Teacljit)^ of Literature pCxtell \ Class Book. 7S M Gopyriglitl^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSm THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE BY ULYSSES F. AXTELL u Head of Department of English in the Cortland State Normal School SYRACUSE. N. Y. C. W. BARDEEN. PUBLISHER Copyright, 1915. by C. W. Bardeen s^ V'^V JUL 28 (915 ©CJ.A410027 To the memory of my mother PREFACE This book is simply an applica- tion of the principles and spirit of the course given by Prof. William H. Crawshaw of Colgate University while the author was a student in that institution. The author's only solicitude is that his great teacher shall not be charged with any of the weaknesses that may be found in this work. To Prof. Alexander J. Inglis of Harvard University the author is indebted for much helpful advice and criticism. Prof. R. Elliot Owens of Cortland Normal School has given most ef- (7) 8 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE ficient help by thoroughly reviewing and criticising the whole manuscript. The author's theories have been modified and completed by the writ- ings of such critics as Winchester, Warsfold, Bates, St edman, Hudson, Corson, Carlyle and Poe. Various writers on the teaching of literature have furnished indispensable sug- gestions. Among such writers spe- cial mention should be made of Prof. Chubb and Dr. Charles A. McMurry. THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE Introduction The following outlines are not designed to be dictatorial nor inflexible, although the degree to which they are specific may seem to indicate that they are so intended. They are planned to show many things that may be done. Doubtless many other things, as for instance dramatizing, may be done to great advantage. But the helplessness with which young teachers face the necessity of teaching literature; (9) 10 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE their frequent lack of insight, resourceful- ness, and systematic methods of pro- cedure, seem to warrant the offering of somewhat definite outlines for the prepa- ration and teaching of a literary master- piece. However, the outlines are given with the understanding that it is each teacher's duty ultimately to work out a method of his or her own. Natiurally the resourceful teacher will vary and abbrevi- ate these methods to suit the selection and the circumstances under which it is being taught. The outlines are to be THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 11 used only so far as they naturally apply. Do not force them. Finally too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the following words of warning. Thoroughness, a word so valuable in most school work, is the bane of teaching literature. Do not attempt to be thorough in this work. Aim to do a few things well, but avoid being exhaustive. Do enough to con- vince your class of the boundless possibili- ties in the study of literature and then stop. Open the gate, teach them to recognize the guide posts, direct their attention to a 12 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE few of the delights by the way, and leave them with the impression that they have entered a world of unexplored beauty 1 CHAPTER I Some Definitions of Literature It is necessary that there should be no ambiguity about the kind of literatiure discussed in these outlines. The schenie is designed primarily for teaching fine art literature in grades six to nine inclusive. With some modifications, such as an ex- perienced teacher or supervisor can easily make, the outlines may be made helpful in all grades from the kindergarten through the high school. (13) 14 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE In "The Interpretation of Literature" Dean Crawshaw distinguishes four classes of writings. The third class comprises those writings that have a practical purpose and value, are permanently valuable to mankind in general, and possess in addi- tion a certain distinction of manner and are marked by certain qualities that make them interesting independently of their thought value. The foiirth class comprises those writ- ings that are of permanent value to man- kind in general, have the requisite distinc- THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 15 tion of manner, and have as their dominant purpose and spirit, not to instruct or in- form, but to move the soul by their impres- siveness, beauty and power. Literature in this latter sense is defined as "the con- crete embodiment of ideal beauty in human speech". "Ideal" here means that it is the product of the imagination. The following outlines are intended primarily to apply to this fourth class of literature. But they may be helpful also in teaching such masterpieces as Burke's Orations and Lincoln's " Getty sbtirg Ad- 16 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE dress", which should be classed in Dean Crawshaw's third division because of their practical purposes. It is most helpful to the teacher, however, to think of literature as an . inspirational interpretation of lije through the medium of written language, as this indicates what should be the dominant aim of the teacher. She should teach literature in such a way that the children will feel its inspiration. Some say that the distinguishing aim of literature is to amuse or entertain. These words are too small, they imply something THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 17 superficial and transient. Mark Twain does more than amuse. He stimulates an abiding attitude toward life. Inspire is the word. The aim is to give such fullness of motive that even drudgery shall have a certain thrill. Nothing more fundamental or more far reaching can be done in the training of citizens than to establish in them an abid- ing conviction that life is well worth living and to stimulate a passion for getting the most out of it. This is the province of the teacher of literature. Other teachers 18 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE must train them in arts of living in a phy- sical world and help them to verify the ideals derived from literature. No citizen is equipped for success without the two kinds of training. Matthew Arnold says that the poet answers the question, how should we live. No! He is not primarily concerned with this. The attempt to make the poet answer this question has been the fatal error of many teachers. The function of the scientist is to answer the question, what is lifel The function of the artist, THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 19 whether poet, painter, or musician, is to answer the question, what is life wortht The function of the preacher, teacher, and judge is to answer the question, how should we live'^ Bryant says, "So Hve, etc.", but what he says is altogether a passionate expression of the love of life. It is not a rule of action. For other definitions see the following: Worsfold — The Principles of Criticism, page 158. Longmans Winchester — Principles of Literary Criticism, pages 38-41. MacMillan CHAPTER II ANALYZING A LITERARY MASTERPIECE PRE- PARATORY TO TEACHING IT A. Content Elements I The Thought Element 1. What is the main theme or central thought ? 2. Outline the whole thought move- ment. II The Emotional Element 1. What is the dominant emotional element ? (20) THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 21 2. What minor emotional elements are involved ? 3. Regarding the interplay of emo- tions : a. In any one character what is the (1) relation of minor to domi- nant emotional elements ? (2) interrelation of minor emo- tional elements ? h. In different characters what are the (1) contrasted emotional ele- ments ? 22 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE (2) supplementary emotional ele- ments ? 4. Trace the development of emotional elements. 5. Indicate the effects of the emotional elements. 6. What is the relation of the emo- tional elements a. to the author's personality? h. to other personalities? Ill The Imaginative Element. 1. What are the major elements of imagination — the whole vision in the perspective ? THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 23 2. What are the minor elements of imagination? 3. What is the relation between the minor and the major imaginative elements ? 4. What is the relation of the minor imaginative elements to the major imaginati^-e elements? 5. What is the relation between the imaginative and the thought ele- ments ? 6. What is the relation between the imaginative and the emotional ele- ments ? 24 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 7. What are the elements of produc- tive (constructive) imagination ? 8. What are the elements of associative imagination — the association of objects, ideas, or experiences emo- tionally akin ? Example — Shelley's Skylark, 1. 31-60. 9. What are the elements of penetra- tive (interpretative) imagination — transporting the reader from his own point of view to that of some other object or creature from which point of view the reader gets a more THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 25 sympathetic understanding of the object and a more penetrative in- sight into its nature and circum- stances ? Examples : Shelley's Skylark, 1. 14-15 **Now thou's turned out, for a' thy trouble, But house or hald. To thole the winter's sleety dribble An crancreuch cauld!" Burns 10. What abstract or elusive qualities are forced into consciousness in such 26 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE a way as to command exclusive at- tention? Example: "Gladness of woods, skies, waters, all in one." Lowell. ''Bright flower \ for by that name at last, When all my reveries are past, I call thee and to that cleave fast, Sweet, silent creature!" Wordsworth 11. What are the relations between imaginative (fictional) and real (fact) elements ? THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 27 IV The Aesthetic Elements. 1. What are the major aesthetic ele- ments ? 2. What are the minor aesthetic ele- ments? 3. Are any of these contrasted or sup- plementary ? 4. To what extent is the appeal of the aesthetic elements to the physical, intellectual or spiritual nature? 5. Is any unpleasant element found.? B Form Elements I Style. 28 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 1. Intellectual qualities. a. Are there errors of grammar, rhetoric or spelling? Are there artistic reasons for these? h. Is the language clear? c. Is the language simple? d. Are these qualities most promi- nent in thought passages? 2. Emotional qualities a. Are the words chosen and ar- ranged to express strong feelings, impulses, determination, or con- viction? THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 29 b. Is the language in any way es- pecially adapted to expressing melancholy, pity, grief, or des- pair? c. Is there anything in the style which makes it humorous? 3. Imaginative qualities a. Is the language especially adapt- ed to making an intense or vivid appeal to the senses? b. Is it intended to interpret facts or give the secrets of life and nature by making appeals to 30 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE subtle associations of thought and feeling, transporting the reader to a new point of view, or stimu- lating a powerful focusing of at- tention on elusive or abstract qualities of some object or situa- tion? What are the peculiarities of language by which these things are accomplished? 4. Aesthetic qualities. a. What passages have an especially pleasing succession of vowel and consonant sounds? Does this THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 31 help to make the substance ap- peal to the aesthetic sense? b. Are the selection and arrange- ment of words intended to ac- complish an adaptation of sound to sense? Example: "The Bells" by Poe. c. Is there anything in the style whereby it is especially appro- priate to "the writer, the subject, the occasion, the sensibilities of the reader," etc. II Metre 32 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 1. Its relation to the content. Ill Structure 1. Its value in suggesting the frame- work of the content. C Arrangement and Relationship of Parts I Contrast and variety 1. In form. 2. In content. 3. Their artistic value. II Is there a climax or are there several climaxes, summaries or denouments? 1. Their effects upon the content elements. THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 33 2. How much do they assist us in appreciating and interpreting the content? 3, Their effects upon the elements of form. Ill Unity 1. In thought — ^logical sequence. 2. In emotional element. a. Are the characters consistent in their emotional natures and de- velopment ? h. Are the intensity and kinds of emotion in keeping with the 34 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE objects, thoughts or situtations which excite them? c. Are the effects of the emotions in determining conduct or destiny of character adequate and natural ? 3. In the imaginative element. a. Are the various groups of charac- ters and elements of plot woven together in a natural way? b. Are the descriptive backgrounds in keeping with the actions, e- vents, or objects which make up the center of attractions? THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 35 4, Unity in the aesthetic element. a. Are the kinds and degrees of beauty in the characters, objects, plot, emotions, thought, etc., con- sistent with themselves and with each other and are they properly sustained? 5. Unity in the interrelation between the various elements of content and form. a. What relation between the nature of the country described and the people who live in it? 36 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE b. What relation between the physi- cal, spiritual, and intellectual elements of the characters? Are they consistent? c. Is the outcome of the plot consis- tent with the relative powers, and prominence of the characters and other forces in the masterpiece? d. Is the framework of the thought consistent with the development and outcome of the plot? e. Are the thoughts, emotions, ac- tions, and events properl}^ related THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE 37 as to cause and effect? Do they contribute harmoniously to the complete result? /. Is the form appropriate to the content ? 6. Unity in contrast and variety. a. Do these qualities as found in the elements of form and content tend to divert and scatter atten- tion or to centralize it? 7. Unity in climax and close of master- piece. a. Is the movement toward a climax 38 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE and close of the masterpiece pro- perly progressive? Any unneces- sary delays or interruptions? b. Does the closing of the master- piece adequately dispose of all elements? That the teacher should regard the unity of a literary masterpiece when she teaches it, is vital to her success. Many, many failures are made because the teacher does not do this. For instance in teaching Burns's poem **To a Mouse" a teacher should interest a class in the author's life THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 39 on the farm. But to add to this a disserta- tion on his vices and his life in Edinborough will be nearly fatal to success. In teaching the "Cotter's Saturday Night," the author's boyhood should be discussed, but to bring in his disloyalty to his own wife and chil- dren would hopelessly counteract all efforts to achieve desired results. The same kind of error is often made by indulging in long pedantic discussions of allusions which might be explained in a sentence. It is an easy thing to over-develop or empha- size a minor thought or imaginative pro- 40 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE duct and fail properly to magnify more important elements. In mathematics or science such a blunder may be repaired; but literature is peculiar in that a serious error of that kind can seldom be remedied until several years later. D Kinds of Literature* Descriptive Descriptive Poetry Descriptive Prose Poetry Prose Narative Subjective Dramatic Epic Ro- mance Lyric Essay Drama Novel In narrative everything is subordinate to a thrilling or interesting series of related *From Prof. Crawshaw's Interpretation of Literature. THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 41 events. These events have in them the spirit of the time, place, and institutions which they represent or interpret. In subjective literature, the author expresses his own thoughts and feelings directly, and his character and life be- come a very essential part of the real element. In dramatic literature, the dominant aim is to set forth a section of human life and let it reveal itself through action and dialogue. The drama sets forth the rela- tion between destiny and character. 42 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE Descriptive literature is always accessory to one of the other kinds and its purpose is subordinate. These various types are usually more or less blended and the teacher must treat each masterpiece according to its natiu-e. So far as it is subjective, study it as an expression of the author's own life and character. So far as it is dramatic, study the section of life set forth and the portrayal and development of character. Treat narration and description according to their importance in the masterpiece. CHAPTER III Teaching a Literary Masterpiece It must be understood that the previous outline is to aid the teacher in making her own analysis of the selection and is not a method for teaching the selection to child- ren. The teacher's own point of view will be somewhat different from that of her class. She will study it somewhat as a critic, interested in the artist and his processes. For the teacher this will not lessen the enjoyment of the selection. (43) 44 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE But the average grammar school or high school pupil is not interested in that. He does not wish to be conscious of the artist or any of his schemes. He wishes to enjoy the thrill of the story, the vividness and beauty of the pictures, the clash of the emotions, the intellectual contest, the mys- tery, the eloquence, and the music, the tri- umph of right and the defeat of wrong. Do not make the study of literature a study of the art of narration nor of exposition nor of anything except the art of enjoying a masterpiece and absorbing its inspiration. THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 45 When you teach high school students the art of narration use history, biography, or newspaper articles as models. When you teach exposition use scientific or political articles found in standard reference works or in good magazines. But leave fine art literature to he taught as an inspirational interpretation of life. A lady who is a good dancer follows the lead of her partner, so a good teacher of literature will follow the lead of the author. Adopt the author's aim, point of view and method and cooperate with him. An 46 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE author of an artistic masterpiece never aims to teach narration, nor exposition, nor versification, nor literary criticism. He aims to reconstruct a section of life in such a way that its inspiring aspects will be evident. It is the teacher's business to assist in accomplishing this aim. If he introduces any other aims he is assuming the prerogatives of the author, killing time, stifling interest, and creating general confusion. Literature shows the beauties of the adaptations of nature; the nobility and THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 47 romance of common life; the stress and strain and the grandeur of great historic epochs; the joy of triumph in all condi- tions of life — on the farm, in the shops, in the mines, in social life, in commercial life, in the inner spiritual struggle. Literature should be so taught as to interpret all these from the point of view of their great- est worth and should result in inspiring students to lay hold of the problems, duties, and opportunities of life with a more sus- tained* zest and with more of that high seriousness of which Matthew Arnold speaks. 48 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE Reflecting on their strange meeting with the risen Savior, the Disciples exclaimed: "Did not our hearts burn within us while he talked with us by the way and while he opened to us the Scriptures?" Such must be the result of the teaching of litera- ture. The children are to be inspired to yearn for greater revelations of truth, for deeper love; to pour out their sympathy and pity; to feel the rush of indignation and the flood pf patriotic zeal, an ardent admiration for achievement, a boundless love of life, of God, of man, and of every THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 49 living creature, and a great optimistic belief in the future. The following questions regarding Shake- speare's Macbeth are bad if occurring very frequently. They are taken from a recent book on the method of teaching English classics. 1, "Comment on the appropriateness of the first scene." 2. "Note that this scene is valuable to us because it explains the situation of af- fairs in the realm. It particularly sets forth the valor and the loyalty of Mac- beth." 50 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE The aim of these statements is partly good, but the form is bad because it directs the interest to the author rather than to the characters. A better form would be something as follows: State the situation in the realm as set forth in this scene. Name two essential qualities of Macbeth as a general. 3. "Comment on the narrative skill shown in the sergeant's account." Instead of asking such a question as this could we not accomplish our aim bet- ter as follows ? Picture this wounded ser- THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 51 geant as he tells his story. Picture the listening king and his sons. By such sug- gestions make the children feel that they are part of the dramatic situation. 4. "What dramatic piirpose is served by making him a wounded sergeant?" 5. "What artistic advantage is served by what Ross says." 6. "Why not have Duncan summon Cawdor to the Royal presence and there pronounce his death?" These questions make the pupils feel that the characters are mere dummies or 52 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE parts of a machine, and that to find real life we must go back to the inventor or the machinist. They create' a critical attitude and not a sympathetic one. They stimulate the in- tellect rather than the imagination. They haggle and slash a piece of literatiire as though it had no blood and nerves and spirit. When our friends bring roses to our hospital birth, we want no pedantic botanist to tell us how he cultivated them or to tear them into pieces to tell their structure. We want some gentler atten- THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 53 dant to put them into cut glass and water them that we may enjoy their fragrance and their velvety, crimson freshness. When we are dispirited by the grind and drudgery of routine, we want no learned critic croaking about the mechanism of our beloved masterpiece. We want some gentle and sympathetic interpreter to charm our souls back to new life by her suggestive rendering and unfolding of the author's spirit. Even a good teacher of physics would arouse more interest in his machine than a teacher of literature who 54 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE asks such questions as those quoted above would stimulate in a great literary master- piece. The teacher of physics would show how beautifully his machine would work and what it would accomplish for mankind. Avoid critical and fact questions. Such questions may occasionally be asked to advantage, but they should be rare. Ask stimulating, suggestive, interpretative questions. And so it is expected that, in carrying out the following method, the teacher will thoroughly assimilate the masterpiece THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 55 which she has analyzed and adapt her ap- proach to it to the interests, tastes, and experiences of her class. Teach the mas- terpiece, adhere to its central elements, let neither the life nor the skill of the author nor anything else divert attention from the heart of the masterpiece. CHAPTER IV OUTLINE FOR THE METHOD OF TEACHING A LITERARY MASTERPIECE IN UPPER GRAMMAR GRADES A Preparation Aims 1. To prepare the minds of the class to receive the problems of the selec- tion with interest and with a fresh command of the general back- ground of facts. 2. To create a sympathetic or har- monious emotional atmosphere. (56) THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 57 II Method 1. When possible present the prob- lems which the author set for him- self or met in the course of producing the masterpiece. Do not try to find final solutions, but rather aim to arouse interest. 2. Put the class into possession of the facts or conditions out of which the selection was created — geography, history, nature, social conditions, religion, legendary or mythical background. 58 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 3. Discuss the author's relations to- these conditions. 4. Give a suggestive forecast of the way the author has treated his problems and materials. B Presentation I Aim 1 . To help children get general impres- sions of masterpiece — its substance, form and arrangement. II Method 1. Teacher read the selection or divis- ion of it or have the class read it for themselves THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 59 a. Quality of teacher's reading im- portant — voice, expression, per- sonality, enthusisam, enunciation. b. As few interruptions as possible during this reading. 2. After the reading have each child make a list of the words he cannot pronounce or of which he does not know the meaning. Teacher have a list of words on which she thinks the children will need help. Insist that children place words on left with nice margin and room at the right for a definition. 60 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE C Association and Comparison I Aims 1. To guide children in selecting dis- tinctly literary elements. 2. To lead them to treat these ele- ments in such a manner as to enjoy them. 3. To develop in children the power to enjoy literature without the aid of a teacher, 4. To stimulate in children the whole- some, emotional and spiritual im- pulses, intellectual alterness, ana- THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 61 lytical power, imaginative insight and sympathy, powers of vivid perceptions, and ultimately so to develop all these that they shall dominate children's characters. II Method 1. Dictionary work. a. Have children write out from. dictionary the pronunciations and meanings of words in their lists. h. Teach class how to use guide words. c. Have whole class look up same 62 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE word at same time. Keep re- cords of best time and number of failures at end of certain number of seconds. d. Help children select appropriate meanings and pronunciations. 2. Teacher and pupils together work out a topical outline. 3. By questions and suggestions help the children to understand and ap- preciate the characters, events, de- scriptions, plot with its dramatic situations, emotions, thoughts, and THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 63 the relation of each of these to the other elements. Reread brief har- monious or melodious passages to bring out beauties of style. Let class close eyes and try to form the picture while the teacher rereads vivid concrete passages. Induce class to struggle with the subtle, hidden meanings bound up in sug- gestive passages. Bring to bear upon this the experiences of the teacher and pupil and whatever facts were brought out under pre- 64 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE paration. Before the reader can feel the force of the author's inter- pretation he must see the objects and have the experiences which the author saw and had as vividly as the author realized them. There- fore one of the chief aims of the teacher is to make these experiences vivid. Call attention to the definite characteristics of the sounds, sights etc. In studying some selections, children will enjoy suggesting pas- sages for moving picture films. THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 65 Have in mind the elements of contrast and climax as means to making experiences more vivid. The kind of literature being studied will determine where to lay emphasis in this process. If the selection is dramatic, study charac- ter portrayal and development. If it is subjective consider it as an expression of the author's life. Beware of overdoing this process. Here is fine opportunity for the master workman, so to touch es- 66 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE sentials that they are brought out in all their beauty and power, while minor matters are left for the pupils' own initiative. D Recapitulation or Generalization I Aims 1. To unify and strengthen general impressions. 2. To give the teacher an opportunity to test the efficiency of her work and discover any deficiencies to be repaired. 3. To arouse children's sense of re- THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 67 sponsibility for the work, that this may supplement their interest. 4. To teach children that to enjoy feelings and impulses completely they must express them. 5. To develop in children the power of accurate, easy, complete expres- sion. 6. To develop ideals of good voice; enunciation; expression; and of graceful, pleasing, effective person- ality. II Methods 68 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 1. Oral reproductions of incidents, descriptions, and oral explanations of problems of plot or characters. Oral quiz. 2. Oral reading by pupils. a. Not necessary for class to read whole selection if it is long. Se- lect most interesting and literary parts. h. Before children read aloud let them read a page or two silently, to make sure that they have the content and pronunciation. Drill THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 69 them briefly on the meanings and pronunciations of the words they have looked up. c. Have each passage attempted reread until you secure a good rendering. d. Teacher and class criticize read- ing for expression, fluency, enun- ciation, pronunciation, voice, position. Let the test for this be — Did you enjoy the reading? If not what fatilts prevented it? Make favorable as well as un- 70 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE favorable criticisms. The best way to establish the details of the ideal for good reading is to direct attention to these qualities when exemplified in the children's read- ing. Put the children into an appreciative attitude of mind. e. Let child stand in front of the room and face the class ; weight of body evenly distributed between the two feet; body erect, head erect so that the voice carries, book lying in one hand and leaves THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 71 turned with the other. Reader frequently look from book to audience. /. Teacher stand in the back of the room or at the side. g. Do not assist children in pro- nunciation while they are reading. Make them rely on themselves alone. Give all necessary sugges- tions and pronunciations before the child goes to the front to read. Sometimes it is necessary to in- terrupt to correct position or to 72 THE TEACHING OP LITERATURE stimulate to better expression, but such interruptions should be brief. h. In trying to get good expression avoid taking punctuation as the chief guide. Ask such questions as these — Is this an exciting pas- sage? Did the reader make it so? Is it sad, thoughtfiil, happy? Did the reader bring out the proper quality ? The oral reading should be an adequate expression of the appreciative interpreta- THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE 73 tion developed under association. Pause, rate of reading, emphasis, quality of voice, and inflections are determined by the thought, emotion, imagination and beauty in substance and by the various elements of form of which punc- tuation is a very minor element. 3. Written reviews. a. About once in five weeks. h. Caution children about penman- ship, spelling, neatness, margins and such other technical matter 74 THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE as they a