TN295 
 
 No. 8940 
 
 
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Bureau of Mines Information Circular/1983 
 
 Evaluation of Alumina Extraction 
 From Coal Waste: Composition 
 and Availability 
 
 By Roy T. Sorensen and John L. Schaller 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 
^ , ,:jcj jjJi, , &Mjuu«<fJ^) 
 
 Information Circular 8940 
 
 \ A 
 
 Evaluation of Alumina Extraction 
 From Coal Waste: Composition 
 and Availability 
 
 By Roy T. Sorensen and John L. Schaller 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 James G. Watt, Secretary 
 
 BUREAU OF MINES 
 Robert C. Horton, Director 
 
This publication has been cataloged as follows: 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i 
 
 a „>° 
 
 Sorensen, Roy 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Evaluation of 
 
 alumina extraction from coal 
 
 waste: 
 
 composition and 
 
 availability. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Information circu 
 
 lar / Bureau 
 
 of Mines ; 8940) 
 
 
 Bibliography: 
 
 P- 
 
 13-19. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Supt. of Docs 
 
 . no 
 
 : I 28.27:8940. 
 
 
 
 
 1. Aluminum 
 
 oxic 
 
 e. 2. Coal 
 
 mine waste. 
 
 I. Scha 
 
 Her, John L. II. 
 
 Title. III. Series: 
 
 Information 
 
 circul 
 
 ar (United States. Bureau of 
 
 Mines) ; 8940. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TN295.U4 [QD181.A4] 
 
 622s 
 
 [669 
 
 '.722] 
 
 83-600121 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Pa g e 
 
 Abstract 1 
 
 Introduction 2 
 
 Catalog of pertinent literature 4 
 
 Bibliographies 4 
 
 Characterization of coal wastes and ashes 4 
 
 Location and production of coal wastes and ashes 5 
 
 Categorization of coal wastes 5 
 
 Review of coal waste descriptive literature 9 
 
 Eastern Pennsylvania anthracite 9 
 
 East and central bituminous, low calcium 9 
 
 East and central bituminous, high calcium 10 
 
 West and south central lignite, low calcium 11 
 
 West and south central lignite, high calcium 11 
 
 West and south central lignite, high calcium and high magnesium 12 
 
 Summary and conclusions 12 
 
 References 13 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 1. Grain size distribution curves for bottom ash and fly ash 3 
 
 2. Production and accumulation of U.S. coal waste by category 7 
 
 TABLES 
 
 1. Comparison of typical distribution between coarse ash and fly ash by type 
 
 of boiler and method of firing 2 
 
 2. Approximate amounts of accumulated anthracite coal wastes 2 
 
 3. Composition of fly ash and fractions obtained by magnetic separation 3 
 
 4. Examples of chemical compositions or ranges of composition of fly ashes, 
 
 bottom ashes, and coal mining and processing wastes, by category 8 
 
 OO 
 
 

 UNIT OF MEASURE 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT 
 
 Btu 
 
 British thermal 
 
 unit pet 
 
 percent 
 
 Btu/lb 
 
 British thermal 
 
 unit per pound ym 
 
 micrometer 
 
 ° C 
 
 degree Celsius 
 
 tpy 
 
 ton per year 
 
 lb 
 
 pound 
 
 yd 3 
 
 cubic yard 
 
EVALUATION OF ALUMINA EXTRACTION FROM COAL 
 WASTE: COMPOSITION AND AVAILABILITY 
 
 By Roy T. Sorensen and John L, Schaller 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 This Bureau of Mines report presents the results of a study to rank 
 technologies for extraction of alumina from bottom ash and coal shale. 
 The available literature on composition and availability of coal 
 waste was reviewed, and papers pertinent to alumina extraction are 
 referenced. 
 
 Types of coal waste were categorized by method of waste generation, 
 coal content (heating value), location, coal type (ash nomenclature), 
 and alkaline earth content. The differences and similarities among the 
 categories of coal waste are summarized as to factors that may affect 
 aluminum extraction, especially factors concerning chemical composi- 
 tion, current production, storage problems, and accumulated tonnage. 
 Data available on physical characteristics and mineralogy did not cor- 
 relate well with the individual categories of coal waste, and discus- 
 sion on these two aspects is limited to the differences between coal 
 ash and coal shale. 
 
 Metallurgist. 
 2 Chemist. 
 Both authors are with the Boulder City Engineering Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, 
 Boulder City, NV. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 About 80 million tons of coal shale, as 
 coal treatment plant or mine waste, is 
 being produced annually in the United 
 States and about 3 billion tons has accu- 
 mulated (15) .3 Total ash production is 
 about 70 million tons annually, and about 
 500 million tons has been accumulated. 
 About 20 pet of the coal ash is bottom 
 ash or boiler slag. 
 
 Ash makes up from 3 to 30 pet of the 
 coal. Fly ash is the predominant form of 
 ash produced in the United States and 
 ranges from 10 to 90 pet of the ash. The 
 remainder is a coarser fraction, called 
 boiler slag when it is slagged in the 
 burners and dropped into water filled 
 hoppers. When the coarse ash falls 
 through burner grates and is collected 
 dry, it is called bottom ash. The rela- 
 tive distribution between coarse ash and 
 fly ash for different types of firing is 
 shown in table 1 (35) . The distribution 
 of the various types of accumulated an- 
 thracite wastes are shown in table 2. 
 The size differences between bottom ash 
 and fly ash are illustrated in figure 1 
 (69) . The fly ash particles range from 
 0.5 to 100 ym. Glass comprises 50 to 90 
 pet of the ash weight. Other components 
 are spinels including magnetite, hema- 
 tite, carbon ranging from elemental car- 
 bon to unburned coal, mullite, and 
 quartz. Alumina is contained in both the 
 mullite and the glass fraction. Other 
 alumina-containing minerals include meta- 
 kaolin, muscovite, and spinel type espe- 
 cially when the coal combustion is car- 
 ried out at lower temperatures. Metals 
 are leachable to some extent from fly 
 ash, but less from bottom ash. Thus, fly 
 ash is of enviromental concern. However, 
 high-carbon-content ashes are not consid- 
 ered a combustion hazard. Bottom ash is 
 usually denser and, according to Profes- 
 sor J. Leonard, University of Kentucky, 
 can contain more iron. 
 
 ■^Underlined numbers in parentheses re- 
 fer to items in the list of references at 
 the end of this report. 
 
 TABLE 1. - Comparison of typical distri- 
 bution between coarse ash and fly ash 
 by type of boiler and method of fir- 
 ing, percent ( 35 ) 
 
 Boiler and/or type of firin g [ Coarse | Fly" 
 Wet bottom: Front, opposed, 
 
 and tangential firing 1 
 
 Dry bottom: Front, opposed, 
 
 and tangential firing 1 
 
 Cyclone 
 
 Spreader stoker 
 
 1 Pulverized coal. 
 
 2 0ther data indicate lower figure. TVA 
 Paradise plant produces 65 pet coarse ash 
 (75). 
 
 NOTE. — Wet bottom ash is called boiler 
 slag. 
 
 TABLE 2. - Approximate amounts of 
 accumulated anthracite coal wastes 
 
 Waste type 
 
 10 6 
 yd 3 
 
 Portion of 
 total, pet 1 
 
 
 390 
 220 
 140 
 100 
 23 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 
 25 
 
 Breaker refuse and 
 
 silt 
 
 16 
 11 
 
 Silt 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 <1 
 
 
 875 
 
 100 
 
 1 Rounded. 
 
 Much of the coal ash can be benefici- 
 ated by magnetic separation. Typical wet 
 and dry low-intensity magnetic separation 
 results (18) are shown in table 3. Lib- 
 eration of other minerals has been noted 
 also in studies on benef iciation or frac- 
 tionation of coal ash (_3, 8-9_, 37-39, 44- 
 45, 47, 49, 66-67, 78, 80, 86, 98). 
 
 Coal shale includes wastes, such as 
 breaker waste, silt, tunnel rock, and 
 mine waste, obtained in mining and pro- 
 cessing coal. The major alumina- 
 containing minerals are illite, montmo- 
 rillonite, and kaolinite. Coal shale 
 comes in a variety of sizes and has great 
 differences in coal content or heating 
 
100 
 
 U S STANDARD SIEVf OWNING IN INCHES U S STANOARO SIEVE NUMMRS HYOROMfTlR 
 6 i 3 : 1 -1 1 * *> H 3 4 6 i 10 U 16 20 30 <P 50 70 WO UO 200 
 
 
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 JOO 100 50 10 5 105 0.1 05 01 005 
 
 GRAIN SIZE MILLIMETERS 
 
 
 COM.fS 
 
 CUVEL 
 
 SAND 
 
 
 
 
 CO*tS( »nf 
 
 CO*tsi mIDiuu riM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FIGURE 1. - Gram size distribution curves for bottom ash and fly ash (69). 
 
 TABLE 3. - Composition of fly ash and fractions obtained by magnetic 
 separation (18) 
 
 
 Whole 
 fly ash, 
 100 parts 
 
 Chemical composition, pet 
 
 Constituent 
 
 Dry separation 
 
 Wet separation 
 
 
 Magnetic, 
 23.6 parts 
 
 Nonmagnetic, 
 76.4 parts 
 
 Magnetic, 
 26.1 parts 
 
 Nonmagnetic, 
 68.4 parts 
 
 Si0 2 
 
 A1 2 3 
 
 'FejC^ 
 
 CaO 
 
 MgO 
 
 Na 2 
 
 42.36 
 
 17.91 
 
 19.29 
 
 4.49 
 
 .72 
 
 .35 
 
 1.72 
 
 2.13 
 
 .58 
 
 10.39 
 
 20.31 
 
 10.21 
 
 60.08 
 
 1.87 
 
 .40 
 
 .18 
 
 .81 
 
 .79 
 
 .13 
 
 10.39 
 
 47.89 
 
 20.04 
 
 6.56 
 
 4.88 
 
 .76 
 
 .35 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.04 
 
 .45 
 
 12.40 
 
 20.83 
 
 9.95 
 
 65.00 
 
 1.32 
 
 .42 
 
 .14 
 
 .71 
 
 ND 
 
 .12 
 
 1.70 
 
 53.0 
 
 22.83 
 
 5.24 
 
 5.82 
 
 .99 
 
 .31 
 
 K 2 
 
 S0 3 
 
 LOI 
 
 1.91 
 
 ND 
 
 .56 
 
 8.46 
 
 LOD Loss on drying at 110° C. 
 
 LOI Loss on ignition from 110° to 800° C. 
 
 ND Not detected. 
 
 'Total iron reported as Fe 2 03 
 
 value. More mine and process wastes are 
 generated from underground mining than 
 from surface mining. Underground wastes 
 have higher heating values and, when ac- 
 cumulated, combustion is a greater haz- 
 ard. The danger of combustion is an 
 overriding incentive for some type of 
 treatment of high-coal-content coal 
 shale. 
 
 Since many alumina extraction processes 
 require preliminary calcination, there is 
 
 an added incentive for use of high heat- 
 ing value process plant or mine wastes. 
 Process plant and mine wastes also can be 
 contaminated with varying amounts of cal- 
 careous or siliceous bedding rocks and 
 pyrite and are not the same composition 
 as the ash produced from the mined coal. 
 However, the alumina, alkali, and alka- 
 line earth content of process and mine 
 wastes can generally be predicted from 
 the ash analyses, i.e., if it is high in 
 one it is high in the other and vice 
 
versa. Pyrite and other sulfides produce 
 acid solutions in accumulated wastes 
 and can result in more serious metal 
 pollution than that occurring from 
 coal ash. 
 
 In order to evaluate technologies for 
 extracting alumina from U.S. coal waste, 
 
 available data on mineralogical composi- 
 tion, chemical composition, and physical 
 properties of the wastes should be ana- 
 lyzed as thoroughly as possible because 
 the characteristics of the individual 
 coal waste influence the type of alumina 
 extraction process that can be used and 
 the overall process economics. 
 
 CATALOG OF PERTINENT LITERATURE 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES 
 
 Bibliographies that include references 
 to coal composition, bedding materials, 
 coal mine and process plant wastes, and 
 coal ashes are available C2, 19-22, 24 , 
 97 ) . Annotated bibliographies include 
 Condry (21), "Recovery of Alumina From 
 Coal Refuse," on alumina recovery methods 
 and Akers (_2) , "Coal Minerals Bibliogra- 
 phy," on minerals associated with coal. 
 For coal ash production and utilization, 
 an excellent annotated bibliography is 
 included in Cockrell ( 20 ) , "New or Unde- 
 veloped Methods of Producing and Utiliz- 
 ing Coal Ash." The work covers the peri- 
 od before 1968. Coalgate (19) , "Litera- 
 ture Survey — Coal Associated Wastes," 
 covers the period 1900 to 1972. Deur- 
 brouk (22), "Bureau of Mines Publications 
 on Coal Preparation (1910-60)," and ref- 
 erence 97, "U.S. Government Publications 
 on Coal Preparation 1960-1981," include 
 most government publications on coal 
 preparation and benef iciation. 
 
 Eisele ( 24 ) , "Evaluation of Technology 
 for Recovery of Metallurgical-Grade Alu- 
 mina From Coal Ash," lists a number of 
 of recent publications on alumina recov- 
 ery techniques. 
 
 CHARACTERIZATION OF COAL WASTES 
 AND ASHES 
 
 Chemical composition and physical char- 
 acteristics of coal wastes (25-34, 54 ) 
 and ashes are covered in a number of 
 studies (l_-2, 6-7_, 9-11, J2~JJL» 11> M~ 
 _45, 48, 55, 58, 68, 79. > 12-91_, 95). The 
 most comprehensive listing of chem- 
 ical compositions of coal ashes are in 
 
 Abernathy (1_) , "Major Ash Constituents in 
 U.S. Coals," and for coal waste materials 
 in Buttermore (16) , "Characterization of 
 Coal Refuse." 
 
 Excellent chemical data for lignite are 
 in five papers by Manz (61-65) and in two 
 papers by Sondreal (84-85) . Reference 
 85, "Characteristics and Variabilities of 
 Lignite Ash From the Northern Great 
 Plains," is especially valuable. 
 
 For anthracite waste materials, 
 MacCartney (55), "Pennsylvania Anthracite 
 Refuse," is a good source. Rose (75) , 
 "Composition and Property of Kentucky Fly 
 Ashes," gives excellent data for east 
 Kentucky (Appalachian bituminous) and 
 west Kentucky (east central bituminous) 
 coal ashes. 
 
 Chemical analyses of coal silt and gob 
 refuse are given by Buttermore ( 16 ) for 
 several regions. Backer (]_) , "Properties 
 of Western Coal Waste Materials," gives 
 analyses for Utah and other western 
 coals. Busch (15) , "Physical Property 
 Data on Fine Coal Refuse," gives analyses 
 for Appalachian coals. Wewerka ( 99 ) 
 gives analyses for fine waste materials 
 from Illinois Basin cleaning plants. A 
 recent compilation by Torry (94) covers 
 trace contaminants in coal. 
 
 No comprehensive compilation of the 
 physical properties of coal process plant 
 and mine wastes was found. There are 
 many important regional papers and 
 some papers limited to specific types 
 of waste. Buttermore ( 16 ) gives data 
 for Appalachian bituminous, Interior 
 
Province 4 bituminous and Rocky Mountain 
 Province coals, MacCartney (55) gives 
 data for the Pennsylvania anthracite re- 
 gion, Backer (7) covers western coals, 
 while Busch ( 14-15) gives physical prop- 
 erty data for coarse and fine wastes from 
 the Eastern region. Bradley (13) , "Char- 
 acterization of Solid Constituents in 
 Blackwater Effluents From Coal Prepara- 
 tion Plants," gives data on washer wastes 
 from the Appalachian region. Majdidzedeh 
 (59) , in a report on a laboratory inves- 
 tigation, discusses material characteris- 
 tics of powerplant bottom ashes and de- 
 scribes their performance in bituminous 
 mixtures for road paving. Moulten ( 69 ) 
 covers bottom ash and boiler slag charac- 
 terization of bottom ash. Numerous au- 
 thors give data on fly ash, but the 
 papers that provide considerable informa- 
 tion include Rose (75) , Hulet (44) , 
 Fowler (36), Hurst (45). and Ray (72). 
 Manz (6_0 gives data for lignite fly ash. 
 
 Chemical composition and physical char- 
 acterization are discussed in several pa- 
 pers on the benef iciation of wastes: 
 Styron (90^), "Quality Control and Benef i- 
 ciation of Fly Ash," Stirling (^) , "Ben- 
 ef iciation of Fly Ash," and Aldrich (3). 
 Rosner ( 76-77) gives chemical and physi- 
 cal data for several western utility 
 plant ashes. Additional physical and 
 chemical data on the extraction of alumi- 
 na from coal ashes are discussed by Hsieh 
 (43), Chou 08), and Ripley (73-74). 
 
 LOCATION AND PRODUCTION OF COAL 
 WASTES AND ASHES 
 
 Data on location and production of coal 
 wastes and ashes are given in (6-7, 10- 
 12, 17, 29-34, 55-65, 70-71, 8 C 84-88, 
 
 91 , 93 , 95 , 97). Detailed data on the 
 cost of coal refuse disposal are given in 
 Bureau of Mines IC 8576 (95). The best 
 source on production and utilization of 
 coal from which waste production data may 
 be inferred is the 1981 "Keystone Coal 
 Industries Manual" (56) . Data on coal 
 resources, production, consumption, and 
 end-use forecasts are updated annually. 
 Nameplate data in the Department of Ener- 
 gy (96) inventory of powerplants , which 
 lists powerplants in the United States 
 with output rating and type of fuel used, 
 are updated annually. Tolle (92) gives 
 ash production by region and State for 
 1980, based on preliminary data of the 
 National Ash Association. 
 
 Many papers have been published in the 
 proceedings of the six fly ash symposia 
 (30-34, 42). Important papers on north- 
 ern Great Plains coals and wastes are 
 published in the proceedings of the sym- 
 posia on the technology and use of lig- 
 nite (25-27, 40 , 50-52). Overviews by 
 Brackett (10-12) and Faber (28-29) are of 
 interest. The papers of Manz (61-65) and 
 Sondreal (84-85) cover the northern Great 
 Plains lignite area. 
 
 Locations and size of burning and burnt 
 waste banks are given by Stahl (87) and 
 McNay (_5_7 ) . MacCartney (55) is the best 
 source for the Pennsylvania anthracite 
 region. 
 
 Many books on coal preparation and pro- 
 duction have been published. Recent 
 works of value include Leonard (53) , 
 "Coal Preparation," Schmidt (79) , Coal in 
 America," and Torrey (93) , "Coal Ash 
 Utilization. " 
 
 CATEGORIZATION OF COAL WASTES 
 
 There are many different types of coal 
 wastes that are being or have been 
 
 4 Province nomenclature common to the 
 U.S. coal industry is given by T. R. 
 Scallon in "An Assessment of Coal Re- 
 sources," Chem. Eng. Prog., v. 73, No. 6, 
 June 1977, pp. 25-30. 
 
 produced in the United States. In order 
 to evaluate processes for the extraction 
 of alumina from coal wastes, the types of 
 wastes must be classified. Two cross In- 
 dexes developed to define the type of 
 coal waste are as follows: 
 
I. Method of waste generation and 
 coal content usable as fuel. 
 
 1. Process plant waste, high heating 
 value (>4,000 Btu/lb) . 
 
 2. Process plant waste, low heating 
 value (<4,000 Btu/lb). 
 
 3. Process plant waste, no heating 
 value . 
 
 e. West and south central lignite, 
 high calcium (>4 pet). (Predominant ma- 
 terial in Rocky Mountians, Pacific Coast 
 and Gulf lignite provinces.) 
 
 f. West and south central lignite, 
 high calcium and magnesium (>4 pet). 
 (Includes subbituminous coals of the Pow- 
 der River basin of Montana and Wyoming 
 and lignites of the Fort Union Formation 
 of the northern Great Plains.) 
 
 4. Mine rock and trommel waste, no 
 heating value. 
 
 5. Burned refuse, no heating value. 
 
 6. Process ash, no heating value. 
 (From coal processes, such as synthetic 
 production or fluosolids burning. Pro- 
 cess temperatures are usually low.) 
 
 7. Low temperature utility ash, no 
 heating value. (Coal product burned at 
 about 1,000° C.) 
 
 8. High temperature utility ash, no 
 heating value. (Coal product burned at 
 about 1,500° C. Category includes fly 
 ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag.) 
 
 II. Location, 5 type of coal,^ and al- 
 kaline earth content. 
 
 a. Eastern Pennsylvania anthracite. 
 
 b. East and central bituminous, low 
 calcium (<4 pet). 
 
 c. East and central bituminous, high 
 calcium (>4 pet). 
 
 By combining these two sets of indexes , 
 48 categories of coal waste result, which 
 can be denoted la, lb, etc. Figure 2 in- 
 dicates which of the categories provide 
 major percentages of current coal waste 
 production or existing coal waste accumu- 
 lations. Examples of chemical composi- 
 tions or ranges of chemical compositions 
 for different fly ashes of categories 8b, 
 7c, 8c, 8d, and 8e; for different bottom 
 ashes of categories 6a, 8b, 7c, 8c, and 
 8e; and for different types of coal min- 
 ing and process wastes (coal shale) of 
 categories la, 2a, lb, 2b, 3b, 2c, le , 
 2e, and If, are presented in table 4. 
 
 Many of these 48 categories shown in 
 figure 2 can be grouped together accord- 
 ing to their utilization for alumina ex- 
 traction. The members of any group are 
 compatible as feed to an alumina extrac- 
 tion plant. These groups are 
 
 la, lb - Combined because of similar 
 composition. Because of proximity to 
 population centers in eastern Pennsylva- 
 nia untreated la material presents great- 
 er health and enviromental hazards than 
 it would in other areas. 
 
 d. West and south central lignite, 
 low calcium (<4 pet). (Mainly in Rocky 
 Mountain region.) 
 
 5 West and south central refers to coals 
 from the northern Great Plains, Pacific 
 Coast and Gulf Provinces. 
 
 "Western bituminous and subbituminous 
 coals are classified in this report as 
 lignites because their ash is most accu- 
 rately described as lignite type ash. 
 
 Id, le, If - Combined because there is 
 much less of Id and If. These materials 
 are mainly from underground mines in Utah 
 and Colorado, and any process should han- 
 dle all types. 
 
 2a, 2b - See la, lb group. 
 
 2d, 2e - Combined because there is much 
 less 2d, which would be combined with 
 2e for large-scale exploitation. Any 
 
Process plant waste 
 
 High heating value (11 
 
 Low heating value (2) 
 
 No heating value (3) 
 
 Mine rock 
 
 and trommel waste [4) 
 
 Burned refuse (5) 
 Process ash (6) 
 
 Utility ash 
 
 Low temperature (7) 
 
 High temperature (8) 
 
 Eastern 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 anthracite 
 
 Eatt and central bituminous 
 
 West and south central lignite 
 
 All (a] 
 
 Low Ca (b) 
 
 High Ca (c) 
 
 Low Ca (d) 
 
 High Ca (el 
 
 High Mg. Ca (f) 
 
 M, *> 
 
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 M. * 
 
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 M. A 
 
 .K. * 
 
 m.* 
 
 
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 M. A 
 
 
 J*. A 
 
 J*. ^ 
 
 M. A 
 
 M. A 
 
 M. A 
 
 
 M. ^ 
 
 M. 
 
 M. * 
 
 M. A 
 
 Very little 
 
 
 
 Only 4 small pla 
 
 its in production 
 
 
 
 M. * 
 
 M. * 
 
 J*. A 
 
 M. * 
 
 M. * 
 
 M. A 
 
 M. * 
 
 n.^ 
 
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 »^^» 
 
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 .R^ 
 
 
 KEY 
 
 
 Production 
 
 Accumulated waste 
 
 Major 
 
 M. 
 
 * 
 
 Minor 
 
 M. 
 
 A 
 
 Little or none 
 
 (blank) 
 
 (blank) 
 
 Category cross indexes (a), (b). (1), (2). etc. 
 
 FIGURE 2. - Production and accumulation of U.S. coal waste by category. 
 
 composite of 2d and 2e would be classi- 
 fied as a high-calcium category. 
 
 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b - Combined because of 
 similar composition except for size 
 difference. 
 
 3c, 4c - See 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b group. 
 
 3d, 3e , 4d , 4e - Combined because of 
 similar composition except for calcium 
 content and size differences , and because 
 high- and low-calcium materials are 
 closely associated and could be combined 
 and yield a high-calcium composite. 
 
 3f, 4f - See 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b group. 
 
 5a, 5b - Combined because of similar 
 composition. 
 
 5d , 5e , 5f - Eliminated because there 
 is insignificant tonnage, widely scat- 
 tered, and inaccessible. 
 
 6a, 6b, 6d , 6f - Combined because ton- 
 nage otherwise is insignificant. 
 
 7a, 7b - See 5a, 5b group. 
 
 8a, 8b - See 5a, 5b group. 
 
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REVIEW OF COAL WASTE DESCRIPTIVE LITERATURE 
 
 EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA ANTHRACITE 
 
 General 
 
 Anthracite is coal containing more than 
 92 pet fixed carbon (56) and is limited 
 to four fields of eastern Pennsylvania. 
 Originally, anthracite waste was sepa- 
 rated into breaker refuse, silt, mine 
 refuse, tunnel rock, and mixtures of 
 these materials. Banks accumulated be- 
 fore 1900 have yielded up to 75 pet coal, 
 but coal content of subsequent production 
 banks decreased until, at present, coarse 
 process waste, breaker refuse, mine ref- 
 use, and tunnel rock, seldom contain more 
 than 5 pet commercially salable coal 
 (55) . Silt produced can contain enough 
 coal to be considered high heating value. 
 The carbon-free ash has the following ap- 
 proximate analyses 7 (86) in percent: 
 Si0 2 , 50-75; Al 2 3 , 30^37 ; Fe 2 3 , 3-10; 
 Ti0 2 , 1-2; CaO, 1-2; MgO, 0-1; K 2 and 
 Na 2 0, 1-3; and S0 3 , 0-1. 
 
 Heating values were determined for six 
 waste banks sampled and used in a feasi- 
 bility study on production of steam and 
 alumina (4). The samples have heating 
 values between 1,000 and 5,000 Btu/lb and 
 can be burned in f luidized-bed combus- 
 tors. About 4,000 Btu/lb is the heating 
 value of waste used in an Alcoa study on 
 alumina extraction (43) . At present, 
 some of the silt material is being pro- 
 cessed to decrease ash, shipped to Korea, 
 briquetted, and used as a 30-pct ash fuel 
 (56). 
 
 Anthracite process wastes are situated 
 closer to highly populated areas than 
 other coal wastes and are often unstable. 
 They are very inflammable owing to their 
 high coal content, especially the finer 
 sized material, and contain appreciable 
 quantities of leachable objectionable 
 compounds, mostly sulfides. In the past, 
 
 Metal analyses throughout the report 
 are given for an oxide form. This is 
 consistent with industrial usage and does 
 not necessarily indicate the actual chem- 
 ical form. 
 
 accummulated anthracite wastes have pro- 
 duced the most serious enviromental prob- 
 lems of any type of coal waste and repre- 
 sent the greatest ongoing hazard (55 , 57 , 
 87). 
 
 Production 
 
 The amount of waste presently produced 
 by process plants is very small compared 
 with past production. Present anthracite 
 coal production, including waste banks 
 for fuel, is less than 5 million tpy, 
 compared with 100 million tpy in 1917 
 (56, 86). Only 600,000 tpy of present 
 anthracite production is from underground 
 mines. Of 250,000 tons of new waste pro- 
 duction per year, 15,000 tpy is the silt 
 type that has high heating value. Cur- 
 rent production of anthracite ash is sev- 
 eral hundred thousand tons per year. 
 
 Storage 
 
 Anthracite waste has been accumulated 
 (55) in about 800 banks covering 12,000 
 acres and totals about 900 million yd- 5 . 
 Much of this material has burned or is 
 burning. Breaker refuse is the major 
 component , much of which is in banks 
 mixed with tunnel rock, mine refuse, and 
 silt. Approximate amounts of these an- 
 thracite waste products are shown in 
 table 2. 
 
 EAST AND CENTRAL BITUMINOUS, 
 LOW CALCIUM 
 
 General 
 
 This material, which has a relatively 
 high alumina and low alkali and alkaline 
 earth content (<4 pet CaO), constitutes 
 the principal coal waste produced in the 
 Eastern United States and the central 
 United States. Coal between anthracite 
 and lignite is referred to as bituminous. 
 It is estimated that 25 pet of the coal 
 
 from underground mines is process plant 
 waste and 10 pet of that is fines or silt 
 (7_, _ll t 13, 63). The silt contains about 
 4,000 Btu7lb~Tl4-15) but the coarse mate- 
 rial is usually significantly less. 
 
10 
 
 Alumina in the ash analysis of the coal 
 is between 20 and 30 pet and the waste 
 products are expected to contain slightly 
 less (1). Waste banks are easily inflam- 
 mable but are not located as close to ur- 
 ban centers as are anthracite waste banks 
 (55, 57-58, 87). As with the anthracite, 
 many of the waste dumps are serious 
 health and pollution hazards owing to 
 leaching of objectionable compounds, and 
 must be made innocuous. Other banks 
 forming ponds are sometimes unstable and 
 can fail, causing flooding. Disposal 
 costs (1973) for coal waste dump reclama- 
 tion ranged from $1,800 to $15,000 per 
 acre in Pennsylvania (88) . These costs 
 could be credited partially or wholly to 
 any process utilizing the waste. As far 
 as alumina extraction is concerned, these 
 wastes (eastern and central bituminous) 
 can be regarded as nearly identical to 
 their counterparts from eastern Pennsyl- 
 vania anthracite. Alumina content in the 
 anthracite waste averages several percent 
 higher than in the bituminous waste. 
 
 The Hat Creek coal of British Columbia 
 has an ash similar to east and central 
 bituminous. The Hat Creek coal ash has 
 been extensively tested for alumina ex- 
 traction (73-74) . 
 
 Production 
 
 Production data, mainly from under- 
 ground mines in the Appalachian area 
 (56) , indicate that more than 60 million 
 tons of coarse and 6 million tons of fine 
 refuse are produced annually. A large, 
 but indeterminant , number of burnt banks 
 exist. In 1964, 422 of 495 burning spoil 
 banks in the United States were in the 
 Appalachain bituminous area (87). The 
 number of burning banks has decreased be- 
 cause some bank fires have been extin- 
 guished and disposal methods have im- 
 proved; 300 banks were burning in 1978 
 (99) . 
 
 An estimated 25 million tons of utility 
 ash is produced annually, mostly high 
 temperature ash from pulverized coal. 
 This figure is derived from coal consump- 
 tion figures in the 1981 Keystone Coal 
 
 Industries Manual (56) . Many older 
 plants in the region have stoker-type 
 burners. Since these plants are rela- 
 tively small , the amount of ash produced 
 is not significant, and since much of 
 this ash is used in the building trade, 
 it can not be considered an important 
 source of alumina. Coarse ash or slag is 
 usually used in building materials. Some 
 cyclone-fired plants produce a signifi- 
 cant amount of high-temperature boiler 
 slag. 
 
 Storage 
 
 Although not well documented, a very 
 large amount of process plant waste and 
 burned waste exists in the eastern and 
 central bituminous area. The amount un- 
 doubtedly is many times greater than the 
 1 billion tons mentioned for anthracite 
 waste. 
 
 The large ash production would indicate 
 that a considerable quantity has accumu- 
 lated. A high percentage of the ash is 
 being utilized. 
 
 EAST AND CENTRAL BITUMINOUS, 
 HIGH CALCIUM 
 
 General 
 
 Except for the high calcium content (>4 
 pet calcium) this material is similar to 
 the low-calcium east and central bitumi- 
 nous waste (1_) . The high-calcium bitumi- 
 nous coals occur in the eastern interior 
 region, the western interior region, and 
 in scattered occurrences in the Appalach- 
 ian regions. Coal with high-calcium ash 
 has been found in five seams in Virginia 
 (1_) and in some West Virginia deposits 
 ( 16) . The material has higher iron and 
 alumina contents than the lignite-type 
 coal ash (1) . In general, the percentage 
 of Fe 2 03 exceeds the sum of the percent- 
 age of CaO and MgO. Bituminous coal ash 
 in which the percentage of CaO and MgO 
 exceed the percentage of Fe 2 03 is termed 
 lignite-type ash. This type of material 
 occurs in the west and south central 
 areas of the United States. 
 
11 
 
 Production 
 
 A smaller fraction of the high-calcium 
 bituminous material is mined underground 
 than low-calcium bituminous material and, 
 therefore, proportionally less of the 
 higher-heating-value process plant waste 
 is produced from this material than from 
 low-calcium bituminous. 
 
 lignite is strip mined and used as "run- 
 of-mine" product, the amount of process 
 plant and mine waste is nonexistent and 
 would contain little or no heating value. 
 The Four Corners Power Plant in New Mex- 
 ico produces more than 1 million tons of 
 utility ash per year. 
 
 Storage 
 
 No reliable data were found to differ- 
 entiate between production of high- and 
 low-calcium process plant wastes from bi- 
 tuminous coals or production of high-and 
 low-calcium utility ash from bituminous 
 coals. Two Kentucky utility plants pro- 
 duce about 400,000 tons of fly ash, 
 70,000 tons of bottom ash, and 50,000 
 tons of boiler slag per year. Average 
 ash contents of the coal burned in the 
 plants are 10 and 4.5 pet (75) . 
 
 Storage 
 
 Available information on accumulations 
 of bituminous wastes does not distinguish 
 between high and low calcium, except that 
 there is far more low-calcium material. 
 Since coal wastes fires occur, a signif- 
 icant fraction of burnt refuse exists. 
 
 WEST AND SOUTH CENTRAL LIGNITE, 
 LOW CALCIUM 
 
 General 
 
 Consolidated coal having less than 
 8,300 Btu/lb heating value is commonly 
 referred to as lignite. Lignite-type ash 
 is ash in which the sum of the percentage 
 of CaO and MgO exceeds the percentage of 
 Fe 2 03 (84) . Only rarely does the ash 
 from lignite or bituminous coals of the 
 west and south central area fail to meet 
 this "lignite-type" specification. Less 
 of the low-calcium lignite ash has been 
 produced than either the high-calcium or 
 high-calcium, high-magnesium ash. 
 
 Production 
 
 A significant tonnage of coal that has 
 lignite-type ash of low calcium and mag- 
 nesium content is being . mined in the 
 Rocky Mountain region (1). Since the 
 
 Little information is available on ac- 
 cumulations of this material. Process 
 plant wastes and mine wastes would be 
 small and widely scattered. 
 
 WEST AND SOUTH CENTRAL LIGNITE, 
 HIGH CALCIUM 
 
 General 
 
 This type of material predominates in 
 the Rocky Mountains, the Pacific Coast 
 and the Gulf lignite provinces ( 1_, 56 ) , 
 but not in the Great Plains area. Al- 
 though little analytical data on Texas 
 coal were found, the material is being 
 mined from the Wilcox Formation and has 
 high calcium and low magnesium (available 
 analyses provided by D. Taylor of Texas 
 Utilities Co., and reference 62). Ash 
 from the high-calcium lignite has alumina 
 contents that range from 10 to 25 pet. 
 Iron content can vary from 5 to 14 pet 
 and Si0 2 from 20 to 50 pet. 
 
 Most ash is produced by utilities using 
 pulverized coal in their burners. The 
 lignites contain about 20 pet bottom ash. 
 The lignite fly ashes are coarser than 
 those from bituminous or anthracite 
 coals. Some utility ash from Alberta, 
 Canada, coals have high-calcium, low- 
 magnesium type ash (74). 
 
 Production 
 
 Large quantities of coal with high- 
 calcium, lignite-type ash are being mined 
 and greater production is anticipated 
 (23) . There are underground mines and 
 standard coal cleaning plants only in 
 Colorado and Utah (_7_) . The amount of 
 process plant and mine waste produced is 
 small and scattered, especially when 
 compared with bituminous coal waste. 
 
12 
 
 Utility ash from high-calcium lignites is 
 produced in very large tonnages because 
 most of the lignite used by utilities is 
 burned in very large, pulverized coal 
 fired plants in the West and Southwest. 
 Lignite powerplants are larger than those 
 using bituminous or anthracite coal. 
 
 Storage 
 
 Process plant wastes are widely scat- 
 tered and do not provide the environmen- 
 tal problems associated with eastern 
 banks. Some of the waste banks have 
 burned. Eighteen were burning in 1964 
 and 20 in 1971 ( 57 , 87). Large quanti- 
 ties of ash are being stored and the 
 amounts are increasing (7, 56). 
 
 stoker spreaders are in operation. Cy- 
 clone furnace production of bottom ash 
 has been reported at both 65 and 90 pet , 
 spreader stokers at 35 pet, and pulver- 
 ized coal burners at 15 pet (table 1). 
 
 For the purposes of this study, the 
 subbituminous coals of the Powder River 
 basin of Montana and Wyoming are classi- 
 fied with the high-calcium, high- 
 magnesium lignites. 
 
 The coals of Saskatchewan are an exten- 
 sion of the Fort Union Formation of the 
 northern Great Plains province and have 
 high-magnesium, high-calcium ash ( 100 ) . 
 
 Production 
 
 WEST AND SOUTH CENTRAL LIGNITE, 
 HIGH CALCIUM AND HIGH MAGNESIUM 
 
 General 
 
 Lignite coals with high magnesium con- 
 tent occur in the northern Great Plains 
 and comprise 25 pet of the U.S. coal re- 
 serves (85) . Great variations are found 
 in the ash analyses of the coals even 
 within a single mine. Alumina content is 
 low and ranges from 10 to 25 pet. Al- 
 though most ash production is from pul- 
 verized coal fired plants, some plants 
 are using cyclone furnaces and some 
 
 Because little or none of the type of 
 material is mined underground, mine 
 waste, process plant waste, and burned 
 refuse are nonexistent. Utility ash pro- 
 duction is very large but less than that 
 for the high-calcium, low-magnesium lig- 
 nite. Large quantities are produced from 
 pulverized coal and cyclone furnace util- 
 ities in Minnesota and North Dakota. 
 
 Disposal 
 
 Accumulated wastes are limited to util- 
 ity ash and the amounts are increasing. 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Coal shale and coal ash in the United 
 States vary widely in accumulated volume, 
 production rate, chemical composition, 
 and physical characteristics. Neverthe- 
 less, it was possible to classify these 
 wastes on a basis of geography, residual 
 heating values, temperature of process- 
 ing, type of prior processing, and alka- 
 line earth content. The coal waste cate- 
 gories from this classification vary 
 in many factors that affect their possi- 
 ble utilization as a source of alumina. 
 Some categories can be grouped together 
 on a basis of compatability as feed to 
 alumina extraction processes. 
 
 The data in this report indicate 
 that anthracite culm provides the most 
 
 attractive source of alumina from coal 
 shale for the following reasons : 
 
 1. Large quantities 
 accessible. 
 
 are easily 
 
 2. Its continued storage constitutes 
 a severe enviromental pollution and com- 
 bustion hazard problem. Utilization 
 should provide more substantial, though 
 not presently established, commercial in- 
 centives than other coal wastes. 
 
 3. Anthracite culm is unsuitable as a 
 building material as opposed to coal 
 ashes , which have some potential in this 
 regard. 
 
13 
 
 4. Many anthracite culms contain suf- 
 ficient coal for the calcination step of 
 several attractive alumina extraction 
 processes or for physical benef iciation 
 as a valuable byproduct. 
 
 5. It generally has higher alumina 
 content than other coal ashes and coal 
 shale except for the eastern bituminous 
 areas . 
 
 6. It has a relatively low content of 
 impurities deleterious to the alumina 
 extraction processes. 
 
 Bituminous wastes stored in the Appa- 
 lachian region are similar in quantity 
 
 and composition to the anthracite culm 
 but are less attractive because of their 
 scattered location in relatively isolated 
 areas. 
 
 Although some coal ashes in the eastern 
 United States have alumina contents ap- 
 proaching those of anthracite culm or 
 eastern bituminous coal shale, many of 
 these eastern coal ashes are being par- 
 tially or completely utilized for build- 
 ing material (_5, 46) . Western coal 
 ashes, which are much less utilized for 
 building material, are much lower in 
 alumina. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Abernathy, R. F. , M. J. Petersen, 
 and F. H. Gibson. Major Ash Constituents 
 in U.S. Coals. BuMines RI 7240, 1969, 
 9 pp. 
 
 2. Akers, D. J., B. J. McMillen, and 
 J. W. Leonard. Coal Minerals Bibliogra- 
 phy. WV Univ., Coal Res. Bureau, July 
 1978, 222 pp; available from NTIS, Fe- 
 2692-5. 
 
 3. Aldrich, R. G. , and W. J. Zacha- 
 rias. Flyash Magnetite - A Commercial 
 Realization. Paper in The Challenge of 
 Change - Sixth International Ash Utiliza- 
 tion Symposium Proceedings, ed. by J. S. 
 Halow and J. M. Covey. U.S. Dep. Energy, 
 DOE/METC/82-52, v. 2, 1982, pp. 1-21. 
 
 4. Apa, R. P., E. S. Grimmett, F. R. 
 Keller, and J. N. McFee. Alumina Extrac- 
 tion From Anthracite Culm With Energy Re- 
 covery, (contract J0215022, Energy Inc.). 
 OFR 83-121, 1982, 86 pp. 
 
 5. Asrew, S. P. Fly Ash Usage in 
 Large Commercial Office Buildings. Paper 
 in Proceedings , Fourth International Ash 
 Utilization Symposium, comp . by J. H. 
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