduire; When we arrived, a 
 gentleman-usher came to us to be our guide. Les egards dont 
 nous previennent nos parens ; The regards by which our rela- 
 tions are before-hand with us. La prison oil furent mis les 
 malfaiteurs ; The prison in which the malefactors were put. 
 Tel parut a ses yeux Vtelat de sa beaut t ; Such the brightness 
 of her beauty appeared in his eyes. 
 
288 SYNTAX. 
 
 A The Use and Construction of the Tenses. 
 
 § II. 1°. The Present tense of the indicative is used to denote 
 the thing that is, or is a-doing, in the present period of time 
 wherein we speak : as, Je vols, I see ; Je pense, I think ; that 
 is, I, at this present time of speaking, do see, or think, or am 
 seeing, or am thinking. 
 
 2°. The Imperfect, so called, because it partakes something 
 both of the present and preterite, is used 1st, to denote that 
 the thing which we are speaking of was present in a time past 
 specified ; as, J'ccrivois quand il arriva, I was writing when 
 B he arrived ; that is, at the time when he arrived, which is a 
 time past specified, my action of writing, which is also past, 
 was then present. 
 
 Qdly, To denote a thing that was, without any respect to 
 the time ; and therefore it is used to express in a narration, the 
 inclinations and qualifications a person had : as, Titus etoit les 
 delices du genre humain ; Titus was the delight of mankind. 
 Monpere etoit bel homme, my father was a handsome man. 
 
 But if we speak of people that are still living (for the last 
 instances are said of persons supposed to be dead), we use the 
 q compound of the present : as, Monpdre a ete bel homme; or 
 if we use the imperfect, we must mention a particular time : 
 as, 
 Ma saw etoit belle; My sister was handsome (supposing she 
 
 is dead). 
 Ma socur a ete belle ; My sister has been handsome (supposing 
 
 she lives still). 
 Ma socur etoit belle dans sa jeunesse, or avant d! avoir eu la 
 
 petite verole ; 
 My sister was handsome in her youth, (or) before she had the 
 
 small pox (whether she is dead or no). 
 
 Sdly, The imperfect is used to denote a thing uncertain, and 
 doubtful, and even one that has something of a contingent fu- 
 pturity, that is, implying uncertainty; in which respect that 
 tense is always attended, either before or after, by a condi- 
 tional, and that thing, or action, is sometimes expressed in 
 English by should : as, S'il Vaimoit, il Ttpouseroit ; If he loved 
 her, or should he love her, he would marry her. S'il venoit, 
 vous lui diriez que fai etc oblige de sortir pour affaire ; If he 
 should happen to come, you would tell him that I have been 
 obliged to go out on account of business. 
 
 S°. The Preterite is used to denote a thing past in such a man- 
 ner, that nothing remains of the time wherein it was a doing, 
 
Of VERBS. 289 
 
 and therefore is chiefly used in historical relations : as, Tailed A 
 Vannee passee en France ; I went to France last year. J' appris 
 la semaine dernitre que, &c. I heard last week that, <Sfc. Je 
 fus hrer a la Comedie ; I went to the play last night. Quand 
 Cesar vit ; When Caesar saw. 
 
 4°. The Future denotes a thing which is to be in a time not 
 yet come ; as, Nous aurons la paix ; We shall have peace. 
 W r e have not peace yet, but it is to come. 
 
 5°. The Conditional, or uncertain, tense is used to denote a g 
 thing that would, should, or could be in an unspecified and un- 
 certain time, because it depends upon another uncertain and 
 conditional thing. It denotes the time to come, but condi- 
 tionally : as, S'il demandoit cette place, on la lux donneroit ; If 
 he asked for that place, they would give it him. The action 
 of giving would be in an uncertain time, because it depends on 
 one's asking, which is also uncertain, at least conditional. 
 
 The Conditional is also used in a sense that denotes the pre- 
 sent, especially in sentences of Wish : as, Je voudrois (or) Je 
 souhaiterois quil fit beau Dimanche ; I wish it would be fair 
 weather on Sunday. Voudriez-vous me f aire unplaisir ? Would 
 you do me a kindness ? Pourriez-vous me preter vin^t guinces ? q 
 Could you, or Can you lend me twenty guineas ? (Which man- 
 ner of asking carries with it an appearance of modesty and 
 respect). 
 
 6°. The Compound of the Present denotes, indeed, as the 
 preterite, a thing that is past, but so that there is still actually 
 remaining some part to slide away of the time wherein we de- 
 clare the thing has been done : whereas the Preterite denotes 
 the thing or action past in such a manner that nothing remains 
 of that time wherein it was done : as, J'ai lu cette semaine la 
 declaration de guerre ; I have read this week the declaration of 
 war. J'ai appris ce matin de grandes nouvelles ; I have heard 
 great news this morning. I have read and heard denote a thing J) 
 past ; but it is this week and to-day, and still there remains a 
 part of this week, and day, wherein I speak. 
 
 The English have, as the French, three tenses to denote an 
 action that is over, / did write, 1 wrote, I have written : but 
 they often use them promiscuously to signify the same idea, with- 
 out having any regard to the principal time when : whereas those 
 three tenses, and even all compound tenses, which are really so 
 
290 SYNTAX. 
 
 A many preterite tenses, and as well compound in the sense im- 
 plied, as in the words expressed, denote in French so many 
 circumstances of an action that is over, and must not be con- 
 founded. 
 
 In order, therefore, to give a perfect notion of the use and 
 construction, especially of these three preterites, which so much 
 puzzle Foreigners, and to omit as little as possible on that 
 point of the language, I will try further to illustrate what I 
 have said thereon, in giving it another turn. 
 
 1°. The Imperfect, which, when used in the first of the three 
 respects wherein it is construed, denotes an action past, but 
 
 B that was present in a specified time past (as, Secrivois quand 
 il arriva, I was writing when he arrived), is properly englished 
 by the imperfect of the verb substantive to be, and the gerund 
 of the verb in question, as I have translated it. At least, when- 
 ever the tense to be denoted may be thus englished, it is infal- 
 libly by the imperfect it must be expressed in French : for 
 then one denotes an action that was present, in a specified time 
 past. 
 
 The second respect, considered in the construction of the 
 imperfect, admits of no difficulty. And as to the third, when 
 the tense denotes uncertainty, doubt, or even futurity, one need 
 only consider the tense that comes after it in English : for if it 
 
 C has should, would, or could, for its sign, the first verb must be 
 expressed in French by the imperfect : as, 
 Jf he loved her, he would marry her : S'il /'aimoit, il Z'epouseroit. 
 
 2°. When the thing spoken of happened in the day, week, 
 month, year, and age wherein we live, we use the compound of 
 the present to denote it : as, 
 
 Sai appris aujourd'hui de grandes nouvelles ; 
 
 I have heard great news to-day. 
 
 Sai vu h Roi cette semaine ; I have seen the King this week. 
 
 Sax He a la Comedie ce mois-ci ; I have been to the play 
 this month. 
 ■D Les Francois ont battu les J Hies cette annee ; 
 
 The French have beat the Allies this year. 
 
 Notre silcle a produit de grands hommes ; 
 
 Our age has produced great men. And never 
 
 S appris aujourd'hui de grandes nouvelles ; Je vis le Roi cette 
 semaine ; Sallai a la Comedie ce mois-ci \ Les Francois batti- 
 rent les Allies cette annee ; Notre sihle produisit de grands 
 hommes ; because all those actions denote the day, week, month, 
 year, age, in short, the time we live in, and there remains still 
 
Of VERBS. 291 
 
 some part of that time, viz. of this year, month, day, fyc. to slide A 
 away. Whereas we say, 
 
 3°. J'appris hier de grandes nouvelles ; I heard great news 
 yesterday. 
 
 Je vis le Roi la semaine passee ; I saw the King last week. 
 Jefus or J'allai a la Comedie le mots dernier ; 
 I went to the play last month. 
 Les Franpois battirent les Allies en 1746 ; 
 The French did beat the Allies in 1746. 
 Les Espagnols conquirent V Amtrique dans le 16 siecle ; 
 The Spaniards conquered America in the 16th century. 
 And we do not express those actions with the compound of th* 
 present, because we are no longer in the day, week, month, 
 year, age, which is spoken of, and the time of the action is quite 
 over. B 
 
 4gain, The Imperfect may be said of yesterday, so it denote an action or 
 passion being then present on that day that is past : as, Quand avez-vous perdu 
 votrc bourse ? Je Vai perdue ce matin : Je Tavois hier au soir, Je Padmirois 
 encore en m'allant coucher. When did you lose your purse? I have lost it this 
 morning : I had it last night, I admired it still in going; to bed. 
 
 The Compound of the Present is likewise used to denote a thing that has 
 been done, and is entirely over, without mentioning any particular time : as, 
 Avez-vous vuVOpirade Cadmus'} Oui,jel'aivu: Je le vis t'annSe passie ; Have 
 you seen the Opera of Cadmus? Yes, I have; I did last year. As also when 
 there is in the sentence some word or other showing distinctly something 
 present ; as J'aifait cela il n'y a gu'un moment ; I did that but just now. II y 
 a plus de quinze jours que je ne suis sorti; It is above a fortnight since I have 
 been out. 
 
 We may on some occasions indifferently use either of these three tenses, 
 when we only want to denote in general an action that is over : as Alexandre 
 Moti, (or) fut, (or) a Hd un grand Capitaine ; Alexander was a great Captain. Q 
 In which instance it is indifferent to denote in what particular time Alexander 
 was a great Captain, so his courage and abilities only are denoted. But if 
 there be in the sentence some word or other that should specify a particular 
 circumstance of the time when he showed his courage, then regard must be 
 had to the aforesaid Rules. 
 
 7°. The Compound of the Imperfect (called in Latin Plus- 
 quamperfectum, because it denotes the preterite in a double 
 manner) is used to denote, that in a certain specified time past 
 the thing spoken of was also paSt : as, favois ecrit ma lettre 
 quand il entra ; I had written my letter when he came in. My 
 action of writing is here denoted, not only as past in itself, but D 
 also with respect to another thing (his coming in), which is 
 also past. 
 
 8°. The Compound of the Preterite is used in the same sense 
 as the preterite ; that is, it denotes a thing past, in a time of 
 which no part remains to slide away : but it intimates some- 
 thing later, and besides most commonly expresses a thing past 
 before another, and is almost always construed with these con- 
 junctions, quand, lorsque, des que, aussitdt que, apres que, &c. 
 
292 SYJSTAX. 
 
 A as Quand feus fini ma lettre, or Aprts que feus fini ma lettre, 
 elle me pria de lui en ecrire une ; When, or after I had finished 
 my letter, she desired me to write one for her. 
 
 But if the action past before aiiGther was done in a time 
 wherein we are still, and which is not quite over, then the su- 
 per-compound tenses must be used : as, Elle est venue me voir 
 aujourd'hui. J'etois a ecrire quand elle est entree ; Quand fai 
 eufini ma lettre, elle m?a prie de lui en ecrire une ; She is come 
 to see me to-day ; I was writing when she came in ; When I 
 had finished my letter, she has desired me to write one for her. 
 
 B 9°. The Compound of the Future is used to denote a thing 
 that is yet to be, with respect to itself, but that shall be over 
 with respect to another future thing, which is to follow it : as, 
 J'aurai soupe quand il viendra ; I shall have supped when he 
 will come, or Quand faurai soupe il entrera ; When I have 
 supped he will come in. My supping, which is not yet come, 
 but is to be, will be over, at the time of his coming, which is 
 to be after my supping. The English very seldom express the 
 sign of this future after when. 
 
 10°. The Compound of the Conditional is used to denote a 
 Q thing that could, or would, or should have happened in an 
 uncertain time, had it not been for some other conditional thing : 
 as, Le Ministre lui auroit donne cette place, s'il Vavoit deman- 
 dee ; The Minister would have given him that place, had he 
 asked for it. (Observe this conditional way of speaking, which 
 the French express by the conjunction conditional si, and the 
 compound of the imperfect or preterite.) 
 
 Moreover the Indicative has three other tenses compound in a double man- 
 ner: as, 
 
 II a eu bientot fait ; He has had soon done ; or He soon had done. 
 J'ai eu din6 en un instant ; I had have dined in a minute ; or I have dined, &c. 
 Quand j'eus eu fini ce quejefaisois ; When I had finished what I was doing. 
 Elle n'auroit pas eu sitot fait sans lui ; She would not have done so soon with- 
 D out him. 
 
 J'aurois eu dine plutot, sij'eusse su qu'il devoit venir a cette heure-la ; 
 
 I would have dined sooner, if I had known that he was to come at that time. 
 
 The double compound or super-compound tenses are liable to the same rules 
 of construction as the other compounds ; that is, II a eufait, J'ai eu dint, &c. 
 are said, as well as J'ai eu, J'ai fait, J'ai dine", only of that period of time 
 wherein we are still ; and J'eus eu fini, as well as J'eus eu, J'eus fait, J'eus 
 dine, &c. of a time entirely past, so that there remains no part of it. They 
 besides express the action past in a more emphatical manner. 
 
 As the Subjunctive represents the action or event in an indirect manner, and 
 always subsequent to another event, the tenses of this mood are determined 
 by that anterior event. Its practice will be established by sure rules in the 
 following section, (p. 300.) 
 
Of VERBS. 293 
 
 The GeruHd and Participle are comprehended in the infinitive mood, for J^ 
 method sake only : as these words represent the event under three different 
 states or situations, and therefore constitute each its own mood. 
 
 The Infinitive represents it in its simple production, without any circum- 
 stance, that is, without being adapted to any subject or time : as, II sait boire; 
 He can drink. 
 
 The Gerund represents the event as a circumstance connected with another 
 event : as, 11 sefache en parlant : He is angry when he speaks. 
 
 The Participle represents it as complete and quite over ; as, Cela dit, il s'en 
 alia ; Having- said this, he went away. It is on that account it serves to form 
 the compound tenses of the verb. 
 
 The auxiliary and participle are not always immediately joined together 
 in compound tenses, but are sometimes separated by one of more words : as 
 Ncus awns, par la GrO.cc de Dieu, vaincu nos ennemis ; We have, by the Grace 
 of God, overcome our enemies. 
 
 Correspondence of the Subjunctive to the Indicative Mood. J$ 
 
 N. B. This is intended as an elucidation of the lOlh paragraph, page 300. 
 
 iT A verb in the subjunctive or conjunctive mood, is chiefly subjoined to, 
 and depending on another verb in the indicative, to which it is connected by 
 the conjunction que, or the relative qui. 
 
 New what tense of the subjunctive must be used depends on the tense of 
 the former verb in the indicative. 
 
 lo. When the fcraer verb is in the present or future ot the indicative, the 
 latter must be in the present of the subjunctive, if you mean to express a thing 
 present or future ; as, 
 
 II faut que celui qui park, se mette a la portie de ceux qui VScoutent ; He who 
 speaks must confine himself within the reach oi the understanding of those 
 who listen to him. 
 
 (N.B. Se mettre a portie would signify to place oneself within the hearing, 
 
 &c -) C 
 
 Je necrois pas qu'il vienne demain; I do not think he will come to-morrow. 
 
 II faudra qu'ils se rendent a la force de la veriU ; They will be obliged to 
 yield to the force of truth. 
 
 Bnt to express a thing past, the compound of the present must be used : as, 
 II suff it qu'un habile homme n'ait Hen neglige" pour f aire reussir une entreprise ; 
 le mauvais succes ne doit pas diminuer son m&rite : It is enough that a skilful man 
 has not neglected any thing to make an undertaking succeed ; the bad suc- 
 cess ought not to diminish his merit. 
 
 Speaking, for instance, of a skilful General who has betrayed his country, 
 you will say : II est fdcheux que de sigrayids talens aient etc" ternispar leplus 
 odieux de tous les vices — la peifidie ; It is sorrowful that so great talents have 
 been tarnished by the most odious of all vices— perfidy. 
 
 However, when a conditional member is subjoined to the sentence, the 
 tense of the subjunctive is determined by that of the conditional verb : as, O 
 
 Je ne doute pas qu'il ne vienne, si on Ven prie, (the present vienne is used on 
 account of the present prie) ; I do not doubt he will come, if he be asked. 
 
 II n' est point d'homme, quelque mirite qu'il ail, quine fhitres-mortifie', s'il 
 savoit tout ce qu'on pense de lui (the preterite fdt is used on account of the im- 
 perfect savoit) ; There is not a man, whatever merit he" may p©ssess, who 
 would not be concerned very much, if he knew all that is thought of him. 
 
 Je doute qu'il eht re'ussi, sans voire secours, that is, si vous ne Z'aviez pas se- 
 couru (the compound of the preterite, edt reussi is used on account of the 
 compound of the imperfect aviez secouru) ; I doubt whether he had succeeded 
 without your assistance, that is, if you had not assisted Kim. 
 
 2°. When the former verb is in the compound of the' present of the indica- 
 tive, the latter must be in the preterite of the subjunctive, if you mean to 
 express a thing present or future (with respect to tke former verb; ; as, 
 
294 SYNTAX. 
 
 J^ On s'est servi d'icorces d'arbres ou de peatix pour icrire, avnnt que le papier fill 
 en usage ; 
 
 The bark of trees or pells were in use to write upon before paper were 
 invented. 
 
 But to express a thing past (with respect to the former verb), the compound 
 of the present must be used : as, 
 
 H a fallu, pour gagner ce proces-la, qu'il ait sollicit6 ses juges de la manure la 
 plus pressante, ou plutdt qu'il les ait corrompus : To have carried such a cause, 
 he must have solicited his judges in the inost earnest manner, or rather cor- 
 rupted them. 
 
 However, to express an action which is still done, and may be done at all 
 times, the simple present of the subjunctive may be used : as, 
 
 Dieu a entoure les yeux de tuniques/ort minces, transparentes au-devant, afin 
 que Von puisse voir d travers ; God has surrounded the eyes with pellicles, very 
 thin ana transparent in front, that we may be able to see through them. 
 B 3o. When the former verb is ;in the imperfect, the preterite, the compound 
 of the imperfect, or eitlier of the conditional tenses, the latter must be in the 
 preterite of the subjunctive, if you mean to express a thing present or future 
 (with respect to the former verb) ; as, 
 
 M. de Turenne ne voulut jamais rien prendre d. cridit chez les marchands, de 
 peur, disoit-i/, qu'ils rien perdissent une bonne partie, s'il venoit a etre tui : Tu- 
 renne would never take any thing upon trust from tradesmen, lest, he said, 
 they should lose a great part of it, if he happened to be killed. 
 
 Tous les ouvriers qui travailbieni pour sa maison, avoient ordre d'apporter 
 leurs mimoires, avant qu'on partit pour la campajgne, fy Us ttoient payes rigu- 
 lierement; All the tradesmen who worked for his house, had .order to bring: 
 their bills before he set out for the campaign, and they were regularly paid 
 off. 
 
 II vaudroit mieux pour un homme de quality, qu'il perdit la vie, que de perdre 
 Vkonneur par quelque action honteuse $ criminelte ; It would be better for a man 
 of quality to lose his life, than to lose his honour, for some shameful and cri- 
 C minal action. 
 
 Lycurgue, par une de ses lois, avoit defendu qu'on tclairut ceux qui sortoient 
 le soir d'unfestin, afin que la crainte de ne pouvoir se rendre chez eux, les empe- 
 chat de s'ennivrer ; Lycurgus, by one of his laws, forbade to ligh't those who 
 went out in the evening from a festival, that the fear of not finding their way 
 home might prevent them from getting drunk. 
 
 But to mark a past event ? the compound of the preterite must be used ; as, 
 
 Tout governement 6toit vicieux, avant que la suite des siecles, Seen particulier 
 le Christianisme, eussent adouci ^f perfectionnS Vesprit humain ; Every govern- 
 ment teas vicious, before that series of ages, and particularly Christianity 
 had softened and improved the human mind» 
 
 Of Moods. 
 
 £) § III. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood, whether simple 
 or compound, have always before them the conjunctive que, or 
 the relative qui, except in some few sentences of Wishing, 
 wherein the present is used without que\ as, Puissiez-vous 
 vivre heureux avec elle ; May you be happy with her. Fasse 
 le del que cela arrive ; Grant God that the thing may fall out. 
 Dieu m'en preserve, nous en preserve, or Ven -preserve ; Which 
 God avert from me, from us, from him, or her. Ecrive qui 
 voudra ; Let him write who will please. Heureux Vhomme 
 quipeut, ne fut-ce que dans sa vieillesse, parvenir a etre sage, § 
 a penser sainement : Happy is the man, who, be it only in his 
 old age, may arrive at wisdom and a rational way of thinking. 
 
Of VERBS. 295 
 
 The tenses of the subjunctive are used, 1°. after the con- A 
 junctions a/in que, avant que, and others, that shall be taken 
 notice of in the chapter of the Conjunctions ; as likewise in 
 some few sentences of Reluctancy, Astonishment, and Impre- 
 cation, expressed in English by should, shall, or let : as, 
 
 Que faille le voir apres cet affront ! 
 
 Should or shall I go and see him after that affront ! 
 Queje meure, si cela n'est pas vrai ; Let me die, if that be not 
 
 true. 
 
 2°. Verbs Willing, Wishing, Commanding, Permitting, 
 Prohibiting, and Hindering; Asking, Desiring, Beseeching, 
 and Entreating ; Fearing, Doubting, Suspecting ; Admiring, 
 Wondering, Being glad and Rejoicing, Sorry and Grudging ; JJ 
 Verbs Denying, and denoting Ignorance, Doubt, Fear, Wish, 
 Intention ; and, generally speaking, all verbs expressing some 
 Desire, Affection, Passion, Sentiment, or Motion of the Mind, 
 govern the subjunctive with the particle que : as, 
 Je souhaite qu'*7 reussisse ; I wish he may succeed or prosper. 
 Je veux que vous etudiez ; I will have you study. 
 Je doute qu'il le fasse ; I question whether he will do it. 
 Je suis surpris que vous osiez le faire ; I wonder that you dare 
 
 doit. 
 J'ignore qu'?/ soit arrive ; I do not know that he is arrived. 
 Pmt a Dieu que cela Jut; Would to God that it were so. Q 
 
 II nie quV/ /'ait pris ; He denies that he has taken it. 
 Agissez de manure, or faites en sorte que vous reussissiez ; Do 
 
 in such a manner as you succeed. 
 
 In this last instance agissez, do, denotes the inclination and desire which I 
 have that you may succeed, which is a passion of my soul : but when no such 
 desire, passion, or inclination is expressed by the verb, we use the indicative : 
 as Vous agissez de maniere que vous reussissez ; You do in such a manner that 
 you succeed. 
 
 % Such is always the case when the phrase implies no doubt, condition, or 
 uncertainty.] 
 
 But when those verbs are attended by a noun, or pronoun, 
 expressing either their object or end, then they require the 
 next word in the infinitive with the preposition de, as does like- 
 wise se repentir, to repent ; as, 
 J e vous ordonne de faire cela, and not que vous fassiez ; 
 
 I order you to do that. D 
 
 II lui demande seulement d'y aller, and not qu'il y aille ; 
 He only asks him leave to go there. 
 
 Le Ministre se repentit $ avoir propose ce Bill, and not qu'il 
 
 eat propose : 
 The Minister repented having moved for that Bill. 
 
 We also say Je veux apprendre le Francois : I am willing- or desirous to learn 
 French ; for the verb vouloir cannot be construed with the subjunctive, when 
 it is one and the same subject, expressed by the pronoun, which governs both 
 verbs P d 
 
296 . SYNTAX. 
 
 A 3°. Verbs denoting Belief or Certainty of something, as As- 
 surer, to assure ; Eire sur, to be sure ; Affirmer, to affirm ; 
 Croire, Penser, to think ; Gager, Parier, to lay a wager ; Met- 
 ire en fait, to take for granted ; Soutenir, to maintain ; Pre- 
 iendre, in the sense of to maintain (for in the sense of being 
 willing, it governs the subjunctive) ; Jurer, to swear ; Montrer, 
 faire voir, to show ; Prouver, to prove ; Demontrer, to de- 
 monstrate : or Verbs signifying only Telling, Foretelling, 
 Saying, Seeing, Foreseeing, Conjecturing, Presaging, De- 
 claring, Certifying, Notifying, Signifying, Intimating, Setti?/g 
 forth, Supposing (but not Proposing and Voting,) Presuming, 
 
 JB Being sensible, Perceiving, Hearing, Apprehending (in the 
 sense of Conceiving, for in that of Fearing it governs the sub- 
 junctive), Knowing, Understanding, Hoping, (though it sig- 
 nifies affection of the soul,) Reckoning, Agreeing, Confessing, 
 Owning, Reputing, Publishing, Remembering, Forgetting, 
 Promising, Concluding, Fancying, Imagining, Judging; all 
 which (as well as any other like, if there be any forgotten) ex- 
 pressing the faculties of the Understanding, and not those of 
 the mind or soul, govern the indicative with que : as, 
 Je sais qu'il est venu ; I know that he is come. 
 J'ai appris quil est gueri ; I have heard that he is cured. 
 Je vous assure que cela est, (or) n'estpas ainsi; 
 
 C I assure you that it is, or is not so. 
 
 But when the same verbs are used interrogatively, or with a 
 negative, or with the particle si, there is a distinction to be 
 made. If they signify merely Knowing, Saying, Hearing, in 
 short, express only their natural import (especially the verbs 
 Saying, Telling, Declaring, and Affirming), the next verb is 
 put in the indicative : but they most commonly imply Doubt 
 or Ignorance in those constructions, and therefore it is better to 
 construe them with the subjunctive, if however the next verb 
 be the present, preterite, future, or their compounds ; for in 
 any other tense it must be left in the indicative (save the excep- 
 
 Dtions comprehended in the next observation) : as, 
 Croyez-vous que le Roi fasse la Campagne c l 
 Do you think that the King will make the Campaign ? 
 Je n'apprends pas qvHil soit gueri ; 1 do not hear that he is 
 
 cured. 
 Sifentends dire quil soit arrive ; If I hear that he is arrived. 
 
 But we say, [quil aille ? 
 
 Avez-vous entendu dire, (or) Savez-vous quil va voyager, not 
 Have you heard, (or) Do you know that he goes a travelling ? 
 Croyez-vous qu'il iroit voyager, si — and not quil alldt? 
 Do you think that he would go a travelling, if ? 
 
Of VERBS. 297 
 
 Some of the aforesaid verbs may sometimes be not improperly construed A 
 with the indicative; as Je n'apprends pas qu'il est guiri : Croyez-vous que 
 le Roi fera la Campagne ? but sometimes also they cannot be construed 
 but wiUi the subjunctive; as Croyez-vous qu'il.vienne, and not qu'il vien- 
 dra ? Therefore in this uncertainty it is better, and more safe, to construe 
 them with the subjunctive. 
 
 Moreover it is to be observed, 1st, that after those verbs used interroga- 
 tively, the next verb is put in the indicative, when the person that asks the 
 question makes no doubt of the thing which is the object of the question. 
 As if knowing that peace is made, I want to know if the people, whom I 
 converse with, know of it too, I will express myself thus, Savez-vous que la 
 paix est faite V Do you know that peace is made ? But if I have it only 
 by report, and doubt of it, and want to be informed of it, I must ask the 
 question thus, Savez-vous que la paix soitfaite ? and by no means Savez- 
 vous que la paix est faite ? — Likewise when the second verb is in the future "R 
 in English, it must be put in the present of the subjunctive in French : as, 
 
 Croyez-vous que la paix se fasse cet hiver ? 
 
 Do you think that peace will be made this winter ? or with a negative. 
 
 Je ne crois pas que nous ayons la paix ji tot : 
 
 I do net think that we shall have a peace so soon. 
 
 idly, Dire, ecrire, pretendre, entendre, and perhaps some other verbs, 
 whose most natural and common signification is that of saying, writing, 
 declaring, are also used sometimes in the sense of Advising, Commanding, 
 and Willing, and therefore govern the subjunctive : as, 
 
 Dites qu'on vienne de bonne heure ; Bid them come in time. 
 
 J'ecris qu'on m'envoie de I'argent ; I write to them to send me money. 
 
 Je pretends qu'on m'obeisse; I pretend to be obeyed. 
 
 3dly, These verbs Ignorer not to know, Nier to deny, Disconvenir to 
 disown, implying of themselves a negative sense, govern the subjunctive, C 
 though they do not meet with a particular negative : as, J'ignore qu'il ait 
 fait cela, Je nie qu'il ait fait cela, Je disconviens qu'il ait fait cela ; I do 
 not know, or I deny, or I do not agree that he has done that. 
 
 4thly, After Douter the particle si may be used in some cases, although 
 very few, with the future ; as Je doute s'il viendra ; I question whether he 
 will come : But it is better to use the subjunctive with que, as Je doute qu'il 
 vienne ; I question whether he will come ; and when douler is attended by 
 a negative, it must, by all means, he construed with que, and the subjunc- 
 tive preceded also by another negative : as, Je ne doute pas qu'il ne vienne ; 
 I do not doubt but he will come. (See the chap, of the Negatives, p. 341.) 
 
 4°. These following verbs Impersonal govern the Subjunc- 
 tive with que : 
 
 Ilfaut, it must, il yade la gloire,or ily il est de la bienseance, 
 
 il convient, it becomes, a de la honte, there is it is seemly, jy 
 
 il impurte, it concerns, glory or shame, fyc. il est decent, it is 
 
 il est important, il est il est d propos, it is fit, decent, 
 
 de consequence, it is il est expedient, it is il est de la decence, it 
 
 of moment, or con- proper, meet, is comely, 
 
 sequence, il est necessaire, it is il est indecent, it is un- 
 
 il riy a pas moyen, there needful, seemly, 
 
 is no possibility, d'une nicessitc absolue, il est convenablc, it 
 
 tl y a de Vhonneur, or of an absolute neces- is expedient, suit- 
 
 du deshonneur, there sity, able, 
 
 is honour, credit, or il est bienseant, it is il est, with these other 
 
 discredit and disgrace, fitting, adnouns. 
 
*98 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 tedious, 
 
 astonishing, 
 
 easy, 
 
 sorrowful, 
 
 glorious, 
 
 graceful, 
 
 happy, 
 
 shameful, 
 
 impossible, 
 
 indiffer- 
 
 mal-aise, 
 mcrtifiant, 
 
 possible, 
 plaisant, 
 sensible, 
 surprenant, 
 
 prising, 
 triste, 
 vilain, 
 juste, 
 injuste, 
 
 fair, 
 
 difficult, 
 mortify • 
 
 possible, 
 
 odd, droll, 
 
 sensible, 
 
 sad, 
 
 . u gl v > 
 
 just, fair, 
 
 unjust, un- 
 
 A agriubic, agreeable, ennuyeux, 
 
 pleasant, etonnant, 
 
 aise, easy, facile, 
 
 ajjbigeant, afflicting, jacheux, 
 
 beau, fine, glorieux, 
 
 chagrinant, vexatious, gracieux, 
 
 cruel, cruel, agreeable 
 
 dangereux, dangerous, heureux, 
 
 difficile, difficult, lucky, 
 
 dioertissant, diverting, honteux, 
 
 doux, sweet, pleasant, impossible, 
 
 J} doulowi eux, grievous, indifferent, 
 
 dur, hard, ent, 
 
 disg?acieux, unpleasant, mulheureux, unlucky, 
 
 Examples. Ilfaut qiCil vienne ; He mtist come. 
 17 importe quelle y soit ; It is of moment that she should be 
 
 there. 
 II est juste qu'ille sache ; It is just, or right for him to know it. 
 17 est a propos, expedient, bienseant, ntcessaire, &c. qiCil la 
 
 voie; 
 It is fit, proper, meet, decent, necessary, &;c. for him to see 
 
 her, S)C. 
 
 Observe, Is/, that il est, with these adnouns, may be turned 
 into c'est une chose : as, 
 C C'est une chose fdcheuse, tristt , mortificuite, &c. qiCil soit arrive 
 
 si tard; 
 It is sad, grievous, ^c. that he should have come so late. 
 
 2dly, That the same verbs impersonal, except il y a, govern 
 the infinitive with de, when they do not govern the subjunctive 
 with que ; which usually happens when they are attended by a 
 pronoun: as, 
 
 17 est indifferent qiiil soit en Angleterre ou en Irlande ; 
 
 It is indifferent whether he is in England or Ireland. 
 
 1/ lui est indifferent de vivre en Angleterre ou en Irlande, 
 
 It is indifferent for him to live in England or Ireland. 
 
 5°. The following 
 with que. 
 
 J} 11 semble, it seems, 
 il paroit, it appears, 
 il y a apparence, it is 
 
 likely, 
 on dit, it is said, 
 
 on croit, it is thought, 
 on croiroit, one would 
 
 think, 
 (and all impersonals 
 
 formed with on,) 
 
 verbs impersonal govern 'the indicative 
 
 il est, it is ; 
 
 with these 
 
 manifeste, manifest, 
 
 adnouns, 
 
 
 notoire, notorious, 
 
 avert, 
 
 averred, or 
 
 palpable, palpable, 
 
 evinced, 
 
 
 sensible, plain, sen- 
 
 clair, 
 
 clear, 
 
 sible, 
 
 certain, 
 
 certain, 
 
 stir, sure, 
 
 evident, 
 
 evident, 
 
 vrai, true, 
 
 constant, 
 
 constant, 
 
 visible, obvious, 
 
 indubitable, 
 
 unques- 
 
 As likewise all verbs 
 
 tionable, 
 
 
 impersonal, denoting 
 
Of VERBS. 299 
 
 a positive certainty of something : A 
 
 II est certain (or) il est vrai que le Roi va a Hanovre ; 
 It is certain, or true, that the King goes to Hanover. 
 17 est clair (or) il est evident que cela ne sauroit arriver ; 
 It is clear or evident that that cannot happen. 
 II par o it (or) il y a apparence qxCil ditvrai ; 
 It appears, or it is likely that he says true. 
 
 But when the same impersonals cease to denote a positive 
 certainty of the thing (which happens when they are used in- 
 terrogatively, or with a negative, or the particle conditional si, * 
 if, whether), they then govern the subjunctive : as, 
 Est-il certain (or) est-il vrai que le Roi aille a Hanovre ? B 
 
 Is it certain (or) is it true that the King goes to Hanover ? 
 // n'est pas certain (or) il jCest pas vrai que le Roi aille a 
 
 Hanovre ; 
 It is not certain (or) it is not true that the King goes to Han- 
 over. 
 S'il est certain (or) s'il est vrai que le Roi aille a Hanovre ; 
 If it be true that the King goes to Hanover. 
 
 I have said, that it is sometimes but an elegance, not a ne- 
 cessity, to use the subjunctive after verbs denoting Belief, or 
 Certainty, and others mentioned in the third paragraph, when 
 they are used interrogatively or negatively, or with si; but the C 
 impersonals, which are the object of the last observation, when 
 used in these three respects, require, by all means, the sub- 
 junctive after them. 
 
 Again, when the impersonal il semble meets with a noun go- 
 verned by the preposition a, or a pronoun implying it, the fol- 
 lowing verb must not be in the subjunctive, but in the indica- 
 tive with que, or the infinitive without any particle at all : as, 
 17 me semble que vous avez peur ; It seems to me that you are 
 
 afraid. . 
 II me semble la voir (or) queje la vois ; Methinks I see her. 
 II semble a un Mahometan que les Chretiens sont dans Verreur ; 
 it seems to a Mahometan that Christians are in error. 
 
 Whereas without a pronoun before the impersonal, or aD 
 noun after it, the subjunctive mood must be used : as, 
 II semble que vous ayez peur ; It seems that you are afraid. 
 i7 semble que les Tares soient dans Verreur ; 
 The Turks seem to be in error. 
 
 Observe besides, that semble has two significations in French : 
 when it signifies plain, evident, obvious, it governs the indica- 
 tive, and when used in the sense of grievous, painful, it governs 
 the subjunctive. 
 
300 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 6". The subjunctive is used after quelque, quel que, and quoi 
 que taken in the sense of whatever and Whatsoever : as, 
 Quelques amis que j'aie, Whatever friends I have. 
 Quels que soient les hommes, Whatever men be. 
 Quoi queje fasse, Whatever I do. 
 
 7°. After que, used instead of repeating si (as we shall see 
 more particularly in the chapter of Conjunctions), as also after 
 que following the comparative si : as, 
 
 oi vous y consentez, fy que vous preniez des mesures pour, 8cc. 
 If you consent to it, and take measures to, fyc. 
 " // n'est pas si fou qu'il tie sache Men ce qu'ilfait ; 
 He is not so foolish but he knows well what he does. 
 
 8°. After the relative qui, when it comes after a superlative 
 or negative : and generally after any relation of that relative, 
 (viz. que, dont, ou), bewteen two verbs, so it denote some de- 
 sire, wish, want, or necessity : as, 
 
 Le meilleur ouvrage qui soit (or qiCil y ait) ; The best work 
 extant, or that is. 
 
 Je ne connois personne qui fasse plus de cas des habiles gens; 
 I know nobody that has more regard for learned men. 
 C Choisissez unefemme que vous aimiez, fy qui soit prudent e ; 
 Choose a wife whom you love, and who is prudent. 
 
 But when the relative qui denotes no desire, wish, §c. the 
 next verb must be put in the indicative : as, 
 
 Je plains un homme qui a une mtchante fenune ; 
 I pity a man who has a bad wile. 
 
 9°. The present subjunctive of savoir is familiarly used, when 
 it is attended by a negative, instead of the indicative, though 
 without being governed by any thing before ; as, 
 Je ne sache rien de plusfacheux que, &c. 
 D I know nothing more grievous than, fyc. 
 
 But this subjunctive, thus used, is confined only to the first 
 person singular ; for we do not say in the other persons, Vous 
 ne sachiez rien, or II ne sache rien de plus facheux instead of 
 vous ne savez rien, il ne sait rien, &c. Pas or nonpas queje 
 sache ; Not that I know of. (Such phrases are only used in 
 conversation.) 
 
 30°. The present tense of the subjunctive mood is used, when 
 the first verb, governing the other, according to the aforesaid 
 rules, is in the present, or future of the indicative ; for when it 
 
Of VERBS. 301 
 
 is in any other tense, either simple or compound, it is the pre- A 
 
 terite of the subjunctive it requires, unless there comes a third 
 
 verb in the imperfect. As in the present and future we say, 
 
 Je souhaite qu'il vienne ; I wish he comes, or he would come. 
 
 17 souhaitera que nous ne venions pas ; 
 
 He will wish that we may not come. 
 
 So with the imperfect, conditional, and other tenses, we say, 
 
 Je souhaitois qu'il vint ; I wished that he had come. 
 
 Je voudro'is qu'il se deptch&t ; I would have him make haste. 
 
 J'aurois craint que vqus ne l' eussiezf jappe ; B 
 
 I should have feared that you would have struck him. 
 
 But if the tense that comes after the present be followed by 
 an imperfect, or preterite in English, which is an imperfect in 
 French, it (the second verb) must be put in the preterite. As 
 when the first verb is in the present, we put the second in the 
 present too, thus, 
 
 Je ne doute pas qu'il ne vienne, si on Pen prie ; 
 I do not doubt but he will come if he be asked : 
 so when it is the imperfect, we put the second in the preterite, 
 thus, 
 
 Je ne doute pas qu'il ne vint si on Ven prioit ; 
 I do not doubt he would come, if he were asked. (See p. £93.) 
 
 Notwithstanding what has been said of the construction of 
 the tenses, some are nevertheless confounded sometimes, and C 
 used for others ; and it is common to all languages to use the 
 present for the future ; as, 
 Avez-vous bientdtfait ? Have you almost done r 
 Dinez-vous aujourd'hui chez vous ? Do you dine at home to- 
 day ? 
 J'irai demain, s'ilfait beau; I will go to-morrow, if it is fine 
 weather. 
 
 We use especially the present subjunctive for the future, as 
 in these sentences, and others like, 
 
 Je ne doute pas qu'il ne vienne ; I do not doubt but he mil come. 
 Croyez-vous que le Roi aille a Hanovre? D 
 
 Do you think that the King will go to Hanover ? 
 
 Therefore avoid carefully those faults which Foreigners are 
 so apt to make, in considering rather the tense which they 
 want to turn into French, than the mood, which the genius of 
 the language requires : and do not say, Je ne crois pas qu'il 
 viendra ; I do not believe that he will come : Je doute qu'il le 
 fera ; I doubt that, or whether he will do it : because the tense is 
 
302 SYNTAX. 
 
 A a future in English ; but mind that que coming after a negative, 
 and after douter, requires the subjunctive, thus : 
 
 Je ne crois pas qixil vienne. Je doute qiCil le fasse. 
 As likewise that the conjunction si is hardly ever construed 
 with the future, except with the verb savoir and dire : as, 
 Je ne sais s'il viendra ; I do not know whether he will come. 
 Dites-moi si vous viendrez ou non ; Tell me whether you will 
 come or no. 
 
 The present is used for the preterite in narrations : as, 
 V Amour rassemble les Nymphes, 4* l euv dit : Ttlcmaque est encore en 
 vos mains ; hatez-vous de bruler ce vaisseau que ce temeraire Mentor 
 a fait pour s'enfuir. Aussitot elles allument des flambeaux, elles accourent 
 J5 sur le rivage, elles fremissent, elles poussent des hurlemens, elles secouent 
 leurs cheveux tpars comme des Bacchantes. Dejid la flame vole, elle devore 
 le vaisseau, qui est d'un bois sec c]~ enduit de risine ; des tourbillons de/umee 
 4" de flame s'eievent dans les nues. 
 
 Cupid gathers the Nymphs together and tells them : Telemachus is still in 
 your hands ; haste, and let devouring flames consume the ship which the rash 
 Mentor has built to favour his escape. Immediately they light torches, run 
 towards the sea-shore, they quake, fill the air with dreadful bowlings, and toss 
 
 about their disshevelled hair, like frantic Bacchanals. And now the greedy 
 
 flames devour the ship, which burn the more fiercely, as she is made of dry 
 
 wood, daubed over with rosin ; and rolling- clouds of smoke, streak'd with 
 flames, ascend the skies. 
 
 Moreover the compound of the preterite of the subjunctive is often used for, 
 and in the same sense as the compound of the conditional ; as, J'eusse ete bien 
 fache de ne vous pas voir ; I should have been very sorry not to have seen you : 
 which is the same as, but more elegant than, J'aurois He" bienfachi dene vous 
 pas voir : as likewise for the compound of the imperfect after si; as, 
 C Si J'eusse fait cela, better than si y avois fait cela; if I had done that. 
 
 The present of the infinitive has in many cases a sense merely passive : as, 
 II n'y a riend voir ; There is nothing to see, or to be seen. 
 
 Cela n'est bon qu' a jeter ; That is good only to throw away. 
 
 An infinitive may, as well as a substantive, be the subject coming before a 
 verb ; in which case it has no preposition, takes sometimes the article, and is 
 properly englished by the gerund : as, 
 
 Manger fr dormirsont les plus grandes necessitis de la vie; 
 
 Eating and sleeping are the greatest necessities of life. 
 
 Part of a sentence, nay a whole sentence, may also serve as a subject to a 
 verb ; then the adnoun referring to it (when an adnoun follows) is of the mas- 
 caline gender. 
 
 Of the Government of Verbs. 
 § IV. 1°. Verbs active are always attended by a noun, or 
 pronoun, and sometimes by two. When they are attended by 
 j) two, the one is the Object of the verb, and the other the End. 
 The noun expressing the end is always preceded by the prepo- 
 sition a, the pronoun generally implies it ; as, 
 Dormer quelque chose a quelquun ; 
 To give something to somebody. 
 quelque chose is the Object of the verb, a quelqu'un is the End. 
 Je le lui donne ; I give it to him or to her ; le is the Object, 
 lui is the End. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 303 
 
 2°. Verbs passive, or taken passively, require the preposi- A 
 tion de, or par, before the next noun, used on the same occa- 
 sions as the English prepositions by, of, from : as, 
 
 La vertu est estimee de tous; Virtue is esteemed by all. 
 
 i7 a ett tut par ses domestiques ; He has been killed by his 
 servants. Par is used only with a verb that denotes action. 
 Therefore we do not say, 
 
 Je suis environne par des gens ennuyeux, but degens, &c. 
 
 I am surrounded by tedious people. 
 
 However, when the verb passive is followed in English by 
 any other prepositions than of, by, and from (as with, &c), it 
 must be expressed in French by de. (See Exerc. p. 6.) B 
 
 3°. The following verbs active require the preposition de 
 before the next infinitive. Such of them as are marked with an 
 asterisk, require moreover the subjunctive with que, according 
 to the observation of the fourth paragraph of the third Section. 
 
 attendrir 
 
 ■{ 
 
 Achever, to make an end, finish, 
 affecter, to affect, 
 
 affliger, to afflict, 
 
 appr outer, to approve of, 
 
 * apprehender, to apprehend, 
 arrtter, to decree, 
 antter, to stop, 
 
 to soften, move to 
 
 pity, 
 
 attrister, to grieve, 
 
 avertir, to warn, to tell, 
 
 blamer, to blame, 
 
 censurer, to censure, check, 
 to cease, leave off, 
 forbear, 
 
 to vex, 
 to charge, 
 to choose, 
 
 * commander, to command, 
 
 * conjurer, to conjure, entreat, 
 conseiller, to advise, 
 contraindre, to constrain, 
 convaincre, to convince, 
 conclure, to conclude, 
 
 * craindre, to fear, 
 
 cesser, 
 
 chagriner, 
 
 charger, 
 
 choisir, 
 
 desoler, to make one mad, 
 dttourner, to deter from, 
 
 # defendre, to prohibit, forbid, 
 decharger, to discharge, 
 decourager, to discourage, C 
 delibtrer, to deliberate, 
 
 # demander en 1 to beg it as a 
 
 grace, } favour, 
 
 1/. ■ f to determine, 
 
 determiner. 1 
 
 7 \ purpose, 
 
 desesperer, to despair, 
 
 degouter, f *» dj*u.«i put out 
 
 5 ' I of conceit, 
 
 difftrer, to defer, delay, put ofi^ 
 
 dire, to say, to tell, 
 
 dispenser, to dispense, excuse, D 
 
 divertir, to divert, 
 
 ecrire, \ to write, 
 
 mander, 3 to write word, 
 
 idijier, \ t0 edif >'>, § ive S° od 
 J ' I example, 
 
 effrayer, to frighten, 
 
 embarrasser, to puzzle, 
 
 # empecher, to hinder, 
 enjoindre, to enjoin, 
 
304 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 A entreprendre, to undertake, 
 epouvanter, to terrify, 
 
 essay er, to try, 
 
 excuser, to excuse, 
 
 exempler, to exempt, 
 
 * exiger, to require, 
 feindre, to feign, dissemble, 
 jinir, to finish, 
 giner, to make uneasy, 
 gronder, to scold, to chide, 
 hair, to hate, 
 
 B inspirer, to inspire, 
 
 jurer, to swear, take an oath, 
 justifier, to justify, vindicate, 
 louer, to praise, commend, 
 mediter, to meditate, think of, 
 meriter, to merit, to deserve, 
 negliger, to neglect, 
 
 notifier, to notify, let one know, 
 offrir, to offer, 
 
 omettre, to omit, 
 
 * ordonner, to order, 
 C oublier, to forget, 
 
 pardonner, to pardon, forgive, 
 
 * permettre, to permit, allow, 
 persuader, to persuade, 
 plaindre, to pity, 
 presser, to press, to urge, 
 
 prescrire, to prescribe, 
 
 presumer, to presume, 
 
 # prier, to pray, desire, beg, 
 
 professer, to profess, 
 
 pr omettre, to promise, 
 
 proposer, to propose, move for, 
 
 recommander, to recommend, 
 
 redouter, to dread, 
 
 refuser, to refuse, 
 
 rejouir, to make glad, 
 
 remercier, to thank, 
 
 reprendre, to rebuke, reprove, 
 
 repnmander, to reprimand, 
 
 reprocher, to reproach,upbraid, 
 
 resoudre, to resolve upon, 
 
 retenir, to keep from, 
 
 7 7 . C to scandalise, 
 
 scandaliser, < „ > 
 
 ' (_ § lve an orrence, 
 
 to summon, 
 
 to suspect, 
 
 to suffice, 
 
 to suggest, 
 
 to beg, beseech, 
 
 to surprise, 
 
 to put in mind of, 
 
 to deceive, 
 
 soupconmr, 
 
 suffire, 
 
 suggerer, 
 
 # supplier, 
 
 surprendre, 
 
 susciter, 
 
 tromper, 
 
 troubler, to trouble, disturb, 
 
 PWe/' requires 6?e before the next infinitive : as, Prier quel- 
 qu'un defaire quelque chose, to desire, or beg one to do a thing. 
 Except before these four verbs, manger, dejeuner, diner and 
 souper, with which it requires a, with this exception. 
 D We say both Prier quelqu'un a diner and Prier quelqu'un 
 de diner, To invite one to dine ; with this difference, that prier 
 a diner is said of, and properly implies, a formal, express invi- 
 tation ; and prier de diner, a sudden and accidental one ; as, 
 
 // Va envoy e prier k diner ; He sent to his house to invite him 
 to dinner. 
 
 Je me suis trouve chez lui comme il alloit se mettre a table, $$ 
 il rrCa prie de diner avec lui ; I was at his house as he was 
 going to dine, and he has invited me, or offered me to take a 
 dinner with him. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 306 
 
 4°. The following verbs (for the most part neuter or reflected) A 
 require the preposition de before the next noun or infinitive. 
 
 abuse?*, to abuse, 
 
 s'abstenir de, to abstain from, 
 
 $' 'accommoder 1 to make shift, 
 
 de quelque > or hold with 
 
 chose, j a thing. 
 
 » jar S to grieve, vex 
 
 s' upper cevoir, to perceive, 
 
 ■ 7 j? 1 to come, 
 
 sapprocherdun ( , 
 
 ^7 .. > draw wear a 
 
 endroit, I i 
 
 J place, 
 
 to perform, dis- 
 
 s etonner, 
 
 Cto wonder, to 
 
 < be amazed, or 
 etre surpris, ) • , f 
 
 r ; (.surprised. 
 
 enrager, pester, to be mad at, 
 
 se flatter, to flatter oneself. 
 
 7 7 ( to take care, or 
 segarderde,{ heed ^ ' 
 
 def 
 ''I 
 
 hesiter, 
 
 se hater, 
 
 s* informer 
 de, 
 
 to 
 
 }" 
 
 to hesitate, 
 hasten, hurry B 
 
 oneself, 
 enquire about 
 
 or after, 
 
 s'acquitter de , 
 
 j , ■ -\ charge ones juger apropos, to think proper, 
 
 * duty, ,. .,, ( to fret, make one 
 
 : * •" £ i sinquitter,\ u 
 
 to be sorrowful, a * ^ sell 
 
 s attrister, 
 
 s'aviser, to think, 
 
 se chagriner, to grieve oneself, 
 se consoler, to comfort oneself, 
 f to take upon 
 se charger de< oneself the care 
 
 (. of a thing, 
 fare consternef to be dismayed, 
 convenir, to agree to, 
 
 se deflerormefier 1 to mistrust or 
 
 de quelqu'un, ) distrust one, 
 se deshabituer, ) to leave off* 
 se desacoutumer j doing a thing 
 se devecher, to make haste, 
 se dtsister, to desist, 
 
 se demeitre d'ime 1 to resign a 
 
 p/«ce, 5 place, 
 
 disconvenir, to disagree, 
 
 s'empecher, to forbear, 
 
 sempresser, to hasten, 
 
 s'amouracherl to fall in love 
 
 d'unefl/le, ) tw'M a girl, 
 
 s y emparer, to take hold, 
 
 ,• • f to take too 
 
 semanciper, < , ,., 
 
 r 7 (_ much liberty. 
 
 s'ennuyer, to grow weary 
 
 jouir, 
 s'impatienter, 
 
 uneasy, 
 to enjoy 
 to lose one's 
 
 se 
 
 s ennor- 
 gueiili 
 
 •- | to 
 
 proud, 
 puffed up, 
 
 be 
 
 patience, 
 
 lingerer, to take upon oneself, 
 
 sin- \ to be provoked, in- C 
 
 digner, ) censed, exasperated, 
 
 se lasser, to grow tired, 
 
 manquer de o/we/- 7 to want 
 
 que chose, ) something, 
 
 medire, to traduce, slander, 
 
 menacer de, to threaten k;jY/?<, 
 
 se me/e; 1 de, to meddle zaith, 
 
 ■, C to mock, laugh 
 ?noquerae,{ 7 & 
 
 parler, to speak, 
 
 projiter, to improve, 
 
 , . ., f to over-hasten D 
 sepreajnter, j ^^ 
 
 at'02> _pjfte de, to have pity on, 
 se plaindre, to complain, 
 
 sepiquer(d , une' 
 cJiose), 
 piqueridefi 
 une chose), 
 
 Se 7 e ' A \ to laugh at, 
 and rare de, ) s ' 
 
 se rejouir de, to rejoice ctf, 
 
 mare, to 
 
 *er (d'wwe"} , 
 
 r(de/i«re( 
 frose), J 
 
 pretend to, 
 set up for 
 thing, 
 
306 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 se rebuter 
 
 A se repentir de, to repent, 
 
 se ressouvenir, to remember, 
 
 se rttracter, to recant, 
 
 to despond, be 
 
 disheartened, 
 
 , to keep oneself 
 se retemr de, -J r ^ 
 from, 
 
 to care for 
 
 to seize upon, 
 
 ■i 
 
 se soucier de, 
 se saz'szr de, 
 
 77. f to take ai 
 se scandaltser \ £ 
 
 , 7 1 fence at, 
 
 deqiielque< , ,' 
 
 chose, H ) b f scan J 
 
 an of- 
 or to 
 .^ scandalised 
 C at one thing, 
 z^c/W and s'effor- 7 to endea- 
 
 cer, 3 vour, 
 
 se winter, to boast, 
 
 ?«er and se ser- 7 to use or make 
 vird'une chose, J 
 
 use of a thing. 
 
 Observe that most of those verbs (if not all) which require 
 B the preposition de before them, are commonly, and can always 
 be, rendered into English by a gerund, either absolutely, or 
 with any of these prepositions of, from, with, Sec, as, 
 
 II m'empeche de lefaire ; He hinders me from doing it. 
 
 J'ai du moins le plaisir de la voir ; I have at least the plea- 
 sure of seeing her. 
 
 Vous me reprochez de vous aimer ; You upbraid me mth 
 loving you. 
 
 J'ai rhonneur de le connoitre; I have the honour to be, or of 
 being acquainted with him, $c. 
 
 C 5°. The following verbs require the preposition a before the 
 next infinitive : 
 
 f to i 
 admettre (quel- \ fair hearing, 
 
 quun) a" se\ and suffer 
 
 justifier, l him to jus- 
 
 v. tify himself, 
 
 aimer, to love, to like, 
 
 avoir to have, and itre, to be, 
 
 apprendre k, to learn to, 
 
 jy apprcter a 7 to afford matter 
 
 rire. 
 
 of laughing, | 
 om- 7 to summon,or 
 j cite to appear, 
 
 paroit: 
 autoriser 
 
 chercher a, 
 
 condamner* 
 consister a, 
 contribuer, 
 
 to empower, 
 C to seek to, to 
 \ want to, 
 
 to condemn, 
 
 to consist in, 
 
 to contribute, 
 
 convier and inviter, to invite, 
 
 depenser a, 
 demeurer a, 
 
 tarder &, 
 destiner a, 
 disposer, 
 dormer, 
 dresser, 
 eclairer, 
 employer (quel 
 
 quun) a, 
 encourager, 
 engager, 
 enhardir, 
 enseigner, 
 exciter, 
 exercer, 
 exhorter 
 
 to spend in, 
 
 7 to stay, tarry, 
 
 j delay to, 
 
 to design for, 
 
 to dispose, 
 
 to give, 
 
 to train up, 
 
 to light, 
 
 - \ to employ, to 
 
 ) set one to, 
 
 to encourage, 
 
 to engage, 
 
 to embolden, 
 
 to teach, 
 
 to excite, 
 
 to exercise, 
 
 to exhort. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 307 
 
 habituer, to use, accustom one, 
 inciter, to incite, 
 
 incliner, to incline, 
 
 montrer, to show, 
 
 perdre, to lose, 
 
 porter andpousser l to induce, A 
 quelqu'unk >excite,spur 
 agir, ) one to do, 
 
 presenter, to present. 
 
 6°. The following verbs (for the most part neuter) requhe 
 the preposition a before the noun or infinitive. 
 
 ^abandon*- 7 to indulge, aban- 
 
 ner, $ don oneself, 
 aboutir a, to come to touch, 
 s'accoutumer, 1 to accustom, or 
 s'habituer a, j use oneself to, 
 s'adonner, to give oneself, 
 
 adherer, to adhere, 
 
 to take upon one- 
 
 self to, 
 
 ^engager, j 
 
 s'exposer, to sxpose oneself, 
 
 se fier a ~) . . 
 
 J 1 , > to trust one, 
 
 quelqu un, 3 ' 
 
 insulter aux 7 to insult the 
 
 miserables, ) unfortunate, 
 
 az'Jer, to help, . > r to venture all, 
 
 appliquer, to apply oneself, •* , J to stake all 
 
 s 7 appreter, "1 kfaire f P are Pie 
 se preparer, >quelque > oneself 
 
 1 
 
 WMzre a autrui, 
 
 at once, 
 to hurt others, 
 
 "' r^r'^i/o" doing „. x . , f to obey 
 se disposer, } chose, \ a thing, obeir a quelqu un, < J p 
 
 applaudir a 7 to applaud some- obvier a Jes iw- 7 to obviate 
 
 quelqu'un, j body, 
 s'arreter, s'a- 1 to stand upon 
 
 muser a des > trifles, to 
 
 bagatelles, 3 mind them, 
 s'attacher, \ to give, apply, 
 
 se ZzWer a > addict oneself £0 
 
 une chose, ) a thing, 
 sattendre a 7 to expect to 
 
 voir, ) see, 
 
 compatir, to compassionate, 
 conde- 7 to condescend, to 
 scendre, j comply e^YA, 
 contrevenir, ") to act contrary 
 
 aux ordres, ) to orders, 
 deplaire, to displease, 
 
 desobeir, to disobey, 
 
 se determiner, 7 to resolve 
 
 se resoudre a, ) wpcm, 
 
 sendurcir a 7 to inure oneself 
 
 la fatigue, j to hardships, 
 
 conveniens, y difficulties, 
 
 s'obstiner, "\ . , . .. 
 , • •/■/ J to be obstinate- 
 
 a jazre > 
 
 quelque \ 
 chose, J 
 
 resolved 
 do 
 
 to 
 
 a thing. 
 
 s'occuper a, ") to be taken with, 
 passer son > spend one's 
 temps a, J time in, 
 
 s'opposer, to oppose, 
 
 # pardonner, to forgive, D 
 parvenir, to arrive Zo, to get, 
 penser and songer,^ to think 0/* 
 
 a y«zre ttwe > doing a 
 chose, ) thing, 
 
 persister a^ to persist era 
 faire quel- > doing some- 
 que chose, 3 thing, 
 
 * plaire a ^«e/- 7 1 
 
 qu'un, j " 
 
 lease one 
 
508 SYNTAX. 
 
 A / • "\ to delight rtsister, to resist, withstand. 
 
 se plaire, 01 pren- § . . - & * ' \ • \ 
 
 -s 7 • • \ ( a» a thing, rester 2l rien ) . . , • ,, 
 
 "P fe Vytot.ka /a»>e, j to stand idle, 
 
 •^ 7 2 2 I pleasure z» ,. \ /. . f to so, fall, 
 
 ' -' doing; it 7 / < set «i/o?/J 
 
 ^ . • j /• quelque chose, ) ., ■ 
 
 pourvoir au 1 to provide /or 22 ' C a thing, 
 
 so/m* *fe J> the safety of subvenir aux 7 to relieve the 
 
 Fj 3 
 
 VEtat, j the state, necessiteux, ) need}-, 
 
 pretendre a 7 to aim «f, to lay * suffire, to suffice, be enough, 
 
 ««e chose, 3 claim £0 a thing, survivre k \ to outlive one, to 
 
 B renoncer, to give over, k un but, j end, 
 
 procederkelire, ") to proceed to quelquwi, ) survive him, 
 or a V election, j the election, tendre, viser 1 to aim at an 
 
 ressembler, to resemble, be like, travuiller, to work. 
 
 Observe that most of those verbs which require the prepo- 
 sition a before them, are commonly, and can always be ren- 
 dered into English by a gerund, with the preposition in, or 
 for: as, 
 
 Aidez-moi kfaire cela ; Help me to do that, or in doing that. 
 Appreter a rire ; To afford matter for laughing. 
 Ei/e prend plaisir a lefaire endever ; 
 She takes a pleasure in teasing him. 
 
 C But * aider and pourvoir take indifferently the 3d and 4th 
 state of pronouns ; as, 
 Aidez-lui, Help him ,• A idez-\e a f aire cela, Help him to do that. 
 
 # Plaire, # pardonner, and suffire, require the preposition de 
 and not a, before the infinitive : as, 
 
 // me plait defaire cela ; I like or choose to do that, §c. 
 
 Satisfaire (to satisfy) governs the 4th state of the person, 
 and the 3d of the thing : as, 
 
 17 iiba pas encore satisfait ses creanciers ; 
 j) He has not as yet satisfied his creditors. 
 
 Satisfaire a ses passions, a son ambition, &c. 
 To gratify one's passions, ambition, fyc. 
 
 7°. These nine verbs take indifferently de or a before the 
 next infinitive. One must, however, in some cases, have regard 
 to the best sound. 
 
 commencer, to begin, discontinue?', to discontinue, 
 
 contraindre, to constrain, essayer, to try 
 
 corttimter, to continue, go on, forcer, to force, compel 
 
Of VERBS. 309 
 
 ,^r , ( to endeavour, to couter, to cost, A 
 
 sejfotc r, | eX ert oneself, manquer, to fail. 
 
 Contraindre (to constrain, force, oblige), when used actively, 
 indifferently takes a, or de, before the next infinitive : but when 
 it is used in the passive voice, it always requires de : as, 
 
 Contraignez-le hfaire cela ; constrain him to do that. 
 
 Je Vai cuntraint de garder la maison ; I have obliged him to 
 stay at home. 
 
 11 fat contraint de se retirer ; He was obliged to withdraw. 
 
 Cette fibre nation est a la Jin contrainte de se soumettre ; 
 
 That proud nation is at last obliged to submit 
 
 Obliger, signifying to force, requires a, and sometimes de, B 
 before the next infinitive in the active state : but in the passive 
 state it always requires de : as, 
 
 Vous m'obligerez a vous abandonner ; You will force me to 
 abandon you. 
 
 Je suis oblige de vous abandonner ; I am forced to abandon 
 you. 
 
 When it signifies to do a kindness, it is followed by no pre- 
 position, neither a, nor de. ( French Academy.) 
 
 foulez-vous bien m'excuser aupres d'clle, vous m'obligerez; 
 
 Be pleased to excuse me to her, you will oblige me. 
 
 Manquer requires de before an infinitive, when it signifies to *~ 
 fail • and a when it signifies to forget : as, 
 
 Les malheureux ne manquent jamais de se plaindre : 
 
 The miserable never fail to complain. 
 
 J 'ai manque kfaire ce queje vous avois promis: 
 
 I forgot to do what I had promised you. 
 
 % It is not always indifferent to use either de or d. after the same verb, and 
 more regard must be had to the meaning- than to the best sound of the phrase : 
 most of the above examples countenance the remark. There is a material 
 difference between the two prepositions : a denoting* tendency, and de con- 
 sequence. 
 
 For instance, Pour les forcer a se rendre, To force them to surrender, marks 
 the end one aims at ; whereas, Pour les forcer de se rendre, marks that one has 
 succeeded, that they have been obliged to yield to a superior force, that they 
 have actually surrendered. 1) 
 
 Likewise, S'efforcer d. means to employ all one's strength ; II s'est effore^ d 
 courir; He has exerted himself to run. S'efforcer de means to employ one's 
 industry ; II s'ej force d'etre plaisant, He endeavours to be witty.] 
 
 8°. ^f These following verbs will have no preposition 
 before the next infinitive, before the next noun. 
 
 oiler, to go. affirmer, to affirm, to assert. 
 
 5 to expect, to rely appercevoir, to perceive. 
 
 r 7 (. upon. assurer, to assure. 
 
310 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 before the next infinitive. 
 
 to deign, to be 
 pleased. 
 
 to hear. 
 
 must. 
 
 to dare. 
 
 to appear. 
 
 to seem. 
 
 it is better. 
 
 to come. 
 
 daigner, -j 
 
 ou'ir, 
 
 ilfaut, 
 
 oser, 
 
 paroitre, 
 
 sembler, 
 
 * il vaut mieux, 
 
 i* venir, 
 
 before the next noun. 
 avouer, to own. 
 
 consider er, to consider,to behold. 
 ecouter, to listen to. 
 
 epier, to spy. 
 
 nier, to deny. 
 
 observer, to observe. 
 
 publier, to publish, to give out. 
 rapporter, to report. 
 
 regarder, to look at, to behold. 
 soutenir, to maintain. 
 
 Before the next infinitive noun. 
 
 to have rather, faire, to make, to caus.e. 
 
 s'imaginer, to imagine, to fancy. 
 
 laisser, to let, to leave, 
 
 C to think, to be like, 
 penser, < 
 
 or near. 
 
 to pretend. 
 
 to acknowledge. 
 
 to know. 
 
 to wish. 
 
 to see. 
 
 to be willing. 
 
 B 
 
 # aimer 1 
 
 mieux, ) to choose rather. 
 confesser, to confess. 
 
 croire, to think, to believe. 
 declarer, to tell, to declare. 
 deposer, to depose, to say,to tell, pretendre, 
 i* desirer, to desire, reconnoitre, 
 
 entendre, to hear, savoir, 
 
 devoir, to owe. *f* souhaiter, 
 
 envoyer, to send, voir, 
 
 C f dire, to say. vouloir, 
 
 -f esperer, to hope. 
 
 # Aimer mieux and valoir mieux will have no preposition 
 before the next infinitive ; but when that infinitive is followed 
 by que, and another infinitive implying comparison, the second 
 infinitive requires de before it (see p. 226. D.) ; as, 
 
 II aimeroit mieux mourir, "J que de faire line 
 
 He would rather die, ( action honteuse, 
 
 II vaudroit mieux mourir, C than to commit a 
 
 It would be better to die, j shameful action. 
 
 j) i* Dire, in the sense of to bid, takes de before the next infi- 
 nitive : as, Allez lui dire de venir : Go and bid him come. 
 
 f Desirer, esperer, souhaiter, used in the infinitive, are always 
 construed with de before the next infinitive ; as, 
 
 Pouvez-vous esperer de reussir sans son secours? Can you 
 expect to succeed without his assistance ? 
 
 In the other moods, de is generally left out ; as, 
 Je desire le voir ; I desire to see him. 
 
 J'espere gagner mon proces ; I hope I shall carry the cause. 
 Je souhaiterois pouvoir vous servir ; I wish I could serve you 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 311 
 
 But desirer, followed by an adverb, requires de ; as, A 
 
 Je desire fort de le voir ; I long to see him. 
 
 Veuir, in the sense of to happen, &c. takes a, especially when 
 it is used impersonally : as, 
 Quandil vint & ouvrir la bouche; When he came to open his 
 
 mouth. 
 S'il vient a pleuvoir : If it happens to rain. 
 Venez boire, Come to drink. II vient danser, He comes to dance. 
 
 Venir, in the sense oijust, takes de ; as, 
 i7 vient d'arriver ; He is just arrived. 
 Avec deux mots qu'il daigna dire ; 
 With two words he was pleased to speak. 
 II croyoit pouvoir lefaire ; He thought he could have done it. B 
 // apenst mourir ; He has been like to die. 
 Iljaut mourir tot ou tard ; We must die sooner or later. 
 
 9°. The following Adnouns, commonly construed with etre, 
 require the preposition a before the next infinitive, as likewise 
 all nouns, and adnouns, signifying Inclination, Aptness, Fitness, 
 and Unfitness ; all which will have a (or au and aux) before a 
 noun. 
 
 admirable, ""! 
 
 dexterous, skilful, 
 
 frightful, 
 
 agile, nimble, 
 
 agreeable, 
 
 easy, 
 
 eager, 
 
 assiduous, 
 
 handsome, line, 
 
 Etre, 
 to be 
 
 admirable, 
 
 adroit, 
 
 affreux, 
 
 agile, 
 
 agreable, 
 
 aise, facile, 
 
 ardent, 
 
 assidu, 
 
 beau, 
 
 bon, 
 
 charmant, 
 
 civil, 
 
 good, 
 
 charming, 
 
 civil. 
 
 le dernier, the last of all Numbers, 
 
 a faire quel que 
 ^chose, to do some- 
 thins:. 
 
 diligent, 
 
 doux, 
 
 effroyable, 
 
 enclin, 
 
 exact, 
 
 habile, 
 
 hardi, 
 
 hideux, 
 
 honntte, 
 
 horrible, 
 
 diligent, 
 
 sweet, 
 
 dreadful, 
 
 inclined, bent, 
 
 exact, 
 
 able, skilful, 
 
 bold, 
 
 hideous, 
 
 honest, 
 
 horrible, 
 
 Ee2 
 
 D 
 
312 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Etre, 
 to be 
 
 incivil, 
 lent, 
 
 malhonnete, 
 dispose, 
 parte, 
 le premier, 
 pret, 
 prompt, 
 propre, 
 le second, 
 sujet, 
 ^terrible, 
 
 uncivil, nide,-^ 
 
 slow, 
 
 dishonest, 
 
 prone, 
 
 apt, addicted, 
 
 the first, 
 
 ready, 
 
 quick, 
 
 fit, qualified ybr, 
 
 the second, 
 
 subject, liable, 
 
 terrible, 
 
 k faire quelque 
 chose, to do 
 something. 
 
 de faire quelque 
 chose, to do 
 something. 
 
 B 10°. The following Adnouns, construed also with etre, re 
 quire the preposition de before the next infinitive and noun. 
 
 aise, glad, bien aise, very glad,^ 
 
 assure, assured, 
 
 avide, greedy, covetous, 
 
 capable, capable, 
 
 content, contented, pleased, 
 
 curieux, curious inquisitive, 
 
 digne, worthy, 
 
 ennuye, weary, 
 
 en etat, in a state, condition, 
 
 fdche sorry, 
 
 Etre, J honteux, ashamed, 
 
 to be i incapable, incapable, > 
 
 incertain, uncertain, 
 
 indigne, unworthy, 
 
 joyeux, ^ joyful, 
 
 las, tired, fatigue, fatigued, 
 
 mecontent, discontented, dissatisfied, 
 
 ravi, overjoyed. 
 
 satisfaitf satisfied, 
 
 sur, certain, certain, 
 
 a la veille, ou 1 upon the brink, 
 - sur h point, j or very near to,-^ 
 
 11°. The following Nouns, chiefly construed with avoir, 
 without the article, require the preposition de before the next 
 infinitive. 
 
 5 occasion, or to stand 
 Avoir, 
 to have 
 
 , J ^ lTCf \ in need 
 
 e \besoin, [° 
 
 occasion 
 be in need 
 
 »r to stand ^ _, 
 
 of, y 
 
 ™> or t0 V t o 
 jed of, J 
 
 de faire quelque 
 chose, 
 do something. 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 313 
 
 Avoir, 
 to have 
 
 'conge, leave,^ 
 
 coutume, or ") to use, or to 
 
 etre accontume, ) be used, 
 
 dessein, a design, or to intend, 
 
 droit, a right, 
 
 envie, a mind, | 
 
 lieu, reason, room, y 
 
 occasion, an opportunity, 
 
 permission, permission, 
 
 raison, reason, or to be in the right, 
 
 soin, care, or to take care. 
 
 sujet, subject, occasion, 
 
 jtort, to be in the wrong, ^ 
 
 As likewise all nouns construed with other verbs, either with 
 or without an article, so that they do not signify or imply 
 Inclination, Reluctancy, Aptness, Fitness, or Unfitness : as, 
 Ilm'a donne la peine de lefaire; He gave me the trouble of 
 
 doing it. 
 Tax eu beaucowp de peine a lefaire ; T have had much trouble 
 
 to do it. 
 In which last instance the noun peine implies Difficulty, 
 Reluctancy, and therefore governs a. 
 
 de faire quelque 
 chose, to do 
 something. 
 
 B 
 
 This list of 'nouns, requiring de before the infinitive, will not be amiss for 
 the young learners. q 
 
 ambition, ambition. 
 art, art. 
 
 avantage, advantage. 
 attention, attention. 
 audace, audaciousness, 
 arts. 
 
 advice, 
 eagerness. 
 
 freediness. 
 riendship. 
 love, 
 expectation, 
 arrogance, 
 art. 
 skill, 
 action, 
 authority, 
 assurance, 
 goodness, 
 good luck, 
 council, 
 choice, 
 heart, 
 courage. 
 
 ardeur. 
 
 acidite, 
 
 amitie', 
 
 amour, 
 
 attente, 
 
 arrogance, 
 
 artifice, 
 
 adresse, 
 
 action, 
 
 autoritS, 
 
 assurance, 
 
 bontt, 
 
 bonheur, 
 
 conseil, 
 
 choix, 
 
 cceur, 
 
 courage, 
 
 commodity, conv eniency. 
 
 contrainte, constraint. 
 
 confusion, confusion. 
 
 Constance, constancy. 
 
 eunositi, cariosity. 
 
 chagrin, 
 
 grief. 
 
 imprudencejmprudence. 
 
 dtsespoir, 
 
 despair. 
 
 impudence, 
 
 impudence. 
 
 depit, 
 
 spite. 
 
 impuis- ? 
 sance, $ 
 
 impotence, 
 
 dtsir, 
 
 desire. 
 
 inability. 
 
 danger, 
 
 danger. 
 
 incommo- } 
 diU, 5 
 
 inconve- 
 
 dSplaisir, 
 
 displeasure, 
 ill nature. 
 
 niency. 
 
 dureU, 
 
 insolence, 
 
 insolence. 
 
 effronterie, 
 
 sauciness. 
 
 intention, 
 
 intention. 
 
 embarras, 
 
 trouble. 
 
 inquietude, 
 
 uneasiness. 
 
 envie, 
 
 mind. 
 
 jugement, 
 
 judgment. 
 
 espirance, 
 
 expectation. 
 
 justice, 
 
 justice, 
 liberty. 
 
 espoir, 
 
 hope. 
 
 liberie', 
 
 esprit, 
 
 wit, genius. 
 
 maitre, 
 
 master. 
 
 facility, 
 
 facility. 
 
 ma/-admse,aukwardness 
 
 faveur, 
 
 favour. 
 
 malheur, 
 
 misfortune. t\ 
 malice. 
 
 facon, 
 
 way. 
 
 malice, 
 
 fermete', 
 
 firmness. 
 
 ma.nie.re, manner, way. 
 
 fierti, 
 
 haughtiness. 
 
 mortification, grief. 
 
 force, 
 
 strength. 
 
 motif, 
 
 motive. 
 
 fureur, 
 
 fury. 
 
 tnoyen, 
 
 means. 
 
 front, face, assurance. 
 
 nature, 
 
 nature. 
 
 gr&ce, grace, favour. 
 
 nicessitS, 
 
 necessity. 
 
 gloire, 
 habitude, 
 
 glory. 
 
 obligation, 
 
 obligation. 
 
 custom. 
 
 ordre, 
 
 order- 
 
 hardiesse, 
 
 boldness. 
 
 orgueil, 
 
 pride. 
 
 hasard, 
 
 chance. 
 
 passion, 
 
 passion. 
 
 honte, 
 
 shame. 
 
 patience, 
 
 patience. 
 
 honncteti, 
 
 kindness. 
 
 peine, pains, concern. 
 
314 SYNTAX. 
 
 /± plaisir, pleasure, rage, rage, sens, sense 
 
 pouvoir, power, risque, risk, souci, care 
 
 precaution, precaution, ruse, cunning, craft. timSriii, rashness 
 
 prisomp- ) presump- sagesse, wisdom. vanitS, vanity. 
 
 tion, $ tion. satisfaction, satisfaction, volonte, wiil. 
 
 puissance, might, scandale, sandal. 
 
 Moreover observe, that any noun or adnoun, derived from verbs, requires 
 the same preposition before the next infinitive or noun, as the verb which it 
 is derived from. Thus Stonni amazed, rfoolu resolved, fyc. govern, the for- 
 mer the second state of nouns, and the latter the third, and both the prepo- 
 sition de before the infinitive, because their verbs Stunner or s* Stunner to won- 
 der at, to be amazed, and resoudre to resolve, do so. It is the same with force, 
 obligation, and prisomption, &c. derived from forcer, obliger, presumer, Sec. 
 
 B 1 2°. The impersonate, as il appartient, il convient, il sied 
 bien,il depend, il plait, dac.il est, followed by an adnoun, and 
 cest, by a noun, require the preposition de before the infini- 
 tive: as, 
 
 II appartient aux peres de chdtier fours enfans ; It belongs 
 to fathers to chastise their children. 
 
 II ne lui convient point de prendre des airs; It does not 
 become him or her to take airs. 
 
 II four sied bien de se conduire ainsi; It becomes them well 
 to behave thus. 
 
 II depend de lui de vous donner cet emploi; It depends on 
 him to appoint you to that employment. 
 C Vous plait-il de vous arreter ? Do you choose to stop ? 
 
 II n' est pas decent a unjugede montrer de la partialitt ; It 
 does not behove a judge to betray any partiality. 
 
 II est dangereux dans Londres de se retirer de nuit : It is 
 dangerous in London to walk home at night. 
 
 Est-il sens6 de laisser dttruire un ouvrage si utile? Is it 
 prudent to let such a useful work be destroyed ? 
 
 Cest le propre de la vertu de nous charmer ; It is the pro- 
 perty of virtue to charm us. 
 
 When e'est comes before a noun, followed by an infinitive, it 
 j) requires que besides de, before the infinitive. — And when e'est 
 comes before an infinitive, followed by a noun, and another 
 infinitive, it will have no preposition before the first infinitive, 
 and que de before the second : as, 
 Cest sagesse que d'avouersafaute ; It is wisdom to own one's 
 
 fault. 
 Cest etrefou que de croire ce qui nest pas concevable; 
 They, or these, are mad, who believe what is not conceivable. 
 
 13°. The impersonal il y a, and (festdvous, e'est a hi, &c« 
 require the preposition a before the infinitive : as, 
 
Of VERBS. 315 
 
 II y a du plaisir a chasser, or a la chaise ; A 
 
 There is a pleasure in hunting. 
 C 'est a vous a lui en parler ; 
 It is your business to speak to him, or her, of it. 
 Ce n 'est pas a vous a me commander ; You are not to command 
 me. 
 
 % Instances occur in good writers of de being used instead of a after c'est 
 a . . . . ; as, 
 C'est a vous de rigler nos destins ; It belongs to yon to decide our fate. 
 C'est a la renommie d'exercer son empire sur votre nom ; It belongs to fame to 
 exercise her empire on your name.] 
 
 14°. These terms of comparison require que de before the 
 next infinitive. 
 
 plus, more. mieux, better. si peu, so little. B 
 
 moms, less. plutot, rather. taut, so much. 
 hmoins, unless, si, so. tel, suchlike: as, 
 
 Etudiez plutot que de perdre votre temps ; 
 
 Study rather than lose your time. 
 Rien ne lui plait tant que d'apprendre le malheur des autres, fyc. 
 Nothing pleases him so much as to hear of others' misfortune. 
 
 Avertir to warn, to give notice, and charger to charge with, being attended 
 by two nouns, govern the first relation (or state) of the person, and the second 
 ot the thing, and require the infinitive with de ; as, 
 
 Avertir quelqu'un de quelque chose, or defaire son detoir ; 
 To give one notice of something, to forewarn him to do his duty. 
 Defendre to forbid, permettre to permit, to allow, and refuser, to deny, to re- . 
 fuse, govern the first relation of the thing, and the third of the person ; and C 
 require the infinitive with de: as, 
 
 Je vous permets ou defends de lefaire; I permit, or forbid you to do it. 
 Refuser quelque chose a quelqu'un ; To deny somebody something. 
 
 Dtfendre is also construed with que and the subjunctive. 
 Demander requires the infinitive with a, when it signifies only asking or de- 
 manding: but in the sense of desiring, begging, S^c. it requires de. — It is also 
 better to use prier, in this sense, instead of demander : as, II demande a manger, 
 ou a aller se promener; He asks to eat, or to go a walking. [I m'a demande' ou 
 ppe" de lui rendre ce service-la ; He desired me, begged of me, to do him that 
 piece of service. 
 
 Again, Prier governs the first relation of the person and the second of the 
 thing : as, Prier quelqu'un dhine chose ; To beg a thing of one. 
 
 Insulter governs the first relation when it is a person, or a pronoun personal, 
 
 and the third when it is a thing : as, insulter quelqu'un : to insulfe abuse, af- -p| 
 
 front one. Insulter a la misere d'autrui ; to insult another's misfortune. — We •*-* 
 
 likewise elegantly say, insulter aux mise'rables; to insult the unfortunate. 
 
 Miriter, to deserve, requires either the infinitive with de, or the subjunctive 
 
 with que. It is the same with the adnouns digne and indigne ; as, 
 
 // me" rite d'etre prife're, ou qu'on le pre 1 fere ; He desires to be preferred. 
 11 est indigne, or II ne mtrite pas qu'on lui rende service ; 
 He does not deserve that one shall do him any service. 
 Prendre garde, to take care, which requires the second state in English, re- 
 quires the third in French, and the infinitive with de, or the subjunctive with 
 que; as, 
 Prenez garde a cela ; Take care of that. 
 
 Prenez garde de tomber ; Beware of falling, or take care you do not 
 
 fall, or not to tall. 
 Prenez garde qu'il ne fasse cela; Take care lest he should do that. 
 
SI 6 SYNTAX. 
 
 J± But note, that the French use no negative after prendre garde, when the next 
 verb is in the infinitive. 
 
 Persuader, to persuade, attended by one noun only, governs it in the first 
 state : as, persuader quelqu'un, to persuade one ; persuader quelque chose, to per- 
 suade one thing. When it is attended by two nouns, it governs the first state 
 Of the thing, and the third of the person ; as, persuader une chose a quelqu'un ; 
 to persuade one to something. And when it is followed by a verb, it requires 
 it in the infinitive with de : as also does dissuader to dissuade, and dUourner 
 to de-ter ; but these two always govern the first state of the person, and the 
 second of the thing : as, dissuader quelqu'un de quelque chose, to dissuade one 
 from a thing ; le detourner de la /aire, to deter him from doing it. 
 
 Instruire to instruct, governs the first state of the person, and the second of 
 the thing : as instruire quelqu'un d'une chose, to instruct one : but enseigner, 
 apprendre, montrer, (to teach, learn, show), govern the third state of the per- 
 son : as, enseigner la Grammaire a quelqu'un, to teach one Grammar. 
 
 B Lastly, Verbs and Adnouns, governing the Genitive, Dative, and Ablath-z 
 in Latin, commonly govern the second and third state of the noun in French : 
 as, Meminisse alicujus rei, to remember a thing ; se souvenir d'une chose. Re- 
 sistere alicui, to resist one; resister a quelqu'un. Vesci pane Sj- aqua, to live 
 upon bread and water, vivre de pain fy d'eau. 
 
 15°. The prepositions de and a construed with the infinitive, 
 answer to the English preposition to, used also before verbs : 
 and it ought to have been observed, that it is the foregoing 
 verb, or noun, that determines which of the two must be used. 
 But there remains another preposition (pour), likewise answer- 
 ing to to, and of the same use, before verbs, and which denotes 
 the Design or E?id of, or Reason for, doing something, 
 Therefore, 
 
 £ Whenever the particle to coming before an infinitive, can as 
 well be rendered by for to, in order to, with a design to, with 
 the infinitive, or to the end that, or only that, with the indicative, 
 or subjunctive, ox for with the gerund, it must be rendered into 
 French by pour : as likewise the French for these expressions, 
 for to, in order to, zvith a design to, to the end that, and for 
 with a gerund, is pour, or qfin de with the infinitive, or ajin que 
 with the subjunctive ; as, 
 II Va fait pour me j aire de la peine', He did it to make me 
 
 uneasy. 
 II a He pendu pour avoir vole sur le grand chemin ; 
 He was hanged^br robbing upon the highway. 
 Afin d'obtenir cette grace ; in order to obtain that favour. 
 
 D Afin queje lui reponde ; that I may answer his letter. 
 
 16°. The verb coming after trop, asset, suffsamment, sitfti- 
 sant, and suffire, always requires the preposition pour before 
 it : as, 17 est trop sense pour j aire cela ; He has too much sense 
 to do that. 
 
 Elle n'est pas assez riche pour epouser un Due ; 
 She is not rich enough to marry a Duke. 
 Le merit e ne suffit pas pour reussir ; Merit is not enough to 
 thrive. 
 
 Mind then well the relations which the English particles of, from* with* in t 
 by i for, and to, have to these three French ones, de, a, pour. 
 
Of VERBS. 317 
 
 The gerund (ing) with the prepositions of, from, icith, (or the infinitive ^ 
 that can be resolved by any of these prepositions and the gerund) is rendered 
 by the infinitive with de.— The English gerund, with the prepositions in and 
 to (or the infinitive that can be resolved after that manner) is rendered by the 
 infinitive with d. And the preposition for with the gerund (or the infini- 
 tive so resolved), by the infinitive with pour. See the examples above. 
 
 The English gerund, with the prepositions in and by, is also rendered in 
 French by the gerund, with the preposition en: as, by doing that, or in doing 
 that, enfaisant cela. 
 
 Moreover observe, 1st , that pour is never used in French with a gerund as in 
 English, but always with the infinitive. 
 
 idly, That English gerunds, construed with for, are rendered in French by 
 the compound of the present of the infinitive, or by a noun : as, J7 a ttepen- 
 dtt pour avoir voU on pour vol ; He has been hanged for robbing : the noun 
 denoting the action itself, and the compound tense the time of the action, 
 which is past. 
 
 Sdly, That these three prepositions, de, a, pour, are not always put so im- 
 mediately before verbs, as in English, but some word or words may be "put 
 between, as pronouns, and some adverbs, which must come immediately be- ^ 
 fore the verb ; as, J? 
 
 Pour vous donner ; To give you. 
 
 Pour mieux repondre ; To answer better. 
 
 4thly, That they are also sometimes used before the infinitive, without any 
 previous neun, or verb, that determine them, to wit, in the beginning of a 
 sentence ; as, 
 
 De vous dire comment cela est arrive', c'est ce queje nepuis ; 
 
 To tell you how that did happen, that I cannot, or it is what I cannot. 
 
 In which construction, de prepares the mind to a greater attention to what 
 one is going to say. 
 
 a not only comes in the beginning of a sentence, but is also construed with 
 verbs that require de : but then a falls under some of the relations of disposi- 
 tion and inclination, which (as we shall see in the chapter of prepositions) are 
 denoted by that particle : and d thus used, can be resolved in English by by, 
 or ivith, and a gerund : or if, and the indicative ; as, 
 
 A enjuger par les apparences ; If Ave may judge by appearances, or probabi- 
 lities. 
 A vivre comme Ufait, il n'ira pas loin ; If he lives at lhat rate he will not live 
 
 long. Q 
 
 A I 'entendre, on diroit que, or On diroit, a. V entendre, que, &c. 
 To hear him speak, or by hearing him speak, one would say that, fyc. 
 
 As for pour, before an infinitive, in the beginning of a sentence, it always 
 keeps its property of denoting the Design, End, or Cause of doing something ; 
 as, Pour avoir pris tant de peine s, il n'en est pas mieux ricompensi ; 
 
 For taking so much pains, he is not the better rewarded for it ; 
 
 The infinitive can also begin the sentence without any preposition at all 
 before it, wliich happens when one speaks sententiously, or is laying down 
 general maxims : as, 
 
 Pouvoir viire avec soi meme, If savoir vivre avec les autres, c'est la grande 
 science de la vie ; To be able to live with oneself, and to know how to live with 
 others, is the great science of life. 
 
 Lastly, Avlienever in a sentence two verbs come together, joined by the 
 enclitick fy, great care must be taken (especially if they govern different 
 relations and particles) to give to each of them the respective relation or par- 
 tiele which it requires : as in placing a noun after the first verb, and before 
 the second a pronoun in that state, which it requires ; or in repeating the pro- J) 
 noun before each verb. 
 
 IF Therefore this English sentence, 
 
 That pleased and charmed the Prince, is translated thus in French : 
 
 Cela plut au Prince & le charma, not Cela plut $• charma, &c. because we 
 say, Charmer quclqu'un Sf plaire d quelqu'un. It is the same with these sentences : 
 
 / will, and bind myself to fulfil my promise ; Je veux accomplir ma promesse, 
 & Je promets de le'faire, not Je veuxfypromets, §c. because vouloir requires no 
 preposition, and prometlre requires de. 
 
 He made much of his son, and gave him his blessing ; 
 
 II fit des caresses a son fils, & lui donna sa benediction ; not ilfit ... 4 
 donna a son fils; because, th'High the verbs have the same regimen, yet each 
 must be attended by its relation. 
 
S18 SYNTAX. 
 
 J\ It is the same with two prepositions ; each must have its separate regimen 
 expressed or understood ; and the understood regimen is always that of the 
 latter preposition : as, 
 
 The one sat above, and the other below, me ; L'un s'assit au-dessus de moi, 6c 
 1'autre au-dessous ; so regular and nice the French language is in its con- 
 struction.] 
 
 N. B. In a collection of Phrases and Dialogues lately published by Mr. 
 Des Carrieres, the verbs mentioned page 303 to '318 are instanced with" their 
 respective regimens.] 
 
 J 7°. The Gerund is always indeclinable ; therefore we say 
 in both genders and numbers, 
 
 U?i homme craignant Dieu ; a man fearing God* 
 line femme craignant Dieu ; a woman fearing God. 
 Des gens craignant Dieu; people fearing God. 
 Except only in some expressions of the Law-style, as la ren~ 
 B dante compte (a woman giving an account at law of the money 
 which she was accountable for). Nos gens tenants nos Cours 
 de Parlement (style of Proclamation, to say only Our parlia- 
 ments). 
 
 It is a great Quare among French Grammarians, whether the expressions 
 of these sentences are gerunds, or only verbal adnouns. 
 Une requete tendaxite a ce que, &c. 
 A petition tending to what, fye. 
 Unefille majeure t/sante et jouissante de ses droits ; 
 A young woman of age enjoying her rights. 
 Ces Uoffes ne sont pas approchanles de celles queje vis hier ; 
 These stuffs are not like those I saw yesterday. 
 Son humeur est tellement rtpugnznte <1 la mienne, que, Sfc. 
 His or her temper is so repugnant to mine, that, 8fc. 
 Lacampagne est pleine de troupeaux quipaissent errans d leur gri, 8f bondissans 
 -, sur I'herbe; The country is full of grazing cattle, wandering up and down, 
 l~> and skipping in the grass. 
 
 It is very indifferent what appellation to give to these derivatives (and 
 others from" verbs neuter), so they are known, and the learner is informed, 
 that use will have them govern the same relation as the verbs from which they 
 are derived, and besides agree, in gender and number, with the term to which 
 they refer. I will insert a list of them in the Appendix: but the means to 
 know whether they are gerunds or adnouns, is to see if they can be construed 
 vviUi the verb subst. to be: in which case they are adnouns, otherwise they 
 are gerunds. 
 
 Likewise there are in French a great many words, which are both nouns 
 and gerunds ; as appelant, assiegeant, conqutrant, e'tudiant, savant, ignorant, 
 habitant, negotiant, suppliant, Sec. but their construction has no difficulty ; 
 tliey are used like nouns, and they govern no state, as they do when used as 
 gerunds. 
 
 A ureal many participles are also used substantively, as allie, blesse, tonvU, 
 damnC, &c. &c~. You will find complete lists of them in the Appendix. 
 O We often express with a conjunction and a tense of the indi 
 cative what is expressed with a gerund in other languages, in 
 order to avoid the ambiguity that may arise from the gerund 
 being indeclinable. Thus, instead of saying, Je les ai rencon- 
 tres couraut la poste, I met them riding post, we say, 
 
 Je les ai rencontres qui couroient la poste, 
 because courant may as well refer to the subject, je, as to the 
 object les. II a etc chez elles, fyilles a trouvees qui buvoient #■ 
 mangeoient, instead of buvant fy mangeant ; He has been to 
 their house, and found them eating and drinking. 
 
 _- 
 
Of VERBS. 319 
 
 The gerund sometimes takes the preposition en before it. as A 
 ill English in and by, and can be resolved by the conjunctions 
 ichen, whilst, and as, with a tense of the indicative : as, 
 Je Pai vu en passant ; I saw him by the way, or as I passed by. 
 
 When the pronoun en meets with a gerund, it is put after it, and not before, 
 as it might, if the gerund was resolved by a tense of the indicative, in order 
 to avoid the equivocation, that may be occasioned by en pronoun, and en pre- 
 position : as, 
 
 // le pri't d'instruire son f Us, voulant en f aire un savant ; or comme it en vouloit 
 fairc, or comme il vouloit en /aire un savant ; He desired him to instruct his son, 
 as lie would make a learned man of him. 
 
 The English gerund (ing) so much used with the particles 
 a, an, the, or nothing before it, or with of after, is rendered g 
 into French by a noun, or by a pronoun and a verb, or an infi- 
 nitive when it comes after a verb with a or an : as, 
 
 The impoverishing of the body is the enriching of the soul ; 
 
 L'appauvrissement du corps est ce qui enrichit Came. 
 
 He is gone a walking;- II est allt se promener. 
 
 A virtuous man does not leave off doing good, but when he 
 gives over living ; 
 
 Dliomme vertueux ne cesse de faire du bien quen cessant de 
 vivre. 
 
 His perfect knowledge of the French Tongue is the reason of 
 his being chosen for that embassy ; 
 
 La connoissance parfaite qiCil a de la langue Francoise, est Q 
 la raison pourquoi on l'a choisi pour cette ambassade. 
 
 Observe, besides, that the gerund with the verb substantive 
 to he is rendered into French by the verb of the gerund, in the 
 tense of the verb substantive : as, 
 
 He is dancing, II danse ; / was reading, Je lisois, <5>c. 
 f Mv. Holder, in his illustration of Chambaud's Grammar, has taxed him 
 with error, for not having distinguished the Participle present from the Ge- 
 rund. 
 
 AVithout meaning the least offence to Mr. H. whose merit is readily ac- 
 knowledged, as his corrections are altogether highly commendable, it may 
 be observed, that he has espoused the wrong side of the question. His prin- 
 cipal authority is Kestaut, one of those antiquated grammarians, who, fet- 
 tered with the prejudices of school, dare not soar higher, and are anxious to j^ 
 chalk the syntax of all languages after that of the Latin, without anv regard L* 
 to tlie peculiar genius of each. 
 
 This vindication of Cham baud, who himself has followed Girard, is grounded 
 upon the opinion of IVailly, who is himself a professional man in Latin, and 
 whose French Grammar has superseded that of Restaut in Paris, near thirty 
 years, after receiving the sanction of the University of Paris ; a class of men 
 conversant in Latin, who have adopted the book, though the Participle pre- 
 sent is missing in it. 
 It remains to prove that the opinion of Chambaud and IVailly is justifiable. 
 The Participle is so called, hecause it partakes of the nature of both the 
 verb and the adjective; that is, verb-like, it governs; and adjective-like, it 
 is declinable, and may be the predicate of a sentence ; but the French Ge- 
 rund, though possessing the first of the properties, viz. that of governing, 
 docs not now enjoy the others, as it did formerly ; it therefore cannot be styled 
 a Participle. 
 
 The Gerund is so called, because it is the vicegerent of a verb, always sub- 
 ordinate to the principal verb of the sentence, having the same regimen 
 
 ;. F f 
 
S20 SYNTAX. 
 
 £ with its primitive verb, and standing, as it were, for a subject together with 
 its attribute. 
 
 The Gerund serves to express, 1°. The state, chiefly of the subject, some- 
 times of the object of an action. 
 
 2°. The motive or ground of a subject for acting. 
 
 3°/ The circumstance, manner, or means of an action. 
 
 N.B. The subject of an action is always a noun or pronoun governing a 
 verb ; as the object is a noun or pronoun governed by a verb. The object 
 to which a Gerund may refer, must be governed without the assistance of 
 any preposition. 
 
 In its two first capacities, the Gerund answers to the questions why ? 
 how f and may be resolved, either by the relative conjunctive qui, or the 
 conjunctions comme, parce que,ckc. prefixed to a verb in the indicative mood. 
 
 In its third capacity, it answers to the questions when ? hozo ? and may 
 -t> be resolved by the conjunctions lor sque, pendant que, prefixed to a verb in 
 the indicative mood. 
 
 1°. Example of Gerunds expressing the state oj a subject and objec\ 
 
 Albert Valstein fut na tur ell ement fort sobre; ne dormant presque point, 
 travaillant toujour s, suppoitant patiemment lef r oid 4' la f aim, &c. " Al- 
 bert Valstein was naturaUy very sober ; taking almost no sleep, being anvays 
 at work, patiently enduring cold and hunger, Sec." Here the state of Val- 
 stein is described; the gerunds dormant, &c. may be resolved by comme u 
 dormoit, &c. or qui dormoit, ckc. the imperfect of their respective verbs, 
 because fut, the principal verb of the sentence, denotes a time past. 
 
 Cette Dame est d'un excellent caractere ; soignant les malades, faisanc 
 des aumones, obligeant toujours quand elle le pent. " This lady is of an 
 excellent temper; attending the sick, giv ing aims, always obliging wi>en 
 /-i she has it in her power." Here the disposition of the Lady is described ;" the 
 gerunds may be resolved by comme elle soigne, &c. the present tense of their 
 respective verbs, because est, the principal verb, denotes the present time. 
 
 Combien xoyons-nous de gens, qui connoissant leprix du temps, leperdent 
 mal a propos f " How many people we see, who knowing the value of time, 
 yet waste it to no purpose !" Here connoissant may be resolved quoiqu'ils 
 connoissent ; or the second verb perdent may be accompanied with the 
 conjunction cependant. 
 
 0?i les trouve toujours buvant fy mangeant; " We always^'n^ them 
 eating and drinking." Je les ai trouves buvant & mangeant ; " I found 
 them eating and drinking." Here the gerunds buvant and mangeant de- 
 scribe the state of the object, and may be resolved by qui boivent & man- 
 gent, or qui buvoient & mangeoient, according to the tense of the principal 
 verb to which they are subordinate. 
 
 S°. Examples of Gerunds expressing the motive or ground for acting. 
 
 JJ In that capacity the Gerund always refers to the subject of the sentence. 
 
 II envoie ~\ son f^ s a Cambridge, voulant en faire un bon mathSmaticien ; 
 
 Tl a envouf r " sends, or has sent, or will send, his son to Cambridge ; 
 
 /siinnosin"- he i s V u '^^ w 5" toma ^ e a good mathematician of him." The Gerund 
 
 still there* (voulant expresses the motive of his sending, &c; it may be 
 Ilenverra 7 re ^ olve( ^ D Y P arce au '^ veitt > th e present tense, because* the 
 
 J principal verb denotes a lime present or future. 
 
 But in this phrase, 
 11 a envoy e" ~\ son f Us a Cambridge, voulant en faire, &c. " He sent or had 
 
 (supposing he is f sent his son to Cambridge, wishing to make," &c. The Ge- 
 no longer there) Vrund voulant may be resolved by parce qu'il vouloit, the 
 II envoya i imperfect tense, because the principal verb denotes a time 
 
 II avoit envoy 6 j past 
 
Of VERBS. 321 
 
 Two 01 more gerunds employed together, mast be joined, with a conjunc- J± 
 lion before the last : as, Craignant d'un cbtt d'etre abandonne, Sf de V autre «'en- 
 nuyant d'entretenir tani de troupes a ses depens, il se sauva dans les montagnes ; 
 " Fearing, on one hand, to be deserted, and being tired, on the other, to keep 
 so many men in his pay, he fled to the mountains." 
 
 The gerunds past are formed with the assistance of the helping gerunds 
 ay ant and ttant ; as, 
 
 La ville ay ant ete prise Sc abandonnee au pillage, le soldat y fit un immense 
 hutin ; " The town having been taken and delivered up to plunder, the sol- 
 diers made an immense booty." Here ayant 6U does for the two participles 
 prise and abandonnee, because both are used affirmatively ; but when one is 
 used affirmatively and the other negatively, or vice versa, the gerund must be 
 repeated; as, Laville n'ayant pas voulu serendre,mais ayant etepfise d'assaut,&c. 
 
 In the two capacities above-mentioned, the French gerund, it is true, per- 
 forms tlie same office as the participle present of the Latin : but, for the rea- 
 sons already stated, it does not follow that it should go by the same name ; no 
 more than the French participle has a right to assume the denomination of ~Q 
 the Latin supine, though it perform its part, when taken actively. 
 
 3°. Examples of Gerunds expressing the circumstance, manner, or means of an 
 
 action. 
 
 In that capacity the gerund always refers to the subject of the sentence, 
 performing the same office as the gerund in do of the Latin, and having the 
 import of a substantive, since it is, or may always be, preceded by the pre- 
 position en, with which it forms an adverbial phrase. (N. B. The other 
 gerunds of the Latin, viz. in di and dim, have their offices performed by the 
 French infinitive, preceded by de or pov.r.) 
 
 Je Vai rencontre en allant a la campugne ; " I met him in going into the 
 country." Je lirai sa lettre en me promenant ; " I shall read his letter when I 
 take a walk." In these phrases the gerund expresses the circumstance of the 
 action: En allant may be resolved by Comme fallois, or lorsque j'allois : En 
 me promenant may be resolved by quandje me promenerai, or pendant queje me 
 promenerai. Q 
 
 Vous Vavezfait en courant; " You have done it running." II vous a ditla 
 verite', tout en riant ; " He spoke the truth to you, though in a pleasant man- 
 ner." In these phrases the gerund expresses the manner of the action : En 
 courant may be resolved by comme or lorsque vous couriez : Tout en riant may 
 be resolved by quoiqu'il rii. 
 
 On Va guiri d'un vomissement invitiri, en lui faisant prendre tous les jours 
 deux cuillerf.es de vin d'Espagne ; " He has been cured of an inveterate vomit- 
 ing, by taking two spoonfuls of Spanish wine every day." Here the gerund 
 en faisant expresses the means employed to cure him, and be resolved by 
 parce qu'on lui a fait prendre^ &c. 
 
 If the principal verb were in the future tense, on le gutrira; or in the con- 
 ditional, on le gwiriroitf the gerund would be resolved by si on lui fait, or si 
 on luifaisoit prendre, on account of the condition implied. 
 
 From the examples above stated, it plainly appears that the gerund, in any 
 capacity, may be resolved nearly in the same manner, viz. by a conjunction 
 and a verb : Now the difference of the conjunction is not a plea to give the t\ 
 gerund different denominations; therefore there is no impropriety in giving 
 it but one name, provided it may equally well answer the purpose. 
 
 Some Grammarians who reckon two sorts of participles in French, the 
 active and the passive, do not seem more successful. They call our gerund 
 the participle active, which, it is true, expresses an action; but, as has just 
 been shown, cannot be denominated a participle. As to their participle pas- 
 sive, they confess that it is mostly used actively ; why then should its deno- 
 mination be confined to one voice only ? 
 
 It may therefore be fairly inferred, that in French there is but one participle 
 both nominally and really ; which serves for the past as well as present time, 
 in both the active and passive voice. This perhaps may be ascribed to a po- 
 verty of our language, which, however, does not militate against its clearness 
 and perspicuity. Its deficiency is easily made up with the assistance of some 
 words, and the language is not injured by it, since a multiplicity of beings is 
 saved, which in the end would prove useless, and be deemed merely a luxury 
 of expression. 
 
322 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 18°. Participles are mere adnouns, sometimes construed with 
 a subject, to make short accidental sentences, Cela dit, ils'en 
 alia ; After saying this, he went away ; but most times serving 
 to form the compound tenses of verbs. When they meet with 
 nouns, they always agree with them in number and gender : as; 
 -7 • • Ca man es- unefemme 1 a woman 
 
 ' \ teemed. estimee, y esteemed. 
 , . , f people es- des nations 1 nations 
 
 ® ' ' X teemed. estimees, '• j esteemed. 
 
 "Q When they are part of a tense compound, they are sometimes 
 declinable, and sometimes indeclinable, according to the fol- 
 lowing observations : 
 
 1st, The participle is declinable, when it comes after the 
 verb etre considered only as a verb substantive, or (what is 
 the same) when the participle is a predicate, that is, an adnoun 
 affirmed of the subject ; as, 
 
 // est perdu, EUe est perdue ; He or She, or It is lost. 
 
 lis sont perdus, EUe sont ^erdues ; They are lost, [to dance. 
 II est ra\\, Elle est rax'ie de darner ,-He, or She is overjoyed 
 EUe a ett ravie de vous voir ; She has been charmed to see you. 
 
 r» f N. B. The participle £U is always indeclinable, as also pu and fallu 1 
 voulu is very seldom declined.]; 
 
 Qdly, When the tense compound, either of avoir or etre, is 
 preceded by a pronoun relative in the fourth state, governed as 
 an object, such as que, le, la, les, me, te, se, nous, vous, or by a 
 noun with a pronoun interrogative : as, 
 
 Les peirtes que mes amis out prises ; 
 
 The trouble which my friends have taken. 
 
 Les peines cni'ils se so?it donnees ; 
 
 The trouble which they gave themselves. 
 
 Quelles peines a-t-il prises (or) s'est-il donnees ? 
 
 What trouble did he take, or give himself ? 
 D Ses sceurs out bien du merite,je les ai toujour s estim&es ; 
 His sisters are very deserving, I have always esteemed them. 
 Nous nous sommes ifrowpes ; We are mistaken (Men speak). 
 Elles s'eloietit tromy&es ; They were mistaken (said of women). 
 
 But the participle is indeclinable, 1st, when the pronoun is 
 governed of a verb coming after the tense compound, and not 
 of the tense compound : as, 
 
 Les montres ou'il a fait faire, il ne les a pas voulu payer ; 
 
 The watches which he ordered to be made, he would not 
 ]>ay for them. 
 
Of VERBS. 3<23 
 
 Fait and voulu do not agree with the pronouns que and les, A 
 relating to les montres, because these pronouns are not governed 
 of the compound tenses ilafait, il a voulu, but by the following 
 verbs faire and payer. 
 
 Qdly, When it is governed in the third state expressing the 
 end of the verb, and not in the fourth, expressing its object. 
 
 We say : Elle s'est tuee ; She has killed herself ; 
 making the participle agree with the pronoun se, governed of 
 the tense compound, as its object. But we say : 
 
 Elle s'est donne la mort, not s'est donnee ; She put herself to 
 death ; because the tense compound does not govern se as its 
 object, but la mort ; and se is only the end, in the third state B 
 (sibi). 
 
 The pronoun is not governed of the tense compound in these four cases: 
 1st, When the verb faire, serving to form the compound tense, signifies to 
 cease, to bespeak, to order, as in the aforesaid example. 
 
 Les montres qu'il a fait faire ; The watches which he ordered to be made. 
 
 2dly, With verbs impersonal : as, 
 
 Les tumultes qu'il afallu appaiser ; the riots which it was necessary to quell ; 
 wherein que is governed of appaiser, not of ilfallu. 
 
 Sdly, With the participle pu from pouvoir, du from devoir, voulu from vou- 
 loir, and perhaps some others, after which there is an infinitive understood : 
 as, 
 
 II a dit toutes les raisons qu'iZ a voulu ; He has said all the reasons that he 
 would ; dire being understood after voulu. 
 
 Minage, Corneille, and VAbbe" Desmarais (the Grammar of the French Aca- p 
 demy) make three more exceptions to the general rule ; pretending, that 
 when the subject of the verb comes after it, or when the pronoun cela is the 
 subject, whether it comes before or after the verb, or when the compound 
 tense is followed by either a noun or adnoun, which it governs, together with 
 the pronoun, the participle is indeclinable, and therefore will have writers 
 oay, 
 
 Les peines gu'ont pris mesamis, or que se sont donne mes amis. 
 Les peines que m'a donnS cette affaire, or que cela m'a caused 
 Le commerce l'a rendu puissante ; Trade made it powerful. 
 
 Les Anglois se sont rendu maitres de la mer ; The English have made them- 
 selves masters of the sea. 
 
 But good writers now keep to the general rule, of making the participle 
 agree with the foregoing pronoun, except only when it is not governed of the 
 compound tense, or is in the third state. _ 
 
 Therefore we should say : — Les peines qu'ont prises. — Les peines que ?n f a .D 
 donnies. — L'a rendue puissante — Se sont rendus maitres de la mer. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Of VERBS Impersonal 
 
 %, otrictly speaking there is no such thing as a Verb Impersonal, except 
 in the infinitive mood ; however, according to the trite language of Gram- 
 marians, such may be so called, in the indicative and subjunctive (see p. 130); 
 as are not conjugated with the personal pronouns^'e, I ; tu t thou ; il, he, it, 
 
 Ff 2 
 
324 SYNTAX. 
 
 A tile, she, it, S>c. butonlj with tins pronoun, il it, impersonal, that is, nier 
 ing to no antecedent ; as in these phrases : 
 
 II tonne, it thunders ; il neigeoil, it snowed ; il pleuvra, it will rain ; 
 (see p. 187.) wherein no antecedent appears, unless you suppose that such 
 words le ciel y the sky ; le temps, the weather, may be understood. There- 
 fore a verbis known to be impersonal, when no substantive can be prefixed 
 to it instead of il. 
 
 II is also impersonal in phrases like this : II s'est passe bien des chofss ; 
 which has the same import as, Bien des choses se sont passees ; Many things 
 have happened. The virtual subject of the verb impersonal s'est passic, is 
 bien des choses ; hence may be inferred that the impersonal pronoun il, far 
 from referring to an antecedent, rather refers to a consequent term. 
 
 Even il has been reputed by judicious authors a mere article, belonging 
 ** to a substantive expressed or understood, and following the verb when it is 
 expressed, as in il est jour (il jour est, or lejour est). 
 
 These phrases, il pleut, il tonne, may be resolved in the same manner, 
 viz. il pluie est, or la pluie est ; (il pleut, comprehending in itself the sub- 
 ject, with the affirmative and attribute). (Gram, de P. R.) 
 
 Verbs Impersonal, in all their tenses, are used in the third person singu- 
 lar ; hence they are of the same tribe as those used with the pronoun inde- 
 terminate on ; the only difference is that they present something more ge- 
 neral and indeterminate ; as, 
 
 II se trouve des gens, or On trouxe des gens ; People are found. (See 
 the latter end of this Chapter.) 
 
 § I. Of the Impersonal II est, il etoit, #c. 
 
 This impersonal, and the demonstrative e'est, are of very- 
 extensive use in French, but cannot be used indiscriminately 
 the one for the other ; thus, in order to know how to employ 
 ^ them properly, make the following observations : 
 
 IT The English Impersonal, it is, is used in sentences, the signification of 
 which is sometimes absolute and indeterminate, sometimes relative and de- 
 terminate. In the latter case, e'est must always be used ; in the former, il est 
 is more proper, unless you introduce a noun, which then determines the 
 sense ? and requires the use of e'est ; instances will elucidate the matter. 
 
 Tins English phrase, It is in vain you endeavour to corrupt him, may be ren- 
 dered into French two ways. 
 
 1°. C'esttn vuin que vous cherchez d le corrompre, (means something positive, 
 an actual endeavour ; and for this reason, the verb cherchez is in the indicative. ) 
 
 2°. II est inutile que vous cherchiez a le corrompre, (means something uncer- 
 J) tain, an intended endeavour ; and for this reason, the verb cherchiez is in the 
 subjunctive.) This latter phrase rather signifies, It is in vain you would en- 
 deavour, Sfc. 
 
 From the above examples it appears that il est cannot be used for e'est, 
 without altering the sense of the phrase. 
 
 On the contrary, e'est, accompanied with a noun, may perform the office 
 of il est, still preserving its full import. 
 
 For instance, this phrase ; 11 estfacheux que son projet n' ait pas rSussi; It is 
 grievous that his project did not succeed ; 
 
 May be equally well, and still better rendered by this : C'est une chose j\\- 
 cheuse que son projet n'ait pas rtussi. Both phrases have the same import, 
 since que in either govern the same mood ; but the latter, as will be seen 
 hereafter, is more agreeable to the genius of the French, and receives from 
 the Gallicism e'est . . . que a degree of energy. 
 
Of VERBS. 325 
 
 Therefore in the doubt which way the English Impersonal it is, followed J^ 
 by an adnoun, must be rendered into French, there can be no impropriety 
 in using c'est, provided you introduce a noun, with which the adnoun will 
 be construed, as in the last instance.] 
 
 IT II est is construed, 1°, with nouns denoting time ; as, 
 
 Quelle heme est-il ? What o'clock is it . ? II est deux heures \ 
 It is two o'clock. 
 
 Quelle heure croyez-vous qu'W soit ? What o'clock do you 
 think it is ? II est minuit ; It is twelve (at night). Est-il si 
 tard que cela ? Is it so late ? Je ne croyois pas qu'W flit si tard; 
 I did not think it was so late. 
 
 Quelle heure etoit-il quandvous ties parti? At what o'clock B 
 did you set off? II etoit neuf heures ; It teas nine. 
 
 II est jour ; It is day-light. — 11 est nuit ; It is dark. 
 
 II est heure de diner ; It is dinner-time. — II est heure de se 
 retirer ; It is time to go home. 
 
 II est temps de partir ; It is time to set out. II sera tard 
 quand nous arriverons a Douvres ; // will be late when we 
 reach Dover. 
 
 N.B. Jn the above application of il est, the noun takes no article ; the 
 reason is obvious ; il is itself an article, as has been said.] 
 
 IT 2°. 11 est is also construed with an adnoun, unaccompa- C 
 nied with a noun, but followed by either ne or que f and a sub- 
 sequent sentence explicative of the adnoun ; as, 
 
 II est bien ikcheux d'etre malade, § de n 'avoir point d 'argent ; 
 It is a very sad thing to be sick, and have no money. 
 
 II est bon de se tenir sur ses gardes ; It is prudent to stand 
 upon one's guard 
 
 The above phrases present something general and senten 
 tious ; but when particularized, they must be construed with 
 que instead of de : as, 
 
 II est facheux que cela soit arrive ; It is sorrowful that such D 
 a thing has happened. 
 
 II est bon que vous vous teniez sur vos gardes • It is prudent 
 for you to stand upon your guard. 
 
 II est bien facheux que vous soyez malade, 8t que vous. 
 tiayez point d? argent : It is a very sad thingybr you to be sick, 
 and have no money. [Sometimes you may say, as in English, 
 iY est bien facheux pour vous d'etre, &c. See the Impersonal* 
 p. 297 and 314.] 
 
326 SYNTAX. 
 
 A % 3°. // est, in all its tenses, is also construed with prepo- 
 sitions : For instance, 
 
 With a, to express probability ; as, 
 
 II est a croire que cela arrivera ; It may be thought that this 
 will happen. 
 
 77 ttoit k presumer que cela seroit ainsi ; It was presumable 
 that it would be so. 
 
 In this acceptation il est is elegantly used for il y a, (See 
 page 338, A.) 
 
 With de, to express duty, obligation ; as, 
 
 11 est de la gcntrosite de pardonner ; It behoves a generous 
 B soul to forgive. 
 
 II est du devoir d'w?i bon citoyen de dtfendre sa patiie ; A 
 good citizen ought to defend his native country. 
 
 With en , to express ability, character ; as, 
 
 II n'esj pas en moi de chercher a nuire ; It is not in my cha- 
 racter to be hurtful. 
 
 II n ttoit pas en lui de lefaire; He had not it in his power 
 to do so. 
 
 S'il est en votre pouvoir ; If you have it in your power. 
 
 11 est en son pouvoir de vous obliger ; He has it in his power 
 to oblige you.] 
 
 C 1[ 4°. II est construed with the particle, or rather the sup- 
 plying pronoun en, prefixed to the verb, implies sometimes 
 contingency ; as, 
 
 On lui a intente un proces, 8$ il ?z'en a rien tie; An action 
 has been brought against him, which had no fatal consequence. 
 
 Quand il Tauroit maltraite, or S'il Vavoit maltraite, qu'en 
 seroit-il? il w'en seroit rien; Though, or if he had ill-treated 
 him, what would be the consequence ? nothing at all. 
 
 i7 en sera ce qiCil plaira a Dieu ; It will happen as it pleases 
 God. 
 J) II en sera de cette affaire ce q\Cil plaira aux ministres ; It 
 will be with this affair as the ministers please. 
 
 Sometimes il en est implies comparison, then the preposition 
 de (in English with) must be prefixed both to the noun com- 
 pared and the noun of similitude ; as, 
 
 // en est de la Poesie comme de la Peinture ; It is with 
 Poetry as with Painting. 
 
 77 en sera du votre comme du mien ; It will be with yours as 
 with mine.] 
 
 ai' 
 
Of VERBS. 3<27 
 
 Of the pretended Impersonal, or rather the Verb Demonstrative c'est, A 
 c'etoit, &c. 
 
 f Mr. Holder has censured Chamband pretty severely, for " having," said 
 he, " very incautiously joined the personal applications of c'est, to its imper- 
 sonal ones." This gentleman's animadversion seems rather incautious. With 
 a little more attention to the nature of ce, and to the double acceptation of the 
 English impersonal, it is, he might, perhaps, have come nearer to the point, 
 by giving a general verdict against the impersonality of c'est. In this re- 
 spect he would have agreed with the French Academy and our best gram- 
 marians, who do not reckon c'est a verb impersonal. 
 
 In effect, there is a material difference between ilest and c'est. The former 
 is mostly construed with an adnoun, or with a substantive taken adjectively, 
 and is generally followed by an explicative sentence : the latter is generally 
 construed with a noun, or with a verb in the infinitive, that is, used substan- 
 tively, and may make a complete sentence. (See the following pages.) 
 
 If, therefore, there be already difficulty enough in defending the imper- 
 sonality of il est, since in most of the examples above stated it has a great ~ 
 similarity to on, being in some measure its vicegerent ; there is still no less t$ 
 possibility to attribute impersonality to a verb depending on a true pronoun, 
 and such is the case with c'est. 
 
 What may have caused the mistake, is perhaps the verb etre being used in 
 the third person singular ; but a pronoun singular cannot govern a verb in 
 another person. 
 
 Sometimes, it is true, the third person plural is used with ce (as will be 
 seen hereafter) ; but the first and second persons plural cannot ; because the 
 law of harmony may sometimes authorise to alter the number, but never to 
 change the person.] 
 
 ^[ It has been said in the above examples, that the English 
 Impersonal it is, presents something indeterminate, and for this 
 reason is rendered into French by il est. But when it is pre- 
 sents something determinate, the French, as has been said, to 
 point it out more precisely, make use of their convenient verb 
 demonstrative c'est, which serves to give their sentences some- 
 times more elegance, at other times more energy. C 
 
 For the same reason, of elegance or energy, c'est is also used in some cases 
 wherein, instead of the English impersonal it, a pronoun personal, or even a 
 noun is construed with the verb to be. Hence, perhaps, Mr. Holder's distinc- 
 tion of c'est impersonal from c'est personal, which may hold good, but with 
 respect to the English only.] 
 
 1T N.B. Ce is sometimes an article, sometimes a pronoun demonstrative > 
 in this latter capacity, it may be called pronoun primitive, being, in effect> 
 the root of celui, celle; ceux,celles; ceci,cela, (See p. 264.] 
 
 % 1°. C'est, in all its tenses, both of the indicative and sub- 
 junctive moods, is idiomatically used in French, to point out 
 more precisely an object determinate ; as, 
 
 C'est la mon livre ; This is my book. 
 
 C'est aujourd'hui Dimanche ; To-day is Sunday. D 
 
 C'etoit hier Samedi; Yesterday was Saturday. 
 
 C'est demain Lundi; To-morrow is Monday. 
 
 C'est Mardifete ; Tuesday is a holiday. 
 
 C'est demain conge ; To-morrow is a holiday. 
 
 N. B. There is a material difference between these two last phrases : C'est 
 demain conge" means a holiday as usual ; Ce sera demain conge" means an acci- 
 dental holiday.] 
 
3<23 SYNTAX. 
 
 A II 2°. Ce in c'est, c'etoit, &c. stands sometimes for the pro- 
 noun cela ; as, 
 
 C'est juste ; It is just. C'est vrai ; It is true. 
 
 C'est trh-bien fait ; It is very well done. 
 
 C'etoit bon autrefois ; It was good formerly. 
 
 C'est Jacheux ; mats c'est voire faute ; It is unfortunate, but 
 it is your fault. 
 
 C'est beaucouppour son age ; that is a great deal for his age. 
 
 C'est pen de chose; That is very little. 
 
 C'est trop ; It is too much. C'en est trop ; That is too much. 
 
 Ce n'estpas trop ; It is not too much. 
 p C'est trop peud'un ; One is too little. 
 
 C'etoit beaucoup trop d'v.u ; One is too many 
 
 C'est assez ; That will do. C'en est assez ; That is enough. 
 
 C'est assez disputer or dispute ; That is disputing enough. 
 
 C'etoit assez de cette demarche imprudente pour vousperdre ; 
 That imprudent step was sufficient to ruin you. 
 
 Ce sera autant defait\ That will be so much done. 
 
 C'est ce queje pemois; It is or it was what I thought. 
 
 C'est etre bien hardi ; It is very bold. 
 
 A moins que ce ne soit en Angleterre ; Unless it be in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 In which phrases, the impersonal it may, strictly speaking, 
 Q be changed into that. Therefore, whenever this change may 
 take place, it must be translated by ce or cela, not by it. 
 
 N. B. Observe that ce may stand for cela with the verb itre only : for 
 with other verbs, as in this phrase. Unless it may displease you, ce would be 
 improper, and you must say, a moms que cela ne vous deplaise.'j 
 
 51 3°. C'est, in all its tenses, may serve to design either a per- 
 son or a thing already mentioned ; as, 
 
 C'est an modele de vertu ; He or She is a pattern of virtue. 
 
 C'est tin Eveque ; He is a Bishop. 
 
 C'est un malade ; It is a patient. 
 j) C'est un peintre ; It is. a painter. 
 
 C'est un marckand ; It is a merchant. 
 
 C'est dupain ; It is bread. C'est mon livre ; It is my book. 
 
 Avez-vous lu le Voyage d'A)iacharsis? C'est un outrage 
 excellent; Have you read the Travels of Anacharsis • It is an 
 excellent work. 
 
 Si vous voulez vous former a V eloquence, lisez Demostheue fy 
 Ciceron ; ce sont les deux plus grands orateurs de I'antiquitc ; If 
 you wish to form yourself for eloquence, read Demosthenes and 
 T\dly ; they are the two greatest orators among the ancients. 
 
Of VERBS. sm 
 
 N. B. Observe that in such phrases, c'est, as has been said, always requires A 
 to be followed by a noun, generally accompanied with an article ; and when 
 that noun is plural, the verb demonstrative, for harmony's sake, is used in the 
 third person plural. All this implicitly proves (see p. 259, B.) that in phrases 
 construed with Jest, though ce be the ostensible grammatical nominative to est , 
 yet the following noun is the virtual subject of the sentence.] 
 
 But in phrases like this : Lisez Demosthene fy Ciceron, iis 
 sont tres-eloquens ; read Demosthenes and Tully, they are very 
 eloquent : ce cannot be used instead of Us, because the verb etre 
 is followed by an adjective unaccompanied with a substantive. B 
 
 Again : In this phrase, Ce sont autant de soleils (speaking 
 of fixed stars) ; They are as many suns ; autant is used substan- 
 tively ; but it has no article, because it cannot admit of any ; 
 whereas, striking it off, you should say, Ce sont des soleils. And 
 in this, Ce sont de bonnes gens ; They are good people ; there 
 is a noun expressed (gens), taken in a limited sense (page 214.) 
 the article of which has disappeared on account of bonnes 
 coming first. 
 
 % Here it may not be amiss to remark that such a phrase,— He is a physi- 
 cian — cannot, as some Grammarians give to understand, be indifferently ren- 
 dered into French by II est midecin, or C'est un midecin. 
 
 The two phrases are materially different ; and, in this respect, the demon- 
 strative verb c'est affords to the French a real advantage over the English 
 language. 
 
 The first phrase, II est midecin, answers to this question : What is he ? Qu'est 
 ce qu'il est ? The substantive midecin is used adjectively, and qualifies the 
 subject il: as such, it takes no article, and admits of no pxplicative member. ^ 
 
 The second phrase, C'est wn medecin, answers to this question : Who is v> 
 there? Qui est -lei? The substantive midecin retains its true force of a sub- 
 stantive, and is preceded by an article : it is the virtual subject of the sen- 
 tence, and may sometimes be followed by a relative member explicative. The 
 
 same phrase may sometimes answer to this question : Who is Mr. ? 
 
 but the question must be made in French with c'est, viz. Qu'est-ce que cest que 
 M. ? as will be seen hereafter. 
 
 The same may be said of this phrase, Elle est femme, or Cesi unefenune ; 
 She is a woman. (See p. 219.) 
 
 If As the French demonstrative verb c'est requires to be fol- 
 lowed by a noun ; so when the English impersonal it is is fol- 
 lowed by a pronoun personal, that pronoun must be, in French, 
 a disjunctive one, that is, a pronoun which, from its nature, 
 may stand for a substantive. Therefore, in such phrases, JJ> 
 
 It is I, we say, C'est moi\ not c'est je. 
 
 It is thou, C'est to-i ; not c'est tu. 
 
 It is he, C'est lid ; not c'est il. 
 
 It is she, C'est elle. 
 
 It is we, C'est nous. 
 
 It is you, C'est zous. 
 
 It is they, C'est eux ; not c'est Us. 
 
 (masc.) or Ce sont eux ; not ce sont Us. 
 
 It is they, C'est elles. 
 
 (fern.) or Ce sont elles. 
 
330 SYNTAX. 
 
 ^ N. B. Observe that die, nous, vous, dies, being both disjunctive and con- 
 junctive, are in such phrases used in their disjunctive capacity. 
 
 Observe, also, that it is only in its simple tenses the verb may be plural ; 
 for in its compound we say, 
 
 9'avoit ete eux or dies ; it had been they.] 
 
 % 4°. C'est is sometimes followed by a relative member, 
 which serves either to describe the very substantive announced 
 by c'est, or to account for a preceding sentence ; as, 
 
 C'est un medecin qui a fait des cures ctonnantes ; He is a 
 physician who has done wonderful cures. 
 
 C'est un ministre en qui le public a la plus grande confiance ; 
 J3 He is a minister in whom the public place an unbounded con- 
 fidence. 
 
 C'est un bonheur que lout le monde envie ; It is a happiness 
 which every one envies. 
 
 C'est la loi qui Vordonne; It is the law that prescribes it. 
 
 C'est le laquais qui a dit cela ; It is the footman who said that. 
 
 C'est moi qui le crois ; It is I who believe it. 
 
 C'est vous, Messieurs, qu'il faut remercier ; It is you, Gen- 
 tlemen, who must be thanked. 
 
 C'est eux (or) Ce sont eux qui Font fait ; It is they who have 
 done it, or It was they that did that. 
 C C'etoit (o?-) C'etoient les dragons qui ne vouloient pas obeir , 
 It was the dragoons that would not obey. 
 
 Ce fut lui qui lejit ; It was he that did it. 
 
 Ce furent les Francois qui assiegerent la place ; It was the 
 French that besieged the place. 
 
 Ce seront les grenadiers qui feront Vattaque\ The grenadiers 
 are to make the attack. 
 
 Ce sont vosancetres, qui par leurs vertus # leurs belles actions, 
 vous ont merite la qualite de nobles ; ce sont eux qui vous r en- 
 dent illustres; imitez-les, si vous ne voulez pas degentrer ; It is 
 J) your ancestors, who, by their virtues and great actions, have 
 obtained for you the quality of noblemen ; it is they that render 
 you illustrious ; imitate them, if you wish not to degenerate. 
 
 But the verb c'est must remain singular, when the next sub- 
 stantive or pronoun is preceded by a preposition and followed 
 by the conjunction que ; as will be seen presently.] 
 
 N. B. When the verb of the relative member is used in its simple tenses, 
 similar tenses must be used for the verb demonstrative ; as, 
 
 Cest moi qui le^/ais ; It is I that do it. C'etoit moi qui lefaisois ; It 
 was I that did it. Cefut moi qui \ejis ; It was I that did it. Ce sera moi 
 qui leferai ; I shall do it. Ce seroit moi qui le /era's: I would do it. Que 
 ce soit moi qui \efasse. 
 
 We may also say, Cest moi qui Vat fait. — Cest moi qui \efis~— Cest uioi 
 qu\ le fare. 
 
Of VERBS. 331 
 
 But with the compound of the imperfect, we must say, Citoit moi qui J^ 
 Savoisfait; It was I that had done it.] 
 
 1T 5°. C'est, in all its tenses, may also refer to a person or 
 thing yet to be spoken of, and not previously mentioned ; then 
 it is followed by the conductive que (see p. 259 and 265,) ; as, 
 
 C'etoit un grand capitaine que Cesar ; Cesar was a great 
 captain. 
 
 C'est une vertu bien estimable que la patience ; Patience is a 
 very estimable virtue. 
 
 C'est beaucoup que de savoir commander ; It is a great deal 
 to know how to command. 
 
 C'est peu de chose que cet homme-ld ; That man is of very g 
 little consequence. 
 
 C'est peu qu'e/Ze le meprise, elle vent encore le rubier ; It is 
 not enough if she despises him, she wishes to ruin him besides. 
 
 C'est de cette chose-la que je park ; It is of that thing I am 
 speaking. 
 
 Ce w'est pas un mal que d 'avoir des envieux ; There is no 
 harm in exciting envy. 
 
 C'est tine sorte de honte que d'etre malheureux ; It is a kind 
 of shame to be unfortunate. 
 
 N. B. The noun which follows c'est, at present is always attended by an Q 
 article ; however, in old proverbial phrases the article is still left out ; as, 
 
 C'est pain Unit que d'escroquer un avare; It is nuts to cheat a covetous 
 man.] 
 
 C'est nepas connoitre les courtisans, que de compter sur leurs 
 yromesses ; He who relies on the promises of courtiers, does 
 not know them. 
 
 C'est de la bonne ou de la mauvaise education que depend le 
 bonheur ou le malheur de la vie ; It is on a good or bad educa- 
 tion the happiness or unhappiness of life depends. 
 
 C'est depeur d'etre injuste ou ingrat, disoit un juge, que je 
 refuse vos presens ; It is, said a judge, for fear of being either 
 unjust or ungrateful, I refuse your presents. r\ 
 
 Ce sera done le mois prochain que nous aurons le plaisir de 
 le voir ; At last we shall have the pleasure of seeing him the 
 next month. 
 
 Ce sont de bons marins que les Anglois ; The English are 
 very good sailors. 
 
 But c'est, as has been said before, cannot be made plural hi 
 such phrases construed with a preposition ; as, 
 C'est a eux queje I'ai promis ; It is to them I have promised it. 
 C'etoit d'elles quejeparlois ; It was of them I was speaking. 
 
332 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Ce sera pour vos frcres que fen enverrai ; It will be fcr 
 your brothers I will send some. 
 
 C'est a vous qu'il convenoit defaire cette demarche ; It was 
 you it became to take this step. 
 
 C'est ainsi quil parla ; He spoke thus. 
 
 C'est alors que je vis ; Then I saw. 
 
 In such conductive phrases, as above, c'est and que, strictly 
 speaking, are redundant ; they form a Gallicism, which serves 
 to give the speech more force and energy. The phrases might 
 be worded thus : Ilparla ai)isi. — Alors je vis. — Je refuse vos 
 j$presens, de peur, ecc. — Cesar ttoit un grand capitaine. They 
 would have the same meaning, but not so much energy.] 
 
 % 6°. C'est, in all its tenses, followed by a and a personal 
 noun or pronoun, is sometimes construed with a verb in the 
 infinite, and then preceded by the prepositions de or a, instead 
 of que ; as, 
 
 C'est a vous a faire ; You are to deal. 
 
 C'etoita vous a parler ; You were to speak. 
 
 C'etoit a vous de parler ; You should have spoken. 
 
 Quand ce sera a voire frere njouer ; When your brother is 
 C to play .... 
 
 N. B. C'est, in such cases, can be used but for persons, not for tilings.] 
 
 If 7°. To the above ways of using the demonstrative c'est, 
 the following must be added. 
 
 C'est, in all its tenses, may be immediately followed by de or 
 que governing a verb, and forming an explicative sentence ; as, 
 
 II y a une chose quefexige de vous, c'est de Valler voir, (or) 
 c'est que vous alliez la voir ; There is a thing I require of you, 
 which is to go and see her. 
 
 In such phrases the tense of c'est is regulated by that of the preceding 
 verb; for instance, we say, II y a une chose que faurois exigce de vous- 
 J)p'auroit ete de I'aller voir, (or) que vousfussiez alte la voir.'] 
 
 IT C'est que sometimes forms an elliptical phrase, in which 
 que stands for parce que, because ; as, 
 
 C'est que je ne savois pas quil fut arrive ; It is because I 
 did not know that he was arrived. 
 
 In this phrase, c'est is mostly used in the present ; sometimes in the im- 
 perfect, c'etoit, it was ; but never in the other tenses. 
 
 ^f C'est, in its conditional tenses, is also used with que in 
 the sense of quand, though : as, 
 
Of VERBS. 335 
 
 Donnez-lui quelaue chose; ne seroit-ce que, or ne fut-ce que A 
 cinq schel lings ; Give him something ; were it but five shillings. 
 
 Vous auriez du lid donner quelque chose ; n'auroit-ce ete que, 
 or n'eut-ce ete que cinq schellings ; You should have given him 
 something ; had it been only five shillings. 
 
 Which phrases may be resolved by Quand ce ne seroit que, though it 
 would only be ; Quand ce n'auroit etc que, though it would have only been.] 
 
 % Nor ought this conjunctive phrase, Si ce n'est, to remain unnoticed, 
 in which the verb is never made plural ; as, 
 
 Tous lesjeux y sont defendus, si ce n'est ceux d'exercicefy d'adresse ; Ail 
 games are forbidden there, except those of exercise and address.] 
 
 If This is also the proper place to mention an old elliptical phrase, now 
 obsolete, or confined to the very familiar style only. 
 
 N'etoit sa bonne conduite; Were it not for his good conduct (instead of B 
 si ce n'etoit sa bonne conduite.) 
 
 N'etoit que, or n'eftt ite que je suis de vos amis ; Were I not, or Had I 
 not been one of your friends (instead of si ce n'etoit queje suis, &c. or Sije 
 n'etois pas de vos amis.] 
 
 il Cest pourquoi, another conjunctive phrase, is used with all the tenses 
 of verbs in the indicative, but e'est always remains in the present ; as, 
 
 Cest pourquoi les Romaine immollrent des victimes ; Wherefore the Ro- 
 mans sacrificed victims.] 
 
 % 8°. Cest , like il est, is used in interrogations, but still 
 preserving its relative and determinate character, as, 
 
 Est-ce la votre livre ? Is that your book ? 
 
 Sera-ce demain conge ? Shall we have a holiday to-morrow ? 
 
 Est-ce bon ? Is it good ? Est-ce vrai ? Is it true ? C 
 
 Est-ce un Eveque qui fera la ceremonie ? Is a Bishop to 
 perform the ceremony? 
 
 Est-ce un medecin qui vous Va ordonne ? Has a physician 
 prescribed it to you ? 
 
 Est-ce la lot qui V ordonne? Is it the law that prescribes it? 
 
 Est-ce moi qui Vai dit ? Did I say so ? 
 
 Est-ce toi qui Vas cru ? Did you believe it ? 
 
 Est-ce lui, (or) Est-ce elie qui l'a fait ? Is it he, or Is it she 
 who has done it ? 
 
 Est-ce nous qui parlous 9 Is it we who speak ? D 
 
 Est-ce vous, Messieurs, qu'il faut remercier ? Is it you, Gen- 
 tlemen, we must thank ? 
 
 Est-ce eux, (or) Est-ce elles qui s'engagent 9 Is it they who 
 engage themselves ? 
 
 Est-ce les Dragons qui font Vattaque ? Do the Dragoons 
 make die attack ? 
 
 Etoit-ce/es Dragons qui ne vouloient pas obeir? Was it the 
 Dragoons who would not obey ? 
 
334 SYNTAX. 
 
 A Fut-ce les Dragons qui ne voulurent pas obeir ? Was it, §c. 
 
 Sera-ce les Dragons qui feront cette attaque? Are the Dra- 
 goons to make that attack ? 
 
 Seroit-ce les richesses qui pourroient vous rendre heureux, si 
 vous rCenfaisiez pas un digne usage ? Could riches render you 
 happy if you did not know how to make a worthy use of them ? 
 
 H Good authors'use the demonstrative verb interrogatively in the plural, 
 and say, 
 
 Sont-ce Id. vos ouvrages ? Are these your works ? 
 
 Sont-ce les honneurs qui vous flat tent ? Is it honours that flatter you ? 
 
 Etoient-ce Id vos affaires ? Was this your business ? 
 
 Etoient-ce les Dragons qui ne vouloient pas obeir ? Was it the Dragoons, 
 &c. 
 B Seroient-ce les Anglais qui pourroient comnwttre une telle injustice ? 
 Would Englishmen commit such an injustice? 
 
 Hutjiirent-ce is never used ; nor are the compound tenses. 
 
 Est-ce a eux que vous Vavez promts ? Have you promised 
 it to them ? 
 
 Etoit-ce d'elles que votis parliez? Were you speaking of them ? 
 
 Sera-ce le mois prochain que le Parlement sassemblera ? 
 Will the Parliament meet next month ? 
 C Est-ce ainsi qu'*7 parla ? Did he speak thus ? 
 
 Etoit-ce ainsi qu'z'/ parloit ? Was he speaking so ? 
 
 Est-ce a vous a faire ? Are you to deal ? 
 
 Etoit-ce a votrefrere ajouer 1 ? Was your brother to play ? 
 
 (It is needless to say that all the above phrases may be used 
 negatively. 
 
 N. B. As for the manner of interrogating with est-ce que (see p. 239). ~" 
 
 Est-ce is sometimes preceded by the relative qui, who ; and 
 lequely which ; or by que (in the sense of quoi), what j or by 
 quel and a noun ; as, 
 
 Qui est-ce ? Who is that ? Qui etoit-ce ? Who was there ? 
 A qui est-ce ajouer? Who is to play ? De qui est-ce le tour ? 
 Whose turn is it ? Pour qui est-ce ? For whom is it ? 
 n We say, in the same manner, A qui etoit-ce ? Dequi etoit- 
 ce ? Pour qui etoit ce ? and sometimes, A qui sera-ce ? Pour 
 qui seroit-ce ? But the other tenses are very seldom, if ever, 
 used. 
 
 Lequel or Laquelle est-ce ? Which is it ? Lequel, or La- 
 quelle 6toit-ce ? Which was it ? Lequel, or Laquelle sera-ce ? 
 Which will it be ? The plural is never used. 
 
 Qw'est-ce ? What is that ? Qw etoit-ce ? What was that ? 
 
 Que sera-ce, si ... . Que seroit-ce, si ... . Qw'auroit-ce 
 ete, si ... . What will it be, if ... . What would be, if ... . 
 What would have been, if ... . 
 
Of VERBS. 
 
 535 
 
 Quel homme est-ce ? What man is it ? Quel hornme etoit-ce ? A 
 What man was it ? Quel ministre ce seroit, si . . . What a 
 minister he would be, if . . . 
 
 Quel livre est-ce ? What book is it ? Quel livre etoit-ce ? 
 What book was it ? 
 
 But such phrases are more generally followed by the relative 
 qui or the conductive que with another phrase ; and, what is 
 worth observing, est-ce remains in the present tense : as, 
 
 In these 
 phrases ce 
 stands for B 
 cette per- 
 sonne. 
 
 Qui est-ce qui vient ? Who is coming ? 
 Qui est-ce qui venoit ? Who was coming ? 
 Qui est-ce qui est venu ? Who is come ? 
 Qui est-ce qui viendra ? Who is to come ? 
 Qui est-ce qui viendroit ? Who would come r 
 
 The answer may be, Pierre, Peter ; or more properly C'est Pierre, because 
 the question is asked with the pronoun ce; and the French politeness does not 
 allow a short, rough, and raw answer, consisting of a single word. This 
 answer, C'est Pierre, may be resolved in this manner : Pierre est cette personne 
 qui vient. 
 
 Other instances with substantives preceded by articles. Qui est-ce qui 
 frappe? Who knocks there? C'est lefacteur ; It is the post, viz. Lefacteur 
 est cette personne qui frappe. Again, Vousfaites tel remede: qui est-ce qui votes 
 I' a ordonne"? You use such a remedy : who prescribed it to you? C'est un m&- 
 decin ; it is a physician, viz. Un medecin est celui qui me Va ordonne'. 
 
 Qui est-ce que vous demandez ? Whom do you want ? (que C 
 is a relative.) 
 
 A qui est-ce que vous parlez ? 
 
 Whom do you speak to ? 
 De qui est-ce que vous parlez f 
 
 Whom are you speaking of . ? 
 Pour qui est-ce que vous parlez' 
 Whom are you speaking for ? 
 Qtt'est-ce que vousfaites 9 
 
 What are you doing ? 
 Qw'est-ce que vous faisiez ? 
 
 What were you doing ? 
 Qt/'est-ce que vous avezfait f 
 
 What have you done ? 
 Qw'est-ce que vousferez? 
 
 What will you do ? 
 Qw'est-ce que vousferiez ? 
 
 What would you do ? 
 
 In these phrases que 
 is conductive, (see 
 p. 259.) 
 
 In these phrases ce 
 stands for cette D 
 chose; the first que 
 
 - stands for quoi ; 
 the second is a 
 relative governed 
 by the next verb. 
 
 If To such phrases the answer may be, for instance ; Mon theme, my exer- 
 cise ; or more politely Je fais mon theme ; an answer with c'est would border 
 apon crossness 
 
 Gg2 
 
336 SYNTAX. 
 
 J^ To find out a reason ior this difference, it may not be improper to observe 
 that this question, Qui est-ce qui vient? respects the subject ; whereas this, 
 Qu'est-ee que vous/aites? respects the object of an action.] 
 
 A quoi est-ce que vous vous appliquez ? 
 
 What do you apply to ? j T , » 
 
 Be quoi est-ce que vous vous servez ? f ln - e P nr f es 
 
 What do you make use of ? ( \ ue ls co " du(> 
 
 Avec quoi est-ce que vous le Jerez ? J 
 
 With what will you make it ? 
 
 r f There is another manner of using e'est interrogatively, viz. ^w'est-ce que 
 e'est que vous demandez (see p. 263.) ; in which the first que stands for quoi, the 
 JB second is conductive, and the third is the regimen of demandez. That idioma- 
 tical reduplication of e'est is, perhaps, to show eagerness, impatience, Sec. It 
 seems tolerated only when speaking of things, and seldom, if ever, allowed 
 when speaking of persons : for such a phrase, Qui est-ce que e'est que vous 
 demandez? would be very barbarous French.] 
 
 Quelle heure est-ce qui sonne ? What is the clock striking 
 Deux heures, two ; or better, C'est deux heures ; It strikes two. 
 
 Quel livre est-ce que vous lisez ? What book do you read ? 
 Gil Bias ; or rather, Je lis Gil-Bias ; I read Gil-Bias. 
 
 § II. Of the Impersonal II y a, there is, there are, 
 
 1°. Most ways of speaking, beginning with some, and the verb 
 C to be, are expressed in French by the impersonal il y a : as, 
 Some friends are false ; II y a defaux amis. 
 Some pains are wholesome ; II y a des douleurs salutaires. 
 Sometimes also the adnoun is joined to its noun, with the 
 pronoun qui and the verb ttre : as, 
 
 II y a des douleurs qui sont salutaires. 
 
 II y a des Chretiens qui sont indignes de ce nom ; 
 
 Some Christians are unworthy of that name. 
 
 Observe, that il y a comes before a noun even of the plural 
 number. 
 
 2°. The impersonal il y a is besides used to denote a quan- 
 tity of Time, Space, and Number. 
 
 To denote the quantity of time past since an event, the Eng- 
 lish begin the sentence with a preterite, simple or compound, 
 followed, by the noun of time, attended by a pronoun demon- 
 strative before it, or the preposition ago, after ; as, 
 He has been dead these thirty years, or He died thirty years ago. 
 
 The French begin with the impersonal ily a ; then comes the 
 noun of time, with no pronoun demonstrative, but followed by 
 que ; then a noun, or pronoun, expressing the subject, with its 
 verb in the present, unless the sense requires another tense ; a* 
 
 1 
 
Of VERBS. 337 
 
 17 y a trente ans qu'il est mort ; but in transposing the A 
 impersonal, we leave out que, and we say : II est mort il y a 
 trente ans. 
 
 3°. Neither, in asking such questions, do we begin with 
 comment, or comment long, or comment long-temps, but Com- 
 bien y a-t-il que, then the noun, or pronoun of the subject, with 
 its verb in the present, thus, 
 
 Combien y a-t-il qu'il est mort ? How long has he been dead ? 
 Combieny a-t-il que vous demeurez a Londres? 
 How long have you lived at London ? How long is it since 
 
 you lived at London ? 
 
 The answer must likewise be made with the impersonal, and 
 the noun of time, thus, B 
 
 II y a dix ans, or simply, dix ans : these ten years. 
 
 II y a dix ans qu'il est mort, ou qu'il demeure a Londres; 
 
 He has been dead, or He has lived at London these ten years. 
 
 II y a vingt ans qu'il fait la mime chose; 
 
 He has done the same thing these twenty years. 
 
 II y a vingt ans qu'il a fait, or qu'il fit la mime chose ; 
 
 He has done, or He did the same thing twenty years ago. 
 
 These two last instances, very different in the sense which 
 each of them implies, make me think, that though the English 
 always begin these sorts of sentences with a preterite, yet they 
 denote an action past, in a far remote time, by the preposition C 
 ago after the noun of time, without a pronoun demonstrative 
 (which the French express only by a preterite, simple or com- 
 pound). Whereas they express the same action, by the pro- 
 noun demonstrative before the noun of time, sometimes also 
 preceded by the preposition for, when the same action con- 
 tinues still (which the French express by a present tense) : as 
 again, • 
 
 II y a vingt ans qu'il voyage par toute I' Europe ; 
 He has been travellingybr these twenty years all over Europe 
 II y a vingt ans qu'il a voyage par toute I' Europe ; 
 He has travelled all over Europe twenty years ago. 
 
 Examples of Number and Space. 
 II y a trente millions d'dmes en France, il n'y en a que neufcu 
 
 dix millions en Angleterre ; 
 There are thirty millions of souls in France, there are but nine 
 
 or ten in England. [a Paris ; 
 
 II y a cent-vingt lieues, ou trois cent soixante milles de Londres 
 Paris is 1 20 leagues, or 360 miles distant from London ; or, 
 
 There are 120 leagues, or 360 miles from London to Paris, 
 
33S 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 A The Question of Space is asked thus, 
 
 Combien y a-t-il de Londres a Paris ? How far is Paris from 
 London ? naming first the place where one is, or is supposed 
 to come from, which is quite the reverse in English. 
 
 The impersonal il est is elegantly used instead of, and in the same sense 
 as, ilya ; as, II est des amities veritables, or II y a des amities veritables; 
 There are true friendships. 
 
 II est a craindre, or II y a a craindre que ; It is to be feared that, fyc. 
 
 Observe, that a noun coming after il y a, and il est, must have one of these 
 particles un, du, de, des, before it, and be followed by the relative qui, if the 
 sentence is compound. 
 
 B 
 
 ^<i 
 
 jour, 
 
 nuit, 
 
 obscur, sombre, 
 
 du rent y 
 
 soldi, 
 jzlair de lime, 
 
 y it is <i 
 
 § III. Of the Impersonal il fait, it is. 
 
 1°. The Impersonal il fait is used with adnouns, and some 
 few nouns, denoting the disposition of the air and weather, and 
 is englished by it is : as, 
 
 "beau, or beau temps,"} f fair, or fine weather, 
 
 chaud, hot weather, 
 
 froid, cold, 
 
 vilairt, u gty? 
 
 crottts dirty, 
 
 day-light, 
 night, 
 dark, 
 
 windy, or the wind blows, 
 the sun shines, 
 the moon shines. 
 2°. The English impersonal it is, construed with an adnoun 
 and a gerund, or with one of these adnouns, good, bad, better, 
 dangerous, followed by a noun of place, is also rendered into 
 French by il fait, followed by an adnoun, with a verb in the 
 infinitive : as, 
 
 It is dear living at London ; II fait cher vivre a Londres. 
 Sometimes the verb is left out in French : 
 II fait bon ici ; It is good being here. 
 
 D § IV. Of the Impersonal il faut. 
 
 1°. The im^QxsowdXilfaut, always requires after it either the 
 subjunctive with que, or the infinitive without any preposition. 
 It denotes the necessity of doing something, and is englished 
 by must, for the present tenses ilfaut, and qu'il faille, the 
 imperfect ilfalloit, and the preterite ilfallut ; by shall for the 
 future, and should for the conditional : and sometimes by the 
 verb to be, though all its tenses, with one of these words 
 necessary, requisite, needful. 
 
Of VERBS. 339 
 
 In order, therefore, to put into French any English, ex- A 
 pressed by must, shall, or should, or by it is, or it was necessary, 
 requisite, needful, one must begin the sentence with a tense of 
 the impersonal ilfaut que ; then the pronoun or noun coming 
 before must, or should, must become the subject of the French 
 verb that comes after il faut que, and is governed in the sub- 
 junctive : 
 
 The officers must do their duty ; 
 
 II faut que les qfficiers fassent leur devoir. 
 
 They must be courageous ; II faut qu'ils soient courageux. 
 
 Children should learn every day something by heart ; 
 
 II faudroit que les enfans apprissent tons les jours qnelque 
 chose par cccur. B 
 
 2°. Ilfaut, before an infinitive, denotes the necessity of doing 
 something in general, without specifying who must : then the 
 subject coming before must may be either I or we, he or she, or 
 any body, according to the sense of the speech : as, 
 Ilfaut f aire cela ; One, or we, or you, he, somebody, must do 
 
 that. 
 II faut y oiler \ I, or you, or we, or somebody, must go there, 
 
 or thither. 
 
 3°. Sometimes also the verb coming after the impersonal is 
 englished by the passive voice, and (as in sentences expressed C 
 with the particle on) the noun that follows the verb in French, 
 comes before the particle must in English ; and the French 
 infinitive active is made by the passive : as, 
 
 Ilfaut instruire les enfans ; Children must be instructed. 
 
 All which sentences may equally well be expressed with the 
 subjunctive : as, 
 
 Ilfaut que les enfans soient instruits, Ilfaut que cela sefasse ; or 
 Ilfaut qu'il, or qiCelle, oxqu'onfasse cela, ox que nousfassions 
 
 cela. 
 
 4°. Again, The necessity of having something is also denoted 
 by ilfaut, before the noun of the thing only, without any verb j -D 
 and ilfaut, thus construed, is englished by one must have, or 
 something must be had: as, 
 Ilfaut de r argent pour plaider ; 
 One must have money to go to law. 
 Pour se pousser dans le monde, ilfaut des amis; 
 To push one's fortune in the world, one must have friends : 
 
 And ilfaut, thus construed, as also with a pronoun persona 
 between il and faut, denotes one's present want, that must be 
 supplied, and the pronoun personal becomes the subject of 
 must in English : as, 
 
340 SYNTAX. 
 
 A. II mefaut de V argent, I must have, or I want money. 
 II mefaut un chapeau, I must buy a hat. 
 II xousfaut des livres, You must have, or buy, or get books 
 Illmfaut un mari, She wants a husband, she must have one. 
 
 5°. The impersonal ilfaut is used absolutely at the end of a 
 sentence, with the pronoun ce qui, or the conjunction comme 
 before it ; in which case it denotes Duty and Decency, and is 
 englished by should, and sometimes should do, and should be : as, 
 II ne se conduit pas comme ilfaut ; He don't behave as he should. 
 Faites cela comme ilfaut ; Do that as it should be. 
 B Cela ri 'est pas comme ilfaut; That is not as it should be. 
 11 fait ce qiCilfaut\ He does what he must, or what is requisite. 
 
 There is an impersonal, which may be called Reflected, composed of the 
 double pronoun il se, with the third person of any verb active, followed by 
 a noun, with one of the particles de, du, des, before. This impersonal is 
 englished by there is, before a noun, followed by a participle : as, 
 II se boit de bon vin en France; There is good wine drank in France. 
 II se mange de bonne viande en Angle terre ; There is good meat eat in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The impersonal Reflected is also construed with 'the pronoun demonstra- 
 tive ceci, cela : as, 
 
 Cela ne sefait pas ainsi ; That is not done so, or in this manner. 
 
 Cela sefait par-tout le monde ; That is done all over the world. 
 But observe, that these ways of speaking may as well be rendered by the 
 ~ particle on : as, On boit de bon vin en France, On fait cela par-tout le 
 ^ monde, &c. 
 
 I have sufficiently spoken of the other impersonate in the second part. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Of the FRENCH NEGATIVES. 
 
 § 1. I have already said something of the negatives ne and 
 pas, in treating of pronouns, but have considered them only 
 with respect to the right placing of them with the pronouns con- 
 junctive. I shall in this place consider their construction, as also 
 that of several other negatives used in the French language. 
 
 1°. Ne comes (as has been said) after the subject, and im- 
 mediately before the verb, and pas or point, after the verb, if 
 the tense is simple : as, Je ne sais pas, I know not ; and be- 
 tween the auxiliary and the participle, if the tense is compound : 
 as, Je ?i'ai point su cela, I did not know that. 
 
 2°. When the verb is in the present of the infinitive, the two 
 negatives come together before it, after the preposition • as, 
 
Of the NEGATIVES. 341 
 
 Je vous dis de ne pas vous meler de cela ; A 
 
 I bid you tiot to meddle with that. 
 
 Pour ne point reptter ce que nous avons deja dit ; 
 
 Not to repeat what we have already said. 
 
 3°. No is non, used at the end of a sentence, or absolutely, as 
 in answer to questions, and not is non pas, used also absolutely, 
 in the beginning of a sentence , and followed by que, with the 
 subjunctive : as, 
 
 Croyez vous cela? Non. Do you believe that ? No. 
 
 Je ne crois point cette nouvelle-la ; non pas que la chose soit 
 impossible, mais puree qiCelle ne me paroit pas vraisemblable ; B 
 
 I don't believe that piece of news : not that the thing is impos- 
 sible, but because it does not appear probable to me. 
 
 4°. Although pas or point may be sometimes indifferently 
 used, yet point has a more negative force, it implies not at all. 
 But note, 
 
 Is*, That point always requires the particle de before nouns : 
 as, II riy a point de raison pour cela ; There is no reason for 
 that : 27 rien a point de soin ; He has no care of it : and pas 
 sometimes takes the preposition de without an article ; and 
 sometimes an article before the noun that comes after it : as, C 
 
 II lien a pas le soin qiiil faut ; He don't take care of it as he 
 should : — and sometimes not : as, II rien a pas soin ; He has 
 no care of it :— and never 27 rien a point soin, or point le soin 
 qu'il faut. 
 
 ^ Pas implies something actual and accidental : point, something habi- 
 tual and permanent. 
 
 II ne lit pas ; he does not read, viz. now. 
 
 II ne lit point ; He does not read, viz. ever. 
 
 Pas expresses a mere negation ; point inforces it. Pas sometimes denies D 
 partly, and admits of a modification ; point always denies absolutely and 
 without reserve. 
 
 II n'est pas bien riche ; He is not very rich. II riest point riche ; He is 
 not at all rich.] 
 
 Idly, That pas, for the reasons just given, is to be used 
 before these modifying words, wherea3 point cannot be used 
 with them : 
 
 bcaucoup, much, moins, less, tant, so much, 
 
 peu, little, souvent, often, autant, as much, 
 
 mkux, better, toujours, always, trop, too much, 
 
 plus, more, si, so, fort, tres, rery, 
 
 eztrimement, extremely, infiniment, infinitely ; and all adverbs : as, 
 
342 SYNTAX. 
 
 A II riy a pas beaucoup de monde aujourd'kui au Pare ; 
 There is not much company to-day in the Park. 
 1/ n'est pas pea difficile de lui plaire ; 
 It is not a little difficult to please him. 
 i7 ne la voit pas souvent ; He does not see her often, #c. 
 
 3dly, That when a question is asked, pas intimates that one 
 supposes the thing concerning which the question is asked ; 
 whereas point intimates a mere doubt and ignorance of the 
 same thing. For instance, by this question, 
 . , N'est il point Membre de la Sociite Roy ale 9 
 
 Is he not a Fellow of the Royal Society r 
 I want tc be informed whether he is a Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety or no, being quite ignorant of it ; but by this other, 
 
 N'est-il pas Membre de la Societe Royale f 
 I intimate that 1 think he is a Fellow of that Society, and 
 wonder that the others do not think so too. 
 
 5°. Besides these negatives (to which add ni repeated, neither, 
 and nor) the following words, which are of themselves nega- 
 tive terms, require moreover the particle ne before their verb, 
 which is then alone, without pas or point. 
 
 personne, no boay, nullement,no means, vwt, word, and goutte : 
 
 C pas un, not one, gueres, but little, but these two last re- 
 
 aucun, no, not any, jamais, never, quire a negative only 
 
 nul, none, nen, nothing, with dire and voir : 
 
 as, Je ne mis personne ; I see nobody. Vous ne dites rien ; 
 You say nothing. Ehe n a ancun amant ; She has no sweet- 
 heart. 17 ne dit mot ; He does not say a word. On ne voit 
 goutte ; One cannot see at all, fyc. 
 
 Observe, that rien signifies also sometimes something or any thing; and 
 in that sense it is construed without a negative, and in sentences of interro- 
 XJgation and doubt only ; as, 
 
 Avez-vous jamais rien vu de si beau ? Have you ever seen any thing so fine ? 
 Jamais signifies also ever f and is construed without a negative : as, 
 Si jamais fy retoume, &c. If ever I go there again, SfC. 
 
 51 Rien and jamais are also used without the particle ne, when they are 
 preceded by the preposition sans, which implies exclusion and negation : as, 
 
 Sans rien /aire; without doing any thing. Sans jamais se plain dre ; 
 without ever complaining.] 
 
 2dly, The conjunction a moins que, unless ; de peur que, de 
 crainte que, lest, or for fear that (but not de peur de, de crainte 
 de, which govern the infinitive), will have after them ne before 
 the next verb ; as likewise these four verbs, empicher, to hinder • 
 
Of the NEGATIVES. 343 
 
 to prevent ; craindre, to fear ; apprthender, to apprehend ; A 
 avoir peur, to be afraid : -when they are not used in the infini- 
 tive: as, 
 
 A moins que vous ne le vouliez ainsi ; Unless you will have it so. 
 J'empecherai qu'il ne vous nuise; I will hinder him from hurt- 
 ing you, fyc. 
 
 % In such phrases, this word ne is the ne or qutn of the Latin, which has been 
 introduced in our language. French Academy.] 
 
 But it is to be observed, with respect to the verbs of fearing 
 and apprehending, that it is only when one speaks of an effect 
 that is not wished for, that the second negative pas, or point, is 
 left out after the next verb ; for if one wishes that the thing- 
 spoken of should happen, then the verb that follows craindre B 
 and apprthender, must be attended with the two negatives : as, 
 // craint que sa femme ne meure ; He fears that or lest his 
 
 wife should die. 
 11 craint que sa femme ne meure pas; He fears lest his wife 
 
 should not die. 
 
 The first instance is of an effect not wished for, the last of 
 one wished for, denoted in English by the negative not, whereas 
 the other way of speaking is without negative. 
 
 Observe, also, that empecher takes no negative, when the 
 next verb is in the infinitive : as, 
 Je tempeclierai de vous nuire ; I will hinder him from hurting C 
 
 you. 
 
 Nier, to deny, requires also elegantly ne before the next 
 verb, in negative sentences : as, 
 Je ne me pas que je n*aie dit cela ; I don't deny that I have 
 
 said that. 
 
 ^ Here it may not be amiss to observe that there is a material difference 
 between de crainte de and de crainte que. 
 
 Conjunctive phrases, formed with de, serve to connect sentences, the verbs 
 of which are depending- on, and governed by, the same subject; whereas 
 conjunctive phrases, formed with que, chiefly serve to connect sentences, the 
 verbs of which are governed by different subjects : for instance, 
 
 Jene le ferai pas, de crainte de vous dtplaire: I will not do it, lest I should J) 
 displease you. The two verbs ferai and ddplaire depend on the same subject je. 
 
 Je ne le ferai pas, de crainte que vous ne le trouviez mauvais ; I will not do .it 
 lest you should think it amiss. The two subjects are different ; ferai is go- 
 verned by je, and trouviez by cous. 
 
 Conjunctive phrases with que may sometimes 'be used to connect sentence* 
 governed by the same subject ; they then serve to give more energy : for 
 instance, 
 
 Je nele ferai pas, de crainte que je ne m'en trouve plus mal (I will not do it, 
 test I should be the worse for it) ; implies the same sense as de m'en trouver 
 plus mal, but has more energy. 
 
 Conjunctive phrases with de cannot be used when the subjects are different. 
 
 This observation may account for not using de or owe indifferently after 
 craindre, apprthender, avoir peur ; as also after prendre garde, which, in the 
 sense of to beicare, belongs to the same tribe j as, 
 
 H h 
 
344 SYNTAX. 
 
 J^ Prenez garde de tomber ; Beware of felling, (The subject is the same.) 
 
 Prenez garde qu'il ne tombe ; Take care lest he should fall. (The subjects 
 
 are different.) 
 Prenez garde que vous ne tombiez dans le piege ; take care lest you should fall 
 
 into the snare (the subject is the s-ame ; but the phrase is more energetic than 
 
 Prenez garde de iomber dans le piege.] 
 
 Sdly, We use the negative ne before the verb that comes after 
 these five words, plus, moins, mieux, autre, and autrement ; as, 
 II est plus sincere qu'il ne faudroit ; He is more sincere than he 
 
 should. 
 Elle est moins dgee que je ne croyois ; She is less old than I 
 
 thought. 
 B //, or Elle est tout autre que je ne penso is ; (See p. 226, D.) 
 He, or She is quite another than I thought. 
 
 Vous avezfait tout autrement queje n'auroisfait ; You have 
 acted quite differently from what / would have done. 
 
 % A Gentleman of profound knowledge, Mr. Salmon, in his Complete Sys- 
 tem of the French Language, p. 144, expresses himself thus : — " Grammarians 
 are wrong to say that que always requires ne before the concluding verb of 
 the comparison." He brings in the Genius of the French Language, and 
 countenances his verdict by authorities of the first rate. Having, however, 
 met in his way other authorities equally respectable, but contradictory to his 
 decision, he concludes that it is indifferent, after a negative verb, to suppress 
 or use ne, and yet wishes to inforce his own opinion. 
 
 This point is, indeed, one of the nicest to discuss; as most Grammarians 
 give instances only for the sentence declarative affirmative, and leave the 
 Q reader in the dark for the other sorts of sentences. 
 
 In my humble opinion, however, notwithstanding the authorities quoted by- 
 Mr. S., ne, in any case, cannot be suppressed ; because such sentences imply 
 negation, and the very Genius of the French Language, appealed to by 
 Mr. S., far from rejecting ne in negative sentences, constantly requires it , 
 as follows : 
 1st Case, granted by II £crit mieux qn'il ne may be resolved by its in- 
 
 Mr. S. parle, He writes better verse ; 11 ne parle pas 
 than he speaks, aussi Men qn'il ecrit. 
 2d Case, contested by Ecrit-il mieux qu'il ne II ne parle pas 
 
 Mr. S. parle? Does he write bien ; e'crit-il mieux / 
 better than he speaks / 
 3d Case, contested by II n'ecrit pas mieux qu'il II ne parle pas 
 
 Mr. S. ne parle, He does not icrite bien ; il n'ecrit pas mieux. 
 better than he speaks, 
 D 4th Case, granted by N'ecrit-il pas mieux qu'il // ne parle pas 
 
 Mr. S. ne parle? Does he nut bien ;7i'icrit-il pas mieux/ 
 
 write better than, Sfc. 
 
 This last has two meanings, 1st, Ecrit-il aussi mal qu'il parle ? 2d, Vans 
 voyez qu'il ecrit mieux qu'il ne parle. 
 Imperative ~) -a r Qu'il derive mieux qu'il 11 ne parle pas 
 
 sentence rl^'V ne parle, Let him write bien; qu'il ecrive mieux 
 
 affirmative 3 J g J better than he speaks, (s'il veut qu'on le lise.) 
 Imperative )Ǥj Qu'il n'ecrive pas plus mal II ne parle pas 
 
 sentence £'.£ *>/ qu'il ne parle, Let him mal; qu'il derive de 
 
 negative 3 I" 55 not write worse than he vieme (& on le lira avee 
 
 speaks, plaisir). 
 
 From the above examples it appears that the Genius of the English Lan- 
 guage is diametrically opposite to that of the French; but though opposite, 
 either must be consistent with itself ; therefore, as the English Genius con- 
 stantly rejects the negation in concluding a comparison, so it may be inferred 
 
Of the NEGATIVES. 345 
 
 that the French constantly requires it ; therefore the particle ne granted by J^ 
 Mr. S. in two cases, cannot be contested in the two other cases; of course, 
 Mr. S.'s distinction seems, at least, nugatory. 
 
 With respect to his quotations, though my opinion is of no weight, yet I 
 would rather advise not to imitate them, whatever the merit of their authors 
 may be. If these sentences were put to the test, as above, they could not 
 stand it. So it is that mistakes of the best writers are sometimes given out as 
 rules ; and so it was with the la of Madame de S6vigne, (see p. 248.) 
 
 f To the above words may be added these sentences: peu s'enfaut, il s'en 
 faut peu, il s'enfaut tant, &c. which always announce a negation : as, 
 
 Peu s'en faut que je ne mefasse un serupule de preter au denier cinq ; I can 
 hqrdly without a scruple lend at five per cent. 
 
 II s'en est peu fallu qu'il n'ail iti tui ; He was very near being killed. 
 
 II s'en faut tant que la somme etiHere n*y soit ; There is so much wanting to 
 the whole sum. -r> 
 
 Such phrases may be resolved thus : Je ne mefais point de serupule, &c. mats ** 
 peu s'en faut.] 
 
 4thly 9 After que and si, signifying before, or unless, or but, 
 
 in the middle of a compound sentence, the former part whereof 
 
 is a negative sentence : as, 
 
 Je ne la reverrai point, que sa mere ne m'envoie querir : 
 
 I will not see her again, before her mother sends for me. [prie ; 
 
 Je n'y irai pas, orje ji'iraipas s'il ne m'en prie, or qu'il ne m'en 
 
 I will not go thither if he don't desire, (or) unless he desires me. 
 
 II tie sauroit ouvrir la bouche qu'z7 ne dise quelque impertinence ; 
 He cannot open his mouth but he says some foolish thing or 
 
 Other. 
 
 bthly, Before the verb that precedes ni, repeated in the sen- 
 tence ; which answers to neither and nor : as, C 
 Je n'aime ni a boire ni afumer ; I love neither drinking nor 
 smoking. 
 
 And if no verb comes before neither, the English particle 
 neither is ne only, and nor is ni ne : as, 
 
 Je ne bois ni nefume ; I neither drink nor smoke. 
 When two adnouns meet together in a negative sentence, they are not joined 
 with the particle ni, if they are synonymous, or express both the same tiling in 
 different words ; but only when they signify two different tilings, or quite 
 contrary. When they are synonymous only, they are joined by theenchtick 
 el ; as, 
 
 Je ne me ressouviens point dlmerplus rude fy plusfroid que celui de 1740 ; I do 
 not remember a more severe and colder winter than that of 1740. Rude and 
 froid, being synonymous, are coupled with fy : but in this other, the two ad- j\ 
 nouns express very different things, and therefore are coupled by ni,] 
 Jamais on ne vit de saison plus pluvieuse ni plusfroide ; 
 One never saw a more rainy or colder season. 
 % For the reason mentioned before, two or more nouns or infinitives go- 
 verned by the preposition sans, must be joined with the conjunction ni: as, 
 Une mer sans fond ni rive; A sea. without either bottom or shore. 
 Sans boire ni manger ; Without eating or drinking: which is the same as 
 n'ayant ni bn ni niang£ ; sans having of itself the force both of ne and the first 
 roj 
 
 § II. On the other hand, the French use the particle ne only, 
 in some particular cases, when the analogy of speech requires 
 a negative in all languages, and wherein therefore it seems that 
 they should not leave out pQ$. 
 
346 SYNTAX. 
 
 A 1st, With these five verbs used negatively ; oser to dare, cesser 
 to cease, pouvoir to be able, savoir to know, and prendre 
 garde, to take care : as, 
 
 i7 n'ose me contredire ; He dares not contradict me. 
 Elle ne cesse de babiller ; She does not cease prattling. 
 1/ ne peut, or II ne sauroit marcher ; He cannot walk. 
 But note, 1st, that it it an elegance only to use but one negative with pou- 
 voir, it being- not improper to say, 11 ne peut pas marcher; and that, when a 
 question is asked, regard roust be had to the ear, to express or leave out the 
 second negative, according as it reads, and sounds best, though it is then most 
 commonly expressed: Nepeut-il pas /aire cela? which is better than Nepeut- 
 il faire cela ? Can't he do that ? 
 2dly, When savoir is used for pouvoir, it requires only one negative, and can 
 x> never be used with two : as, II ne sauroit marcher ; He cannot walk. Ne sou- 
 -° roit-ilf aire cela? Can't he do that? and never II ne sauroit pas— T$e sauroit Upas I 
 f There is this difference between on ne peut and on ne sauroit ; the latter 
 implies inability ; the former impossibility. 
 
 Ce qu'on ne sauroit faire est trop difficile ; What one is not able to do, is too 
 difficult: 
 Ce qu'on ne peut pas faire, est impossible ; What one cannot do, is impossible : 
 And for that reason, on ne peut, in that sense, is always accompanied with 
 pas ; whereas on ne sauroit never admits of it/| 
 
 When savoir is used in its proper signification of knowing, there is another 
 distinction to be made ; for if it implies only an uncertainty of the mind^ it re- 
 quires but one negative ; II ne suit ce qu'il doit espSrer de son proccs ; He does 
 not know what he ought to expect of his lawsuit ; that is, He is uncertain of 
 the event of his cause ; he hopes, but knows not how far to hope. But if savoir 
 
 § reserves ks full energy, that is, if it implies a. full and entire ignorance of the 
 ling, it will have two negatives ; as, 
 ^ II ne sait pas que le Juge, or les Juges Vont condamne* ; 
 
 ^ He does not know that the Judge, or Judges, have cast him. 
 
 Again, savoir requires but one negative, when it meets with any of these 
 particles oil, comment, combien, quand, quel, quoi, «; which, by their nature, 
 modify its energy ; as, 
 
 II est je ne sais oil ; He, or it is I do not know where. 
 
 Cela s'estfaitje ne sais comment ; That was done I do not know how. 
 
 Ld-dessus est entrije ne sais quel homme; Thereupon entered I do not know what 
 
 man. 
 Je ne sais s'il dit vrai ; I do not know whether he tells the truth, &c. 
 
 odly, Prendre garde signifies either to take care, or to take notice, to mind, to 
 consider : and it is in the first signification only it requires but one negative 
 before the next verb ; for in the other signification it requires the two : as, 
 Prenez garde qu'on ne vous irompe ; Take care lest they cheat you. 
 II prit gar d£ qu'on ne le recevoit pas si bien que de coutume; 
 He took notice that he was not so cordially received as usual. 
 S After prendre garde, in the sense of to takecare, que governs the subjunc- 
 -p. tive, and, in the other sense, the indicative mood; the reason for both is 
 -LJ obvious.] 
 
 As for the first signification, viz. to take care, see above, p. 515, D.] 
 H Pas, or point, may also be elegantly suppressed in such interrogative 
 phrases : Avez-vous un'ami qui ne soit des miens? Have you a friend who is not 
 mine ?] 
 
 Qdly, The French use the negative ne only, after the imper 
 sonal ily a followed by a compound of the present tense : as, 
 II y a dix ans queje ne Vai vu; I have not seen him these ten 
 years. 
 
 But if any other tense conies after the impersonal, they use 
 the two negatives : 
 
 II y a un mots queje ne lui parte point ; I have not spoken to 
 him this month. 
 
Of the NEGATIVES. 347 
 
 II y avoit un an queje ne la voyois point; I had not seen her A 
 for a year. 
 
 f It does not result from the above rules, that the sentence following the 
 impersonal ily a should always he a negative one ; for we say : 
 Ily a dix ans queje le connois ; I have known him these ten years. 
 II y a dix am que j' en ui entendu purler ; I heard speak of it ten years ago.] 
 3dly, When the verb meets with the particle de, denoting a 
 space of time : as, 
 
 Je ne lui parlerai de ma vie ; I won't speak to him as long as 
 I live. 
 
 4thly, .When a question is asked with que, signifying pourquoi: 
 as Que ne faites vous cela ? Why don't you do that ? 
 5thly, With the adverb plus used absolutely : as, 
 
 Je ne veuxplus le voir ; I will see him no more. g 
 
 But when phis is used comparatively, that is, before an 
 adnoun, with or without que, the two negatives are requisite 
 before plus: as, 
 
 Je ne le veux pas plus grand que V autre ; 
 I won't have it larger than the other. 
 % bthly, As also with the adverb nonplus, signifying pas davantage, no more : 
 
 On n'en parle non plus que s'il n'avwt jamais 6U ; He is no more spoken of 
 han if he had never existed. 
 
 Non plus is sometimes used in the sense of pareillement ; then it is preceded 
 oy the two negatives, nepas, or by the particle ni only : as, 
 
 Vousne voulez pas le dire, je ne le dirai pas non plus (that is, non plus que 
 vous) ; You will not tell it, nor will I tell it any more (than you). Ni moi non 
 plus ; nor J neither. 
 
 Ceux-ci n'en sont pas, ni ceux-ld non plus ; These are not among the number, p 
 nor those neither. ^ 
 
 (ythly, After si, and que, in the sense of unless, or but (see the 
 4th paragraph of the First Section, p. 345.) ; as, 
 Je ne saurois boire sije ne mange; I cannot drink if I don't eat. 
 Je n'y irai pas, orje n'irai pas qu'elle ne m'y invite: I will not 
 go thither, unless she invites me. 
 
 It is indifferent in some few cases to use the two negatives, or one only, 
 but they must be learnt by practice. Thus, we say, 
 
 S'il ne me fait ceplaisir-la, or S'il ne me fait pas ce plaisir-lk, je ne me melerai 
 plus deses affaires; If he don't do me that kindness, I will not meddle with 
 his affairs any more. 
 
 S'il ne me paye cette semaine, or S'il ne me payepas cette semaine,je leferai 
 arreter ; If he don't pay me this week, I will arrest him. The ear must be the i-v 
 judge in those cases, whether it is better to express pas or no. ■*-' 
 
 ithly, Ne, followed in the same sentence by que, but sepa- 
 rated by one or more words, expresses seulement, and is eng- 
 lished by but, or nothing but, also in the middle of the sentence, 
 or by only : as, Je ueferai que ce qu'il vousplaira ; I will only 
 do what you please. 11 nefait cpiejouer ; He does nothing 
 but play. Jenefais qix'unrepas par jour; I eat but one meal 
 a- day. 
 
 8thly, But, likewise in the middle of a sentence, is rendered 
 *nto French by que and ne, or the relative qui and m, but with- 
 
 Hh2 
 
S4S 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 out pas or point, and the second verb is in the subjunctive (con- 
 formable to our former rules) : as, 
 
 Je fie doute point avxil ne vienne ; I don't doubt but he will come. 
 Ya-t-il quelquun qui ne le sacke ? Is there any body but knows it ? 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 § I. Of the Formation of Adverbs. 
 
 1°. (jenerally speaking, one can make as many adverbs oi 
 quality and manner in French, as there are adnouns, by adding 
 the termination ment to the adnoun ; but with this previous dis- 
 tinction, that with adnouns ending in i acute, or in i or u, it is to 
 the masculine ; and with the other adnouns, it is to the feminine 
 that ment is added. Thus, 
 from, aise, easy, is formed aisement, 
 
 sense, 
 
 poli, 
 
 hardi, 
 
 assured, 
 sensible, 
 polite, 
 bold, 
 
 gentil(lis silent),genteel, 
 
 absolu, 
 
 eperdu, 
 
 in genu, 
 
 assidic, 
 
 du, 
 
 grand, 
 
 bon, 
 
 doux, 
 
 seul, 
 
 wft 
 
 certain, 
 
 lent, 
 
 present, 
 
 absolute, 
 desperate, 
 
 assurement, 
 
 sensement, 
 
 poliment, 
 
 hardiment, 
 
 gentiment, 
 
 absolument, 
 
 easily. 
 
 assuredly. 
 
 sensibly. 
 
 politelv. 
 
 boldfv 
 
 genteelly. 
 
 absolutely. 
 
 assiduous, — 
 due, — 
 
 fern, grande, great, 
 
 fem. bonne, good, 
 
 fern, douce, sweet, 
 
 fem. seule, only, 
 
 fem. vive, quick, 
 
 eperdument, desperately. 
 ingen u me?it, ingenuously . 
 assidument, assiduously. 
 
 fem. certaine, certain, 
 
 fem. lente, slow, 
 
 fem. presente, present, 
 sage (masc. and fem.), wise, 
 
 autre, other, 
 
 digne, worthy, — dignement, 
 
 honnete, honest, — honnetement, 
 
 dument, 
 
 — grandernent, 
 
 — bonnement, 
 
 — doucement, 
 
 — seulement, 
 
 — vivement, 
 
 — certainement, 
 — • lentement, 
 
 — presentement, 
 — ■ sagement, 
 
 — autrenient, 
 
 duly 
 
 greatly. 
 
 plainly. 
 
 sweetry. 
 
 only. 
 
 quickly. 
 
 certainly. 
 
 slowly. 
 
 presently. 
 
 wisely. 
 
 otherwise. 
 
 worthily. 
 
 honestly. 
 
 io. Observe that the adnonn masculine retains the sound of its final vowel ia 
 the adverb derived from it ; and that the adnoun feminine keeps also its final e 
 raute, except in the following- adverbs, wherein that e mute is transformed into 6, 
 and protracted a little. 
 aveugUmcnt, blindly, from aveugle, (m. Sc f.) blind. 
 
 commode ment, commodiously, commode, (m. & f.) commodious. 
 
 »nc<wn7m>dem«tf,inconveniently, incommode, (m. & f.) inconvenieuf. 
 
 smformfmeni, conformably, con/omie, (m. 6c f.) conform. 
 
Of ADVERBS 
 
 349 
 
 inormiment, hugely. from tnorme, (m. & f.), huge. 
 
 uniformiment, uniformly, uniforme, (m. & f.), uniform. 
 
 expresstment , expressedly, expres, fem. expresse, express. 
 
 amfuse'ment, confusedly, confus — confuse, confused. 
 
 prtcise'mmt, precisely, prc'cis, — precise, precise. 
 
 commune ment, commonly, commun, — commune, common, 
 
 hnportune'ment, importunately, importun, — importune, importunate. 
 
 abscurfonent, obscurely, obscur, — obscure, obscure. 
 
 profondement, deeply, profond, — profonde, deep. 
 
 prefusement, profusedly, pro/us, — profuse, profuse. 
 
 immune ment , with impunity, though derived from impuni, impunie, unpunished. 
 
 S° From adnouns ending in ant and ent, (lent, and present 
 excepted,) adverbs are formed, by changing that termination into 
 amment, and emment (pronounced alike). Thus from constant 
 constant, is formed comtamment constantly ; from evident evident, 
 e'videmment evidently, <5fc. 
 
 Six adverbs in merit are excepted ; diablement devilishly, from 
 the noun diable devil; comment how, from the conjunction 
 cxrmme ; iticessamment incessantly, from the verb cesser preceded 
 by in, a negative particle ; notamment notedly, from noter to 
 note ; nuitamment by night, from nuit night ; and sciemmejii 
 wittingly, from savoir (derived from scio) to know. 
 
 4°. These following adnouns are also used adverbially with 
 some verbs. 
 
 to speak aloud, 
 to speak low. 
 
 to see plain, to be clear-sighted . 
 to see double, (not clear and plain), 
 to be dim-sighted, 
 to say or speak freely and plainly. 
 penser, parler, chanter juste, to think, sing, $c. right. 
 f rapper fort, to strike hard. 
 
 parler haut, 
 parler bas, 
 voir clair, 
 voir double, 
 voir trouble, 
 
 franc, net, dire franc $■ net, 
 
 juste, 
 
 fort, 
 
 haut, 
 
 has, 
 
 clair, 
 
 doiuble, 
 
 trouble, 
 
 dur, 
 
 doux, 
 
 sec, 
 
 bon, 
 
 mauvais 
 
 ferme, 
 
 droit, 
 
 frais, 
 
 cfiaud, 
 
 gras, 
 
 gros. 
 
 menu 
 
 cher* 
 
 mte. 
 
 entendre dur, to be thick, or dull of hearing. 
 
 filer doux, to give fair words, to be submissive 
 
 repondre sec, to make a sharp rough answer. 
 
 sentir bon, ou mauvais, to have a good or bad smell 
 trouver bon, ou mauvais, to like or dislike. 
 
 u>\ 
 
 tenir ferme, 
 marcher droit, 
 boire frais, 
 boire chaud, 
 parler gras, 
 
 to hold fast. 
 
 to keep to the behaviour. 
 
 to drink cold. 
 
 to drink warm. 
 
 to lisp. 
 
 ecrire groSjOumenu, to write a large or small hand. 
 
 vendre cher, 
 aller vite. 
 
 to sell dear, 
 to go fast. 
 
350 SYNTAX. 
 
 belle, Vechapper belle, to escape narrowly 
 
 fin, couperjin, to cut small. 
 
 As likewise nouveau and nouvelle new, fraiche (the feminine 
 
 offrais fresh,) and even the nouns gontte & mot : as, 
 
 un enfant nouveau ne, a new-born child, 1 
 
 un nouvel arrive, 7 , • , >for nouvellement. 
 
 _ ii • • J- one newly arrived, I 
 
 w/ze^nouvelle arrivte, ) ? ' j 
 
 des herbes toutes fraiches cueillies ; herbs fresh, or just gathered. 
 
 ne voir, or rientendre goutte ; to see, or hear nothing at all. 
 
 ne dire mot ; not to say a word. 
 
 Moreover, observe, that from the prepositions a, de, en, dans, du,avef,StQ. 
 icined with nouns and adnouns, are formed so many adverbs compound, almost, 
 as there are nouns and adnouns in the language. See the list of adverbs in the 
 second part of this work. 
 
 § 11. Of the Construction of Adverbs. 
 
 1°. When adverbs meet with a verb, they are commonly put 
 after it, if the tense is simple, and between the auxiliary and the 
 participle, if it is compound : as, 
 Elle parle beaucoup, She speaks much. 
 
 Je mis fort portt a lefaire, I am very much inclined to do it. 
 
 77 n'a pas encore appris sa lecon, He has not learnt his lesson yet 
 
 2°. Monosyllables Men, mal, mieux, pis, &c. may indifferently 
 come either before or after an infinitive : as, 
 
 Bien chanter, 1 C chanter bien, to sing well. 
 
 Se mieux porter, Vor< se porter mieux, to be better. 
 
 • } 
 
 ter, >« 
 ire, 5 
 
 Se mal conduire, j Lse conduire mal, to behave ill. 
 
 3°. When the adverbs meet with an adnoun, they must be 
 placed first : as, bien fait well made, extremement heureux, 
 mighty happy. 
 
 4°. The adverbs jamais, toujour s, souvent, meeting with an- 
 other, are also placed first ; as, 
 
 Mows sommes souvent ensemble ; We are often together. 
 Tai toujours murement considers; I've always considered maturely. 
 Je ne bois jamais trop ; I never drink too much. 
 
 5°. Adverbs compound always come after the verbs or nouns : 
 as, 
 
 Iltamba a la renverse ; He fell backwards. 
 
 Un homme a la mode ; A fashionable man. 
 
 Mechant de gaiete de coeur } Wilfully wicked. 
 
 6°. Rien and tout, meeting with a verb, are construed like 
 adverbs, even after all the pronouns conjunctive : as 3 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 351 
 
 J'ai tout vu ; I have seen all. 
 
 // tie m'a rien dit ; He has told me nothing. 
 
 Je ne v'eux rien manger ; I will eat nothing. 
 
 7°. These three adverbs of place, ceans within, alentour 
 about, depa, on this side, come after nouns, with the preposition 
 de: as, 
 
 Le maitre de ctans ; The master of this place. 
 
 Les echos d 'alentour ; The neighbouring echoes. 
 
 La partie de decu ; The part on this side. 
 
 8°. These seven become true nouns, being used with the ar- 
 ticle, and requiring the preposition de (or the particles du, des) 
 before the next nouns : 
 le dehors, the outside. "^ as, Le devant est tout use ; 
 
 le dedans, the inside, 
 le dessuSj the upper part, 
 le dessous, the under part, 
 le devant, the fore part, 
 le derriere, the hinder part. 
 Jes environs, the adjacent places. 
 
 The fore part is quite worn out. 
 Cela tient au dedans de la boite ; 
 >-That sticks to the inside of the 
 box. 
 Les environs d'une place ; 
 The adjacent places of a toztm. 
 
 Observe that adverbs derived from verbs or adnouns, govern nouns in the 
 same states as the verb or adnoun, which they are derived from, governs : as 
 differemment de ce que je vous montre, differently from what I show you : 
 indep endowment des lois, without any dependence upon the laws : relative*- 
 ment a facte du Parlement, relatively to the act : prefer ablement a toute 
 autre chose, preferably to, or before any thing, §c. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Of PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Jr repositions are words invented to express the relations which 
 things bear to one another. It was not possible for men to make 
 themselves fully understood, without denoting those relations: 
 therefore such words must needs have been invented in all lan- 
 guages. But (as the author of the Grammaire Raisonnee ob- 
 serves) men in no language have had any regard, concerning 
 prepositions, to what reason would have desired ; to wit, that 
 one relation had been denoted by one preposition, and one pre- 
 position should have denoted one relation only : whereas, in all 
 languages, one and the same relation is signified by many preposi- 
 tions, and one and the same preposition denotes several relational, 
 as we shall see in this chapter. It is in that, nevertheless, cruelly 
 consist the different idioms of languages ; and it is absolutely im- 
 
35% SYNTAX. 
 
 possible ever to attain to the knowledge of any language whatevei, 
 without thoroughly understanding the divers relations denoted 
 by the prepositions, with their respective regimens and construc- 
 tions, or the several states of nouns which they govern : both 
 which relations and states being arbitrary, vary and differ much 
 in all languages. This only instance will evince it. The English 
 say, to think of a thing : the French, to think to a thing ; the 
 Germans and Dutch, to think on or upon a thing ; the Spaniards 
 to think in a thing, &c. Now it will avail an Englishman but 
 little to know, that of is expressed in French by de, if he don't 
 know which relations of things the prepositions a and de denote 
 in that language : since the French say, to think to a thing, and 
 not of a thing. Therefore we shall minutely consider here all 
 the French prepositions, except only such as are of the same 
 signification, and denote the same relation of things, and require 
 the same construction as in English. 
 
 a, au, aux. 
 
 a denotes, — 1st, (whether alone or in composition) the end of 
 the action of the verb, what person or thing it tends to (which 
 relation answers to the dative case of the Latins), as likewise the 
 end one aims at, and is englished by to : as, Donner une chose a 
 quelquun ; To give a thing to somebody : A qui est ce livre % 
 Whose book is this ? 17 est a moi ; It is mine, it belongs 19 me : 
 Parvenir a son but ; To obtain one's end. 
 
 Qdly, a denotes the place where one is, and that whither one 
 is going (in English at, to, into, on, within, &c.) as, Demeurerk 
 Londres ; To live at London : Aller a Paris ; To go to Paris : 
 Vivre a la campagne ; To live in the country : Aller a la cam- 
 pagne ; To go into the country : 17 demeure a vingt milles d'ici ; 
 He lives twenty miles off : Detournez a dtoite ; Turn on the right 
 hand : Oest a deux doigts de terre ; It is within two inches of the 
 ground. 
 
 Sdly, a denotes time, and succession of time and action, in Eng- 
 lish at, in, by, &c. as Se lever a six Jieures, &; dtjeuner a neuf; To 
 rise at six o'clock, and breakfast at nine : Arrive r a temps : To 
 arrive in time : A demain ; Against to-morrow : Parler a son 
 tour - r To speak in one's turn : Se remettre peu a peu ; To reco- 
 ver by degrees : Arracher brin a brin ; To pluck out slip by slip. 
 
 Athly, a denotes the part of the body that is affected, and is 
 englished by in: as Avoir mal a I'epaule; To have a pain in one's 
 shoulder : Eire blesst au bras; To be wounded in the arm. 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS 35$ 
 
 bthly, a denotes the way of being or of doing of people, as 
 also their posture, and gesture, or action ; in English at, after , 
 withy &c. as, Etre a son aise ; To be at one's ease : Vivrek safari-* 
 taisie ; To live as one likes : Faire tout a sa tite ; To do every 
 thing of one's own head : S'habiller a la Francoise; To dress after 
 the French way : Aller a pied ou & cheval ; To go on foot, or on 
 horseback : Se mettre a genoux ; To kneel down on one's knees : 
 Recevoir a bras ouverts ; To receive with open arms. 
 
 6thly, a denotes the quality, price, weight, and measure of 
 things ; in English at, by, with, &c. as, Des bas a trois fits ; 
 Stockings with three threads : De Vor & vingt-quatre carats ; 
 Gold at f our-and-twenty carats : Du drap a dix-huit schellings la 
 verge, Eighteen shillings cloth : Vendre de la viande k la livre; 
 To sell meat by the pound ; Mesurer au compas, ou au cordeau ; 
 To measure with the compass, or the line. 
 
 Ithly, a denotes the matter, instrument and tools used in 
 working ; in English in, with, at : as, Travailler a de la dentelle ; 
 To work in lace : Bdtir a chanx fy a ciment : To build with lime 
 and cement : Peindre a Vhuile ; To paint in oil : Aller a voiles 
 # a rames ; To go with sails and oars : File travaille a F aiguille ; 
 She works at her needle. 
 
 Sthly, a denotes the things which one applies oneself to, and 
 the games one plays at ; in English to, at : as, S'appliquer a V't- 
 iude, aux Mathematiques ; To apply oneself to study, or to the 
 Mathematics ; Jouer aux cartes, To play at cards : Jouer au 
 piquet, a la bete, a la paume, au volant, aux tehees, &,c. To play 
 at piquet, at loo, at tennis, at shuttlecock, at chess, fyc. 
 
 9thly, a is used in reckoning games ; in English, to, &c. as, 
 Deux a trois, Two to three ; Trois a quatre, Three to four ; 
 Quatre a quatre, Four all ; Cinq a cinq, Five all ; Six a point, 
 Six to none ; Sept a point, Seven love. 
 
 lOthly, a signifies sometimes according to, sometimes for, 
 sometimes with, sometimes on, sometimes till or until ; as, Cela 
 7t est pas a son gout ; That is not according to his taste ; Je vous 
 prends a temoin ; I take you for witness ; Se battre a Vipee § au 
 pistolet ; To fight with sword and pistol : Monter a cheval ; To 
 ride on horseback : Mettre pied a terre ; To alight : A Vhonneur, 
 au revoir ; Till our next meeting, till we meet again. 
 
 llthly, a sometimes is a redundancy: as, 11 faut voir a qui 
 Vaura ; We must see who shall have it : Oest a qui I'attrapera , 
 [t is who shall catch it. 
 
 \Qthly, a between two nouns appellative, denotes the manner, 
 or form, of the thing signified by the first noun ; as likewise the 
 use which it is designed for; as, Un Chandelier a bras, A branched 
 
354 SYNTAX. 
 
 candlestick : Un chapeau a grands lords, A broad brimmed hat ; 
 Un clou a crochet, A tenter-hook ; Une boite a mouches, A patch- 
 box ; De Vhuile a bruler, Lamp-oil ; Une salle a manger, A 
 dining-room ; Un moulin a vent, ou a eau, a wind, or water-mill ; 
 Une arme zfeu, A fire-arm. 
 
 This relation is commonly expressed in English by two nouns making a com- 
 pound word, the first of which signifi&s the Manner, Form, and Use, denoted 
 by the French preposition. 
 
 ISthly, a, between two nouns of number, signifies between, 
 and sometimes about : as, Un homme de quarante a cinquante 
 ans ; A man between forty and fifty : II y a quatre a cinq lieues ; 
 It is about four or five leagues distant. 
 
 I4thly, a, before an infinitive, most commonly denotes what 
 is proper to be done, the merit or demerit of persons and things, 
 their seeming capacity, aptitude, fitness, and disposition, turn, or 
 duty: as, Un avis a suivre; An advice worth following: Des 
 fruits bons a garder ; Fruit good, or fit for keeping : Une occa- 
 sion a ne pas laisser tchapper ; An opportunity worth seizing 
 (which one must not let slip) : Un homme a recompenser, ou a 
 pendre ; A man that deserves to be rewarded, or hanged : Oest 
 une affaire a le perdre ; It is an affair that will ruin him : C'est a 
 vous a jouer ; You are to play : Oest a lui a parler ; He is to 
 speak (It is his business, duty, or turn to speak.) 
 
 \5thly, a coming before an infinitive, signifies sometimes 
 wherewith, and sometimes the verb may be resolved by the indi- 
 cative with if, or by a gerund : as, Verser a boire ; To fill some 
 drink : II n'a pas a manger ; He has nothing to eat : A enjuger 
 par les apparences ; //we may judge by appearances : A vivre 
 comme ilfait, il rCira pas loin ; If he lives at that rate, he will not 
 live long : On croiroit, a Ventenare,q\til ne suit rien\ One would 
 think, by hearing him speak, that he knows nothing. 
 
 Etre&Vabri ; To be sheltered-: Se tenir a convert; To keep under cover 
 or shelter: Tenir a, honneur ; To reckon it an honour:- Rcputer a injure; 
 To deem it an affront: Mettre un Officier aux arrits ; To put an Officer 
 under an arrest: A votre avis; In your opinion: A son compte ; Ashe 
 reckons : A ce qu'il me semble ; As far as I apprehend : A ce qu'clle dit ; 
 As she says: Parler a tort <§r ^ travers; To speak at random : Marcher a 
 tdtons; To go groping along in the dark : II est homme h. s'en /richer ; He is 
 one who will take it ill : Je suis ici h Vattendre depuis deux heures, £>• il est 
 encore a revenir ; I have been waiting for him here these two hours, and \\c is 
 not 'yet come back: A cela prls, nous sommes d? accord; Excepting that, we 
 are agreed, Ike. 
 
 This preposition serves to make up a great many more adverbial ways of 
 speaking, each of which is set down in its proper place in my Dictionary. 
 
 de, du, des. 
 De (whether alone or in composition) denotes, 1st, a relation 
 of union or separation, effect, cause, dependence, 8cc and is eng- 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 355 
 
 iished by of, from, by ; as, U amour de Dieu ; The love of God : 
 Un membre du corps ; A member of the body : Et re retranchi de 
 la societi ; To be cut off from the society : Eire estimc de tout h 
 monde ; To be esteemed by every body. 
 
 Qdly, De denotes die quality of a person or thing, the matter 
 of which that thing is made, which is expressed by the first of 
 the two nouns, whereof this preposition shows the relation, and 
 is englished by of: as, Un homme d'honneur, A man of honour; 
 Un plat Sargent, A silver-dish ; Un nont de pierre, A stone- 
 bridge. 
 
 Observe that these two nouns, so joined with either de or u, are commonly eng- 
 lished by two likewise, but without a preposition, or rather by a compound 
 word, whose first noun (whether substantive or adjective) expresses the Matter 
 and Quality, Manner, Form, and Use of the other, as a stone-bridge, un pont d« 
 pierre; a dancing-master, unmaUre a danser. 
 
 Sdly, De denotes the limited sense of nouns, and distinguishes 
 it from the universal and individual sense ; which limited sense 
 is expressed in English by some : as, De V argent, Some money ; 
 Donnez-moi du pain, de la viande, des habits, Give me some 
 bread, some meat, clothes, J'ai affaire a des gens fort honnetes, or 
 a defort honnttes gens, I have to do with very honest people. 
 
 4thly, De denotes the place from which one comes, and the 
 term from which one begins to act, in English from : as, Sortir 
 de Londres, To go out of London ; Revenir de France, de lu 
 uimpagne, du Palais, des hides, To return from France, from 
 the country, from the Palace, from the Indies ; Tomber de haut, 
 To fail from a high place ; Mesurer d!un bout a F autre, To mea- 
 sure from one end to the other. 
 
 bthly, De denotes the manner of acting or being, the means or 
 cause, in English with, in, upon, for, after : as, faire de son 
 mieux, To do one's best, as well as one can ; Danser de bonne 
 grace, To dance genteelly ; Couper de biais, To cut siopingly. 
 in a sloping manner ; S'y prendre de la bonne facon, To go to 
 work after the right way ; Mourir de frozd, To starve with cold ; 
 Vivre de fruits fy de legumes, To live on vegetables, on fruits 
 and greens; Sauter de joie, To leap for joy; 17 se conduit de 
 cede maniere-la, He behaves in, or after ; this manner ; lis peuvent 
 nous nuire de mille manieres differemtes, They may hurt us a 
 thousand different ways. 
 
 Gthly, De is used before the noun of the thing made use of, 
 and the instrument upon which one plays, in English upon : as, 
 Se servir d'une tpee, d'ww baton, d'unpistolet, To use a sword, to 
 make use of a stick, of a pistol; Jouer de la flute, du violon, de* 
 instrumens, To play upon the flute, the violin, upon instruments. 
 
 1 l 
 
S56 SYNTAX. 
 
 Ithly, De is governed of several other verbs neuter, attended 
 by a noun, in English at, about, for, to, &c. as se moquer de quel- 
 qiCun, To laugh at one ; Jouir d'une chose, To enjoy a thing; 
 Se repentir de safaute, To repent one's fault, or for one's fault ; 
 Melez-vous de ros affaires, Trouble yourself about your business, 
 Meddle with your own concerns. 
 
 Sthly, De, before a noun of time, signifies the duration of the 
 time specified, in English during, for, by: as, II part it de nuit, 
 dejour, de grand matin, He set out by night, by day, early ; Je 
 ne Fai point vu d'aujoiud'hui, I have not seen him to-day ; Je ne 
 le verrai de ma vie, I will not see him as long as I live. 
 
 9thly, De is used before nouns denoting dimension, and after 
 nouns preceded by a number, and followed by a participle : as, 
 II croit tons les jours d'un pouce, It grows an inch every day ; II y 
 a trente vaisseaux d'achevcs, There are thirty ships finished. 
 
 lOthly, De is used after pronouns indeterminate, adverbs of 
 quantity, and these words point, jamais, rien, quelque chose, and 
 que of admiration or exclamation, followed by a noun or adnoun : 
 as, 27 n'y a personne de blesst, There is nobody wounded ; Y en 
 avoit-il quelqu'un d'ivre ? Was any of them drunk ? Assez de 
 provisions, Provisions enough ; Plus d'effets fy moins de paroles, 
 More deeds and less words ; Point de sens commun, No common 
 sense ; Quelque chose de bon, Something good. 
 
 llthly, De is used before an infinitive after adnouns signifying 
 Fulness, Emptiness, Plenty, or Want; as likewise after some 
 verbs, and almost all nouns, so they do not signify or imply Incli- 
 nation, Reluctance, Aptness, Fitness, or Unfitness, in English to ; 
 as, Indigne de vivre, Unworthy to live ; // est capable de faire 
 cela, He is capable of doing that ; Je m'abstiendrai d'y alter, I 
 will refrain from going thither; II Fa dttournee de le faire, He 
 has deterred her from doing it ; Le dtsir d'apprendre, The desire 
 of learning ; Hale bonheur deplaire, He has the good fortune to 
 please. 
 
 Si j'etois de vous, Si j'etois que de vous ; Were I in your place : Son habit esl 
 comme de cire ; His coat fits well : De grace, n'enfaites rien ; Pray, don't do it, I 
 beg you would not do it: Vous Ues fort de songo&t; You are very much to her 
 taste": 11 vimt de soriir; He is just gone out : De vous dire comme cela estairive, 
 e'est ce queje ne sais pas ; As for telling- you how that happened, it is more than I 
 am able to do : Les Magisirats doivent rendre la justice de citoyen a citoyen ; chaque 
 veupje la doit rendre lui-meme de lui il un autre peuple; the magistrates ought to do 
 justice between citizen and citizen ; every nation ought to do the same the one to 
 the other : Qu'est-ce que de nous ! What wretched creatures we are ! 
 
 This preposition serves to make up a great many more adverbial ways of 
 speaking, each of which is set down in its proper place in my Dictionary. 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 357 
 
 lQthly, De, des, an inseparable preposition, giving the words 
 composed of it a signification contrary to that which they have 
 when simple, in English, un, dis : as, Defaire, To wwdo ; Des- 
 avantage, disadvantage. 
 
 lothly, De par, a form, made in English by from, in the name 
 of: as, De par le Roi, In the King's name. 
 
 \4thly, De ce que, a conjunction governing the indicative, in 
 English, because, though : as, De ce qu'un homme est plus adroit, 
 ou plus fort qu'un autre, il ne s'ensmt pas qu'il ait de meilleures 
 raisons ; Because one man is stronger, or more dexterous than 
 another, it does not follow that he has the better cause. 
 
 Avant 
 
 1st, Avant shows a relation of time, of which it denotes prio- 
 rity, as also of order and rank, and is always opposite to apres, 
 in English, before : as, J'ai vu cela avant vous, I have seen that 
 before you ; // faut mettre ce mot-ci avant V autre, This word 
 must be placed before the other ; IVarriva avant moi, He arrived 
 before me. 
 
 Idly, Avant is also an adverb of place and time, commonly 
 used with these adverbial particles, si, bien, trop, plus, assez,fort, 
 and englished by far, deep : as, N'allez pas si avant, Don't go so 
 far ; Creuser fort avant, or tiop avant dans la terre, To dig very 
 deep, or too deep in the ground ; Plus avant, further, deeper ; 
 IJ'ep'ce lui est entree bien avant dans le corps, The sword went 
 deep into his body ; Bien avant dans la nuit, When the night 
 was far gone. 
 
 Vous poussez les chases trop avant, You carry things too far ; La chose alia si 
 avant que, Matters went so far, that, frc. Jamais Plulosophe ne penetra plus avant 
 dans la connoissance de la nature, Never did any Philosopher make greater pro- 
 gress in the knowledge of nature ; Nous Uions bien avant en mer, We were gone 
 a great way to sea ; Gravez cela bien avant dans votre memoire, Let that be deeply 
 engraved on your memory. 
 
 Avant que before, is a conjunction governing the subjunctive, as, avant qu'il 
 soit un an, Before twelve months are gone. 
 
 Avant de before, is another conjunction governing the infinitive : as, Parlez-lui 
 avant de lefaire, Speak to him before yon do it. [Avant que de, before an infini- 
 tive, is now grown obsolete.] 
 
 En avant forward, is another adverb of place and time, as, Aller en avavt, To go 
 forward : De ce jour-la en avant, From that day forward ; Mettre en avant, To 
 advance, to assert ; Vous metiez en avant un principe fort dangereux, You advance 
 «r assert a very dangerous principle. 
 
 Apres. 
 
 1st, Apres denotes posteriority both of time, place, and order, 
 and is used in opposition to avant, with respect to time, and to 
 devant, with respect to place and order, in English, after, next to: 
 
358 SYNTAX. 
 
 as, Apres le dtluge, after the deluge ; Sa maison est apres la votre, 
 His house is after, or next to yours ; 77 marchoit apres moi, He 
 walked after me. 
 
 c 2dly, Apres is construed with the infinitive of the auxiliary 
 verb : as, // mourut apres avoir Men dine, He died after eating 
 {having eat) a hearty dinner ; Apres diner, or apres le diner, after 
 dinner ; Apres boire (Hudibrastic style) after drinking. 
 
 II est toujours apres moi, He ever hangs about me, He is always at my elbow ; 
 He is always dandling after me ; Eire apres quelque chose, To be actually about 
 something- ; Je suis apres votre montre, I am about your watch ; On est apres, It w 
 a doing ; Je vais me mettre apres, I will set about it presently; // y avoit long- 
 temps, qiCil ttoit apres cet emploi, qu'il couroit apres ce benefice, il Va enfin obtenu ; 
 He has been a long time about that place ; He has solicited a long time for this 
 living, at last he has got it ; Soupirer apres quelque chose, To wish a thing eagerly ; 
 Se mettre apres quelqu'un, To fall upon one ; On a long-temps attendu apres lui, 
 He has made us wait for him a long while ; On riattend plus qu' apres cela pour 
 partir, That's the only thing which hinders ns to set out ; N'attendre pas aprisune 
 (hose, Te be in a condition to do or to live without a thing ; C'est un hommeriche, 
 
 Squi riattend pas apres cela, He is a rich man, who can do or live without that ; 
 eter le manche apres la cognie, To throw the handle after the hatchet ; To venture 
 the saddle after the horse ; Apres lid il faut tirer Vichello, He is never to be un- 
 done. 
 
 3 dly, Apres signifies excepte, in English except, next to : as, 
 Nous n'avons rien de plus cher apres Vhonneur, Next to our ho- 
 nour, nothing can be dearer to us ; C'est la plus laide bete apres 
 le hup (is said of a very ugly person), He or She is enough to 
 frighten a horse. 
 
 Athly, Apres signifies contre, in English at: as, Crier apres 
 quelqu'un, To scold at one ; Cette femme-la crie toujours apres 
 ses servantes, That woman is constantly scolding at her maids ; 
 Tout le monde crie aprh lui, Every body complains of him. 
 
 Apres, is also an adverb of time, in English after, after that, afterwards, then ; 
 as, Commencez par dejeuner, <Sf vou* Studierez apres, Begin with breakfasting, and 
 after that you will study. 
 
 Apres que, is a conjunction signifying lorsque, in English after, when; as,Apri's 
 que vou saurez fait, After you have done; Apres que les troupe* furent parties, When 
 the troops were gone. 
 
 Apres quoi, is a form of speech signifying aprh laquelle chose, in English, after 
 that, then afterwards ; as, On signa la capitulation, apris quoi la place se rendit 
 They signed the capitulation, and afterwards the place surrendered. 
 
 Apres tout, another form of speech of the same signification, as in English, after 
 all. 
 
 bthhf, D'aprh is another preposition, in English, from, by* 
 after : as, Ce portrait est fait d'apres nature, That picture is 
 drawn after life; Tableau d'apres Raphael, A picture copied 
 from the original of Raphael. 
 
 Ci-aprcs, is an adverb, signifying dans la suite, in English hereafter ; afterwards* 
 in the sequel ; as, Comme on verra ci-apres, As will be seen in the sequel. 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Decant. 
 
 1st , Decant is used in opposition to derriere, and is construed 
 withdfe, au, and par ; in English before, against, over-against : as, 
 Mettez cela decant le feu, Put that before the fire-; II demeure 
 tout decant Veglise, He lives quite over-against the church ; Otez- 
 vous de decant mon jour, Get out of my light ; Otez-vous de de- 
 vant moi, Stand out of my sight, Get out of my sight, Avoid my 
 presence ; lis passentpar decant chez nous, They pass before our 
 door : Un acte par decant notaire, A deed drawn by a lawyer. 
 
 Sens devant derriere ; Preposterously, the wrong way, in the wrong situa- 
 tion : II met sa chemise sens devant derriere ; He puts on lis shirt die wrong 
 way. 
 
 Alter, Venir, Envoyer au devant de quelqtCun ; To go, to come, to send 
 to meet one. Alter au devant (Tune chose ; To obviate a thing, to prevent it. 
 
 "Qdly, Devant is used in opposition to apres •; as, II marchoit 
 decant moi, He walked before me ; Avoir le pas decant quel- 
 qu'un, To have the precedency of one. 
 
 Sdlu, Decant signifies in the presence of, in English before, in 
 the presence of: as, Preeher devant le Roi, To preach before the 
 King ; Quand il fut devant ses Juges, When he was in the pre- 
 sence of his Judges ; II est devant Dieu, Son ame est decant Dieu, 
 He is before God, He is dead and gone. 
 
 Devant is also an adverb, and serves to make some phrases: as Passez de- 
 vant, Go before ; Si vous etes press't, courez devant (a proverb;) If you are in 
 a hurry, set forward, or you may set off when you please ; Les pre?niers vont 
 devant (another proverb), Those that are most diligent get the start of others ; 
 Comme nous avons dit ci-devant, As we said before ; II est blessepar devant^ 
 He is wounded in the forepart of his body. 
 
 Le chapitre de devant, The chapter before; Le train de devant d^un car- 
 rosse, The fore-wheels of a coach ; Lesjambes de devant d'un cheval, The fore- 
 legs of a horse. 
 
 Devant is also a noun signifying the fore-part of a thing; as, Un devant de 
 chemise, The fore- flap of a shirt ; Un devant cfestomac, A stomacher; Le devant 
 d'une perruque, The fore-top of a perriwig ; Le devant d'une cuirasse, The 
 breast of an armour; Un devant d'autel, The autependiuna of an altar; Pren- 
 dre le devant, Gagner le devant, To go, or set out before ; La cavalerie tenoii 
 le devant, The cavalry marched first; II sera ici dans un instant, faipris les 
 devants pour vous en avertir, He will be here presently, I came before to give 
 you notice of his coming ; Prendre le devant (in a figurative sense) : To pre- 
 vent, to be beforehand with one, to get the start of him. Bdtir sur le devant 
 (another metaphorical phrase), To grow lusty or bulky, to get a big belly. 
 
 Derriere. 
 1st, Derriere denotes place, and is opposite to devant ; in Eng- 
 lish behind: as, Regardez derriere vous, Look behind you. 
 
 Qdly, Derriere is also an adverb construed with de and par, in 
 English back, behind: as, Qu import e que cela soit devant ou derriere, 
 What matters it, whether it is before or behind ? Par derriere , 
 
 I i2 
 
360 SYNTAX. 
 
 Backwards ; Porte de derriere, A back-door, (and figuratively) 
 evasion, shift; Mettre une chase sens devarit derriere, To put a 
 thing preposterously, to put backward what should be forward. 
 
 Derriere is also a noun said of the posterior part of a thing or person ; in 
 English, the back side, the hind parts: as, Lesjambes de derriere d'un chevat, 
 the hind Jegs of a horse. Eire logi sur le derriere, To lodge backwards. 
 
 Faire rage des pieds de derriere (a proverbial phrase), To work with migh* 
 and main; Montrer le derriere (another metaphorical phrase), To fail in one's 
 promise. 
 
 Chez. 
 
 1st , Chez denotes, and 19 englished by, at, or to somebody's ho-use, 
 and is construed with de and par ; as, // est chez moi, He is at my 
 house or home ; Je vais chez voits, I am going to your house ; 
 Je viens de chez Madame le Blanc, I come from Mistress White's ; 
 J'ai passe par chez lui, I have called at his house ; Chacan est 
 maitre chez sni, Every body is master of his own house ; Avoir 
 un chez soi, To have a house of one's own. 
 
 l 2dly, Chez signifies also among, with : as, i7 y avoit une cou- 
 tume chez les Atheniens, chez les Romains, There was a custom 
 among the Athenians or Romans. 
 
 "O 
 
 Contre. 
 
 1 st, Contre denotes opposition, signifying against, contrary to, 
 and is englished by with or at after verbs signifying being angry, 
 incensed, irritated, provoked, and exasperated ; as, A Her contre 
 vent 6f maree, To go, to sail against wind and tide ; Se facher 
 contre quelqu'un, To be angry with one ; Se battre contre quel- 
 qiCun, To right one. 
 
 Quand on Jit cette proposition, tout le monde s'tleva contre; When this was 
 m«ved every body expressed his dislike to the motion. Pour moi,je suit contre, 
 For my part, I am against it. Je ne suis ni pour ni contre, I am neither pro 
 nor con, or neither for nor against it. 
 
 2dly, Contre denotes also proximity of situation, and signifies 
 near, by : as, J'etois assis contre lui, I sat by him ; Sa maison est 
 contre la mienne, His house is by mine ; Contre le bois, Near the 
 wood ; Tout contre, Hard by. 
 
 Contre, is also a noun signifying con (the opposite oipro) and against : as, 
 On parle diversement de cette affaire, xlfaut savoir le pour fy le contre, They 
 talk variously of this affair, one must hear what is said pro and con, or iienr 
 both sides. La chose n'est pas sans difficultc, ily a dupour &,- du contre,- THe 
 matter is not without difficulty, much may be said on both sides. (See in my 
 Dictionary another signification of le contre.) 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 361 
 
 Dans and En. 
 
 1st, Dans denotes a relation of time and place, and is englished 
 by in, into, to, within : as, Etre dans la boite, dans la maison, dans 
 la ville ; To be in the box, in the house, in the town : Qand it 
 entra dans la chambre ; When he got into the room : Dans la 
 meme annee; In the same year : Dansunmois; Within a month. 
 
 2dlu, Dans denotes the state and disposition of the body, the 
 mind, manners and fortune : as, Etre dans une posture contrainte ; 
 To be in an uneasy posture : Dans la colere oil il etoit, In the 
 passion he was in. 
 
 3dly, Dans denotes the motive and view of one's acting, which 
 is usually expressed in English by with : as, II fait sa cour dans 
 le dessein de s'avancer ; He makes his court with a design to be 
 preferred. 
 
 Athly, Dans signifies also according to : as, Cela est vrai dans 
 les piincipes d'Aristote; That is true according to Aristotle's 
 principles. 
 
 Sthly, Dans is used, and never en, before proper names of 
 towns and authors : as, II est dans Londres ; He is in London : 
 No-us lisons dans Ciceron ; We read in Cicero : J'ai vu cela dans 
 Ovide ; I have read that in Ovid. 
 
 6thly, En denotes a place, and the things considered as relating 
 to pkce : and is never used with the articles le, la, les, and is 
 englished by in : as, Entre en Angleterre ; To be in England : 
 Vivre en sa maison ; To live in one's own house. 
 
 lihly, En denotes the country whither one is going, and is 
 englished by to : as Aller en France ; To go to France : Venir or 
 Passer en Angleterre ; To come or pass over to England. 
 
 Sthly, En denotes time, and things considered as relating to 
 time, and is rendered by at and in : as, En tout temps, At all 
 times ; En plein jour, In open day-light ; En hiver, In winter ; 
 Tant en paix qu'en guerre, Both in peace and war. 
 
 tfthly, En before a noun of time, denotes the space of time that 
 slides away in doing something ; and dans the space of time after 
 which something is to be done; as, Le Roiva a Hanovre eiitrois 
 jours ; The King goes to Hanover in three days ; that is, he is 
 no longer than three days in going ; Le Roi va a Hanovre dans 
 trois jours ; The King goes to Hanover in three days hence ; that 
 is, after three days are gone, he will set out. 
 
 \Othly, En denotes the state and disposition of persons and 
 things, and is englished by in and at ; as, Etre en vie ; To be alive • 
 
362 SYNTAX 
 
 Etre en bonne sante ; To be in good health : Un enfant en lour- 
 lice ; A child at nurse : Unej'emme en couche ; A woman lying 
 in : Etre en bonheur ; To be lucky, to have good luck, to play 
 with good luck. 
 
 1 1 thltj, En denotes what one is employed in, and is englished 
 by at and in : as, Etre en oraison, en prieres ; To be at one's 
 devotions, or prayers. 
 
 ] 2thly, En denotes the manner of being, of behaving, of acting, 
 aod is englished by like and in : as, Etre en robe de chambre, en 
 bonnet de nuit fy en pantoiiftes ; To be in one's morning gown, 
 night-cap and slippers : Vivre en Roi, To live like a King : Se 
 conduire en etourdi ; To behave like a blunderer. 
 
 lolhly, En denotes the motive and end of acting, and is eng- 
 lished by through, out, of, in ; as, It I Jit cela en haine de ce que, &c. 
 He did it through hatred of, fyc. En consideration de ses services ; 
 In consideration of his services : En depit de lui ; In spite of him. 
 
 I4thly, jE« denotes the passage from one place to another, the 
 progress of things, the change of condition both of persons and 
 things, and is englished by to and into : as, Courir de rue en rue ; 
 To run from street to street : Narcissefut metamorphose enjleur ; 
 Narcissus was metamorphosed into a flower : L'ajfaire va de mal 
 en pis ; The case is worse and worse : De mieux en mieux 
 Better and better. 
 
 Ibthly, Dans and en, must be repeated before each noun go- 
 verned ; as, II etoit en robe de chambre, en bonnet de nuit fy en 
 pantoujies ; He was in his morning-gown, night-cap, and slippers : 
 On ne xoit que des brochures dans sa salle, dans sa chambre, fy dans 
 son cabinet ; One sees nothing but pamph]ets in his parlour, his 
 room, and study. 
 
 Though it is sometimes indifferent to use either of these two prepositions 
 yet that must continue the same before each noun, which was used before the 
 first, when it is the same sense all along the sentence, and the same thread of 
 speech : as, Seville, capitale de VAndalomie, surpasse toutes les villes d'Es- 
 pcfgne en grandeur, en commerce, en richesses fy en beaut i ; Seville, the capital 
 of Andalusia, exceeds in largeness, trade, riches, and beauty, all the cities ir» 
 Spain. II est Jidelle dans ses promesses, inepuisable dans ses bienfaits, juste 
 dans ses jugemens ; He is faithful in his promises, inexhaustible in his favours 
 just in his judgments. 
 
 But if it is not the same thread ot speech, and tne same sense all along the 
 sentence, both prepositions must be used for variety sake ; as, Ilpassa unjour 
 $f une nuit entiere en une si profonde meditation, quil se tint toujours dans 
 une mime posture ; He spent a whole day and night in so deep a meditation, 
 that he always remained in the same posture. 
 
 1 Qthty, En, when it is construed with a gerund, denotes either 
 time or manner, and may be resolved by the conjunctions when, 
 whilst, or as, with a tense of the indicative : as, Parler en tremblant \ 
 To speak trembling : II laissa ordre en partant ; He left ordei 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 303 
 
 when he went away ; 11 Vaborda en riant, He came up to her 
 with a smile ; En passant, By the way. 
 
 En tant que, is a conjunction signifying as, considered as : as, Jesus-Christ 
 en tant qu'hqmme ; Christ as a man. It is also a law expression, signifying as 
 far as, as much as : as, En tant que je puis, As far as lies in my power ; En 
 tant que besoin sera, As far as need will require. 
 
 We say both en etc and dans Vete, in summer; en hiver and dans Vhiver, in 
 winter ; en automne and dans I'automne, in autumn ; but we do not say en 
 printemps, in the spring; but dans le print empsov au printemps. 
 
 Observe, further, that in and into must be rendered into French by entre, 
 znd never by dans or en, in these following expressions: To hold a child in one's 
 arms, Tenir un enfant entre ses bras; To deliver a thing into somebody's 
 hands, Remettre quelfjue chose entre les mains de quelqu'un, or Remettre en 
 main ; To get it again from his hands, Le retirer d'entre ses mains. 
 
 Etre en butte d tout le monde, To be exposed to all the world ; s f en alkr, 
 s'en revenir, to go away or come back again ; En avant, Forward ; En de- 
 dans. Within ; Etre en train, To begin, to be at it; Mettre en train, To set on, 
 to set a-going ; Se mettre en train, To begin doing a thing, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 The other significations of en must be looked for in my Dictionary. 
 
 Depuis. 
 
 1st, Depuis denotes both time, place, and order, or enumera- 
 tion of things, and is englished by since and from ; and is com- 
 monly followed in the sentence by jusqu' a (to): then depitis de- 
 notes the term from whence, and jusqu a, that of hitherto, as, 
 Depuis ce temps-la, Since that time ; Je ne Vai pas vu depuis son 
 retour, I have not seen him since his return ; Je voits attendrai 
 depuis cinq jusqu' a six, I'll wait for you from five to six ; Vous etes 
 venu depuis moi, You came after me ; Elle est arrivee depuis lui > 
 She is arrived since he did ; Depuis le commencement jusqu a la 
 fin, from the beginning to the end ; II m'a suivi depuis la Bourse 
 jusqu au Palais, He has followed me from the Royal Exchange 
 to the Palace ; Je les ai tous vus depuis le premier jusqu' au der- 
 nier, I have seen them all from the first to the last. 
 
 Observe the difference between depuis and jusqu* &, deand H, and de and en, 
 all which prepositions are englished by from and to. 
 
 De and ct, before nouns of places, denote simply the distance that is between 
 the two places ; as, On compte vingt-deux milles de Windsor a Londrcs, They 
 reckon twenty-two miles from Windsor to London. 
 
 Hepuis and jusqu'ei, denote, besides, the quality of the distance, its being 
 great or little ; as, 
 
 11 marcha depuis Windsor jusqu'fi Londres, He walked from Windsor to 
 London. 
 
 De and en, with the same noun repeated, denote succession of place ; as, 
 
 11 va de cabaret en cabaret, He goes from alehouse to alehouse. 
 
 Depuis peu, lately, not long since, or ago ; Depuis quand ? How long ? How 
 long since ? Depuis deux ans, These two years; Depuis long-temps, This great 
 while. 
 
 2J/y, Depuis is also an adverb signifying since, since that time : 
 as, Je n'en ai point ou'i jyarler depuis, I have not heard of it since. 
 
364 SYNTAX. 
 
 Sdly, Depnis que is a conjunction governing the indicative, and 
 is also englished by since : as, Depuis que vous ttes parti. Since 
 you went away. 
 
 J r usque , or Jusques. 
 
 1st, Jusque (to, even to, as far as, till, until), denotes both 
 place and time, to a degree that cannot be exceeded, and besides 
 requires the preposition a before a noun. It. is indifferent to spell 
 it with or without an s at the end, but when it is construed with 
 a word beginning with a vowel, it loses its final s : as, Depuis 
 Paris jusqu'a Londres, From Paris to London ; Depuis la St. 
 Jean jusqu'a Noel, From Midsummer to Christmas ; 77 allajus- 
 qu'au Grand-Caire, He went as far as Grand Cairo ; Le vice 
 regne jusques sur le trone, Vice rides triumphant, even to the 
 throne ; Jusqu'a present, Till now, until now ; Jusqu'ou? To 
 what place ? How far ? Jusquici, To this place, hither, so far ; 
 .f&sques-la, To that place, thither, so far ; lis en vinrent jusques- 
 la quon crut quils s'alloient battre, They went so far, or to such 
 extremities, that people thought they were going to fight. 
 
 Crier jusqu'a s'enrouer, To bawl oneself hoarse; Bruler duvinjusqu'au 
 d'echet de deux tiers. To burn two-thirds of wine away. Jusquau revoir (a 
 phrase at parting), Ti'11 our next meeting, Till we meet again ; Ami jusqu'aux 
 autels, A friend as far as conscience permits. Brave jusqu'au degainer (j$ 
 said of a bully), Courageous till the question is to draw. 
 
 Idly, Jusqu'a, jusqu'aux (even, very), denotes also excess; as, 
 II aime jusqud ses ennemis, He loves even his enemies ; Jusqu'aux 
 plus objects des hommes se donnoient la licence de, &c. (which 
 may also be expressed thus), II n'y avoit pas jusqu'aux plus 
 objects des hommes qui ne se donnassent la licence de, &c. The 
 very worst of men took such a liberty as to, fyc. 
 
 Jusqu'a and jusqu'aux, taken in this sense, are also used in the third state, 
 but with such verbs only as require after them nothing but the third state, or 
 govern both the absolute and respective state together, that is, or are attended 
 with an object and term. Thus we say : II itendit sa libcralite jusqu'aux va- 
 lets, He extended his generosity even to the servants, because etendre requires 
 here both the absolute and respective state after it. But we do not say: Ii 
 donna jusqu'aux valets, to mean that, He gave to every body, and even to the 
 servants, because as 1/ donna jusqu'a son carrosse, signifies that he gave every 
 thing he had, and even his very coach (in which sentence, jusqud son carrosst 
 expresses the word of the object coming after the verb); so II donna jusqu'aux 
 valets would signify that he gave every thing he had, and even his servants; 
 whi-ch causes an ambiguity, that ought to be carefully avoided in French. 
 
 Sdly, Jusqu'a ce que is a conjunction which governs the sub- 
 junctive, tilt, until : as, Jusqu'a ce qu'il vienne, Until he comes 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 365 
 
 And Jusqu'a quand, pronounced in declamation Jusques a quand) 
 governs the indicative, How long. 
 
 Hors, Hormis, Excepte, &c. 
 
 Hors (out, except, but) denotes exclusion and exception. 
 When it comes before a noun of time and place, it requires the 
 preposition de before it, as also before the infinitive ; or it governs 
 the indicative with que: as, Vous les verrez quand Us seront hors 
 de table, You shall see them when they have left table ; Hors du 
 royaume, Out of the kingdom : Hors de saison, Out of season ; 
 II ne pouvoit fair e pis hors de sependre, He could not do worse, 
 except or but to hang himself ; II lui a fait toutes sortes de maw- 
 vais traitemens, hors qu'«7 ne /'a pas battu, He has used him as ill 
 as he possibly could, except that he has not beat him ; Hors cela 
 nous sommes d' accord, Except that we agree. 
 
 Qdly, Hormis and excepte (but, except, save, saving) denote also 
 exception and exclusion, but they govern the noun immediately, 
 without de, though they require this preposition before the infini- 
 tive y they also govern the indicative with que : as, Ilsortirent tous 
 hormis or excepte deux ou trois, They all went out, except or but 
 two or three ; II lui permet tout excepte Waller aux assemblies, 
 He indulges her in every thing, but going to assemblies ; Je me 
 forte assez bien, excepte que mon bras est toujours enfit, or except^ 
 or hormis mon bras qui, &c. I am pretty well, but my arm is still 
 swelled. 
 
 Sdly, a la reserve is used in the same sense, and englished after 
 the same manner, but is attended with de before the next noun 
 and infinitive : as, II a donne tout son bien a ses enfans, a la re- 
 serve de ses rentes viageres, He has given all his substance to his 
 children, except his annuities for life ; // a tout pouvoir, a la re- 
 serve de conclure, He has full powers, except of concluding. 
 
 Loin. 
 
 Loin (far, at a distance, a great zcay off,) requires the preposi- 
 tion de before the next noun and infinitive, or que before the sub- 
 junctive : as, Loin du chemin, de la rue, de chez nous, Far from 
 the road, the street, from home : Loin d'ici, Far from hence ; 
 Loin de secourir ses allies, il se declare contre eux, Far from assisting 
 his allies, he declares himself against them; Loin qail so'it dispose 
 a vous f aire satisfaction, il est komme a vous quereller, Far from 
 being disposed to offer you satisfaction, it is likely he will pick a 
 
366 SYNTAX 
 
 quarrel with you : Bien loin que cela soit ; It is so far from being 
 so. 
 
 Malgre, En Depit. 
 
 Malgre and en depit (maugrc, in spite of, notwithstanding) 
 govern, malgre, the first state of the noun, and en depit, the 
 second; they also form with que a conjunction governing the 
 su bjunctive : as, 27 Va fait malgre moi, He did it in spite of me : 
 En dtpit de lui fy de tout le mo?ide, In spite of him and of all the 
 world ; II le fera malgre qu'zY en ait, He shall do it in spite of 
 his teeth ; Bon gre, malgre je Vaurai, Will he, n'ill he, I shall 
 get it. 
 
 Par. 
 
 1st, Par denotes the cause, motive, means, instrument and 
 manner, and is englished thus, by, through, out of, for, at: 
 as-, Par ordre du Roi, by the King's order; Je lui ai fait dire par 
 un tel, I sent him word by such a one ; // Ha obtenu par mon 
 moyen, He got it through my means ; Vous n'en parlez que par 
 envie, It is out of envy only you speak of it ; Je Vai fait par cette 
 raison, I did it for that very reason ; II entra par laporte, mais L 
 sortitpar la f entire, He got in at the door, but he got out at the 
 window; Je le lui ferai tenir par la premiere occasion, I will 
 send it to him by the first opportunity ; Je comprispar la, By that 
 or thereby I understood. 
 
 2dly, Par denotes the place, being englished by in, and is con- 
 strued with several prepositions and adverbs of place : as, Cela se 
 fait par tout pays, That's done in all countries ; Par-tout, Every 
 where ; Par-tout le Royaume, All over the Kingdom ; Par-tout 
 oil, Wherever ; Par oil % Which way ? Par id, This way ; Par 
 la, That way ; Par deed, This side, on this side ; Par dela, That 
 ride, t'other side, on the other side ; Par dedans, Within ; Par 
 dehors, Without * Par aprts, By ; Par devers, By ; Par dessus, 
 Upon, over, above, over and above ; Par dessous, Under, under- 
 neath ^ Par devant, Before, forwards; Par derricre, Behind, 
 backwards; Para cote, By; Par le haut, Par enhaut, Towards 
 the top, upwards ; Par le bas, Par en bas, Downward ; Par 
 haut 8$ par bas, Upwards and downwards ; Par le passe, For- 
 merly, in time past, heretofore ; Par ci par la, Here and there, 
 now and then, at several times ; Pap ainsi (obsolete), Therefore, 
 
 Sdly, Par denotes motion and going through, being englished 
 by through, about, by, out of: as, II a passe par Paris, He went 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 367 
 
 through Paris. Se promener par les rues ; To walk about the 
 streets : Jeter par lafenttre; To throw out of the window. 
 
 Passer par Vexamen ; To submit to the examination. II en faut passer par 
 la, II faut passer par la ou par lafenttre (a proverb); One, You, They, &c. 
 must submit to that. 
 
 Athly, Par is construed with nouns denoting the accidents of 
 the weather, and is englished by in : as, Ou a/Iez-vous par cette 
 pluie-Ia f Where are you going in such a rain as this ? Nous par- 
 times par un beau temps ; We set out in fair weather. 
 
 bthly, Par is construed with the infinitive after verbs signifying 
 beginning and ending, and is englished by with, by, in : as, II com- 
 menca par se plaindre, fyjinit par demander de V argent; He began 
 with complaining, and concluded with asking money : Elle conclut 
 'par le supplier de ; — She concluded in beseeching him to . 
 
 dthly, Par, construed with nouns, without the article, denotes 
 distribution and division of people, time, place, or any thing sig- 
 nified by the noun, and is sometimes englished by by, in, into, for 
 per ; but that distribution is commonly expressed by a, each, or 
 every, before the noun, but without a preposition (at least ex- 
 pressed, for for is grammatically understood): as, Distribuer par 
 chapitres ; To divide into chapters : Aller par bandes ; To go in 
 companies : Donner tant par tete ; To give so much a head : Cent 
 pieces par an ; An hundred pounds a year, or per annum : Une 
 Guinie par soldat ; A Guinea a soldier, or every soldier. 
 
 Pour. 
 
 1st, Pour denotes the same relations as in English, to wit, of 
 the end or final cause, motive and reason of action, and the use 
 which a thing is designed for, and is englished by for, upon th<* 
 account of: as, Cela est pour vous, fy ceci pour moi ; That is foi 
 you, and this for me : J'ai eu tant pour ma part ; I have had so 
 much for my share : Pour V amour de vous ; For your sake : II 
 fera cela pour vous ; He will do that upon your account, or for 
 your sake. 
 
 Qdly, Pour is commonly englished by considering, or with re- 
 spect to, when it denotes the suitableness or unsuitableness of a 
 thing : as, Cet enfant est bien avarice pour son age, or pour lepeu 
 de temps qu'il a appris ; That child is very forward for his age, 01 
 considering the little time he has learnt. 
 
 Pour toujours, pour jamais; Forever. Pour le moins ; At least. Pour 
 lors ; Then, at that time. Pour cet effet ; Therefore, and therefore. Je 
 tompte son tcmoignage pour dixautres ; I reckon his testimony as good as tei 
 
 Kk 
 
368 SYNTAX. 
 
 others. Je le tiens pour mon ami ; I take him to be my friend. Je rien di* 
 pas davantage, Sf pour cause; I say no more, and good reason why, or because 
 of something. Ne laissons pas pour cela de nous diveriir ; Let us divert our- 
 selves nevertheless, Let us be merry for all that. Pour ainsi dire ; As one 
 may say, If I or We may say so, or if I may use the expression. 
 
 Sdly, Pour is construed with the infinitive (and never de or a) 
 after trop, assez, suffisant, and suffire; and whenever we express 
 the design, cause, and reason of doing somediing, it is englished 
 by to, in order to, with a design to ; as, 17 est trop sense pour f aire 
 cela, He has too much sense to do that ; Le merit e ne siiffit pas 
 pour reussir, Merit is not enough to thrive; 11 I 'a fait pour me 
 faire de la peine, He did it to make me uneasy ; It a ete pendn 
 four avoir vole sur le grand chemin, He was hanged for robbing 
 upon the highway. 
 
 Athly, Pour, before an infinitive followed by moins, and a nega- 
 tive in the latter part of the sentence, or by ne laisser pas de, ne 
 laisser pas que de, signifies although or (hough ; and moins with 
 the negative, or ne laisser pas de, ne laisser pas que de, signifies and 
 is englished by nevertheless or yet ; as, Pour avoir de la Religion, 
 tile rien est pas moins femme, Although she is a religious woman, 
 yet she is still a woman ; Pour n'avoir point de bien, elle ne laisse 
 pas d'etre extremement fere, Though she has no fortune, she is 
 nevertheless, or for all that, very proud. 
 
 othly, Pour, between two nouns without the article, or between 
 two infinitives without a preposition, denotes the choice which 
 one makes between two things alike in their nature, but different 
 in their circumstances. The two nouns or verbs thus construed 
 are rendered into English with a paraphrase ; as, Chamhre pour 
 ckambre,faime mieux celle-ci que C autre, Since I must have one 
 of these two rooms, I like this better than the other ; Mourir 
 pour mourir, il vaut mieux mourir en combaitant qiCenfuyant, 
 When a man must die, it is better to die in fighting than in run- 
 ning away. 
 
 6thly, Pour, followed by que, but coming after assez and trop, 
 makes a conjunction governing the subjunctive, and may be eng- 
 lished by that : as, Je ne suis pas assez heureux pour que cela m' ar- 
 rive ; I am not so lucky as that should happen to me : Oest trop 
 outrageant pour queje ne m'en vengepas ; It is too outrageous for 
 me not to resent it. 
 
 Pour peu que, is another conjunction governing the subjunctive, and is eng- 
 lished by If ever so little, let ever be so little ; as, Pour peu que vous enprenies 
 soin ; If you take ever so little care of it. Pour peu qu'ih soientjolis ; If they 
 are at all pretty. 
 
 Pour, before nouns and pronouns personal, signifies sometimes as for: as. 
 II a beaucoup d'esprit, mais pour dujugement, il nen a gueres ; He has muci) 
 wit, but as for sense, he has but little. Pour moi, je crois ; As for me, or fo? 
 my part, I believe, 4~c. Pour ce qui est de moi ; As for me. 
 
OJ PREPOSITIONS. 369 
 
 For, before a noun of time, is made in French by pendant, before that noun 
 of time, or durant after it : as, He has drank the water for six weeks; Ilaprit 
 les eaux pendant six semaines, or six semaines durant. 
 
 Prh. 
 
 1st, Prh denotes proximity of place, and is always attended 
 by de (or the particles du, des), except in some few instances of 
 common discourse, and is englished by by, near, nigh, close to : 
 as, S'asseoir prh dc quelqu'un ; To sit by or near one : II demeure 
 pres du palais ; He lives by the palace. 
 
 Prh is usually construed with trop, si, assez, plus, bien, — and these adverbs 
 are never construed with auprh. 
 
 %dly, Prh denotes proximity of time, and is construed with 
 the infinitive : as, II est bien prh de midi ; It is very near twelve, 
 or upon twelve : Cela riest fas prh Scire fait ; That is not near 
 being done : Elle est prh d'accoucher ; She is near her time. 
 
 3dly, Prh signifies also almost: as, 17 a eteprh de trois heures 
 a diner ; He was almost three hours at dinner : Son armee est de 
 prh de cinquante mille hommes ; His army is almost fifty thousand 
 strong. 
 
 Athly, Prh is also used in the sense of save, excepting, but it 
 always comes after its regimen, and therefore is not attended 
 by de : as, C'est nn galant homme, a son humeur pres ; He is a 
 clever man, save his temper : J'ai etc pay e a cent guineesprh ; I 
 have been paid all to an hundred guineas : A cent pistoles 
 pres, nous sommes oV accord ; There is but one hundred pistoles 
 difference between us : A cela prh, A telle chose prh, Save that, 
 That b.eing excepted, Nevertheless, For all that : Ne laissez pas 
 de conclure voire marche, a cela prh ; Strike up the bargain for 
 all that, or nevertheless : II n'est pas a cent guinees prh, II n'en 
 est pas a cela prh ; He can afford to lose, to give, or to throw 
 away an hundred guineas. 
 
 Pres, de pres, adverbs, signifying near, hard by, close ; Plus pixs, Nearer; 
 Preset pres, Close, close together, quite near each other; Plus prh eipi'cS} 
 Closer; A peu prh, Pretty near, near about, nearly, within compass, within a 
 little matter ; It reconnoit une Divinite, mais a peu prh de la trempe des Dieux 
 d'Epicure, He believes a God, but it is one much of the same kind with the 
 Gods of Epicurus. (See in my Dictionary for the phrases made of that prepo- 
 sition.) 
 
 Auprh. 
 
 1st, Auprh denotes also proximity of place, and is attended by 
 de, and englished likewise by near, nigh, by, but signifies particu- 
 
370 SYNTAX. 
 
 larly next to : as, Sa maison est auprts de la mienne ; His house 
 is next to mine. 
 
 Qdly, Auprts denotes a relation of domestic or servile attach- 
 ment, and is rendered by to, with, by, near : as, Eire auprts d'un 
 Seigneur ; To live with a Nobleman : LAmbassadeur de sa Ma- 
 jestt Britanniaue auprts du Roi trts-Chrttien ; The Ambassador 
 of his Britannic Majesty to the most Christian King : // me de- 
 manda pour itre auprts de sonfils unique, qui avoit a peu prts mon 
 age; He asked me as a companion to his only son, who was 
 pretty much of my age. 
 
 Etre bien auprts de quelqu'un ; To be in somebody's favour and benevo- 
 lence : N' etre pas bien aupres de quelqu'un ; To be under somebody's disgrace : 
 Pouvoir beaucoup aupres de quelqu'un, Avoir du pouvoir aupres de lui ; To 
 have a great influence or power over somebody's mind : Elle peut tout aupres 
 delui ; She can do any thing with him. 
 
 Sdly, Auprts denotes a relation of comparison, and signifies 
 to, in comparison : as, La terre n'est qu'un point auprts du reste de 
 Vunivers ; The earth is but one point of the universe. 
 
 Aupres is also an adverb of place, of the same signification as the preposition « 
 as, Je ne puis voir cela f si je ne suis aupres, tout aupres; I cannot see that, 
 except I am near it, hard by. Par aupres ; By, near, a little aside. 
 
 Troche. 
 
 Troche, near by, hard by, is also attended by de, and is like- 
 wise an adverb : as, Troche de la ville, du Palais ; Near the town, 
 or the Palace : II demeure id proche ; He lives hard by. 
 
 Deproche en proche, another adverb, signifying contiguous to one another : 
 as, Couper les bois de proche en proche; To cut the woods gradually, one aftei 
 another: Faire des conquetes de proche en proche; To make one's conquests 
 contiguous to one another. 
 
 Vis-a-vis, a ^opposite. 
 
 Vis-a-vis, a Vopposite, over-against, opposite, are also attended 
 by de, and are likewise adverbs : but when they are adverbs, 
 they are not attended by the preposition de : as, Je me placai vis 
 d-vis de lui; I sat over-against him : 11 est vis-a-vis: He is over 
 the way : A Vopposite de sa maison est une colline ; Over-against 
 his house is a hill. 
 
 The preposition de is sometimes left out, in common conversation, after pres 
 proche, and vis-ci-vis : as, Pres VEglise St. Paul ; Near St. Paul's Church j 
 Proche lepont de Londres ; Near London-bridge : Vis-a-vis la Bourse ; oppo 
 site the Royal Exchange. 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 371 
 
 Vis-a-vis is said of both persons and things, and signifies properly two per- 
 sons or things facing one another : but a /' opposite, though of the same signifi- 
 cation, is said of places and things only, not of persons. 
 
 A c&te de (by) denotes also proximity of place : as, S'asseoir a cote de quel- 
 gifun ; To sit by one: Passer a c&tc du village; To pass by the village. 
 
 sans. 
 
 Sans without, denoting exclusion, is construed with the infi- 
 nitive (which is rendered into English by the gerund) ; and is 
 besides, with que, a conjunction governing the subjunctive : as, 
 Sans argent, Without money ; Sans amis, Friendless ; Un homme 
 sans morale, An immoral man ; Sans purler, Without speaking ; 
 Sans y penser, Unaware, Unwittingly ; Vow Jerez bien cela, sans 
 que j'y aille, You'll do that well enough, without my going 
 thither ; Sans f aire semblant de rien, As though he did not. 
 
 selon, suivant. 
 
 Selon and suivant, according to, agreeably, conformably, or 
 pursuant to, govern the noun immediately, never taking a before 
 it as in English to, and form also an adverb ; and along with que, 
 a conjunction governing the indicative : selon is said of an opi- 
 nion, and suivant of practice : as, On Va traitt selon son merite ; 
 He was treated according to his deserts : II sera paye selon qiCil 
 'ravaillera ; He shall be paid according to his work : Selon moi; 
 In my judgment or opinion : Oest selon ; It is as it happens, 
 May be yes, may be not, That's according : Je me conduirai en 
 tout suivant vos avis ; I will conduct myself, or behave, in every 
 thing according or conformably to your advice. 
 
 sur. 
 
 1st, Sur, denoting place and matter, is upon, on, over, both in 
 the proper and figurative sense : as, Sur la table, Upon the table ; 
 Sur la rivifoe, Upon the river ; Sur un vaisseau, On board a 
 ship ; Se reposer sur quelqu'un, To rely or depend upon one. 
 
 idly, Sur, denoting time, is about, against, towards, by : as, 
 Jepartirai sur les trois heures ; I shall set out about or by three : 
 Sur le soir ; Towards the evening : Sur la brune ; In the dusk of 
 the evening : i7 est sur son depart ; He is upon his departure. 
 
 Sdly, Sur, denoting the superiority of power or excellence, is 
 rendered by over : as, Un Prince qui regne sur plusieurs peuples ; 
 A Prince that reigns over many nations : Les Francois out de 
 grands avantages sur les autres nations ; The French have great 
 advantages over the other nations. 
 
 Kk2 
 
372 SYNTAX. 
 
 Sur signifies also against y by, on account of: as, Surla/in delasemaine, Against 
 the end of the week : Je me reglerai sur son exemple, I shall regulate myself by his 
 example : II s'excusa sur son age, He excused himself on account of his age. " 
 
 Sur coming before ce que, makes a conjunction governing the indicative, and 
 is englished by as with the indicative, or on or upon with the gerund : as, Sur ce 
 qu'il apprit que. As he learnt that, or On or Upon hearing that. 
 
 The English particle on coming after a verb, of whose action it denotes the 
 continuation, is rendered into I rench by the verb continuer, or the adverb tou* 
 iours: as, Play on, Contiyiuez dejouer, or Jouez toujour s : Read on, Lisez toujours 
 or Continuez de lire. 
 
 Sur is used besides in a great many figurative phrases, which must be learned 
 in my Dictionary. 
 
 au-dessus, au-dessous. 
 
 1st, Au-dessus (above, over, beyond), au-dessous (below, under), 
 compound prepositions, denoting superiority and inferiority of 
 age, place, rank, and other physical and moral subjects, require 
 besides the other preposition de before their regimen : as, Loger 
 au-dessus or au-dessous de quelqu'un ; To lodge above or below 
 one : On enrole tous les gens au-dessus de quatorze ans, fy au-des- 
 sous de cinquante ; They enlist every body above fourteen, and 
 under fifty : ! 11 fait nn pen trop lefamilier avec ceux qui sont au- 
 dessus de lui ; He makes himself too familiar with his betters : II 
 est au-dessus de ses affaires ; He is beforehand with the world : 
 Etre au-dessous dtun autre en merite, en Men, &c. To be inferior 
 to one in merit, wealth, fyc. 
 
 2dly, Au-dessus and au-dessous are also adverbs : as, II occupe 
 le premier Stage, fyje loge au-dessus; He occupies the first floor, 
 and I lodge above : Herode Jit tuer tous les enfans de Vage de 
 deux ans § au-dessous ; Herod put to death all the children of two 
 
 years old and under. Par dessus and par dessous are also both 
 
 adverbs and prepositions, but without requiring de before their 
 
 Sur, sous, dans, and hors, are prepositions always requiring a regimen : but 
 dessus, dessous, dedans, and dehors, which are adverbs, signifying as much as the 
 prepositions with a noun, become also prepositions, used instead of, and in the 
 same sense as, sur, sous, sans, hors, of which they are composed, whenever they 
 are preceded by the prepositions par and de, or when they both serve for one ancl 
 the same noun ; especially if the two prepositions are the two contraries, or op- 
 posite the one to the other. In which case dehors governs its noun immediately, 
 though hors always requires de before it : as, 
 
 Cherchez dessus fy dessous la table ; Look upon and under the table, not sur fy sous. 
 
 II n'est ni dedans ni dessous le coffre ; It is neither in nor under the chest, not 
 dans Sf sous. 
 
 La balle lui passu par dessus la iete; The ball went over his head, and not pat 
 $ur. 
 
 II passa par dedans la ville ; He went through the city, and not par dans. 
 
 On le tira de dessous le lit ; He was got from under the bed, and not de sous. 
 
 Those cases excepted, sur, sous, dans, hors, must always be prepositions; and 
 dessus, dessous, dedans, and dehors, adverbs. 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 373 
 
 vers, envers. 
 
 1st, Vers (^towards, to) denotes a certain side or situation : as. 
 Vers r Orient, Towards, or to the East, or Eastwards. 
 
 Idly, Vers (to) denotes sometimes the residence of a Minister : 
 as, Envoye vers les Princes d' Allemagne ; Envoy to the Princes 
 of Germany. 
 
 3dly, Vers (about, towards) denotes time : as,' Vers les quatre 
 heures ; About four o'clock. 
 
 Athly, Etwers (towards, to) is only said of persons : as, Sa 
 tendresse envers eux{ox a leur egard); His tenderness towards or 
 to them ; Ingrat envers son bienfaiteur, Ungrateful to one's be- 
 nefactor ; Je vons defendrai envers fy contre tons, I will defend 
 you against all manner of persons. 
 
 a regard. 
 
 a I'egard (as to or for, with respect to, in comparison with) re- 
 quires de before its regimen : as, A V egard du prix, nous en con- 
 viendrons, As to the price, we shall agree ; A V egard de ce que 
 vous me devez, As to what you owe me; La terre est petite a 
 I'egard du soleil, The earth is small in comparison with the sun, 
 or, if compared to the sun ; A mon egard, For my sake, upon 
 my account ; On doit etre honnete a son egard, fy a I'egard des 
 autres, One ought to be honest to oneself, and to others. 
 
 au lieu. 
 
 1st, Au lieu requires also the other preposition de before the 
 next noun or infinitive, being englished by in the place of, instead 
 of, in lieu of: as, Au lieu de celui que fattendois, il est venu 
 un homme de sa part, Instead of the person I expected, there 
 came a man from him ; Au lieu de secourir son ami, il Va trahi, 
 Instead of succouring his friend, he has betrayed him. 
 
 Qdly, Au lieu que is a conjunction governing the indicative,, 
 and is englished by whereas, while, when on the contrary : as, 17 
 ne songe qu'a son plaisir, au lieu quil devroit veiller a ses affaires^ 
 He minds nothing but his pleasure, when, on the contrary, he 
 should look after his own concerns. 
 
 a rebours, au rebours. 
 
 a rebours (against the hair or grain, the wrong way, preposte- 
 rously, cross, quite contrary), which is an adverb, is also made a 
 
374 SYNTAX. 
 
 preposition with de : as, Vergeter du drap a rebours, To brush 
 cloth against the grain ; II fait tout a rebours, au rebours de ce 
 qu'on lui dit, He does every thing the wrong way, quite the 
 reverse of what he is bid. 
 
 a tr avers , au tr avers, 
 
 A travers (through, cross), comes immediately before 
 its regimen, and au travers requires de : as, A travers le 
 corps, or Au travers du corps, Through the body; // se Jit jour 
 au travers des ennemis, or a travers les ennemis, He made his way 
 through the enemies ; a travers champs, Cross the fields ; Regar- 
 der au travers dune jalousie, To look through a lattice-window ; 
 Parler a tort fy a travers, To talk at random. 
 
 In some occasions two prepositions come together before a noun, as in this 
 instance, 17 peini d'apres nature ; He draws by the life. 
 
 These six prepositions have the right of governing- others before the noun : de, 
 pour, except^ hors,jusque, par. 
 
 De governs these eight : entre, apres, chez, avec, par, en, dessus, dessous : as, 
 
 Plusieurs d'entre eux y allerent, Many of them went thither ; Je viens de chez 
 rous, I come from your house ; Je sors d'avec lui, I have just left him ; Lapartie 
 d'en haut, The upper part ; De par le Roi (style of proclamation, fyc.) 
 
 Pour governs these five, a, apres, dans, decant, derriere. 
 
 Ce sera pour apres le diner ; It will be for after dinner. 
 
 C'est pour dans quinze jours ; It is for a fortnight hence. 
 
 Ce morceau-ci est destinS pour devant la porte, celui-ld pour a cote, 6f I'autre pour 
 derriere le lit ; This piece is designed for before the door, that for the side, and 
 this other for behind the bed. 
 
 Jusque governs these six, a (or au or aux.)par, en, dans, sur, sous: as, 
 
 Jusq'a.n plancher, as high., or as far as the ceiling ; Jusquesdans le lit, Even in 
 bed; Jusques par dela la riviere, Even beyond the river, fyc. 
 
 Par governs these eight ; chez, a cdt4, dessus, dessous, devant, derriere, deed, deld t 
 as, Passez pa-r chez nous, Call at our house ; Par dessus la tete, Above one's head ; 
 Par dela la mer, Beyond the sea, <Sfc. 
 
 Excepts and hors govern these nineteen : chez, dans, sous, sur, devant, derriere. 
 parmi, vei's, avant, apres, entre, depuis, avec, par, durant, pendant, a, de, and en. Ex- 
 amples may be found every where. 
 
 Prepositions always come before the noun which they govern, never after, as 
 they do sometimes in English: as, Avec qui, or a qui voulez-vous que je parte ; 
 Whom will you have me speak with, or to ? Except these three, apres, durant. 
 pres: as, 
 
 Quelque temps apres or apres quelque temps ; Some time after. Sa vie durant, 01 
 durant sa vie, During, or for his life. 
 
 A son humeur pres. Save his humour. 
 
 Thus it is not necessary for apres and durant to come after the noun, but only 
 for pres. 
 
 From a great many nouns prepositions are formed, by putting before them 
 some particle, especially a, au, aux, en : which compound prepositions are always 
 attended by de, du, des, before the noun : as, 
 
 Au milieu de la compagnie ; In the middle of the company. 
 
 En presence de ses amis ; In the presence of his friends. 
 
 A Vinscu de son pere ; Unknown to his father. 
 
 A raison de vingl pour cent; At the rate of twenty per cent. 
 
Of PREPOSITIONS. 375 
 
 These prepositions, de, contre, sur, sous, sans, which are sel- 
 dom, if ever, repeated in English, must always be repeated iu 
 French before each noun governed : as, 
 
 Beaucoup d 5 amour pour le plaisir, <Sf de haine pour le travail ; 
 
 Much love for pleasure, and aversion for work. 
 
 Je suis sans amis, sans protection, sans secours, fyje meurs de 
 faim ; 
 
 I am friendless, without protection, without help, and starving 
 These others must be also repeated when the following noun, 
 
 or nouns, are not synonymous, or pretty near of the same signifi- 
 cation, a, par, pour, avec : as, 
 
 II est venu a bout de ses desseinspar les ruses fy par les armes de 
 mes ennemis ; 
 
 He has compassed his ends by the devices and arms of my 
 enemies. 
 
 Devices and arms, not signifying the same thing, par is repeat- 
 ed : but if there were par V assistance fy les armes, as assistance and 
 arms signify pretty near the same, par should not be repeated. 
 
 II n'y a rien qui porte tant les hommes a aimer ou a hair leurs 
 semblables, que, &c. 
 
 Nothing induces men so much to love or hate their equals, 
 as, <Scc. 
 
 To love and hate are the two contraries, and therefore a is 
 repeated. 
 
 1/ riy a rien qui porte tant les hommes a loner fy a imiier leurs 
 semblables, que, &c. 
 
 '£ Nothing induces men so much to commend and imitate their 
 equals, as, fyc. 
 
 To commend and to imitate are not contraries indeed, but they 
 are different, therefore a is repeated. 
 
 17 n'y a rien qui porte tant les hommes a aimer fy estimer leurs 
 semblables, que, &c. 
 
 Nothing induces men so much to love and esteem their equals, 
 as, &c. 
 
 To love and esteem are nearly of the same signification, there- 
 fore a is not repeated. 
 
 On les envoya pour avitailler les vaisseaux, § pour sonder leport j 
 
 They were sent to victual the ships, and sound the haven. 
 
 To victual and sound are very different, therefore pour is re- 
 peated. 
 
 On les envoya an port pour radouber les vaisseaux, fy en con- 
 struire de nouveaux ; 
 
 They were sent to harbour to refit the ships, and build new ones 
 
Wb SYNTAX. 
 
 To refit and build are pretty near alike, therefore pour is not 
 repeated. 
 
 Further Observations upon some English Prepositions. 
 
 These particles, again, back, away, up, down, in, out of, over, forth, &c. often- 
 times make part of the signification of the verbs which they attend, and are not 
 particularly expressed in French : as, to keep back, reienir; to take away, em- 
 porta* ; to come up, monter ,• to take up arms, prendre les armes ; to lay them down, 
 les quitter, Us mettre bus ; to pull off, arracher ; to go, or set forth, pariir, &c. 
 
 Aboard a ship, is a bord d'un vaisseau; but to embark on board a ship, is s'embar- 
 quer sur un vaisseau, monter sur un vaisseau. 
 
 About answers to these different French prepositions. 
 
 i about the year's end ; sur la fin de Vanne'e. [affaire. 
 
 I come to you about that business ; Je viens vous voir touchant cette 
 • about the latter end of the book ; vers la fin du Hire. 
 What do they cry about the streets ? Qu'est-ce qu'on criedans les rues? 
 He took him about the middle ; II le prit par le milieu du corps. 
 
 Against, which signifies contre in its general sense, denotes also Time, and is 
 rendered sometimes by sur: as, Against the end of the week ; Sur la fin de la se- 
 maine: Sometimes without any preposition at all: as, Your shoes will be made 
 against after to-morrow ; Vos souliers seront faits apres demain. — Against is also a 
 conjunction, several ways expressed in French : as, Against he comes ; En attend- 
 ant qu'il vienne: Let all things be ready against we come ; Que tout soit pret a 
 noire retour. 
 
 Away, another particle, so variously and elegantly used, cannot be rendered in 
 French without a verb, which is also performed several ways, conformably to the 
 genius of the language : as, Away with this ; Otez tout ceci : Away with him to the 
 University ; Qu'on Venvoie a I'tJnivei'site: I cannot away with it ; Je ne saurois 
 souffrir, or digerer cela: Away with these fopperies ; Defaites-vous de ces sottises. 
 To" eat a bit and away ; Manger un morceau a la hate, avant de partir: To scold 
 one away ; Obliger quelqu'un de s'en aller, a force de le gronder : He shall not go 
 away with it so ; II rten sera pas quitte a si bon marchL 
 
 Both, before two nouns copulated with and, is rendered in French, either by 
 et before each noun, or by tant before the first noun, and que before the second, 
 or is not expressed at all : as, Both young and rich ; Et jeune & riche, Tant jeunt 
 que riche : Both by sea and land ; Par mer fy par terre, Tant par met* que par terre: 
 Both at home and abroad ; Au dedans & au dehors, & au dedans & au dehors, Tant 
 an dedans qu'au dehors. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Of CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Of Conjunctions, some govern, that is, will have the next 
 verb in the indicative mood, some in the subjunctive, and some 
 in the infinitive. 
 
 1°. These following conjunctions govern the indicative : 
 
 ainsi que, as. de mime que, even as 
 
 tout ainsi que, just as. si, if 
 
Of CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 377 
 
 ;} 
 
 as. 
 
 as if, as though, 
 when. 
 
 S7 Men que 
 
 de sorte que 
 
 de maniere que, 7 in such aman- 
 
 defacon que, 3 ner tnat - 
 
 tellement que, so that. 
 
 zomme, 7 
 
 zn tant que, j 
 
 % ce que, according to. 
 
 zomme si, 
 
 lorsque, 7 
 
 \uand, ) 
 
 vendant que,! ^^ 
 
 :anais que, J 
 
 z cause que, ^ 
 
 oarce que, > because, 
 
 :'est que, ) 
 
 i-peine, scarcely, hardly*. 
 
 mssitot que, } 
 
 8 tot que Y as soon as. 
 
 Us que, 
 
 oourquoi i 
 
 foil vient que ? \ 
 
 why. 
 how comes it 
 to pass? 
 
 , , aprls que, after that, when. 
 
 depuis que, 1 
 
 r . * > since 
 
 puisque, ) 
 
 vu que, seeing, being that, 
 
 attendu que, considering that. 
 
 au lieu que, whereas 
 
 a mesure que, in proportion as 
 
 tant que, as long as 
 
 auiant que, as much as« 
 
 outre que, besides that. 
 
 joint que, add to that. 
 
 selon que, 7 as, according 
 
 suivant que, 3 to. 
 
 peut-etre que, perhaps* 
 
 oVautant 7 whereas, forasmuch 
 
 que, J as. 
 
 or est-il que ? now is it that ? 
 
 aussi lone-temps 7 1 
 
 ° r > as long as. 
 que, 3 ° 
 
 bien entendu 7 with a proviso 
 que, 3 that. 
 
 and the others not included m 
 the next list. 
 
 2°. These Conjunctions govern the Subjunctive : 
 
 ■A 
 J 
 
 that, to the end 
 that. 
 
 before, 
 without that. 
 
 tjin que, 
 oour que 
 ivant que, 
 >ans que, 
 bien que, 
 juoique, 
 mcore que 
 
 \oit que, whether and or. 
 
 mpposez que, suppose that. 
 
 mpposons que, \etus suppose that 
 oosez le cas que, put the case that. 
 x la bonne lieure 7 I grant 
 que, J that, fyc. 
 
 though, 
 although. 
 
 au cas que, 7 in case that, 
 
 en cas que, 3 or if. 
 
 non que, not that. 
 
 non pas que, not but. 
 
 ce n' est pas que, it is not but that. 
 
 pourvu que, 7 so if, provided 
 
 moyennant que, 3 that. 
 
 a moins que, 7 1 
 
 , i c unless 
 
 si ce n est que, 3 
 
 pour peu que, if ever so little. 
 
 a condition 7 upon condition 
 
 quef; 3 that. 
 
 * a peine is followed by que in the second part of the sentence, and that que is 
 ;nglis!ied by than, or but. 
 
 t d condition que, is also construed with the future and conditional. 
 
S78 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 except^ que, 
 
 hormis que, 1 
 
 hors que, 3 
 
 sinon que, 
 
 de peur que, 
 
 de crainte que, 
 
 loin que # , 
 
 bien loin que*, 
 
 jusqu'a ce que, 
 
 tant s'enfaut que, 
 
 il s'enfaut bien que # , | from. 
 
 except that. 
 
 save that. 
 
 but that. 
 
 for fear that. 
 
 lest. 
 
 far. 
 
 very far from. 
 
 till, until. 
 
 it is so far 
 
 tant s'enfaut ") we, he, they 
 
 que, > people, fyc. 
 
 bien loin que, ) are so far from 
 
 .,! 
 
 malgre que, 
 non obstant 1 
 que, j 
 
 Dieu veuille que, 
 Plaise, or Plut 
 a Dieu que, 
 A Dieu nel 
 plaise que, 3 
 
 for all that 
 notwithstand- 
 ing that. 
 God grant. 
 ") would to 
 3 God. 
 
 God forbid. 
 
 * These three are used in compound sentences, and require que before the se- 
 cond part of the sentence ; but II s'enfaut bien que is used in simple sentences. 
 
 3°. These govern the infinitive : 
 
 a and de, 
 par, 
 pour, 
 apres, 
 sans, 
 jusqu'a, 
 sauf a, 
 faute de, 
 ajin de, 
 depeur de, 
 de crainte de, 
 for de crainte 
 
 to. 
 
 by. 
 
 to, in order to. 
 
 after. 
 
 without. 
 
 to that degree, till. 
 
 save. 
 
 for want of. 
 
 in order to. 
 
 > for fear of. 
 
 instead of. 
 
 au lieu de, 
 loin de, 
 bien loin de, 
 excepti de, 
 avant de, 1 
 avant que de, 3 
 a moins de, 1 
 a moins que de, 3 
 7/ ~\ rather than to ; and 
 
 j > all conjunctions 
 
 ' J ending in de. 
 
 far from. 
 
 very far from, 
 
 except to , 
 
 before, 
 unless. 
 
 que and de crainte de, see page 343, C. 
 
 4°. The French use the conjunction que in the second part of 
 a compound sentence, instead of repeating the following con- 
 junctions, expressed in the first : 
 
 si, if. pourquoi, why. parce que, because. 
 
 quand, \ , comme, as. quoique, although. 
 
 lorsque, 3 ' peut-etre, perhaps, ajin que, that ; and 
 
 others composed of que ; which particle always governs the sub- 
 junctive, when it stands for si, quoique, and ajin que ; and there- 
 fore causes the verb, governed in the indicative in the first part 
 of the sentence, to be changed into the subjunctive in the second 
 part ; but the verb continues in the indicative, when que stands 
 for quand, lorsque, comme, &c, as, 
 
 Si vous m'aimez, S$ que vous vouliez me le persuader, for fy si 
 vous voulez me le persuader ; If you love me, and want to per- 
 suade me of it. 
 
Of CONJUNCTIONS. 379 
 
 Afin que vous en soyez sur, # que vous ne croyiezpas qu'on vous 
 trompe ; That you may be sure of it, and don't think that one 
 cheats you. 
 
 La raison pourquoi il ne pouvoit venir alors, fy que les autres tie 
 se soucioient gufoes de Vattendre, &c. The reason why he could 
 not come at that time, and the others did not care to wait for 
 him. 
 
 Peut ttre Taime t-il, mais qu'iV ne veut pas Vavouer, de peur, &c. 
 
 Perhaps he loves her, but is unwilling to own it, lest, &c. 
 
 Afin may be attended in the same sentence, both by que and 
 de, governing each its respective mood, viz. que the subjunctive 
 and de the infinitive ; but que must come the last : as, 
 
 Afin de vous convaincre, & que vous n'en doutiez plus ; 
 
 In order to convince you, and that you doubt no more of it. 
 
 5°. When is both lorsque and quand, indifferently used for one 
 another, except that quand denotes time in a more positive and 
 determinate manner, and lorsque denotes occasion : as, 
 
 Ne manquez pas de venir, quand je vous appellerai ; 
 
 Be sure to come, when I shall call for you. 
 
 On ne fait jamais tant defolies, que quand on aime ; we never 
 commit so many extravagancies, as when we are in love. 
 
 On sefait aimer lorsqu'oft aime ; It is by loving we make our- 
 selves beloved. 
 
 Les chanoines vont a V office, quand la cloche sonne ; Canons 
 go to divine service, when the bell rings. 
 
 Et lorsqu'zYs assistent a Coffice, Us font leur devoir ; And when 
 they assist, or, by assisting in the service, they do their duty. 
 
 When a question is asked, we always do it with quand, and 
 never lorsque : as, Quand viendrez-vous ? When will you come ? 
 
 Quand being construed with the conditional, has the significa- 
 tion of though or although ; and mtme, or Men mtme, is sometimes 
 added to quand, to give more weight to what one says : as, 
 
 Quand ily consentiroit, or Quand meme, Quand Men mtme il y 
 consentiroit, cela ne pourroit pas se faire ; Although he would 
 consent to it, that could not be done. 
 
 Sometimes, also, though may be left out in French, that is, the 
 French conjunctions quand, or quand meme may be suppressed in 
 the sentence ; then the pronoun expressing the subject of the verb 
 comes after the verb, and- the verb is made by the subjunctive 5 ac. 
 
 Ffit-elle riche a millions, je n'en voudrois point ; 
 
 Though she were worth several millions, I would not have her : 
 which answers to this English locution : Were she worth, &c 
 
 LI 
 
S80 SYNTAX. 
 
 6°. Si is never construed with the conditional as in English 
 Therefore that tense with if is made by the imperfect in French ' 
 as, If he should come, S'il venoit. 
 
 Si, after et, signifies yet, or although : as, 
 17 travaille toujours, & si il meurt defaim ; 
 He is always at work, and yet is starving. 
 But that is of the low style. 
 
 7°. D'oii vient que (conjunction interrogative) requires imme- 
 diately after it the pronoun, or nouri, that expresses the subject 
 of the verb of the question : whereas, with the other conjunctions 
 interrogative, it comes after the verb : as, 
 
 ID' oil vient que vous ne voulez pas f aire cela ? oi, 
 
 Pourquoi ne voulez-vous pas f aire cela ? Why won't you do that ? 
 
 8°. Pourtant, cependant, and toutefois (yet-, however); touiefois 
 
 begins to be obsolete. Pourtant always comes after the verb, 
 
 or between the auxiliary and the participle, if the tense is com- 
 pound, and assures more positively than cependant. — Cependant 
 may indifferently begin the sentence, or come after the verb ; 
 and they both make a contrast with these two other conjunctions 
 quoique and bienque: as, 
 
 Quoiqu'eY ait tant etudit, il ne suit pourtant pas cela (or) cepen- 
 dant il ne sait pas cela : Although he has learnt so much, yet he 
 don't know that. 
 
 9°. Done, c y est pourquoi (therefore, then) ; e'est pourquoi always 
 begins the sentence, and done never does, but always comes the 
 second or third word ; except, however, when the case is to draw 
 a consequence of premises : as, 
 
 O est pourquoi vous rrcobligerez defaire cela, oi 
 
 Vous m'obligerez done defaire cela ; 
 
 Therefore you will oblige {that is compel) me to do that. 
 
 II rougit ; done il est coupable ; 
 
 He blushes ; therefore he is guilty. 
 
 Encore, being an adverb, signifies again, yet, still: being a conjunctive copu- 
 lative, it signifies even, also ; and else and besides in such expressions as these • 
 Qui encore ? Who else? Quoi encore? What else, what besides? But encore is 
 besides a conjunction adversative, especially when ^ si comes before it, which 
 signifies, and is englished by besides and nevertheless : as, 
 
 // est extremement riche, encore n'est il pas content, (or) & si encore il se plaint ; 
 
 He is extremely rich, yet he is not contented, or nevertheless he complains. 
 
 Encore has a sense of restriction, in some ways of speaking rendered into Eng* 
 lish thus : 
 
 Encore s'il ne faisoit pas Ventendu, on ltd passeroit son ignorance; 
 
 Should he not pretend to great matters, one would not mind his ignorance 
 
Of CONJUNCTIONS. 381 
 
 Encore s'il savoil quelque chose, mais il ne sait rien du tout ; 
 If he knew something, well and good : but he knows nothing- at all. 
 Au moins, du moins, and pour le moins, are three conjunctions of restriction, 
 signifying- at least, but which mast not be confounded : au moins being used to 
 say something to one byway of advice, as also to clear oneself of something, and 
 englished thus : 
 Si vous ne voulez pas prendre son partita moins ne vous dSclarez pas contre lui; 
 If you won't take his part, at least do not declare against him. 
 Prenez garde au moins a vous retirer de bonne heure ; 
 Take care to come home betimes, / must desire you, or, Be sure to keep good 
 
 hours, I beg of you. 
 Au moins ce n'est pas moi qui en suis cause ; 
 I am not the cause of it, however, or, I can tell you. 
 
 Sometimes also tout is put before these conjunctions, and tout au moins, tout die 
 moins, to denote still a greater restriction of what one says. 
 
 This particle conjunctive tout is likewise sometimes put before these compa- 
 rative terms, comme, de meme que, aussi bien que, as well as ; auiant que, as much 
 as ; and aussi pen que, as little as : which may be properly englished by just 01 
 full: as, 
 
 Vousfuites tout comme il vous plait ; You do just as you please. 
 Je vis tout aussi bien en Angleterre qu'en France ; 
 I live full as well in England as in France. 
 
 From the abuse sometimes made of the conjunction transitive a propos, very 
 much used in conversation, is come this proverbial phrase, A propos de bottes y 
 comment se porte Mr. votrepere ? (word for word) Now we are speaking of boots, 
 how does your father do ? The meaning of which is, Now ice don't speak or think 
 of your father. How does he do ? 
 
 10°. These conjunctions, either and or, used in the same sen- 
 tence before nouns and verbs, are rendered into French, either 
 by soit, before the first noun, or verb, and or by ou, before the 
 other or others : or by soit, before each noun or verb ; which 
 last way is more emphatical : as, [him ; 
 
 Either through gratitude, or clemency, or policy, he pardoned 
 
 Soit par reconnoissance, ou par clemence, ou par politique, il lui 
 pardonna, (or) Soit par reconnoissance, soit par clemence, soit 
 par politique, il lui pardonna. 
 
 % Sometimes the preposition is left out after soit ; and we may say likewise 
 Soit reconnoissance, soit elbnence, soit politique, il lui pardonna.] 
 
 When the same conjunctions disjunctive serve to distinguish 
 two things, or two parts of a sentence, they are also rendered into 
 French by soit repeated, by ou, likewise repeated ; or by soit 
 before the first noun, and ou before the second : as, 
 
 An exercise either of the body, or the mind, 
 
 Un exercice soit du corps, soit de V esprit, or 
 
 Un exercice soit du corps ou de V esprit. 
 
 Either he is a wise man or a fool ; Ou il est sage, ou il estfou. 
 
 11°. The conjunctions whether and or, are rendered into 
 French either by soit que repeated, or by soit que before the first 
 part of the sentence, and ou que before the other ; as, 
 
382 SYNTAX. 
 
 Whether you have done that or no ; 
 Soit que vous ay ez fait cela, soit que vous ne Vayez pas fait : or, 
 Soit que vous ayez fait cela, ou que vous ne Vayez pas fait: or only 
 Soit que vous ayezfait cela, ou non ; but soit que repeated, is much 
 better. 
 
 12°. Or else is rendered into French by ou bien, or ou only, or 
 sinon: as, 
 
 The case is so ; or else I should have been aeceived ; 
 La chose est ainsi, ou bien, or ou Von mauroit trompe. 
 
 Moreover, observe, that some words answer to divers parts ot 
 speecn together, according to the grammatical use which they 
 are put to : as, apres, which is an adverb in the first following 
 example, a preposition in the second, and a conjunction in the 
 third : 
 
 17 parla apres, He spoke afterwards. 
 
 II parla apres moi, He spoke after me. 
 
 Apres quil eut parle, After he had spoken. 
 
383 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 THE ANALOGY OF SPEECH; 
 
 OR, THE GROUNDS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE ART OP 
 SPEAKING CONTINUED. 
 
 We have seen, in the Introduction to this work, that the words 
 of which speech is composed, and the letters which compose 
 those words, are signs, invented by men, to represent theii 
 thoughts. Now these signs have been found out in a quite 
 natural manner. For, as the mouth is the organ that forms them, 
 it has been observed, that some sounds are formed with a larger 
 some with a less degree of opening the mouth, others through 
 the throat, and others through the nose. .And likewise according 
 to the differences observed in the forming of the articulation, thai 
 is, as the breath emitted from the lungs is, in its way through the 
 throat and mouth, more or less forcibly compressed by the palate, 
 the lips, or the teeth, or any where intercepted, the consonants 
 have been distinguished into Labial, Hissing, Palatal, Guttural. 
 Liquid, and Aspirative. 
 
 Our acute sounds were called by the Ancients narrow or close 
 vowels ; and they called broad and open vowels our grave sounds : 
 they had neither guttural nor nasal vowels. They called mute 
 our weak consonants : but our distinction of them into weak and 
 strong has a better foundation in nature. 
 
 And indeed B, and P, have so great an affinity the one to the 
 other, that some nations often pronounce one for the other. The 
 Germans pronounce ponumfinum for bonum vinum. The Latins 
 as Quintilian reports, pronounced the b'mobtinere exactly likep. 
 The French do it too in obtenir, and perhaps the English in ta 
 obtain. L 1 2 
 
384 The Principles of the Art 
 
 There are many English and Dutch words that differ only in 
 one of these two letters F and V. Father, for example, being pro- 
 nounced Vather ; and the German Swisses pronounce French V's 
 like F's, and B's like P's, and D's like T's, saying Foulez-fous foir, 
 une pelle tame, instead of Voulez-vous voir une belle dame ? Will 
 you see a fine lady ? Foulez-fous poire tufin ? or in English, Fwill 
 you trink some f wine ? instead of Voulez-vous boire du vin ? 
 
 The relation there is between C, Q, and K, is so obvious, that 
 there is perhaps no language but these three letters have the 
 same power and articulation before a, o, u. 
 
 It is the same with G and J before some vowels, as in George, 
 that might as well be spelt Jorje. Moreover G is only a lessen- 
 ing or decreasing of C, as D is of T : nay d final is articulated in 
 French with all the power and force of t, when the next word 
 begins with a vowel, as gran tami for grand ami, great friend. 
 
 The Ancients called L, M, N, II liquid, or flowing, as con- 
 sonants of a very agreeable and easy articulation ; though strictly 
 speaking, L alone deserves that appellation. The Romans found 
 the articulation of M so swelling in the ear, and so disagreeable, 
 that, most times, they did not pronounce it even in prose, saying 
 die' hanc for diem ; restitutu' iri, for restitutum (in their law) : 
 which made Quintilian call it mugientem litter am. For the same 
 reason the Greeks never used it in the end of words. The same, 
 after the Chaldeans, often changed » into \ saying ^"Kivumv for 
 TrnvfjLuv, from whence pulmo is derived : and M<*?j\k>s for Man- 
 lius, &c. — As to R, we daily see many people who cannot pro- 
 nounce it. 
 
 Again. L and R, Z and J, or G, are so near a kin to one 
 another, that those who cannot pronounce R, on account of its 
 roaring articulation, naturally fall into the pronunciation of L ; 
 as likewise those who cannot pronounce J, or G, before a vowel, 
 express of course the articulation of Z, saying King Zorze and the 
 Loyal Family, for King George and the Royal Family. 
 
 S had no other articulation in Latin but its hissing one ; but 
 in our modern languages it takes the articulation of z, when it 
 comes between two vowels ; as in the French word misere, from 
 the Latins, which they pronounce misseria. 
 
 H serves only to denote aspiration. The Oriental languages 
 had three or four guttural letters, serving to that purpose only. 
 The Romans have only preserved that letter, with which they 
 supplied in their language, what the Greeks used to denote by 
 their esprits rudes f and aspirate consonants. It keeps still seme- 
 
of Speaking continued. 335 
 
 thing of that use in many English words spelt with th, which 
 answers the 6 of the Greeks. Besides, it does not always denote 
 aspiration, in our modern languages, but most times serves only 
 to show the Etymology of words. 
 
 The Ancients called X and Z double, because they were, the 
 first as much as cs and gz, and the other as ds. The Greeks 
 had, besides, their r, which was as much as ps. 
 
 X keeps still the same power and articulation with us. Z has 
 another more simple and less harsh. But the English have some 
 other double consonants, especially G and J, which are as much 
 as dg or dj 9 and e before h, followed by a vowel, which is as 
 much as tch, as in the word chin, which is pronounced tshin 
 
 It is still a great difficulty to resolve, among Grammarians, 
 whether the Latins had our J and V, and therefore whether or 
 not they had Tripthongs in their language (that is, the meeting of 
 three vowels in one syllable, each expressed by its peculiar and 
 usual sound). One may see what learned Grammarians have 
 written thereupon. It is to be observed here, that although the 
 English gave the name of vowels to the five or six first figures, 
 yet when they pronounce I, U, and Y, by themselves, they 
 express the natural and peculiar sound of Diphthongs, expressing 
 in the sound of U by itself, the very same that is heard in pro- 
 nouncing the pronoun you ; and in the sound of Y, the very same 
 that is heard in why. \ 
 
 However it be, as to the invention of these sounds and articu- 
 lations, and of the figures that represent them, as also the differ- 
 ent distinctions Grammarians have made of them, it is certain 
 that in every language reason has been left unregarded, which 
 prescribed, in the first place, to make as many vowels as the mouth 
 can naturally form simple sounds, and mark them with so many 
 simple figures or letters. Thus, although five vowels only are 
 usually reckoned, yet the Greeks have seven or eight, marked with 
 so many simple figures : and since they thought the difference 
 m pronouncing one and the same sound, as e and o, sufficient to 
 make two several and distinct sounds of each of these two vowels, 
 according as it is formed with a larger or less degree of opening 
 the mouth, and have likewise marked them with very different 
 figures s, ■», o, u ; had they done the same thing with respect to 
 the other vowels, and considered the difference that may be found 
 in each of them, according to the various opening of the mouth, 
 and as the breath which forms them is affected in its passage by 
 
3g 6 The Principles of the Art 
 
 the several parts of that organ, they should have discovered at 
 least sixteen or seventeen, all which are found in the French lan- 
 guage ; a, a, t or ai, e or ait, t or ais, e or eu, i, o, 6, or aux, u, 
 an, en, in, on, un, eux, ou: all sounds as simple as a, e, i,o, u, 
 and which could have been represented by simple figures thus : 
 
 a, a, e, e, e, e, i, o, a, u, a, e, I, 6, u, e, ou. 
 
 Again: it is certain that it would have been more natural, 
 and more convenient for the mutual correspondence of nations, 
 to have marked with simple figures the articulations which we 
 mark with two figures, though we only intend to express and 
 represent a consonant. Such are the articulations of gn and ill 
 before vowels, which could have been marked, the first called n 
 liquid, with v • and the second called / liquid with. a. Such is also 
 the articulation of ch, or the English sh, marked in Hebrew with 
 the simple letter tp (schim). So that the French language should 
 have had about forty figures or letters, instead of its five-and- 
 twenty, to mark its sounds and articulations in the most natural 
 manner, as appears by the tables prefixed to the Treatise of the 
 Pronunciation : without taking notice here of other figures, that 
 might have been invented for the perfection of writing, as the 
 Greeks did their s, or f , r, $-, and 7%, which are only abbreviations 
 for cs, ps, st, and si" of which we have preserved only X. 
 
 Another thing, that reason prescribed in the invention ot 
 figures or letters, is, that one and the same sound should not be 
 marked with more figures than one, or with different figures ; as 
 the sound of ea in read, which is marked with ee in feed ; or ea 
 in bread denoted by e in bred, bed, &c. nor that the same 
 figures should have marked different sounds, as ea, that denotes 
 in earth the sound of French a, in bread that of French e, in meat 
 that of French i, &c. 
 
 For the like reason, one and the same articulation should not 
 have been marked with these three different figures, C, K, Q: 
 nor should C have taken the power of s before e and i ; nor g 
 before the same vowels, have been pronounced otherwise than 
 before a, o, u, nor t have been articulated like s before i, followed 
 by another vowel. 
 
 Lastly. Reason required that every figure should mark some 
 sound or articulation ; that is, that no letter should be set down 
 in any word but what is pronounced. For although the superflu- 
 ous letters in words often denote their Etymology, modern lan- 
 guages being all derived from the ancient ones ; as^? in the French 
 
of Speaking continued. 387 
 
 word champs denotes its being derived from the Latin campus, 
 and t in chants from cantus ; yet it seems that the inconvenience 
 would have been less to pronounce these words champs and chants 
 conformable to the whole import and force of the letters, even 
 without excepting the characteristic letter of the plural number, 
 than to mark with these so many different figures (amps and ants) 
 the simple sound of a (nasal), or an. 
 
 Upon the whole, there are abuses common to all languages, 
 and there is no possibility of remedying them, since the Emperor 
 Claudius could not get one new letter only introduced into the 
 Roman language. (It was the Digamrna of the Molians, very 
 likely to serve as V.) But there is no nation that has less reason 
 to complain that the French write otherwise than they pronounce, 
 than the English ; there being perhaps no language in the world, 
 wherein the sounds are marked with more different letters, and 
 the same letters mark more various sounds, than in the English 
 tongue ; which, besides, wants the foundation essential to all lan- 
 guages, I mean a Grammar, to promote the learning of it, and 
 make it easy to foreigners. 
 
 % This was written in 1750.] 
 
 From these observations upon letters it follows, 
 
 1st, That in all languages there are more simple sounds or 
 vowels, than are used to be marked with simple figures or letters, 
 
 2 dly, That of the?e three compound sounds, C, K, Q, two of 
 them are useless, they all three expressing but one and the same 
 articulation : as likewise the power and use of G, before e and i, 
 in some languages, which marks no other articulation but that 
 of J, and therefore might have kept before these two vowels, the 
 same power and use that it has in all languages before a, o, u. 
 
 3d!i/, That these three consonants might, nay should, have 
 been supplied by three or more others, essential in some lan- 
 guages, to mark the liquid articulations denoted by gn and ill, as 
 also the articulations of ch, sh, &c. 
 
 4thlu, That the Hebrews and Greeks, from whom the Latins 
 took their letters, always began with a consonant to name the 
 letters of that appellation, calling, the Greeks their B Beta, and 
 the Hebrews, their a Beth, &c. Butlhat the Latins, from whom 
 our modern languages have taken their consonants, with their 
 appellations, most arbitrarily, and injudiciously too, changed that 
 natural order, calling el, em, en, &c. the * Lambda, //. Mu, » Nu, 
 of the Greeks, and the b Lamed, d Mem, i Nun of the Hebrews. 
 They had indeed some reason to shorten the appellation of conso- 
 
388 The Principles of the Art 
 
 nants, calling only bee and ell what the others called beta, lambda, 
 &c. But it was contrary to all reason they began the appellation 
 of some of them with the vowel e: although they, at the same 
 time, abstained, either through caprice or reason, to put e before 
 some others, and rather chose to say, bee, cee, dee, than eb, ec, ed, 
 as they said el, em, en, &c. 
 
 bthly, That double letters, though ever so useful for the per- 
 fection of writing, yet are not necessary in the language ; they 
 expressing and denoting no peculiar articulation, but what may 
 be, and is, in effect, denoted by other letters ; and therefore we 
 could as well be without %, as without ^> r, and o-^, instead of 
 which we use the two letters ps, st, sc. (So that even omitting 
 K, Q, and G, which we have seen to be useless in speech, having 
 no other power than C and J ; and reducing therefore the letters 
 to the number of twenty-one, or even twenty (for H is no letter, 
 and denotes only aspiration) ; these twenty letters not only serve 
 as much as the forty, which I have said the French language 
 should have had, if regard had been had to reason in the inven- 
 tion of sounds and figures : but also they are sufficient for all 
 languages that ever were, or ever can be, to distinguish every 
 modification of the voice, and by their various combinations to 
 form that infinite number of words which represent our 
 thoughts. 
 
 " There are, indeed, but twenty-six in our tongue (says the au- 
 " thor of an English Grammar), and yet they may be sovari- 
 " ously disposed as to make more than five hundred and seventy- 
 " six several words of two letters ; and twenty-six times as many 
 " words may be formed of three letters ; that is to say, fifteen 
 a thousand and six ; and twenty-six times as many more may be 
 " made of four several letters, that is, nine hundred thousand and 
 " thirty-six ; and so on in proportion. From this manifold gene- 
 u ration of words, from the various combinations of letters, we 
 " may judge of their vast variety, as being indeed not much less 
 " than infinite/' — Eng. Gram. N. 2. p. 61. 
 
 These characters, or letters, were called in Greek y^p^ccl*, 
 from whence the word Grammar is derived : not that Grammar 
 treats of sounds and letters only, but because they are the foun- 
 dation and basis of speech. And the set of letters used in any 
 language, is called Alphabet, from the two first Greek letters 
 
 AA<£a, BijTa. 
 
 A syllable, which w T e have said to be part of words, eithei 
 spoken or written, is derived from the Greek word avXKa.Qn i 
 which is, Comprehension, to wit, of letters in one sound, though a 
 
of Speaking continued. 389 
 
 single vowel can make a syllable. Thus much for sounds and 
 letters. 
 
 The several species of words of which speech is composed, is 
 also a natural consequence of what passes in our mind : and the 
 order in which they have been invented for representing our 
 thoughts, has necessarily its ground in the nature of things. 
 
 The first thing men did, was to give names to the various 
 beings of the universe, in the middle of which they lived, and of 
 which they wanted to speak. Considering therefore every being 
 as a thing subsisting, as well as themselves, in nature, they called 
 Nouns or Substantives the words of this species. 
 
 As they found it disagreeable to repeat the same name, when 
 they wanted to speak of its subject several times together ; in or- 
 der to remedy that inconvenience they invented a species of 
 words, whose part is to denote what other words are to name. 
 They have been well named Pronouns, as if one said, which is 
 used instead of nouns. And this proves evidently that these 
 words commonly ranged among pronouns, mon, ma, mes, my ; 
 ton, ta, tes, thy ; son, sa ses, his ; notre, nos, our ; voire, vos, your • 
 le mien, mine, fyc. quelque some, quel what, chaque every, #c. 
 do not belong to this species of words, being only adnouns quali- 
 fying and restraining, instead of articles, the sense of the nouns 
 before which they come. 
 
 As men cannot speak of things but in saying what they are, or 
 do, or what happens to them, that is, in giving them qualities, or 
 showing their actions by events, it was necessary to establish 
 words for these two ends. Those used to denote the Qualities 
 are called Adnouns, or Adjectives, because they are added and 
 joined to the nouns or substantives, to qualify the things named 
 by them. Such is the third species of words. 
 
 The words designed to denote the actions and events, caused 
 by the perpetual motion of all the parts of the universe, make 
 the fourth species, called Verbs ; which signifies speech in an 
 eminent sense, because there can be no speech without verbs. 
 
 In considering the Qualifications and Actions, it appeared that 
 they were susceptible of different modifications. From thence 
 arose the Adverbs ; which are only modifications of actions and 
 qualifications, and signify what is added to the verbs. 
 
 The number of the same objects, or the repeating of the same 
 actions caused of course the invention of another species of words 
 proper to denote Calculation or Reckoning : and these are the Nu- 
 merals, or nouns of number, which cannot be ranged in any 
 
390 The Principles of the Art 
 
 other class, being as different from the other words by their ac- 
 cidents, as by the origin and cause of their institution. 
 
 Afterwards men saw that they wanted words proper to denote 
 the relations that are put between things, in order to fix the idea 
 of the one by that of the other. For which purpose they invented 
 the Prepositions, which (as their signification is,) being put before 
 a noun, denote the relation which it has with the noun or verb 
 that comes before. 
 
 They likewise perceived that, things being often connected 
 together, it was necessary to express those connections, in order 
 to make a coherent and well-connected speech; which occasioned 
 the species of words called Conj unctions, whose name shows 
 plain enough the part which they act in speech. 
 
 Lastly, After providing for the words fit to express the name, 
 denotation, qualification, action, modification, calculation, as 
 likewise the relations and connections of things, they wanted 
 moreover to express the passions and emotions of their mind ; 
 and to that end they invented Particles, which are more or less 
 in number, according to the genius of languages. 
 
 Thus, the Art of Speech turns upon nine species of words, vul- 
 garly called by Grammarians Parts of Speech. Some add to t?hem 
 the Article ; but I think it is only an accident in the noun, its 
 power being to extend or restrain the signification of it : nouns 
 being as often used without the article as with it ; and therefore 
 I have ranged the Article among the Particles. Others make a 
 particular species of words of the Participle, which is nothing 
 but a mode of the verb, and will not allow the adjectives to be 
 one, but confound them with the substantives, though essentially 
 different ; so that Grammarians are not agreed as yet concerning 
 the number of the parts of speech, nor what they are. 
 
 I have kept in my Grammar to the number and divisions of 
 the parts of speech which seem to be more natural ; though, upon 
 the whole, it is very indifferent how many I admit, and how I 
 divide them, so I thoroughly explain the proper use and construc- 
 tion of the words of the French language : which I think I have 
 done in the most accurate and intelligible manner, in the third 
 part of this Grammar. The narrow compass of this work does not 
 permit me to enlarge more upon the relations that the parts of 
 speech have to each other, and to the nature of things ; nor to 
 treat of the subdistinctions of the same parts of speech, and the 
 reasons of them. (One may consult thereupon the learned Authors 
 of la Grammaire raisonnee, Port-Royal's Latin Grammar, and 
 the notes upon the English Grammar, which contains an abridg- 
 
of Speaking continued. 391 
 
 merit of the said works.) 1 shall only set down here the chief 
 divisions, with the significations of such Grammatical Terms as 
 most occur, and of which one must not be quite ignorant. 
 
 Words are considered both with respect to their Figure or 
 Frame, and with respect to their Species or Origin. 
 
 Words, considered with respect to their figure, are either 
 Simple, as, juste, just, dire to say ; or Compound, that is, made 
 up of one or more words, or that take some syllabical adjection ; 
 as injuste unjuste, redire to say again. 
 
 Words, considered with respect to their species, are either 
 Primitive, which come from no other word, as mort death, babil 
 prattling ; or Derivative, which come from another word, as, 
 mortel mortal, \babiller to prattle. 
 
 Nouns are divided into Substantive and Adjective by most 
 Grammarians. Nouns substantive are again divided into Proper 
 and Appellative, or Common ; and this last into Abstract, Patrial, 
 Equivocal, Synonyma's, Verbal, Augmentative, and Diminutive. 
 
 A Proper noun is the particular name of any singular person, 
 or thing, or place : as, George, Londres, London, la Tamise, 
 the Thames. 
 
 An Appellative, or Common noun, is that which is applicable 
 to all things of the same kind ; as, Animal, homme a man, Roi a 
 king, ville a city, riviere a river. 
 
 Men have besides joined two accessary Ideas to that of the 
 noun. The one is a respect to the sex, called Gender: the 
 other a respect to unity, or plurality, which is called Number ; 
 and both together are called Accidence. 
 
 An Abstract noun is a substantive derived from an adjective, 
 expressing the quality of that adjective in general, without re- 
 gard to the thing in which the quality is : as, bonte goodness, 
 from bon good ; douceur sweetness, from doux sweet. 
 
 A Patrial or Gentile noun is derived from a Substantive Pro- 
 per, signifying one's country : as, Fraficois a Frenchman, Parisien 
 of Paris, Bourguignon, Gascon, &c, of Burgundy, Gascogne,<Sfc. 
 
 An Equivocal noun is that which has a double meaning ; as, 
 un livre a book, une livre a pound. 
 
 Synonyma's are words of the same import, or which express 
 the same thing several ways ; as, chemin way, route road, fyc. 
 
 Verbal nouns are substantives or adjectives derwed from a 
 verb ; as, amour love, aimable lovely, from aimer to love ; par* 
 leu* talker, from parler to talk, fyc. 
 
 M m 
 
592 Observations upon certain Worth 
 
 Augmentative and Diminutive nouns are substantives import- 
 ing an increase, or lessening of the signification of their primitive : 
 as, lourdaut a loggerhead, from lourd heavy ; fillette a little girl, 
 from i /i//e,agirl; arbrisseau a shrub, from arbre a tree; lapereau 
 
 a young rabbit, from lapin a rabbit, fyc. Some diminutives 
 
 have no resemblance at all to the substantives of which they lessen 
 the signification : as, bidet a pony, being the diminutive of cheval 
 a horse ; marcassin, a young wild boar, of sanglier a wild boar. 
 
 § I. Observations on the Construction, Use, end Signification of 
 certain Words, which most frequently occur in Speech, wherein 
 chiefly consists the 
 
 Idiom o/Feench. 
 
 Grammar should, if it were possible, treat of all the words of a 
 language, and take notice of the signification of each singly ; for 
 it is not the art of making oneself understood and how, but of 
 exhibiting one's thoughts with propriety and perspicuity ; which 
 cannot be done without a thorough knowledge of all the various 
 significations and constructions of the words of which it is com- 
 posed. The Genius of a language consists in the latter, the 
 other relates to its idiom. Grammar hardly treats of the signi- 
 fications of words. It suffices for it to consider such construc- 
 tions wherein the Genius of the language consists, and leaves it 
 to Dictionaries to treat of the words and Idioms. I shall never- 
 theless consider here orderly the common Idiom of the French 
 with respect to English ; and have reserved for a particular book 
 such Idioms as cannot be treated methodically. 
 
 I. Amitie (friendship) is often used in the singular ior favour, 
 kindness: as, 
 
 Faites-moi cette amitie ; Do me that kindness, or favour. 
 
 Amities (in the plural) is said of caresses, and making much of: as , 
 II m' a fait mille amities ; He made very much of me. 
 
 II. Amours (in the plural) is feminine, except when it signifies 
 Cupids : as, // riest point de laides amours ; Never seemed a 
 mistress foul. II y a autour d'elle mille petits amours ; A thou- 
 sand Cupids stand around her. 
 
 HI. An, Annie (a year) are not used promiscuously ; an is 
 used, 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. SyS 
 
 1°. After nouns of the cardinal number: as, J'ai trente ans, I 
 am thirty years old ; C'est unejille de qninze ans, She is a girl of fif- 
 teen ; II y a vingt-cinq ans passee, It was five and twenty years ago. 
 
 2°. Before nouns of the ordinal number : as, Uan quinzieme 
 de V Empire, the fifteenth year of the Empire ; Uan mil sept cent 
 quarante-neuf, the year one thousand seven hundred and forty- 
 nine (wherein the cardinal number is used for the ordinal). 
 We say, lejour de Van, New Year's day ; le premier jour de Van, 
 the first day of the year. 
 
 Annie is used, 1°, After nouns of the ordinal number : as, 
 Elle est dans sa vingiibne annee, or Elle a vingt ans ; She is in 
 her twentieth year, or she is twenty. 
 
 2°. After the article : as, V annee passee or derniere, last year ; 
 F annee qui vient or V annee prochaine, next year ; although we 
 say Van de grace, the year of grace ; Van du monde, or de notre 
 Seigneur, the year of the world, or of our Lord. 
 
 3°. With an epithet, or adnoun, signifying any thing but 
 measure of time ; as, Une bonne fy heureuse annee, a happy new 
 year ; Nos belles annees passent bien vite, Our prime goes away 
 very quick, 
 
 4°. We almost always use annee before and after nouns : as, 
 Un grand nombre d'annees, a great number of years ; 11 reste en- 
 core trois mois de V annee, We have three months yet to come of 
 this year. 
 
 IV. Accoutumer (to use), and s'Accoutumer (to use or accus- 
 tom oneself), Eire accoutume (to be used), require the preposition 
 a before the next infinitive : Avoir coutume, Avoir accoutume 
 (this last begins to be obsolete) require de : as, 
 
 II V accoutume a. le suivre-, He uses him to follow him. 
 
 II s' accoutume a lire ; He uses himself to read. 
 
 Je suis accoutume a souffrir ; I am used to bear. 
 
 Tai coutume de perdre ; I use to lose. 
 
 V. Agir (to act), preceded by the particle en, and followed 
 by an adverb, signifies to do by, to deal with, ox use one: as, En 
 agir bien avec, or envers quelqiCun, or a son egard, To do well by 
 one, to deal well with him. // en agit mat envers elle or a son 
 egard, He uses her ill. 
 
 And when agir is used impersonally with the reflected pronoun 
 (il sagit, il s'agissoit), it is englished as follows : 
 
 De quoi s'agit-il? What is the matter ? lis' agit defaire cela 
 This is the business in question ; JY ne s'agissoit pas de cela, That 
 
394 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 was not the business in hand ; // ne s'agit pas de peu de choses^ 
 It is not a trifling concern. 
 
 VI. Aider (to help) governs both the first and third state, as 
 Aidez-le a f aire cela, Help him to do that ; Aidez-lui a porter sa 
 charge, Help him to carry his burthen. It governs the third state, 
 when it signifies to share and divide the trouble with one ; and the 
 first state, when it signifies to help one with money, counsel, &c. 
 
 VII. Aimer is to love ; but Aimer mieux denotes commonly 
 the choice which one makes of one thing before another, and is 
 expressed by to have rather, to choose rather, &c. as J'aime 
 mieux celui-ci que V autre, I like this better than the other; 
 J'aime mieusc rester au logis que a" aller me promener, I rather 
 choose to stay at home than go a walking. 
 
 VIII. The Present and Imperfect of Aller (to go), coming 
 before an infinitive without a preposition, denote a thing which 
 one is, or was about to do, or which is, or was about to fall out, 
 and is reudered with to be going, to be ready, to be about, or upon 
 the point, and sometimes with a future only : as, 
 
 Je vais ttudier, I am going to study ; Elle alloit chanter, 
 She was going to sing ; Je vais, or Je m'en vais partir tout a 
 Vheure, I'll set out presently. Nay, these two tenses are even 
 construed with the verb aller in that sense : as, 
 
 Je vais m'en aller, I am going away ; II alloit y aller, He was 
 going thither ; Nous allions aller ehez vous, We were upon the 
 point of going to your house. 
 
 IX. The Present and Imperfect of Venir (to come), coming 
 before an infinitive with the preposition de, denotes a thing just 
 now done, which is most times too expressed with these two 
 particles : as, Je viens de diner, I have just dined ; Elle venoit 
 
 de lui ecrire quand, &c. She had just written to him when 
 
 Le Roi vient de le nommer a cet Eveche, The King has lately 
 named him to that bishoprick. 
 
 Venir, before the infinitive with a, denotes, and is englished 
 by, setting, or going about something, or to begin : as, Quand il 
 
 vint a danser, When he began to dance. Se mettre a, is 
 
 another verb of the same signification : as, Pour peu que vous lui 
 parliez, elle se met a pleurer, If you speak to her ever so little, 
 she falls a crying. 
 
 Again : Aller, as w T ell as venir, sometimes seems only to denote 
 the possibility there is for the action of the verb following to hap- 
 pen, and is englished sometimes by to happen, to chance, and some 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 395 
 
 times by a Conditional tense only ; as, II seroit perdu si safemme 
 venoit a savoir cela, He would be undone if his wife should hap- 
 pen to know that : Voyez oil fen serois, si elle alloit croire cela, 
 Mind what case I should be in, if she should chance to believe 
 that. 
 
 Alter is also said, as well zsfaire, of things that fit, or do not 
 fit one well : as, Cet habit vous Da bien, This coat fits you well ; 
 Cette grande perruque ne lui va, or ne lui fait pas bien du tout, 
 That great wig does not fit him at all. 
 
 Aller, venir, and revenir, are said of ships bound from one 
 place to another : as, Ce vaisseau vient de la Havanne, fy va a 
 Cadiz, That ship is bound from the Havannah to Cadiz ; Nous 
 allions a la Chine, We were sailing to China ; TJn vaisseau qui 
 revient de VAmerique, A ship homeward bound from the West- 
 Indies. 
 
 Aller, used impersonally with the particle?/ before, and a noun 
 in the second state after it, is englished thus, II y va de Vhonneur, 
 Honour is at stake ; II y alloit de la vie, Life was concerned in 
 it, or life was at stake. 
 
 X. Apparoitre and Paroitre (to appear). The first is said 
 only of spirits and ghosts: as, Un ange lui apparut, An angel 
 appeared to him ; Les spectres n' apparoissent que dans la nuit, 
 Ghosts or spirits appear only in the night-time. The other is 
 said of whatever falls under the eyes : as, Le soleil paroit, The 
 sun appears, or shows itself ; 11 paroit une Comlte, A Comet 
 appears. 
 
 XI. Avoir (to have) is used instead of etre, when we speak 
 of being old, hungry, thirsty, cold, and hot (relating to the weather, 
 as it affects men) ; as, II a six ans, He is six years old ; J'ai 
 faim, I am hungry ; Je rial pas soif I am not thirsty ; Elle a 
 chaud, She is warm. 
 
 Observe that chaud and froid are indeclinable in these sentences ; these 
 words being then used adverbially ; Therefore let not a woman say, J'ai chaude, 
 and still less Je suis chaude. 
 
 But with respect to being hot and cold, the English Pronouns 
 possessive, construed with the nouns of the parts said to be hot 
 or cold, are made moreover by the pronoun personal, expressing 
 the subject before avoir, in French, and the noun of the part is 
 put in the 3d state ; as, J'ai froid aux pieds, My feet are cold ; 
 // a chaud aux mains, His hands are warm. 
 
 It is the same when we speak of any pain, wound, or sore, which 
 we have got in any part of the body. We use avoir without a 
 
 Mm 2 
 
396 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 pronoun possessive before the noun of the sick or wounded part, 
 which is always put in the third state, and the words pain and 
 sore are rendered by mal : as, J'ai mal a la tete, I have a pam in 
 my head ; II a mal aux yeux, He has sore eyes. 
 
 Avoir beau, used to denote that owe does a thing in vain, is 
 englished several ways, as follows : 
 
 J'ai beau Vattendre, il ne viendra pas, I may stay long enough 
 for him, he will not come ; // a beau f aire, il n J en viendra jamais 
 a bout, Let him do what he will, or what he can, or for all that 
 he may do, he will never bring it about ; Vous avez beau lui don- 
 ner des avis, elle ne veut suivre que sa tete, It signifies nothing to 
 advise her ever so much, or ever so well, she will follow her own 
 head nevertheless ; Vous avez beau faire <Sf beau dire, il rien 
 sera ni plus ni moins, You may do and say what you please, or 
 whatsoever you may do and say, or for all you may do and say, 
 it will be so nevertheless ; 77 aura beau dire fy beau faire, je n'en 
 rabattrai rien, He may do and say whatever he pleases, I will 
 not abate an inch on it ; Le pauvre homme eut beau appeler du 
 secours, It was to little purpose the poor man called for assistance. 
 
 XII. Is' avoir garde, signifies to have not the inclination or 
 power to do a thing, and is englished thus : II n'a garde de trom- 
 per, il est trop honnete homme, He is too honest a man to think of 
 cheating ; 17 n'a garde de senfuir, il a lajambe cassee; How can 
 he run away, since his leg is broken ? 
 
 XIII. To do nothing but, is Ne faire que, with an infinitive 
 without a preposition : as, II ne fait que boire fy manger, He 
 does nothing but eat and drink. 
 
 XIV. To want none of, To have no occasion for, or no need 
 of, is N'avoir que faire de : as Avoir affaire de is to want, to have 
 occasion for: as, 
 
 Je 7i'ai que faire de voire argent, I want none of your money. 
 Elle n'a que faire de purler, She has no occasion to speak, she 
 needs not speak. (See page 400.) 
 
 XV. Au reste, Du teste (as for the rest, besides), must not 
 be confounded. Au reste is used, when, to what comes before, 
 something is added of the same kind, and is the sequel of it : as, 
 Cette poursuite ne se peut faire qu'a grands frais. Au reste elle a 
 pew de bien, huit enfans, fy elle est endettee ; This prosecution can- 
 not be but very expensive ; As for the rest, or besides, her fortune 
 is but small, she has eight children, and is in debt. 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 397 
 
 Du reste is used, when what follows is not of the same kind 
 as that which comes before, or is not essentially related to it , as, 
 // etoit coUre, bizarre, prodigue ; du reste, homme d'honneur fy bon 
 ami; He was passionate, whimsical, and extravagant; but in 
 other respects, a man of honour and a good friend. 
 
 Au reste outdoes most commonly what has been said ; Du 
 reste always implies opposition, and signifies almost the same 
 thing, as,/or all that, that being excepted. 
 
 Au reste sometimes elegantly comes after the first word or 
 words of the sentence ; Du reste always comes the first. 
 
 XVI. A'ieux (plur. numb, of a'ieul, Grandfather) is generally 
 used to signify ancestors and forefathers : as, Ses a'ieux ont posstde 
 de grandes charges, His ancestors have enjoyed great places ; 
 ancestors signifying no more Grandfathers than Great-grandfa- 
 thers, or Great-great-grandfathers, &c. But aieux may be (though 
 seldom) restrained to its first signification of the plural of a'ieul: as, 
 
 Ses deux a'ieux ont etc honor ts des plus belles charges du Royaume, 
 Both his grandfathers have been honoured with the handsomest 
 places in the kingdom. 
 
 XVII. To know, is both Savoir and Connoitre, with the 
 difference, that the former is said of Sciences and things that 
 are properly the object of the intellectual faculties, and have 
 been studied or got by heart : as, Savez-vous voire lecon ? Can 
 you say your lesson ? 17 sait le Latin, He understands Latin ; 
 Je sais ce que vous dites, I know what you say ; II sait mieux qu'il 
 ne dit, He knows better than he says. 
 
 The latter is said of things that are the object of our senses, 
 and import properly being acquainted with ; as, Je connois cet 
 homme-la, I know that man ; II connoit ce pays-la, He knows 
 that country. 
 
 Again : Whenever to know can be resolved by to understand, 
 it is savoir, otherwise it is connoitre. 
 
 Savoir bon gre a quelqu'un d'une chose, To take it well or kindly 
 of him. 
 
 Lui en savoir mauvais gre, To take it amiss, or unkindly of 
 him. 
 
 Fairt savoir une chose a quelqu f un, To let one know a thing, 
 to acquaint him with it. 
 
 XVIII. Devoir (to owe, to be bound), when it comes before 
 an infinitive without a preposition, denotes only futurity in the 
 action of the following verb, and is made by the future of the 
 
398 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 second verb in English, or by the verb to be, before an infinitive ; 
 as, 
 
 i7 doit venir, He is to come ; Elle doit partir demain, She will 
 set out to-morrow ; Je dois parler sur cette affaire, I am to speak 
 about that affair. 
 
 Sometimes devoir signifies must needs : as, II est tout nu, il doi 
 avoir bienfroid, He is all naked, he must needs be very cold. 
 
 XIX. Ecouter sometimes signifies to hearken and to listen to . 
 as, Ecoutez, Hark'ye ; 11 ecoute ce que nous disons, He listens to 
 what we say; and sometimes to mind, to attend: as, Ecoutez ce 
 qu'on dit, Mind what is said. 
 
 Entendre signifies to hear and to overhear : as, // nous a en- 
 tendus tout le temps, He has overheard us all the while. 
 
 XX. Emplir (to Jill up) is said of liquids only : as, Emplir 
 un tonneau, une bouteille, &c. to fill a cask, a bottle, fyc. 
 
 Remplir is said of any thing but liquids, besides its significa- 
 tion of reduplification : as, Remplir ses cqffres d } or $■ aV argent, 
 To fill up one's trunk with gold and silver ; Remplissez le verre, 
 Fill up the glass again. 
 
 XXI. Enfermer is said of what is locked or shut up in a box, 
 trunk, chamber, <^c. and Renfermer, of what nature produces, 
 and is contained, or included in the earth or sea ; as, 
 
 Je l x ai enferme dans mon bureau, I have locked it up in my bureau : 
 Que de tresors la Nature ne renferme-t-elle pas dans son sein ! 
 What treasure does not Nature inclose in her bosom ! 
 
 XXII. Enfer, with the Christians, is not used in the plural, 
 except in the article of the Creed : as, i7 est descendu aux Enfers, 
 He descended into Hell. 
 
 But we say les peines de V enfer, the torments of hell. 
 With the Heathens it is not used in the singular : as, Mercure 
 eonduisoit les dmes aux enfers, Mercury carried the souls to hell. 
 
 XXIII. Entendre is both to hear and to understand, accord- 
 ing as the thing is the object of the sense of hearing, or that of 
 the understanding : as, Je vous entends, I hear you, I understand 
 you. 
 
 11 entend cela mieux que Vous, He understands that better than 
 you. 
 
 Faire entendre, is to intimate. 
 
 To understand, signifies also savoir, when the thing spoken of 
 is a science or an art : as, Elle sait le Latin, She understands Latin. 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 399 
 
 And when the thing meant, or the object of the verb is any 
 quality of things, to understand is made in French by se connokre 
 en, or a : as, II se commit en toile, He understands linen-cloth. 
 
 Vous y connoissez-vous ? Do you understand these things r 
 
 XXIV. Esperer (to hope) is never said in French of what is 
 present or past: because hope is the expectation of things to 
 come, though not certain or sure. Therefore do not say, J'espere 
 que vous vous portez bien, I hope that you are well ; J'espere 
 qu'il s'est bien porte a la campagne, I hope that he has been well 
 in the country ; But say, II paroit, it me semble, or Je presume que 
 vous vous portez bien ; Je mejlatte, or J'ai lieu de croire, or Je 
 nCimagine qu'il s'est bien porte a la campagne : or else take ano- 
 ther turn, as an interrogations saying simply, Vous portez-vous 
 bien? Comment s y est-il porte a la campagne? 
 
 XXV. Eveiller and Reveiller (to awake, to call up) : eveiller 
 is said of a regular time, and intimates something natural and 
 usual : as, On m'eveille tous les matins a cinq heures, 1 am awaked 
 every morning at five ; Ne m'eveillez demain qu'a sept heures, 
 Do not awake me to-morrow till seven. 
 
 Reveiller implies something irregular and sudden, and is said, 
 with respect to an extraordinary, unusual time : as, 
 
 Un grand bruit m'a reveille, A great noise has awaked me. 
 Le ministre veut qu'on le reveille toutes lesfois qu'il arrive un courier, 
 The Minister will be awaked whenever an express or messenger 
 
 comes. 
 
 XXVI. Faire, in its most general signification, is to do, or 
 to make : but it has a great many more particular significations 
 much in use. 
 
 1°. Faire, before an infinitive, without any preposition, signifies 
 generally to get, to bid ; to cause, to order, with the noun ex- 
 pressing the object after the verb in the infinitive, and not before, 
 as in English : and when it signifies to cause, or order, the French 
 infinitive is turned from its active state into the passive : as, 
 
 Faites lire cet enfant; Make that child read. 
 
 Faites venir cet homme ; Bid that man come. 
 
 II lefit mettre a mort ; He ordered him to be put to death. 
 
 Ellefit assassiner son amant ; She caused her lover to be mur- 
 dered. 
 
 2°. Before the infinitive of faire, it signifies to bespeak, to get 
 made: as, 
 
 II a fait faire une montre d'or a repetition ; 
 He has bespoke a gold repeating watch. 
 
 
400 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 3°. It signifies to see, to do in such a manner thai : as, 
 Faites qiiil soit content. or, 7 c *u ± i L j 
 
 iWs en sorfe ? «'tf soit content, I See that he I9 conte " ted - 
 4°. To counterfeit: as, 
 
 Cew;r qui font lesfous a propos ne le sont gutres. 
 Those who counterfeit themselves mad seasonably, are hardly so. 
 5°. To pretend, set up, personate, or act : as, 
 
 II fail le Philosophe ; He sets up for a Philosopher. 
 File fait la belle, She pretends to be handsome. 
 Vousferez Vavare, You will act or personate the Miser. 
 6°. To dress, clean, or make up: as, 
 Faire la chambre, To clean the room. 
 Faire le lit, To make the bed. 
 7°. Se faire, is to use oneself to : as, 
 
 Se faire a la fatigue, To use, or inure oneself to hardships 
 8°. Faire, used impersonally with an adnoun, expresses the 
 qualities of the weather : as, 
 
 II fait beau, or beautemps, It is fine weather : 
 Ilfaitfroid, It is cold. 
 9o. Avoir, with the word affaire, signifies to want ; and with 
 faire, but preceded by ne and que, it signifies not to want, to need 
 not, to have no occasion for : as, J y ai affaire de cela, fy vous nen 
 avez que faire, I want that, and you do not, or you have no occa- 
 sion for it. (See p. 396.) 
 
 10°. Faire is used, as in English, instead of repeating a verb 
 that has just been expressed in the sentence, especially after a 
 comparative ; but k is not so frequently used in this sense as it is 
 in English : as, 
 
 II apprend mieux qu'il nefaisoit, He learns better than he did. 
 
 XXVII. Fai re grace signifies to fo rgive, or excuse: as, 
 
 Je vousfais grace de la moitie 1 I forgive you half of the 
 des depens ; ) charges. 
 
 t r» • 7 • r '+ * ( The King has forgiven him, or 
 
 URoilm a fait grace, | granted him his pardon. And 
 
 Faire une grace, is to do a favour : as, 
 Faites-moi une grace, Do me a favour. We also say, 
 II lux fait grace, He favours him, he befriends him. 
 Dieu lui enfasse la grace, God grant he may. 
 
 XXVIII. Fleurir, signifies, in its proper sense, to blossom, and 
 in its figurative to flourish, to be in repute ; the French having but 
 one expression for these two English words. But in order to 
 distinguish more particularly between the proper sense and the 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 401 
 
 figurative, an irregularity has been introduced in some of the 
 inflexions of this verb. The regular gerund of jieurir is fieuris- 
 sant ; as, les arbresfieurissant, the trees being in blossom : but in 
 their figurative sense we say fiorissant ;, as un Hat, un empire 
 fiorissant, a flourishing state, or empire. 
 
 The same irregularity takes place in the imperfect : we say, 
 in the proper sense, Cet arbre fieurissoit tons les ans deuxfois, 
 That tree was in blossom twice every year : and in the figurative 
 sense, Un tel fiorissoit sons son regne, Such a one flourished, or 
 was in repute under his reign ; Les Arts fy les Sciences fiorissoient 
 alors, Arts and Sciences flourished at that time, or were in high 
 esteem. 
 
 We also say figuratively un style fieuri, a florid style ; un teint 
 fieuri, a blooming complexion. 
 
 XXIX. Se Fier: (to trust) has a threefold construction. Se 
 
 fier a son nitrite, se fier en son merite, se fier sur son merite, to 
 trust to one's merit. 
 
 XXX. Fournir (to afford, to supply with) is construed with 
 both the first and third state : as, 
 
 La riviere \efournit de sel, La riviere luifiournit du sel, 
 The river affords him salt, or supplies him with salt. 
 The former way signifies, properly, that the river supplies him 
 with as much salt as he can consume in his family. The latter 
 may signify besides, that the river affords him so great a quantity 
 of salt as to sell and trade therewith. 
 
 XXXI. Gens (people). There is not one word in the French 
 language liable to more several and odd constructions than this. 
 
 Gens is a plural noun, which is never said of a determinate 
 number of people, unless it is attended by an adnoun. Therefore 
 we do not say trois ou quatre gens, six gens, &c. as the English do, 
 three or four people, six people, fyc. but we say trois honnetes 
 gens, three honest people (meaning gentlemen) ; dix jeunes gens, 
 ten young people, and. trois ou quatre per sonnes. 
 
 Gens is masculine when it comes before its adnoun, and femi- 
 tiine when the adnoun comes first : as, 
 
 Ce sont des gens resolus, They are resolute people. 
 
 Ce sont de bonnes gens, They are good people. 
 But though the adnoun coming before gens is feminine, yet 
 if there follows another adnoun, or a participle, this last must be 
 masculine : as, 
 
 II y a de certaines gens qui sont bien sots, and not scttes, 
 
 Some people are very foolish. 
 
402 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 Ce sont les meilleures gens que faie jamais vus, and not vues ; 
 They are the best sort of people I have ever seen. 
 The word tout coming before gens, is put m the masculine 
 when it is attended by no other adnouns, or the adnoun coming 
 before it is of the common gender : as, 
 
 Tons les gens que, fyc. All people that, &c. 
 Tons leskonnttes gens font cela; All gentlefolks do that. 
 Tous les jeunes gens sont volages; AUyoung people are fickle. 
 But when the adnoun attending gens is feminine, the word tout 
 agrees with it too : as, 
 
 Toutes les vieilles gens; All old people. 
 Toutes les bonnes gens ; All good people. 
 Gens signifies also domestics, and is used with a determinate 
 number : as, II arriva avec quatre de ses gens ; 
 
 He arrived with four of his men, or servants. 
 
 XXXII. Bonne grace, in the singular, signifies gentleness, 
 ogreeableness : as, Elle a bonne grace ; She is genteel. 
 
 II salue de bonne grace ; He bows in a genteel manner. 
 
 In the plural, bonnes graces signifies favour and benevolence : as, 
 
 II est dans ses bonnes graces ; He is in his or her favour. 
 
 Conservez-moi Vhonneur de vos bonnes graces ; 
 
 Do me the honour to keep me a place in your favour. 
 
 XXXIII. Jouer(to play) is both neuter and active in French ; 
 though it is but in very few cases active in English : as, 
 
 Jouer quelque chose ; To play for something. 
 
 Jouons un ecu ; Let us play for a crown. 
 The particle at, used after the word playing, before the names 
 of Games and Exercises, is expressed in French by the particles 
 a, au, a la, aux : and the particle upon, before the names of 
 Instruments, by da, de la, des : as, 
 » Jouer aux cartes ;- To play at cards. 
 
 Jouons au Piquet, & la Bete, aux Echecs, & la Paume, aux Barres, 
 &c. Let us play at Piquet, at Loo, at Chess, at Tennis, at Run- 
 ning-Bars, fyc. 
 
 Jouer des instrumens ; du violon, de \a. flute, &c. 
 
 To play upon the instruments ; upon the violin, the flute, fyc. 
 
 Jouer une piece de Theatre ; To act a play. 
 
 Jouer gros jeu ; To play high, or deep. 
 
 Jouer quelqu'un; To make a fool of one, to play upon him. 
 
 Jouer au plus fin avec quelqu'un ; To vie in cunning with one, 
 
 Jouer de la prwielle ; To ogle, or leer. 
 
 Jouer a quitte ou double ; To run all hazards. 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 40^ 
 
 Jouer une piece, or un tour a quelqu'un, or lui enjoue uune ; 
 
 To serve one a trick, or put a trick upon one. 
 
 Jouer before an infinitive, with a, signifies lo hazard, to ven- 
 tvre : as, Vousjouez a vous f aire tuer ; You venture your life. 
 
 Iljoue a perdre sa place; He runs the hazard of losing his place. 
 
 Se jouer is to sport, and se jouer de quelqu'un, to make a foe J 
 of one. — Jouer is besides used in some phrases like these : 
 
 Ne vousjouez pas a lui ; Do not meddle or make with. him. 
 
 Ne vous yjouez pas ; Du not fool with it ; do not be such a 
 fool as to do it. 
 
 XXXIV. Jour and Journee (a day). Journee is usually 
 understood and said of what is done during one day : as, 
 
 Payer la journee aux ouvriers-, To pay the workmen for their 
 day's labour. 
 
 Marcher a grandes journees ; To make great marches. 
 
 II y a huit journees de chemin ; It is eight days' journey. 
 
 We say, likewise, in that sense, la journee d Actium, la journee 
 de Fontenoy, the day or battle of Actium, or Fontenoy, &c. 
 
 We use jour when we speak of time only, and absolutely : as, 
 Les jours sont courts ; The days are short. 
 II y a plus de huit jours que cela est passee ; It is above a week ago. 
 
 We say, indifferently, Voila un beau jour, or une belle journee ; 
 This is a fine day : J'ai travaille tout lejour, or teute la journee ; 
 I have been at work, or have studied all the day. 
 
 Vivre aujour la journee, To live from hand to mouth. 
 
 There is the same difference with matin and matinee (morning), 
 and soir and soiree (evening). 
 
 XXXV. Laisser to leave, to let, and sometimes to forget : as, 
 Laissez id votre manteau ; Leave your cloak here. 
 
 II ne veut pas me laisser parler ; He will not let me speak. 
 
 J'ai laisse ma bourse sur la table, \ ' a. * J? 1 ^ 
 
 ' I purse upon the table. 
 
 Laisser, being construed with ne and pas, attended by de, de- 
 notes only affirmation in the next verb, which is rendered in 
 English several ways, importing generally still, nevertheless, for 
 all that, &c. as, 
 
 Cela ne laisse pas d'etre vrai, quoique vous en doutiez ; 
 Although you doubt of it, it is true nevertheless, or for all that. 
 Malgve tout ce queje lui ai dit, elle ne laisse pas de lefaire ; 
 For all that I told her, she still does it, or does not forbear doing it. 
 Vous ne savez que f aire de ces ~\ You do not know what to do 
 bagatelles, elles ne laissent V with these trifles, yet they 
 pas d' avoir leur usage \ ) are not without their use. 
 N n 
 
404 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 XXXVI. Livres and Francs (Lures.) These two words 
 signifying the same thing, are liable to several various and odd 
 
 constructions. We say, II a quatre mille livres de pension, 
 
 dix mille livres de pension, vingt mille livres de rente, cent mille 
 livres de rente, &c. and never quatre mille francs de pension, cent 
 mille francs de rente, &c. He has a pension of four, or ten thou- 
 sand livres, twenty thousand, or an hundred thousand livres per 
 annum. 
 
 We on the contrary say : Sa maison lui a coute vingt mille francs ; 
 His house has cost him twenty thousand livres : Sa charge vaut 
 cent mille francs ; His place is worth an hundred thousand livres, 
 fyc. and never vingt mille livres, cent mil'le livres. 
 
 When cent meets with mille, but coming after it, we always 
 use the word livres ; as likewise with the addition of these words 
 de rente, de pension (when the words a pension, a year, or per 
 annum, meet with livres) ; as, Tine somme dedeux mille trois cem 
 livres ; A sum of two thousand three hundred livres : Six mille 
 neuf cens livres ; Six thousand nine hundred livres. 
 
 We never say un franc, neither absolutely, nor with another 
 number : as, vingt fy un francs, trente fy un francs, &c. we say, 
 vingt $ tine livres, trente fy une livres, &c. one-and-twenty, or 
 thirty livres. 
 
 Neither do we say d&ux francs, trois francs, cinq francs (two, 
 three, rive livres), tho' we say quatre francs, six francs, sept francs, 
 huit francs, up to vingt francs. We say neither trente francs nor 
 trente livres, nor soixante francs, nor soixante livres, but dix ecus, 
 vingt ecus (ten or twenty half-crowns). We say quarante francs, 
 cinquante francs, quatre-vingts francs, and cent francs. 
 
 Neither do we say une livre, deux livres, trois livres, &c. though 
 we write k in Bank-notes, Letters of Exchange, Bills and Ac- 
 compts. We say vingt sous for one livre, quarante sous for two, 
 un ecu for three. Instead of cinq livres, we say cent sous. But 
 when pence (des sous) make part of the sum, we then always use 
 the word livre : as, quatre livres dix sous, four livres and ten- 
 pence ; six livres huit sous, six livres and eight-pence ; not quatre 
 francs dix soits, six francs huit sous. 
 
 When the sum exceeds an hundred, we, speaking of a debt, 
 use indifferently livres or francs : as, II me doit deux cens francs, 
 or deux cens livres; He owes me two hundred livres: Je don 
 quinze ou seize eens livres or francs ; I owe fifteen or sixteen hun- 
 dn d livres. 
 
 However, we say, un sac de mille francs, and not un sac de milk 
 livres ; a bag of a thousand livres. 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 405 
 
 When people distinguish, as m foreign countries, between 
 Toumois and Sterling (the pound Sterling and the pound Tour- 
 nois) y they must always use the word livre: as, 1/ a apportede 
 France dix mille livres Toumois, c 'est-ardire,prts de cinq cens livres 
 st&rlirig ; He has brought over from France ten thousand livres, 
 or pounds Toumois ; that is, near five huudred pounds Sterling. 
 — A livre, or livre Toumois, is twenty-pence (Toumois). A 
 pound Sterling is two-and-twenty livres, or pounds Toumois. 
 
 XXXVII. Un coup de main, signifies a bold action, and 
 Un homme de main, a man fit for a bold and hazardous enter- 
 prise; Des coups de main, handy blows; main forte, assist- 
 ance; A pleines mains, largely, plentifully; Sous main, under- 
 hand, secretly. 
 
 Dormer, or Priter la main a quelqu'an ; To help one. 
 
 Donner les mains a quelque chose ; To consent to a thing. 
 
 Etre en main, or a main pour faire une chose ; [hand easily 
 
 To be in a convenient posture, or situation for one to use his 
 
 F>n venir aux mains ; To come to blows, to engage. 
 
 t> a. • r * * j * S To succour one, to come to his 
 
 Freter main forte a quelquun;< m •. -., 7 . T 
 
 J ■* ■* I assistance with mam strength. 
 
 Donner de main en main ; To hand about. 
 
 Cela est fait a la main ; That is done with concert. 
 
 T j C To take one's oath before a judge, to swear, 
 
 ±*ver la mam ; j tQ hy onQ , s hand upon %he ^ M ^ 
 
 To have a good hand at 1 ■ C S' entendre a faire quelque 
 doing something, 3 X chose. 
 
 XXXVIII. To walk (a verb neuter) is both Marcher and 
 se Promener, with this difference, that marcher is said of going 
 out for business, and imports going from one place to another ; 
 and se promener is said of taking a walk, walking for pleasure- 
 sake : as, 
 
 J'ai beaucoup marcM aujourd'hui; I have walked much to-day 
 Je me suis promeni aujourd'hui une heure dans lejardin ; 
 I have walked an hour to-day in the garden. 
 We say, Se promener a cheval, ou en carrosse ; 
 
 To take a ride, or airing on horseback, or in a coach. 
 
 Se promener sur Veau, sur la rivitre, sur la Tamise ; 
 
 To go upon the water, upon the river, fyc. 
 
 Marcher sur quelqu'un, ou sur quelque chose ; 
 
 To tread upon one, or upon a thing. 
 
 Marcher sur les traces de quelqiiun ; to follow one's steps 
 Promener is also used actively ; as, 
 
406 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 Promener quelqu'un ; To lead one, to make him walk.[ferent objects. 
 Promener sa vue surplusieurs objets^o cany one's sight to many dif- 
 Envoyer quelqu'un se promener ; To send one packing to the devil. 
 Marcher droit ; To keep to one's behaviour. 
 Je leferai marcher droit ; I will keep him to his behaviour. 
 
 XXXIX. Marier, Epouser, Se marier (to many). The 
 two first are active, and the last a reflected verb ; but marier is 
 said only of the Parson or Priest who performs the ceremony ; 
 and epouser of the person who is married : as, 
 Monsieur A. doit epouser Mademoiselle B. fy c' 'est Monsieur »e 
 
 Cure <pii les mariera, 
 Mr. A. is to marry Miss B. and it is the Rector of the Parish, or 
 
 the Parson who will marry them. 
 Elle ne veut point se marier ; She will not marry. 
 
 XL. Mener and Porter (to carry), Amener and Apporter 
 (to bring), must be very accurately distinguished, and fitted to 
 the speech. 
 
 Mener is said of such creatures, either rational or irrational, 
 that have by nature the capacity of walking, and are not dis- 
 abled, either through accident or illness : and Porter is said of 
 things that cannot walk by their nature, and of persons and 
 dumb creatures that are disabled from walking, on account of 
 lameness or illness, and other infirmities : as, 
 Menez Monsieur chez cette Dame, and not Portez Monsieur, 8tc 
 Carry the Gentleman to that Lady's house. 
 Pdrtez-y vos chansons nouvelles, and not Menez-y ; 
 Carry there your new songs. 
 Menez le cheval a Vecurie, or chez le Marechal ; 
 Carry the horse to the stable, or to the farrier's, and not Portez, 
 
 because horses, dogs, £$c. have legs to walk. 
 Portez cette etoffe chez letailleur, Carry that stuff to the taylor's. 
 Cei enfant est las, portez-le a la maison ; 
 That child is tired, carry him home (because he cannot walk). 
 
 Again : Mener and amener, porter and apporter, import a rela- 
 tion of place, answering to the question, where, whither : ame- 
 ner and apporter, are used with reference to the local adverbs 
 here, hither : and mener and porter to there, thither ; as, 
 Amenez-moi votre ami ; Bring your friend to me. 
 Apportez-moi votre ouvrage ; Bring your work to me. 
 II les a amenes, or apportts ici ; He has brought them here, or 
 
 hither. 
 
 All which instances are said with respect to the place where 
 one is : but these following are said with reference to a place at 
 any distance from that where one is. 
 
consituting the Idiom of French. 
 
 407 
 
 II lesy a amenes, or portes ; He carried them there, or thither. 
 Portez votre ouvrage a votre sozur ; Carry your work to your sister. 
 Menez-le chez le Commissaire ; Carry him or take him to the Justice's. 
 Observe that expression to take one to a place, rendered in 
 French by Mener quelqu'un a un endroit. 
 
 XLI. Mourir (to die), 
 r defaim, 
 de soif, 
 defroid, 
 de chaud, 
 de peur, 
 d'envie, 
 d J impatience, 
 de chagrin 
 de deplaisir, 
 "-de douleur, 
 
 Mourir< 
 
 Se mourir (to be dying). We say, 
 to starve with hunger, 
 to be choaked with thirst, 
 to starve with cold, 
 to be extremely hot. 
 to be affrighted to death. 
 
 > to long mightily for a thing. 
 
 to grieve oneself to death. 
 
 to be vexed to death. 
 
 to have one's heart broken. 
 
 XLII. Neuf and Nouveau (new). The construction of 
 these two words is worth observing. Neuf must always come 
 after the noun, and nouveau may come either before or after. 
 But there is this difference between neuf and nouveau, that neuf 
 is used only when one speaks of material things that are the ob- 
 ject of Mechanic Arts ; and nouveau of things that are the object 
 of Liberal Arts, and relate to the mind, or else are produced by 
 nature : as, un habit neuf, a new suit of clothes ; un nouvel 
 owcrage, or un ouvrage nouveau, a new performance. 
 
 Of these two expressions in use, un livre neuf, and un livre 
 nouveau, the former is said of its first coming out of the book- 
 seller's shop, and having not been used or worn. The latter is 
 said of, and imports, its not being extant before, and considers it 
 only as being the work of the mind. 
 
 Neuf is also said with respect to what is newly done, and nou- 
 veau, to what surprises one, and was unexpected. Thus une 
 maison neuve signifies a house newly built : and une maison nou- 
 velle, one that we had not seen before, and is therefore the ob- 
 ject of our surprise, and which may be an old one. 
 
 XLIII. Parens, is said of all those that belong to us, or we 
 belong to, by the ties of blood, or of those of the same consan- 
 guinity ; as, Nos parens ne sont pas toujours nos meilleurs amis % 
 Our kindred and relations are not always our best friends. 
 
 Therefore kindred, kin, kinsman, relation, signify the French Pa- 
 Nn2 
 
40S Observations upon certain Words 
 
 reus. His or her parent, is son ptre ou sa mere, and his parents 
 son pere fy sa mere. 
 
 XLIV. Personne has been considered in the Syntax with 
 respect to its being a pronoun : but it is besides a noun feminine 
 of a very extensive use, answering in its singular, sometimes to 
 this word person, but moat commonly to these, man and zcoman, 
 gentleman and gentlewoman ; as, Jevishier la personne dont vous 
 parlez ; I saw yesterday the person, or the man, or woman, you 
 speak of, (L'homme and lafemme seldom being used, but out of 
 scorn and contempt ; and le Monsieur, or la Dame, in a banter, 
 and through derision, or speaking of people of a station emi- 
 nently superior to one's own). 
 
 In the Plural, it answers to the word people : as, 
 
 Des personnes honnites # civiles ; Honest and civil people. 
 
 Although the noun personne, when used in the plural, requires 
 an adnoun feminine, yet if two adnouns, or some pronoun refer- 
 ing to it, meet in the same sentence, the pronouns and the 
 second adnoun must be masculine ; regard being then had to the 
 thing signified by the word, viz. men in general, and not to the 
 grammatical gender of the word : as, 
 
 Les personnes consommees Such persons as are perfect in 
 dans la vertu, ont en ioutes choses virtue have in every thing an 
 une droiture d 'esprit fy urie atten- uprightness of mind and a judi- 
 tion judicieuse, qui les empiclie cious attention, which hinders 
 d'etre m6disans. them from being slanderers. 
 
 Wherein the adnoun medisans referring to personnes is masculine, 
 though the first adnoun cons&mmees is feminine. — Whereupon it 
 is to be observed, that in order to make an adnoun masculine that 
 has a. reference to personnes: 1°. There must be, between the 
 noun and the adnoun, a sufficient number of words, to make one 
 forget that the adnoun masculine refers to the noun feminine, 
 personnes: so that the hearer, or reader, minds no longer the word, 
 but only what is signified by it, as in the aforesaid instance. 
 
 2°. That the adnoun must not be governed by the verb that 
 has personnes for its subject : otherwise it must be feminine, 
 whatever number of words there may be between persomies and 
 the adnouns. Thus we say : 
 
 Les personnes, qui ont le cozur Good-natured people, who 
 bon,fy les se?itimensde Tame Sieves, have elevated sentiments, are 
 sont ordinairement genereuses ; commonly generous ; 
 and not genereux, because it is governed of sont, before which 
 comes the subject personnes. For the same reason, we do not use 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 409 
 
 the relative masculine Us, though ever so far from personnes, when 
 it is near the adnoun feminine, referring also to personnes : as, 
 
 Les personnes qui ont Vesprit People of a sagacious mind, 
 penetrant, fy une experience de that have the experience of 
 beaucoup d'annees, sont presque many years, are almost always 
 toujours si judicieuses Relies so judicious, that they are sei- 
 se trompent rarement. dom mistaken. 
 
 We do not say qu'ils se trompent, on account of Us being too 
 near the adnoun feminine, which determines it likewise to agree 
 with the noun feminine. — Again, we say, 
 
 Les personnes qui ont I'dme People of a noble soul are so 
 belle sont si ravies quand elles delighted when they find an 
 trouventl 'occasion de reconnoitre opportunity of being grateful 
 un bienf ait, qu' elles ne la laissent for a good turn, that they never 
 iamais echapper (not qu'ils). let it slip. 
 
 The first relative feminine, elles, determining the second in the 
 same gender, though there is a pretty good number of words 
 between the Antecedent and the Relative. But we say, 
 
 II y a a Paris une societe de There is at Paris a society of 
 personnes tfr^s-savantes, aux- very learned men, to whom 
 quelles I'Europe est redevable Europe is beholden for a vast 
 aim nombre injini de connois- deal of knowledge. They have 
 sances. lis n'ont en vue que la nothing in view but the im- 
 perfection des Arts fy des provement of Arts and Sci- 
 Sciences : fy c'est dans ce motif ences : and it is with that mo- 
 qu'ils font tons les jours d'utiles tive only they every day make 
 aecouvertes. useful discoveries. 
 
 In which instance the pronoun Us refers to the thing signified 
 by the word personnes, that is, men, and therefore agrees with the 
 masculine ; and the adnoun savantes agrees with the feminine, 
 because it is next to the noun feminine personnes ; as does like- 
 wise the relative auxquelles, which is next to the adnoun. 
 
 Here follows another instance with respect to number, wherein 
 less regard is had to the noun than to the thing signified by it. 
 
 De deux mille hommes qu'ils Out of two thousand men 
 etoient, six cens demeurlrent sur that were there, six hundred 
 la place, fy le reste se sauvapcrr fell upon the spot, and the rest 
 la connoissance qu'ils avoient du escaped, by their being ac- 
 pays. quainted with the country. 
 
 One should say, to speak conformably to the grammar, par la 
 connoissance qu'il avoit du pays, since the pronoun il refers to le 
 reste, which governs sauva in the singular. • 
 
 XLV. Pdque, and more commonly Pdques, is masculine, 
 when it signifies Easter-day : as, Pdque est Men recule fy bien chaud 
 
4 J Observations upon certain J fords 
 
 cette annee ; Easter is very late and very hot this year : quand 
 Pdques sera venu ; when Easter is come. 
 
 But Pdques is feminine, and spelt without 5, when it signifies 
 the Jewish Passover; as, Manger la Pdque; To eat the Passover. 
 Preparer la Pdque ; To make ready the Passover. 
 
 Pdques, signifying the christian devotion at that season, is 
 feminine, and in the plural number : as, Mes Pdques sont faites ; 
 I havfc received the Sacrament this Easter. 
 
 We say ironically of immoral people who receive the Sacra- 
 meat at that time, Faire de belles Pdques. 
 
 XL VI. Se Passer de quelque chose (to do or to go without a 
 thing). Si vous ne veulez pas me donner cela, ilfaudra bienqueje 
 m'en passe ; If you will not give me that, I must needs go without it. 
 
 XLVII. To think, is both Penser and Songer, with the pro- 
 position a before its regimen : as, Penser a quelque chose ; To 
 think of a thing, to consider it. Vous ne songez pas a ce que vous 
 faites, better than Vous ne pensez pas, 8tc. You do not think of 
 what you are doing. But when to think is used as a verb active, 
 and not neuter, it is penser, and net songer. Therefore do not 
 say, On songe de vous, but On pense de vous cent choses dcsavan- 
 tageuses • People think an hundred things to your disadvantage. 
 Penser a mal ; To have some ill design. 
 
 17 ne pense pas a mal; He means no harm. 
 
 Penser, in the preterite, either simple or compound, before an 
 infinitive without a preposition, signifies any thing that was like 
 or near to have been done, but has not been done : and is englished 
 by to be like, to be near, or ready : as, Ilpensa se noyer ; He was^ 
 like to be drowned. 
 
 J'ai pense mourir ; I had like to die, ar to have died. 
 
 Nous pensames nouscouper la gorge ; 
 
 We were very near cuitting one another's throat. 
 
 XLVIII. More, is Plus, Davantage, Encore. Plus is never 
 used at the end of an affirmative sentence. Therefore say, 
 
 Donnez-m'en davantage ; Give me some more, or more on it. 
 
 En voulez-vous davantage, or En voulez-vous encore ? Will you 
 have any more ? Encore un peu, A little more ; and never Donnez- 
 m 'en plus. En voulez-vous plus ; Un peu encore. 
 
 Davantage can likewise be used at the end of negative sen- 
 tences, but with the two negative particles, whereas plus requires 
 but ne : as, 
 
 Je n'en veux plus, or Je n'en veux pas davantage ; I will have 
 no more, or I do not choose any more of it. 
 
constituting the Idiom of French. 411 
 
 Neither does davantage govern a noun after it, as plus. There- 
 fore don't say, Mangez davantage de pain avec votre viande, but 
 Mangez avec votre viande plus de pain que vous nefaites ; Eat 
 more bread with your meat than you do. 
 
 Encore, at the end of negative sentences, does not signify more, 
 but, as yet, or again : as, Je n f en veuxpas encore ; I will not have 
 any yet. 
 
 XL1X. Plaire (to please) must be attended with the preposi- 
 tion a ; as, plaire a quelqu'un, To please one. But the construc- 
 tion of this verb, used impersonally in these, and other like sen- 
 tences, is very remarkable, with respect to the English. 
 
 S'il vous plait ; If you please. SHI plait Dieu ; If God pleases. 
 Cela lui plait a dire ; He is pleased to say so. II a plu au Roi d'or- 
 donner ; The King has been pleased to order. II me plait defaire 
 cela ; I am pleased to do so. 
 Se plaire a quelque chose : to take a pleasure, or delight in a thing. 
 
 L. Picture is in French Peinture, Portrait, and Tableau ; 
 but these three words do not signify the same thing, when the^ 
 are taken in the proper sense. 
 
 Peinture signifies, 1°. the art of painting or drawing : a», 
 II excelle dans la peinture ; He excels in painting or drawing. 
 
 2°. The colour in general : as, La peinture de ce tableau riest 
 pas encore slche ; The colour of that picture is not yet dry. 
 
 3°. What is painted upon a wall or wainscot : as, On ne peut 
 rien distinguer aux peintures du dome de St. Paul. Lespeintures dit 
 dome des Invalides sont des chefs-d'oeuvre de Vart ; One can distin- 
 guish nothing in the paintings of the Cupola of St. Paul's. The 
 paintings of the Cupola of the Invalids are master-pieces of art. 
 
 Portrait signifies a picture representing any body drawn after 
 life : Voila mon portrait ; That is my picture. Le portrait du Roi 
 ne lui ressemble pas ; The King's picture is not like him. 
 
 Tableau signifies, and is said of any picture upon cloth, wood, 
 or brass, representing an history, a landscape, building, in short, 
 any thing that can be thought of, Even what is drawn out of 
 fancy, or after a statue, bust, or even after a picture drawn after 
 life, is not called portrait, but tableau. 
 
 Therefore Tableau is equally said of Portraits or Tableaux ; and 
 Portrait is said only of the representation of one drawn after life. 
 
 But these three words signify the same thing, when they are 
 used in the figurative sense : 
 
 r une agreable peinture } 
 V un agreable portrait >< 
 
 II a fait 1 un agreable portrait > de toutes lespersonnes de la Cour; 
 
 (. un agreable tableau j 
 He has drawn a charming character of every one at Court. 
 
442 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 LI. Prendre (to take, seize, lay hold of) is besides used in se- 
 veral other senses, as in these instances : 
 
 La feu apris a sa maison, A fire broke out in his house. 
 
 Prendre les devans, To get the start of one, to be beforehand 
 with him. 
 
 Se Men prendre a fair e une chose, s'y prendre de la bonne manure, 
 To go the right way to work, to take a right method, or course. 
 II s'yprend mal, He goes the wrong way to work. 
 
 De la manure dont il s'yprend, As he goes to work, as he ma- 
 nages matters. 
 
 S'en prendre a quelqu'un, or a quelque chose, To tax one, To 
 lay the fault, or lay it upon one, or upon a thing. 
 
 Se prendre a quelque chose, To take hold of something. 
 
 Les gens qui se noient seprennent a toutce qu'ils trou-cent, 
 
 People who are drowning take hold of any thing they meet with 
 
 Si V affaire ne reussit pas, je m'en prendrai a vous, If the affaii 
 does not succeed, I will come upon you, I will lay the blame 
 upon you. 
 
 S'il y a du mal, prenez-vous-en a vous-mtme, 
 
 If any thing be amiss, you may thank yourself for it. 
 
 Prendre pai ti, To enlist oneself. 
 
 Prenez voire parti, Take your resolution. 
 
 LII. Prendre garde, Se donner de garde (to take heed, or care)* 
 Prendre garde a quelque chose, to take care of a thing, to mind 
 a thing, to take notice of it. 
 
 Se donner de garde de quelqu!un, To beware of one. 
 
 N'avoir garde de, To be far from, to take care not to, is be- 
 sides used in some particular phrases, englished as follows : 
 II 71 a garde de courir, il a unejambe cassee ? 
 How can he, or how could he run, when one of his legs is broken ? 
 
 Je n'a garde d'y aller, I am not such a fool as to go thither, 
 or I will be sure not to go thither. 
 
 Se bien garder defaire une chose, To be sure not to do a thing. 
 
 Prenez garde de tomber, Seep. 315, D. and 346, B. 
 
 LIU. Rompre, Briser, Casser (to break). Rompre, is said 
 of a thing broken asunder ; and when it is broken in pieces^ we 
 use briser : as, 
 
 Un des pieds de la table est rompu, One of the legs of the table 
 is broken. 
 
 Le table est brisee, The table is broken to pieces, 
 
 Rompre, is said of metals, stones, and wood ; and Casser, of 
 frail things, as glass, earthen-ware, fyc. as, La colonne est rompue 
 or brisee, the post, or pillar is broken asunder, or broken in pieces. 
 
constituting the Idiom of French 41 S 
 
 Le pot en casse, The pot is broken. Les verres sont casses, The 
 glasses are broken. But we never say rompre unpot, rompre un 
 verre, de la porcelaine, &c. 
 
 To bruise, is bossuer,faire tine bosse ; and to split, fendre. 
 
 In a figurative sense we say, Casser un testament, un contrat, 
 une sentence, des vozux, and never briser, or rompre mi contrat, &c. 
 to reverse, or annul a will, to make void a contract, a sentence, 
 vows, &c. 
 
 Casser un Parlement, To dissolve a Parliament. 
 
 Casser un Qfficier, To cashier an Officer. 
 
 Casser des troupes, To disband troops. 
 
 Casser quetqu'un, To turn one out of his place. 
 
 Rompre la glace, To break the ice, signifies, figuratively, to 
 take the first steps in an affair, and overcome the first difficulties. 
 
 L1V. Seulement, signifies sometimes, so much as: as, J'ai salue 
 une personne, qui n'a pas seulement daigne me regarder ; I have 
 bowed to one who has not so much as vouchsafed to look at me. 
 
 LV. Supplier (to supply, to make up) is sometimes indifferently 
 used either with the 1st or the 3d state ; as, Jesupplterai la reste, 
 or Je suppleerai au reste ; I shall make up the rest. But suppleer, 
 without the preposition, signifies, properly, to make up what is 
 deficient ; and with a, to be sufficient for repairing, or making 
 amends for the defects of a thing, as, La valeur supplee au nom- 
 bre ; Valour supplies the deficiency of the number. 
 
 LVI. Traiter mal (to abuse) implies only outrageous words, 
 Maltraiter (to use ill) implies ill usage with blows. 
 
 LVII. Valoir, is to be good, or as good as, when there is 
 comparison : as, 
 
 Vous ne les valez pas, You are not so good as they are. 
 
 II valoit mieux qiCelle, He was better than she. 
 It signifies to be worth, when one speaks of things bought and sold. 
 
 Cela ne vaut pas dix schellings, That is not worth ten shillings. 
 
 But to be worth, speaking of people's fortune and circum- 
 stances, is expressed in French by avoir du bien ; and sometimes 
 avoir vaillant : as, 
 
 II a dix mille pieces de bien ; He is worth ten thousand pounds. 
 
 // n'a pas mille livres sterling vaillant ; He is not worth a 
 thousand pounds. 
 // a du bien, He is worth money. 17 n'a rien, He is worth nothing. 
 
 LVIII. Voila (a word worth observing). It serves to show, 
 and points at, somebody, or something, and has the force of a 
 verb, making a complete sentence with a noun after it, or a pro- 
 
414 Observations upon certain Words 
 
 noun before ; which is usually englished by there is, that is, there be t 
 there are,those are, &c. as, Voila I'homme, That is the man, Behold 
 the man ; Le voila, la voila, there he is, there she is, there it is. 
 
 Void is construed after the same manner, but it denotes, and 
 points at, a very near object. — Sometimes le void, and le voila, 
 are followed by a relative and a verb : as, Le void qui vient, 
 Here he is a coming ; La voila qui gronde, There she scolds, Now 
 she is scolding. 
 
 But Voila, followed by an adnoun, and preceded by a pronoun 
 personal, denotes, and stands for, the verb ttre, in the present 
 tense: as, 
 
 Voyez comme les voila mouilles, See how wet they are. 
 
 Comme la voila triste, How sorrowful she is. 
 
 Nous voila quittes, We are quit, or even ; Les voila f aches, They 
 are angry, or vexed ; Voila qu'on m'appelle, Somebody calls me. 
 
 Ne nous voila pasmal ; We are in a fine pickle. 
 
 Voila bien du prtambule ; What a deal of preamble. 
 
 Les sottes raisons que voila ; Very foolish reasons those. 
 
 LIX. To be just, to have just, followed by a participle, is ex 
 pressed in French by Nefaire que de, or Venir de, and the Eng- 
 lish participle is made by the present of the infinitive : as, To be 
 just arrived, Nefaire que d*arriver. 
 
 A child that is just born, Un enfant qui vient de naitre, or qui 
 lie fait que de naitre, We have just finished. Nous ne faisom 
 que d'achever, or Nous venous d'achever. The first way is more 
 expressive. 
 
 LX The impersonal II y a is construed with a negative, and 
 que, in phrases worth observing : as, Vous vous imaginez qu'il n'f 
 a qu'a demander, You fancy that you have nothing to do but 
 ask. 
 
 Elle croit qu'il n'y a qu'a dire, She thinks that speaking will do 
 
 LXI. The names of some parts of some animals are not the 
 same in French as in English. 
 
 We say pied (foot) of such animals only as are hoofed ; and 
 patle of all others. Thus we say, lepied d'un cheval, d'un bozuf, 
 d'un cerf, &c. the foot of a horse, ox, stag, #c. lapatte d'un chien, 
 d'un chat, d'une souris, d'un lion, d'un oiseau, &c. the paw of a 
 dog, cat, mouse, lion, bird, #c. 
 
 We- say les griff es d'un lion, d'un chat, &c. a lion's, a cat's 
 claws, fyc. les serres d'un aigle, <5f d'un epervier, the talons of an 
 eagle, of a hawk ; les bras d'une icrevisie, ty d'un cancre, the 
 
constituting the Idiom of French, 415 
 
 claws of a lobster, crawfish, and crab : les gardes d'un sanglier, 
 the hinder claws of a wild boar. 
 
 La bouche d'un cheeal, a horse's mouth : we also say les naseaux 
 d'un cheval, not les narines, the nostrils of a horse ,• la gueule d'un 
 lion, d'un chien, d'un chat, d'un loup, d'un serpent, d'un dragon, §c. 
 the mouth of a lion, a dog, a cat, a wolf, a serpent, a dragon, 
 
 4rc. 
 
 Le groin d'unpourceau, the sn©ut of a hog ; le muffle d'un cerf, 
 d'un lion, d'un tigre, d'un tuureau, the muzzle of a stag, lion, 
 tiger, bull ; le museau d'un chien, d'un renard, d'un poisson, the 
 muzzle, or snout of a dog, a fox, a fish ; le bee d'un oiseau, the 
 beak, or bill of a bird. 
 
 Les defenses d'un sanglier, the tusks of a wild boar ; les soies d'un 
 sanglier, fy d'un cochon, the bristle of a wild boar, arid a hog ; le 
 fjoit d'un chien, d'un chat, d'un cheval fy des autres animaux, the 
 hair of a dog, a cat, a horse, and other creatures ; la crinitre d'un 
 cheval, # d'un lion, the mane of a horse and a lion ; du crin, horse 
 hair (or the tail) : The hair of the human body, is le poil, but 
 of the head, is les cheveux. 
 
 We also say la hure d'un sanglier, d'un saumon 8$ d'un brocket, 
 the head of a wild boar, and of a large pike, and the jowl of a 
 salmon. 
 
 Speaking of Deer, we call bois what the English call horns, or 
 head ; and we say, un bois de cerf, de daim, de chevreuil, the horns 
 or head of a stag, deer, roe-buck ; but we call come the same 
 when it is wrought and manufactured : as, le manche de rnon 
 couteau est de come de cerf, the handle of my knife is of a deer's 
 horn. 
 
 LXII. The sounds of birds and of beasts : 
 Les oiseaux chantent fygazouillent, , # Birds sing and chirp. 
 Le per roquet parle, The parrot talks. 
 
 La pie caquette, The magpie chatters. 
 
 Le merle siffle, The blackbird whistles. 
 
 La colombe gemit, The dove cooes. 
 
 Lecoq chantef, The cock crows f. 
 
 La poule glousse, The hen clucks. 
 
 Le corbeau * & grenouille 1 The ^ an(J ^ f crQak- 
 
 croassent, j ° 
 
 Le chien aboie $$ hurle, The dog barks and howls. 
 
 * And the singing, chirping, or f Et coche la poule; and trends the 
 warbling of birds, is called by the hen. 
 French ramage. 
 
 Oo 
 
416 
 
 Verbs which, together with a Noun, 
 
 Les petit s chiensjappent, 
 Le chat miaule, 6^ file, 
 Le loup hurle, 
 Le renard glapit, 
 Le lievre crie, 
 La brebis bele, 
 Le serpent siffle, 
 Le pourceau grogne, 
 Le cheval hermit, 
 L'ane bruit, 
 
 Le bozuf fy la vache beuglent \ 
 fy meugleut, ) 
 
 Le taureau mugit, 
 Le lion rugit, 
 
 The puppies yelp. 
 
 The cat mews, and purrs. 
 
 The wolf howls. 
 
 The fox yelps. 
 
 The hare squeaks. 
 
 The sheep bleats, or bays* 
 
 The snake hisses. 
 
 The hog grunts. 
 
 The horse neighs. 
 
 The ass brays. 
 
 The ox and cow bellow. 
 
 The bull roars. 
 The lion roars. 
 
 § III. A List of Verbs, attended by a Noun without an ArticUi 
 which form both together but one particular idea. 
 
 Aj outer foi, 
 
 "acces, 
 
 Avoir < t 
 
 affaire, or 
 
 besom, 
 
 appetit, 
 
 bon, 7 , ., 
 
 grand, | a PP et,t > 
 
 faim, ") 
 
 grand* faim, 3 
 
 soif, 7 
 
 grand* soif, j 
 
 froid, ") 
 
 chaud, ) 
 
 cours, 
 
 envie, 
 
 dessein, 
 
 droits 
 
 egard, 
 
 coutume, 
 
 esperance, 
 
 compassion, 
 
 pitie, 
 
 honte, 
 
 attention, 
 
 part, 
 
 patience, 
 
 To give credit. 
 
 To have free access to. 
 
 To have to do, or 
 
 To want, to be in need of. 
 
 To have a stomach, or 
 
 — an appetite. 
 
 To have a good stomach. 
 To be hungry. 
 
 — very hungry. 
 
 To be dry, or thirsty, 
 
 — very dry. 
 
 To be \ c , ol f' 
 
 I not, or warm. 
 
 To take, to be in vogue. 
 
 To have a mind. [tend. 
 
 To have a design, to design, to in* 
 
 To liave a right. 
 
 To have a regard. 
 
 To use, to be wont 
 
 To hope. 
 
 To compassionate, to commiserate 
 
 To pity, to have a pity of. 
 
 To be ashamed. 
 
 To attend. 
 
 To have a share, to be concerned in 
 
 To have patience. 
 
form but one particular Idea. 
 
 417 
 
 } 
 
 >To have< 
 
 "confiance, 
 peur, 
 
 connoissance, avis, 
 permission, 
 carte blanche, 
 plein pouvoir, 
 tout pouvoir, 
 lieu, 
 sujet, 
 raison, 
 justice, 
 soin, 
 
 grand soin, 
 ordre, 
 occasion, 
 obligation, 
 A voir ^ tort, *) 
 
 grand tort, 3 
 horreur, 
 vent & maree, 
 querelle, 
 rapport, 
 
 a la tete 
 
 aux dents, 
 
 aux yeux, 
 
 aux pieds, 
 
 <! au T! re > 
 
 au cote, 
 au bras, 
 a l'epaule, 
 au nez, 
 a l'oreille, t\;c. 
 C pouilles, ~i To call names, 
 rate. To 1 
 
 To repose a confidence in. 
 
 To be afraid, to fear. 
 
 To have notice. 
 
 'leave, or 
 
 power. 
 
 full power, ana 
 
 liberty. 
 
 room, 
 
 or, 
 
 reason. 
 
 justice. 
 
 care, [cart. 
 
 a great, or special 
 
 order. 
 
 jin opportunity. 
 
 To be obligated. 
 
 To be in the wrong. 
 
 To be very much in the wrong 
 
 To quake with horror. 
 
 To sail with wind and tide. 
 
 To have a quarrel. 
 
 To respect to. 
 
 Ahe head-ache. 
 
 ' the tooth-ache, 
 
 sore eyes. 
 
 sore feet. 
 
 the belly-ache. 
 
 „ side, 
 a pain ' 
 
 in one 
 
 >To have' 
 
 in) 
 
 4 
 
 arm, 
 shoulder. 
 
 C chicane, 
 
 Cmalheur, 
 Couper cours, 
 Couper court, 
 Courir risque, 
 
 Chanter < g°g uettes : 
 
 ^nanter, -\ UneSj < ^ ^ r mattnSy 
 
 v. vepres, ) *\ vespers. 
 
 a sore nose, 
 sore ears, 
 to rail at one at a strange 
 utile one bitterly. 
 
 To cavil. 
 
 To seek one's fortune. 
 
 To pick a quarrel. 
 
 To hunt for misfortune. 
 
 To stop the course 
 
 To abridge. 
 
 To run tlie risk. 
 
418 
 
 Verbs which, together with a Noun, 
 
 Demander < 
 
 Dire 
 
 Crier vengeance, 
 
 -audience, 
 avis, 
 
 caution, n a$k 
 compte, 
 conseil, 
 grace, pardon, 
 quartier, 
 justice, 
 raison, 
 satisfaction, 
 Demeurer court, 
 fvrai, 
 j faux, 
 j matines, 
 v-vepres, fyc. 
 'atteinte, 
 audience, 
 avis, 
 
 beau jeu, 
 conseil, 
 caution, 
 
 carrie re a son esprit, 
 conge, 
 courage, 
 permission, 
 envie, 
 exemple, 
 parole, 
 Donner^ pouvoir, 
 
 plein pouvoir, 
 
 tout pouvoir, 
 
 carte blanche 
 
 part, 
 
 ordre, 
 
 charge, 
 
 vent, 
 
 legon, 
 
 heure, 
 
 jour, 
 
 cours, 
 
 prise, 
 
 To call for revenge. 
 
 audience. 
 
 advice. 
 
 a security. 
 
 an account. 
 
 counsel. 
 
 one's pardon. 
 To beg quarter. 
 To demand justice. 
 
 I To demand a satisfaction. 
 
 To be at a stand, mum ; to stop 
 To speak the truth. 
 To say a falsehood. 
 
 matins. 
 
 vespers, &c, 
 to strike at. 
 to give an audience. 
 To give advice, to let one know 
 To give fair play. 
 To give counsel. 
 To give bail, a security. 
 To give one's wit full scope. 
 To give leave, (also) a holiday. 
 To encourage. 
 To give permission. 
 To put in mind, to set one agog. 
 To set an example. 
 To give word. 
 To give power 
 
 I To give full power and 
 C liberty. 
 
 To impart a thing to one. 
 
 To give orders. 
 
 To charge one. 
 
 To give vent. 
 
 To give a lesson. 
 
 To appoint an hour. 
 
 To fix upon a day. 
 
 To make a thing current. 
 
 C To give one an advantage, a 
 
 I hold upon one. 
 
jorm but one particular Idea. 
 
 419 
 
 /-quartier, 
 quittance, 
 
 Doimer ^ 
 
 rendez-vous, 
 
 lieu, 
 
 j sujet, 
 j raison, 
 ^occasion, 
 ( raison, 
 \ malice, 1 
 Entendre < finesse, j 
 / raillerie, 
 Lvepres, 
 L'echapper belle, 
 "abjuration, 
 abstinence, 
 alliance, 
 alte, 
 aiguade, 
 am as, 
 argent de — 
 
 amitie, -< 
 
 arret, < 
 
 affaire, 
 attention, 
 Faire -< binet, 
 cas de, 
 compte, 
 affront, 
 banqueroute, 
 bonne, ou 
 mauvaise mine 
 breche, 
 bombance, 
 bonne chere 
 grand' chere 
 
 ,i 
 
 choix, 
 depit, 
 k difficulte, 
 
 ere, > 
 ere, ) 
 
 I 
 
 To give quarter. [charge. 
 
 To give, write a receipt or dis- 
 To give a rendezvous, to make 
 
 an affirmative, to appoint a 
 
 place to meet. 
 
 J room, 
 occasion, 
 reason. 
 an opportunity. 
 To understand reason and sense, 
 
 To be acquainted with the jest. 
 
 To take a joke well. 
 
 To be at vespers. 
 
 To escape it narrowly. 
 
 To abjure, to recant. 
 
 To fast. 
 
 To make an alliance. 
 
 To halt. 
 
 To take in fresh water. 
 
 To heap up. 
 
 To raise money with — 
 
 To show oneself kind to one, or 
 
 to make much of him. 
 To make an arrest upon one, to 
 
 arrest him. 
 To make an end of a business. 
 To attend, to mind. 
 To make use of a save-all. 
 To value. 
 To assure oneself. 
 To affront. 
 
 To break, to turn a bankrupt. 
 To put a good or bad face on the 
 
 matter. 
 To cut. 
 
 To feast, to live, to feed luxu- 
 riously. 
 
 To make choice, to choose. 
 To spite, to vex. 
 To make a scruple 
 Oo2 
 
420 
 
 Verbs which, together with a Noun, 
 
 (-conscience, 
 compassion, 
 confidence, 
 corps neuf, 
 eclat, 
 envie, 
 emplette, 
 epreuve, 
 excuse, 
 face, 
 feu, 
 
 long feu, 
 faute, 
 fete, 
 feinte, 
 fond, 
 fortune, 
 fleche, 
 front, 
 foi, 
 grace, 
 
 gloire d'une chose, 
 
 gras ou maigre, 
 honneur, 
 deshonneur, 
 honte, 
 horreui 
 insulte, 
 injure, 
 inventaire, 
 impression, 
 justice, 
 jour (se faire) 
 march e, 
 main basse, 
 mine de, 
 montre, 1 
 parade, j 
 naufrage, 
 ombrage, 
 pacte, 
 -part, 
 
 to scruple, 
 
 to raise compassion. 
 
 to trust a secret with one. 
 
 * to take a new lease. 
 
 to break out, to come abroad. 
 
 to raise envy. 
 
 to market, to bargain, to purchase* 
 
 to experiment. 
 
 to beg pardon. 
 
 to face. 
 
 to fire. 
 
 to flash in the pan, to miss fire. 
 
 to miss one thing, to want it. 
 
 to give one a kind entertainment. 
 
 to pretend, to dissemble. 
 
 to depend upon. 
 
 to make a fortune. 
 
 * to make a shift, 
 toface. 
 
 to prove. 
 
 to favour. 
 
 to pride, or take a p?ide in a thing 
 
 to value oneself upon it. 
 
 to eat flesh, or abstain from it. 
 
 to do honour. 
 
 to disgrace. 
 
 to shame, to disgrace one. 
 
 to strike with horror. 
 
 to abuse, to insult. 
 
 to do an injury, to offend. 
 
 to make an inventory. 
 
 to make an impression. 
 
 to do justice. 
 
 to make way, to break through. 
 
 to make a bargain, an agreement, 
 
 to put all to the sword. 
 
 to look as if, to seem. 
 
 to make a parade or show. 
 
 to suffer shipwreck, to be wrecked 
 
 to give an umbrage. 
 
 to make a pact. 
 
 to impart, to communicate. 
 
form but one particular Idea. 
 
 421 
 
 pan, 
 
 gageure, 
 
 } 
 
 to lay, to lay a wager 
 
 piiie, 
 
 
 to move or raise pity, or compassion 
 
 peine, 
 
 
 to make uneasy. 
 
 plaisir, 
 
 
 to do a pleasure. 
 
 peur, 
 
 
 to affright. 
 
 partie, 
 
 
 to make a party. 
 
 penitence, 
 
 
 to d&penance,to repent, to atone for 
 
 present, 
 
 
 to make a present, to present zvith. 
 
 place, 
 
 
 to make room. 
 
 provision, 
 
 i 
 
 to provide, or supply oneself 
 with. 
 
 preuve, 
 
 
 to prove. 
 
 quartier, 
 
 
 to give quarter, to spare. 
 
 raison, 
 
 
 to pledge one, to satisfy one. 
 
 reflexion, 
 
 
 to reflect. 
 
 reparation, 
 
 
 to make a satisfaction. 
 
 ressort, 
 
 
 tofiy back again, to spring. 
 
 ripaille, 
 
 
 to feast, to junket. 
 
 route, 
 
 
 to sail, to be bound to (a sea term). 
 
 satisfaction, 
 
 
 to do a satisfaction. 
 
 semblant, 
 
 { 
 
 to pretend, to feign, to make as if 
 
 
 one were. 
 
 scrupule, 
 
 
 to scruple. 
 
 sentinelle, 
 
 
 to stand sentry. 
 
 serment, 
 
 
 to make an oath. 
 
 signe, 
 
 
 to make a sign,to beckon } nod,w4n'k. 
 
 tapage, 
 
 
 to make a clutter, to keep a racket* 
 
 tort, 
 
 
 to wrong. 
 
 trafic ou commerce, 
 
 to traffic, to deal, to trade. 
 
 treve, 
 
 
 to forbear. 
 
 trophee, 
 
 { 
 
 to glory in a thing, to pride one- 
 self in it. 
 
 usage, 
 
 
 to use, to make use of. 
 
 vie qui dure, 
 
 { 
 
 to live within compass, 
 to spare oneself 
 
 bonne vie, 
 joyeuse vie, 
 
 } 
 
 to lead a merry life. 
 
 voile, 
 
 
 to set sail, to make sail. 
 
422 
 
 Verbs which, together with a Noun, 
 
 Filer 
 Gagner 
 J eter 
 Lach e 
 Laisser 
 
 Lier, 
 
 Mettre 
 
 Obfenir 
 
 jour, 
 clair, 
 nuit, 
 sombre, 
 obscur, 
 chaud, 
 froid, 
 beau 1 
 [1 fait, -> mauvais > temps, 
 vilain ) 
 sale, \ 
 crotte, } 
 du brouillard, 
 du vent, 
 soleil, 
 
 w clair de lune, 
 doux, 
 
 pays, 
 
 feu & flammes, 
 
 prise, 
 
 parole, 
 f amitie 1 
 
 \ commerce, j 
 
 bas, 
 
 fin, 
 
 pied a terre, 
 
 ordre a ses affaires, 
 
 permission, 
 "raison, 
 
 clair, 
 
 juste, 
 ■^ vrai, 
 
 Frangois, 
 
 Latin, 
 ^Anglois, #c. 
 r courage, 
 
 Prendre]^' 
 (.fond, 
 
 ylt is^ 
 
 "day-light, or 
 broad-day. 
 
 night. 
 
 cloudy. 
 
 dusk. 
 
 hot. 
 
 cold, 
 fine, 
 fair 
 
 bad 
 
 weather. 
 
 Pari 
 
 dirty, 
 
 .-foggy- m 
 
 the wind blows, it is windy. 
 
 the sun shines. 
 
 it is moon light, the moon shines* 
 
 to give fair words. 
 
 to scamper away. 
 
 to fret and fume. 
 
 to let go one's hold. 
 
 te leave word. 
 
 to engage in a friendship and 
 
 correspondence with one. 
 to bring forth, 
 to put an end. 
 to light or alight. 
 to settle one's affairs, 
 to obtain leave. 
 
 [reason, or 
 I plain sense. 
 [ right. 
 Ho speak -^ the truth. 
 French. 
 Latin. 
 English, &c. 
 to be disheartened, to despond 
 to lose patience, 
 to go out of one's depth, 
 to drive with the anchors 
 
Jorm but one particular Idea. 
 
 423 
 
 Plier 
 
 Porter 
 
 r bonheur, 
 malheur, 
 
 Prendre^ 
 
 baggage, j 
 
 :} 
 
 guignou, ) 
 compassion, 
 coup, 
 prejudice, 
 envie, 
 
 temoignage, 
 honneur, 
 ^respect, 
 avantage, 
 chair, 
 courage, 
 conseil, ? 
 avis, 3 
 conge, 
 garde, 
 feu, 
 
 confiance, 
 connoissance 
 couleur, 
 cours, 
 heure, 
 exemple sur quel 
 
 qu'un, 
 faveur, 
 fin, 
 gout, 
 
 jour, | 
 
 haleine, 
 langue, 
 naissance, 
 m^decine, 
 
 pitie, j 
 
 part, 7 
 interet, J 
 plaisir, 
 .place. 
 
 ■{ 
 
 to pack away, to pack up one's all, 
 to truss up bag and baggage. 
 
 fgeod 
 Ull 
 
 to bear 1 ill \luck. 
 
 I bad ) 
 to pity, 
 
 to hit or strike home, 
 to prejudice, to be prejudicial, 
 to bear envy, 
 to bear witness. 
 to honour, 
 to respect. 
 
 to take advantage of. 
 to gather fiesh. 
 to cheer up, to take courage. 
 
 to take one's advice. 
 
 to take one's leave of one. 
 
 to take care or notice. 
 
 to take or catch fire. 
 
 to confide. 
 
 to take notice or to inform oneself. 
 
 to begin to be brown. 
 
 to take, to be in vogue. 
 
 to fix upon a time, day, and hour. 
 
 to take example by one, to square 
 
 one's life or conduct by Ids. 
 to get favour. 
 to end. 
 to like, 
 to appoint a day, to make an 
 
 assignation, 
 to take one's breath, 
 to get intelligence, to find out. 
 to be born, 
 to take physic, 
 to take pity, or compassion, to 
 
 commiserate, 
 to take a part, to concern oneself 
 
 in a thing, 
 to take pleasure, to delight. 
 to take one's place. 
 
424 
 
 Verbs which, together with a Noun, 
 
 Prendre < 
 
 patience, < 
 
 possession, 
 
 pied, 
 
 racine, 
 
 seance, 
 
 sel, 
 
 soin, < 
 
 terre, 
 
 pretexte, 
 
 .parti, 
 Preter serment, 
 Promettre monts & merveilles, 
 liecevoir ordre, 
 
 compte, < 
 
 Rendre <J 
 
 S avoir 
 
 Tenir 
 
 1 
 
 to take patience, to bear or wait 
 
 patiently, 
 to enter into possession, 
 to take, to set footing, 
 to take root, to strike, get a footing, 
 to take one's place (in), 
 to take salt. 
 
 to take care of, to look to, or after 
 a thing. 
 s\x\{,{saidofacandle)to be lighting, to light, 
 to land, to get ashore. 
 to take a pretence. 
 to enlist as a soldier, 
 to take an oath, 
 to promise wonders, 
 to receive orders, 
 to account for, or give an account 
 
 for. 
 to bring off the stomach, to dis- 
 gorge, to refund, 
 to give glory, 
 to return thanks, 
 to pay homage, 
 to do justice, 
 to give an account of. 
 to do service, 
 to witness, 
 to pay a visit, 
 to take a thing kindly, 
 to stand firm, not to get over, 
 to make account, to value, 
 to be as or in the place of. 
 to copezvith one,to oppose, to resist, 
 to be as good as one's word, 
 to stand fair, 
 to keep an open table, 
 to be a shop-keeper, 
 to keep a coffee-house, 
 to keep an ale-house, &c. 
 to make an advantage of. 
 to live contentedly, 
 to bear one a grudge. 
 
 gloire, 
 
 grace, 
 
 hommage, 
 
 justice, 
 
 raison, 
 
 service, 
 
 temoignage, 
 
 visite, 
 
 gre, 
 
 bon, 
 
 compte, 
 
 lieu, 
 
 tete, 
 
 parole, 
 
 pied (k bottle), 
 
 table ouverte, 
 
 boutique, 
 
 cafe, 
 
 cabaret, fyc. 
 Tirer avantage or parti de, 
 Vivre content, 
 Vouloir mal & quelqu'un, 
 
French Perbs, fyc 425 
 
 To which add the adnouns used with c'est : as, c'est faeheux, 
 dommage, honteux, fyc. It is sad, pity, a shame, 
 
 § IV. Observations upon Verbs, considered with respect to the 
 Idiom of the English Tongue, 
 
 W e hare seen how verbs are conjugated in English by means 
 of these signs, do, did; shall, will; can, may; might, could, 
 should, would; and let; which, being put before the verb, dis- 
 tinguish its moods and tenses, except the preterite, which is dis- 
 tinguished by a particular termination. But the same particles 
 are also verbs, having particular significations of themselves, 
 which must be carefully distinguished from their nature of signs* 
 In order to which make the following observations : 
 
 1°. Do and did are construed with any verb, to express its 
 present or past action more fully, distinctly, and emphatically ; 
 as, I do love, for Hove (J'aime) ; / did love, for I loved (J'aimois, 
 or J'aimai). But 
 
 Do and did signify only action of themselves, and are ex- 
 pressed in French by faire, being conjugated like other verbs 
 with their signs, except m the present and imperfect tenses : 
 
 ^res. I do, Jefais, 
 
 S5. } Idid > *£""■ 
 
 Fut. I shall or will do, Jeferai. 
 
 Cond. I should, would, #c. do, Jeferois. [Conjugation. 
 
 Comp. I have done, fyc. J'aifait, &c. as in the sixth 
 
 2°. Will and would, or wou'd, which denote the time to come 
 when they are placed before verbs, are also used in the sense of 
 willing; to wit, when they imply order, command, will, and 
 earnestness of desire ; as, 
 
 I will have you do so ; Je veux que vousfassiez cela. 
 
 He will not have him study ; 77 ne veut pas qu'il ttudie. 
 
 You would have us do it ; Vous vouliez que nous le fissions 
 
 You a>ow&/ have us had done it; Vous vouliez ou vous voudriez 
 
 que nous V eussions fait . 
 
 Pres and Fut. I will, Jeveux. Je voudrai, for / am or shall be 
 willing. 
 
 Imp. } T3 CJe voulois, C I was ~\ 
 
 Pret. [ 1 J Je voulus, J , I was [ g> 
 
 Cond. ( £ y Je voudrois, } I would. Sec. be 
 
 Comp. J l " H C J'ai, J'avois voulu, &c. v I have, I had been 
 
 h 
 
426 French Verbs considered. 
 
 3°. Should or shou'd, is the sign of the conditional, but ge- 
 nerally denotes the necessity and duty of doing a thing. It im- 
 plies and stands for must or ought, and is made in French by the 
 conditional tenses of devoir : as, 
 We should do that; Nous devrionsfaire cela. 
 They should not lose their time; lis ne devroient pas perdre leur 
 
 temps. 
 You should have learnt your lesson ; Vous auriez du apprendre 
 
 votre lecon. 
 
 4°. Can and could, may and might, import power and possibi- 
 lity, and are almost always taken in the sense of being able, and 
 made in French by pouvoir, though might and could are oftener 
 used as signs, than can and may : as, 
 
 They could not do it ; lis ne pouvoient^as lefaire. 
 
 You could or might work ; Vous pourriez travailler. 
 
 He could or might have done that ; // auroit \>ufaire cela. 
 I could or might have gone thither; J'aurois pu y aller. 
 1 can or may do it ; Je puis lefoire. 
 
 That we ??z«j/ see ; Ajin que nous voyions, or puissions voir. 
 
 That I might read ; ^/w ^we /e /«sse, or quejepusse lire. 
 
 N. B. Though there is a difference between could anrf might, awrf 
 /Aey cannot be used in English promiscuously the one for the other, 
 yet I have coupled them together in the aforesaid examples, because 
 there is but one way to render them in French, to wit, the condi- 
 tional tense of pouvoir. 
 
 5°. 1 might, ") 7 • "^before an in- f . . ,. 
 
 I could \ Je P ourrols > Ifinitive, being X pouvoir, to be able 
 
 l*would, Jevoudrois, Kf^f™di-\ ™uloir, to be willing 
 
 [ # 8 ^J t d ' | Je devrois, ) ^ nal sim P le (devoir, ought or must 
 
 when the same come before a Compound tense of the infinitive, 
 they must be made in the French by the Compound of the Con- 
 ditional of the aforesaid verbs, and the Compound of the Eng- 
 lish infinitive, without any preposition before : as, 
 
 I might have 1 ■, .» , « • r • i 
 T \i\ h ) \ that, J aurois pujaire cela. 
 
 I would have done that, J'aurois voulu, or souhaite^Hre cela. 
 
 I should have ) , , u «. 7 > • j r • j 
 i u * z. >GO/*e that, J aurois du f aire cela. 
 I ought to /zarc ) ' J 
 
 * I could, is also Je pouvois, Je pus, and J'ai pu ; I would, Jc voulois, Je 
 voulus J>ai voulu ; and I ought, Je dtvois, J'ai du. 
 
with respect to the English Idiom. 4 ~7 
 
 In all other cases do, did, shall, will, should, &c« are only signs 
 which (with the verb to which they are joined) are expressed in 
 French by one word only, to wit, the person of any tense simple 
 or compound. Therefore do not say, 
 
 Je fais aimer, "\ rJ'aime, I do love. 
 
 Je faisois, or lis travailler, I \ Je travaillai, I did work 
 IVows voulons, or voudrons aller, \% J Nous 2ro7?5,weshallorwill go. 
 Vous vouliez, or voudriez avoir, I J Vousauriez, you would have. 
 Je\o\i&Yois faire cela, ) K.Jeferois cela, Iwould dc that. 
 
 Though it is sometimes indifferent to say with the signs could, 
 may, might. 
 
 Je ferois cela, or Je pourrois j "aire cela ; I could do that. 
 
 Jfiii queje le fasse, or que je puisse le faire ; That I may do it. 
 
 Ajin qu'il apprit, or qu'il put apprendre ; That he might learn. 
 
 Again : Do not say 
 Je veux avoir vous faire cela, or Je veux vous avoir faire cela ; 
 but Je veux que vous fassiez cela ; I will have you do that. 
 
 Nous ne voulions pas avoir eux venir, or les avoir venir ; but Nous 
 lie voulions pas quV/s vinssent ; We would not have them come. 
 
 Je devois avoir fait cela ; but Je devois, or J'aurois du faire 
 cela ; I should have done that, or ought to have done that. 
 
 Vous pouviez, or pourriez U avoir fait ; but Vous auriez pu le 
 faire ; You might have done that, or You could have done it. 
 
 II vouloit avoir nous avoir fait cela, or 1/ nous auroit eu fait 
 cela ; but //vouloit que nous fissions cela, or // voudroit que nous 
 r eussionsfait : He would have had us done that, fyc. 
 
 6°. Will and shall are sometimes left out in English after the 
 conjunction when, denoting a future' action ; but the verb must 
 always be expressed in the future in French : as, 
 
 When we have done that, for When toe shall have done that, 
 
 Quand nous aurons fait cela. 
 When he is come, or when he comes, for When he shall 
 or will have come ; Quand il sera venu. 
 It is to be noted here also, that we use the present tense, and 
 never the future, after the conjunction si, if, in a great many 
 cases, when it is understood in English with the future : as, 
 If he shall come, s'il vient ; though we say, 
 Je ne sais sil viendra, I do not know whether he will come. 
 
 7". The English use the signs shall, zvill, &c. without any verb 
 expressed in the second part of the sentence, or in answer to a 
 question ; but we always repeat in French the future or condi- 
 
 p P 
 
428 French Verbs. 
 
 tional of the verb, expressed in the first part of the sentence, or 
 the future oifaire; as, 
 Will you do that? I will. Voulez-vous f aire cela, or Jerez vow 
 
 cela ? Je le feral, and not Je veux. 
 He will have me do that: but / shall not. 11 veut que je fosse 
 
 cela ; maisje ne le ferai pas, or maisje n'en ferai rien. 
 Learn that this afternoon ; / will. Apprenez cela tantbt : Je 
 
 Z'apprendrai, 
 It is the same with the word do, have, or did, standing for a 
 present or preterite, expressed in the question to which we an- 
 swer : which tense must be repeated in French in the answer : as, 
 Do you know him ? Yes, I do. 
 
 Le connoissez-vous ? Oui, je le connois ; and not oui jefais. 
 Have you done that ? Yes, I have. 
 
 Avez-vous fait cela ? Oui,je Vai fait ; and not, oui, J'ai* 
 Did you go to Court yesterday ? Yes, I did. 
 
 Allates-vous hier, a la Cour ? Qui, fy allai, or J'y fus. 
 Observe, that in such cases the verb repeated is also attended 
 by its relation. 
 
 Moreover, observe, that the verb vouloir governs, as an active 
 verb, a noun in the first state, for its direct Regimen ; and will 
 not take after it any such verb as have, get, or take, before its 
 noun, as in English : as, 
 
 Voulez-vous un livre, and not Voulez-vous avoir un livre ? 
 Will you have a book ? 
 
 En voulez-vous un ecu ? Will you take a crown for it ? : 
 Voulez-vous du tabac dans voire tahatitre ? and not Voulez- 
 vous avoir du, &c. Will you have any snuff in your box ? 
 It is the same with avoir : as, 
 J'ai un beau tableau a vendre; I have got a fine picture to sell. 
 
 8°. To express the continuance of an action or thing, in 
 English, the verb is varied in all its tenses, by the gerund, with 
 the verb substantive to be : as, 
 
 Pres. I am writing, ^ fl write. 
 
 Imp. 1 T . • | I wrote. 
 
 Pret. } Iwaswntmg, _ I Instead I I did write. 
 
 p ( I have been writing, ! ] ^ nave written. 
 
 I 1 had been writing. ' I had written. 
 
 Fut. I shall be writing. J Li shall write. 
 
 That continuance of action is likewise expressed in Frenc 
 by the several tenses of etre, but with the present tense simple in 
 ihe infinitive, preceded by the preposition a instead of the gerund 
 
English F articles with respect to French. 429 
 
 I am writing ; Je suis a ecrire. 
 
 I was writing ; J'etois a ecrire. 
 
 What were you doing ? Quest-ce que vous ttiez a f aire ? 
 
 When I shall be finishing my work ; Pendant que je serai a 
 finir mon outrage. 
 
 Sometimes a is put before the English gerund. 
 
 Sometimes also that continuance of an action is expressed in 
 Freuch by turning the verb to be, and the gerund, into a recipro- 
 cal verb : as, 
 
 It is a doing ; Cela sefait, or On est a lefaire. 
 
 The work was then forwarding ; L'ouvrage s'avancoit alors. 
 
 Observe, that those ways of speaking are sometimes necessa- 
 rily expressed by on : as, The "house is building ; On est a bdtir 
 la maison, or only On bdtit la maison. 
 
 While the house was building, Pendant qu'on ctoit a bdtir la 
 maison, or Pendant qu'on bdtissoit la maison, which is better than 
 Pendant que la maison se bdtit or se bdtissoit. 
 
 § V. Of the Construction of certain English Particles, with 
 respect to French. 
 
 Ijie English use their adverbs of place, here, there, where, 
 compounded with those particles, of, by, upon, about, in, with, 
 instead of the pronouns, this, that, which, and what, with the 
 same particles : as, 
 
 hereof, for 
 
 of this, 
 
 de ceci, or d'en. 
 
 thereof, 
 
 of that, 
 
 de cela, or d'en. 
 
 whereof, 
 
 hereby, 
 
 thereby, 
 
 whereby, 
 
 hereupon, 
 
 thereupon, 
 
 of what, of which, 
 
 by this, 
 
 by that, 
 
 by what, by which, 
 
 upon this, 
 
 upon that, 
 
 de quoi, duquel, desquels, dont 
 
 par ceci. 
 
 par la, par cela. 
 
 par qui, par lequel, par ou. 
 
 sur ceci. 
 
 sur cela, Id-dessus. 
 
 whereupon, 
 hereabouts, 
 
 upon what, or which 
 about th*s place, 
 
 , sur quoi. 
 autour d'ici, ici autour. 
 
 thereabouts, 
 
 about that place, 
 
 autour de la, la autour. 
 
 whereabouts 
 
 , about, what place, 
 
 en quel endroit, oil, vers ozL 
 
 herein, 
 
 in this, 
 
 en ceci. 
 
 therein, 
 
 in that, 
 
 en cela. 
 
 wherein, 
 
 in what, in which, 
 
 en quoi. 
 
 herewith, 
 
 with this, 
 
 avec ceci. 
 
 therewith, 
 
 with that, 
 
 avec cela. 
 
 wherewith, 
 
 with what, or which 
 
 , avec quoi, avec lequel. 
 
 Whose and its (dont) are also used instead of, of whom, of 
 which, of it (duquel, desquels, de hiquelle, desquelles). 
 
430 The various Significations, 
 
 § VI. Of the various Significations and Constructions of the 
 Particle que. 
 
 It ought to have been observed, all along this treatise on the 
 French language, that there are many particles, which, though 
 the same with respect to their form, yet are very different with 
 respect to their nature, or considered grammatically. Thus le, 
 la, les, articles, must be carefully distinguished from le, la, les, 
 pronouns : a preposition from a verb : leur pronoun personal from 
 leur pronoun possessive ; si conjunction conditional from si con- 
 junction dubitative, and si comparative : as likewise several other 
 words which are sometimes adverbs, sometimes prepositions, and 
 sometimes conjunctions, 'according to the relation in which they 
 stand to the parts of speech. But of all these particles there is 
 none more variously used, and that gives more perplexity to the 
 learner, in the construing of French Authors, than the particle 
 que. Therefore it will not be amiss to make a particular section 
 of this particle, and collect together all its several constructions. 
 Que is the fourth state of the pionoun relative qui, for both 
 genders and numbers, and is said of all sorts of objects, rational, 
 irrational, animate, and inanimate: as, JJhomme, lafemme que 
 vous voyez ; The man or woman whom you see : Les malheurs que 
 vous apprehendez ; The misfortunes which, or that you fear. 
 ^f Such relative pronouns whom, which, are most times left out in English. 
 
 Que is the fourth state, and even the first (though seldom) 
 of the pronoun interrogative quoi (what) : as, Que dites-vous. 
 Qu 5 est-ce que vous dites? What do you say ? QW est-ce que de nous % 
 What wretched creatures are we ? 
 
 Que is the second and third state of the pronoun relative and 
 interrogative que and quoi, standing for de qui, de quoi, dant, a qui, 
 a quoi, for both genders and numbers : as, C'est de vous qu'cm 
 parle ; It is you they are speaking of. C'est a vous quon s'adresse; 
 To you they make application. (See p. 259> B.) 
 
 Que is a partrele of which most conjunctions are composed : 
 as, Ajin que, That ; De sorte que, So that ; Pwisque, Since , 
 Qwozque, Although, &c. 
 
 Que is a conjunction, used in the second part of a period, 
 joined to the first by the enclitic &, instead of repeating the 
 conjunction si, expressed at the head of the first sentence ; and 
 this que governs the subjunctive : as, S'il le souhaite, ty que vous 
 le voutiez ; if he desires it, and you will have it so. 
 
 Que is used in the middle of a sentence in lieu of the conjunc- 
 tions Comme,Iorsque (as,v*hen), though they were not expressed be- 
 
and Constructions of que. 43 1 
 
 fore : as, lis arrivlrent, que fallois partir : They arrived as or 
 when I was about to depart. Nous partimes, qu'i/ pieuvoit a verse, 
 We set out at a time when it did rain as fast as it could pour. 
 
 Where peut-etre occurs in the first member of a phrase, Que 
 is its vicegerent in the second : as, Peut-etre Vaime-t-il, mats qu'il 
 rie veut pas Vepouser ; Perhaps he loves her, but perhaps he is 
 unwilling to marry her. 
 
 Que is used instead of a moins que, avant que, sans que (unless, 
 before, without) ; and, like these conjunctions, governs the sub- 
 junctive, and requires the negative ne before the next verb : as, 
 Je ne serai point content queje ne le sache ; I shall never be con- 
 tented unless I know it : Je riirai point qa'elle ne soit venue ; I 
 will not go thither before she come. 
 
 Que is used for jusqu'd ce que (till, until) and, like this con- 
 junction, governs the subjunctive : as, attendez qu'zV vienne, stay 
 till or until he come. 
 
 Que is used for cependant (yet, as yet) : II me verroit perir, 
 q\xil n'en seroit pas t&ucke ; He would see me die, yet he would 
 not be concerned at it : II auroit tout Cor du monde, quil en von- 
 droit encore davantage ; Though he should enjoy ail the gold in 
 the world, yet he would wish for more. 
 
 Que is used instead of ajin que (that, to the end that), and, 
 like this conjunction, governs the subjunctive: as, Approchez, 
 que je vous baise, Draw near, that I may kiss you : Je vousprie 
 de venir ici, que je vous dise quelque chose ; Pray, come hither, 
 that I may speak to you. 
 
 Que is used in lieu of de peur que lest, (or for fear of), and, 
 like this conjunction, governs the subjunctive, and requires the 
 particle ne before the verb : as, N'approchez pas de ce chien, qu^ 
 ne vous morde ; Do not go near that dog, lest he should bite you. 
 Depechons-nous, que quelqu'un ne vienne; Let us make haste, 
 for fear somebody should happen to come. 
 
 Que is used in the place of si or des que (if, as soon as) in the 
 beginning of a sentence, and governs the subjunctive : as, Qn'il 
 boive de la bilre> il est malade a la mort ; If or When, or As soon 
 as he drinks beer, he is sick to death. 
 
 Que is used in the middle of a sentence for depuis que (since) ; 
 as, 1/ n'y a qu'une heure, qu'z'Z est parti ; It is but an hour sinco 
 he went away. 
 
 Que is used for de sorte que (so that) : afi, Si vous netes pas sage, 
 je vous etrillerai, que rien rCy manquera ; If you are not good, I 
 will flog you soundly. 
 
 Que is used before the second verb of a sentence beginning 
 with the conjunction a peine, which it serves to compose (scarce, 
 
 pp 2 
 
432 The various Significations, 
 
 hardly than) : as, A peine eut-il acheve de parler, qu'il expira ,• 
 lie had hardly done speaking, but he expired, or he had no sooner 
 done speaking, than he expired. 
 
 Que (than), is used before the noun or adnoun following an 
 adverb comparative : as, Le mari est plus raisonnable que la 
 femme ; The husband is more reasonable than the wife. Plutot 
 que de lefaire; Rather than do it. 
 
 Que, coming after an adnoun, signifies comme ; and quoique, if 
 the adnoun is preceded by tout : as, malade qu'«7 est, il ne sauroit 
 vaquer a ses affaires ; Being ill, he cannot attend business. Tout 
 savant qu'il est, il a bien peu de jugement ; As learned as he is, 
 he has but very little judgment. 
 
 Que, after a noun of time, signifies quand (when) ; as, Lejour 
 qu'// partit ; The day when he set out. 
 
 Que, after a noun of place, signifies ozi (where) : as, C'est a la 
 cour, qu'on apprend les manieres polies ; It is at court one learns 
 or where one learns politeness, or polite ways of behaving. 
 
 Que, (let) denotes the third person of the imperative : as, 
 QuV/ park ; Let him speak. Qu'ils rient ; Let them laugh. 
 
 Que is left out in these following imperative phrases of the sing. numb. Vi'en- 
 dra qui voudra; Gome who will. Sauve qui peut ; Save himself who can, or 
 let every one make the best of his way, or take to his heels. Qui rriaime me 
 tuive ; Let him that lores me follow me. 
 
 Que (that) is 'used in the beginning of a sentence with the 
 indicative ; but such sentences as these are mostly titles to a 
 chapter or section : as, Qu'on ne peut prouver I'immortalite de 
 tame, avant d'en connoitre la nature, fy que sa nature est incom- 
 prehensible ; That the immortality of the soul cannot be proved 
 before its nature is known, and that the nature of the soul is in- 
 c omprehensible. 
 
 Que is used between two verbs, to determine and specify the 
 sense of the first, and governs sometimes the indicative, and 
 sometimes the subjunctive, according to the nature and signifi- 
 cation of the first verb. This determinate conjunction is some- 
 times englished by that, but most times left out and understood : 
 as, Je vous assure que cela est ainsi; I assure you that it is so. 
 Je doute que cela soit ainsi ; I doubt whether it be so or no. 
 
 Que, in the middle of a sentence beginning with the demon- 
 strative c'est, is conductive, and has the force of namely: as, 
 C'est une passion dangereuse que lejeu ; Gaming is a dangerous 
 passion. Oest une sorte de honte que tfitre malheureux ; It is a 
 kind of shame to be miserable. 
 
 Que, being immediately preceded by c'est, signifies parce- 
 que: as, C'est que je ne savois pas que — It is, or It was, because 
 
and Construction of que. 433 
 
 I did not know that : — And when a word comes between c'est 
 and que, cest que is a redundancy : as, C'est alors que je vis ; 
 It was then I saw, or only then I saw. 
 
 Que, after the impersonal il y a, with a noun denoting time, 
 is only an expletive : as, II y a dix ans que je Caime ; I have 
 loved her these ten years. 
 
 Que, being followed by si in the beginning of a sentence, is 
 only an expletiyc ; as, Que si vous dites ; If you say, And if you 
 say. 
 
 Que, after Hi, or an adnoun preceded by the adverb si, is eng- 
 lished by as : as, Soyez tel que vous mule? etre estimt ; Be such 
 as you would be taken for : oe ne suis pas sifou que de le croire; 
 I am not such a fool as to believe it. 
 
 Que, after autre and autrement, signifies than ; as, II est tout 
 autre que vous ne disiez ; He is quite another man than you said. 
 
 Que, being used in the begiuning of a sentence with the sub- 
 junctive, denotes wishing or imprecation : as, Que Dieu vous be- 
 nisse ; God bless you : Queje meure si fen sais quelqne chose, 
 Let me die if I know any thing of it. 
 
 Sometimes also que is left out in this kind of sentences : as, Dieu votes b$- 
 msse, God bless you ; Grand bien vousfasse, Much good may it do you. 
 
 Que is also used in the beginning of a sentence with the suff 
 junctive, to denote, by an exclamation, one's surprise, aversion, 
 and reluctancy of something ; in which case there is a verb gram- 
 matically understood before que ; as, Quil se 8oit oublie.jusqu f a 
 ce point ! I wonder, or is it possible for him to have forgot himself 
 so far ? Que fagisse contre ma conscience! Must I do a thing, 
 or How can I do a thing against my conscience ! 
 
 Que is used adverbially in the beginning of a sentence of ex- 
 clamation with the indicative, and is rendered into English several 
 ways, according to the nature of the sentence ; for if the verb 
 coming after que is followed by another verb, que is englished by 
 how much : as, Que vous aimez a parler ! How much you like to 
 talk ! — If the verb coming after que is followed by an adnoun 
 only, que is englished by how, only, before the adnoun : as, Qu'il 
 faft crotte ! How dirty it is ! Qu'elle est aimable ! How lovely she 
 is! — Sometimes the exclamation, or admiration, is expressed 
 without any verb : as, Que deplaistr fy de peine tout a lafois ! How 
 much pleasure and trouble at once ! — Sometimes also que comes 
 after the noun, especially if indignation meets with admiration ; 
 as, Le malheureux qu'«7 est ! What a wretch he is ! L'indigne action 
 
434 The various Significations, 
 
 que la sieune ! O the unworty action of his ! Les beaux livres que 
 vous avez ! What fine books you have ! 
 
 Que, in the beginning of an interrogative sentence, signifies 
 comment (how) : as, Que savez-vous si Vdme de voire pere n'etoit 
 pas passte dans cette bete? How do you know but that your father's 
 soul had passed into that creature ? 
 
 Que, beginning a sentence of interrogation, and followed by 
 the negative ne qnly, stands for pourquoi (why) : as, Que ne 
 parlez-vousi Why do not you speak? Quene lui dites-vous cela? 
 Why do not you tell him that ? And when que is followed by 
 the double negative ne and pas, it stands for quelle chose (what 
 or what thing) : as, Que ne f ait-Upas pour s'enrichir? What 
 thing does he not do to grow rich? Que ne lui dites-vous pas 
 vour fen dttourner? Is there any thing but you told him to deter 
 him from it ? 
 
 Que, in the beginning of a sentence of exclamation, and fol- 
 lowed by ne denotes only a wish and a great desire : as, Que ne 
 suis-je dcjd aux portes de Faience ! Would I were already at the 
 gales of Valencia ! 
 
 Que, in the middle of a sentence, but preceded by ne with 
 some words between, signifies seulement (only, but, nothing but, 
 &c.) 2s, Le Roi na en vue que le Men public ; The King has no 
 outer view but, or only aims at, the public good. And when que 
 is preceded by the two negatives, and followed by a verb, it sig- 
 nifies a moins que (unless, but), and the verb must be put in the 
 subjunctive with ne : as, Je ne sors point queje ne m'enrhume ; I 
 never go abroad, but I catch cold. 
 
 Que, preceded by ne, and followed by the infinitive faire, with- 
 out a preposition, signifies nothing ; or to need not, it faire is fol- 
 lowed by another infinitive with de : as, Je ri ai que faire de ceta, 
 I have nothing to do with that ; Je nai que faire dHy aller, I need 
 not go there. If faire is followed by the preposition a, it makes 
 another idiom of a different signification : as, Je n'ai que faire a 
 cela, I am not concerned with that. 
 
 Que, preceded by any tense of faire with the negative ne, and 
 followed by an infinitive without any preposition at all, denotes 
 only the continuance of the action signified by the second verb, 
 and is englished by to do nothing but: as, II nefait que boire & 
 manger, He does nothing but eat and drink. 
 
 Que, preceded by any tense of faire with the negative ne, and 
 followed by an infinitive with the preposition de, denotes that the 
 action signified by the second verb began some few minutes, a 
 very little while, one moment before, that it does or did just or 
 
and Construction of que. 435 
 
 just now begin, and is expressed by just, or just now : as, Nous ne 
 faisons que de commencer, We do but begin, We have but just 
 begun : // nefaisoit que d'achever, quand — He had just finished, 
 when — 
 
 Que, besides these 38 significations, serves to form a great 
 many idiomatical phrases, which must be learnt in my Dictionary, 
 at this word. 
 
 § VII. Of inseparable Prepositions. 
 
 Besides the prepositions that have been fully treated of, there 
 are several particles in the beginning of words which are mere 
 prepositions that have passed from the Latin Tongue into the 
 French, wherein they signify nothing of themselves, without the 
 words that are composed of them ; and are therefore called inse- 
 parable prepositions. These particles are de, des, dis, c, ex, en, hi, 
 im, il, ir, ig 9 re, sur, which may deserve the following observa- 
 tions. 
 
 I 8 . The particles de, des, and dis, usually serve, in the begin- 
 ning of words, to denote the contrary of what is signified by the 
 words which they compose, and have the same signification, as the 
 English particle un in the beginning of words : as, dejaire to un- 
 do, dedire to unsay, decamper to decamp, march off, dtranger 
 to put out of order, dtsarmer to disarm, dtshabiller to undress, 
 dtsunir to disunite, disgrace disgrace, disproportion, dispropor- 
 tion, &c. — Sometimes also they only serve to extend more the 
 signification of the simple : as, dtcouper to cut (not in its com- 
 mon signification), to carve, demontrer to demonstrate, disperser 
 to disperse, to scatter about, dissoudre to dissolve. 
 
 2°. t and ex, in the beginning of words, sometimes denote pri- 
 vation and separation, or taking off: as, ecervelt hare-brained, 
 ecremer to take off the cream from the milk, effiie fringed (not in 
 the common signification), essouffler to put out of breath, excom- 
 munier to excommunicate, exterminer to exterminate, destroy en- 
 tirely, extraire to extract, draw, or take out. Sometimes they 
 denote production of an action, and add to, or extend more, 
 the signification of the simple ; as ebranler to shake, echanger to 
 exchange, tchauder to scald, tprouver to try, exalter to exalt, ex- 
 tol, exhausser to raise higher, expliquer to explain, expound. 
 
 The particle en, in words compound, keeps pretty near the same 
 signification which it has with the simple, when it has a separable 
 preposition; and usually denotes either the action whereby a thing 
 
436 Ofinsepaiable Prepositions. 
 
 is in some manner put in another : as, enclorre to inclose, enchainer 
 to chain, embrasser to embrace, emporter to take away, enroler to 
 enlist, envelopper to fold up, involve ; or the impression by which 
 a thing receives such or such a form, and becomes such or such ; 
 as, encourager to encourage, enrichir to enrich, ennivrer to fuddle, 
 engrosser to get with child. 
 
 in, in the beginning of words, has sometimes the same use and 
 signification as en ; as in investir to invest, insister to insist ; but it 
 has commonly a privative power, and denotes quite the contrary 
 of the signification of the simple : as, inanimt inanimate, incon- 
 stant inconstant, incivil uncivil, infortunt unfortunate, injuste un- 
 just, inhumain inhuman, innombrable innumerable, invincible 
 invincible, inutile useless, fyc. 
 
 It is the same with these inseparable particles : im, in immo- 
 deste immodest, imprinter to print, imparfait imperfect ; it in illt- 
 gitime illegitimate, illicite unlawful ; ir, in irregulier irregular, 
 irrtsolu irresolute ; ig, in ignoble ignoble, base ; all which parti- 
 cles are but the same particle in, which changes its n into the 
 initial consonant of the word to which it is joined, according to 
 the Genius of the language. 
 
 re, in the beginning of words, usually denotes either reite- 
 ration and reduplication of the action denoted by the word ; as 
 in refaire to make or do again, redire to say again, revenir to 
 come back again ; or restitution and re-establishment into a for- 
 mer state, as in redresser to make straight again, ralhimer to light 
 again, reunir to re-unite, fyc. Sometimes also it only serves to ex- 
 tend further the signification of the simple : as in rtveiller to awake, 
 rehire to shine, repaitre to feed, radoucir to appease, to sweeten. 
 
 re, is found besides in the beginning of a great many words 
 simple, without making a part of them ; as in recommander to re- 
 commend, renoncer to renounce, redoutable dreadful, se repentir 
 to repent, 8[c. 
 
 The particle sur, denotes excess of the action signified by the 
 simple: as, surabondance superabundance, surcharger to over- 
 charge, surnaturel supernatural, surf aire to exact, survivre to 
 outlive, Sfc. 
 
 § VIII. Observations upon Proper Names. 
 Reason requires that proper names of places, as Kingdoms, 
 Counties, Cities, and Towns, should keep the same appellations 
 all over the world, without varying according to the diversity of 
 the languages spoken by the several nations ; so that England and 
 London, &c. should be called by the same name, by the French, 
 Spaniards, Italians, Turks, Russians, fyc. as well as by the Eng* 
 
Observations upon Proper Names. 437 
 
 lish : yet custom has obtained among most, if not all nations, to 
 adopt foreign names to the Genius of their own language. Thus 
 England is called by the French V Angleterre ; London, Londres ; 
 Germany, VAUemagne ; Bohemia, la Bohhne ; Poland, la Fo- 
 logne; Cracow, Cracovie; &c. but it is only the most renowned 
 places whose names are liable to variation. The others keep 
 their national appellation: as, Kent, Bristol, Breslau, &,c. 
 
 Neither are foreign proper names of men subject to any alter- 
 ation. The following observations are only upon ancient Latin 
 and Greek Proper Names, that occur in History, to which cus- 
 tom has given a French termination. 
 
 1st, Latin names of men in a never change ; Agrippa, Dolabella, 
 Nerva, Galba, Syila, &c. are the same in French as in Latin, 
 except Seneca that is changed into Seneque. But proper names 
 of women in a take all a French termination : some ie, as, Julia 
 Julie, Livia Livie, Octavia Octavie ; and some ine, as, Aggrip- 
 pina Agrippine; Cleopatra makes Cleopatre, and Poppea 
 Poppee. 
 
 Idly, Names of men terminating in as, change as into e not 
 sounded: as, Pythagoras Pythagore, Anaxagoras Anaxagore, 
 Mecenas Meccne, iEneas Enee ; Except Leonidas, Pelopida^ 
 Prusias, Phidias, Epaminondas, Josias, Ananias, and all Hebrew 
 names, that continue the same ; as likewise names of women, as, 
 Olympias, Alexander's mother, fyc. and s final is sounded. 
 
 Sdly, Names in e, take some the accent acute over it : as, 
 Daphne, Phryne, Circe, Thisbe, Hebe, Cloe, &c. others make 
 that e mute : as, Calliope, Climene, Melpomene, Mnemosine, 
 Amphitrite, Ariadne, Cybele, Euridice, Penelope, &c. 
 
 4thly, Names in ander make andre : as, Alexander Alexandre, 
 Leander Leandre, Scamander Scamandre, &c. 
 
 5thly, Names in es lose their final s, and the e is not sounded : 
 as, Demosthenes Demosthene, Mithhdates Mithridate, Arsaces 
 Arsace, Isocrates Isocrate, Apelles Apelle, Aristides Arhtia\ 
 &c. except Ceres, Artaxerxes, Xerxes, Pericles, Chosroes, Fares, 
 and all dissyllables, that continue the same ; but their last syl- 
 lable has the sound of I grave, and the second x in Xerxes, the 
 articulation of s. 
 
 Qthly, Names in is, and in al, continue the same : as, Adonis, 
 Omphis, Memphis, Sisygambis, Thalestris, &c. Annibal, Asdrw 
 bal, &c. Except Martial, Juvenal, and Mathilde, from Martialis, 
 Juvenalis, Mathildis. 
 
 Ithly, Latin names in o, and Greek in ov, have the termina- 
 tion of o nasal: as, Cicero Ciceron, Corbulo Corbulon, Varro 
 
438 Observations upon Proper Names. 
 
 Varron, Strabo Slrahon, Dido Didon, Xenophon Xenophon, 
 fyc. Except Labeo and Carbo ; Clio, Calypso, Erato, Echo and 
 Sappho. 
 
 Sthly, As to names in us, this distinction is to be made. Pro 
 per names of two syllables only : as, Brutus, Cyrus, Crozsus, Po- 
 ms, Pyrrhus, remain the same ; except Titus that makes Tite, 
 and Plautus Plaute, and such names of saints as, Petrus, Paulus f 
 &c. that have been entirely frenchified into Pierre and Paul. 
 Those of three or four syllables, if they are much celebrated, 
 take the termination of e not sounded ; as, Tacitus Tacite, Plus 
 tarchus Plutarque, Homerus Homere, Virgilius Virgile, Ovidius 
 Ovide, Horatius Horace, Petronius Petrone, Pompeius Pompee, 
 Quintus Curtius Quint Curce, Julius Caesar Jule Cesar, Aulu- 
 Gellius Aulu-Gelle, Paulus JEmilius Paul-Emile, Lucretius 
 Lucrece. Terentius is changed into Terence, and Antonius into 
 Antoine. The others, that do not occur so much, keep the 
 Latin termination, Fulvius, Proculus, Qumtius, Virgimus, 
 as likewise Darius and Marius; and the names of Barbarians, 
 Alaric, Chilperic, Theodoric. We also say Les Gracques the 
 Gracchi. 
 
 9thly, Proper names in ianus take the French termination ten, 
 Quintilien, Tertullien, Cyprien, &c. We say also Chaldeen, Ler- 
 neen, Nemeen. But anus, preceded by a consonant, is changed 
 into an ; as, Coriolanus Coriolan. We also say Trajan, Sejan,Titan. 
 
 Names of Sects terminate also most commonly in ten; as, 
 Presbytcrien, Lutherien, Nestoriens, Eutycheens, Sociniens, &c. 
 Some few only are excepted ; as, Calviniste, Anabaptiste, &c. 
 
 As to the other proper names, ending with one or more con- 
 sonants: as, Agar, Caesar, Castor, Jacob, Joachim, Minos, 
 Beatrix, &c. they remain the same in French. 
 
 Mr. Menage has made complete lists of all Hebrew, Greek, 
 Latin, and Gothic proper names, which change their termination 
 in the French, as also those that do not. Those who are desirous 
 to know more of this matter must consult him. 
 
 § IX. Observations upon the Titles annexed by Custom to the 
 divers Ranks and Stations of civil Life. 
 
 It is the custom in France to call any Gentleman Monsieur, any 
 married Gentlewoman Madame, and any Miss, young Lady, ai 
 well as any unmarried Gentlewoman (though she is ever so old), 
 Mademoiselle. We say in the plural Messieurs, Mesdames, Mesde- 
 moiselles. If in a company of young Ladies, or unmarried Gen- 
 
Observations upon Titles. 439 
 
 tlewomen (Demoiselles), there is one married Gentlewoman only 
 (une Dame), we say Mesdames in speaking of them ; and not Mes- 
 demoiselles. We say, in speaking of a woman, La Dame, or la De- 
 moiselle dont je vous aiparle; The Lady, or Miss, whom I told 
 you of. But we do not say le sieur nor les sieurs. Le Monsieur, 
 for the Gentleman, is very seldom used, and le Gentilhomme (in 
 that sense) never. In public acts, and through contempt, or in 
 a banter, we say le sieur un tel, instead of Monsieur (Master such 
 a one) and although these words are composed of a pronoun, 
 and we write in two words ?ios Dames, nos Demoiselles, yet we 
 make but one word of Monsieur, Messieurs, Madame, Mademoi- 
 selle, Monseigneur, and even the pronoun possessive in Monsieur 
 stands for nothing, when an adnoun comes before the word, so 
 that the adnoun must be preceded by another pronoun thus, 
 Mori cher Monsieur, Dear Sir. Yet we do not say Ma chere 
 Madame, but Ma chere Dame, Ma chere Demoiselle, Dear Ma- 
 dam, or Miss ; Mon cher Seigneur, My dear Lord. 
 
 In speaking to the King, we say, Sire, Votre Majeste, Sire, 
 Your Majesty ; to the Queen, Madame, Votre Majeste, Madam, 
 Your Majesty. Then we use the personal and possessive pro- 
 nouns of the third person relating to Majeste, instead of the per- 
 sonal pronoun of the second person : as, 
 
 Voire Majeste ne pent montrer pour son peuple plus d? amour 
 qu'eile ?iefaii. Your Majesty cannot show more love to your 
 people than you do. 
 
 Votre Majeste a enfin triomphe de ses ennemis ; fy elle les con 
 vainc que, &c. Your Majesty has at last triumphed over your 
 enemies, and you convince them that, fyc. 
 
 The King's Children, and Grand-children, are called Enfans 
 de France. His brother's children, when he has any, are called 
 Petits-jils de France. The eldest Prince (lefils ami de France) 
 is called Dauphin. In speaking of him, we say Monseigneur 
 only, and he is never called Royal Highness : as, J'aurai Chon- 
 neur de dire a Monseigneur quej'ai execute ses ordres. The ot&es 
 Princes, his brothers, have divers titles, according to their ap- 
 pendages : as, the Duke of Burgundy, the Duke of Anjou, fyc* 
 and they are called Monseigneur, with the title Altesse Royale. 
 
 The Princesses of France, the King's daughters, are called Mes- 
 dames de France, as soon as they are born : Madame de France 
 Vamee, Madame de France puisnee, Madame de France troisieme. 
 
 The .King's Brother is called Monsieur only, when he is spo- 
 ken of ; but when we speak to him, we say Monseigneur, Votre 
 Altesse Royale. 
 
 Qq 
 
440 Observations upon Titles 
 
 Les Petites-filles de France have the title of Mademoiselle. H 
 there is but one, she is called Mademoiselle only; if she has arff 
 sisters, they take besides the title of some appendage : as, Made* 
 moiselle de Clermont, Mademoiselle de Charolois, &c. When \\t 
 speak to them, we say Mademoiselle, Votre Vitesse Hoyale. 
 
 The princes of the Royal Blood, but who are not Petits-Jth 
 de France, are called the first Monsieur le Prince, the second 
 Monsieur h Due ; the others have the title of some appendage 
 or other : and when we speak to them, we say Monseigneur, 
 Votre Allesse Strenissime. The late Regent of France, great- 
 grand-father of the present Duke of Orleans (1790), was Petit- 
 fils de France, being son to Gaston, Lewis the XlVth's Brother 
 The present Duke of Orleans is only the first Prince of the blood. 
 The son of Mr. le Due's title is Prince of Conde, and that of the 
 Prince of Conde's son is Duke of Bourbon : The present 
 Prince of Conde's son is Duke of Bourbon, as the late Duke of 
 Bourbon was his father. 
 
 The Dauphin's Consort is called Madame la Dauphine, and 
 those of the children, grand-children, and Princes of the blood, 
 have the same title as the Princes their consorts. 
 
 When the King dies, his Queen is called la Heine Mere ; and 
 Madame la Dauphine, then Queen, is called la Peine. If there 
 were more Queens, as we have seen lately in Spain, the next to 
 the Queen Mother is called Reine-Douairiere. The widows of 
 the Princes of the Blood are also called Douairicres (Dowagers). 
 
 As to the Princes that are not of the Royal Blood, they are 
 called Moji Prince, Votre Altesse. 
 
 The Chancellor of France, the Keeper of the Seals, the Mem- 
 bers of the Council, and the Four Secretaries of State, the Dukes 
 and Peers, the Controleur General, and les Intendans (the Lieute- 
 nants of the Counties), are called Monseigneur, with the title of 
 Grandeur, when we speak or write to them : in speaking of them, 
 we only say Monsieur le Chancelier, Monsieur de Maurepas. 
 
 The Marshals of France, Lieutenants-General, and Ambassa- 
 dors' titles, are Monseigneur, Votre Excellence. 
 
 We say to the Parliaments, to the Chambres des Parlemens, 
 (die Houses of Parliaments) and other sovereign Companies 
 (collectively), Nos Seigneurs du Parlement. Nos Seigneurs de 
 la Grande Chambre. To their Speakers (les Presidens des Parle- 
 mens) the Attornies-General of Parliaments, and other sove- 
 reign Courts (distributively) we say Monseigneur, Votre Gran- 
 deur. But les Avocats-generaux, les Substituts, les Conseillers 
 and other Magistrates, are called only Monsieur. 
 
Observations upon Titles. 441 
 
 The Consorts to the Chancellor, Marshals, les Presidens, and 
 Ambassadors, as likewise those of Dukes, Counts, Marquisses, 
 and Barons, are called Madame la Chanceliere, Madame la Ma- 
 rechale, la Presidente, V Ambassadrice ; Madame la Duchesse, la 
 Marquise, la Comtesse, &c. with the titles of Grandeur and 
 Excellence, if their husbands have them : but w r e do not say 
 Madame la Chevaliere. 
 
 The Bishop of Rome is called h Pape (Pope), with the titles 
 of Tres-Saint-Pere, Voire Saintete (most holy Father, your Ho- 
 liness). His Legates, and Apostolic Nuncios, have the title of 
 Excellence; the Cardinals, that of Eminence; and the Archbi- 
 shops and Bishops, that of Grandeur ; and in speaking to them 
 we say • Monseigneur, voire Eminence, voire Grandeur. The 
 direction of a letter, or of a Dedication to them, is A Son Emi- 
 nence, Monseigneur le Cardinal. A Monseigneur V Illustrissime 
 fy Reverendissime, Archeveque, or Eveque. We also write An 
 Roi, A Monseigneur le Dauphin. 
 
 Any other person of what condition or rank soever they are, 
 as, Marquis, Comte, Baron, Chevalier, are also called Monsieur, 
 the French having nothing to answer these petty English titles > 
 Worship, Honour, Reverence, Esquire. But in speaking to them 
 we say Monsieur le Comte, Mr. le Chevalier. 
 
 When we speak to one below us in the world, as a Gentle- 
 man to a Tradesman, we add his name to Mr. as, Monsieur Re* 
 naut,je suis content de votre ouvrage, mais je trouve quevous etes 
 bien cher ; Mr. Renant, I like your work very well, but think 
 that you are very dear. To a soldier we say Camarade ; to a 
 countryman, and others of the lowest class of people, we say t 
 mon ami,',bon homme, bonne femme. 
 
 I had almost forgot to say, that Lawyers at the Bar call one 
 another Maitre instead of Monsieur : as, Maitre Patru, Maitre 
 Chevalier, &c. 
 
 The expressions of tenderness, used among the French, are 
 mon cher, ma chere ; mon ami, mon cher ami, ma chere amie ; mon 
 caur, mon cher caur ; mon petit, ma petite. But we do not say, 
 as the English, mon ame, ma chere ame, ma precieuse, ma chere 
 prtcieuse, &c. 
 
 Children call their parents mon cherptre, ma chere mire, mon 
 frere, ma sceur, mon oncle, ma cousine : the pronoun possessive 
 must not be left out, as in English, Father, Sister, Cousin, &c. 
 They call their nurses mamie, ma bonne, (a contraction for mon 
 amie, ma bonne ameej.^and they are called by them monjils, ma 
 file, mon cher, monpoulet, mapoide. 
 
 School-boys call their master Monsieur, and they are called by 
 him by their proper names, and never by the Christian one. 
 Sometimes he calls his boys mon ami, petit gar con. 
 
442 Observations upon Titles. 
 
 To conclude, the French language does not suffer many things 
 to be called by their true names, either in conversation or writings 
 which can be expressed so in Latin, and other languages, without 
 any indecency ; but requires that they be expressed with Circum- 
 locutions and Periphrases. 
 
 § X. Observations upon the writing of "Letters. 
 
 1°. Mr. Vaugelas pretends that a letter must not begin with 
 Monsieur, Madame, Monseigneur, on account of these words 
 being already at the top of the page. Indeed it is better to avoid 
 the repeating of them, if possible ; but, upon the whole, it is not 
 so shocking as it seemed to our author. 
 
 2°. These same words must never be repeated in the same 
 period, though it is ever so long ; and the writer must endeavour 
 to place them, either mediately or immediately, after the pronouu 
 vous: as, 
 
 II n'appattient qu'avous, Monsieur, de, &c. 
 It becomes you alone, Sir, to, fyc. 
 Pour vous dire, Madame, ce queje pense, &c. 
 To tell you, Madam, what I think, fyc. 
 These honorary terms come also very properly after these 
 conjunctions Copulative and Transitive, beginning sentences : 
 as, Apres tout, Monsieur, — An reste, Monseigneur, — C'est.-, 
 vourquoi, Madame, — But, 
 
 3°. A special care ought to be taken, lest those terms should 
 come in some part of the sentence, where they might cause a 
 ridiculous equivocation, after a verb active ; as, 
 
 Je neveuxpas acheter, Madame, si peu de chose a si hautprix ; 
 
 1 will not buy, Madam, so small a matter at so dear a rate. 
 
 Je ne doute pas que vous n'ayez recu, Monsieur, ce queje vous 
 
 ai envoy e ; 
 I doubt not but you have received, Sir, what I sent you. 
 We write 
 Je ne doute pas, Monsieur, que, &c. Je ne veux pas, Madame, &c. 
 4°. If the letter is written to a King, a Prince, or a person of a 
 distinguished rank, and is not a long one, the terms of Votre 
 Majeste, Votre Altesse, Votre Excellence, Votre Grandeur, must 
 be used with the pronoun die instead of vous. If the letter is 
 pretty long, vous may be used for variety (though not often) ; but 
 it must always be attended by Votre Majeste, Votre Grandeur, &c. 
 
 5°. Never begin a letter thus : J'ai recu la votre du premier 
 du courant, ou du vingt-six du passe ; I have received yours of the 
 
Observations upon the writing of Letters. 443 
 
 •1 st instant, or the 26th past : or Vous verrez par celle ci, &c. You 
 will see by this, #c. Celle-ci, la voire, le courant, and le passe, 
 supposing always an antecedent, expressed before, to which they 
 relate. However, as merchants do not scruple to write in this 
 manner, those expressions may be looked upon as appropriated 
 to trade and merchants' business ; but quite banished from polite 
 correspondence. 
 
 6°. Lastly, never end a letter, as in English, with a noun go- 
 verned by a preposition. Therefore the ending of letters in the 
 following manner will not do in French, and is contrary to the 
 Genius of the language, inasmuch as the words are in a wrong 
 order and false construction. 
 
 Permettez-moi de prendre le titre de, Monsieur, on le titre, Mon- 
 sieur de voire ires-humble Serviteur ; Permit me to take the title 
 of, Sir, your most humble Servant. 
 
 Vous connoitrez-dans peu que vouz n'avez pas oblige un ingrat, 
 en faisant un plaisir a, Monsieur, V. T. H. S. You will see in 
 a short time that you have not obliged an ungrateful person, in 
 doing a kindness to, Sir, Y. M. H. S. 
 
 II n y y a point de service qui ne vous doive etre rendu par Mons, 
 V. T. H. S. There is no service but ought to be done to you by, 
 Sir, Y. M. H. S. 
 
 Sachant bien quil n'y a rien que vous ne voulussiez faire pour, 
 Mr. V. T. H. S. Knowing very well that there is nothing but 
 what you would do for, Sir, Y. M. H. S. 
 
 Therefore nothing but a noun, expressing the subject or object 
 of a verb can end a letter ; thus, 
 
 J'ai Thonneur d'etre, Mr. V. T. H. S. 
 I have the honour to be, Sir, Y. M. H. S. 
 Faites-moi Vhonneur de me croire, Monsieur, V. T. H. S, 
 Do me the honour to believe me, Sir, Y. M. H. S. 
 
 § XI. Of some Jdnouns, whose Signification is different ac~ 
 cording to the different placing of them before or after some nouns. 
 
 These adnouns are fourteen or fifteen in number, which im- 
 port, in the examples of the second column, an idea quite dif- 
 ferent from that which they do when considered as adnouns only, 
 as in the first column. 
 honnete, "J Un honnete homme ; Un homme honnete ; 
 
 f An honest man. A civil man. 
 
 brave, C Un brave homme; Un homme brave. 
 
 J An honest man, a gentleman. One that has courage. 
 Qq2 
 
444 
 
 Adnouns with different Sig7iifications. 
 
 gentil, 
 pauvre, 
 
 sage, 
 
 grosse, 
 
 cruel, 
 
 galant, 
 
 plaisant, 
 
 vilain, 
 
 furieux, 
 
 certain, 
 
 grand, 
 
 -Un Gentilhomme ; 
 A man nobly descended. 
 Un homme pauvre ; 
 A poor man. 
 
 Unefemrne sage ; 
 
 A sober discreet woman. 
 
 Une grosse femme ; 
 
 A big fat woman. 
 
 Unefemrne cruelle; 
 
 A cruel woman. 
 
 Un galant homme ; 
 
 A clever well bred man, 
 a complete gentleman. 
 
 Un homme plaisant ; 
 
 A good, merry, facetious 
 companion. 
 
 Un vilain homme ; 
 
 A disagreeable man. 
 
 Un furieux animal; 
 
 A Jiuge creature. 
 
 Une nouvelle certaine; 
 
 True or sure news (the 
 certainty whereof can- 
 not be questioned). 
 
 Avoir Vair grand ; 
 
 To have a noble aspect, 
 to look grand. 
 
 Un grand homme ; 
 A great man. 
 
 Un homme gentil; 
 
 A genteel man. 
 
 Un pauvre homme; 
 
 A man without genius or 
 parts. 
 
 Une sage femme ; 
 
 A midwife. 
 
 Unefemrne grosse ; 
 
 A woman with child. 
 
 Une cruelle femme ; 
 
 A hard woman. 
 
 Un homme galant ; 
 
 One who runs after la- 
 dies, 
 
 Un plaisant homme ; 
 
 A ridiculous and imperti- 
 nent fellow. 
 
 Un homme vilain ; 
 
 A niggardly fellow. 
 
 Un animal furieux ; 
 
 A fierce creature. 
 
 Une certaine nouvelle ; 
 
 A certain piece of news 
 (but which requires 
 confirmation,) 
 
 Avoir le grand air ; 
 
 To copy after great folks, 
 to make a great figure, 
 to live grand. 
 
 Un homme grand ; 
 A tall man. 
 
 Again, Grand, speaking of a man, is said with respect to his 
 merit, parts, and stature ; whereas, speaking of a woman, it is 
 said with respect to her stature only. Thus un grand homme may 
 equally well signify a tall man, and one of great parts and merit : 
 but une grande femme signifies only a tall woman. 
 
 These five, used only in the following ways of speaking, are 
 taken adverbially, and, as such, are indeclinable. (See also 
 page 349.) 
 
 ' 
 
Adnouns with different Significations. 
 
 445 
 
 court, (lis sont demeure court. Elles sont demeurees court ; 
 
 They were mum, or They were at a stand. 
 
 fort, II se fait fort de, &c. Elle se fait fort de, &c. lis sefont, &c. 
 
 J He takes upon him to, §c. She takes, fyc. They, fyc. 
 haut, J Vous etes assise trop haut, You sit too high, 7 said of a 
 has, Elle est assise trop bas, She sits too low, y woman. 
 bon, Des deniers revenant bon, So much money good, the 
 .. remainder of a sum of money. 
 Feu,feue (late), -is an adjective without plural, and even with- 
 out feminine when it is placed before the article, and we say : 
 
 Feu la reine, 1 ,, i . 
 
 t r ■ t the late queen. 
 
 Eajeue reme, 3 ^ 
 
 § XII. A List of the Nouns which are masculine in one Signifi- 
 cation, and feminine in another. 
 
 Un aigle, 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 an eagle. 
 
 Un Ange, an Angel. 
 
 Un aune, an alder-tree. 
 
 Un Barbe, A Barb (a horse). 
 Un Capre, Corsair, a privateer. 
 Le carpe, (part of the wrist). 
 
 Le carouge, the carob tree. 
 
 Un coche, a caravan. 
 
 TT .. (a cornet (of a 
 
 Un cornette, 1 . s l \ 
 
 7 1 troop of horse). 
 
 C a couple (two 
 
 Un couple, 1 people united to- 
 
 I get her). 
 
 Un cravate,a Croatian (soldier). 
 
 Un Enseigne, an Ensign. 
 
 t c • *. C Chrism (ointment 
 
 .Le baint \ j • • / 
 
 •-, a -1 used in popish 
 
 ' C worship). 
 
 TT 1 C an example, a 
 
 Unexemple,j patter i ' 
 
 Le fin d'une \ the main, or chief 
 affaire, ) point of a business. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 T , . t Tj • (the Roman, 
 L aigle Komame, \ T . ) 
 f , • 1 x or Imperial 
 orlmpcnale, \ eagl / 
 
 Une ange, Skate, a sort offish. 
 
 Une aune, an ell. 
 
 Une barbe, a beard. 
 
 Une capre, a caper (fruit). 
 
 Une carpe, a carp. 
 
 T f the carob-bean 
 
 Laoarouge, j ,^A 
 
 (its fruit). 
 
 Une coche, 
 Une cor- 
 
 5 a sow; (tig.) a wo- 
 
 ne cor- 1 
 net. 3 
 
 man noisome ly fat. 
 a woman's cornet, 
 
 (a head dress.) 
 
 r a pair, a yoke, a 
 
 Une couple,^ brace (two things 
 
 I together). 
 
 TT C a cravat (neck- 
 
 Unecravate,| ^ 
 
 Une enseigne,« sign(a signpost). 
 De la creme, cream. 
 
 Une exem- ") a copy for writing 
 
 pie, J 
 
 La fin d'une 
 
 affaire, l 0T bminess. 
 Le fin des choses, the nicest point, the quintessence of things. 
 
 or drawing. 
 C the end, or con- 
 < elusion of a thing. 
 
446 
 
 Nouns masculine in one Signification, 
 
 Masculine, 
 Un foret, a drill, a piercer. 
 
 Le foudre de 1 Jupiter's ihun- 
 Jupiter, ) der-bolt. 
 
 Un foudre de guerre, 
 Un garde, 
 
 Un garde du 
 
 corps, 
 Le Greffe, 
 
 Le Gueule, < 
 
 Le hale, 
 
 Un huitieme 
 
 Un livre, 
 Un loutre, 
 
 Feminine. 
 Une foret, a for est. 
 
 Cthe thunder (apoe- 
 La foudre,^ tical expression for 
 [ le tonnerre). 
 J a warlike general, dreaded by his enemies 
 t ( a figurative expression). 
 
 C many soldiers to 
 one of the guards. Une garde, < guard, to wait 
 
 (_ on somebody. 
 Une garde, S"«"r S e (for S ick 
 
 b ' I persons). 
 La greffe, the graft. 
 
 {the mouth (of a 
 dog, cat, &c.) 
 La halle, a market-hall. 
 
 of some- Une huitieme, XVIT™™^ 
 thing. 
 
 a book. Une livre, 
 
 a sort of hat. Une loutre, 
 
 •I 
 
 a life-guard. 
 
 the Rolls, 
 the Gides (in 
 
 Heraldry), 
 drying weather. 
 
 La gueule, 
 
 Un manoeuvre, a labourer. 
 
 Un manche, 
 
 Unme- 1 
 
 moire, J 
 
 Un Mestre 
 
 a handle 
 
 \ 
 
 bill, memoir, 
 memorial. 
 
 Une ma- 
 noeuvre, 
 
 Une manche, 
 La Manche, 
 Une bonne me- 
 moire, 
 
 \ cards at piquet. 
 
 a pound. 
 
 an otter. 
 
 the working 
 
 of a ship ; 
 
 also secret 
 
 practices in 
 
 an affair. 
 
 a sleeve. 
 
 the Channel, 
 
 1 a good me- 
 
 j mory. 
 
 
 e laColonelof horse, ^^elthejlrstcompam/o/ 
 decamp, J J decamp,) a regiment oj horse. 
 
 Un mode, a mood, modality. Une mode, a fashion. 
 
 Un mole, a mole, a pier. Une mole, \ $ P an y> 
 
 1 ' r ' I moon-calf. 
 
 Un moule, a mould (to cast). Une moule, j a m ™ le (a slidl ' 
 
 Un mousse, a ship-boy. De la mousse, moss. 
 
 Un bon office, a good turn. "} 
 
 L'office divin, the divine service. >Une Office, a buttery. 
 
 Le St. Office, the Inquisition. ) 
 
 L'hombre, ombre (a card-game). Une ombre, a shade, shadow 
 
 Un page, a page. Une page, a page of a book 
 
and feminine in another 
 
 447 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Un palme, a hand's breadth. 
 
 Un parallele, a comparison. 
 
 odel 
 
 *ur. >pitch, 
 
 ), ) 
 
 a pendulum, 
 summit, end. 
 
 Un pendule, 
 Le periode 
 
 (infigi 
 
 sense), 
 
 Un pique, a spade (at cards). 
 
 Un pivoine, a gnat-snapper. 
 
 Un poele, a stove. 
 
 Une plane, or 7 i * 
 
 -. \ ' > a plane-tree. 
 platane, j r 
 
 Le Ponte, Ponto. 
 
 purples, (a sort 
 istemper 
 violent 
 fever), 
 the sign or sound, 
 Le reclame,^ to call back a 
 
 Le pourpre^ 
 
 C purples, { 
 
 j of dh 
 ' j with a 
 
 (. fever). 
 
 C the sign oi 
 ,< to call 
 
 t hawk. 
 
 Un Satyre, 
 Un somme, 
 Un souris, 
 
 Le temple, 
 
 a sylvan god. 
 
 a nap. 
 
 a smile. 
 
 the church. 
 
 Un triomphe, a triumph. 
 
 Un trompette, a trumpeter. 
 Un voile, a veil. 
 
 Un tour, a turn, a trick, tour. 
 Un teneur de 1 a book- 
 
 livres, 3 keeper. 
 
 Un vase, 
 
 ajar, 
 
 a vessel. 
 
 Le grand lthe philosopher's 
 oeuvre, j stone. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 T t 1 C a branch of a 
 
 tine palme, 1 7 . J 
 
 r ' I palm-tree. 
 
 Une parallele, a parallel-line. 
 
 Une pendule, a clock. 
 
 r a revolution, 
 Une periode,^ epocha ; period 
 
 [ (in a speech). 
 
 Une "pique, a pike. 
 
 La pivoine, peony. 
 
 Une poele, o frying pan. 
 
 TT t (a plane (instru- 
 
 Une plane, 1 r , \ . . , x 
 r ' I merit oj steel). 
 
 Laposte, \^ post-boy, or t he 
 r ' I post-office, due. 
 
 La ponte (des oiseaux), ) 
 
 v /-) egg. 
 
 f Me purple-colour, 
 
 LapourpreX also Me 7war& 0/ 
 
 (. cardinalship, 8cc. 
 
 f Me catch-word at 
 La reclame,-? Me bottom of 
 
 t « page. 
 Une satire, a lampoon, satire. 
 Une somme, a s?i/«. 
 
 Une souris ? « mouse. 
 
 r {called by some peo- 
 
 \ple I'd temple, but 
 Latempe,J very improperly), 
 
 I the temple of the 
 
 \head. 
 Une triomphe, trump at cards. 
 Une trompette, a trumpet. 
 
 Une voile, a sail. 
 
 Une tour, a tower. 
 
 La teneur ") the tenor or con- 
 d'un acte, 3 tents of a writing. 
 La vase, mud or mire. 
 
 Une bonne 1 a good 
 
 oeuvre, 3 deed. 
 
448 
 
 Names applied to both Sexes. 
 
 XIII. A List of Names that have aho their Feminine Gender, be- 
 cause they are applied to both Sexes , and are Nouns, but improperly. 
 They, for the most part, follow the Rules of Adnouns, adding only 
 e to the final letter of their Masculine, or doubling its last Conso- 
 nant before e. 
 
 Masc. Gender. 
 
 Dieu, God, 
 
 Roi, King, 
 
 Empereur, Emperor, 
 
 Sultan, Sultan. 
 
 Prince, Prince, 
 
 Due, Duke, 
 
 Comte, Count, Earl, 
 
 Baron, Baron, 
 
 Marquis, Marquis, 
 Ambassadeur, Ambassador, 
 
 Electeur, Elector, 
 
 Regent, Regent, 
 
 Marie, the Bridegroom, 
 
 Epoux, Spouse, 
 
 Mari, Husband, 
 
 Pere, Father, 
 
 Frere, Brother, 
 
 Fils, Son, 
 
 A'ieul, Grandfather, 
 
 Cousin, He-Cousin, 
 
 Cousin germ2an,He-first Cousin, 
 
 Neveu, Nephew, 
 
 Parrain, Godfather, 
 
 Filleul, God-son, 
 Parent, Relation, Kinsman, 
 
 Allie, Kin, 
 
 Jumeau, a Twin, 
 
 Ami, a Friend, 
 
 Compagnon, a He-companion, 
 
 Mignon, Darling, 
 
 Compere, a He-Gossip, 
 
 Voisin, a He-Neighbour, 
 
 Hote, Landlord, 
 
 Hentier, an Heir, 
 
 Fern. Gender. 
 
 Deesse, Goddess. 
 
 Reiue, Queen. 
 
 Imperatiice, Empress. 
 
 Sultane, Sultana. 
 
 Princesse, Princess. 
 
 Duchesse, Duchess. 
 
 Comtesse, Countess. 
 
 Baronne, Baroness. 
 
 Marquise, Marchioness. 
 
 Ambassadrice, his Lady. 
 
 Electrice Electress (his Lady). 
 
 Regente, Regent. 
 
 Mariee, the Bride. 
 
 Epouse, Consort. 
 
 Femme, Wife. 
 
 Mere, Motlier. 
 
 Sceur, Sister. 
 
 Fille, Daughter. 
 
 Ai'eule, Grandmother. 
 
 Cousine, She-Cousin. 
 
 n • S She-first 
 Cousmegermaine, ( Coj ^ 8 
 
 Niece, Niece. 
 
 Marraine, God-mother. 
 
 Filleule, God-daughter. 
 
 Parente, Kinswoman. 
 
 Alliee, Kin. 
 
 Jumelle, a Twin. 
 
 Amie, a She-Friend. 
 
 Compagne, a She-Companion. 
 
 Mignonne, Darling. 
 
 Commere, a She-Gossip. 
 
 Voisine, a She-Neighbour. 
 
 Hotesse, Landlady. 
 
 Heritiere, an Heiress. 
 
and formed like Adnouns, 
 
 449 
 
 Masc. 
 Veuf, 
 Orphelin, 
 Maitre, 
 Serviteur, 
 Gouverneur, 
 Tuteur, 
 Ecolier, 
 un Pupille, 
 un Apprenti, 
 Batard, 
 Curateur, 
 Protecteur, 
 Bienfaiteur, 
 Mediateur, 
 Testateur, 
 Conservateur, 
 Moteur, 
 iDebiteur, 
 Demandeur, 
 Defendeur, 
 Abbe, 
 Prieur, 
 Pretre, 
 Religieux, 
 Un Profes, a 
 
 Lecteur, 
 
 Gender. 
 
 a Widower, 
 
 an Orphan, 
 
 Master, 
 
 Servant, 
 
 Governor, 
 
 He-Guardian, 
 
 a He-Scholar, 
 
 a He- Pupil, 
 
 a Prentice, 
 
 a He-Bastard, 
 
 a Trustee, 
 
 Protector, 
 
 Benefactor, 
 
 Mediator, 
 
 Testator, 
 
 Conservator, 
 
 Mover, 
 
 Debtor, 
 
 Plaintiff, 
 
 Defendant, 
 
 Abbot, 
 
 Prior, 
 
 a Priest, 
 
 a Friar, 
 
 professed Monk, 
 
 Fern. 
 Veuve, 
 Orpheline, 
 Maitresse, 
 Servante, 
 Gouvernante, 
 Tutrice, 
 Ecoliere, 
 une Pupille, 
 
 Gender. 
 
 a Widow. 
 
 a She-Orpimn, 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 Servant. 
 
 Governess. 
 
 She-Guardian, 
 
 a She-Scholar. 
 
 a She-Pupil, 
 
 une Apprentie, a Prentice-Girl. 
 
 a She-Bastard 
 
 a She-Trustee, 
 
 Protectrix. 
 
 Benefactress. 
 
 Mediatrix. 
 
 Testatrix, 
 
 Conservatrix, 
 
 Motive. 
 
 Reader, Lectrice, 
 
 Batarde, 
 
 Curatrice, 
 
 Protectrice, 
 
 Bienfaitrice, 
 
 Me.diatrice, 
 
 Testatrice, 
 
 Conservatrice*, 
 
 Mo trice*, 
 
 Debitrice, a Woman-Debtor. 
 
 Demanderesse, 1 T m 
 t^/, | ' y Law Terms, 
 
 JDefenderesse, ) 
 
 Abbesse, Abbess. 
 
 the Prior Nun. 
 
 Priestess, 
 
 a Nun. 
 
 a profess' d Nun. 
 
 S{said onlyoftheNun 
 who reads while the 
 Nuns are at dinner 
 or supper. 
 Nun who keep* 
 the door. 
 
 a She-Canon. 
 
 Prieure, 
 Pretresse, 
 Religieuse, 
 Professe, 
 
 Portier, Porter, Portiere, < 
 
 C'hanoine, a Canon, Chanoinesse, 
 
 Pecheur, Sinner, Pecheresse, She-Sinner. 
 
 Vengeur, Avenger, Vengeresse, She-Avenger, 
 
 Flatteur, a Flatterer, Flatteuse, She-Flatterer, 
 
 Enchanteur, Bewitcher, Enchanteresse, Enchantress. 
 
 Acteur, an Actor, Actrice, Actriss, 
 
 Comedien, a Comedian, Comedienne, a She-Comedian, 
 
 Berger, a Shepherd, Bergere, a Shepherdess, 
 
 un Paysan, a Countryman, une Paysanne, a Country-Girl. 
 
 * Used only in these technical expressions, Facult€ conservatrice, The con- 
 servatrix faculty ; Vertu motrice, The motive virtue. 
 
450 
 
 Adjectives iised substantively. 
 
 Masc. Gender. 
 
 Chien, a Dog, 
 
 Lion, a Lion, 
 
 Tigre, a Tiger, 
 
 L.evrier, a Greyhound, 
 
 un Chat, a Cat, 
 
 Ivrogne, a Drunken Man, 
 
 ^ j C a short thick- 
 
 iyourtaud, < , 
 
 ' t set man. 
 
 Noiraild, one of a black complexion. 
 
 L.ourdaud, an aukward fellow, 
 Menteur, 
 Traltre, 
 
 a Lit 
 
 a Traitor, 
 a Rascal, a Rogue, 
 a Knave, 
 Prisonnier, a Prisonner, 
 
 Marchand, a Merchant, 
 
 Cuisinier, a man-cook, 
 
 Coquin, \ 
 
 Fern. Gender. 
 Chienne, a Bitch 
 
 Lionne, a Lioness 
 
 Tigresse, a Tigress. 
 
 Levrette, a Greyhound-Bitch 
 une Chatte, a She-Cat. 
 
 Ivrognesse, a drunken Woman. 
 
 Cotvrtaude, \ a sh0rt thick - set 
 7 I woman. 
 
 Noiraude, 
 
 Lourdaude, an aukward wench 
 
 Menteuse, a She-Liar, 
 
 Traitresse, a She-Traitor. 
 
 Coquine { 5 j£gg£ 
 
 Prisonniere, a She-Prisonner. 
 Marchande, aShopkeeperwoman 
 Cuisiniere, a maid-cook. 
 
 Names of Women, that sell any thing in Shops, take a feminine 
 Termination in this manner : 
 
 Boulanger, 
 
 Meunier, 
 
 Fruitier, 
 
 V end eur, 
 
 Faiseur, 
 
 Ouvrier, 
 
 a Baker, 
 a Miller, 
 Fruiterer, 
 any Seller, 
 any Workman. 
 or Tradesman, 
 
 Boulangere. 
 
 Meiiniere. 
 
 Fruitiere. 
 
 Vendeuse. 
 
 Faiseuse. 
 
 Ouvriere, &c. 
 
 Temoin a Witness, Auteur an Author, and Poete a Poet, are 
 said of both men and women. Possesseur Possessor, and Succes- 
 seur Successor, are never said of women ; but we say : Inven- 
 teur or lnventrice Inventor. 
 
 More, a Black-moor, makes also Moresque ; and 
 Suisse,' a Swiss, Suissesse ; though we say also Penser a la 
 Suisse, To think on nothing. 
 
 § XIV. A List of Adnouns used substantively, but which cannot 
 stand by themselves in English, without a "Noun, such as Man, 
 Woman, Ft How, or some such Word, or are englished by 
 Nouns, or a Periphrasis. 
 
 Un aban- 
 donne, 
 
 \ a lewd profligate 
 j fellow. 
 
 Une aban 
 donnee 
 
 :Y 
 
 lewd loose wo- 
 
 man* 
 
Adjectives used substantive fu. 
 
 4;, I 
 
 L'accessoire, what is accessary. 
 L'accidentel, what is accidental. 
 
 Une accouchee, < 7 -J\ ai 
 
 Un avorton, 
 
 L'agreable, 
 
 L'essentiel, 
 
 L'utile, 
 
 L'honnete, 
 
 bed. 
 
 an abortive child. 
 
 agreeableness. 
 
 the main thing. 
 
 usefulness. 
 
 what is honest. 
 
 L'accusej-ee, the party accused. 
 Un affran- 1 one that of bond is 
 
 chi,-ie, 3 made free. 
 Unaudacieux, 7 a daring rash 
 
 -euse, 3 man or woman. 
 
 Un barbare, a barbarous man. 
 
 C what is fairest, best 
 
 Lebeau,< in any thing, excel- 
 
 L lency, &e. 
 Le beau & Fef- 1 the fair and 
 
 froyable, 
 Une belle, 
 Les belles, 
 Le bon, 
 
 Brailleur, 
 -euse, 
 
 3 the foul, 
 a fair one. 
 the fair sex. 
 zchat is good, 
 noisy, obstrepe- 
 rous fellow ; a 
 bawling noisy 
 zcoman. 
 
 the brilliancy. 
 
 something burnt. 
 
 a guest. 
 
 ', whimsical man 
 
 Le brillant, 
 
 Le brule, 
 
 Un convi6, 
 
 Capricieux, 1 
 
 -euse, 3 or zcoman, 
 
 Delieat,-cate, a nice person. 
 
 Un desespere, 1 a desperate man 
 
 -ee, 3 or woman. 
 
 TT ,,. • / C a resolute des- 
 Un determine, < . r 77 
 
 7 I peratejellow. 
 
 Un d£vot, i a religious man or 
 
 -ote, 3 woman. 
 
 Un elu, les elus, an elect, the elect 
 
 Un entete, 
 -ee. 
 
 an obstinate per- 
 son. 
 
 Cto act the an- 
 
 Faire le fache, j gry person, to 
 
 -la fiichee, j pretend to be 
 
 I angry. 
 Le faux, what is false. 
 
 Le fort •[ ^ ie stron E est V art °f a 
 ' \ thing. 
 
 Le foible,Me weak side of a thing. 
 
 Les foibles, the feeble minded. 
 
 Le gras, the fat. 
 
 Lemaigre, the lean. 
 
 Un galeux, la scabby man or 
 
 -euse, 3 woman. 
 Un ignorant, an ignorant fellow: 
 Imprudent,-te, a foolish fellow. 
 Un impudent, ") an impudent 
 
 -te, 3 fellozc or slut. 
 
 j r ("a lewd man or 
 
 Impud.que, j Kfl;naw 
 
 Incommode, a troublesome person. 
 an impertinent 
 coxcomb, or 
 slut. 
 
 Impertinent,- 
 Importun 
 
 mVte,^ 
 re, I 
 
 TT - f an unknot? n per- 
 
 Un inconnu, < m r 
 
 7 I son. 
 
 Un incr6dule, an unbeliever. 
 
 Un iudis- Ian indiscreet man 
 
 cret,-ette, .3 or woman. 
 
 Un, une in- 1 an infamous per- 
 
 fame, 3 son. 
 
 Un ingrat, 1 an ungrateful 
 
 ■te, 
 
 zcretch. 
 
 Un innocent, 1 an innocent, a 
 -te, 3 silly person. 
 
 a mad person, 
 saucy pei 
 
 \ • 
 
 son. 
 
 Un insense,ee, 
 
 Un insolent, 
 
 -te, 
 
 T ,. . / • C the inzcard part 
 
 Linteneur, j of a tMn * 
 
 Un lenitif, 
 L'exterieur 
 
 R 
 
 a lenitive. 
 Cthe outward part 
 ,< of a thing, the 
 t outside. 
 
452 
 
 Adjectives used substantively. 
 
 Un malheureux,-euse, a zsretch. 
 La mariee, the bride. 
 
 Un, une mi-") a pitiful good for 
 
 serable, J nothing wretch. 
 Un mechant, 7 a naughty per- 
 
 -ante, j son. 
 
 Un malotru, a sad soul. 
 
 Le merveil- 1 what is wonderful 
 
 leux, ) in any thing. 
 
 T , S necessaries, a 
 
 L,e necessaire, < . 3 
 
 7 I competency. 
 
 tt l 4.- t ' V an obstinate 
 Unobstme-ee, -; 
 
 ' I person. 
 
 Le possible, what is possible. 
 
 Le principal, the principal. 
 
 Un preservatif, a preservative. 
 
 Un purgatif, a purgative, 
 
 Un orgueil- 1 a proud, haughty 
 
 leux,-euse, ) person. 
 L'impossible, impossibilities. 
 Une prude, a prude. 
 
 Les predes- 1 those that are pre- 
 
 tines, 3 destinated. 
 
 Le reel, the reality. 
 
 Un refait, a draw-game. 
 
 U, c . • C a refractory 
 n refractaire, < J J 
 
 1 I person. 
 
 TT -j- i S a ridiculous 
 
 Un, une ridicule, < 
 
 ' ' I person. 
 
 c that which is su- 
 Le superfliw perfluous; su- 
 (_ perfluity. 
 
 Le sec, the dry 
 
 L'humide, the moist. 
 
 Le froid, the cold. 
 
 Le chaud, the hot. 
 
 Un sumsant,« conceited coxcomb. 
 
 (the comical part 
 Le comique,< of a thing or 
 
 t stojy. 
 Le tragique, the tragical part, 
 
 C a competency; 
 Letemporel,< the temporalities 
 
 t of the Church. 
 
 C a cunning, sly 
 Un ruse-ee, < man or woman, 
 
 (_ a sharp blade. 
 
 Sanguin,-ine, j "f ammuhu 
 
 ° ' 7 I constitution. 
 Un sensuel, a voluptuous person. 
 Un 
 
 a zmse man. 
 
 the lofty style. 
 
 zvhat is solid. 
 
 a superstitious 
 
 man or woman. 
 
 an extraordinary 
 
 case. 
 
 extreme. 
 Untune temeraire, arash person. 
 Le taillant, 1 th d 
 
 Le tranchant, j 
 Le vif, the quick. 
 
 Un vide, an empty place. 
 
 Le vrai, what is true, 
 
 sage, 
 Le sublime, 
 Le solide, 
 Un supersti- \ 
 
 tieux,-euse, j 
 Un extraor- 7 
 
 dinaire, J 
 L'extreme, 
 
 Besides adjectives of Natio?is, as, un Anglois, an English man ; 
 une Francoise, a French woman, &c. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Le vrai ou le faux d'une chose ; The truth ox falsehood of something 
 Tenter l'impossible ; To attempt impossibilities. 
 
 Joindre l'agreable a Futile ; To join profit to pleasure. 
 C'est une orgueilleuse ; She is a proud creature, &c. 
 
Adjectives used substantively. 
 
 453 
 
 Moreover, some words are both adnouns and nouns together, 
 such as adultere, chagrin, colere, sacrilege, politique : as, Com- 
 mettre un adultere, to commit an adultery ; unefemme adultere, 
 an adulteress; le chagrin, grief; un homme chagrin, a morose, 
 peevish man : un homme colere, a passionate man ; la colere de 
 Dieu, the wrath of God, 
 
 § XV. A List of Nouns masculine ending in e not sounded. 
 
 Abordage, \ 
 
 the boarding of a 
 ship. 
 
 Ancetres, 
 Ancrage, 
 
 ancestors, 
 anchorage. 
 
 A by me, 
 
 an abyss. 
 
 Ange, 
 
 an angel. 
 
 Accessoire, 
 
 accessary. 
 
 Archange, 
 
 an archangel. 
 
 Acrostiche, 
 
 an acrostick 
 
 Angle, 
 
 a?? angle. 
 
 Acte, 
 
 deed, an act. 
 
 Anniversaire, 
 
 anniversary. 
 
 Adminicule, 
 
 an aid. 
 
 Anonyme, 
 
 anonymous. 
 
 Adverbe, 
 
 an adverb. 
 
 Anthropophag 
 
 ;e, a man-eater. 
 
 Adultere, 
 
 adultery. 
 
 Antidote, 
 
 an antidote. 
 
 c 
 
 the assize, or 
 
 Antimoine, 
 
 antimony. 
 
 Afforage, < 
 
 price of a com- 
 
 Antipodes, 
 
 Antipodes. 
 
 modity, set by a 
 
 Antre, 
 
 a den, a cave. 
 
 ( 
 
 magistrate. 
 
 Aoriste, 
 
 an aorist. 
 
 Age, 
 
 age. 
 
 Aphthes, 
 
 aphtha. 
 
 Agapes, 
 
 love-feasts. 
 
 Appanage, 
 
 appendage. 
 
 Aggrave, j 
 
 a threatening 
 
 Apogee, 
 
 apogeon. 
 
 monitory. 
 
 Apologue, 
 
 apologue* 
 
 Agiotage, 
 
 stock-jobbing. 
 an eagle. 
 
 Apophthegme 
 
 , apophthegm . 
 
 Aigle, 
 
 Aposeme, 
 
 an apozem* 
 
 Albatre, 
 
 alabaster. 
 
 Apostheme, 
 
 an imposthume. 
 
 Alliage, 
 
 mixture. 
 
 Apotre, 
 
 an apostle. 
 
 Alveole, \ 
 
 hole in the honey- 
 
 Apothicaire, 
 
 an apothecary. 
 
 comb, a socket. 
 
 Arbitrage, 
 
 an arbitration. 
 
 Amble, 
 
 amble, or pace. 
 
 Arbitre, 
 
 Umpire or Will. 
 
 Ambre, 
 
 amber. 
 
 Arbre, 
 
 a tree* 
 
 Amphitheatre 
 
 f an amphi- 
 7 X theatre. 
 
 Arbustc, 
 Archetype, 
 
 a shrub* 
 archetype. 
 
 Anglicisme, 
 
 an anglicism. 
 
 Argue, j 
 
 machine to wire- 
 
 Anachronisme 
 
 , anachronism. 
 
 draw g;old. 
 
 Anatheme, 
 
 anathema. 
 
 Aromate* sweet smelling herb 
 
454 
 
 Nouns Masculine enditig in e mute. 
 
 Arpentage, the survey of lands. 
 Arrerages, arrears. 
 
 Article, an article. 
 
 Artifice, artifice, trick. 
 
 Arrhes, earnest penny. 
 
 Ane, an ass. 
 
 Asterisme, an asterism. 
 
 Asterisque, an asterisk. 
 
 Asthme, an asthma. 
 
 Astragale, astragal. 
 
 Astre, a star. 
 
 Astrolabe, an astrolabe. 
 
 Asyle, asylum, a sanctuary. 
 Attelage, a set of coach-horses. 
 Atterage, landing. 
 
 Atre, the hmrth in a chimney. 
 f a duty which the hang- 
 Avage,< man has in some places 
 
 % t every market-day. 
 Avantage, an advantage. 
 
 Auditohe, { — Sf "' 
 
 Augure, an augury, omen. 
 
 Aune, an elders-tree. 
 
 Aunage, measuring by ells. 
 
 Auspice, auspice. 
 
 Automate, an automaton. 
 
 Axe, an axis, axle-tree. 
 
 Axiome, an axiom. 
 
 Azyroes, azymes. 
 
 Badinage, wantonness. 
 
 Bagage, baggage, goods, 
 
 Ballustre, balluster, rails. 
 
 Bandage, a truss, ligature. 
 
 Barbouillage, dawbing. 
 Barrage, a duty for passing toll. 
 
 Bapteme, a christening. 
 
 Bintistere I a cert lfi cate out °f 
 l^aptistere, j ac ] mrc h-book. 
 
 Baume, balsam. 
 
 Ben6fice, a living, benefit. 
 
 Beurre, butter. 
 
 Blaine, blame. 
 
 Blaspheme, a blasphemy. 
 
 Bievre, a beaver. 
 
 Billonage, the debasing the coin. 
 Bitume, bitumen. 
 
 Blocage, rubbislu 
 
 Bocage, a grove. 
 
 Bordage,£fo side planks of a ship. 
 Bouge, a closet, a little room. 
 Bousillage, mud-walling. 
 
 Branchage, branches. 
 
 Branle, motion or dance. 
 
 Brassage, the coining of money. 
 Breviaire, breviary. 
 
 Breuvage, a potion, a draught. 
 Bronze, cast copper. 
 
 Buffle, a buffalo, a wild ox. 
 Busque, a busk. 
 
 Buste, a bust. 
 
 Cable, a cable. 
 
 Cadavre, a corpse. 
 
 Cadre, a frame. 
 
 CaducSe, \ Cflrf ™' M f 
 1 L curys wand. 
 
 Caique, galley-boat. 
 
 Calibre, kind, size. 
 
 Calice, chalice. 
 
 Calme, calm. 
 
 Calvaire, a hill's name. 
 
 Camphre, camphire, 
 
 Cancre, a crab-fish. 
 
 Cantique, a spiritual song. 
 
 Capitole, the capitol. 
 
 Capitulaire, capitidar. 
 
 Caprice, a caprice, whim. 
 
 Capricorne the Capricorn. 
 
 Capuce, a cowl. 
 
 Caractere, a character 
 
 Careme, Lent. 
 
 Carenage, a careening-place. 
 
Nouns Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 455 
 
 Carnage, slaughter. 
 
 Carrelage , the paving of a room. 
 Carrosse, a coach. 
 
 Cartilage, a cartilage. 
 
 Cartouche, a cartridge. 
 
 Cartulaire, S register-book of 
 
 7 I a monastery. 
 Casque, a helmet. 
 
 Catafalque, \ a c . ata { alk (us f 
 ^ ' I in obsequies). 
 
 Catalogue, a catalogue, list. 
 
 n 4. i $ <* cataplasm, a 
 
 Cataplasme, •£ poultice. 
 
 Catarre, a catarrh. 
 
 Catechisme, a catechism. 
 
 Cautere, a cautery. 
 
 Cedre, a cedar-tree. 
 
 Centre, the centre. 
 
 Cenacle, a cenacle. 
 
 Cenotaphe, a cenotaph. 
 
 Centaure, a centaur. 
 
 Centuple, a hundred fold. 
 
 Cercle, a circle. 
 
 r> c a circle blaek and blue 
 
 under the eye. 
 
 Ceste, 
 
 a 
 
 cestus. 
 
 Cbambranle, \ **™f*fk« 
 9 1 of a chimney. 
 
 Chancie, 
 
 Change, 
 
 Chanvre, 
 
 Chapitre, 
 
 Chariage, 
 
 a shanker. 
 exchange, 
 hemp, 
 a chapter, 
 the carriage. 
 
 Channe, charm, hornbeam, 
 Charnage, flesh-time. 
 
 Chauffage, fuel. 
 
 Chaume, stubble. 
 
 Chene, an oak. 
 
 Chevre-feuille, honey-suckle. 
 Chef-d'oeuvre, a master-piece. 
 Chiffre, a cypher. 
 
 Chreme, chrism. 
 
 R 
 
 Chyle, 
 Chomage, 
 
 chyle* 
 rest. 
 
 Ciboire, 
 Cidre, 
 
 pyx, a cup, 
 cider. 
 
 Cierge, 
 
 a wax-taper. 
 
 Cygne, 
 Cilice, 
 
 a swan, 
 hair-cloth. 
 
 Cylindre, 
 Cimeterre, 
 
 a cylinder, 
 a cimeter. 
 
 Cimetiere, 
 Cinabre, 
 
 a church-yard, 
 cinabar. 
 
 Cinnamome, 
 
 cinnamon-tree. 
 
 Cinquieme, 
 Cintre, 
 
 the fifth part, 
 an arch. 
 
 Cippe, (a term of architecture). 
 Cirage, the waxing of a thing. 
 Ciroene, a sear-cloth. 
 
 Circonflexe, circumflex. 
 
 Cirque, circus. 
 
 Cistre, a sistrum. 
 
 Clystere, a clyster. 
 
 Cloaque, a common\sewer. 
 
 Cloitre, a cloister. 
 
 Cloporte, a wood-louse. 
 
 Coche, a caravan. 
 
 Coae, the code. 
 
 Codicile, a codicil. 
 
 Coftre, a trunk. 
 
 Collyre, a collyrium. 
 
 College, a college. 
 
 Collegue, copartner in an office, 
 Colloque, a conference. 
 
 Comble, the top of a thing. 
 Colosse, a colossus. 
 
 Colure, cohere. 
 
 Commerce, commerce, trade. 
 Conclave, the conclave. 
 
 Concile, a council. 
 
 Conciliabule, a conventicle. 
 Concombre, a cucumber. 
 
 Concubinage, concubinage. 
 
 Cone, a cone. 
 
 r2 
 
456 
 
 Nouns Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 Congre, a conger. 
 
 Comte, a Gount, earl. 
 
 Compte, an account, reckoning. 
 Conte, a story, tale. 
 
 Contraire, contrary. 
 
 Contraste, contrast, opposite. 
 Contre-ordre, counter-order. 
 Controle, a register-book, a roll. 
 Conventicule, conventicle. 
 
 Corpuscule, a corpuscle. 
 
 Cortege, a train or retinue. 
 Coryphee, Coripheus, the chief. 
 Corollaire, a corollary. 
 
 Cothume, a buskin. 
 
 Courage, courage. 
 
 Coude, the elbow. 
 
 Couvercle, a lid. 
 
 Crepuscule, the tzvilight. 
 
 Crible, a sieve. 
 
 Cube, a cube. 
 
 Cuivre, copper. 
 
 Culte, worship. 
 
 Coutre, coulter. 
 
 Cr&ne, a skull. 
 
 Cr&pe, a crape. 
 
 Crime, a crime. 
 
 Crocodile, a crocodile. 
 
 Cycle, cycle. 
 
 Dactyle, a dactil. 
 
 I)6boire, grief a choak-pear. 
 Decalogue, the decalogue. 
 
 Decagone, a decagon. 
 
 Dedale, a maze. 
 
 Decombres, rubbish. 
 
 D6compte, discounting. 
 
 Definitoire, a chapter in a con- 
 Decuple, tenfold, [gregation. 
 Delire, delirium. 
 
 Delivre, the secundine. 
 
 Deluge, aflood. 
 
 D6me>ite, demerit. 
 
 Denticules dentelli. 
 
 Dentifrice, dentifrice 
 
 Depilatoire, depilatory. 
 
 Derriere, the back-siite. 
 
 D6sastre, the disaster. 
 
 D6savantage, a disadvantage. 
 
 Desordre, a disorder. 
 
 Di&ble, devil 
 
 Diademe, a diadem. 
 
 Diagnostique, diagnostic. 
 
 Dialecte, dialect. 
 
 Dialogue, a dialogue. 
 
 Diametre, the diameter. 
 
 Diaphragme, the diaphragm. 
 
 Dicta me, garden-ginger. 
 
 Diese, a sharp, diesis. 
 
 Digeste, digest. 
 
 Diocese, a diocese. 
 
 Disque, disk, ti quoit. 
 
 Distique, a distich. 
 
 Dictionnaire, a dictionary. 
 
 Dimanche, Sunday. 
 
 Dileme, a dilemma. 
 
 Dimissoire, a dimissory. 
 Dire, and oui-dire, a hearsay. 
 
 Dividende, a dividend. 
 
 Divorce, divorce. 
 
 Dogme, a dogma. 
 
 Dogue, a mastiff-dog. 
 
 Domaine, domain. 
 Domicile, abode,dwelling-place. 
 
 Dommage, a damage. 
 
 Douaire, a dowry. 
 
 Double, a double. 
 
 Doute, a doubt. 
 
 Dromadaire, a dromedary. 
 
 Echange, exchange. 
 
 Ecoufle, a pidtock 
 
 Edifice, an edifice 
 
 Ellebore, hellebore. 
 Eloge, eulogy, encomium. 
 
 Emetique, emetick. 
 
 Empire, an empire 
 
Nouns Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 457 
 
 Empyree, the highest heaven. 
 l£ntrecoloime,i?itercolumniation 
 Enthousiasme, enthusiasm . 
 
 Entr'acte, an interlude. 
 
 Epiderme, epidermis. 
 
 Epididyme, Epididymis. 
 
 Epigastre, epigastrium. 
 
 Epilogue, an epilogue. 
 
 Episode, an episode. 
 
 Epithalame, epithalamium. 
 
 Epitheme, epithema. 
 
 Epitome, an epitome. 
 
 Equilibre, equilibrium. 
 
 Equipage, an equipage. 
 
 Equinoxe, equinox. 
 
 Esciandre, a bustle. 
 
 Esclavage, slavery. 
 
 Escompte, discount. 
 
 Esophage, oesophagus. 
 
 Espace, space. 
 
 Etage, a story. 
 
 Etalage, stallage, sample. 
 
 Etre, a being. 
 
 Evangile, the gospel. 
 
 Exemple, a pattern. 
 
 Exemplaire, a copy. 
 
 Exergue, the exergue of a medal. 
 Exercice, an exercise. 
 
 Exorde, an exordium. 
 
 Exode, Exodus. 
 
 Exorcisme, exorcism. 
 
 S extraordinary 
 " re 'l case. * 
 Extreme, an extreme, 
 
 Faite, the top, height of a thing. 
 Fanage, hay-making. 
 
 Fantome, a phantom. 
 
 Fare ] f are » li g ht - house > < a 
 ' \ watch-tozver). 
 
 Fascinage, fascine-work. 
 
 Faste, ostentation. 
 
 Extraordinaire, 
 
 Fastes, the Roman calendar, 
 Fauchage, mozeing. 
 
 Fenetrage, the windozcs. 
 
 Fermage, farm-rent. 
 
 Feurre, straw. 
 
 Feutre, felt, a scurvy hat. 
 
 Fiacre, a hackney-coach. 
 
 Fifre, a ff e or flute. 
 
 Filage, spinning. 
 
 Filigrane, flligree. 
 
 Filtre, charm, love-potion. 
 
 -p- C the extent or liberties 
 
 ° L of a jurisdiction. 
 Flegme, phlegm. 
 
 Fieuve, a great river. 
 
 Foible, a weak side. 
 
 Foie, the liver. 
 
 Fossile, fossil. 
 
 Follicule, follicle. 
 
 Formulaire, a form, 
 
 Fouage, hearth-money. 
 
 Fourrage, fodder, forage,. 
 
 Frene, an ash-tree. 
 
 Fromage, cheese. 
 
 Frontispice, frontispiece. 
 
 Gage, pledge. 
 
 p <y S (only in the plural) 
 
 ° e ' X salary, wages. 
 Gallicisme, Gallicis-m, 
 
 Genievre, juniper-berry. 
 
 Genie, genius. 
 
 Genre, kind, gender, genius:, 
 Germe, sperm, germe^ 
 
 Geste, gesture, actiort, 
 
 Gingembre, ginger 
 
 Girofle, clove. 
 
 Gite, a dwelling-place, 
 
 Glaire, the white of an egg. 
 
 Glaive, a swoi-d. 
 
 Globe, a globe. 
 
 Globule, a globule. 
 
458 
 
 Nouns Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 Glossaire, a glossary. 
 
 Golfe, a gulph. 
 Gouffre, whirlpool, swallow. 
 
 Grade, a degree. 
 
 Greffe, the rolls. 
 
 Grimoire- a conjuring book. 
 
 Groupe, a group. 
 
 Hale, drying weather. 
 Haut-de-chausse, small-clothes. 
 
 Havre, haven. 
 
 Heliotrope, a turnsol. 
 
 Hemisphere, an hemisphere. 
 
 Hemistiche, hemistich. 
 
 Hermitage, an hermitage. 
 
 Hetre, a beech-tree. 
 Hieroglyphe, hieroglyphick. 
 
 Hippogriffe, hippogriff. 
 
 Holocauste, a burnt-offering. 
 
 Hombre, Humber. 
 
 Homicide, a murder. 
 
 Hommage, a homage. 
 
 Horoseope, a horoscope. 
 
 Homme, a man. 
 
 Hongre, a gelding. 
 
 Hospice, an hospital. 
 
 Hote, a landlord. 
 
 Huiti^me, the eighth part. 
 Jzde,agreen sort of precious stone 
 
 Jambage, jambs, stroke. 
 
 Jaune, the yolk ef an egg. 
 
 Jaspe, jasper. 
 
 Jeune, a fast. 
 
 j I C a Julio (an Italian 
 
 3 I five pence). 
 
 Iambe, an Iambick verse. 
 
 Incendie, a conflagration. 
 
 Indice, a sign. 
 
 In-douze, in twelve. 
 
 In-seize in sixteen. 
 
 Inceste an incest. 
 
 Incube an iticubus. 
 
 an insect 
 
 interloper. 
 
 an interlude. 
 
 an interreign. 
 
 o 
 
 Insecte, 
 Interlope, 
 Intermede, 
 Interregne> 
 
 Interstice, an interval of time. 
 
 Intervalle, an interval. 
 
 Inventaire, an inventory. 
 
 Isthme, isthmws. 
 
 Itineraire, an itinerary. 
 
 Laboratoire, a laboratory. 
 
 Labourage, tillage. 
 
 Labyrinthe, a labyrinth. 
 
 Langage, a language. 
 
 Langes, swaddling-clothes. 
 
 Lavage, a waslmig. 
 
 Legiste, a civilian. 
 
 Legume, pulse, vegetables, 
 
 Leurre, a lure for a hawk. 
 
 Li belle, a libel. 
 
 Liege, cork. 
 
 Lierre, ivy. 
 
 Lievre, a hare. 
 
 Limbe, limb or border. 
 
 Limbes, limbs. 
 
 Linge, linen. 
 
 Livre, a book. 
 
 Lobe, a lobe. 
 
 Louage, letting out, hiring. 
 
 Logarithme, logarithm. 
 
 Logogripbe, logogriph. 
 
 Lombes, the loins. 
 
 Louvre, a palace. 
 
 Lucre, gai*h profit. 
 
 Luminaire, the light of a place. 
 
 r lustre, brightness, also 
 
 Lustre, ^ a branched candle- 
 
 £ stick, a chandelier. 
 
 Luxe, luxury. 
 
 Male, a male. 
 
 Malefice, witclicraft. 
 
 Manche, a handle. 
 
Nowis Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 459 
 
 Manege, 
 
 a riding-school. 
 
 Monochorde, 
 
 Manes, the manes or ghost. 
 
 Monitoire, 
 
 Manifeste, 
 
 a manifesto. 
 
 Monogramme, 
 
 Manipule, 
 
 maniple. 
 
 Monologue, 
 
 Manque, 
 
 zvant, lack. 
 
 Monopole, 
 
 Marbre, 
 
 marble. 
 
 Monosyllabe, 
 
 Mariage, 
 
 marriage. 
 
 Monstre, 
 
 Marty re, 
 
 martyrdom. 
 
 Moule, 
 
 Masque, 
 
 a mask. 
 
 Muffle, 
 
 Massacre, 
 
 massacre. 
 
 Murmure, 
 
 Mausolee, 
 
 a mausoleum. 
 
 Muscle, 
 
 Mecompte, 1 
 
 i mistake in rec- 
 koning. 
 
 Myrte, 
 Mystere, 
 
 Medianoche, a 
 
 mid-night meal. 
 
 Narcisse, 
 
 Membre, 
 
 a member. 
 
 Naufrage, 
 
 Melange, 
 
 a mixture. 
 
 Navire, 
 
 Memoire, 
 
 bill, memoirs. 
 
 Necessaire, 
 
 Menage, 
 
 house-keeping. 
 
 N6goce, 
 
 Mensonge, 
 
 a lie. 
 
 Neuvieme, 
 
 Mercure, 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Nitre, 
 
 Merite, 
 
 merit, desert. 
 
 Nombre, 
 
 Merle, 
 
 a black-bird. 
 
 Nuage, 
 
 Mesentere, 
 
 mesentery. 
 
 Obelisque, 
 
 Mesurage, 
 
 measuring. 
 
 Observatoire, 
 
 Meteore, 
 
 a meteor. 
 
 Obstacle, 
 
 Meuble, furniture of the house. 
 
 Octogone, 
 
 Meurtre, 
 
 a murder. 
 
 Office, 
 
 Microscope, 
 
 a microscope. 
 
 Ogre, 
 Olympe, 
 
 Mille, 
 
 a mile. 
 
 Miiiesime, < 
 
 the date of a 
 medal. 
 
 Ombrage, 
 Oncle, 
 
 Millieme, j 
 
 the thousandth 
 part. 
 
 Ongle, 
 Opprobre, 
 
 Ministere, 
 
 ministry. 
 
 Opuscule, 
 
 Miracle, 
 
 a miracle. 
 
 Oracle, 
 
 Mobile, 
 
 a motion. 
 
 Orage, 
 
 Modele, a model, sample. 
 
 Oratoire, 
 
 Module, 
 
 module. 
 
 Orbe, 
 
 Mole, 
 Monarque, 
 
 a mole, 
 a monarch. 
 
 Ordinaire, < 
 
 Monde, 
 
 the world. 
 
 Ordre, 
 
 Monastere, 
 
 a monastery. 
 
 Organe, 
 
 a monochord* 
 
 a monitory' 
 
 a monogram* 
 
 a monologue* 
 
 a monopoly* 
 
 a monosyllable- 
 
 a monster* 
 
 a mould* 
 
 a muzzle* 
 
 murmur 
 
 a muscle* 
 
 the myrtle-tree* 
 
 a mystery. 
 
 a daffodil* 
 
 a ship-wreck* 
 
 a ship 
 
 the necessaries. 
 
 trade. 
 
 the ninth part. 
 
 nitre. 
 
 a number. 
 
 a cloud. 
 
 an obelisk. 
 
 an observatory.. 
 
 an hindrance. 
 
 octagon. 
 
 a good turn. 
 
 an ogre. 
 
 Olympus. 
 
 shade, umbrage. 
 
 an uncle. 
 
 a nail. 
 
 reproach. 
 
 a little book, 
 
 an oracle 
 
 a storm. 
 
 an oratoiy. 
 
 an orb. 
 
 ordinary, the 
 
 mail. 
 
 an order, 
 an organs 
 
460 
 
 Nowis Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 Orgasme (medic term), orgasm. 
 Orge, barley. 
 
 Orgue, a pair of organs. 
 
 Orifice, orifice, opening. 
 
 Orle (in heraldry), an orle. 
 
 Ornie, an elm-tree. 
 
 Otage, an hostage. 
 
 Outrage, outrage, affront. 
 
 Ouvrage, work. 
 
 Pacte, a pact. 
 
 Paganisme, paganism. 
 
 Pagne, cotton-cloth 
 
 Pampre, vine-branch. 
 
 Panache, a bunch of feathers. 
 Panegyrique, panegyrick. 
 
 Papisme, popery. 
 
 Paradoxe, a paradox. 
 
 Paraphraste, paraphrast. 
 
 Parage, latitude. 
 
 Paragraphe, a paragraph. 
 
 p . ( afourish added to one's 
 i^ara e, | na me in singing. 
 Paranymphe, a public act in the 
 university of Paris. 
 Parnasse, Parnassus. 
 
 Parricide, a parricide. 
 
 Parterre, a flower-garden, the 
 pit (in a play-house). 
 Participe, a participle. 
 
 Parjure, a perjury. 
 
 Passage, a passage. 
 
 Patrimoine, patrimony. 
 
 Patronage, patronage, advozcson. 
 Pentametre, a pentameter. 
 
 Peage, toll, custom* 
 
 Pecule, mojiey got by saving. 
 Pedicule^ pedicle. 
 
 Pegase, Pegasus. 
 
 Perm esse, Pa7*nassus. 
 
 Peigne, a comb. 
 
 Pelerinage, a pilgrimage. 
 
 Pene, a bolt (of a lock). 
 
 Penates, 
 
 Pentagone, 
 
 Pericarde, 
 
 Pericrane, 
 
 Perioste, 
 
 Perigee, 
 
 Peristyle, 
 
 Perpendicule, 
 
 Peritoine, 
 
 Petale, 
 
 Petalisme 
 
 Penates 
 
 a pentagon. 
 
 pericardium. 
 
 pericranium. 
 
 periosteum. 
 
 perigee. 
 
 peristyle. 
 
 a plummet. 
 
 peritoneum. 
 
 petal. 
 
 petalism. 
 
 Petase i the m " ged hat °f 
 9 \ Mercury. 
 
 Peuple, people. 
 
 Phare, a light-house. 
 
 Phenom£ne, phenomenon. 
 
 Philtre, a philter. 
 
 Phosphore, phosphorus. 
 
 Piastre, a piece of eight. 
 
 Piege, a snare, trap. 
 
 Pilastre, pilaster. 
 
 Pillage, plunder. 
 
 Pi nde , the p indus. 
 
 Pivoine, a gnat-snapper. 
 
 Plane, Plataue, a plane-tree. 
 
 Planisphere, a planisphere. 
 
 Plane, plaster, parget. 
 
 Pleonasme, pleonasm. 
 
 Plumage, the feather of a bird. 
 
 roeme, 
 
 a poem. 
 
 Poele, 
 
 a stove, a pall. 
 
 Poivre, 
 
 pepper. 
 
 Pole, 
 
 the pole. 
 
 Polygone, 
 
 a polygon. 
 
 Polype, 
 
 a polypus. 
 
 Poncire, 
 
 a great lemon. 
 
 Porche, 
 
 a porch. 
 
 Pore, 
 
 a pore. 
 
 Porphyre, 
 
 porphyry. 
 
 Portage, 
 
 the carriage. 
 
 Porte-mouchettes, < M ' 
 
 7 I pan. 
 
Nouns Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 46: 
 
 Portique, a portico, piazza. 
 
 Possible^ might, possibility. 
 
 Potage, potage, porridge. 
 
 Pouce, a thumb, an inch. 
 
 Pr6ambule, preamble. 
 
 Precepte, precept. 
 
 Preche, a religious meeting. 
 
 Precipice, a precipice. 
 
 Prejudice, hurt, detriment. 
 
 Prelude, the prelude. 
 
 Presage, presage, omen. 
 
 Presby tere, the parsonage. 
 
 Pretexte, a pretence. 
 
 Principe, a principle. 
 
 Prisme, a prism. 
 
 Privilege, a privilege. 
 
 Problerne, a problem. 
 
 Prodige, a prodigy. 
 
 Proches, kinsfolks, relations. 
 
 Programme, a college-bill. 
 
 Proiegomene, a proem. 
 
 Prologue, a prologue. 
 
 Promontoire, a promontory. 
 
 Prone, a morning sermon. 
 
 PrGgnostique, a prognostic^ 
 
 Protoeole, a precedent-book. 
 
 Pro to type, tlie first pattern . 
 
 Proverbe, a proverb. 
 
 Pseaume, a psalm. 
 
 Pupitre, a desk. 
 
 Purgatoire, a purgatory. 
 
 Quadernes, two fours. 
 
 Quadrangle, a quadrangle. 
 
 Quadre, Cadre, a frame. 
 
 Quadruple, fourfold. 
 
 ^ t »* 3 V What day of the 
 Quanbeme.^ mont fc J 
 
 Quatorze, a quatorze at piquet * 
 Qaatre, a four. 
 
 Quatrieme, a fourth part- 
 
 Quines, two cinks or fives. 
 
 Quinzieme, a fifteenth. 
 
 Rable, the back of a hare* 
 
 Raccommodage, mending* 
 
 Raffinage, the refining of sugar* 
 Rale, a rattling in the throat* 
 Ramage, the chirping of binh* 
 Ranee, rusty. 
 
 Rapiecetage, patch' d work. 
 Ravage, havock. 
 
 Reagrave, the last comminution. 
 Receptacle, receptacle, nest* 
 Reciproque, return, like* 
 
 Rectangle, a rectangle* 
 
 Refectoire, refectory. 
 
 Regime, a course of a diet. 
 Regne, reign. 
 
 Relache, respite* 
 
 Reliquaire, a shrine. 
 
 Remede, a remedy. 
 
 Repaire, the haunt. 
 
 Repertoire, a repertory. 
 
 Reptile, a creeping thing. 
 
 Requisitoire, a request. 
 
 Rosaire, great beads. 
 
 Rouge-gorge, a robin red-breast. 
 Rouge-queue, a red-tail. 
 
 Reproche, a reproach. 
 
 Reste, remainder, rest. 
 
 Reve, a dream. 
 
 Reverbere, reverberate fire. 
 Rhume, a cold, a rheum. 
 
 Risque, a risk. 
 
 Rivage, a bank or shore. 
 
 Role, a roll, list, part. 
 
 Royaume, a kingdom. 
 
 Rhombe, a rhomb. 
 
 Rhomboi'de, a rhomboid. 
 
 Sable, sand. 
 
 Sabre, a broad sword. 
 
 Sacrifice, a sacrifice. 
 
 Sacrilege, a sacrilege. 
 
 Sagittaire, Sagittarius, 
 
 Salaire, salary 
 
462 
 
 Nouns Masculine ending in e mute. 
 
 Sacerdoce, 
 
 Sacre, 
 
 Saltpetre, 
 
 Sanctuaire, 
 
 Sandaraque, 
 
 priesthood. 
 
 coronation. 
 
 salt-petre. 
 
 a sanctuary. 
 
 sandarack. 
 
 Saule, a sallow or willow tree. 
 
 Savonnage, soaping the linen. 
 
 Scandale, scandal. 
 
 Scapulaire, a scapulary. 
 
 Sceptre, a sceptre. 
 
 Schisme, a schism. 
 
 Sciage, sawing. 
 
 Scribe, a scribe. 
 
 Serupule, a scruple. 
 
 Seigle, rye. 
 
 Semestre \ the *?"? °f six 
 demesne, | mon ths. 
 
 Seminaire, a seminary. 
 
 Septieme, the seventh part. 
 
 Sepulchre. a grave. 
 
 Sequestre, sequestration. 
 
 Service, service, good turn. 
 
 Sesterce, sesterce. 
 
 Sexe, a sex. 
 
 Siecle, an age, a century. 
 
 Siege, a seat, see, siege. 
 
 Signe, a sign, token. 
 
 Silence, a silence. 
 
 Simples, the simples. 
 
 Sinople, sinople. 
 
 Sixieme, a sixth part. 
 
 Soliloque, a soliloquy. 
 
 Solecisme, a solecism. 
 
 Solstice, solstice. 
 
 Sommaire, a summary. 
 
 Somme, nap, sleep, repose. 
 
 Songe, a dream. 
 
 Sophisme, sophism. 
 
 Sortilege, witch-craft. 
 
 Souffle, the breath. 
 
 Soufre, sulphur. 
 
 Specifique, a specific. 
 
 Spectre, 
 
 Spheroide, 
 
 Squelette, 
 
 Squirre, 
 
 Stade, 
 
 a ghost. 
 a spheroid, 
 a skeleton. 
 a schirrus. 
 a furlong. 
 
 Stalle, a seat (in the choir). 
 
 Stigmates, prints, marks. 
 
 Style, a style. 
 
 Stocfiche, stockfish. 
 c • J a cloth to wrap up the 
 re ' \ face of dead people. 
 
 Subside, subsidy. 
 
 Subterfuge, a shift. 
 
 Sucre, sugar. 
 
 Succube, a succiwus. 
 
 Suffrage, a vote. 
 
 Supplice, a torment. 
 
 Suspensoire, a t?ms. 
 Sycomore, the sycamore-tree. 
 
 Syllogisme, a syllogism. 
 
 Symbole, symbol, badge. 
 
 Symptome, a symptom 
 
 Synode, a synod. 
 
 Synonyme, a synonyma. 
 
 Systeme, a system. 
 
 Store, a curtain. 
 
 Tabernacle, tabernacle. 
 
 Tarse, Tarsis. 
 
 Tartre, Tartar, 
 
 Telescope, a telescope, 
 
 Temoignage, a testimony. 
 
 Temple, a temple. 
 
 Tendre, tenderness. 
 
 Terme, a term, bound. 
 
 Ternes, two trois, six 
 
 Territoire, a territory. 
 
 Tertre, rising ground. 
 
 Tete-a-tete, tete-a-tete, 
 
 Texte, a text. 
 
 Theatre, a theatre, stage. 
 
 Theme, a theme, 
 Thermometre, a weather-glass. 
 

 Nouns Masculine 
 
 ending in e mute. 
 
 463 
 
 Thyrse, 
 
 a thyrse. 
 
 Ventre, 
 
 
 the belly. 
 
 Tigre, 
 
 a tiger, the Tigris. 
 
 Ventricule, 
 
 
 the ventricle 
 
 Timbre, 
 
 stamp, a clock-bell. 
 
 Verbe, 
 
 
 a verb 
 
 Tmtamarre 3 
 
 , thundering noise. 
 
 Verbiage, 
 
 
 idle words* 
 
 Titre, 
 
 a title. 
 
 Verre, 
 
 
 a glass- 
 
 Tome, 
 
 a volume. 
 
 Vertige, 
 
 
 a dizziness. 
 
 Tonnerre, 
 
 the thunder. 
 
 Vesicatoire, 
 
 
 a blisier. 
 
 Topique, 
 
 a topic. 
 
 Vestibule, 
 
 
 a hall, entry. 
 
 Tourne-broche, a jack. 
 
 Vestige, 
 
 
 footstep 
 
 Trapeze, 
 
 a trapezium. 
 
 Viatique, 
 
 
 viaticum 
 
 Treillage, i 
 
 trellis, arbour-work. 
 
 Vice, 
 
 
 vice. 
 
 Trefle, 
 
 trefoil. 
 
 Vidame, 
 
 
 a vidame. 
 
 Tremble, 
 
 an aspen-tree. 
 
 V ignoble, 
 
 
 a vineyard. 
 
 Triage, 
 
 choice. 
 
 Vinaigre, 
 
 
 vinegar. 
 
 Triangle, 
 
 a triangle. 
 
 Vingtieme, 
 
 the 
 
 twentieth part. 
 
 Tricotage, 
 
 knitting. 
 
 Visage, 
 
 
 the face. 
 
 Triglyphe, 
 
 a triglyph. 
 
 Viscere, 
 
 
 a bozvel. 
 
 Triomphe, 
 
 a tnumph. 
 
 Vitvage, 
 
 
 glazing. 
 
 Triple, 
 
 the triple. 
 
 V ivres, victuals, food, provisions. 
 
 Tripotage, 
 
 a mish-mash. 
 
 Voile, 
 
 
 a veil. 
 
 Trochisques, s. pi. a trochisk. 
 
 Voisinage, 
 
 the 
 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 Troene, 
 
 a privet. 
 
 Vocabulaire 
 
 9 
 
 a vocabulary 
 
 Trone, 
 
 a throne. 
 
 Volume, 
 
 
 a volume. 
 
 Trophee, 
 
 a trophy. 
 
 Voyage, 
 
 
 a journey 
 
 Tropique, 
 
 a tropick. 
 
 Usage, 
 
 usage, use, custom 
 
 Trouble, 
 
 a trouble. 
 
 Ulcere, 
 
 
 an nicer. 
 
 Tube, 
 
 a tube. 
 
 Ustensile, 
 
 
 an utensil. 
 
 Tubercule, 
 
 a tubercle. 
 
 Vide, 
 
 an empty place. 
 
 Tumulte, 
 
 a tumult. 
 
 Vulgaire, 
 
 
 the vulgar. 
 
 Tuorbe, 
 
 a theorbo. 
 
 Vulneraire, 
 
 
 a vulnerary. 
 
 Type, 
 
 a tyP e > figure. 
 
 Zele, 
 
 
 a zeal. 
 
 Vac arm e, 
 
 an uproar. 
 
 Zephire (a god), 
 
 Zephyrus. 
 
 Vase, 
 
 a vase. 
 
 Zodiaque, 
 
 
 the zodith . 
 
 Vaudeville, 
 
 a ballad. 
 
 Zoophyte, 
 
 
 zoophytes 
 
 Vehicule, 
 
 a vehicle. 
 
 
 
 
 I have made two more Lists: one of the English woids that 
 are derived from the French, and which, being derived fiom 
 Latin or Greek, are quite alike or very near: the other of woids 
 the same, or nearly alike in sound, but different in spelling and 
 signification. But as this has been already too much swelled, 1 
 have placed them in my Elements. 
 
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