'tiPlli^ |l liihlil II' Class Book. OH-^S Goipght}^?. COPWUGHT DEPOSIT. AGRICULTURE FOR THE KANSAS COMMON SCHOOLS COMPILED AND ARRANGED BY LELAND EVERETT fALL Professor of Agronomy, Kansas State Agricultural College AND HARRY LLEWELLYN KENT Principal of the School of Agriculture and Associate Professor of Education, Kansas State Agricultural College PUBLISHED BY THE STATE OF KANSAS STATE PRINTING PLANT TOPEKA 1914 AGRICULTURE FOR THE KANSAS COMMON SCHOOLS COMPILED AND ARRANCRD BY LELAND EVERETT ^ALL Professor of Agronomy, Kansas State Agricultural College AND HARRY LLEWELLYN KENT Principal of the School of Agricidture and Associate Professor of Education, Kansas Slate Agricultural College PUBLIFHED BY THE STATE OF KANSAS STATE PRINTING PLANT TOPEKA 1914 ^^^< e\^ Copyright, 1914, by L. E. Call and H. L. Kent MAR 15 1^15 ©CI,Ali9396;3 CONTENTS Page Introduction. Why We Study Agriculture 1 f'HAPTKR I. How Plants Are Built 4 H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. II. Roots 7 H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. III. Stems and Leaves 16 H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. IV. Flowers and Fruits 28 H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. V. How Plants Multiply 35 H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. VI. Corn 42 Cecil Salmon, Assistant Professor of Farm Crops. VII. Sorghums 59 G. E. Thompson, General Superintendent of Substations. VIII. Wheat 72 Cecil Salmon, Assistant Professor of Farm Crops. IX. Oats and Other Small Grains 85 Cecil Salmon, .^sistant Professor of Farm Crops. X. Harvesting, Marketing, and Milling Wheat. . 91 L. A. Fitz, Professor of Milling Industry. XI. Legumes 101 Ralph Kenney, Instructor in Crops. XII. Grasses 122 Ralph Kenney, Instructor in Crops. XIII. How Plants AND Animals Are Improved 131 H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. XIV. Weeds 143 H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. XV. Soil Formation 149 R. I. Throckmorton, Assbt-ant Professor of Soils. XVI. Soil Water 162 R. I. Throckmorton, .Assistant Professor of Soils. XVII. Soil Improvement 173 R. I. Throckmorton, Assistant Professor of Soils. XVIII. Drainage 183 H. B. Walker, Drainage and Irrigation Engineer. XIX. Irrigation 194 H. B. Walker, Drainage and Irrigation Engineer. XX. Feeding Farm Animals 207 C. M. Vestal, .A.ssi.staut Profe3.sor of Animal Nutritiou. (iii) V CONTENTS Chapter Page XXI. Horse Production 221 C. W. McCampbell, Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry. XXII. Beef Cattle 242 W. A. Cochel, Professor of Animal Husbandry. XXIII. Hogs 257 W. L. Blizzard and A. M. Paterson, Assistants in Animal Husbandry. XXIV. Sheep 276 J. D. Lewis, Instructor in Animal Husbandry. XXV. Dairying 285 0. I'j. Reed, Professor of Dairy Husbandry. XXVI. Poultry 302 W. A. Lippiufott, Professor of Poultry Husbandry. XXVII. Diseases of Live Stock 315 F. S. Slioeideber, Professor of Veterinary Medieine. XXVIII. Growing and Caking for Trees 322 C'. A. Scott, Professor of Forestry XXIX. Plant Diseases 332 E. C. Johnson, Superintendent of Farmers' Institutes, and L. E. Melfhers, Instructor in Plant Pathology. XXX. Insects on the Farm 345 G. A. Dean, Professor of Entomology. XXXI. Spraying 372 Albert Dickens, Professor of Horticulture. XXXII. Orcharding 377 Albert Dickens, Professor of Horticulture. XXXIII. The Vegetable Garden 404 Albert Dickens, Professor of Horticulture. XXXIV. Beautifying the Home Grounds 416 M. F. AhearD, Associate Professor of Horticulture. XXXV. Birds 425 R. K. Nabours, Professor of Zoology, and J. E. Ackert, Assistant Professor of Zoology. XXXVI. Good Roads 431 VV. S. Gcarhart, Stale Highway lOngincer. Appendix 447 PREFACE Agriculture is the basic industry of Kansas. The way the farms of Kansas are tilled in the future depends on the way agriculture is taught in the schools now. Not only, however, is this book intended to make more effective the teaching of agriculture in the schools of the state, but the amount of material applying directly to Kansas conditions should make the book also a valuable reference work for the farmer. Because of the widely varying conditions in the state, the teacher should em- phasize those chapters the subject matter of which is of greatest importance in the local community. The book was prepared by the college and experiment station staffs of the Kansas State Agricultural College. Special acknowledgment is due President H. J. Waters, Dean W. M. Jardine, and Dean J. T. Willard for advice and assistance in the preparation of the book. The names of the authors of the chapters are given in the table of contents. Unless otherwise acknowledged, photographs were supplied by the authors of the respective chapters. The subject matter as originally furnished has been rearranged for the sake of uniformity and better adaptation to the needs of the schools. The compilers also desire to acknowledge their in- debtedness to N. A. Crawford, Assistant Professor of the English Language in charge of the Department of In- dustrial Journalism, for expert editorial service in the preparation of this volume. Leland Everett Call. Harry Llewellyn Kent. (V) INTRODUCTION Why we Study Agriculture When man first began raising plants and caring for animals is not known. It must have been long before the time of the most ancient people of whom we have record. The earliest farming must have been very simple. It consisted probably in scratching up the soil a very little with a stick and planting the seed to grow as best it could, and finally harvesting a small crop of very poor grain or fruit. Men also watched the animals to keep them from straying and from being stolen by other men or killed by wild beasts. After long ages man learned to build inclosures for his live stock and to select the gentler and better animals to increase his herds. This was the first step toward scientific agriculture. Long before Christ was born, men learned to hitch oxen, horses, and camels to rough wooden plows, which tore up and loosened the soil after a fashion. Probably even before this, man had learned to keep the weeds down and to cultivate the soil during the growing season. He also learned to select the better grains and fruits for seed, and travelers sometimes brought home with them the seeds of new plants. Some of the earliest lessons man learned about agriculture were, first, to save the seed from the best plants, and to select the best and gentlest animals to increase his herds; second, how better to till the soil and to guard and feed his animals. There is no doubt that with such care plants and animals improved greatly. Grains, such as wheat and : (1) 2 AGRICULTURE barley, and fruits, melons, roots, and vegetables, grew larger and more palatable. The cattle, horses, and other stock must have changed from small, narrow, bony, long- haired, scrubby animals to larger, better-formed, more useful live stock. After the thirteenth century, parts of the world, espe- cially of Europe, became densely populated. With the growth in population and the demand for more food, new fields were continually opened up. When a field had lost its fertility it was abandoned, and another field was cleared and cultivated. When all the lands were being used and still not enough food was produced, there was great suffer- ing, and many poor people starved. During the seventeenth century America was colonized, and soon food was sent to Europe in considerable quanti- ties. About this time corn, which had been used for centuries by the Indians alone, began to be used by civilized people, the wooden plows were improved, and better live stock was produced. But with all these changes food still remained scarce. It had long been noticed that better tillage produced better crops. Many persons began writing about tillage, and finally, in 1733, an Englishman named Jethro Tull published a book called "The Horse-hoing Husbandry," in which he advocated better and more regular tillage, as a necessary step in securing large yields of crops. The need for cheap food in the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries led learned men in colleges and universi- ties to begin studying the problems of agriculture. That meant the real beginning of scientific agriculture. What these scientists and the farmers working together have discovered makes up what we are to learn about agri- culture. In our study of agriculture we are always to look for INTRODUCTION 3 two things: first, the best method of doing a thing; second, the reasons for doing the thing in that way. In a very short time we are to learn easily the following things, which mankind has learned with much trouble and at great cost: 1. How to produce cheaply larger amounts and a better quality of grain, feed, fruits, and vegetables. 2. How to keep the soil in the best condition for grow- ing large crops at the least expense, and how to preserve rather than waste the fertility of the soil. 3. How through better breeding, feeding, and housing to produce better live stock, and better live-stock prod- ucts, such as eggs, milk, butter, and wool. 4. How to make the business of farming more profit- able and more attractive. 5. How to make the farmer's home a pleasant and con- venient place in which to live. 6. How to make the neighborhood a desirable place morally and socially, as well as an efficient business com- munity. 7. How to cooperate with other farmers and develop such a common feeling among farmers as exists among doctors, lawyers, merchants, or laboring men. CHAPTER I HOW PLANTS ARE BUILT Plants are the great food makers of the earth. They alone have the power to take from air and soil and water different materials, which they put together, and from which they make food for man and animals. If it were not for plants, therefore, man and animals could not live upon the earth. The Parts of a Plant. All plants of greatest importance are made up of four parts : the roots, the stems, the leaves, and the flowers and fruits. At some stage in the plant's life some of these parts may be missing. In winter many trees are without leaves. Certain other plants lose both stems and leaves during the winter, at least as far down as the surface of the ground. In others, roots, stems, and leaves all die at the end of the growing season, as is the case with corn, Russian thistle, pigweed, sunflower, fox- tail, and crab grass. Some plants, such as winter wheat and rye, if their seed is sown in the fall, remain alive and green all winter, but die the following summer, after pro- ducing their seeds. Some plants live only two years. During the first year their leaves make food, which is stored up in roots, bulbs, and the like; the second season, both leaves and a flower stalk are borne. After the seeds are produced, the plant dies. Most of the root crops, such as beets, turnips, pars- nips, and carrots, are plants of this kind. Onions also grow in this way. If the onion bulbs that grow from the seed (4) HOW PLANTS ARE BUILT Plant cells. The large, round body in the center of each cell is called the nucleus. It might be called the engine of the cell. the first season are planted the next year, they will produce flower stalks, will bear seeds, and will then die. Some plants, such as goldenrod, ironweed, and alfalfa, die only to the ground, and may continue to live through several or many years. The Structure of Plants. Though plants differ widely in behavior and even in appearance, the structure of one plant, nevertheless, very much resembles that of another. Thus, we have the roots going down into the soil, and the stem holding the leaves up to the air. The stem and the roots are made up of a framework of woody tissue. The amount of wood differs greatly in different plants and at different times of the year. Asparagus, for example, has very little wood in its stems when they are gathered in the spring, but later, in the summer, when it has grown tall and coarse, the stems are very woody. Sun- flowers, when young, are soft, con- tain no woody tissue, and are easily cut with the scythe; by fall, however, they have formed tough, woody stems like those of trees. Around the outside of young stems and roots, and even of leaves, is a protecting layer. On the trunks and roots of trees this is called bark, but on leaves, on the first year's growth of tree stems, and on the stems of such plants as Cells of the potato tuber, filled with large starch grains. 6 AGRICULTURE alfalfa or pigweed, it is called epidermis. The epider- mis is much thinner than bark, but it serves the same purpose — that of keeping the plant from drying out, and of making it more difficult for enemies and dis- eases to injure the plant. Plant Cells. All these parts of plants are made up of tiny cells. Each of the cells has a wall, and while it is young, and working or growing, it contains a living sub- stance called protoplasm, together with some water and plant foods. As the cells get older they change in many ways. Thus, the cells of the framework become very much thicker-walled, the walls become much harder, and at the same time the cells grow very long and slender and lose their protoplasm. Cells of this kind form the hard strings which one sometimes finds in beets and parsnips, and which make the stems of alfalfa and sweet clover hard and tough and unfit for hay if they are cut too late. Some of the cells never thicken their walls very much. These are the ones which continue to manufacture food, or in which food is stored. The potato is a good example of a mass of such soft cells. Almost all seeds of plants are made up very largely of such soft-walled cells stored full of food. QUESTIONS 1. What are the principal parts of a plant? How does the length of life of these parts differ in different plants? Give examples. 2. What are plant cells? What do they contain? 3. How do the cells of a potato differ from those of an alfalfa stem? from those of an oak tree? CHAPTER II ROOTS Most of us are surprised when we learn that the roots produced in a season by a full-grown wheat plant would, if placed end to end, measure a total length of from sixteen hundred to two thousand feet — about a third of a mile. A pumpkin vine produces fifteen miles of roots in a season. Roots penetrate the soil, not only in all directions, but to different depths. Some of the roots lie close to the surface, even within two or three inches of it, while some of them go down to great depths. While many of the wheat and corn roots lie in the upper soil, in a field with deep soil some of their roots will grow down five or six feet. These plants are comparatively shallow-rooted. Pine trees are shallow-rooted, while walnuts have long, deep taproots. Alfalfa is an example of a deep- rooted plant. Its taproots some- times grow to a depth of twelve or fifteen feet, and perhaps even deeper. The roots of bindweed go down from six to ten feet, and spread in every direction through the soil. Generally roots grow downward, while stems grow up- (7) Sweet clover plants, showing the deeply growing taproots wUch go far down into the subsoil to obtain moisture. 8 AGRICULTURE ward. Some roots, however, grow horizontally. These usually become propagating roots, and send up stems from buds which appear along their length. Tills is what the Candian thistle, the field bindweed, and the western ragweed do. Weeds of this kind are hard to kill. Culti- vation simply breaks the roots into pieces and scatters them. From these broken pieces buds may start and form new plants. The Work of Roots. Large plants, such as trees, which branch widely, generally send out roots which spread as f. r from the trunk underground as the branches spread in the air. The roots of all plants servo to anchor the plants firmly in the soil and to brace them; to gather material for food from the soil ; and sometimes to fur- nish places in which to store food. As the corn plant grows it sends out great numbers of brace roots from the lower joints. Radishes, beets, turnips, carrots, and sweet potatoes are examples of plants the roots of which are used as storehouses of food. How Roots Grow. While the plant is living and grow- ing, its roots are constantly getting longer, branch roots are being sent out, and new portions of the soil are con- stantly being reached in the search for more food. If the ■>4^?- V..-,,; ..^ „ |.**W ■^::--i i |l^ 1, •w' -- *ii(^ ' "'" ■'m"h ^ilKrf ■'■ ■/ '^% ^'%'' flU ^:^ ■% ift|^'- •"%^';^'! ^ ' W^/ ^'i^ ' J Brace roots of corn grow from the lower joints of the stem down into the ground, and there send out many fibrous branch roots. The plant is thus both anchored and supplied with soil water by these roots. ROOTS tip of a root is broken off, it will not increase in length, but will have to send out branch roots. Branch roots may be sent out from almost any part of the side of the root. These branch roots increase in length just as the main root does. Roots increase in thickness by increase in the number of cells and by enlarge- ment of these cells. Roots grow away from light and toward water. Sometimes trees grow- ing near wells and drains fill and choke them with their roots, which have grown out in search of water. Food for Root Growth. Food for the growth of rocts, thcit is, for the making of nev/ cells, and for increase in the size of the cells, is secured partly from the soil, but chiefly fror.i the upper parts of the plant. The water and the mineral matter taken in by the roots are sent up into the green stem or the green leaves, where they are used in mak- ing sugar and other plant materials, and are then sent downward as sap. This sap is carried on out to the roots to feed their tiny cells, and to enable them to grow and to make new cells. Root Hairs. Water and mineral matter can not be taken A young wheat plant, show- ing the development of the root system: c, stem; b, permanent roots; c, wheat kernel; d, tem- porary roots. Canadun thistle spreads by means of horizontal propagat- ing roots, from which new plants come up. 10 AGRICULTURE in through all parts of the surface of the roots. Even the smallest rootlets do not themselves actually absorb most of the water. Special cells take in the water and dissolved minerals. These cells are called root hairs. Root hairs are merely very much lengthened, thin-walled cells. One end of such a cell is a part of the root, but most of the long ceH sticks out from the root, and, as it grows, pushes its Roots of corn v/ith root hairs (ma!!iiified). Tiio root hairs do not quite cover the tip of the root. Notice how the root grows in a spiral. This is the way in which all roots grow if they are not hindered. way in among the tiny particles of soil and thus comes into close touch with them. Some of these root hairs may be one-half or three-fourths of an inch long. Usually, however, they are much shorter. Because they do push out among the tiny soil particles and come into such close contact with the water surrounding the particles, and because they have such thin walls, they are well able to absorb the water. Root hairs grow only on the youngest parts of roots, close to the root tips. It is estimated that there are about 25,000 root hairs to every square inch of ROOTS 11 £0-^ % A cross section through a root, showing how the root hairs penetrate the soil. The dark lumps represent the soil parti- cles; the wavy lines represent the soil water; the liyht spots represent the air spaces. root surface. As soon as a portion of the root gets older and larger the root hairs die, and the outside of the root gets too thick and hard to absorb water. It is very important that plants have a large number of small roots with many branches, since these fine roots are the ones that have root hairs. Many people think that breaking off the fine roots of plants in transplanting them, or tearirg off the fine roots of corn in culti- vating it, will do no harm; but W3 should always remember that any- thing which destroys these fine roots helps to rob the plant of its proper food supply. In transplanting a tree, it is well to prune back the big, heavy roots. This will cause many fine fibrous roots to grow out, upon which root hairs are borne. What Roots Get from the Soil. The great mass of roots which each plant has, is necessary in order that the plant may get its food from the soil. Roots take from the soil great a seedling of com, showing . . n ■, . 1 1 •, particles of soil adhering to the quantities ot water, and considerable root hairs, which can not be .seen. 12 AGRICULTURE amounts of mineral matter, such as lime, potash, and phosphorus. Both water and mineral matter are necessary to the growth of plants. The Amount of Water Used by Plants. It requires great quantities of water to produce farm crops. A potato crop is 79 per cent water; standing green corn is 80 per cent water; cowpeas are 84 per cent water; sugar beets are 87 per cent water; a cabbage is 91 per cent water; and lettuce is 96 per cent water. Even the amount of water contained in a plant at any one time, however, is a very small part of the total amount required to build the plant. A corn plant, for instance, has been known to pass nine pounds of water through its body into the air in eight and one-half hours. In extremely windy, dry weather, it may give off fifteen pounds. Not all plants need the same amount of water, but all plants take up a weight of water equal to several times their own weight. The amount of water required to make a pound of dry matter in the corn plant is 272 pounds; in sorghum or kafir, 306 pounds; in wheat, 507 pounds; in alfalfa, 1068 pounds. Plants Can Not Use All the Soil Water. Even in the severest drouths, there is left in the soil from five to ten per cent of the water, which the roots of plants are unable to withdraw. The amount of this unavailable water varies in different soils, being greater in a fine loam than in a coarse sandy soil. Different plants take different amounts of water from the soil. Lettuce leaves eight Sunflo's-crs 'wastinc the pround water that agricultural plants should have. They use more water than is used by corn or potatoes. ROOTS 13 or ten per cent of water in the soil when it wilts. Corn leaves in the soil only six per cent of water that it can not withdraw, while such weeds as morning- glories can use the soil water down to four per cent. Weeds Waste Water. It is well to realize that weeds take a great deal of moisture from the soil every day that they live. In fact, more water is lost through weeds than from any other cause. Weeds waste the water that agricultural plants should get. The Rus- sian thistle requires about as much water as dwarf milo. Pig- weeds use about as much water as corn to make a pound of dry matter. We can grow sorghum or millet almost as easily as weeds, and they require no more moisture. Therefore, if we are to try to save the water which has been stored for the use of crops, we must destroy the weeds. Storing Water for Plants. Since so much water is needed, one of the ways in which the farmer may help Root system of kafir, showing how the upper layers of the soil are filled with the fine fibrous roots. These very numerous roots of the kafir and other sorghums enable them to gather water from the soil better than most agricultural plants. 14 AGRICULTURE his field crops to grow is to try to store as much water as possible in the soil. This may be done by plowing deeply, and by keeping the land level, so that the water which falls may be held in the soil and may not run off the surface. Because plants take so much moisture from the soil, it is no wonder that a field which has borne a heavy crop has little soil water left in the upper layers of the soil. How Plants Use Water. The first use of water to plants is to dissolve the mineral matter of the soil, which is then carried into the plant. Inside the plant, water carries the raw material and the foods manufactured by the plant to the places where they are needed. Some of the water is combined with the carbon dioxide taken from the air, to form starch. The minerals are used by the plant to build up its cells. Some of them go to one part of the plant, some to another. When we burn a plant we get a certain amount of ashes, usually not more than from two to four per cent of the total weight. These ashes represent the mineral matter taken by the plant from the soil. Although the amounts are small, some of the minerals are absolutely necessary to the life of the plant. The most important minerals obtained from the soil are lime, phosphorus, potash, magnesia, sulphur, and iron. QUESTIONS 1. How far and how deep may the roots of crops grow? Of what advantage to plants is this spread of roots? 2. Name all the different kinds of plant roots and tell briefly how they differ from each other. What kinds of roots have special uses? Give examples of plants having such roots. 3. How do roots get material for growth? What materials do they take from the soil? What uses are made of this material? Where is it used? 4. How do roots take materials from the soil? Why is so much water taken? What finally becomes of this water? ROOTS 15 5. How do plants differ as to the amount of water they use? Are plants able to take all the water from the soil? How is the water which plants use stored in the soil? 6. What are the three principal uses of water in a plant? 7. What soil minerals are absolutely necessary to plants? How may we recover most of this material? How do plants secure it? CHAPTER III STEMS AND LEAVES The stems of plants lift the leaves up into the air, in order to expose them to light. Stems also carry raw sap, that is, water and mineral matter, upward from the roots to the leaves. After the leaves have combined the water and the mineral matter with the carbon dioxide of the air, the manu- factured food, or true sap, is sent downward through other parts of the stem, to be used by all parts of the plant. Stems of some plants serve also as places for the storage of food. The food may be stored in the stem only temporarily or for a long time. Stems may serve also to propagate the plant, either by forming runners above the ground, called stolons, as in the case of the strawberry and buffalo grass; or horizontal stems below the ground, called rootstocks, as in the case of Johnson grass. Stem Structure. Stems are able to perform these func- tions because of their peculiar structure. A cross section of any stem will show that it is made up of four principal parts: the pith, the woody portion, the cortex, and the bark. The woody portion of the stem is composed of tough, (16) Propagating stcmg (stolons) of buffalo grass, which take root at the joints and form new plants. STEMS AND LEAVES 17 Underground propagating stems (root- stocks) of Johnson grass, from the joints of which new plants grow up. hard cells, which make the stems stiff and elastic and fit them for supporting the leaves and branches. The woody part of the trunk is divided into two parts, the heartwood and the sapwood. The sap- wood alone carries the water up from the roots. The heart- wood serves only to strengthen the trunk. Generally, the heartwood is colored, while the sapwood is not. In what we call "soft- wooded" trees, the amount of sapwood is gener- ally much greater than that of the heartwood. In the Cot- tonwood, the trunk is half heartwood and half sapwood. In the oak, the heartwood makes up about two-thirds of the thickness of the stem. In the catalpa, all but two or three years' growth is heartwood. Outside the woody por- tion of the stem is the cor- tex. We often speak of it as bark, but the word "bark" should be used to describe only the hard, dry, protecting layer on the out- side of the cortex. The cortex is made up of young, ,, 1 /> 1 Part of the inside of the stem of a plant, highly grOWmg cells, and or long, magnified to show the different kinds of cells: , , 1 J • n "• cortex; b, fibrous cells; c, cells that conduct tubular conduction cells, or plant food; d, cambium layer; e, cells that con- , 1 • 1 .1 duct water upward; /, pith. duets, which carry the manu- factured food down from the leaves to the stems and the roots. There are also many cells stored full of food, and 18 AGRICULTURE Cross section of corn stem, show- ing the groups, or bundles, of conduc- tion cells scattered through the pith of the stem. some groups of tough fiber cells, called tho hard bast, which help to strengthen the stem. How Stems Thicken. Just between the sapwood and the cortex of a tree is a layer of small, fragile cells, called the cambium layer, which can not be seen without a microscope. This layer of cells does nothing but use the food brought in through the cortex from the leaves, to make new cells. These new cells are made very rapidly during the spring and the early summer; those which are made on the outside, toward the cortex, make new cortex cells, es- pecially sap-conducting cells, while those which are made on the inside, toward the sapwood, form new cells of the sapwood. There- fore, the cambium layer is the real growing por- tion of the stem. It is the cambium layer which causes the stem to in- crease in thickness. In the spring the cambium layer receives plenty of food and water, and consequently makes large sapwood cells. Later in the season, when the food and water supply grows less, the cambium layer makes smaller and smaller cells until fall, when it stops growing. Such plants as corn, wheat, kafir, grasses, and palm trees, do not have stems like those described above. They have no solid woody portion, no cambium layer, and no cortex. Instead, the whole stem is composed of pith, scattered through which are great numbers of groups of Single group, or bundle, of conduction cells from the stem of corn (highly magnified). STEMS AND LEAVES 19 hard, woody cells and fibers. These groups, or bundles of cells, as they are called, carry the water up the stem. Bamboos, and most kinds of wheat and other grasses, have hollow stems. This kind of stem is stronger for its weight than a solid stem. Injuries to Stems. If a wire be wrapped tightly about the trunk of an apple tree, the tree will finally enlarge at that point and the wire will cut almost entirely through the bark on the outside of the tree. The reason for this is that the food, which keeps on coming down the stem, is checked by the wire. That part of the tree above the wire, since it gets more food, grows much larger than the part below. This cutting off of the food supply that should go to the roots will finally kill the tree. Trees are also frequently stunted or killed when careless people break off large pieces of bark. Breaking off the bark al- ways exposes cambium cells, which then die, leaving the wood to decay. The Storage of Food in Stems. The manufactured food on being sent downward through the stem may be stored instead of being used immediately. It may be stored in the cells of the cortex, or of the wood or pith. It may be stored for only a short time during the growing season, and later may be used for the production of seeds. Com, oats, and kafir use most of their stored food in this way. If these crops are cut for fodder, they must, in order that their stems may be of greatest value, be harvested just before the seeds ripen, when most of the stored food will be caught in the stem. For the same reason we cut alfalfa and other hay crops before the plants are fully ripe. Before the leaves drop from the trees in the fall, they send into the trunk the food that they contain. It is this stored food that enables trees to start their growth 20 AGRICULTURE in the spring. Trees cut for posts in August, before the leaves fall, decay less rapidly than those cut in the winter. The reason is that there is less food stored in the stem to attract the germs and soil fungi* that feed on stems and thus cause their decay. Underground stem, or rootstock, of canna, showing the buds that grow from the joints and that produce new stilks above the ground. Notice the great abundance of the large roots that grow out from the rootstock. Underground Stems. Some plants have peculiar stems which grow underneath the ground. Many of the wild grasses have stems of this kind, which may be found if one will dig them up in the early spring, when they are being sent out from the main plant to form new bunches of grass. These underground stems serve a double purpose: they are storehouses for food ; and they form a means of spreading the plant. The underground stems of cannas are dug up * Fungi are plants that can not make their own food, and hence have to use the food made by other plants. Unlike ordinary plants, they lack green coloring matter. Molds, mildews, and mushrooms are common fungi. STEMS AND LEAVES 21 in the fall, are stored through the winter, and in the spring are broken into pieces suitable for planting. In the same way we use the underground stems of rhubarb to start new rhubarb plants. It is the large amount of food stored in these underground stems which causes the leaves of rhu- barb to grow so rapidly in the spring. The potato is really an underground stem. Its eyes correspond to the buds of ordinary stems. Those weeds which have underground stems spread rapidly, and are very hard to destroy. John- son grass and quack grass are examples of such weeds. Epidermis, or skin, of corn and of lily, showing the breathing pores, or stomata: g, guard cell; s, opening of stoma; c, chloroplasts in the guard cell. The great quantities of water taken up by the roots of plants are forced upward through the stems and out into the leaves through the veins. The important work which the leaf has to do is, first, to get rid of the excess of water ; and, secondly, to take the mineral matter, some of the water, and some carbon dioxide from the air, and com- bine them to make true plant food. In order to under- stand well how leaves do this, we must know something about their structure. 22 AGRICULTURE The Structure of Leaves. The leaves of green plants are covered on the outside by a thin layer of skin, f 5 8 or epidermis. This tissue is usually made of cells specially constructed to prevent the evapo- ration of water and the drying out of the interior. But in order that the plant may get rid of the Single stoma cut in two, showing the two guard cells, gg; opening of stoma, s; air sp^ce beneath stoma, a; green leaf cells, c. W hen the air outside is moist the guard cells take up water, swell, and press apart, leaving a pore, or opening, through which the water vapor from the in- side of the leaf conies out. When the outside air is dry, the guard cells lose water, become flabby, and lie close together, so that there is no opening, and the moisture is re- tained in the leaf. Cross section of leaf of common garden flag, or iris: e, upper epidermis; a, palisade cells: c, lower epi- dermis; d, water-conducting cells of leaf vein; /, fibrous cells of vein; s, food-conducting cells of vein. On the outside is the skin or epidermis. Just beneath the epidermis are many long cells which stand at right angles to it. These are called the palisade cells. They contain most of the green chloropksts. The other cells in the center of the leaf, as a rule, contain few or no chloroplasts. excess water, the epidermis has a great many tiny open- ings called stomata, through which water may pass out- ward in the form of vapor, and air may pass either inward or outward. The stomata are provided with spe- cial cells, so that the openings may be made compara- tively large or may be almost entirely closed. A stoma is about one thirty-fourth as large as the opening which may be made with the finest cambric needle. In order that the stomata may do their work properly there must be a great many cf them. The STEMS AND LEAVES 23 number of stomata varies in different plants from about 24,000 to about 180,000 to the square inch. A single sunflower leaf has as many as thirteen million. Although the stomata are very small, their great number enables them to get rid of the excess water effectually. As a rule, stomata are found in greatest number on the lower surfaces of leaves. This circumstance protects against the loss of too much water, since the lower sides of most leaves are less exposed to the sun and wind than are their upper surfaces. Inside the epidermis, and between the veins of the leaf, are great numbers of very thin-walled cells. These cells appear to be green because they contain great numbers of tiny green grains. These grains are called chloroplasts, and contain a green material called chlorophyll. It is this chlorophyll which gives all green plants their color. The sickly yellow appearance of some plants, especially those grown in the dark, is due to a lack of chlorophyll in their cells. Chlorophyll is one of the most important substances in the world, since only by means of it sugar and starch can be made. Because they possess this chlorophyll, green plants alone, of all living things, are able to make these substances which are so necessary as food for both plants and animals. Were it not for the green chlorophyll of the plants, therefore, the entire animal world, including man, would finally perish of hunger. How Plant Food is Made. It is not true, as is com- monly supposed, that roots take in the finished food for plants. The roots simply gather the raw supplies out of which food is made. Most of the food is made in the leaves. The water and the mineral matter taken from the soil, and the carbon dioxide taken from the air, must be sent to the leaves, and there worked over or combined in 24 AGRICULTURE the green cells of the leaves, to form true plant food. This manufactured plant food may then be sent to such parts of the plant as need it. The important work of manufacturing food from the raw materials is carried on only in the presence of light, by those cells of the leaves or of the green stems which contain chlorophyll. Most of the food manufactured by these cells appears finally in the form of sugar, starch, and woody fiber, or cellulose. The first food product made by the leaves is grape sugar. Grape sugar is soluble in the sap, and hence is easily carried to all parts of the plant. Much of the food which goes downward to help the stem and the root grow is in this form. If the leaves make grape sugar faster than it can be used for growth, it is changed to starch, and may be stored in the leaves, the stems, or the roots ; or the sugar may be sent to the seeds, changed into starch, and stored there, as in corn and wheat. It is in the form of starch that most plants store their food. In sugar cane, however, from which most sugar is made, the sugar is stored in the stems. In sugar beets the grape sugar brought from the leaves is changed into cane sugar, which is stored in the large roots. We must not forget that the plant stores this food for its own use, although man has learned to take advantage of this stored food and use it himself. Because seeds contain so much of this food and so little hard, woody fiber, they are much more valuable as food for man or for animals than are stems, leaves, and roots. In discussing animal feeds, we Cells from a moss leaf (highly magnified). The network of lines represents the cell walls. In each of these cells can be seen a consid- erable number of chloroplasts. Each of these chloroplasts con- tains the green substance called chlorophyll, by means of which, in the presence of sunlis^ht, the leaves are able to make starch. STEMS AND LEAVES 25 usually speak of feeds which are composed of seeds or parts of seeds, as concentrates, meaning that they contain a large proportion of digestible material. The stems and leaves are called roughage, because they are coarse and fibrous, and contain a smaller amount of digestible material. We must not forget that roughage must be cut while the plant is green and contains much stored food, and before an excessive amount of woody tissue has developed. At this time the leaves of the plants are full of food, and form a very valuable part of the roughage. The Factories of the Plant. In the green cells the chlorophyll is held in millions of little green bodies called chloroplasts. These tiny green chloroplasts are the food factories of the plant. They catch the sun's rays, and somehow by their aid, in a way we do not quite under- stand, they break up carbon dioxide into its elements, carbon and oxygen. This carbon dioxide is a very small part of the atmosphere, comprising not more than three or four parts in ten thousand parts of air. The air passes into and out of the leaf through the pores, orstomata, just as it passes into and out of a house through the open windows. The carbon dioxide, being perfectly mixed with the rest of the air, passes into the leaves. When it comes into contact with the green chlorophyll in the chloroplasts, it is broken up by means of the light rays, as was said, into its composing parts, carbon and oxygen. Likewise, the water that comes up from the roots is broken up in the same way into the elements, hydrogen and oxygen, of which it is composed. These elements, carbon, hydrogen, r.nd oxygen, are then combined to form grape sugar (glucose), which consists of six parts of carbon, twelve parts of hydrogen, and six parts of oxygen. Leaves need light to do their work, and they are so arranged on the 26 AGRICULTURE plant as to expose the largest possible number to the light. A few plants and young trees grow well in the shade, but most green plants must have an abundance of sunlight. Buds. Plants which live from year to year and which lose all their leaves in the fall must have some way of renewing the leaves, else they would be unable to con- tinue growth. Before the leaves are lost, the plant forms a bud just above the base of each leaf -stem. These buds are really growing points; in other words, they are places where there is always young, growing tissue, like that at the tip of the root, or like the cambium layer of the stem. Buds are of two kinds. They may become new leaf- bearing stems, or they may produce flowers. In case the bud produces a leaf -bearing stem or branch, this in turn will bear new buds, which in their turn will grow out. into branches the next season, and so the plant grows larger. Flower buds do not grow more than one sea- son. Their life is ended when the fruit ripens. QUESTIONS 1. During what part of the year do trees produce their new buds? Name the different kinds of buds and tell what each kind does. 2. What are the parts of a stem? What is the work or use of each part? How do the stems of corn and kafir differ from the stems of trees? 3. How do stems grow thicker? If a wire be wrapped tightly about the trunk of a tree, what effect will it have on the trunk? on the roots? Why? 4. In what forms do plants store food? What plants store food in stems? How and for what do plants use this stored food? 5. How must forage plants be harvested in order to save the most food in the plant? When should trees be cut for posts? Why? 6. Name some plants which have underground stems. What are the various uses which plants make of underground stems? STEMS AND LEAVES 27 7. Name all the parts of the leaf which assist in the manufacture of plant food, and tell what each part does. What are the raw ma- terials used in making plant food? Into what foods are these made? 8. What gives leaves their green color? Where and in what form is this material kept in the leaf? 9. What materials pass into leaves? What materials pass out from leaves? Whatare the reasons for these processes? Describe the mechanism which makes this passage inward and outward possible. CHAPTER IV FLOWERS AND FRUITS The buds which produce new stems, or branches bearing leaves, renew the growth of the plant year by year. The buds of some plants may even fall off and make new plants; but among green plants, the buds which are chiefly re- sponsible for the form- ing of new plants are the flower buds. All seed- bearing plants have flowers of some kind. Some of them are very The flower of the wild evening primrose, native to the rocky hills. In the flower, inside the four large j'el- low petals, is a ring of eii^lit stamens, and in the center is the pistil, of which there is visible the tall style, which is seen bending to the right, with four stigmas at its top. The flower of the water lily. All the floral leaves are ahke, and are very numerous. Just inside the wide floral leaves are seen the tops of many stamens. In the very cen- ter is the piFtil, which can not be plainly seen. inconspicuous and much modified, but there are certain important parts which can always be found. These parts are the ones which finally produce the seeds. The Parts of a Flower. The flower of the apple or the (28) FLOWERS AND FRUITS 29 peach, of the wild rose or the evening primrose, is a com- plete flower; that is to say, all the important parts of a flower are present. Around the outer part of these flowers is a set of green, leaf-like structures. These green leaves are called the sepals, and all the sepals put to- gether make what is known as the calyx. The colored leaves on the outside of the flower are called petals, and all the petals put to- gether make up what is known as the corolla. Just inside the corolla are some slender, hair-like parts, with usually red, yellow, or brownish knobs, or projections, on their ends. These are the stamens. The knobs are called anthers, and when they have ripened and opened, they give off a dust-like material called pollen. In the center of the flower stands another slender part called the pistil. The pistil has a peculiar end called the stigma. By look- ing at it with a hand lens, we may see that it generally has a roughened, and often sticky, the^stigma'! surface, to which the pollen grains, upon falling "hT p'^oHen there, will adhere. The bottom of the pistil is ^^"^" called the ovary. If this part of the pistil be opened, it will be found to contain tiny green round bodies, called The flower of the sweet pea, showing caljTC and corolla. The corolla in this flower has a large upper petal called the standard, two side petals called the wings, and two lower petals joined together, called the keel, which surrounds stamens and pistil. All legume flowers are very much like this. The pistil and several of the stame.is of the Easter lily. The stamens, with the an- thers at their tops, are plainly shown. In the center is the pistil with its ovary at the base, its iong style, and the swol- len par t at 30 AGRICULTURE ovules, which grow into seeds after the flower has been pollinated. In peas and beans the ovary grows into a pod. Sometimes the ovary becomes very large and fleshy. Pumpkins and watermelons are ovaries of this sort. How Flowers Differ. Flowers that are pollinated by insects, ordinarily have bright colors, which, as a rule, Left-hand figure, the flower of the sweet pea opened, with the standard and one each of the wing and keel petals removed, showing the stimens and the pistil. Nine stamens, b, are joined together in a ring around the pistil, which is concealed except for the stigma, a. There is also a single stamen,/, not in the ring. The anthe-s, c, which contain the pollen, are seen. The keel petal, e, and the upper and lower parts of the wing petal, dd, are shown. Right-hand flower, the flower of the Easter lijy opened. In the center is the pistil, surrounded by the stamens. On the outside, some of the petals and sepals are seen. wind-pollinated plants lack. The flowers of catalpa, peach, and red clover, are bright-colored, but the tassels of corn, and the flowers of wheat, of the elm, and of the oak, are not. Flowers differ also with regard to stamens and pistils. In the peach and the apple, stamens and pistils are found in the same flower. The same is true of the flowers of wheat, rye, and oats, but the flower of corn is quite FLOWERS AND FRUITS 31 Ovary of okra plant, opened to show the rows of ovules. different. A complete stalk of corn has at least two clus- ters of flowers. The tassel is a cluster of flowers bearing only stamens with their pollen. The ear is composed of a multitude of flowers which contain pistils but no sta- mens. The silks, which are borne one from the tip of each kernel, and which be- come exposed at the ends of the husks, are the stigmas of these pistils. The ovary, which is found at the base of each silk, finally grows into the kernel of corn. In the squash or the pumpkin we find some flowers with stamens and other flowers with pistils, but no flowers with both. The Cottonwood, some varieties of strawber- ries, and some mul berries bear on one plant flowers with pistils only, and on another plant flowers with stamens only. Some flowers, like those of the dande- lion, wheat, oats, and barley, habitually self-fertilize; that is, the pollen falls on the stigmas of the flov/er from which it came. Other plants, like rye, corn, cotton, and most of the common trees, especially those in which the Staminate flover of corn (hip-hlv magnified), showing three stamens. A tassel of corn in bloom' showing the stamens hanging down from the staminate flow- ers. There are three stamens in each flower, and two flowers are found growing together in what is called a spikelet. 32 AGRICULTURE Highly magnified portion of a young ear of corn with husks removed, showing the way the silks, or stigmas of the pistils, are attached to the ovaries — the kernels. Picture on the left, before fertili- zation; that on the right after fertilization, showing the growing kernels with many of the silks fallen off. The flower of Jhe common red geranium, with calyx and corolla removed, showing how the flow- ers of this plant are cross-fertilized. The figure to the left shows the interior of the flower, as it is in the bud. The six stamens, with their large anthers, can be seen, but the pistil isi nvisible because the style has not yet grown up. The central figure is from a flower which has fully opened. The anthers are shedding their pollen, and two of the anthers have fallen off their filaments. Still the pistil has not yet grown up, and cannot be polhnated. The figure to the right is from a flower in a still later stage. The anthers have all fallen off their filaments. The style has now grown up, and the five stigmas have spread out, ready to receive the pollen brought by some insect from another flower. FLOWERS AND FRUITS 33 wind carries the pollen, such as elm, ash, walnut, oak, and hickory, are cross-pollinated. Some kinds of pears and grapes, especially, produce few or no fruits if self- fertilized. Other varieties have to be planted near them to serve as pollinizers. Pollination. In order that a flower may produce seeds, it is necessary for some of the pollen from the anthers to be carried to the pistil and to stick fast to the stigma. This process cf transferring pollen from the anther to the stigma is known as pollination. When corn is pollinated, some of rollen grain germinating, show- ing the pollen tube, which grows in- to the stigma of the flower. Young cars of corn, with ^usk' removed, show- ing the rows of pistils — the kerueij — ijeari.-.i tlie silks, which are the stigmas. the pollen is transferred from the tassel to the silk. The silks may be pollinated anywhere along their length. Corn generally sends out the tassels before the silks of the ears on the same plant appear. This usually insures more or less cross- ing, or cross-pollination, as it is called. Plants the flowers of which are fertilized with their own pollen are said to be close-pollinated. If the pollen does not 34 AGRICULTURE reach the silk, pollination does not take place, and grains of corn do not form. When corn sends out its tassels in very hot weather, it sometimes happens that all the tassels are killed. In such cases, there is no pollen to fertilize the silks, and consequently the crop is a failure. Fertilization. When the pollen grains fall on the stigma, they germinate, and a tiny germ tube sprouts out of each one and grows into the stigma, down through the long part of the pistil called the style, and into the ovary. The pollen tubes often have to grow several inches in this way before they reach the ovary. They are enabled to do this by the fact that they absorb food from the pistil as they grow down. Once inside the ovary, the pollen tubes grow toward and into the ovules, fertilizing the tiny egg cell that is in each. The fertilized egg cell immediately begins to grow into a little plant in the midst of the ovule, which in turn grows large and be- comes a seed. Only one pollen grain is necessary to fer- tilize a single ovule. In corn there are about seven thousand pollen grains for every ovule, but, of course, much pollen is lost in the wind. QUESTIONS 1. Name the parts of a flower. Name the divisions of the im- portant parts and tell what each division does. 2. Why is so much pollen produced? Name the different ways by which it may be transferred to the pistil. Name at least one plant illustrating each method of transfer. 3. How do flowers differ in respect to their stamens and pistils? Give more than one difference. 4. What is meant by self-pollination? by cross-pollination? Give examples. 5. What is meant by fertilization? Tell fully how it is accom- plished. CHAPTER V HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY The Germination of Seeds. A seed of any plant is usually made up of two parts: first, a tiny plant or germ; second, enough food to support the germ until it has grown large enough to make its own food. Some plants, such as the bean and the pea, store all the food within the germ. In others, such as wheat and corn, most of the food is stored around the germ. While seeds are ripening, a great deal of water is usually drawn from the germ and from the stored food, leaving the seed hard and dry. Even after the seed has completely ripened, the dry- ing process should go on for some time, in order that the seed may keep well until planting time. The tiny plant- let lies dormant for a time after it has been completely formed, and after the seed has ripened and dried. In order that a new plant may be produced from the seed, there must be certain conditions which will start the germ growing and enable it to use the stored food. These conditions are: first, the proper amount of moisture; second, air; third, proper temperature. Various kinds of seeds differ in their needs. The seed absorbs water, and if the temperature is right, cells start working. The stored food is changed into digestible form, and is dissolved in the water which has been absorbed. It then passes into the cells of the young plant, or germ, to be used. The oxygen of the air is used in furnishing the energy which changes the food into plant tissue and which thus brings (35) 36 AGRICULTURE about growth. None of these things will take place with- out a proper temperature. The same kind of seed will germinate at different temperatures, but there is always a certain tempera- ture which is most favorable to prompt and rapid germination. This tempera- ture varies greatly for different plants. Since oats, peas, and radish seed will germinate well at comparatively low temperatures, they may be planted early in the spring. Corn and alfalfa seed require higher temperatures, and can not be planted so early as oats and peas. The sorghums require an even higher temperature for germination, so that they must be planted later in the spring, or even early in the sum- mer, in order to secure prompt and complete germination. Difference in the temperature suitable for germina- tion is one of the reasons for planting garden and field seeds at different times during the planting season. The Seed Bed. When a farmer or gardener prepares a seed bed, he should have in mind the fact that he is fitting the seed bed to furnish the best possible conditions for the germination of the seeds and the growth of the plants. Every good seed bed is made of earth which is not packed hard, but is loose enough to contain some air. It must not, however, be cloddy, or so loose as to dry out rapidly. It must have had an opportunity to become warm and must contain the right amount of water. When seeds are properly planted in such a seed bed, they come into con- tact with plenty of water and air, and as the soil is Corn germinating. The food which starts the young plant comes from the endo- sperm. Notice that the tap- root of the corn comes out through the tip of the germ, and has already developed branch roots, upon which the root hairs will grow. The other four roots are secondary roots. HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY. 37 warm enough, they germinate rapidly. Before all the stored food has been used up, the plant should be taking water and dissolved minerals from the soil and its leaves should be gathering material from the air and manufacturing food. How the Young Plant Grows. As soon as the seed gets sufficient water, air, and heat for germination, the stored food begins to be carried to the growing tip of the root and of the stem of the germ. The germ begins to enlarge. Soon the root pushes out into the soil, and the stem begins to grow longer, and finally reaches the top of the ground. Small seeds which con- tain but little food must be planted nearer the surface than larger seeds; otherwise the stored food may all be used before the young plant has broken through the ground. Such seeds as alfalfa, sweet clover, grass, and turnip seed, must not be covered very deep, while the seeds of wheat, peas, beans, corn, and squash, which contain more stored food, may be planted deeper. The large, thick seed leaves of the Lima bean are carried above the ground by the grow- ing stem, turn green in the sunlight, and thus not only % i^ w i €ff ■■^ See-'.ing leans, shoeing the la^pe seed leaves, which fi rnish food for the plai;t ui.t.l tuc lr..e le-ves develop. lu tl.e illiistrution the first pair of true leaves is seen above the seed leaves. 38 AGRICULTURE furnish stored food to the young plant, but can make new food with their green cells, which sustains the plant until the permanent leaves appear. Storing Seeds. When seeds have been har- vested, they should be stored in a dry place until the surplus water has evaporated from them. Seeds should never be heaped together in quan- tities until thoroughly dried. Seeds are almost certain to be injured if stored in damp places. When so stored, they are attacked by bacteria, or by molds or other fungi, which cause them to decay. Seeds are A potato plant, showing propagation by means of underground stems, which bear large tubers. Tuberose, a bulbous plant propagating bv the production of new b'llbs. Lxr:re roots come oat from the base of the old bulb of last year. New bulbs are produced as offsets, and serve to propagate the plant. often killed by freezing b e- fore they have become thor- oughly dry. In general, seeds of agri- cultural plants intended for sowing should not be exposed to tempera- tures below freezing until HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY 39 they are thoroughly dry. Sometimes insects injure seeds. Sometimes seeds are too old to germinate well. Some seeds will germinate several years after they are gath- ered, while others must be planted within a year or two. (See table in the Appendix.) Testing Seeds. In order that the farmer or gardener may be sure that he is always using good seed, he should test all seed before buying or planting it. He may easily test seeds by planting them on blotting paper between two plates, keeping them barely moist and in a warm room; or he may plant them in a box of sand or Corm of gladiolus: a, new corm sawdust. from which thb year's flower stalk came; b, tiny corms, or "cormels," Spore Plants. New plants are bome as offsets of this year's corm; c, r f remnant ot last year s corm. A corm formed from old ones in several is solid, while a buib consists of scales, ways. All of us know about seeds, and we know that they form new plants. Not all of us know, however, that the fine dust which comes from a puffball, or the powder that makes the under side of some toadstools black or brown, serves the same purpose as seed ; that is, it may start a new plant. Such tiny bodies are called spores. The plants which bear spores never flower or bear seeds, but depend upon the spores to form new plants. Some of these spore-bearing plants are green and can make their own plant food. The green pond scums, or slimes, which grow in water, the seaweeds of the ocean, the mosses which grow in moist, shady places, and the ferns, are the best- known examples of green spore-bearing plants. None of these is of very great importance to the farmer. The other spore-bearing plants are not green, and therefore can not 40 AGRICULTURE A catalpa trunk attacked by- bracket fungus. The feeding part of the fungus is inside the tree. The part which comes out and forms the bracket is the spore-bearing jiart. The spores are borne in slits on the under side of the bracket, wiiich cor- respond to the gills of the mush- room. make their own sugar and starch. The toadstool, the bracket fungus, and the common mold are examples of these. These plants depend for their food upon starch and sugar manufactured and stored by green plants. For this reason, toadstools and bracket fungi grow- on rotten wood or decaying roots, or even sometimes infest living trees and destroy them. Black mold grows very commonly on bread. Green mildew grows on cheese, orange peels, and the like. Some plants which reproduce by means of spores, and which can not make their own starch and sugar, get this material from live plants, and are called parasite^. The wheat rust, corn and wheat smuts, the black knot of the plum, and some other plant diseases are examples of these. Other Ways of Plant Propagation. Another way in which plants reproduce is by means of propagating roots, as do the bindweed and the Canadian thistle. Other plants reproduce by means of underground stems. Of this method the tuber of the potato furnishes an example. The rootstocks of the canna and those of Johnson grass are other good examples of this kind of propagation. Some plants reproduce by means of bulbs. The onion, the tube- rose, and the hyacinth are examples of bulb-producing plants. Strawberries and buffalo and Bermuda grass reproduce by means of runners which are sent out and take root and grow. Black raspberries form new plants from the tips of their stems, which bend to the ground and take root. From these points new stems grow up. Conditions of Growth. Some plants grow best where HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY 41 the soil is very wet or swampy. Such plants are said to be water-loving plants. Others grow best under dry condi- tions, and are called desert plants. Farmers have learned that some of their crops, such as rice, for example, should grow in very wet soil, and that other crops, such as clover and alfalfa, will not grow at all under this condition. They have learned, too, that the sorghums will grow where there is comparatively little rainfall. They know that some plants, such as corn, prefer a loose, loamy soil, while wheat and buckwheat prefer a more compact soil. Plant Culture. The successful farmer is the one who understands best how plants grow. He knows the kind of soil each crop prefers, and how to manage this soil so that the plant's roots may best absorb water and mineral mat- ter from the soil, and its leaves may best get the sunlight to manufacture food. He has also learned to control the weeds, so that the crop is not robbed of soil water, or shaded until it becomes too weak to manufacture food. Such a farmer also knows how to select and care for his seed and to plant it in a suitable seed bed. QUESTIONS 1. What are the parts of a seed? What is the function of each part? How are foods stored in the seed? 2. What are the conditions necessary to sprout seeds? How are these conditions provided in the seed bed? 3. How do seeds differ as to the temperature required for germi- nation? Give examples. 4. Give complete directions for storing seeds. Give reasons for your directions. 5. Why should seed be tested before planting? Give directions for testing seed. 6. What are spores? Give some examples of spore plants. How do they differ from seed plants? 7. Make a list of all the ways in which plants multiply. Name at least one example of each kind of multiplication. CHAPTER VI CORN Of the important grain crops grown in the United States corn is the only one native to America. All the others have been introduced from foreign countries. Corn is supposed to have originated in Central America. The Indians were growing it when Columbus discovered the New World. Corn is the m.ost important cereal crop of Kansas, and also of the United States. About one hundred million acres, or an area nearly twice the size of the state of Kansas, is planted to corn every year in the United States. Map of Kansas showing the production of corn, average of five years, 1909-1913. One dot represents ten thousand bushels. Kinds of Corn. Five different types of corn are of eco- nomic importance. They are dent corn, flint corn, soft (or squaw) corn, sweet corn, and pop-corn. Pod corn is some- times grown as a curiosity, and Japan corn as an orna- (42) CORN 43 mental plant. Dent corn is by far the most important type, as it comprises most of the corn grown in Kansas as well as in the United States. There is a very large number of varieties of this type, twenty or thirty of w'hich are grown in Kansas. In dent corn the endosperm, the part surrounding the germ, is of two kinds, the starchy endosperm, and the horny endosperm. The starchy en- dosperm is mainly in the center of the kernel, while the horny endosperm lies near the surface. When the ker- nel dries out in ripening, the starchy endosperm shrinks more than the horny endosperm, thus causing the corn to dent. Flint corn is grown chiefly in the New England states, where very early Parts of the corn kernel: maturing varietlcs are necessary. a, starchy endosperm; b, horny -p,,. . . ii i • i i endosperm: e, stem; d, germ; e, Jb imt VariCtlGS USUally dO not yield SO root; /, starchy endosperm; g, i i i / hull; h, tip cap. niuch as does dent corn, and the gram is so hard that flint corn is not so satis- factory a stock feed. The starchy endosperm in flint corn is very small, and is entirely surrounded by a thick, horny endosperm. Consequently, when the corn dries out it does not dent. Except for being much smialler, the pop-corn kernel is very much like that of flint corn. Soft, or squav/, corn is grown by the Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, and to som_e extent by farmers in other dry regions of the United States. It is very soft, and the ease with which it can be ground into meal is probably one of the principal reasons why it has been grown by the Indians, though it is thought by some to be more drouth-resistant than other kinds. 44 AGRICULTURE Sweet corn differs from other kinds of corn in the large amount of sugar contained in the grain. As the yield is much less than that of field corn, sweet corn is never grown except for table use, or, occasionally, for early feed. Types of corn: A, Flint corn; B, Dent corn; C, Soft corn; D, Pod corn. Pod corn is peculiar in that each kernel is surrounded by a separate husk. Its yield is very small and it is of no economic importance. Varieties of Dent Corn. Many varieties of dent corn are grown in the United States. Different varieties are adapted to different localities. In northeast Kansas, for example, the rainfall is ample. In this region varieties such as Boone County White, Kansas Sunflower, Reid's Yellow Dent, and Commercial White, which produce large, vigorous stalks CORN 45 and large ears, and require a rather long season to mature, give the best yield. In central and western Kansas the rainfall is less, the elevation is greater, and the seasons are shorter. If seed of one of the large varieties is planted in central or western Kansas, such a growth of stalk and foliage is produced that little available moisture remains with which to produce grain. If, on the other hand, the seed of a smaller, earlier-maturing variety, such as Pride of Saline and adapted strains of Kansas Sunflower, Iowa Silvermine, and Hogue's Yellow Dent, is planted, a fair yield of grain will be produced. Map of Kansas, showing the corn region3\Qf the state. The varieties adapted to the different regions of the state, as shown in the accompanying map, are as follows: Region 1: Boone County White; Reid's Yellow Dent; Kansas Sunflower; Commercial White. Regions 2 and 3: Kansas Sunflower; Commercial White; Hildreth Yellow Dent on bottom land. Region 4: Kansas Sunflower; Pride of Saline; Hogue's Yellow Dent; Reid's Yellow Dent; Iowa Silvermine; Boone County White. 46 AGRICULTURE Region 5: Pride of Saline; Kansas Sunflower; Iowa Silvermine. Region 6: Pride of Saline; Hogue's Yellow Dent; Iowa Silvermine; Reid's Yellow Dent; Kansas Sunflower. Region 7: Pride of Saline; Hogue's Yellow Dent; Kan- sas Sunflower; Iowa Silvermine. Region 8: Iowa Silvermine (early strain) ; Freed 's White Dent; Sherrod's White Dent; local strains. Home-grown Seed. Usually the best varieties are those which have been developed in the local community where they are to be grown. Corn adapts itself to soil, temperature, and rainfall, after being grown in a region for a long time. When a corn accustomed to growing with plenty of rain is taken to a climate where the rainfall is less, it will not yield nearly so well as a variety ac- customed to dry weather and hot winds. It takes at least three years, and sometimes much longer, for a variety to accustom itself to new conditions. The agricultural college conducted experiments in eight counties in four different years to learn the difference between the yield of corn from home-grown seed and from seed of the same variety from another region of the state, when the two were grown side by side. These experiments were carried out to see just how much was lost by sending to a distant part of the state for seed corn. In Jewell county the crop was nearly eight bushels an acre more from home-grown seed than from seed brought in from other regions of the state. In Harvey county the crop obtained from planting home-grown seed was six and one-half bushels an acre greater than that obtained from the use of introduced seed. In Linn county the difference in favor of the use of home-grown seed was about ten and three-quarters bushels an acre. In Butler CORN 47 county the average of three years' tests was about twelve and one-half bushels an acre in favor of home-grown seed. In Chase county the difference was eight bushels to the acre in favor of home-grown seed; in Greenwood county, seven bushels; in Cherokee county, nearly eight bushels; in Kingman county, about five and one-half bushels. The average of all tests showed a difference of more than nine bushels to the acre in favor of home-grown seed. Thus the yield was increased almost one-third by the use of home-grown seed, as compared with bringing seed in from another region. If the seed used in these tests had been brought from outside the state instead of from another part of Kansas, even a greater difference in favor of home-grown varieties would have been shown. Types of ears of corn. Numbers 1 and 2 are good ears ; 3 is too tapering ; 4, reverse tapering; 5, too long; 6, too smill in circumference ; 7, too short, and large in circumference ; 8 and 9 have crooked rows and kernels of irregular shape. Selecting Seed Corn. The only safe way is to select seed on the farm on which it is to be grown, or in the same neighborhood. To avoid possible loss in a poor year. 48 AGRICULTURE enough should be selected for two years at least. As a dozen good-sized ears will plant an acre, enough seed for planting a large acreage can be selected in a short time. The most desirable ears should be selected in the field before frost. Points in Selecting Seed. The principal points to consider in selecting corn for seed are maturity, size of ears, and environment. The ears should be sound, and should show by their appearance that they are not too late in maturing for the locality. If the season has been a very poor one for corn, due allowance must be made. If, on the other hand, the season has been very favorable, only those ears which will pass the most severe test, in form and development, should be accepted. If the smallest ears are selected, there will be a tendency for the variety to become earlier and the yield less. Ears that are too large will be likely to produce immature corn the following year. Therefore, as large ears should be used as can be depended on to mature in the locality. If corn is not selected in the field, there is no way of knowing under what conditions a good ear was produced. \ wL'll-selected sample of corn. The excellence may be due to unusually rich soil in the spot in which the ear grew. Perhaps the stand was rather thin, giving this ear an advantage over the others. Such CORN 49 an ear, even though large and well developed, might not be better for seed than a much poorer ear grown where the soil was not fertile or where the stand was thick. It is important to select good ears which have grown on soil of the average quality, where the stand was uniform. Storing Seed Corn. The failure of seed corn to grow well is usually due either to the immaturity of the seed or to lack of care after the corn is gathered. Immature corn does not have the vitality and strength of mature corn. A good way to store seed corn. Even in mature corn, the germinative power may be greatly injured through lack of proper care. Seed corn may be damaged in two ways : by freezing when it is damp ; by remaining damp for a long time. Seed corn that is properly dried, and kept dry, will not be injured by the coldest weather. 50 AGRICULTURE One of the best ways to dry and store corn is to hang it up ill strings of from ten to twelve ears, in an attic or a machine shed. There should be sufficient circulation of air to dry the corn rapidly. After it is dry it may be stored in any dry place where it will not be injured by rats or mice. Seed corn should not be stored in a cellar, over grain in a granary, or in a barn where cattle or horses are kept. In all these places it will absorb moisture from the air, and by spring may be greatly injured. Testing Seed Corn. Even though corn is cared for in the best possible way, a germination test should be made in the spring. A preliminary test is made by taking one kernel from each of a hundred or more ears, placing the kernels about an inch deep in a box of wet sand or soil, and keeping the box in a warm place for about a week. Or, the kernels may be germinated between wet sheets of blotting paper. If ninety per cent or more of the kernels germinate, the corn may safely be used for seed. If, however, less than ninety per cent ger- minates, it is advisable t o test each ear, throwing away those ears which do not show a germina- tion of ninety per cent or better. The Ear Germination Test. The material required for ,.^x\,r~tiXnf^}VJ^ |»<;''^ ^^ 9 M^ Hfcini at pl^nmic ^H "^^t-n in diA-p I^HI -JHl XMl July IS ^H u .„, -^t » ]^H ^^^^» ' ~1!»hH '^mmm ";:,:, tM ^Hh^^^ ,^yf^f9^^^ ^ .^^t^^SPv ^EHh ^ IHHnJ Hl^^^'^^'.' AS.. ^t-v":_»-"' . . , • % -r-.- '-"^^^^T^ ^ ^^I^^S A contrast. Wheat grown upon one-tenth of an acre of land, showin'j the effect of five meth- ods of preparing the ground where wheat has been continuously grown. The method of preparation has been the same in each case for the previous three years. aration is necessary. In fact, the cultivation given the corn prepares the ground for wheat, so that about all that is necessary is to disk the ground well before the grain is sown. When wheat follows a small-grain crop, like wheat or oats, it is essential to plow or list the ground. Early Plowing. The most important matter in plowing ground for wheat is to plow early, just as soon after harvest 78 AGRICULTURE A fanning mill. as possible. This puts the surface into condition to absorb rain, Uberates plant food, and gives the ground time to settle before the grain is sown. The value of early plowing is shown by the results of an experiment conducted at the agricultural college at Man- hattan, in which the yield from the ground plowed July 15 was twenty-seven bushels an acre; the yield from the ground plowed August 15 was twenty and a half bushels an acre; and the yield from the ground plowed September 15 was fifteen bushels an acre. In this case the gain from early plowing was twelve bushels, worth, at 80 cents a bushel, $9.60. "When ground can not be plowed immediately after harvest, it should be disked. Disking prevents, to a large extent, loss of moisture from the soil until the ground can be plowed. In another experiment conducted at Man- hattan, disking immediately after binding increased the acre yield of wheat eleven bushels, worth $8.80. Depth of Plowing. Plowing should be deep enough to turn all trash and straw under. It is seldom advisable to plow more than seven or eight inches deep, but there is more danger of plowing too shallow than too deep. Ground should not be plowed to the same depth every year. If this is done, a kind of hardpan forms at the bottom of the furrow, which to some extent prevents the penetration of rain and of the wheat roots into the unplowed part of the soil. The formation of this hardpan is prevented by rota- WHEAT 79 tion of crops and plowing to a different depth for each crop. If a field grows first corn, then oats, then wheat, then corn again, it may be plowed eight inches deep for corn, disked for oats, and plowed five inches deep for wheat. Working the Ground after Plowing. If ground remains rough, as left by the plow, it will lose by evaporation practically all the moisture it contains. For that reason. A field of Turkey wheat which j-ielded 58.6 bushels an acre. Early plowing and good preparation of the soil were mainly responsible for the yield. ground that is plowed when in good condition should be harrowed or disked soon after being plowed. Ground that is too dry to plow may be disked and then left until a soaking rain, when it should be plowed. Ground that is dry when plowed may remain without further attention until rain falls. It should then be worked, in order to pre- vent the loss of moisture added by the rains. Listing the Ground for Wheat. In central and western Kansas the ground is often broken with a lister soon after harvest. The ridges are then gradually worked down, so that by seeding time the ground is level again. This method of preparation is more rapid and cheaper than plowing, and for many conditions is just as good. It has this disadvantage, however, that when land is prepared 80 AGRICULTURE in this manner year after year, there is a tendency for the lister to run in the same furrows, so that a part of the ground is never stirred. To avoid this condition the land may occasionally be plowed or listed at right angles to the old furrows. The Kind of Seed to Sow. Wheat that comes from the threshing machine usually contains weed seed, dirt, chaff, A good seed bed for wheat. bits of broken straw, and small, shriveled kernels. Such wheat is unfit for seed. A weed requires as much moisture and plant food as a wheat plant, and every weed reduces the yield of wheat just so much. Chaff and straw may WHEAT 81 clog the drill. The small and shriveled kernels will not produce so strong plants as will the good, plump kernels. The vigor and strength of the wheat plant in its early life depend very much upon the amount of food material stored in the seed. All foreign matter and small, shrunken kernels should be removed. This can best be done by means of the fan- ning mill. If the wheat contains smut, the grain should be treated to prevent this disease in the following crop. The Methods of Seeding. Wheat may be sown broad- cast or with a drill. In the former case it is scattered uniformly over the ground and covered by disking or cultivating. The drill puts the seed directly into the ground. While broadcasting is slightly faster and cheaper than drilling, the latter is the better method. When wheat is drilled less seed is required than when it is sown broad- cast; the drill places it in direct contact with moist soil, which insures prompter and more nearly complete germi- nation. The plant makes a more rapid, vigorous growth if drilled, and is not so likely to winterkill. The Time of Seeding. Winter wheat must be sown early enough to enable it to get a good start and to develop strong roots before winter, else it may winterkill. On the other hand, it should not make too much growth before winter, or it will use moisture that should be saved for spring or summer growth. In eastern and central Kansas, where the Hessian fly sometimes injures wheat, seeding should be done just late enough to avoid the fly. In western Kansas it is usually necessary to seed wheat when there is sufficient moisture to germinate the seed promptly. It is usually not good practice to sow wheat in dry soil. There may be just enough moisture present to enable molds and bacteria to grow, and these will cause the 82 AGRICULTURE grain to rot ; or a light rain may sprout the grain but not furnish enough moisture to keep it growing. The best method is to have the ground, the seed, and the drill in readiness. Then, when a good rain comes the grain should be put in as quickly as possible thereafter. If rains occur as early as September 15, the grain should be sown at that time. If not, seeding may be delayed almost until winter, in preference to seeding in dry soil. The Rate of Seeding. The amount of wheat which should be sown to an acre depends upon several factors. A field of Turkey wheat in the shock. In case of an abundance of moisture and plant food, the yield of grain will be much greater when there are a large number of plants to the acre. In a dry year or on a poor soil, however, there may not be sufficient water or plant food to bring so many plants to maturity. For this reason the rate of seeding should be different in different parts of the state and on different soils. In eastern Kansas, where there is abundance of moisture, one and one-quarter or one and one-half bushels of grain is usually sown to the WHEAT 83 acre; in central Kansas, one bushel an acre is enough, while in western Kansas, three pecks, or even two pecks, of good seed is ample. The quantity of seed that should be sown depends also upon its quality, upon the preparation of the ground, and upon the method of seeding. The Depth of Seeding. Wheat should be sown just so ieep that it will be in moist soil, and that it will not dry Dut before it germinates and sends its roots into the sub- soil. If the seed is sown deeper than this the plant will be slow in coming up, and in the event of unfavorable 3onditions may die before reaching the surface. The depth necessary for the best results varies with soil and climate. On a light soil the grain may be sown deeper :han on a heavj^ soil and in a dry climate the grain should isually be sowi deeper than where rain is plentiful. In eastern Kansas tht best depth is from one to one and one- lalf inches. In western Kansas wheat is usually sown from Dne and one-half to three inches deep. Harvesting Wheat. Wheat continues to gain in weight intil it is ripe, though the increase is very slight during the ast few days of growth. The best time to harvest is when :he grain is in the hard-dough stage. Pasturing Wheat. When wheat makes a good growth n the fall it forms excellent pasture for horses, cattle, and sheep. If judiciously carried on, pasturing will not materially injure the wheat. Stock should never be turned apon wheat fields when the soil is wet, else much of the A^heat may be tramped out and the physical condition of the soil be greatly injured. Late spring pasturing is very detrimental, and is sure to :'educe the yield of wheat much more than will be com- pensated for by the value of the pasture. 84 AGRICULTURE QUESTIONS 1. How long has wheat been grown for food? How have the methods of harvesting changed? 2. Does the depth of seeding have any relation to the depth to which the roots extend? What relation does soil fertility have to tillering? 3. Name two of the best varieties of wheat for Kansas. Are these varieties best for all parts of the United States? Why? 4. What is meant by winter wheat? spring wheat? What are the advantages of winter wheat where it can be successfully grown? 5. Why is preparation of the ground for wheat important? What is a good method of preparing the ground for wheat? Why is this a good method? 6. How deep should ground be plowed for wheat? Why is disk- ing after harvest usually a good practice? Where is listing a feasible method of preparing ground for wheat? 7. In what way do time of plowing and rotation of crops affect depth of plowing? 8. Why is drilling a better method of seeding than broadcasting? How should seed be prepared for seeding? What conditions deter- mine the depth of seeding? 9. When should winter wheat be sown in Kansas? Why should it not be sown too early? too late? 10. How much wheat an acre should be sown in eastern Kansas? in western Kansas? Why this difference? CHAPTER IX OATS AND OTHER SMALL GRAINS From thirty-five to fifty million bushels of oats are grown each year in Kansas. These oats are worth from $12,000,000 to $15,000,000, or about one-fifth the value of the corn crop, and about one-fourth the value of the wheat crop. The average yield of oats is approximately twenty- five bushels to the acre. This is but slightly more than the average yield of com for the entire state. Oats are there- fore relatively an unprofitable crop except for their value in crop rotation. Oats are grown for two reasons: first, because they are desired for feed for horses; second, because in many parts of the state there is not time enough after com is taken off to prepare a good seed bed for wheat. Since oats are a spring crop, they may be sown after corn, and may be followed by wheat. In this way a larger profit from the land may be obtained in the three years re- quired for the rotation than would be obtained if wheat were sown after the corn, and followed by corn again. Northern Oats. Many farmers send to Canada or the northern states for seed oats, because of the better quality of grain that can be obtained there. Montana- or Canadian-grown oats often weigh fifty pounds to the bushel, while Kansas-grown seed weighs (85) An oat flower. 86 AGRICULTURE thirty or thirty-two pounds to the bushel. Northern- grown oats, however, require much longer to mature than do the varieties best suited to Kansas; consequently, the northern varieties are forced to mature here during the hottest, driest part of the year, while the earlier varieties will be ripe before the hot weather arrives. As oats are especially susceptible to hot weather, it often happens that northern-grown oats will be practically a failure, while adapted varieties will make fair yields. Types of Oats, There are both winter and spring types of oats. Where they do not winterkill, winter oats produce much better yields. Unfortunately, winter oats have not been found hardy except in the southernmost part of the state, and there only in mild winters. Experiments conducted by the agricultural college in different parts of the state show that Red Texas and Kherson are best for eastern and central Kansas. Farther west, the Burt oats, which are somewhat earlier, appear to give the best results. The Preparation of the Ground. When grown in Kan- sas, oats usually follow corn. The ground may be plowed in the fall or in the spring, or it may simply be well disked before seeding. Probably the best method, where the ground is clean, is to sow the oats on disked corn land. In eastern Kansas there are some advantages in fall plow- Varieties of oats: A, Red Texas; B, Kherson; C, Burt. OATS AND OTHER SMALL GRAINS 87 ing. Seeding may be done earlier on fall-plowed ground than on unplowed stubble ground. Time, Rate, and Method of Seeding. In general, the earlier oats can be sown in the spring the better. They will stand considerable cold weather without injury. The rate of seeding depends on the rainfall and the soil. On very rich soil in eastern Kansas three bushels may be sown to the acre. In central Kansas two to two and a half bushels an acre is sufficient, while farther west it is never advisable to seed more than two bushels to the acre, and less is often better. Though oats are often sown broadcast, a better way is to seed them with a drill. Less seed is required, and germination is quicker and more nearly uniform and complete. The Kind of Seed to Sow. Many farmers believe that oats run out; that is, that the quality of the seed gradually becomes poorer and poorer. This is believed to make a frequent change of seed necessary. If oats are cleaned and graded and care is taken to retain only the heaviest, plumpest kernels, the oats will not run out, but will become better each year. The climate of Kansas will not produce so heavy and plump an oat as will the climate of Montana or of Canada. The fact that seed oats weighing forty- eight to fifty pounds a bushel produce oats weighing only twenty-five to thirty pounds is no indication that the variety is running out. Barley. Barley is a good feed for hogs, and it would probably be a good substitute for oats in many localities where the tendency is to grow more oats than can be used on the farm. Barley requires less water than oats, and usually produces larger yields. The principal objection to the crop is that it is especially susceptible to damage by 88 AGRICULTURE Typeg of barley: ^.Two-row bar- ley; B, Hull-less barley: C, Six-row barley. chinch bugs. Where these insects are likely to infest the fields severely, barley should not be grown. There are both winter and spring types of barley. Spring barley is most extensively grown in Kansas, but winter barley gives the best yields in places where it is hardy. Win- ter barley can be grown success- fully as far north as Manhattan, about four years out of five. There are several kinds of spring barley. The most important are six-row, or common, barley; two- row barley; beardless barley; and hull-less barley. The six-row bar- ley is most commonly grown in the state, and usually gives the best results. The beardless and hull-less kinds are more convenient to handle, but they usually yield much less than do the common six-row sorts. Barley, like oats, should be sown as early in the spring as the ground can be prepared. Usually about two bushels of seed are sown to the acre. Winter barley is sown at about the same time as winter wheat, and at the rate of from one and one-half to two bushels an acre. Emmer. Emmer, or speltz, as it is commonly called, is grown to some extent in Kansas. It is a kind of wheat, but differs from v/heat mainly in that the chaff remains attached to the grain after threshing, as it did to wheat originally. The grain is very hard, is of a red color, and is long, slender, and somewhat boat-shaped. Emmer is not so convenient to handle as are oats, for the heads are bearded and the straw is very slippery, which makes it difficult to bind and stack. Emmer is used for horse and OATS AND OTHER SMALL GRAINS 89 hog feed as a substitute for oats and barley. The straw is of practically no value for feed, being worth even less than wheat straw for this purpose. Emmer is sown in the spring, about the time that oats and barley are sown. Two and one-half bushels of seed is sown to the acre. Flax. Flax is sometimes grown on new land in Kansas, because it may be sown later than most other small grains and make a crop. The yield is usually small, so that the crop ordinarily proves unprofitable except when prices are high. Flax must be sown on ground that is free from weeds, as it makes a very open growth, which allows weeds to grow and finally choke out the crop. If flax is grown on the same ground year after year the soil is said to become "flax-sick." This condition is due to a fungous disease which attacks the growing plant and causes it to rot off at the surface of the ground. This disease is carried in the seed; consequently clean seed, free from the disease, is essential. The disease may remain in the soil for several years. If the soil becomes affected, flax should not be sown on it again for at least five years. Flax is sown about corn-planting time or a little later, at the rate of about one-half to three-fourths of a bushel to the acre. It is sometimes harvested with a binder, but is not bound, as the branching heads serve to hold the bundles together. It is sometimes left on the ground until it is threshed, although this is not a good practice, as flax is likely to be greatly injured by wet weather. A better way is to bind it loosely with twine and shock and stack it, as is done with wheat or oats. The stacks must be covered with straw or hay, as flax straw will not readily shed water. The seed of flax is used for making linseed oil, and the cake, after the oil has been pressed out, is a valuable stock feed and is known as oil cake or linseed meal. 90 AGRICULTURE QUESTIONS 1. How do oats compare with wheat and corn in value? yield to the acre? value to the acre? 2. Why is the yield of oats to the acre so low in Kansas? Why are oats grown in Kansas? 3. Where should the farmer secure his oats for seed? Why? Is a frequent change of seed oats necessary? 4. What are winter oats? Why are they not more generally grown? 5. What are the advantages of fall plowing for oats? 6. Upon what does rate of seeding depend? 7. How does the yield of barley compare with that of oats? Why is barley not more generally grown? 8. Name three kinds of barley. How far north may winter barley be grown? 9. How does emmer differ from wheat? 10. Why is it more important to seed flax on ground free from weeds than to take this precaution for other grain crops? 11. What is meant by " flax-sick " soil ? CHAPTER X HARVESTING, MARKETING AND MILLING WHEAT Where wheat is sent to market its value is judged largely by the appearance, the quality, and the weight of a measured bushel. There is seldom any doubt about the fitness for milling purposes of wheat that has been har- vested at the right time and properly handled, but only the expert miller is able to tell the value of damaged wheat, and the buyer, desiring above all things to protect himself, usually pays less for damaged wheat than it is really worth. Methods of Harvesting Wheat. In the eastern third of Kansas the wheat is cut with a self-binder, and most of it is stacked. In the central third of the state both the self- binder and the header are used. Much of the wheat cut with the binder there is not stacked, but stands in the shock until it is threshed. While remaining in the shock it is not well protected from rain and dew, and con- sequently is likely to become damaged by sprouting or molding. In parts of the central third of the state, and throughout the western third, the header is used almost exclusively. The wheat is allowed to become overripe, then is cut and stacked at once. The stacks of loose grain do not turn water readily, and must be properly built or much of the wheat in them will be damaged. The Effect of Methods of Harvesting on Quality. By far the largest acreage of Kansas wheat is produced in the (91) 92 AGRICULTURE central third of the state, where the practice of threshing from the shock prevails. A very large proportion of the wheat stands in the shock from three to six weeks, or even longer, and in this period there often takes place a heavy rainfall, which frequently injures for flour-making purposes what would have been a good quality of grain. Some- times this result is unavoidable, but more often it is due to carelessness. If wheat is to remain in the field for any length of time it should be well shocked and capped. Even in well-made shocks which are allowed to stand for some time, the wheat on the exposed parts of the bundles may be seriously injured. Exposure in the shock to alternating rain and hot sun causes the kernels to swell and the branny coat to loosen, destroying the natural color, or "bloom." This gives the wheat what is termed a bleached appearance. In threshing, this poor wheat is mixed with good, and the grade and the market value of the whole are lowered. In the large markets wheat is sold according to grades. The grade given a carload of wheat depends largely on its appearance, its condition, and its test weight. It is a matter of common knowledge among farmers that when shocked wheat is exposed to a shower it not only loses natural color, or "bloom," but may lose as much as a pound to the measured bushel. Sometimes exposure to rain causes the wheat to sprout, and since sprouted wheat does not make a good quality of flour the value of the crop is further reduced. Sweat in Wheat. When wheat is stacked it goes through a process called sweating, in the stack. Wheat threshed from the shock goes through the sweat in the bin. Buyers an'd millers prefer wheat that has gone through the sweat, and they insist that sweating in the HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 93 stack improves the quality of the grain over sweating in the bin. Very little is known concerning what changes take place when wheat sweats. Sweating is probably due to chemical changes. Whatever change occurs is ac- companied by heat. Sweating does not take place until the wheat has been brought together in large bulk. The amount of heat generated appears to be influenced by the amount of moisture present. Grain that has been suf- ficiently ripened and is also very dry will give little evidence of change in temperature in going through the sweating process. On the other hand, wheat cut in the hard dough stage, or containing considerable moisture, goes into the sweat much more quickly when stacked; a great deal of heat is produced, and the straw becomes very tough. Care should be taken not to stack it until it has cured in the shock for a few days; otherwise sufficient heat may be produced, even in the stack, to injure the grain. Wheat thus injured is known as stack-burnt wheat. Heat- damaged, or Bin -burnt. Wheat. When a large amount of wheat containing much moisture is placed in a bin there is very little chance for circulation of air, and the heat generated is retained in the grain. Finally the temperature becomes so high as to cause what is commonly known to the grain trade as heat-damaged, or bin-burnt, wheat. The injury may extend only into the branny coats and produce slightly heat-damaged, or bran-burnt, wheat, or it may extend throughout the endosperm and produce badly heat-damaged, or bin- burnt, kernels. Wheat in the latter condition is practically unfit for flour-making purposes. Milling Kansas Wheats. Kansas produces annually from nine and one-half to eleven million barrels of flour. Since it takes approximately four and one-half bushels of 94 AGRICULTURE wheat to make a barrel of flour, the amount of wheat ground is from forty-three to fifty million bushels— about half the usual yield. The Kansas winter wheats have exceptional gluten quality, or "strength." This is an im- "nnrtant OUal- An early Indim mill (mortar and pestle). ity in wheat, and consequently wheat possessing it is much sought after for making the best flours. When central and western Kan- sas began to be settled it was found that the soft winter wheats, such as Big May, Little May, Gold Drop, Fultz, and Bluestem, grown in the eastern part of the state, did not withstand so well the more rigorous winters and hot, dry sum- mers of the central and western counties. In the early seventies some The old mill at Lawrence, KaDsas. MeUnOUitC SCttlcrS frOm SOUthcm Russia brought to Marion county the seed of a hard red winter wheat which had been successfully grown under the severe conditions of their native land. This wheat yielded well under the new conditions, and gradually became widely grown in Kansas. The new wheat was very hard, and therefore did not suit the Kansas miller, since he could not prevent the branny coat from powdering up until it became so fine that it could not be separated from the flour middlings. HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 95 For that reason, the price of the hard winter wheat dechned until it sold for twenty-five cents a bushel less than soft wheat. Because of its cheapness Kansas millers began trying to use this hard wheat. Finally, when chilled-iron rollers came into use, about 1881, and when the process of tempering or wetting the hard wheat to prevent the A i,i ul>rn Kansas mill. branny coat from breaking up into fine particles was dis- covered, the millers were able to use this wheat success- fully. Soon thereafter this hard wheat became very popu- lar. The millers had learned how to mill it, and its high gluten content produced a superior flour. In a short time foreign bakers and millers learned the value of flour made from Kansas hard wheats. The Kansas miller was not slow to follow up this demand, and before long the prod- ucts had even a greater reputation abroad than at home. Thus developed the Kansas export trade in wheat and flour. FLOUR MANUFACTURE The first milling was done as by the Indians, with mortar and pestle. Later, stone burrs were introduced, and the flour was sifted, or bolted. Still later, the stone burrs were displaced by steel rollers with both smooth and 96 AGRICULTURE corrugated surfaces. Millers also learned to clean and temper properly the wheat before grinding it. Finally, better sifters, or bolters, purifiers, reels, and flour dressers were invented. The modern process of flour manufacture is far more complicated than was the process in the days of our fore- fathers. Then a small quantity of wheat, called a grist, was taken to the old stone burr mill, where it was ground into unbolted wheat meal, or what is now known as Graham flour. The miller kept a portion of the grist, usually from one-twelfth to one-sixth, as toll, or pay for grinding. A little later an improvement was made in that the ground product was sifted, or bolted, to remove the bran and poorer grades of the material. The demand for white flour led to one improvement after another, until we have the gradual reduction process of to-day, producing high-grade, purified flour. The modern process consists of the following steps: I. Preparatory — 1. Cleaning. 2. Scouring. 3. Tempering. II. Milling— 1. Breaking. 2. Sifting, or bolting. 3. Purifying. 4 1-, 1 • A sectional view of modern . KedUCmg. double-stand steel rolls. 5. Dressing. Cleaning. The wheat, as it comes to the miller, con- tains more or less foreign material, including other grains. Most of this material is removed in a preliminary cleaning over the receiving separator. This machine is simply a HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 97 large fanning mill, which, by means of screens, air blast, and suction, removes the coarse material, such as sticks and straws, and also the fine material, consisting mostly of weed seeds and dirt particles. The final separations A pair of burr stones, used before the advent of steel rolls. are made by means of an improved cleaning machine known as a milling separator. This removes practically all the remaining foreign material. Scouring. There still remain, however, fine dust particles clinging to the kernel, expecially in the crease, and these are removed by scouring, but usually not with water. In this process the kernels are thrown, by sets of beaters, with considerable force against the slightly rough- ened iron sides of the scouring case and also against each other. The dust particles, the fine hairs, and the small bran particles are thus loosened, and are then removed by strong suction applied at one end of the machine. All fine material removed from the cleaning and scouring ma- chinery by air-suction currents is conveyed through spouts to dust collectors. This prevents such material from fly- ing about in the mill and getting mixed with the flour. Tempering. After the wheat has been cleaned and scoured, it is usually necessary, in order to prevent the branny coat from grinding up so fine that it will pass through the bolting cloth into the flour, to add to the 98 AGRICULTURE wheat a little water or to apply heat, or to do both. This is called tempering the wheat. Tempering is especially- necessary with hard wheats, because of the more brittle character of their bran. Breaking. After these preparatory steps the wheat is ready for the rolls, and the real milling process begins. Milling consists in a gradual reduction of the endosperm, in which operation the branny coat and the germ are removed. The cleaned and tempered wheat is passed between pairs of steel rolls, which gradually reduce the particles to smaller size. The first pairs of rolls used have fine grooves on the surface, and hence are called corrugated rolls. There are usually from three to five pairs of these, which are referred to as the break rolls. One roll of each pair turns about two and one-half times faster than the other, thus producing a sort of shearing, tearing, or grinding motion, instead of simply crushing or squeezing the broken grains. Sifting or Bolting. Each time after passing between a pair of rolls, the stock — the partly ground product — is sent through spouts to a sifter, or bolter, where sieves with meshes of different sizes placed one above another separate the particles according to size and character. The largest particles are "scalped off "; that is, do not go through the top sieve, but pass over the lower end to the next machine, or roll. After the coarser branny particles have passed through the several pairs of corrugated rolls, the endo- sperm has been practically all removed, and the finished flakes of bran have been " scalped off." Those particles fine enough to go through the finest silk bolting cloth are finished flour. Purifying. Particles of endosperm more or less free from bits of bran are separated, according to size, by the other sieves. The large granular particles, which closely HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 99 resemble com meal, and are too coarse for flour, are called middlings. These are passed through purifiers, where gentle suction currents of air lift off the light branny parti- cles and fluffy cellulose matter until there remain purified middlings which are ready for reduction. Reducing. Next comes the gradual reduction of the middlings until they become fine enough for flour. This is done by passing the stock between pairs of smooth rolls, each succeeding pair being set a little closer together so as to grind a little finer. Every time the stock is ground by a pair of rolls it is elevated to a section of a sifter which grades the particles according to size and takes out the fine flour. This fine flour may be resifted or bolted on reels or flour dressers; this last step in the process is referred to as dressing. Since the milling process is not perfect, the stock from near the end of the process, or "tail of the mill," contains a very large proportion of fuzzy, fibrous material and finely ground bran. A small amount of poor, or low-grade, flour is separated from this; the rest, together with separations of somewhat similar character coming from the purifiers, goes to make up what is termed shorts. Proportion of Total Products. A good sample of Kansas Turkey wheat properly milled will yield approximately the following percentages: bran, 11 per cent; shorts, 15 per cent ; total fiour, 73 per cent. This allows for one per cent loss through evaporation of moisture and the escape of fine dust particles. The total flour produced may be divided into different grades. The last one and one-half to three per cent of flour obtained at the "tail of the mill" is usually termed low-grade flour. If all the rest of the flour is packed to- gether, it is called straight flour. 100 AGRICULTURE On the other hand, if the flour made by the earlier reductions of the purified middhngs is separated from the rest it is termed patent flour, and the rest, composed of the later reductions and the break flour, is referred to as clear flour. When made from the same lot of wheat in the same mill the clear flour contains more gluten than the patent flour, but this gluten is not of so high quality. QUESTIONS 1. Mention some ways in which v/heat is injured in value during harvesting. How does such wlieat differ in appearance from good wheat? Why must it be sold at a lower price? 2. Describe the usual method of harvesting wheat. What mis- takes are frequently made in caring for wheat during harvest? 3. Which method of harvesting do you consider the better? Give reasons for your conclusions. 4. What do we mean by sweat in wheat? 5. What is the history of the introduction of Turkey wheat into Kansas? 6. Mention some of the improvements made in the process of milling. 7. Of what does the modern process of milling consist? 8. What is the purpose of tempering wheat, and how is it ac- complished? 9. How does the sifting process differ from the purifying process? 10. How do the resulting finished products differ? CHAPTER XI LEGUMES The grasses, including corn, wheat, and oats, as well as pasture and meadow grasses, are the most important crops on the general farm. Next in importance to this great grass family comes the pulse family, or the legumes, as the plants of this family are usually called. The common legumes, such as alfalfa, sweet clover, and red clover, are branching, spreading plants which may become woody by fall, but die to the ground in winter. Description of Legumes. The most distinguishing character of the legume is the flower, which is always like the sweet pea, except that in most cases it is smaller. This flower is made up of an upper broad petal called the standard, two spreading petals called the wings, and two lower petals united to form what is called the keel. These petals of the keel inclose the stamens and pistil. To fer- tilize the legumes it is necessary to force the stamens and the pistils out of the keel. The seeds are borne in pods, which may be straight or variously coiled. Legumes have taproots or branching taproots which send out great numbers of fine branching rootlets. Some of the legumes, such as beans and peas, do not send their roots very deep into the soil, while others, like alfalfa and sweet clover, penetrate to a depth of several feet. The Importance of Legumes. The most important and interesting fact connected with the growth of legumes is their power to secure nitrogen from the air. Nitrogen is found as a free gas in the air, but most plants can not make (101) 102 AGRICULTURE use of it until it is combined with some other elements to make what we call nitrates. Nitrogen is essential to all plant and animal growth, however, for it is necessary to the formation of protein, without which there can be no life. The most expensive plant and animal foods are those which contain nitrogen. Since legumes are able to secure nitrogen from the air, they are of great economic impor- tance to the farmer. They are important, first, because they may add nitrogen compounds to, instead of taking them from, the soil, especially if they are plowed under or returned to the soil in manure; secondly, because they con- tain a large proportion of protein and are therefore very valuable feeds for live stock. Consequently, legumes are grown both as soil improvers and for plant and animal food. How Legumes Gather Nitrogen. The method of gath- ering and fixing nitrogen is very interesting. Legumes can do this only through the aid of bacteria which live in little lumps, or nodules, on the roots of the plants. Ordinarily, when alfalfa or clover is dug up the nodules are torn off, so that many people never see them. If we dig up a young plant of alfalfa, together with a lump of dirt eight or ten inches in diameter and a foot deep, taking care not to break and shatter the dirt, we may wash the roots clean and see the small, light-colored nodules. The washing must be done very gently, because the nodules are easily broken off. Nodules vary from the size of a pinhead to that of a small marble, being much larger on some plants than on others. Inside these nodules are great numbers of bacteria, which have the power of taking free nitrogen Roots of soy bean plants, showing nodules. LEGUMES 103 from the air in the soil and combining it with other ele- ments in such a way that it can be used as food by the legumes. This is of great advantage to the legumes in that they need not depend on the soil for all the nitrogen that they require. These bacteria will not grow well in soil deficient in lime. It is necessary to add lime to some soils before legumes will grow in them. Inoculation. The kinds of bacteria differ somewhat on different kinds of legumes, and frequently it is necessary to get some jf the proper kind of bacteria into a soil before alfalfa or cowpeas, for example, will grow well. This process of introducing bacteria into the soil is called in- oculation. A field may be inoculated by bringing earth from a field in which the particular legume has grown, and mixing this earth into the field ; or the bacteria may be added to the moistened seed and so planted with it. Many fields are inoculated by the wind, by plows, by manure, and by other means. How Legumes Differ. Legumes are annuals, as peas and beans; biennials, as sweet clover; or perennials, as alfalfa. They may be grown for their seed, as are peas and beans, or they may be grown chiefly as forage crops, as are alfalfa and the clovers. Some, such as the cowpea and the soy bean, are used in both ways to a slight extent. Besides the important legumes discussed in this chapter, many others are of importance elsewhere, such as Canada field peas, grown for stock feed in Canada and the northern United States, and others grown in the South. ALFALFA Alfalfa, which is sometimes called lucerne, was first grown in the United States more than one hundred years ago, but was not at that time considered of much value. It was introduced into California and the southwestern 3^ "2 c LEGUMES 105 states about 1850, and has slowly spread over the country since that time, until it is now grown more or less in all the states. Kansas grows more alfalfa than does any other state, but the acreage of alfalfa in Kansas is only one-half what it profitably could be. Habits of Growth. Alfalfa lives for several years, and is therefore called a perennial plant. It begins growth in the spring by sending out from the top of the root a number of stems. Each stem branches several times. The stems gi'ow from one to three feet high. The flowers grow out from the point where the leaf joins the stem. Each plant has one large root that runs deep into the ground and that has few small branches. The long roots obtain water from all parts of the soil into which they penetrate. Alfalfa roots grow deeper than the roots of most plants, and can therefore often obtain water which is beyond the reach of shallower-rooted crops. Conditions of Growth. Alfalfa requires a deep, well- drained soil. It will not live for any great length of time in a wet soil. It will stand overflow for several days, if the plants are not covered with mud, and if the water drains off rapidly, but wet lands must be drained by tile drains or open ditches before alfalfa can be grown upon them. One cause for the failure of alfalfa in parts of eastern Kansas is the poorly drained condition of the soil. If water stands in post holes for five or six days after a heavy rain, the soil is too wet for this crop. Alfalfa will not grow on a soil deficient in lime. When planted on a soil in this condition it either produces small, yellow, sickly-looking plants, or does not grow at all. Such a soil should be limed before alfalfa is sown. Some soils are so poor that they will not grow a profit- able crop of corn or wheat, yet alfalfa is expected to grow 106 AGRICULTURE upon them. Alfalfa will not do its best on poor soils. They must be enriched with barnyard manure before being seeded, and thin applications of manure in the years follow- ing will be beneficial. Alfalfa grows well in regions too dry for tame grasses and clovers, and the crop is therefore important in most parts of Kansas. Even in states farther east, where tame grasses and clovers grow well, alfalfa is highly valued because it produces three or four cuttings in a season, while the other hay crops produce but one or two. Varieties. There are sev- eral varieties of alfalfa, just as there are varieties of corn or wheat. The different varie- ties look very much alike, but vary in resistance to cold, in the amount of hay produced, and in the uprightness of the stalks. If grown as far north as Kansas, some varieties freeze out badly in the aver- age winter. These are valu- able only in the southern states. Other varieties are highly resistant to cold, and are valuable in northern states, such as Minnesota and Wisconsin. When grown in Kansas the northern varieties do not yield so much hay as does the home-grown, or American, alfalfa. The American alfalfa is the variety Alfalfa plants, showing tlie Ions taproots. LEGUMES 107 An alfalfa hay barn and feed shed combined. first brought to California from Chile, and has been grown in Kansas so long that it is well adapted to Kansas conditions. The Seed Bed. Success in starting alfalfa depends largely upon the preparation of the seed bed. A poor seed bed has been re- sponsible for more failures with this crop than has any other one factor, except the weather. A good seed bed is a firm, well-settled soil with the surface . mellow and finely pulverized as deep as the seed is to be sown, A firm seed bed of this character allows free movement of the capillary water from the subsoil, and at the same time furnishes the plant with the proper root hold. Besides being mellow and firm at planting time, the seed bed should contain ample moisture and available plant food. Time is required to store moisture and to liberate plant food ; hence, the ear- lier the preparation of the seed bed can begin, the better will be the results. A very satisfactory bed for fall seeding may be prepared by shallow-plowing wheat or spring-grain stubble imme- diately after harvest, and working the ground sufficiently thereafter to kill all weeds and maintain the soil in good tilth until seeding time. The plowing should be as shallow as possible to cover the stubble well; otherwise, unless heavy rains come between plowing and planting time, it will be impossible to establish a firm seed bed. It takes several months and considerable rainfall to re-firm a 108 AGRICULTURE deeply plowed soil. Where it is advisable to loosen the soil to a considerable depth before seeding, the ground should be plowed deeply for the crop preceding alfalfa. A clean field of wheat, oats, or barley stubble can be put into good seed bed condition by thoroughly disking the stubble under soon after the crop has been taken from the land, and then keeping it well tilled until planting time. Likewise, in favorable seasons, alfalfa may be successfully fall-seeded after a crop of cowpeas, flax, or millet, by disking the ground thoroughly as soon as possible after the crop is removed, and by keeping it well worked until time to plant. When alfalfa is to be seeded in the spring, the best seed bed can be prepared by plowing the ground the fall pre- Five types of alfalfa in one cultms- Observe the variation in manner of growth. ceding, leaving it rough over winter, and then working it into good condition with the disk and the harrow. A fair seed bed can often be prepared in the spring simply by disking corn-stubble land, especially where the corn was kept well cultivated and free from weeds during its growth. When such land can not be fall-plowed, this method is to be preferred to spring plowing. The Time and Manner of Seeding. Alfalfa may be LEGUMES 109 A good type of drill for seeding alfalfa and clover. sown in the fall or the spring. Fall seeding is usually most successful in the eastern half of Kansas. Alfalfa sown in the early fall becomes fairly well established before winter, starts ahead of the weeds the next spring, and in the sum- mer will produce more hay nan if the crop had been ■pring-sown. Spring-sown al- clia is often choked by weeds, and when a stand is secured an entire year is required to start the crop. In western Kansas, where the fall is usually too dry to start alfalfa, and where grasshoppers are troublesome, the crop is most successfully started by seeding in the spring. Spring seeding should not be done until the soil is moist and in good condition to germinate the seed, and until danger of blowing is past. The seed may be sown broadcast or drilled. When sown broadcast it should be covered from half an inch to an inch deep by harrowing. When planted with a drill, the seeds are all covered to the same depth, so that all have the same chance to start. The drill covers every seed, while the harrow leaves some seeds on top which either do not sprout at all or dry out and die after they start. Drilling also saves several pounds of seed to the acre. There is, however, danger of covering the seed too deep with a drill, and for this reason many prefer the broadcasting method. The Rate of Seeding. The best rate at which to sow alfalfa varies according to the locality in which it is sown. Au alfalfa cultivator. 110 AGRICULTURE In the central and the eastern part of Kansas, where rain- fall is ample, fifteen to twenty pounds of seed should be sown, although in a good seed bed, where the plants will germinate and grow quickly, one-half this quantity of seed will produce sufficient plants to cover the ground thor- oughly. In western Kansas, where the rainfall is not sufficient to support a heavy growth of alfalfa, light seeding will produce best results. From eight to twelve pounds an acre will be sufficient. On the uplands even less than this should be sown. Treatment After Seeding. Spring-seeded alfalfa should be mowed, with the sickle bar set high, several times during the summer, to keep down weeds. Fall-sown alfalfa will usually pro- duce good hay the first summer. Alfalfa is ordi- narily not cultivated the first summer of its growth, but from the second summer on at least one cultivation a season will usually be profitable. Light appli- cations of manure in the winter are very profit- able, and in some regions commercial fertilizers supply- ing only phosphorus will give good returns. The Time for Harvesting. Alfalfa is usually cut for hay when about one-tenth of the blossoms are open. For all kinds of farm animals except horses, the best hay is made by cutting it at about this stage of development. When cut for horse feed the crop may better be permit- ted to stand until it is in full bloom. It is not always An alfalfa field on April 14. Manured on the left, uiimauured on the right. LEGUMES 111 possible to judge, from the stage of blossoming, the proper time to cut the hay crop to secure the maxi- mum production and at the same time the best quality of hay. It is usually best to be governed by the development of new shoots at the crown of the plant. When new shoots reach a growth of an inch or two the hay should be cut. Harvesting. There are several methods of haymaking commonly followed in harvesting alfalfa. A good practice is to cut the alfalfa in the morning of a clear day, rake it into windrows later in the afternoon, bunch it with a rake the next morning, and put the hay into the mow or stack by the second af- ternoon. Care must be used not to shatter the leaves, for they contain the greater part of the food material. It is not necessary in Kansas to attempt to cure hay in the cock unless rain is probable. The average yield of hay for the whole state is two tons an acre. Many farmers, how- ever, harvest four or five tons in a good season. Seed Production. The second crop of alfalfa is often harvested for seed instead of for hay. In the drier parts of the country alfalfa is sometimes planted in rows and cultivated for seed production. Great care is necessary in handling the seed crop, for it is very easy to break off the seed pods by rough handling. Yields of from two to five bushels an acre are common. Stacking alfalfa on a Kansas farm. 112 AGRICULTURE The Eflfect of Alfalfa on the Land. Alfalfa is generally regarded as a soil-improving crop, and when allowed to stand only five or six years it does enrich the soil. This re- sult is more evident, however, in the states of heavy rain- fall than in Kansas. When alfalfa stands are allowed to remain ten or fifteen years in central and western Kansas, succeeding crops do not grow properly, partly because the alfalfa roots have exhausted the subsoil of water. In these regions kafir is a better crop to follow alfalfa than is corn, because kafir grows well in a drier soil. For the best results from alfalfa the hay should be fed on the farm, and the manure produced by the stock should be carefully saved and returned to the soil. CLOVERS The clovers constitute an important group of legumes. There are several varieties, varying in habits of growth and in usefulness. The different varieties are adapted to different conditions and uses. There are annual, biennial, and perennial varieties. All have very fibrous roots, which extend comparatively deep into the soil. The taller varieties are cut for hay, and furnish a feed rich in protein. Other varieties are prized for pasture. Since they require considerable moisture, clovers are more widely grown in the states farther east than in Kansas. Clovers can be grown profitably only in the eastern fourth of the state. Clovers will not grow on soil deficient in lime, and will do best if the bacteria particularly suited to the given variety are present. Clovers are seeded in a manner similar to that employed in sowing grass. Red Clover. Red clover, also called little red, medium red, and common clover, is a biennial. It may be seeded LEGUMES 113 in fall or in spring. Fall seedings very frequently winter- kill, and late freezing frequently kills the stand from spring seedings. Spring seedings with small grain usually furnish good pasture the following fall. In the second summer the plants will bloom when from eighteen to thirty inches high, and if cut then will make u, valuable hay. There usually fol- lows a second growth which may be used for pasture or cut for hay or seed. Red clover and timothy are frequently sown together, their yield and their feeding value being thereby increased. Crimson Clover. Crimson clover is an annual which is seeded in August or September to furnish winter and early spring pasture, to serve as a cover crop, or to be plowed under for a green manure. The plants mature in the spring and may be cut for hay, but frequently rains at this season make harvesting difficult. Crimson clover is not well adapted to Kansas con- ditions. Mammoth Clover. Mammoth clo- ver, also known as cow clover, can not be easily distinguished from red clover except by its greater size and by the fact that it seldom makes more than one crop of hay a season. The roots are longer, and the plant seems to stand dry weather better than does the ordinary Medium red clover, show- ing the root development in the second year of growth. A plot of red clover making a good growth of excellent hay. 114 AGRICULTURE red clover. The yields of hay from the two varieties are practically the same. Alsike Clover. Alsike clover will grow well in lands so wet that other clovers die out. Its root system is more fibrous, and the stems are finer than in other varieties. Because the hay is finer, it is considered better for sheep than that of the other clovers. A little alsike mixed with grass and other clover seed will provide a cover for the wet or boggy spots. Sweet Clover. Sweet clover is not closely related to the clovers already mentioned, but is a legume of considerable importance. It is A red clover plant. a biennial plant, which in the first year sel- dom flowers, but grows from eighteen to thirty inches tall. It dies to the ground the first winter. I n the second spring, new shoots spring up like those of alfalfa. These reach a height of from five to seven feet if not cut for hay or pastured. It c^ - „_,4 ^ ^^ '^y^al^jg^^gl^^^i^^Bpi^^gSfF^ig^^^f^^ W^^^ ^^^p^ ^^^.^^^^^^Sr^^^S^^^^ fe^ , ' ■ "' f,« ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Sm i^"' "' ^^'^':^ ^^f^ ^^m A poor subsoil. The layer of gravel just below the surface soil prevents plant roots from growing down- ward, contains very little plant food, and allows the soil water to flow away. stream. As water falls upon rocks and flows over them it grinds away the rock mass and carries the small parti- cles of soil thus formed, down the stream to lower levels. The chemical action of water in breaking up rock and forming soil is also great. Many of the particles which make up the rock are more or less soluble in water, and especially in water containing carbon dioxide. Limestone rocks dissolve very rapidly in this way. When water con- 152 AGRICULTURE taining carbon dioxide comes into contact with limestone, or any rock which contains lime, the lime is dissolved and carried away by the water, leaving behind only the im- pure part of the rock, or the part that will not dissolve, to form soil. The Action of Air. Air, as well as water, is active in forming soil particles from rock. The wind, which is air in motion, beats against the surface of the rock, and grad- ually loosens the small particles and carries them away. When the wind works alone this process is very slow, but when the wind carries with it some sand particles and is moving very rapidly the cutting or grinding effect on any exposed rock is very noticeable. This grinding power of the wind carrying sand is so great that, along the sea- coast, window glass is often made opaque" during a single storm. You have often noticed that iron, when left in a damp place, rusts; and that if you rub your hand over the iron it will be covered with a brown iron stain. Iron rusts be- cause it has been exposed to the air and moisture. If a piece of iron is left so exposed long enough, it will rust entirely away. Just as iron rusts and becomes powdery when exposed to air and moisture, so portions of rock rust and become very fine. Some rocks which contain large quantities of iron may be entirely broken down into soil in this way. The Action of Ice. At one time the north part of North America was covered with a great sheet of ice. This ice sheet moved southward slowly, passing over hills, valleys, and streams. In the bottom of this mass of ice were embedded rocks and boulders of all sizes, which acted as teeth to tear up the surface of the earth and grind away the rocks. This process of tearing down hills and filling SOIL FORMATION 153 up valleys continued until the ice sheet moved so far south that the ice finally melted, and the material which it car- ried was deposited as soil. Soils formed in this way are known as glacial, or drift, soils. The Action of Heat and Cold. Practically all rocks contain some water, either in their make-up or in the cracks and crevices. When the water in the cracks and crevices of the rock freezes it exerts a tremendous pres- sure on the rock fragments and tends to force them apart. In this way fragm.ents are torn from the rock surface wherever any freezing takes place. Sudden changes in temperature also exert A rock that is being broken up to form soil, by the action of water, heat, and cold. a strong pressure which tends to break rocks apart. Rocks are made up of differ- ent kinds of particles, called minerals. The different minerals do not expand and con- tract at the same rate on heating and cool- ing. Thus, when rocks become warm during the day, their different minerals expand at different rates, break- ing the cementing material that holds the minerals together. In time, a rock at the surface of the soil may crumble down from this action. The Action of Plants and Animals. Plants and an- imals work in various ways in forming soil from rock. The roots of plants, large and small, enter the small crev- ices in the rock, and force the rock apart, making the openings larger. Small plants, such as mosses, attach themselves to the surfaces of rocl^, where they grow and 154 AGRICULTURE decay. These plants give off weak acids that dissolve the rock and loosen the rock particles. In this way little par- ticles of mineral matter are added to the organic matter which is formed when the plants decay. Thus a soil is formed. This process is gradually continued until there is sufficient soil to maintain other plant life. Burrowing animals, such as gophers, and worms, such as earthworms, also help to form the soil. They grind up and make finer the particles which have been formed by other means. They also make it possible, by their burrowing, for air and water to enter the soil and thereby to come into contact with the rocks below the surface. Soils Formed from Plants. While most soils are formed principally from mineral matter, or rock material, there are in many places large areas of soils which have A soil that remained where it was formed, Observe the ledge of rook below the soil. It was from similar rock that the soil above was formed. been formed almost entirely from the decay of vegetation. Such soils are usually formed around shallow lakes, where there is a rank growth of vegetation which decays slowly SOIL FORMATION 155 on account of the water, and which therefore gradually fills the lake, working inward from all sides. Soils formed from plant life or organic matter in this way are known as cumulose soils. The Transportation of Soils. After the soil has been formed from rock and decaying organic matter, it may remain where it was formed, or it may be carried to some other location. Large bodies of the upland soils of central, eastern, and southeastern Kansas were formed in the places where they now exist. The soils in other parts of the state have been moved from the place of formation by water, wind, or ice. Soils Formed by Water. The soils that occur along rivers and creeks and are commonly known as bottom- land soils have been carried to their present location from the highlands adjacent to the streams. In time of flood a stream carries large amounts of soil material of various sizes. These particles of soil are deposited along the valley of the stream. The larger, heavier particles will be de- posited first, near the stream, while the finer particles will settle out and be deposited where the water is running slowly, farther from the channel of the stream. Soils that are transported in this way and redeposited are usually very fertile and form the most productive soils of the country. They are called alluvial soils. Soils Formed by Wind. Soils that have been carried and deposited by wind are called loessial soils. Loessial soils are common in western and northwestern Kansas. The hard winds blowing from the west carried dust parti- cles from the Rocky Mountains into western Kansas. As the winds slackened in velocity, the dust particles settled and formed the soil. The soils in western Kansas that have been formed in this way vary from a few inches to 156 AGRICULTURE many feet in depth. They usually contain large quanti- ties of plant food, and are, therefore, very productive when supplied with sufficient moisture. Soils Formed by Ice. Soils formed by ice are known as glacial soils. Such soils are found in the northeastern part of Kansas. The soils of that part of the state were brought from regions farther north by an immense glacier that covered northeastern Kansas as far south as the Kan- sas river and as far west as the Big Blue river. When this big glacier melted, the soil that it had carried from the north was deposited over this part of the state. Glacial soils vary in depth as much as those that have been transported by wind. Where they are deep they ^^^^^HHBI^H '■'li^iSt'''^''*^ ^"^^ ^r- ^^^^■i-ir'. _ — , __ ,__: ■.-■■_ -jtmr:' :\ :-__ ■ ,_.,_ A glacial soil. The large rocks are boulders, commonly found in soils formed by glaciers. are fertile. They comprise some of the best soils of the state. Large stones, called boulders, are usually found in glacial soils. TYPES OF SOILS The Soil Mass. The soil mass, as it occurs in the field, is made up of granules, or tiny lumps. These granules consist of large numbers of small soil particles of different sizes held together by moisture or some weak cementing material. Soil particles vary in size from those too small SOIL FORMATION 157 to be seen by the naked eye to those that are commonly called stones or gravel. The soil particles are grouped, according to size, into classes named as follows: 1. Stones — particles of soil so large that they interfere with tillage operations. 2. Gravel — particles smaller than stones, but larger than ^/'25 of an inch in diameter. 3. Coarse sand — particles from V25 to ^/m of an inch in diameter. 4. Medium sand— particles from V50 to '^/m of an inch in diameter. 5. Fine sand — particles from ^/wo to V200 of an inch in diameter. 6. Very fine sand— particles from V200 to V^to of an inch in diameter. 7. Silt — particles from \/'m to ^Aooo of an inch in diam- eter. 8. Clay — particles from Vsooo to Vsao.ooo of an inch in diameter. These different-sized particles of soil are spoken of as soil constituents. While all soils contain most of the con- stituents, very few soils contain these constituents in the same amounts. Some of the most fertile soils do not con- tain stones or gravel, yet all fertile soils contain sand, silt, and clay. One soil may have the sand particles pre- dominating, another the silt particles, and a third the clay particles. Thus different types of farm soils are formed as the amounts of these different soil constituents vary. Sandy Soils. Sandy soils are made up chiefly of the soil constituents of the sand size. If coarse sand pre- dominates, the soil is called a coarse sandy loam. If the fine sand constituents predominate, the soil is called a fine sandy soil. The coarse sandy soils are usually poor in plant food, and dry out very quickly. As a rule, the finer the sand that composes the soil the more valuable 158 AGRICULTURE :^>^-'':wtV the soil. Sandy soils are often very valuable for producing truck crops, like radishes, lettuce, and sweet potatoes. Sandy soils occur in Kansas along the Arkansas and Kansas rivers and on the uplands of the south central part of the state. Clay Soils. Soils that contain more than thirty-five per cent of clay and more than sixty per cent of silt and clay are called clay soils. If the amount of silt and clay exceeds eighty or ninety per cent the soil is worthless for farming, because it is too stiff and heavy, and difficult to plow and work. The clay soils are usually very rich in plant food. When wet, they are sticky. When dry, they are hard, crack badly, and are lumpy. They are difficult to till. They must not be worked when too wet, else they will bake badly; and they can not be worked when too dry because they are so hard. These un- desirable qualities of clay soils are due to the small amount of sand found in them. Sometimes manure or other forms of organic matter worked into these soils will take the place of sand and make them more mellow. The very heavy clay soils grow grass well and should be used for hay as much of the time as possible. The hCM'Ji mtr :'->C'' *v»r^^ ^ ^-^^":'\4. «i^«'^ ^ A clay soil badly crusted. Soils of this type are very difficult to cultivate. SOIL FORMATION • 159 other crops that do best upon clay soils are wheat, oats, and barley, and some of the fruit trees, such as apple, pear, and plum trees. Alfalfa also does well upon clay soil wherever the plant can be started. Loam Soils. A loam soil is made up of about one-half sand of the various grades, with the other half silt and clay. In physical nature it is half way between the sandy soil and the clay soil, and combines the best characters of both. It is easy to cultivate, does not bake or become cloddy if properly worked, and is usually rich in plant food. There are different types of loam soils. Sandy loam contains more sand than loam, and more silt and clay than the sandy soil. Sandy loam is very common in the river bottoms of eastern Kansas. It is excellent for alfalfa and is well adapted to corn. Silt loam soil contains more silt and less sand and clay than the true loam. Silt loam is a very common type of soil on the uplands in all parts of Kansas. Loam and silt loam are the most desirable corn soils. Silt loam is also well adapted to the production of alfalfa, wheat, oats, and barley. Clay loam is inter- mediate between clay and loam soil. It contains more clay and less sand than does loam. Like clay soil, it is worked with difficulty, and must be handled carefully. It is fair corn soil, and is well adapted to wheat, hay and grass. Gravelly loam is a loam soil containing a large amount of gravel. This soil is not common in Kansas, occurring only in small areas. Stony loam is a loam soil containing a large number of stones. This type occurs in Kansas merely in small areas, and is useful only as pasture land. THE SOILS OF KANSAS. The soil map on the adjacent page shows the general location and extent of the six great divisions of Kansas 160 AGRICULTURE soils. No sharp lines of demarcation can be drawn be- tween any two of these soils. In the extreme northeastern corner of the state, extend- ing south to the Kansas river and west almost to the Blue river, is a body of soil known as glacial, because it was carried there and left by the glacier which came down from the north. The large body of soil covering the northwestern portion of the state is known as loessial, or wind formed, soil. The soils of that area were carried from other regions by the wind and deposited there. The area of soils in the southwestern part of the state is residual, being formed from the unconsolidated material which was at one time carried there by water from the country farther west. Just south of the Arkansas river in the western part of the state is what is known as the "dune sand" area. The sands of this area were at one time moved from plact~ to place by the wind. The soils in the southeastern part of the state are re- sidual in origin, and have been formed largely from the weathering of sandstone and shale. The broad body of soils found chiefly in the central part of the state, but extending from the northern to the southern edge, and from the central to the eastern edge of the state, is residual in origin. It has been formed largely from the weathering of limestone, sandstone, and shale. QUESTIONS 1. Of what is the soil composed? How may its composition vary? 2. How does the soil differ from the subsoil? What constitutes a good subsoil? 3. Why is the subsoil in eastern Kansas less productive than the soil? SOIL FORMATION 161 4. Name all the agencies which have a part in soil formation. Tell what each does, and how it does its work. 5. How are cumulose soils formed? How have glacial soils been formed? 6. In what ways may soil be transported? 7. Of what is the soil mass composed? 8. What are the disadvantages of a sandy soil? What are the disadvantages of a clay soil? Contrast the disadvantages of clay soils with those of sandy soils. 9. Why is a loam soil desirable? To what crops is it adapted? 11 CHAPTER XVI SOIL WATER There can be no plant growth without water. One of the most important uses of the soil is to act as a storehouse for water until it is needed by the plants. It has been estimated that a thousand pounds of green corn contains about eight hundred pounds of water; that is, that four- fifths of the corn plant is water. It can, therefore, safely be said that the most important food that the plant takes from the soil is water. The soil water is important, not only because it is the chief plant food, but because it acts as a carrier of all other plant foods that come from the soil. The soil itself is not the original source of this water; the water comes from the atmosphere as rain. Water which comes to the soil as rain exists in the soil chiefly in two forms, free water and film water. Free Water. Free water is that which flows under the influence of gravity. It is also called ground water, bottom water, or standing water. Well-drained soils contain free water only for a short time after heavy rains; it either flows off the surface of the ground or sinks downward into the lower soil. The downward movement of the water through the soil is called percolation. Free water is not directly useful to the roots of plants, except those which naturally inhabit swamps, like rice, willow trees, and pond lilies. If free water stands in the soil very long, most farm crops will be drowned, for the roots of such plants must have air, and this water excludes (162) SOIL WATER 163 the soil air. Free water is indii'ectly useful in supplying film water. Soils that are composed of large particles, like sand, have large openings between the soil grains. Through these soils water percolates very rapidly, and not enough film water is supplied. Soils composed of small particles, like clay, have very small openings between the soil particles. Through soils of this kind water percolates very slowly — so slowly that plants are sometimes drowned. Soils with medium-sized particles, like loam, permit water to percolate fast enough to prevent the plant from drown- ing, and yet slowly enough to supply an abundance of film water. If plant material, like manure, is added to a sandy soil, the large openings between the soil particles will be partly closed, water will percolate less rapidly, and the sandy soil will become more like loam. If the same kind of material is added to a clay soil, the small particles will be forced farther apart, the openings will be made larger, and the claj'' soil will be improved. Water that percolates into the soil may be brought back for the use of the plant. It is therefore desirable to have fine-grained soils, like clays and loams, loose, so that they will absorb as much of the rainfall as possible. Film Water. Water is also present in the soil as film water. This water is called film water because it sur- rounds each soil particle with a thin film. When all the free water has percolated through the soil after a rain, each soil particle is surrounded by film water. It is this water surrounding the soil particles that the plants use in their growth. The amount of film water that can cling to one soil particle is very small, but the amount of water that can cling to all the soil particles is very large. A good farm soil may sometimes hold more than one-half its 164 AGRICULTURE weight of film water. The amount of this water the soil can hold depends upon the size of the soil particles. Those soils having the smallest particles, such as clay, hold the most film water. Film water is called also capillary water. It rises in the soil in the same way that oil rises in a lamp wick. If the ends of small glass tubes are immersed in water, water will rise on the inside of the tubes. The smaller the bore of the tubes the higher the water will rise. Capillary water rises in the same way in the soil. The smaller the soil particles the smaller will be the soil capillary tubes, and consequently the higher the water will be raised in the soil. Therefore, fine-grained soil will raise water to a greater height than will coarse-grained soil. Free water that percolates into the soil is brought back for the use of plants by the action of the force called capillarity. There- fore, the greater the quantity of water that is stored in the subsoil, the greater is the amount that may be brought b y c a p i 11 a rity into the soil for the use of growing plants. Water moves by cap- illarity from a wetter to a drier soil. If water is evaporating from the surface of a soil, additional water will be brought from the lower soil to replace it. In this way it is possi- ble for soils to dry out to a great depth. If one is to save Soils when cracked lose moisture rapidly. A soil should be cultivated to prevent this loss of moisture. SOIL WATER 165 the water for the use of crops, one must prevent evapo- ration from the surface soils. Evaporation can be greatly checked by covering the soil with some material through which water passes slowly. Soil Mulches. A material placed upon the soil ta pre- vent evaporation is called a mulch. There are two kinds of mulches, foreign mulches, and natural, or soil, mulches. A good soil mulch on a corn field. Very little water is lost by evaporation from such a field. Stones, sand, sawdust, and straw scattered over the sur- face of the soil, form good mulches and greatly check evaporation. These mulches can be used only in a limited way. They are foreign mulches. A soil mulch consists of a layer of soil which has been loosened by cultivation, and which, because of its loose, open structure, dries out quickly and prevents evaporation. 166 AGRICULTURE When a soil is stirred after a rain, evaporation will first be increased, but as the loose soil becomes dry it acts as a mulch to prevent further evaporation. It is not best to have the mulch broken up so fine that it forms a dust, for moisture will rise through this more rapidly than through a mulch composed of small lumps, or granules. A dust mulch is also much more likely to blow than a mulch com- posed of small lumps. If best results are to be obtained it is necessary to cultivate as soon as possible after a heavy, packing rain, in order that the crust, which allows moisture to escape, may be broken up. The depth to which the soil should be cultivated for this purpose depends upon whether the soil is composed of fine or of coarse particles. Cultivating three inches, however, usually produces an effective mulch. A listed field. On a field oi this character, rain soaks into the soil rapidly. Increasing the Water-holding Capacity. Tillage may be beneficial in increasing the water-holding capacity of a soil, as well as in preventing loss by evaporation. Plow- ing fine-grained soils, like clay or loam, so as to leave the surface soil rough and uneven, helps to prevent surface run-off when heavy rains fall. If the soil is plowed early SOIL WATER 167 and deep the opportunities for it to absorb and hold moisture are increased, because, the larger the volume of soil loosened and made open, the more water it will be capable of holding. Dry Farming. Over a large area of western Kansas the rainfall is not sufficient for the production of a good crop each year under the usual methods of cultivation. Where conditions of this kind prevail, dry farming is practiced. Dry farming is not an attempt to grow crops without water, but consists in conserving water so that crops may be grown with the minimum amount of rainfall. By this Injury from blowing due to improper handling; of the soil. system of farming, as much as possible of the water that falls as rain is stored in the soil for the use of plants during their growth. To store water thus, it is necessary to have a deep subsoil that is open enough to allow the entrance of water, and at the same time composed of fine grains and compact enough to hold a large amount of moisture and have considerable capillary power. The sur- 168 AGRICULTURE face soil should be loose and open, and the ground should be cultivated to prevent the growth of weeds. Where blowing occurs the ground must be kept rough, and must be cultivated only when moist, and then no more than is necessary to kill the weeds. Perhaps the best system is to list the land in the fall and allow it to remain in a rough condition during the winter months, and in the spring to cultivate only with imple- ments that leave the ground in a rough condition. The spring-tooth harrow, the shovel cultivator, and the alfalfa renovator are good implements for this purpose. If the soil is cultivated with the smoothing harrow and so disked as to leave the surface smooth, blowing will result. When the rainfall is very light, ground is sometimes summer-fallowed for one year out of three or four, for the purpose of storing moisture in the soil. Summer-fallowing consists in cultivating a field throughly one entire season without a crop and without letting the weeds grow. When this plan is followed, the rainfall of one year is stored in the soil and held until the next year, when it aids the rainfall of that year in growing a crop. If the moisture is properly cared for, it is necessary to cultivate the field often enough during the fallow year — the year in which no crop is grown — to keep weeds from making much growth, for weeds use large amounts of moisture and soon deplete the soil of its supply. The cultivation of the soil during the fallov/ season involves some extra expense, but there is no expense for seed and harvest in the fallow year, and there is often a larger net profit in growing two good crops every three years than in growing a small crop every y^^^- SOIL EROSION Soil erosion is the washing away of the surface soil. In northeastern Kansas, where the rainfall is heavy and the SOIL WATER 169 soil loamy and rolling, much difficulty is experienced in keeping the surface soil in cultivated fields from washing away. The surface soil contains the most plant food and is therefore the richest part of the soil. When washed away, it leaves behind only the poorer subsoil. Not only does erosion carry away plant food, but it also causes deep ravines in the field, which make cultivation very difficult. When the country was all in grass, the amount of erosion Farm land that is rapidly being destroyed by washing. that took place was very small in comparison with that which has taken place since the ground was plowed. As the land was broken up by the plow, the surface covering of leaves, grass, and twigs, which held large amounts of moisture as it fell in the form of rain, and which gave it up slowly to the soil, was destroyed. The roots of grasses, weeds, and trees, so numerous in the soil, aided greatly in holding the soil particles together. The presence of large SOIL WATER 171 amounts of organic matter in the soil tends to prevent erosion, because such matter holds large amounts of water, thus lessening the surface run-off, and also it binds together the soil particles. When the farmer plants most of his cultivated land to corn each year, the organic matter in the soil soon decays and the soil washes much more easily. The Prevention of Erosion. Since erosion is caused by the water's carrying off the surface of the ground, any- thing that will lessen the surface run-off will lessen erosion. Adding organic matter to the soil and deep plowing are both beneficial on ground that must be cultivated, but the best method of preventing erosion is to keep the more rolling fields seeded to alfalfa or some grass. If it is desirable to cultivate a field which has consider- able slope and a tendency to wash, the land should be plowed or listed with the contour of the field, and the crop planted in the same way. This system of plowing is known as contour plowing. The furrows, in this case, form a series of small terraces in the field, and thus aid greatly in the prevention of erosion. QUESTIONS 1. Why are the amount and the kind of water in the soil of so much importance to the farmer? 2. In what forms does water exist in the soil? 3. Is free water useful in the soil? How? 4. How may the water-holding capacity of a sandy soil be in- creased? 5. How do coarse-grained and fine-grained soils differ in water- holding capacity? Of what importance is this to the farmer? 6. How may moisture be lost from the soil? When may this loss take place most rapidly? 7. What is a soil mulch? What is its value? 172 AGRICULTURE 8. What effect has tillage on water-holding capacity? When may tillage be used to greatest advantage in controlling soil moisture? 9. In summer-fallowing, why should the land be left in a rough condition over winter? 10. How may soil erosion be prevented? CHAPTER XVII SOIL IMPROVEMENT The soil must be fertile and rich if the farmer is also to be rich and happy. On a rich soil a farmer can grow big crops of corn, wheat, and alfalfa. Where large crops are grown there is plenty of feed for live stock of all kinds. On a poor soil it is impossible to grow good crops, and without good crops the farmer can not grow the best live stock. It is necessary, therefore, if the farmer is to be prosperous, for him always to keep his soil rich and pro- ductive. A soil will not remain rich if care is not taken to keep up its fertility. We have seen how organic matter is lost from the soil; this must be supplied, a little each year, or the soil will become poorer. A fertile soil also contains plant food. There are a number of kinds of food necessary to the growth of the plant. Three of these plant foods, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, sometimes become used up by too many years' cropping of the same land. Unless the deficiency is supplied, the soil becomes poor and unpro- ductive. There are three ways of adding plant food: (1) growing a leguminous crop that will secure nitrogen from the air; (2) applying commercial fertilizer; and (3) applying barnyard manure to the soil. Leguminous Crops. Leguminous crops, as has been pointed out, have the power to secure nitrogen from the air. Three-fourths of the air is made up of nitrogen, so that there is plenty for these crops to use. The most common (173) 174 AGRICULTURE leguminous plants are alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, soy beans, beans, and peas. Leguminous plants are able to use the nitrogen of the air because they have living with them, in nodules on their roots, friendly bacteria. The bacteria first take the nitrogen from the air and then give it to the plant. These bacteria in return must have carbon for their growth. They are not green, neither do they grow in the sunshine; therefore, they can not take the carbon from the air as does a plant. But the legume has green leaves and can use the carbon of the air, and it supplies the bacteria with its carbon. Thus these two friends, the legume and the bacteria, live together, each doing a work that the other can not do. Most soils contain these useful bacteria. Some soils may not contain them, in which event the bacteria must be introduced. The best way of inoculating with bacteria is to gather soil from a field where the legume to be sown has been successfully grown, and to spread the soil at the rate of two or three bushels upon each acre to be inoculated. How Legumes Help Other Crops. These friendly bacteria live only upon the roots of leguminous plants. No other plants have nodules on their roots. Therefore, leguminous plants are the only plants that can use the nitrogen of the air. Corn, wheat, oats, and kafir must obtain all their nitrogen from the soil. When alfalfa, cow- peas, clover, or any other legume has been grown upon a field, there is left in the soil some of the nitrogen that the plant took from the air. This is especially the case if the crop is pastured or is plowed under for green manure. If com or wheat is then planted on the field where the legume has been grown, the crop is greatly benefited by the nitrogen left in the soil by the leguminous plant. In this way a farmer may place in the soil nitrogen from the SOIL IMPROVEMENT 175 air for the use of crops like corn or wheat, which are dependent upon the soil for their nitrogen. Commercial Fertilizers. A commercial fertilizer is a material sold for the purpose of supplying plant food to the soil. When a commercial fertilizer supplies all three of the important kinds of plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, it is called a complete fertilizer. Large amounts of commercial fertilizers are used by farmers in Europe, especially in Germany, France and England. In the United States, commercial fertilizers are used in the southern and the eastern states, where the land has been cropped for a great many years, but in the western states, like Kansas, where the ground has not been cropped so long, fertilizers are not extensively used. As time goes on and as more and more plant food is removed from the soil, it will become necessary to use fertilizer in order to pro- duce profitable crops. While commercial fertilizers supply plant food to the soil, they do not furnish much organic matter. We have seen that organic matter, as well as plant food, must be supplied if the soil is to remain fertile. For this reason, a farmer can not expect to maintain the fertility of his soil by using commercial fertilizers alone. They should be used, for best results, on soil which is occasionally dressed with barnyard manure or on which a crop is plowed under occasionally to supply organic matter. Barnyard Manure. Barnyard manure is the most im- portant of all kinds of plant food, and also adds organic matter to the soil. It is also the cheapest source of plant food. The farmer who feeds all the crops grown on his farm to live stock and carefully saves and returns the manure to his fields, will not find it necessary to buy much 176 AGRICULTURE Burnyard manure that has accumulated for years. It has lost much of its plant food. It should have been spread on the fields as fast as it was made. commercial fertilizer. The average farmer who is feeding live stock on his farm does not carefully save and use the manure. It has been estimated that there is pro- duced annu- ally in the United States manure c o n - taining plant food valued at more than two billion dollars, and that one- third, or more than seven hundred million dollars' worth, of this plant food is lost by careless handling. Loss of plant food from manure may occur in several ways. The Loss of Manure Value. Manure is made up of both solid and liquid matter. The latter is the more valuable because it contains more plant food, and also because the plant food which it contains is soluble in water and readily available for the use of plants. If care is not used in handling the manure, this valuable liquid material will flow away and be lost. This loss may be prevented by using sufficient bedding to absorb all the liquid portion of the manure. Manure that is left in the feed lot over summer, or that is piled in the open and left exposed to the weather, loses large amounts of plant food. Rain carries away in solution enormous quantities. This loss may be largely overcome by feeding the cattle on the cultivated land in the winter when the ground is dry, by cleaning out the feed yards early in the spring, and by piling manure SOIL IMPROVEMENT 177 under cover when it must be stored, and hauling it to the field as soon as possible. Barnyard manure that has been exposed to the weather for a period of six months has lost one-half of its plant food, and only the more slowly available plant food re- mains. The Application of Barnyard Manure. If the best results are to be obtained from barnyard manure, it should be hauled to the field as frequently as possible and spread over the surface of the soil evenly. It should not be placed in small piles and then scattered later, because it will lose a part of its value while in the piles, and the spots where the heaps were placed will receive an excessive amount of plant food. Manure that is applied as a surface dressing to wheat, alfalfa, or pasture lands at the rate of from five to ten tons The ^^eId from one-tenth oi an acre of alfalfa, first cutting. 1. Unfertilized. 2. Fertilized with five tons of manure to the acre annually. 3. Fertilized with two and one-half tons of manure annu- ally. 4. Fertilized with two and one-half tons of manure and three hundred and eighty pounds of rock phosphate annually. 5. Unfertilized. an acre will cause, under most conditions, a good increase in yield. Manure should not be plowed under, especially in western Kansas. When a heavy dressing of manure is 178 AGRICULTURE plowed under, the soil is left so loose and open that crops suffer severely from drouth. HUMUS From the definition of the word "soil" we learned that soil is composed of rock material and plant material. We have seen how the rocks of the earth's crust have been broken down and transported from one place to an- other to aid in the formation of the soil. The plant material in the soil is usually spoken of as the organic mat- ter. The organic mat- ter of the soil is slowly decaying. If it decays on the surface of the soil, it gradually disap- pears, leaving nothing but ashes, as though the organic matter had been burned. If it decays partly buried in the soil, Nature's way of adding organic matter to the soil: weeds growing on an uncultivated field. as when the organic matter is plowed under, it forms, in place of ashes, a black material called humus. Humus is, therefore, organic matter that has partly decayed in the ab- sence of air. It is in the form of humus that most of the organic matter of the soil is found . Humus is necessary for the growth of good crops. While plants may be grown un- der unnatural conditions in a soil that contains no humus, they can not be grown in the field in a soil of that kind, as SOIL IMPROVEMENT 179 they can not obtain enough food. Nitrogen, one of the most necessary foods of plants, is found in the soil chiefly in organic matter and humus. In decaying, humus also makes available to plants many of the other plant foods in the soil. Humus increases the water-holding power of the soil, because it acts like a sponge in absorbing water. It is for this reason very valuable in sandy soil. Soils that do not contain humus in fairly large amounts are worked with difficulty, are hard to plow and cultivate, and after rains bake and crust badly. How Humus is Lost. The organic matter and humus of the soil come from the vegetation that grows upon the earth. In nature, before man started to till the soil, there was always an abundance of humus, for all plants fell down and decayed where they had grown. When man started to till the soil, plants were no longer allowed to fall down and decay where they grew, but were removed from the fields. Man required the crops for food for him- self and his live stock. He not only removed the crops, but plowed and cultivated the soil. In the plowing and cultivation of the soil, air was allowed to enter freely, and the decay of organic matter was hastened. Thus the humus of the soil that nature constantly planned to main- tain has been reduced by man, first, in removing from the fields the crops, which, if left to decay, would have formed organic matter in the soil; secondly, in plowing and culti- vating, and thus hastening the decay of the humus pre- viously stored in the soil. How Humus May be Supplied. As more and more of the organic matter is destroyed by such methods of farm- ing as the growing of corn continuously and the removal of all fodder and straw from the farm, with the addition of no plant material, the soils become less and less pro- ductive. They become hard, are difficult to cultivate. 180 AGRICULTURE bake when dry, wash badly, take in water slowly, and dry out quickly. Thus soils that were once productive and fertile become in time so poor that they no longer produce paying crops. Must man, in order to keep up the humus supply, go back to nature's plan and take nothing from the soil? He will do well to study nature's plan, and imitate it as far as possible. All organic matter produced upon the farm should be returned to the soil. Cornstalks supply organic matter. They should not be burned ; for in burning the organic matter is destroyed. They should be worked into the soil, where they will decay and form humus. Straw sup- plies organic matter, and therefore should not be burned. Old straw stacks rotting in the field. Straw supplies organic matter and should not be burned or allowed to rot in the stack, but should be spread and worked into the soil to form humus. All manure produced by live stock supplies organic matter, and should be saved, spread upon the field, and worked into the soil. If not enough material can be returned to the soil in this way to keep up the supply of organic matter, then crops should be grown and plowed under for the purpose of furnishing this material to the soil. Crops grown and plowed under for the purpose of furnishing organic matter to the soil are known as green manuring crops. Green Manuring. The best green manuring crops for Kansas are cowpeas, soy beans, sweet clover, and red clover. These are the best green manuring crops because SOIL IMPROVEMENT 181 they add to the soil large amounts of nitrogen, as well as organic matter. Next in importance are rye, sorghums, and similar crops. These crops add large amounts of organic matter to the soil, but do not add nitrogen, and therefore are not so valuable as the others. Plowing cowpeas under — an excellent means of addin;^ organic matter to the soil. Lime and Liming. There are soils that fail to produce certain crops, not because the soil does not contain sufficient plant food, but because the soil is not in the proper condition to furnish a favorable home for the plant. Any material that is used to improve this condition is called a soil amendment. The chief soil amendment is lime. Soils that are deficient in lime do not furnish a suitable home for the bacteria that live on the roots of leguminous plants and aid in the fixation of nitrogen from the air. It is therefore necessary to lime such soils before leguminous crops like alfalfa, clover, and sweet clover can be grown. In the eastern and southeastern parts of Kansas there 182 AGRICULTURE are large areas of soil that are deficient in lime and will not grow alfalfa or clover satisfactorily. Such soils soils should be limed. Lime may be used in one of two ways: it may be applied to the soil as finely ground lime- stone; or it may be applied as burned lime. If lime is applied as finely ground limestone, it should be used as a surface dressing and should be harrowed in. Because of its slow action, it should be applied a year be- fore results are expected from it. If, however, burned lime is to be used, it should be allowed to slake before being applied, and should then be spread as a surface dressing and should be harrowed in immediately. It is not advisable to apply lime and manure together, because the lime will set free from the manure nitrogen which will escape into the air. QUESTIONS 1. In what three ways may plant food be added to the soil? 2. How do leguminous crops improve the soil? 3. Is it advisable to apply nitrogen as a commercial fertilizer? Give reasons for your answer. 4. Why is barnyard manure such a valuable plant food? When and how should it be applied? 5. How should barnyard manure be cared for before it is applied? 6. Why is humus so valuable in the soil? Give all the reasons you can. How may we tell when a soil lacks humus? 7. How may humus be lost from the soil? How may it be added to the soil? 8. To what soils should finely ground limestone be applied? Why? CHAPTER XVIII DRAINAGE Land drainage is the removal of excess water from the soil. In order that crops may be profitably grown, it is necessary that the soil shall not hold an excess of water. Too much water excludes air and hinders the activity of soil bacteria, and in other ways makes the soil unfit for plant gi-owth. Soils which are open and porous permit this excess water to flow away by gravity, and are drained naturally. Fine-grained soils with little vegetable matter and humus, or soils which have heavy, compact subsoils, do not permit this excess water to escape readily, and are therefore not naturally adapted to agriculture. In order to make these soils fit for plant growth, artificial drainage and proper tillage are necessary. Fortunately the excess water which hinders plant growth may be removed by the action of gravity without removing the capillary water necessary to plant growth. Lands Requiring Drainage. Lands which accumulate an excess of water and make dramage necessary are fre- quently found. Many fields have a part or all of their area made up of such soils. The most common conditions are: ponds and sloughs holding water for a great length of time; low spots and wet draws in cultivated fields which dry slowly after heavy rains; undulating fields having apparently good surface drainage, but having spots which are wet because of the retentive or uneven subsoils which cause the water to seep out near the bottom (183) 184 AGRICULTURE of a slope; fields with porous or loamy surface soils, but with heavy, compact subsoils which prevent natural drain- age; low-lying swamp or marsh lands, or other areas with- out sufficient slope to remove the excess rainfall rapidly enough; stream valleys which are periodically overflowed because of the limited capacities of river and creek chan- nels, and which must be protected by some method of stream improvement. Many soils, on account of their steepness, erode or wash very badly. In such cases the problem is not how to per- mit the water to run away more quickly, but how to handle the water to prevent soil erosion. Soil erosion can not be prevented by artificial drainage alone. Proper tillage and rotation of crops are necessary for successful protection. Artificial land drainage is accomplished by two dis- tinct methods: surface drainage, and underdrainage. Surface Drainage. A large proportion of the rain which falls upon the earth's surface runs away over the surface of the ground. This water gathers in pools and small sur- face channels, and is finally collected into the creeks and rivers, which carry the surplus away to larger bodies of water. In cultivated fields, adequate surface ditches are necessary to carry away the excessive storm water. Nature provides at all times a means for removing this water, and if it is not permitted to escape by gravity through the surface channels, either it will gradually evaporate or it will percolate downward through the drainage pores in the soil. Evaporation is slow, and in most cases the character of the subsoil will not permit rapid or free percolation downward; therefore, the most important step in land drainage is to secure proper and adequate systems of ditches for surface drainage. It should be remembered, however, that surface drainage is valuable only so far as it DRAINAGE 185 is capable of removing water which would otherwise stand upon the surface of the ground. Drainage Ditches. Surface ditches are necessary in any large system of drainage, as a means of escape for the surface run-off and as an outlet for under- drains. It is very im- portant that these surface drains be lo- cated to give proper outlet for all the wet land, and at the same time be placed in such a manner as to prevent, as far as practicable, irregular-shaped fields. Generally speaking, sur- face drains are located to follow the general course of natural drain- age. Open Ditches. All ditches must have a certain amount of slope, or fall, in order to carry away the water. Frequently the amount of fall across a tract of land is not sufficient to provide adequate slope in the channel to per- mit the water to escape. In such cases, the lower end, or outlet, must be dug to a greater depth than the upper end. On the other hand, the slope of the land may be so great as to cause the water to run so rapidly that the soil is washed away. The channel should be so located as to prevent this, and if possible just enough fall should be se- cured to give sufficient velocity to carry away the silt and other debris that will naturally enter the channel. A type of mechanif'nl excavator used in making open ditches. 186 AGRICULTURE The character of the soil is an important factor in locating the ditch. Underdrainage. Underdrainage deals with the re- moval of excessive moisture from within the soil by means of covered drains. Although proper surf ace drain- age is the first step in farm drainage, it frequently be- comes necessary, even after surface drainage has been secured, to remove water from within the soil. To ac- complish this purpose underdrainage is necessary. Some soils are of such a texture that they do not require arti- ficial drainage, but few localities are so fortunate as to have soils that do not require more or less underdrainage. Kinds of Underdrains. An underdrain consists of an underground conduit or covered channel for the proper removal of excessive ground water. The first type of underdrain consisted of bundles of sticks placed in trenches, the whole being covered with earth. Following this crude method, bro- ken stone was placed in the trenches and the water was permitted to percolate through the open cavities. Later, flat stones were used to form underground channels. Tile drains were first introduced into the United States in the state of New York in 1838. Some of these drains are still in use. Tile Drains. Clay and cement are now extensively used for the manufacture of underdrains. The clay tile is used more generally than any other type. Factories for the manufacture of this product are well distributed throughout the Mississippi valley. Cement tile, made of Underdrain made with flat stoue. A modern tile drain. DRAINAGE 187 a mixture of cement and sand, is now extensively used. When properly constructed, cement tile is entirely satis- factory for drainage purposes. It is necessary that this underground pipe be made of first-quality material, other- wise the pieces are lia- ble to crumble and break. Clay and ce- ment tile are manufac- t u r e d in diameters varying from three inches to several feet. Tile drains less than twelve inches in diame- ter are usually con- structed in lengths of twelve inches. For drains of greater diame- ter the pieces of pipe are longer. It is very impor- tant that a good outlet Digging a drainage ditch. be sccured for tllc drain- age systems. In other words, there must be proper open ditches to permit the water from the tiles to escape readily. Tile drains are laid in trenches of varying depths, and always on a general line of descent, so that the water can have a free flow throughout the pipe line. The depth of trenches for receiving the tile varies with the character of the soil. Tile drains are usually placed at depths of not less than thirty inches, and in certain localities where the soil is deep, from three to four feet below the surface. In general, hardpan or very retentive soils require shal- low drainage, while loamy bottom lands require deeper drainage. 188 AGRICULTURE Tile Drainage Systems. A tile drainage system consists of a main, submains, and laterals. The main tile line serves as an outlet for all other drains, and should ordi- narily be located in the lowest part of the field and along the general course of natural drainage. Into the main Drainin<; a field. Notice depth and relation of ditohes, and distribution of tile. tile line the submains will empty, and these submains will in turn be the outlet for the lateral drains. The position of the submains depends largely upon the natural slope of the land. The laterals should be placed sufficiently close together to give complete and satisfactory drainage to the land. These intervals may vary from twenty-five to one hundred feet or more. Open and porous soils do not require frequent drainage. In such soils the tile are placed DRAINAGE 189 deep, and the lines fairly wide apart. In localities where the soil is very retentive, the tile lines are necessarily placed at less depth and at more frequent intervals. It is apparent that there is a relation between the depth and the spacing of tile lines, and that this relation is dependent directly upon the character of the soil to be drained. Size of Tile. The proper size of the underdrain depends upon the area of land to be drained and the slope, or fall, in the tile line. Drains should be installed to relieve the land of the excessive water during times of heavy rainfall. It is evident that the main tile line must be large enough to carry the combined water of all the drains which enter into it. Lateral tile lines should not be less than three inches in diameter, and usually it is economical to make the di- ameter at least four inches. The length of these lateral tile lines depends upon the topography of the land, but the minimum size of tile should not be used for a length much exceeding one thousand feet. It is very important to have the tile drains large enough, otherwise they will fail when most needed ; that is, during the wettest weather. Drainage Systems. Different systems of tile drainage are adapted to different fields. Where only wet depres- sions exist in the land, tile drains are placed in the lowest part of the wet area, and tile lines are run out into the wet side draws as required. This method is known as the natural system of drainage. Placing the tile in trenches. 190 AGRICULTURE Broad wet draws that are naturally depressed toward the center are drained by a main tile line through the center of the wet area and lateral lines run out from either side of the main line. This is known as the her- ringbone sys- tem. For large tracts of land where com- plete and thorough drainage is required, the '. ~" " ' ; '. system con- Plan of typical drainage system for a 160-acre fann. ^, Single-line sys- . tern of drainage. B, Cut-off drain to intercept seep water from the hill, slsts 01 iong C, Gridiron system of drainage for flat land. D, Herringbone system of n i t drainage. E, Drainage of a pond. F, Natural system of drainage; also parallel llnCS note the drain to the farm buildings. 01 tile so ar- ranged that they will cover every portion of the field thoroughly, yet have a common outlet. Such a system of drainage is known as the gridiron system. Areas having a uniform slope with a good natural out- let are sometimes drained by single lines of tile laid through the field ; each tile line in reality is a system of drainage. This is known as the single-line system. Sloping hillsides are sometimes drained by tile lines placed at an angle with the greatest slope. This is known as the cross-the-slope system. DRAINAGE 191 Undulating, or rolling, land that is subject to seepy or wet conditions at the base of the hill slopes is successfully drained by a tile line placed above the wet outcrop and deep enough to intercept the source of the seep water. Drains of this character are known as cut-off drains. Construction Methods. Farm drainage systems are usually constructed by the use of hand tools. The imple- ments usually needed are a tile spade, a shovel, a drain scoop, and a tile hook. Tile spades have blades ranging from sixteen to twenty inches in length. These are used to loosen and throw the dirt from the trenches. The shovel is used to remove the loose particles from the bottom of the trenches, and the drain scoop to shape the bottom to receive the tile. The tile hook is used to place the tile in position in the bottom of the trench. In localities where a large amount of tile drainage is necessary, power ditching machines may be used. These machines are run by steam or gasoline engines. In one operation they cut the ditch and shape the bottom of the trench ready to receive the tile. The Action of Tile Drainage. When a field is tile- drained the surplus water that falls percolates into the soil by passing through the drainage pores until it comes into contact with the underdrains. Here the action of •gravity causes the water to enter the tile through the cracks at the Joints. The quantity that enters through the sides of even the most porous tile is not worth consider- ing. With the most careful laying there is always ample room for the water to pass through the joints, and it is found that the longer the tiles are laid, the better defined the drainage pores in the soil become; consequently, the better the drainage. A drainage system that appears unsatisfactory when first installed may prove to be entirely adequate in the 192 AGRICULTURE course of time. Porous soils naturally respond most readily to underdrainage. The action of the tile drains in close, compact soils is hastened by deep plowing and sub- soiling, and the drainage properties of the soil may be im- A incthanical excavator u?e(l in the construction of tile drainage systems. proved by methods of farming which introduce vegetable matter into the soil. The Benefits of Drainage. While the principal purpose of the tile drain is to make wet land productive, it performs additional functions in making the land sweeter by proper aeration, warmer by preventing excessive evaporation, more productive by increasing the depth of soil, and more resistant to drouth by making more moisture available for plant life. Underdrainage is a valuable agent in the development of farm lands, in that the waste areas on the farms are decreased and thereby the value of the entire farm is increased. If underdrainage is employed fields can be made more regular in shape, and therefore can be DRAINAGE 193 cultivated more easily. The removal of stagnant water lessens the danger of disease, while the dry earth about the farm buildings makes the farm home more sanitary. Localities which are properly drained have about them an air of freshness that is not possible in wet, low-lying dis- tricts. QUESTIONS 1. What is the purpose of land drainage? 2. Name six conditions of wet land which make drainage nec- essary. 3. Under what two general divisions may land drainage be clas- sified? 4. What do you understand by surface drainage? What is the purpose of the surface ditch? 5. Give some general principles to be observed in the location of open ditches. 6. What do you understand by underdrainage? How is artificial underdrainage accomplished? 7. Of what materials are tile drains usually made? 8. Give some of the important principles to observe in the loca- tion and construction of tile drains. 9. Of what does a tile drainage system consist? Name and de- scribe five different systems. 10. What tools are required to construct a tile drainage system by hand? 11. W^hat is the minimum size of tile which should be used in a drainage system ? 12. Describe the action of tile drains. 13. Give five benefits derived from tile drainage. l;j CHAPTER XIX IRRIGATION The application of water to the soil by artificial methods for the production of crops is known as irrigation. The practice of irrigation is more ancient than history; the earliest known writers refer to this method of agriculture and give rules for the handling of water. India has more than 40,000,000 acres of irrigated land; Egypt has 6,000,- 000 acres; the United States has between 15,000,000 and 20,000,000 acres. Practically every nation in the world irrigates to some extent. The first irrigation practiced in the United States was carried on by the Mormon settlers in the Salt Lake valley, Utah, in 1847. About twenty years later California and Colorado began to irrigate. To-day all the states in the semiarid and arid parts of the United States are practicing irrigation. The Need of Irrigation. Wherever there is insufficient rainfall some method of irrigation is necessary for the full development of crops. The greatest need for irrigation is in regions of slight rainfall or in regions where rainfall does not come at the proper times during the growing season. Not only is irrigation valuable as a means of making dry and desert lands productive, but it is also a valuable agent in the semiarid and the humid districts in carrying crops through critical periods during the hot, dry summer months. The Advantages of Irrigation. Irrigation provides the required amount of moisture for the growing vegetation at (194) IRRIGATION 195 the time when it is most necessary. Naturally, in all arid regions there is an abundance of sunshine. This con- tinuous sunshine, together with the proper moisture con- tent in the soil from irrigation, greatly stimulates plaiijt life. In this way irrigation affords almost ideal conditions for agi"iculture. Sources of Water. The success of any irrigation project depends upon the availability of an abundant supply of Correct irrigation insures high production: a Kansas alfalfa fiel.I. water at all times. Water for irrigation may be secured by diversion from perennial streams and lakes; by the storage of flood water from natural watercourses; and by the use of underground waters secured by mechanical methods. Irrigation Systems. There are two general systems of irrigation : gravity systems and mechanical systems. Gravity Systems. Gravity systems of irrigation are more extensively used . Such a system consists primarily of headworks for the proper diversion of the water from perennial streams, lakes, or reservoirs, and the distributing system to conduct the water to the land to be irrigated. 196 AGRICULTURE The headworks consist of proper gates and appliances to permit regulation of the flow of water into the dis- tributing system. Usually a dam or a diversion weir is constructed in the stream channel to raise the level of the water to such a height that it will enter the gates. The early irrigators used sacks of sand, placed in the stream beds, to form dams, but as water has become more valu- able large sums of money have been invested in substantial and permanent headworks to divert and regulate the stream flow. Not only must these headworks be con- structed to divert the water properly, but they must be strong enough to resist the force of extreme flood condi- tions, to which all mountain streams are subject. The distributing system begins at the headworks. It consists of canals of proper dimension so located as to give a natural flow of water over all the lands to be irrigated. In order to bring this water to the lands it is necessary to carry it to a higher elevation than it would have if it followed the natural stream bed. This is accomplished by carrying the canal systems along the foot of the hills on the sides of the river valley. These canals do not have so steep a slope, or grade, as the natural stream bed. For example, if a river has a fall of ten feet to the mile, the water can be diverted into a canal system with a fall of one foot a mile, and at the end of ten miles the water in the canal system will be ninety feet higher than the water in the stream bed. By carrying the canals along the bases of the hills on the side of a valley, vast areas of productive land can be irrigated. The ditches are constructed in earth or rock in much the same manner as drainage ditches. The irrigation canal must, however, be so located as to conduct the water away from a larger stream, the branches, or laterals, of the canal system gradually carrying smaller quantities of water. The main canals conduct the water to IRRIGATION 197 the laterals, while the laterals conduct the water to the farmers' ditches for final distribution to the fields. Mechanical Systems. Where water can not be secured from a stream or a lake by natural fall, some mechanical A lateral carrying water to a distunt part of the field. method is required to lift the water upon the land to be irrigated. This is usually accomplished by means of pumps and engines. Irrigation by pumping is becoming more and more popular each year. The water may be secured from streams or lakes, or from wells penetrating the underlying strata of water-bearing sand and gravel. Irrigation by mechanical methods is important, because it insures the development of vast areas of arid lands in regions where gravity systems would not be practicable. Naturally such irrigation systems are very flexible, and a few acres or several thousand acres may be watered as one regulates the size of the pumping unit. Mechanical systems of irrigation are not so reliable, however, as well- 198 AGRICULTURE designed gravity systems. In order to be dependable, the mechanical devices for irrigation by pumping must be of the very best type of standard construction. In different parts of Kansas water for mechanical irrigation may be pumped from streams or from underlying water-bearing strata. WINDMILL IRRIGATION The windmill is used extensively for pumping water to irrigate small areas of land about the farm home. Wind- Pumping underground water for irrigation. mills have been improved during recent years, and are now readily obtainable from dealers in agricultural imple- ments. It is necessary to select windmills of compact and simple construction, and preferably such as have gained a reputation by actual performance under average agri- cultural conditions. Where windmills are used to pump the water it is necessary to have adequate water storage to carry the crops through periods when the wind does not blow. It is economical to have a storage tank to ac- cumulate a supply, or head, of water which can be used to advantage when turned upon the land. The average windmill will not irrigate much more than one-half to IRRIGATION 199 three-fourths of an acre. The cost of windmill plants would be excessive where large areas must be watered, but for small farm gardens and lawns the windmill plant affords an economical and convenient method of supplying water. The Head of Water. The volume of water used to irrigate land is known as the head of water. Where only small quantities of water are available, it is nec- essary for the farmer to irrigate with small irri- gation heads. Where, on the other hand, the quantity of water is large, the farmer can irri- gate with high heads of water. In some irriga- tion districts as much as fifteen cubic feet of water a second is avail- able for the farmer when he is ready to irrigate. This is regarded as a very high head of water. The Duty of Water. ''The duty of water" is a term usually applied to the quantity of water required to mature a crop. It is also used to refer to the area of land which a given flow of water will irrigate during a season. LOSSES OF WATER Seepage. It is impossible to apply water to the soil without losses. In the first place, earth canals are not Pumping underground water with a windmill and storing the water in an earth reservoir. This method is adapted to irrigating small areas. 200 AGRICULTURE absolutely water-tight. Part of the water will percolate into the soil and seep away. This loss is known as seepage. Deep Percolation. When water is applied to the soil in too great a quantity a portion of it will percolate to a depth beyond the root zone of the plant to be grown. This water is beyond the control of the irrigator, and conse- quently must be regarded as a loss. The process is known as deep percolation. Evaporation. There is always some evaporation when water surface is exposed to the air. From the time when the water enters the- head gate of the canal system until the time when it is applied to the crops there is consider- able exposure of the surface of the water to the air, and consequently there must be more or less evaporation. This evaporation can be controlled only by running the water through closed ditches. The expense of this is too great in comparison with the amount of water saved, and con- sequently evaporation in ditches is a loss which must be considered, but which can not be economically remedied. Evaporation of water from the soil following an irrigation may be reduced by proper tillage. THE PREPARATION OF THE LAND Ideal irrigation is a thorough and even application of the water to all parts of the field. This can not be obtained when the surface of the land is uneven, since the natural tendency of water is to seek a common level ; accordingly, certain portions of the field will receive too much water, while other parts will receive scarcely any. The irrigator must, therefore, level the land so that the water can be efficiently and evenly distributed to all parts of the field. The Application of Water. An important step in secur- ing a high duty of water is to select correct methods of applying the water. There are four principal methods of IRRIGATION 201 irrigating land by applying water to the surface: wild flooding; flooding within borders; irrigation by furrows; Sketch showing typical irrigation systems for a small farm. A, Irri- gation canal. B, Farmer's head gate. C, Strip check system of irrigation. D, Square check system. E, Orchard irrigation by furrowa. F, Furrow irrigation for field crops. Q, Border irrigation. irrigation by checks. In addition to this, water is occasion- ally applied to the soil by other methods, known as sub- irrigation and sprinkling. Wild Flooding. By means of the wild flooding method, the water is run down the slope of the land in sheets flow- ing from the supply, or head, ditches. These sheets of 202 AGRICULTURE water overlap or cross one another as they flow across the field. This method of water distribution requires com- paratively little labor and is applicable to such crops as wheat, oats, and the grasses. It is not a perfect system, as the water can not be spread evenly over the field. The lands nearest the lateral ditches are liable to receive too much water, while the lower ends of the field are likely to get too little, or, if enough water is permitted to flow to the lower end, provision must be made for the necessary waste of water. This method of irrigation can be successfully used only on sloping land that will not wash. Border Irrigation. Where the border method of irriga- tion is used the water is run in the direction of the slope, over the ground to be irrigated. This method permits the use of large heads of water, and the ground is irrigated uniformly between the ridges; but this method is likely to result in over-irrigation at the upper end of the field and under-irrigation at the lower end, unless a large amount of water is applied and provision is made for a considerable part of the water to run to waste. The length of run for the water depends upon the character of the soil and the quantity of water used for irrigation. Fairly porous soils require, for economy of water, comparatively short runs. Furrow Irrigation. Where furrow irrigation is practiced small depressions are plowed out across the ground to be irrigated, in the direction of the slope, and the water is permitted to run down these furrows for a sufficient length of time to soak the ground thoroughly. This method of irrigation does not require a large amount of work on the part of the irrigator, and the losses from evaporation and seepage are not very great if the furrow is not too long. In most cases the length of the furrow should not exceed IRRIGATION 203 five hundred feet. Furrow irrigation is especially adapted to crops which are cultivated, such as sugar beets, potatoes, corn, and orchard fruits. In some cases, however, fields which are planted to alfalfa are corrugated, or little fur- Furrow irrigation for root crops. rows are pressed into the surface by special machinery, and in this way furrow irrigation can be practiced for sown crops. The Check System. The check system of irrigation is used extensively. The field is marked off into a series of level plats surrounded by little ridges, or dikes, and into these plats the water is run to the required depth for irrigation. This method can be used on prac- tically all kinds of crops, but is especially adapted to alfalfa, wheat, barley, and other non-cultivated sown crops. Considerable work is required to prepare the land to receive the water, but when the land has been properly prepared this method of irrigation requires little effort, and few unavoidable losses of water occur. The size of the check varies with the character of the soil to be 204 AGRICULTURE irrigated. Porous, open, and sandy soils should have small checks, while the heavier soils can be successfully irrigated by larger checks. No check should contain more than one and one-fourth acres of land, and usually checks should vary from fifty to one hundred feet in width and from three hundred to five hundred feet in length. Subirrigation. The introduction of water into the soil by means of underground pipes is known as subirrigation. Subirrigation is, theoretically, an ideal system of water distribution, but unless the soil conditions are ideal the water will not spread very far laterally from the sides of the pipe line. Experience indicates that the underground pipes should be placed from twelve to sixteen inches deep and in parallel lines from six to eight feet apart. The cost of placing these pipes beneath the surface of the ground makes this method of water distribution practically pro- hibitive except for small areas. An earth reservoir used for storing water for irrigation. To the right is a main ditch leading to the field. Sprinkling. Valuable sprinkling systems of irrigation have been devised for the irrigation of vegetables and plants. Sprinkling more nearly approaches the conditions of natural rainfall than does any other system of irrigation. IRRIGATION 205 It requires, however, proper appliances above the surface of the ground in order to distribute the water over the area to be irrigated. Consequently such systems of irri- gation are not suitable except for truck farming and for greenhouse use. THE AMOUNT OF WATER TO USE Water losses may be reduced by using proper heads of water for irrigation. Sandy, open, and porous lands must be irrigated with high heads of water, otherwise the losses through seepage and deep percolation will be excessive. On heavier lands where the subsoil is rather compact, smaller heads of water may be used. The irrigator must use good judgment in the amount of water to apply and the time to apply it. Loam and clay loam soils have the capacity of holding in suspension large quantities of water. Such soils do not require frequent irrigations, but a considerable quantity of water can be applied at one time. On the other hand, soils that are gravelly and sandy hold very little water in suspension, and upon such lands frequent small applications of water are necessary to produce maximum yields. The irrigation farmer must study his soil conditions, and his experience in handling the water should guide him in determining the proper amount to apply to the soil and the proper time to apply the water. CULTIVATION The successful irrigator must of necessity be a good dry- land farmer. In order to make irrigation really profitable and reliable, just enough water must be used to promote the healthy growth of plant life. If the greatest good is to be secured from the available water supply, the irrigator must also practice careful cultivation. Proper cultivation 206 AGRICULTURE prevents undue losses from evaporation, and the stirring of the soil promotes the healthy growth of plants. It may be in some cases cheaper to apply water than to cultivate, but the excessive use of water is usually followed by evil results to the land. Many thousands of acres of land in the arid sections of the United States are in an unproduc- tive condition because of saturation due to seepage from canals and over-application of water to the crops. Such soils require artificial drainage in order to make them productive. Irrigation farming requires the application of the very best principles of farming, as well as careful business judgment on the part of the irrigator. QUESTIONS 1. Define irrigation. Why is irrigation often necessary? 2. Give some of the advantages of irrigation. 3. From what three general sources may water be secured for irrigation? 4. How may irrigation systems be classified? 5. Of what does a gravity system of irrigation consist? 6. What conditions are necessary for mechanical systems of ir- rigation? 7. Under what circumstances may windmills be used for irriga- tion? 8. Why is a reservoir necessary for a sucessful windmill irrigation plant? 9. What is meant by the term, "head of water"? 10. How may water be lost in irrigation ditches? 11. What do you understand by deep percolation? 12. Name and describe four principal methods of irrigating land. 13. To what extent is subirrigation applicable as a means of water distribution? To what extent is sprinkling applicable? 14. What factors are to be considered in regulating the quantity of water to apply? 15. Show the importance of cultivation in connection with irri- gation. CHAPTER XX FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Plants the Source of Animal Food. Plants are the sole source of animal food. Without plants animals could not live. Some animals eat the flesh of other animals and of birds, but the food even of these may be traced back to plants. When man eats beef or pork, he is eating plants that have been changed into animal flesh. The plant, therefore, is of fundamental importance to the farmer who raises cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, and poultrj^ He must grow plenty of plants, such as corn, sorghum, alfalfa, wheat, oats, and grass, to furnish food for his farm ani- mals. There must also be a variety to supply the needs of the animals. When an animal grows, works, or fat- tens, it needs food in larger quantity than that used when it is idle. Some plants are especially adapted to pro- ducing growth. Others are better suited to making fat or to giving the animal strength to do work. Some plants are eaten green, as pasture grass; others are cured to make hay. Many plants produce seed, and in plants like corn, wheat, and oats the seed is the most valuable part for animal food. Feeds such as bran, shorts, cottonseed meal, and flaxseed meal are by-products of mills and factories. The feeder must work out the com- bination of these feeds that best meets the animal's needs, and then so prepare the feeds that the animal may get the greatest benefit. USES OF ANIMAL FOODS Maintenance. Animal foods have two general uses. First, the animal must have enough food to keep all the (207) 208 AGRICULTURE vital organs of its body working, to keep it warm, and to give it enough strength to move about in search of food and water. The amount of food necessary for these purposes depends somewhat upon the conditions under which the animal lives. When kept in a comfortable stable, with water and feed supplied, it does not require so much for warmth and strength as when it has to search for food in large fields or pastures where it is exposed to rain and cold. Growth and Fattening. Second, any food that is left after the needs for existence have been supplied will be used to build up the body or to do work. If the animal is young it is likely to use the additional food for growth of muscle, bone, skin, and other tissue. If the animal is fully grown, it will make the surplus feed into fat, which is stored in the body to be used for maintenance in case of scarcity of feed. Therefore, when a fat animal does not have enough feed it will use its body fat for heat energy, and thus will soon become thin. By the time its fat is gone, and it is getting weak on account of the lack of food, the snow which has covered the food may have melted, or the drouth may have been broken by rains, and the green grass may be springing up again to supply the animal's needs. Thus the animal that is fat may live through snow or drouth, while the animal that is thin may die of starva- tion before relief comes. Nature gives animals this power to store up food and energy to be used in a time of need, and man is now making use of nature's gift for his own support. The farmer furnishes his animals with an abun- dance of feed, and they grow and become fat. The fat, with the muscles, makes the cuts of meat thick, juicy, and tender. Work. When a horse works he may have an abundant supply of food, yet does not put on fat. He is using his FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 209 extra food for energy to do work. If the work is hard, hke plowing or hauHng heavy loads, the feed must be increased to supply the energy needed, or the animal will use his body fat to furnish energy and will soon be- come thin and lose strength. Therefore the farmer makes use of the animal's power to change surplus food into energy. Milk. When a cow is producing milk she may have an abundance of feed, yet does not become fat. She, like the horse, is using her surplus food for another purpose — not work, however, but the production of milk. Uses. The first use of food, maintenance, is in running the animal machine. The second use of food may be di- vided into a number of production purposes, such as growth, work, and the production of fat, milk, eggs, and wool. Maintenance must always come first, because the animal, like an engine, must be in running order before it can do work. When only a small amount of coal is sup- plied to the engine it will produce just enough power or energy, in the form of steam, to turn its own wheels; but if given an abundance of coal it will have enough energy to turn the wheels of the threshing machine or the mill. The animal can not do work or produce muscle, fat, or milk until it first has enough feed to move the wheels of life. Food supplied in addition to the amount required for the maintenance of the body will be used for produc- tion. KINDS OF FEED Concentrates and Roughages. There are many kinds of animal feeds, which in general, however, may be divided into two classes: first, those rich feeds, such as com, oats and kafir, which furnish an abundance of nourishment with little waste ; second, those rough feeds, such as hay, 14 210 AGRICULTURE fodder, and straw, which do not furnish so much nourish- ment but contain a great deal of material which the ani- mal can not digest. The members of the first group are called concentrates, because they are rich in food ma- terial and are easily digested by the animal, while the members of the second are called roughages on account of their coarse nature, which makes them hard to digest. When hay, fodder, or straw is eaten it must be well chewed in preparation for swallowing. When these feeds are very hard and dry this process consumes much energy, and the animal must use some of the valuable part of his feed to produce this energy. If the feeds do not require so much grinding and are easily digested the energy will be used for some other purpose, such as making growth or fat or performing work for the farmer. Feeding Value. Concentrates have a high feeding value, while roughages have a comparatively low feeding value. Some roughages, such as com stover or wheat straw, are very low in food value, being woody and rough; while others, such as alfalfa and clover hay, with their many fine leaves and stems, are tender, and have a high food value, almost equal to that of some of the concentrates. In plants such as clover and alfalfa, which produce very small seeds, the greater part of the plant food remains in the leaves and stems instead of making seed as in corn and wheat. When these plants are to be cured as hay they are cut before the seed is formed, which plan allows all of the food to remain in the stems and leaves, thus making a rich, nutritious hay. THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS Feeds of different kinds are made up of different food materials called nutrients. Some of these food materials or nutrients may make up the greater part of a plant or FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 211 feed, while others may be almost entirely absent. Then, in another plant or feed there may be found an abundance of nutrients which were lacking in the first plant or feed. The Composition of Animal Bodies. One can better undei"stand the needs of animals if one knows something of the composition of their bodies. Animal bodies are composed of water, protein, fat, ash, and a very small amount of carbohydrate material. This is very similar to the composition of plants, except that plants contain an abundance of carbohydrates, while animals have a larger amount of fat. When the animal tears down plant carbohydrates, it does not rebuild them into animal car- bohydrates, but uses them for fat, heat, or work. Young animals, as a rule, have less stored fat, and therefore will die of starvation sooner than mature animals. Their bodies contain a larger proportion of water and muscle tissue, and their demands are for growth -producing nu- trients, such as protein and ash, while the bodies of ma- ture animals demand foods more suitable for maintenance, fat, and work. THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS The Purpose of Digestion. Before food can be used in the animal body it must undergo the processes of diges- tion. These processes make the nutrients soluble, so that they may be carried by the blood to different parts of the body, where they are used. The animal during digestion tears down the food which was so carefully built up and stored in the plant. It then rebuilds the food into body tissue, or may use it for heat or work. Work Done in the Mouth. In most farm animals the first step in the processes of digestion takes place in the mouth, where the food is ground and moistened with saliva. The saliva acts on a part of the starch in the 212 AGRICULTURE food, changing it to sugar, which is soluble and easily- absorbed into the body when it reaches the intestines. Work Done in the Stomach. After the food is thor- oughly ground and moistened to be swallowed, it passes to the stomach, where further digestion takes place. Here some of the protein nutrients are attacked by the digestive juices secreted by the stomach, and are broken down into soluble forms so that they may be absorbed and carried by the blood to parts of the body that need material for growth or repair. Work Done in the Intestines. After the food has been churned about in the stomach for some time, allowing the juices to break down nutrients, it passes to the intes- tines, where the fats are digested and where most of the broken-down nutrients are absorbed by the blood and lymph, to be transported to all parts of the body. Some of the coarse, woody part of the feed passes on as waste because the digestive juices are not able to break it down. Diflferences in Digestive Tracts of Animals. The digestive tracts of farm animals differ widely, some of them being adapted to the digestion of rough feeds, while others must have the greater part of their food supply in the form of concentrates. Because of their stomach ca- pacity, cattle, sheep, and goats are able to digest large quantities of rough feeds. Each of these animals has four stomachs through which the feed passes during diges- tion First, the feed is eaten hurriedly and stored in the first stomach, which is very large and is called the paunch. After the food is mixed somewhat in the first and second stomachs, it is returned to the mouth in the form of balls, to be chewed. The regrinding takes place while the ani- mal rests, and we say the animal is chewing its cud. The horse has only one small stomach, but, on account FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 213 of large intestines, and a pouch called the caecum, it can digest rough feeds, such as hay and straw. It does not, however, digest these feeds so thoroughly as does the cow, Stomnch of horse: 1. Cardiac end. Stomachs of cow: 1, Rumen, or 2, Pyloric end. (taunch, showing attachment of the esophagus; 2, reticulum; 3, omasum, or manyplies; 4, aboraasum, or diges- tive stomach, showing attachment of the small intestine. and hence requires more concentrates, such as corn and oats. The pig has a small stomach and small intestines, which fact requires that the greater part of its ration be made up of grain or other concentrated feed. Such rough feeds as alfalfa and clover hay, which have a high food value and many fine stems and leaves, are relished by hogs, and may be made to supply a large part of the sow's ration during winter months, when she is not producing milk for her pigs. Hogs that are being fattened must have an abundance of concentrates and little or no roughage. Cattle, sheep, and goats live on rough feeds alone, but if they are being fattened, plenty of concentrates, such as corn, wheat, kafir, and barley, must be added to the roughage to supply an abundance of nutrients which are easily digested. 214 AGRICULTURE The following table* will give a good idea as to the capacity of the digestive organs of farm animals: Capacity of stomach and intestines. Length of intestine.^. Horse — Quarts. Feet. Stomach 19.0 Small 73.6 Intestines 204 . 8 Large 24 . 5 223.8 98.1 Ox- All four stomachs 266.9 Small 150.9 Intestines 109 . 8 Large 36 . 3 376.7 187.2 Sheep All four stomachs 31.3 Small 85 . 9 Intestines 15.4 Large 21.4 46.7 107.3 Hog— Stomach 8.5 Small 60.0 Intestines. 20.5 Large 17.1 29,0 77.1 Kinds of Nutrients and their Uses. The food nutrients may be divided into two general classes, according to their uses by the animal : those which produce growth and repair; those which produce fat and energy. The first are called protein material; the second, carbohydrates and fats. All plants are made up of protein, carbohy- drates, fats, water, and material called mineral matter, or ash. The animal uses mineral matter, or ash, chiefly to make bone. Ash is also used in small amounts in the blood, digestive juices, and other soft parts of the body. Except in rare cases, the demand by the animal for min- eral matter is not greater than the supply; the farmer therefore is not so much concerned with furnishing this material as with furnishing sufficient amounts of protein to meet the needs of growth and repair, or of carbohydrates and fats to produce heat, energy, and fat. * Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 19. FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 215 The Nutritive Value of Feeds. Corn, wheat, barley, and kafir are fattening feeds because they contain a large amount of carbohydrates, such as starch and sugar; some fat in the form of oil; and a comparatively small amount of protein. Alfalfa, clover, bran, shorts, and milk are growth-producing feeds, since they contain comparatively large amounts of protem, which is essen- tial to gi-owth. The fattening feeds contain some protein. In feeding corn, however, as there is not enough protein, or gi'owth-producing nutrients, to meet the needs of the young animal, it is necessary for the farmer to supply protein by adding to the corn some feed, like skim milk or alfalfa, which is rich in protein material. Often the farmer does not produce enough protein feeds to supply the needs of his animals, and it is necessary for him to buy such feeds as cottonseed meal, linseed meal, shorts, meat meal, and tankage to add to his fattening feeds, in order that his live stock may grow into profitable animals. Following is a list of some of the most common feeds, classified according to their composition — those rich in protein and hence suitable for the production of growth, and those rich in carbohydrates and fat and therefore suitable for maintenance or for fattening: Prorein feeds. Carbohydrate feeds. Alfalfa hay. Corn. Clover hay. Wheat. Vetch hay. Barley. Wheat bran. Oats. Wheat shorts. Rye. Linseed meal. Kafir. Cottonseed meal. Milo. Whole milk. Sweet sori Skim milk. Hominy f Cowpeas. Molasses. Soy beans. Beets. Gluten meal. Silage. 216 AGRICULTURE ProteLa feeds. Gluten feed. Distillers' grains (dried). Brewers' grains (dried). Oat middlings. Tankage. Meat scraps. Germ-oil meal. Carboh ydrate feeds Corn fodder. Corn stover. Timothy hay. Prairie hay. Millet. Oat straw. Wheat straw. NEEDS OF THE ANIMAL The Ration. The amount of feed given an animal in a day is called a ration. This ration may be sufficient in amount and composition to meet all the needs of the animal, or it may be a starvation ration. If it meets all the re- quirements of the ani- mal without waste of nutrients, it is called a balanced ration. The animal, like man, rel- ishes its ration more if there is a variety, and especially if part of the food is green, or fresh. By mixing the feeds the ration may be made to taste better, and the animal will eat more. Moreover, mixing pro- tein feeds and carbo- hydrate feeds permits the making of a bal- anced ration, or one which supplies the needs of the animal, whether for maintenance or growth, fat or work. Carcaspcs of two hogs the same age. The small hog was fed only corn. The large hog was fed corn and alfalfa. FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 217 The EfiFect of Different Rations. The accompany- ing illustrations show some of the needs of animals. The first photograph shows the effect of feeding young pigs with corn alone and with corn and alfalfa. The pigs were given all they would eat in each case. The small pig received corn and water. He grew very slowly and did not relish his feed. The large pig ate a mixture of corn and al- falfa. He kept a good appetite and made a rapid growth. The alfalfa supplied the protein for growth which the corn Steers two years old. They were fed the same kind of feed from birth. The small stcur was allowed only enough for maintenance, while the large steer had all he wotild eat. lacked. Unless the carbohydrates and fat are supplied as needed, the animal will not grow as it should. If there is a deficiency of protein the animal will remain small and thin, like the pig which ate corn alone. If no protein is supplied in the feed the animal will soon die, because the protein in his body will waste away. This shows how vitally important the protein nutrients are to the animal. The Amount of Feed. In many cases animals have the right kind of feed for growth, but are not fed enough to supply their needs. The accompanying picture shows two steers of the same age. The large one has had plenty of the right kind of feed all his life, while the small one has had the same kind of feed, but barely enough of it to keep 218 AGRICULTURE him alive. He had enough for maintenance, but none for production. The large steer wei£;;hs 1250 pounds; the small one, 227 pounds. The Feeder's Duty No^:. it is evident that the farmer must do at least three things in feeding live stock. First, he must so prepare the feed that the animal will relish it. Second, he must supply his animals with protein and carbohydrates in the right proportions. Third, he must feed his animals enough to meet their needs. THE PREPARATION OF FEEDS Often we may help the animal to digest its feed more thoroughly by grinding, crushing, or soaking the feed. Small seeds, like wheat, rye, barley, kafir, milo, sorghum, and millet, are very hard, and if they are swallowed with- out much chewing, the digestive juices can not penetrate their hard coverings to break down their nutrients, and they pass on undigested, just as does the coarse, woody material which the juices can not digest. This waste of food may be prevented by grinding or by soaking to make digestion easy, but often this does not pay if the cost of grinding is very high. If we know that six per cent of the food value of corn can be saved for the pigs by grinding and that the grinding costs three cents a bushel, we can figure when it will pay the farmer to grind his corn for hogs. If his corn costs forty cents a bushel he will lose by grinding it. If the price is fifty cents, he will come out even. If, however, the price is above fifty cents, the gi-inding will pay, and the higher the price the larger the profit in grinding. The more valuable the feeds, the better can we afford to prepare them for easy digestion and to make them palatable. Cooking feeds sometimes makes them more palatable for the animal, but cooking is expensive and lowers the feeding value of FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 219 the protein nutrients. Therefore it does not pay, except in a very few cases. Feeds that are already palatable and feeds that are rich in protein should not be cooked for animals. Soaking feeds, especially the small, hard grains, makes them more easily digested and is inex- pensive. If soaked feeds are allowed to stand during warm weather they become sour, and may be injurious to ani- mals, especially young animals. Care should be used in feeding such feeds, as in any case where the feed is dam- aged. Moldy feeds are injurious to most animals, and particularly to horses. Such feeds should not be used at all if badly damaged. Cattle will eat them with less danger than other animals. When farm animals are using feed for production purposes it often pays to prepare the feed by gi'inding, crushing, chopping, or soaking it. The animal is allowed to save energy in digesting its feed, and the feed will be used for growth, work, milk, or fat. If the animal is idle, it may well afford to grind its own feed, and some of the cheaper rough feeds will supply its needs quite as well as the higher-priced con- centrates which are so valuable for production purposes. QUESTIONS 1. What parts of the common farm plants are used by animals? Which parts are most valuable for feed? 2. Distinguish between concentrates and roughages and give five examples of each. Give two reasons why roughages have a lower feeding value than concentrates. 3. Name the uses of digested feed in the animal body. What demands of the animal body must first be supplied when feed is consumed? 4. Why does an animal put fat on its body when it has an extra supply of feed? Is this of economic importance? Explain. 5. Explain why an animal becomes thin when doing very hard work. 6. What are nutrients? 220 AGRICULTURE 7. What is the greatest use of mineral matter in the animal body? 8. What is a ration? Why should balanced rations be fed? ■ 9. Compare, in effect on the development of young animals, a ration low in protein with a ration containing a liberal amount of protein. 10. What are the advantages of making the animal's ration pal- atable? 11. What can the feeder do to aid in securing maximum growth in his live stock? Give reasons for your answer. 12. Does the animal obtain all of its body fat from the fats in its feed? If not, what are the other sources of body fat? 13. State the purpose of digestion. In what parts of the body does digestion take place? 14. Why are cattle better able than horses to live on corn fodder and wheat straw? Explain fully. 15. What effect does the price of a feed have on the care that should be used in preparing it for the animal? What are the objec- tions to cooking feeds for animals? CHAPTER XXI HORSE PRODUCTION The Kansas climate is well adapted to the production of horses. There exists to-day, in the city and on the farm, a demand for high-class horses. This demand can not be supplied, because there are very few horses of this kind in the country. At the same time, both market and country are overstocked with inferior horses, for which there is no particular demand. Recent statistics show that Kansas owners have ap- proximately $150,000,000 invested in horses and mules, as against $106,500,000 invested in all other classes of live stock combined. This means that these owners have approximately forty per cent more money invested in horse stock than in all other stock, yet less attention and study has been given to profitable horse production than to the production of any other kind of animal. THE ORIGIN OF THE HORSE The Prehistoric Horse. It is well known that horses existed in all parts of the world long before history was written. There are marked differences, however, be- tween the early animal and the present-day horse. The early horse resembled a dog more than a horse, being probably a foot in height, and having four well- developed toes and one partly developed toe on each front foot, and three well-developed toes and one partly developed toe on each hind foot. The horse of to-day has reached its present state of development largely by adapting itself to a gradually changing climate through (221) 222 AGRICULTURE centuries, and by means of the improvements made by man through careful selections in breeding and through proper feed and protection. The Modern Horse. Horses were not used for work in early times, but were worshipped and were ridden in war. For three thousand years after the horse was do- mesticated (2080 B. C. to 1066 A, D.), it was used very little, if at all, for any other purposes. During the year 1066 A. D., the horse was first used as a farm animal, and from that day to the present it has been constantly used both for farm work and for hauling loads. In the earliest history of the modern horse are described several distinct types. All our present breeds of horses have developed from blending and improving these early types. Classification of Horses. Horses are classified pri- marily according to size, type, substance, and quality. Size includes both height and weight. The form of the horse determines the type. Substance is indicated by strength and durability, while quality is determined by refinement of fiber of the animal. Horses may be classified as follows: Heavy Service — Draft horses. Logging horses. Wagon horses. Chunks. Rapid Service— Coach, or carriage, horses. Park horses. Roadster horses. Runabout horses. Saddle horses. Ponies. BREEDS OF HORSES Percherons. The Percheron is a breed of draft horses that originated in La Perche, a small district in northern France. This breed was developed by crossing the native HORSE PRODUCTION 90Q black horses of lowland Europe with horses introduced from Asia about 730 A. D. Later, when railroads were built, the rapid, light draft horses were no longer in demand, as they had been used principally for stagecoach purposes, and the breed- A Percheron stallion. ers of La Perche, with keen foresight, saw in the future a need and a demand for heavy draft horses, and began at once the work of increasing the size and weight of their native horses. The size of the present-day Per- cheron has been attained by careful selection, intelligent mating, and liberal feeding. The Percheron is an ideal drafter, not too squatty and not too rangy. A horse of this breed is generally well- made and symmetrical in form, with medium-sized feet of 224 AGRICULTURE good quality. It has a bold way of going, though its ac- tion is not quite so true and square as that of some other breeds. The most popular colors in Percherons are black and gray. Bays, browns, chestnuts, and roans are not uncommon, but these colors are looked upon with dis- favor. The popularity of the Percheron is due to the animal's ability to adapt itself readily to various condi- tions, and to the satisfactory horses obtained when Per- cherons are crossed with native American mares. Some of the faults of the Percheron, which breeders are trying to eliminate, are lightness of bone, crooked and meaty hocks, and straight pasterns. French Draft Horses. There are several other dis- tinct breeds of draft horses that have been developed in France, but none of these is so widely disseminated as the Percheron. An association has been organized in the United States for the purpose of registering the various draft horses of French origin and designating them as French draft horses. Belgian Draft Horses. Belgian horses have descended from the massive black horse of the Low Countries, and the present-day type is the result of careful selection and feeding. The work of improving the breed of horses has been encouraged by the Belgian government since the middle of the nineteenth century. No other government has taken such keen interest in improving its horses or has been more liberal in its appropriations for this work. Belgian horses are more massive and more compactly built than Percherons. They are noted for their excel- lent middles, and for their easy keeping qualities. The principal colors are chestnut, roan, and bay. Brown is not an uncommon color. Occasionally one sees a black or a gray. Belgians mate well with ordinary farm horses, HORSE PRODUCTION 225 and their popularity is increasing very rapidly. The Belgian horse has been criticised for being a bit low in the back, somewhat squatty, and steep in the croup, and hav- A Belgian mare. ing poor feet, but the Belgian breeders are overcoming these faults very rapidly. Shire Horses. The Shire horse has been known by various names, of which perhaps the most common is "English Cart Horse." It is generally thought that the Shire originated from crossing the black horses of lowland Europe upon the native horses of England at intervals for several centuries. The present-day Shire, as a breed, is the most massive of all draft horses. Shires have a very heavy growth of hair — feather, as it is designated by horsemen — on the leg from knee to hoof. The principal 15 226 AGRICULTURE colors are bay and brown, although many other colors are not uncommon, particularly chestnut and black, or even gray or roan. White markings on face and legs are rather common. The average Shire horses imported to this A Shire stallion. country are not the best representatives of the breed, and may be criticised as a bit coarse, straight of pastern, and flat of foot, and as having too much hair on the legs. Clydesdales. The Clydesdale originated along the river Clyde in Scotland. The black horse of the Low Countries, later known as the Flemish horse, had consid- erable to do with the origin of the Clydesdale. Later, Shires of quality were used occasionally. The Clydesdale HORSE PRODUCTION 227 of to-day is not so massive as the Shire, the Belgian, or the Percheron, but shows truer and snappier action and higher quahty than any other breed of draft horses. Clydesdales have considerable hair on the leg below the A Clydesdale mare. knee, but it is much finer and not so plentiful as in the case of Shires. Bay and brown are the most common colors, although chestnut, black, and roan are not un- common. White markings on face and legs are char- acteristic of the breed. Suffolks. The Suffolk has been bred absolutely pure for a longer period than any other breed of draft horses. It is a native of Suffolk, in eastern England. Suffolks are noted for their good disposition and their easy keeping qualities. They are always chestnut in color. This breed 228 AGRICULTURE is not widely distributed, principally because it does not have the size demanded of present-day horses. Hackneys. The Hackney originated in Norfolk and ad- joining counties in eastern England. It is the most popular of all coach or carriage breeds. Hackneys vary in height from 15 to 15^4 hands, and are compactly built harness horses, with broad, full chests, short backs, long, level croups, and full middles. Chestnut color, with white feat, is most common and most popular. Bays, browns, and blacks are not uncommon. German Coach Horses. The German Coach horse is the largest of all coach breeds, and is the result of the efforts of the German government to produce an army horse. Considerable variation of type, quality, and ac- tion is noted in this breed. While some horses of this breed show considerable quality and flashy action, they may, as a rule, be criticised for lacking these qualities. The common colors are bay, brown, and black, with very little, if any, white. German Coach horses vary in weight from 1200 pounds to 1500 pounds. French Coach Horses. The French government also endeavored to develop an army horse, and the French Coach horse is the result. The French Coach horse is smaller and more refined than the German Coach, but is larger than the Hackney and lacks the quality and finish of that breed. Generally speaking, the French Coach horse has not been a satisfactory horse in this country. The common colors are bay, chestnut, and brown, with usually more than one white foot, but seldom more than three. Other Coach Horses. Other coach horses are the Cleveland Bay and the Yorkshire, both of which origi- nated in northeast England. HORSE PRODUCTION 229 Standard-bred Horses. Standard-bred horses ai'e an American product. Most trotters and pacers of this country are Standard-breds or gi-ades of the breed. The Standard-bred horse of to-day originated from three principal sources: Messengei*, a Thoroughbred im- ported from England in 1788; Justin Morgan, a noted horse of Thoroughbred origin foaled in Massachusetts in 1789; and Jary's Bellfounder, a Hackney imported to America in 1822. We have to-day the trotter and the pEicer of extreme speed and endurance as a result of care- ful and intelligent selection of horses descending from these three foundation horses of the breed. During the early period in the formation of this breed, several noted families were developed, the most important being the Hambletonian, the Mambrino Chief, the Pilot, the Clay, the Hal, and the Morgan. Standard-bred horses are more slender in build than coach horses, having clean, slender, well-set necks and very deep chests. The Standard-bred is the ideal roadster horse. As a breed, it may be criticised for lacking some- what in size and uniformity of type. This is due largely to the fact that breeders in seeking speed have not given due consideration to some of the other qualities a good horse should possess. Good Standard-bred horses vary in v/eight from 1000 pounds to 1200 pounds, and in height from 15 hands to 16}i hands. Morgan Horses. Morgan horses are one of the early families of Standard-bred horses which descended from Justin Morgan. They were hardy little horses and served a useful purpose in helping to give endurance and stamina to the Standard-breds as a whole ; but, because they were small and usually did not possess much speed, they gi*adu- ally fell into disfavor and were almost exterminated. An effort is being made to revive interest in Morgan horses. 230 AGRICULTURE OrloflF Horses. The Orloff is the Russian trotter, which was originated during the latter part of the eighteenth century by crossing Arabian horses on some horses brought from Friesland. Gray and black are the most prevalent colors, but other colors are not uncommon. Orloff s do not have the speed of Standard-breds for distances up to a mile, but are superior for distances of three or four miles. Arabian Horses. Arabian horses originated in north- ern Africa, and later found their way to Arabia, where great improvement was made in them. The Arabian horse has had an important part in improving practi- cally all present-day breeds of horses, and this fact con- stitutes its chief importance. Spotted and odd-colored horses are very often wrongly spoken of as Arabians, but solid bay is the characteristic color, although grays and browns are not uncommon. Arabians are small horses, varying in height from 14 to 143^ hands. They are noted for quality, substance, endurance, beauty, and intelli- gence. Similar to the Arabian are the Barb horse of Barbary and the Turk horse of Turkey in Asia. The three breeds are spoken of in horse history as Oriental horses. Thoroughbreds. "Thoroughbred" is the name of a distinct breed of horses— the running horse. This breed originated in England from a cross of Arabian and other Oriental breeds upon the light native mares of that coun- try during the latter part of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth century. Speed on the run or the gallop has been the quality sought exclusively in these horses. The Thoroughbred has been bred pure longer than any of the other modern breeds, and is noted per- ticularly for its quality, refinement, clean-cut features, and high-strung temperament. The Thoroughbred has been used to add quality and HORSE PRODUCTION 231 refinement to practically every present-day breed — and especially the racing breeds — of horse. Thoroughbreds vary in weight from 1000 pounds to 1200 pounds, and in height from fifteen hands to sixteen hands. Bay and chestnut are the common colors, al- though brown, black, white, and gray are not uncommon. An American !:-a::kdiin ■BwHmpBBP^I^S: 1, : :..£!r^f ^- ■ '■^^^BKKf/KKKBKi .-,-.~- -.. -^ ,' "^^m , ^. .« . . :'«V^v,.. ..-/ ' *. . ■ . ^ ■' Vw „V .'C"f- . ' 1 ■'■— ^^&i . .sr / J . .'. ^^^1 JB \„ ■ :j>^M.^gm^^ » ^^^^^ja^H/gK''' '*^ wm^f^^.^'^f'^^'V" • BIkL- Matdilcss Dalr. :i fii;-(-iirizc wmiuT and champion Shorthorn liull. Pure-bred cattle are sometimes known as registered cattle. They are cattle that have descended from pure strains, and have not been mixed or cross-bred for many generations. They are usually grown for the production of beef and for sale to producers of other kinds of beef cattle. They are used by these men for breeding purposes, to improve their herds. Stockers and feeders are cattle produced by one stockman and sold to another after they are partly grown but before they are fit for slaughter. They are finally purchased by a feeder, who makes it his business to finish them for slaughter. Grazing cattle are BEEF CATTLE 251 young growing cattle not yet ready to be sold as stockers and feeders, or they may be mature, thin cattle of plain quality, which go to market and are sold as grass-fat cat- tle. The grazing business depends for its profit upon putting quick, cheap gains on these animals, but usually does not attempt to finish them. Fattening cattle are those which are put on full feed, so that they may be fully fattened and prepared for slaughter. Producing Pure-bred Cattle. Raising pure-bred cattle is the highest type of beef production, and should be pursued on the richest and most productive farms avail- able. It requires the investment of large amounts of money for a series of years. The best methods of farm- ing, feeding, and management of live stock must be thoroughly understood and put into practice. Buildings and grounds should be kept neat and attractive in order to impress customers with the fact that breeding pure- bred live stock is both profitable and attractive. Excellent pastures must be available for summer graz- ing, and the best methods of feeding must be practiced in winter in order that the type and form inherited by the animal may be developed to the maximum. Poor feeding is more frequently the cause of failure on the part of breeders than is any other one factor. In addition to selecting the most approved types of cattle and feeding them successfully, the breeder of pure-bred live stock must be a business man and a salesman, so that he can success- fully dispose of that which he has produced. It is usually wise for the beginner to start with grade or market cattle, and after he has met with success, to purchase a few pure- breds, thus getting into the business gradually. Producing Stockers and Feeders. The production of stockers and feeders should be confined to those localities where the larger part of the land can not be plowed profit- 252 AGRICULTURE ably and where grass is the chief crop. They should be produced principally on grass in the summer and on roughage in the winter, with little or no grain. As the western half of the state is peculiarly adapted to the pro- duction of grass and roughage, such as kafir and sweet sorghum on the uplands, and of alfalfa in the bottoms, it is logically an area for producing stockers and feeders. Where alfalfa and silage crops can be produced, little or A scrub bull. Such animals make the proilu -li m of Krrf iuiprofitable eveu where all oilier cunui- tions are favorable. no commercial feed is required. When it is impossible to grow alfalfa, protein should be supplied in the form of cottonseed products, bran, or linseed meal. In this kind of farming the practice of selling calves at weaning time is growing in favor rapidly, especially where the grazing area is limited and shelter is not available. When there is more grass or other feed than can be utilized by the cows, the calves may be held on the farm and marketed as feed ers when either yearlings or two-year-olds. BEEF CATTLE 253 It is most important that cattle of the best beef type be used in producing either stockers or feeders, as the chief profit comes, as in breeding pure-bred cattle, from pro- ducing those of superior merit, for which there is always a keen demand and a high hundredweight value. It is ex- tremely important that the herd of cattle used for this pur- pose be uniform in type, color, size, breeding, and quality, as buyers of feeders prefer cattle as neai'ly alike as pos- sible. They should have large feeding capacity and should show promise of developing into ideal fat cattle. Grazing Cattle. As a general rule, the business of grazing cattle is followed in those parts of the state where the area of land under cultivation is very small as com- pared with that which must necessarily be kept in grass. The cattle are rarely produced in the grazing regions, but are shipped in by the carload or train load about the first of May and allowed to graze until they are fat enough to find a favorable market as grass-fat cattle. Steers which are three years old or more, and are very thin in the spring, make much larger gains at pasture than younger or fatter cattle. It frequently happens, however, that fleshy cattle can be shipped from grass earlier in the year, thus avoid- ing extreme heat, annoyance from flies, shortage of water, or an extremely heavy run of cattle on the market, which might more than overcome the larger gains which might be made by longer grazing. Not so much attention is paid to quality or breeding in purchasing grass cattle as in the breeding of pure-bred cattle or stockers and feeders, be- cause the owners are interested in increasing the value of the animals by fattening rather than in the final price to the hundredweight. Therefore the cattle selected to be fattened at pasture are usually older, coarser, and plainer than those which are selected to be fattened in the feed lot. 254 AGRICULTURE Fattening Cattle. Fattening cattle has proved profit- able in those parts of the state in which corn is the leading crop and in which the area devoted to permanent pasture is relatively small. The age and the class of cattle selected for the feed lot are dependent upon the experience of the feeder, the season of the year, the kinds of feed available, and the probable demand for cattle when fat. Young and thin cattle make cheaper gains in the feed lot than older ones, but as they use a large proportion of their feed for growth they require a longer feeding period to get fat. In fattening calves it is necessary to secure those which have the best possible breeding and quality, being short-legged, blocky, broad, and deep-bodied, otherwise they will use nearly all their feed for growth and therefore will require a long time to fatten. It will require from eight to nine months from the time calves are weaned to make them prime, even on full feeding. An excellent daily ration for each animal consists of ten pounds of silage, five pounds of alfalfa hay, one pound of linseed or cottonseed cake, and all the corn it will eat. Older cattle will eat more rough- age in proportion to the grain, and hence are selected for feeding where roughage is available but corn relatively scarce. They will also fatten in less time. It is necessary to improve the ration as the cattle be- come fatter, if satisfactory gains are to be secured. In farm practice it is customary to start the cattle on rough- age, such as silage and hay and fodder, with about six pounds of corn daily to a thousand pounds of live weight, and to increase the amount of corn as the cattle get fatter, thus making a very short full-feeding period. In handling show steers it is necessary to improve the ration further by grinding the grain, cutting the hay, add- ing a greater variety of feeds, and doing everything pos- sible to keep u.p the appetite of the animals. Sometimes BEEF CATTLE 255 barley is boiled and fed at the rate of one gallon a day; sugar or molasses is mixed with the grain; fans and win- dow screens are used to keep flies off and to reduce the heat. Every art known to the feeder is utilized when an exceptional animal is to be developed. King Ellsworth, a pure-bred Aberdeen An^us steer, grand champion of all breeds. International Live Stock Show, 1909. It rarely happens that cattle are bred, fed, and marketed from the same farm. This fact results in keen business competition between buyers and sellers of breeding cattle, thin cattle and fat cattle requiring a special amount of business ability on the part of the man who is to be suc- cessful. If, however, he has the ability to follow the cattle business, a farmer finds it one of the most pleasant and profitable of all lines of farming. QUESTIONS 1. Describe a beef animal. Why should the body be wide and deep? 2. What place do beef cattle have in the general system of farm- ing in your locality? If cattle have no place, why? 256 AGRICULTURE 3. Under what conditions is the cattle business more important than crop farming? 4. What breed or breeds of beef cattle are kept in your locality? 5. Under what conditions is it profitable to keep a breeding herd and raise stockers or feeders? 6. Under what conditions are cattle fattened and' finished for market? 7. Is it always profitable to finish feeders in the region where they were raised? Why? 8. What would be the advantage of raising your own feeders? 9. Why do not more people handle pure-bred cattle? 10. What method of handling beef cattle is followed in your locality? 11. Give the advantages of this method. Are there any disad- vantages? 12. What are the chief roughage feeds produced in your part of the state? What is their value as feed for cattle? 13. How would you fatten two-year-old steers? 14. How does alfalfa rank as feed for calves? Why? How does silage rank as feed for cattle? Why? 15. Why do most cattlemen feed some cottonseed cake, cotton- seed meal, or linseed meal? 16. Discuss briefly the value of beef cattle on the farm. CHAPTER XXIII HOGS Hogs are known to have existed in Europe, Asia, and Africa since the very earliest historic times. The hogs of ancient days were wild, ferocious animals, that could run very fast. They had comparatively small bodies and very large heads. The wild hogs grew very slowly, and often lived to be twenty-five or thirty years of age. They usually produced only one litter of pigs a year. The small pigs were not weaned until they were four or five months old, and the mother often protected them from wild animals until they were two or three years of age. There seem to have been two different types of wild hog from which modern breeds of hogs have descended. One type was found in northern and central Europe and northern Asia. The other type inhabited Africa and the southern part of Asia. These southern wild hogs were smaller, fatter, thinner-skinned, possessed more quality, matured earlier, and were not so wild and ferocious as the northern hogs. It is generally supposed that these two types originated from the same ancestry, and that the differences in them were brought about by environment. Types of Hogs. Wild hogs were caught and domesti- cated, especially by the farmers of Great Britain. In modern times, two principal types were derived from these hogs. Some farmers preferred lean hogs from which good bacon could be made, while other farmers preferred fat hogs from which they could secure lard and oil. This (257) 258 AGRICULTURE resulted in the development of two distinct types of hog; namely, the thin, or bacon, hog, and the fat, or lard, hog. The Bacon Hog. The bacon hog has been developed and is raised most extensively in Great Britain, Denmark, A typical bacon hog. Contrast this hog with the animals ia the followmg picture. and Canada. In these countries the principal feed for hogs consists of barley, oats, peas, rye, root crops, and wheat. These feeds and the exercise obtained in roaming over pastures tend to produce the best bacon hogs. The most desirable weight of the bacon hog is from 160 to 200 pounds. Very few bacon hogs are raised in Kansas, but in New England, the South, and the far West this type is very common. The Lard Hog. The lard hog has been developed in that part of the United States where corn is plentiful. This type of hog is noted for its compact, deep, smooth, body, its rapidity of growth, and its ability to fatten. The lard hog, to be of greatest value, should be fattened to a high degree. It is because the lard hog should be HOGS 259 very fat that it can be produced profitably only where corn is plentiful. The most common breeds of hogs in Kansas belong to the fat, or lard, type. A group of prize-winning Poland Chinas, examples of the lard hog. Market Types of Hogs. Hogs that are sold on the market for meat are classified, according to their condition, form, and quality, into five principal classes. These classes are prime hogs, butcher hogs, light hogs, packing hogs, and miscellaneous hogs. Prime Hogs. The prime heavy hog is one weighing from 350 to 500 pounds, and very fat. To belong to this class a hog must have excellent finish and exceptionally high quality. Butcher Hogs. Butcher hogs are hogs which weigh from 180 to 350 pounds, and are chiefly barrows. It is possible to have a few good sows in a drove of butcher hogs with- out detracting from the value of the drove. About twenty- five per cent of the hogs that reach the central stock markets belong to this class. Butcher hogs range from six months to a year old. The hogs sold at the age of six months are usually called light butchers, while those sold at the age of one year are known as heavy butchers. The carcasses of these hogs are not cured to ham and bacon, but are sold to butchers and retailed as fresh meat. This is the reason they are called butcher hogs. 260 AGRICULTURE Packing Hogs. Packing hogs are so called because they are chiefly used by the packing houses for the purpose of making cured or salt meat. This class of hogs, as a whole, lacks somewhat the quality and finish of the butcher hogs. In this class are fine old brood sows and all other hogs that are heavy enough but not good enough for the butcher hog class, although the very poorest hogs would be ranked, not as packing hogs, but as miscellaneous hogs. About forty per cent of the hogs that reach the central markets are sold as packing hogs. They are nine months old and older. Packing hogs are divided into heavy, medium, and mixed classes, and each of these classes is further sub- divided into good, common, and inferior. Light Hogs. Light hogs include all hogs weighing be- tween 125 and 220 pounds. About fifteen per cent of the hogs that reach the market belong to this class. These hogs are usually from five to eight months old when marketed. The light hogs are divided into bacon hogs, which are used principally for the production of bacon; light mixed hogs, which represent hogs of the light butcher weights; and light light hogs, which weigh from 125 to 250 pounds, and represent the lightest of the class. Miscellaneous Hogs. Miscellaneous hogs include prac- tically all that are not suitable for the other classes. Breeds of Hogs. A number of breeds of hogs are raised in the United States to-day. The breeds of the most im- portance are the Duroc-Jersey, the Poland China, the Berkshire, the Chester White, the Hampshire, the large Yorkshire, and the Tamworth. The Duroc-Jersey. The Duroc-Jersey is an American breed. It is red in color. Red hogs have existed in the United States for a great many years. From uncertain origin, there was developed in New Jersey a large breed of HOGS 261 red hogs, which became known as the Jersey Red. Another breed of hogs, known as the Duroc, originated in Saratoga county. New York. At a later date the Jersey Reds and the Durocs were brought together, and the two breeds were blended into one under the name of Jersey Red. About 1883 this name was changed to Duroc-Jersey. The improvement of the Duroc-Jersey breed began when the Jersey Red and the Duroc hogs were united. The breed A champioD iJuroc-Jersey sow improved rapidly. It is now Known to be very hardy, and is noted for its large litters. It is an early maturing breed which crosses well with other breeds of hogs. The Duroc- Jersey, when crossed with grade hogs or hogs of no par- ticular breed, is especially noted for its ability to improve the offspring. Mature males of the Duroc-Jersey breed weigh 600 pounds or more, while mature females weigh 500 pounds 262 AGRICULTURE or more. The snout of the Duroc-Jersey is of medium length. The face is shghtly dished or straight. The ear droops about two-thirds of its length. The body is noted for its thickness and depth. The color of a Duroc-Jersey varies from light yellow to dark red, but cherry color is the most desirable. A few black spots on the under parts and legs do not disqualify a hog, but are objectionable mark- ings. The Poland China. The Poland China hog is strictly of American origin. The breed originated in the Miami valley of Ohio. The foundation of this breed was prob- ably the common stock of the country, which was more or less mixed in breeding. In the early days these hogs were given various names, as Butler County, Warren County, Miami Valley, Poland, and China. The name Poland China was officially adopted in 1872. The Poland China has been developed especially to meet the market demand for a lard hog. Hogs of this breed have been bred for early maturity for generations, and are noted for ability to produce a finished fat carcass at an early age. The Poland China is valuable for crossing with hogs that lack the tendency to fatten easily. The face of the Poland China hog is practically straight and the jowl full and heavy. The ears are fine, with the tip drooped. The color of the hog is black, with white on the face, the feet, and the tip of the tail. The Berkshire. The Berkshire is one of the oldest breeds of improved swine. Its original home was in Berk- shire and Wiltshire, in southern England. This breed of hogs has been distributed all over the world. It was first introduced into the United States in 1823. Certain types of the Berkshire are exceptionally good bacon hogs, but in this country, especially through the part of the United HOGS 263 States were corn is plentiful, Berkshires are classed as lard hogs. The breed is noted for its hardiness, vitality, and ability to fatten evenly and smoothly. The Berkshires are symmetrical in form and stylish A group of puri-brtd BtrktLir ^ilt^ Tl - p'l up of pilt^ hrnueht a hiRhcra\crjfc price at sale than au> other gilts sold lu the We&t the same year. in carriage. The face is dished, the snout and the neck are short, and the ears are erect. A hog of this breed is black with white markings on the face. There are also white markings on each foot and on the tip of the tail. The Chester White. The Chester White originated in Chester county, Pennsylvania. Hogs of this breed are very large, and compare favorably with hogs of other breeds in ability to mature early and to produce meat economically. The Chester White does well upon pasture, but, on account of the white skin, often has skin trouble when exposed to unfavorable weather. The face of the Chester White is slightly dished, and the snout is usually a little longer than the snout of the Poland China. The color is white throughout, and any black disqualifies the animal for this breed. The hair is some- times wa\'y and curly. The Hampshire. The Hampshire hog originated in Hampshire, England, and was brought to Massachusetts 264 AGRICULTURE about 1895. At that time the breed was known as the thin-rind, but in 1904 the name was changed to the Hamp- shire. The Hampshire is a very active, hardy breed, and A Hampstiire sow. is especially noted for large litters of pigs. This breed was originally a bacon type, but has been gradually changed to the lard type since coming to this country. The face of the Hampshire is straight, with ears which are inclined forward and outward, but which do not droop like those of the Poland China. The back is strong, the ribs are well sprung, and the sides are deep. The color is black except for a white belt which encircles the body. The Large Yorkshire. The Large Yorkshire is of English origin. It descended from a race of large, coarse-boned, white hogs common in Yorkshire, England. This breed of hogs belongs to the bacon type, and is valued for the HOGS 265 amount and the quality of bacon produced by it. Be- cause of the tendency of the skin to get "scalded " by the sun, the Large Yorkshire seems ill adapted to localities which have an especially hot climate. The face of the Large Yorkshire is moderately dished^ with snout straight and of medium length. The ears are large and erect, but are sometimes inclined forward. The color is white. The Tamworth. The Tamworth originated in central England. This breed belongs to the bacon type of hogs, and it has often been asserted that the Tamworth pro- duces a better quality of bacon than any other breed of hogs. The Tamworth is a very large, rather long hog. The snout is straight, and there is scarcely any dish to the face. The ears are large and are carried erect. The Tam- worth should have golden red hair, free from all black color. The hair sometimes changes to a chestnut color as the hog grows older. FEEDING HOGS Hogs require as good care and careful feeding as any class of live stock. The successful feeder must know the value of different feeds and the method of combining. these feeds properly to secure best results. Many farmers waste large amounts of feed every year by improper and careless feeding. One of the first considerations in hog feeding is not to overfeed. It is better that the hog be a little underfed than overfed. Fresh feed should not be thrown into the hog trough if the trough contains any old or sour feed left from previous feedings. The hog should be fed at frequent and regular intervals. Drinking water should be provided so that the hog has access to it at all times. Kinds of Feed. Corn is one of the richest and most 266 AGRICULTURE palatable feeds for hogs, and, because of the ease with which it can be grown and the high yield obtained in this part of the country, it has become the principal grain used in feeding hogs. Because corn is usually a cheap food for hogs, it should be fed in as large quantities as possible ; but it should be remembered that corn is deficient in certain nutrients, such as protein and calcium, and that, when fed this grain alone, the hog does not develop the bone and muscle that it should. It is therefore best to feed with corn other materials, such as tankage, meat meal, wheat middlings, oil meal, skim milk, and alfalfa, that will furnish the constituents in which corn is deficient. Brood sows or young pigs, running in pasture, will thrive better if fed alfalfa hay than if given corn only. Sanitation. Cleanliness is especially important in rais- ing hogs, and they will benefit from clean, well-drained, well-aired quarters as much as any other kind of domestic animal. Their quarters should be cleaned regularly, and no stagnant mudholes should be allowed to form. In winter the hogs should be protected and should not be exposed to drafts; but, on the other hand, they should not be kept too warm. Drafts or a sudden change from a close, hot shed to the cold outer air frequently causes in- fluenza. Cholera and other contagious or infectious diseases are spread by running water to which diseased hogs have access, or by dogs that eat parts of diseased carcasses and carry disease to other farms. Every farmer should burn or bury deep all hogs which die, regardless of the cause. If he fails to obey the law in this respect, he should be prosecuted. When any hog disease is prevalent in a community, no hogs should be allowed to run at large, no dogs or stock should be allowed to go from farm to farm HOGS 267 if they can get to the hog pens, nor should men under any circumstances visit a yard containing a sick hog and then go to another farm without careful disinfection of their shoes. Lime or mixtures of carbolic acid and water used about the pens and sheds lessen the danger of disease. Deep plowing of the lots is also a good practice. JUDGING THE LARD HOG General Appearance. In judging a hog, weight, form, quality, and covering should be considered under general appearance. The hog that weighs from two hundred to three hundred pounds brings the highest price on the market. The standard weight for any given age comprises an average daily gain of one pound from birth. Tho general form of the lard hog should be compact, with the body deep, broad, smooth, and symmetrical. The hog should have the larger part of its weight in the region of the valuable cuts; that is, along the back, loin, and hams. Its underline should be straight. It should have smooth shoulders, wide, thick back, and deep, full hams and sides. Quality. Quality is denoted by fine hair, free from bristles; smooth, clean skin; clean bones; and a general smoothness of conformation. The skin should be free from wrinkles. Condition. There should be a deep, even covering of flesh, especially in the regions of the valuable cuts. The finish should be even, mellow to the touch, and free from wrinkles and lumps. A hog that is wrinkled and lumpy yields a carcass that is rough and uneven. Condition determines the selling value of the hog. Condition is indicated by the general plumpness of form, the depth of covering over back and loin, the amount of fat at the 268 AGRICULTURE root of the tail, and the fullness and thickness of the sides and jowl. The Parts of the Hog. The snout (1) should be me- dium in length and not coarse. The eyes (2) should be A Poland Cliina sow, marked to show the parts of the hog. mild, bright, and not sunken or obscured by wrinkles and fat. The face (3) should be short, with the cheeks full. The ears (4) should be fine, of medium size, and attached neatly. The jowl (5) should be full, firm, neat, and free from flabbiness. The neck (6) should be short and should possess suffi- cient width and depth to swell smoothly into the shoulder vein and pass back without any noticeable depression. The shoulders (7) should be long, full, and level on top. They should not be too heavy or coarse, as they constitute a comparatively cheap cut. Coarseness here, moreover, indicates coarseness of fiber. The breast (8) should be full, smooth, and neat. The fore legs (9) should be straight, short, and strong, and placed wide apart. The pasterns should be strong, and HOGS 269 not broken down so that the animal walks on its dewclaws ; the feet should be of medium size. The chest (10) should be deep and wide, with a large heart girth, as this insures constitutional vigor and vitality. The sides (11) should be deep, thick, and as long as possible consistent with strength of back. The ribs should be well arched and should continue low down, giving great feeding capacity. The underline should run straight from front flank to rear flank, giving the side an even width. The sides should be free from wrinkles and creases, as these indicate uneven flesh, poor in quality. The back (12) should be broad, strongly arched, and thickly and evenly covered with flesh. "Fish back," low back, and lowness just back of the shoulders are very objectionable. The loin (13) should be broad, strong, full, and thickly fleshed. The width of the loin should be such as to sustain the width of the back. The under part (14) should be straight, smooth, and firm, with width in proportion to the size of the hog. The hips (15) should be wide apart and smooth. They should be as wide as the body, and smoothly covered with flesh. The rump (16) should be long, level, wide, and evenly fleshed. Narrow, peaked rumps mean thin hams, which do not sell well on the market. The width should be carried back proportionately to the back. The hams (17) should be heavily fleshed, full, firm, deep, and wide, and should be carried well down to the hocks. Firm- ness indicates high quality of meat. The hind legs should be straight, short, strong, with bone clean and hard; pasterns short, strong, and upright; feet of medium size. The most common defect of the hind leg is a cramped condition of the hock. The hog's 270 AGRICULTURE legs should be well set so that he does not walk with an awkward gait. JUDGING BREEDING HOGS The brood sow that regularly produces large, strong, uniform litters of pigs is the most valuable. All breeds of lard hogs are more or less similar. Breed differences are due more to variations in color, set of ear, and dish of face. In judging brood sows, the size is very important. In form the sow will be longer. She should have a deep, broad and roomy body, with strong constitution and great vitality. Other important points in choosing the brood sow are the feet and legs, quality, disposition, and femininity as indicated by refinement about the head and face. MEAT ON THE FARM The farmer, of all persons, should have a good supply of the best kind of meats for his own table. He should be independent of the butcher; that is, he should slaughter his own animals and cure his own meats. Butchering may be done when work is slack, and means a very great saving to the farmer. It should be a part of the regular work on each farm. Slaughtering. The animal to be slaughtered should be young and fat, gaining in flesh and healthy. The animal should not be fed for at least twenty-four hours before being slaughtered. It should be given plenty of water to drink and should be kept quiet, in order that its tem- pearature may not rise above normal. An increase of two or more degrees will result in a gluey, sticky meat which will not keep well. The animal should never be struck with any object that will bruise the flesh, as bruising tends to form a blood clot and the bruised portion will have to be discarded. The animal should be stuck in such a man- ner that its system will be thoroughly drained of blood. 272 AGRICULTURE Scalding. Where only a few hogs are slaughtered a barrel makes a very good vessel in which to scald them. If the hog is a large one it may be covered with blankets or sacks and the water poured over these blankets. The water should be heated to between 170 and 180 degrees Fahren- heit. Some wood ashes, lye, or soda should be put into the water to loosen the dirt and scurf. Cutting. Never cut a carcass of any kind until it has been thoroughly cooled throughout. Lay the hog on a block or a table and remove the head at the atlas joint, or about two inches behind the ears. Remove the shoulder between the fourth and fifth ribs. Cut out the fore ribs and finish trimming the shoulder. Cut the hams off about two inches in front of the pelvic arch, and split the car- cass in the middle of the backbone. Trim the meat. The middle piece should be split down the middle, the ribs and loin taken out, and the sides cut into strips for bacon. Curing. Meat should be thoroughly cooled before being cured. If the animal heat is not all out of the carcass it will not take the cure evenly and may spoil afterwards. The meat to be cured should be placed in good, clean vessels in a cool place, where the temperature is even. There are two methods of curing meat in common use, both of which are good. These are the dry cure and the brine cure. The farmer should choose the one he likes best, though it is true that the highest quality and the richest flavor will be produced through the use of the dry cure. Brine destroys some of the soluble protein in the meat, and thus removes some of the flavor and food value. Any piece of meat which has been soaked, or even wet, is never again so good as it was. Dry Curing. Two of the commoner methods of dry curing are given here. HOGS 273 For one thousand pounds of meat, use the following compound: forty pounds of common salt; ten pounds of New Orleans sugar; four pounds of ground black pepper; one and one-half pounds of saltpeter; one-half pound of Cayenne pepper. Weigh the meat and use a proportionate part of the compound. After the ingredients have been properly mixed, use half of the amount for rubbing into the meat. Place the meat in a dry, cool place. Allow it to remain for two weeks, then rub on the remainder of the cure and let the meat lie for six weeks, when it is ready to be smoked. A slightly simpler dry cure employs to each one hundred pounds of meat five pounds of salt, two pounds of brown sugar, and two ounces of saltpeter. Mix the ingredients thoroughly, and rub each piece of meat once a day with one-third of the mixture. Do this on three successive days. Keep the meat in a cool, damp place. Liquid, or Brine, Cures. For a sugar cure, rub each piece of meat with salt and allow it to drain over night, then pack it closely in a barrel, with the hams and the shoulders at the bottom and the strips of bacon on top. To each one hundred pounds of meat use eight pounds of salt, two pounds of brown sugar, and two ounces of salt- peter. Dissolve these ingredients in four gallons of water, and cover the meat with the brine. It is best to boil the brine and let it cool before using it. The bacon strips should remain in the brine from four to six weeks; the hams and the shoulders, from six to eight weeks. Plain Salt Pork. To obtain plain salt pork, rub each piece of meat with common salt, pack the pieces closely in a barrel, and let them stand over night. To one hundred pounds of meat use ten pounds of salt and two ounces of saltpeter dissolved in four gallons of boiling water. When 18 274 AGRICULTURE the brine is cold pour it over the meat and weight the meat down. The meat should be kept in the brine until it is used. Sugar-cured hams and bacon are the most satisfactory under ordinary farm conditions, and, when properly cured and smoked, will keep through a hot summer. Smoking Meats. Where a large amount of meat is to be smoked a good house should be built. The essentials in building a smokehouse are that it be high enough to keep the meat a good distance from the fire, and that it be well ventilated, and should be dark, so as to keep out insects. Hard woods, such as hickory, maple, oak, and apple are the best fuels to use in smoking meats. Soft, resinous wood imparts a bad flavor to the meat. Clean corncobs make a very good fuel where hard wood can not be ob- tained. The meat should be smoked with a smouldering fire and with as little heat as possible. Smoking should be done slowly, and should occupy from three to six weeks, with very little heat. Slow smok- ing gives a very delicate flavor. After smoking is finished, wrap each piece of meat in paper, put it into an unwashed flour sack, and hang it in a dry place. Keeping Smoked Meats. Smoked meats may be kept in the smokehouse; or a dry, cool cellar with free cir- culation will be a satisfactory place for smoked meats at all seasons if it is kept dark. If the meat is to be kept for some time, the pieces should be wrapped separately in paper and put in unwashed flour sacks or paper sacks, or covered with canvas, or buried in a grain bin, in order to insure a uniform temperature and to keep away insects. A coat of ground pepper iiibbed into the meat before it is wrapped will increase the keeping qualities and will not be disagreeable to the taste. HOGS 275 Hams cured in this manner may be kept under ordinary farm conditions throughout the summer, and indeed for several years. The shoulders and bacons should be eaten early in the season; the hams should be kept for harvest and fall. It is a good plan to keep one or two choice hams for the Christmas season. Pork Sausage. Pork sausage should be made only from clean, fresh pork. To each three pounds of lean pork add one pound of fat; in grinding the meat, mix the fat and the lean together. After the meat is run through the grinder spread it out thinly, and season it to the taste. One ounce of fine salt to each four pounds of meat produces satis- factory results. Black pepper and sage may be added to suit the taste. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the lard type of hog; the bacon type. How do they differ from each other? 2. Name the market classes of hogs. How do these classes differ? Look up in a daily paper the prices paid for the various market classes of hogs, and discuss the matter in class. 3. What breeds of hogs are raised in your part of the state? 4. Why is the Duroc-Jersey popular? the Poland China? the Berkshire? 5. Why is corn a good hog feed? Why should hogs have some feed besides corn? 6. How and why may alfalfa be used as a feed for hogs? 7. Why do we feed tankage and shorts to pigs? 8. Why is protein essential in the ration of growing pigs? of fattening pigs? 9. How is hog cholera spread? What method of prevention may be used if a farmer does not have cholera in his herd? 10. Why should the farmer do his own butchering? 11. What kind of animal should be slaughtered? 12. Discuss briefly a dry cure; a brine cure. 13. When should meat be smoked? How should you smoke meat? Discuss. 14. How should smoked meat be stored? CHAPTER XXIV SHEEP The sheep was one of the first animals to be domesti- cated by man. Its value as a producer of both food and clothing was recognized by man in the first stages of civilization. Its flesh was used for food and its skin for clothing by man as long ago as we can trace his history. As man advanced in civilization the wool was cut from the sheep's skin and woven into cloth. Sheep are well adapted to rough hillside pastures where feed is not abundant enough for cattle or horses. Their habit of moving about while feeding enables them to find widely scattered bunches of grass and young shoots of trees and shrubs, of which they are very fond. In countries Sheep need shade. where sheep are kept in large numbers they are driven from one pasture to another and allowed to feed as they go. They are cared for by a shepherd, who usually has one or more dogs to assist. In winter, when feed is scarce and the weather is cold, the shepherd must work hard to (276) SHEEP 277 care for his flock. In England, where the farms are small and many sheep are raised, they are kept in small flocks and pastured on rape and clover during the summer and fed on cabbage and turnips during the winter. The sheep which are found on the farms in the United States have nearly all descended from those originated in England. Those found on the large ranges in the Rocky Mountain region have descended from sheep originated in Spain and France. Those kept on the farms are raised for both wool Representatives of (1) medium-wooled, (2) loug-wooLii, aud v3) £ d breeds. and mutton, while those on the ranges are kept chiefly for the production of wool. The English breeds of sheep are not adapted to the range, because their fleece is not dense and oily enough to keep out snow and water, and they have been kept in small flocks for so many generations that they have lost the instinct of flocking together when feeding, and hence are very difficult to herd. The sheep from France and Spain have a dense, oily fleece which protects them, and they have been raised in large flocks so long that several thousand of them will flock together. 278 AGRICULTURE These two characteristics .make them especially adapted to living on the range. The Breeds of Sheep. All sheep may be divided into three classes, according to their wool: the fine-wooled breeds, the medium-wooled breeds, and the long-wooled breeds. Fine-wooled Breeds. The fine-wooled breeds are kept chiefly for the production of wool. The skin of a sheep of this class has folds or wrinkles, which give more surface for wool to grow on, and its body is rough and angular. The breeds which are classed as fine-wooled are the Ameri- can merino, and the Rambouillet, or French merino. The American merino has descended from sheep which were imported from Spain in the early part of the nineteenth century. It is called the American merino because it has been improved so much since the first sheep were im- ported that it is almost entirely different. The breed is divided into three classes. Members of class 1 have folds of loose skin all over the body, and their wool is denser and finer, and contains more yolk, or oil, than that of the others. Members of class 2 have fewer folds and a longer, less dense wool. Members of class 3 have very few folds, and these only on the neck, and are smoother-bodied, producing less wool and more mutton than the other classes. The French merino, or Ram- bouillet, sheep are larger than the American merinos. They were imported to this country from France, and have be- come very popular in the western states, where sheep are raised on the ranges. They produce a large quantitj^ of fine wool and are fair producers of mutton. The rams of all the merino breeds have horns; the ewes are hornless. Medium-wooled Breeds. The leading breeds of the medium-wooled class are the Shropshire, the Hampshire, the Oxford, the Southdown, the Dorset, and the Cheviot. SHEEP 279 The fii'st four of these breeds are often called Downs breeds, because they originated in the Downs, the chalk uplands of southern England. Each breed is named for the part of the country where it was developed. The Shropshire has dark brown face and legs, and its face is covered with wool well down to the nose. The ears are small and erect, and the head is set high, giving the animal a pleasing appearance. The body is broad, and is set on short, strong legs. The Shropshire ranks high as a mutton producer, and the wool is of good quality. A Shropshire ram weighs 225 pounds, and a ewe 160 pounds. Neither the rams nor the ewes have horns. The Hampshire may be distinguished from the other Downs breeds by its black face and legs, and by its large ears, which stand nearly straight out from the head. The Hampshire is a good producer of both wool and mutton. The lambs grow rapidly and are usually heavier than Shropshire lambs of the same age. The wool is not of so good quality as that of the Shropshire. The Oxford is the largest of the Downs breeds. The face and legs are dark brown in color and are not so well covered with wool as are those of the Shropshire. The Southdown is the smallest of the Downs breeds, and the best for mutton. The face and the legs are brown or mouse-colored, and are not well covered with wool. The ears are small, and the head is carried erect, giving the sheep a very attractive appearance. The face and the legs of the Dorset are white. Both rams and ewes have horns. Dorset sheep are very prolific, and often produce lambs twice a year. The ewes are heavy milkers, and the lambs grow very rapidly. The Cheviot is a small breed, with slightly longer and less dense fleece than the other medium- wooled breeds. The head is almost free from wool and is white. The ears k:80 AGRICULTURE are carried erect, causing the sheep to look alert. The Cheviot is very hardy and does best on rough, high land. Long-wooled Breeds. The long-wooled breeds are the Leicester, the Cotswold, and the Lincoln. They are larger The champion grade wether at the International Live Stock Show, 1912. than any of the medium- wooled breeds except the Oxford, and the wool is longer but less dense. They are often called the lowland breeds, because they were developed in the low parts of England, where feed is plentiful. The Leicesters are divided into two distinct breeds: the Border Leicester, which has a bare head ; the English Leicester, which more closely resembles the Lincoln and has some wool on the forehead. The wool of the Leicester is lighter and less dense than that of the Lincoln or the Cotswold, and has a peculiar curliness SHEEP 281 The legs are more slender and the body is smaller than in the other long-wooled breeds. The Cotswold has a longer neck than the Lincoln or the Leicester, and a long forelock of wool hangs down over the forehead. The wool is long and wavy. The Lincoln is the largest of the English breeds. The wool of the Lincoln is longer and less wavy than that of other sheep of its class. The fibers mass together and fall away in heavy flakes. Handling Sheep. Sheep are very timid and should not be frightened by loud noises, strange dogs, or any other unusual disturbance. Their flesh is easily bruised, and a bruise may be followed by serious trouble. In catching a sheep, one should grasp it by the lower jaw or by the front of the hind leg just at the flank. Any pull on the fleece or the skin loosens the skin, ruptures many tiny blood vessels, and causes great pain. The fleece should never be care- lessly opened, nor should holes be made in it, since the quality of the fleece is thus injured. The first thing to learn in handling a sheep is to keep the fingers of the hand close together and not to stick the fingers into the wool. Judging Sheep. The heavy covering of wool makes it difficult to get an accurate idea of the shape of the sheep's body and the development of the parts from which the butcher gets the most valuable cuts of mutton. In judg- ing fat sheep or sheep which are to be butchered, the most important points are condition, form, and quality. Condi- tion covers the amount of fat or flesh. The back, the loin, and the rump should be well covered, and the thigh, known as the leg of mutton, should be full and round. The form of the sheep's body should be rectangular, and equal in width at hips and shoulders. The back should be well carried and the ribs well sprung. Quality includes both 282 AGRICULTURE general quality and quality of flesh. General quality is shown by fineness of bone, thinness of ears, and fine silky hair on the nose and on the legs below the knees and the hocks. General quality indicates the fineness of the fibers in the meat. In addition, should be determined the question of evenness of flesh ; that is, whether the fat which covers the body is distributed equally over the back and the loin. The P.nrts of a Sheep. 1. Muzzle. 2. Face. ■i. Eye. 4. Ear. 5. Neck. Top of shoulder. Shoulder. Chest. Brisket. Fore lefi. Back. Loin. Hip. Ribs, or side. Fore flank. 10. Belly. 17. Flank. IS. Rump. 10. Thigh. 20. Hind leg. In judging a sheep, first get far away from the animal and observe the form, taking side, front and rear views. Note the style, which is indicated by the carriage of the head. Now approach the sheep and begin to determine the extent to which the wool has deceived the eye. With a hand on each side of the neck, press firmly down to deter- SHEEP 283 mine the fullness of the neck. Working back over the shoulders, feel for compactness on top and covering on the sides. With one hand press firmly down on the back to examine it for covering of flesh and for weakness. With one hand on top and the other below, note depth of chest, and with a hand on either side, width of chest. Feel care- fully over the loin for covering of flesh. With the hands flat against the sides, determine the width of the loin. Examine the rump for length and covering of flesh, and try to span the leg at the thigh with both hands to deter- mine the size of the leg of mutton. When the form of the sheep has been determined with eye and hand, open the wool on the side, back of the shoulder, and note the color of the skin, the evenness of crimp or waviness of the fibers, and the amount of yolk or oil in the fleece. The skin should be a bright pink. The crimp of the fibers should be even, and the yolk well distributed. In judging breeding sheep the same process is carried out, but more attention is paid to breed and sex character- istics than when judging fat sheep. Breed characteristics are those characteristics, such as color of face and kind of wool, which distinguish the breed to which the sheep be- longs from other breeds. As sex characteristics, the ram should have the heavy head, the short, thick neck, and the aggressive expression which denote the male sex in sheep. The head of the ewe should have a more delicate appearance, and her neck should be more slender than that of the ram. Feeding Sheep. Sheep respond very quickly to good feed and care. They require feeds higher in protein than do other animals. Alfalfa, clover, and pea hay make the best roughage. The grain ration should consist of corn with bran and linseed meal or oats. Sheep make good use of weed-infested pastures, as they will eat eighty per cent 284 AGRICULTURE of the common weeds, while cattle or horses will eat only- fifty per cent. They do well on wheat pastures in winter. Lambs may be allowed to run in standing corn and will not damage the corn, but old sheep soon begin to tear down the stalks and eat the ears. Sheep increase rapidly, and the double income from lambs and wool makes it possible for the man who keeps a carefully selected flock and takes good care of it to double each year the money which he has invested. QUESTIONS 1. To what kind of pasture are sheep best adapted? 2. Compare the methods of handling sheep in England with those employed in France and Spain. 3. What are the requirements for a good range sheep? 4. How may sheep be classified according to wool? 5. Give the classes of American merinos and tell how they may be distinguished from each other. 6. Name the leading breeds of medium-wooled sheep and give the distinguishing characteristics of each breed. 7. Why is the word "Downs" often applied to the Shropshire, Hampshire, and Oxford breeds? 8. Name and give the distinguishing characteristics of the long- wooled breeds. 9. What cautions should be observed in handling sheep? 10. In judging fat sheep, what are the most important points to be considered? 11. Name and locate the five most important cuts of mutton. 12. What is meant by crimp? by yolk? 13. What are breed characteristics? sex characteristics? 14. What feeds are best suited to sheep? 15. For what are sheep useful on the average farm? CHAPTER XXV DAIRYING As meat becomes more costly, there is a greater de- mand for dairy products, such as milk, butter, and cheese. These are among the very best of human foods if they are produced under clean, wholesome conditions. The farmer who expects to produce milk, cream, but- ter, and cheese profitably should keep cows bred and selected for their ability to produce large amounts of rich milk. It does not pay to feed and milk scrub cows. By keeping good cows of the milk type and being careful and cleanly, the farmer may convert the rough feeds and grains of his farm into relatively high-priced and desir- able food for mankind. Increasing Milk Production. A very large proportion of the cows kept for milking do not yield a profit to the farmer ; that is, they are just ordinary cows, and have not been well selected. The average cow kept for dairy pur- poses in the United States produces in a year about 140 pounds of butter. About one-third of the cows in Kansas are kept for dairy purposes, and they produce an average of only 120 pounds of butter each year. Such cows do not pay for their feed and care, much less yield a profit. There are in the United States a number of dairy herds the mem- bers of which average three hundred or more pounds of butter a year. There were in 1913 about 863,000 cows in Kansas, and (285) 286 AGRICULTURE in that year they produced nearly $14,000,000 worth of butter. That is only a little over $16 a year for each cow — not enough to pay for feed and care. If the farmer is to profit from his dairy work, he must dispose of his poor cows and use only those which produce large amounts of rich milk and remain in milk for long periods. Selection of Dairy Cows. There are two ways of select- ing dairy cows: first, according to the shape, or type, of the animal; second, according to the milk or butter she produces. Selection according to type, or form, is the method usually adopted, and in most cases is the only feasible method, because it is difficult to buy cows with good records. Choosing cows by their records of production is much more accurate than choosing them by their shape, but it is true that all high-producing dairy cows are very much alike in form and are of what is known as the dairy type. The Dairy Type. When the cow roamed wild she gave but little milk, and gave it for only a few months during the year. The larger amount of milk now given by a dairy cow is due chiefly to the process of selection, and the selection, if carried on, will continue to increase the amount. It will be worth while for the pupil to look at a beef cow and a dairy cow together. He will find that a dairy cow differs from a beef cow in that she is thin and angu- lar, while the beef cow is thick and blocky in form. The head of the dairy cow is neat and delicate; the neck is long and slender and not fleshy; the withers are sharp, and there is absence of heavy muscles along the back; the chest is wide and deep, showing plenty of room for heart and lungs; the stomach, or barrel, is large, provid- DAIRYING 287 ing plenty of room for storing feed; the loin is wide and strong; the hips are wide apart, and this width is carried back, making a long, wide rump; the udder is attached high behind and far forward on the barrel; the hair on the udder is fine and soft; the milk veins that run from the udder forward are large and enter into large openings, or milk wells. The fact that the cow is lean in appearance indicates that she is inclined to make milk rather than to put fat on her body. The large barrel in- dicates feeding capacity. A large udder indicates ability to produce large amounts of milk, and the size of the milk veins indicates somewhat the amount of blood that goes to the udder, where the milk is made. Besides these points, a cow should have soft skin and hair, which indi- cate a good digestion. It is worth while for the pupil to study this carefully, and apply it by looking at as many different cattle as he can, for a trained eye for good cows is very valuable in buying a herd. Keeping Records of Dairy Cows. While it is not diffi- cult to distinguish between a poor cow and a good one by appearance, it is not always possible to tell the differ- ence between a fair animal and a good one. Consequently the reliable method to use in judging the ability of an animal to produce milk is to keep records of the pro- ductions of each cow in the herd. If the milk is sold from the farm, the milk from each cow should be weighed and the weight recorded. A cow that does not produce four thousand pounds of milk, or 465 gallons, a year is not worth her keep, and should be sold for beef. If butter fat is sold, it is necessary to know the amoimt of butter fat produced by each cow. The milk should be weighed, and at least once a month a 288 AGRICULTURE Babcock testing outfit. This outfit is large enough for testing the milk of a herd of ten to fifteen cows. sample should be taken and tested with the Babcock tester. (See directions in the Appendix.) Suppose the sample taken at the morning and night milkings for one day is found to test 4.2 per cent. This means that in every hundred pounds of milk there are 4.2 pounds of butter fat. Consequently, if the cow gives 650 pounds of milk in a month the amount of butter fat for the month is 27.3 pounds. By keeping only the best cows and by using pure-bred sires of merit one may soon bring the production of the herd up to a high standard. The Dairy Breeds. Where one has a market for milk and cream and desires to keep a small herd of cows it is better to use cattle of a dairy breed than to use beef-bred animals. The dairy breeds have been selected in the same way in which the individual can select his animals for the purpose of large production. It is as difficult to get profitable production of butter and milk from the beef animal as it would be to win a race with a draft horse. The four principal breeds in order of quantity of milk produced are the following: 1. Holstein. 2. Ayrshire. 3. Guernsey. 4. Jersey. Their rank in the richness of milk, naturally enough, is just the opposite : 1. Jersey. DAIRYING 289 2. Guernsey. 3. Ayrshire. 4. Holstein. There are also other dairy breeds, such as the Brown Swiss, the Dutch Belted, and the Milking Shorthorn. The Jerseys and the Guernseys are named for the islands in which they were developed. Both of the islands are in the Channel Island group, Jersey being the largest island and Guernsey the next. Jerseys. The Jersey is the smallest of the dairy breeds. In color the animals range from a light yellow fawn to a very dark fawn and may have white spots. The nose, the tongue, and the switch of the tail are usually black. Owl's Design, a pure-bred Jersey, holds the record of Jerseys in Kansas. She produced 14,6116 pounds of milk and 765 pounds of butter in one year. although there are some animals which have white mark- ings in these places. The milk of the Jersey cow contains about five per cent of butter fat. Guernseys. The Guernsey breed is somewhat related 19 290 AGRICULTURE to the Jersey, but differs in that cattle belonging to it are a little larger and have slightly different colors. Guern- seys are fawn color, with either a lemon or an orange Bemice Countess 2d, a pure-bred Guernsey. Her record for one year as a two-yeir-old is 939 U. pounds of milk and GIO pounds of butter. Elizabeth of Junear, a pure-bred Ayrshire, holds the world's record for a three-year-old of this breed. She produced 15,122 pounds of milk and 626 pounds of butter in one year. DAIRYING 291 tint, and have white spots on their bodies. Nose, tongue, and switch, which in the Jersey are ordinarily black, are usually white in the Guernsey. Guernseys are noted for the rich color of their milk, which contains about 4.8 per cent of butter fat. Ayrshires. The Ayrshire cow originated in Scotland* not far, therefore, from the place of origin of the two breeds just mentioned. Cows of this breed are spotted red white, and are larger than Jerseys or Guernseys. While they give a larger quantity of milk, it is not so rich in butter fat, containing only from 3.8 to 4 per cent. Maid Henry, a purL-ijicii iiulntciii tuw, holds the highest record in the state of Kansas. She pro- duced 19,600 pounds of milk and 835 pounds of butter in one year at the age of thirteen years. Holsteins. The Holstein cow is the only one of the four chief dairy breeds that was developed on the continent of Europe. It is, however, the oldest dairy breed; for cattle were probably first brought to the islands off the coast of Europe from the continent itself. The Holstein comes from Holland, having been bred in the Low Countries for 292 AGRICULTURE two thousand years, or since a hundred years before the Christian era. It is the largest breed of dairy cattle. In color it is black and white. Holstein cows give exceedingly large quantities of milk, which contains, however, as a rule, only about 3.5 per cent of butter fat. Feeding the Cow. During the summer the cow depends largely upon grass for food ; but if a cow is giving a large amount of milk she should be fed some grain while on pasture, especially if the pasture is short. In winter cows Interior view of the dairy bam at the Kansas State Agricultural College, equipped to handle seventy milk cows. must be given plenty of feed so that they will furnish all the milk they are capable of giving. If the cows obtain some green, juicy feed in the winter, such as silage, they will do much better than if they are forced to eat dry feed entirely. On the majority of farms all the cows in a herd are fed alike. They get the same amount of hay and the same amount of grain, and receive the same attention. This is a poor practice, because the cows that give a large amount of milk need more feed than those that give only a small amount. DAIRYING 293 The cow should at all times have clean water. In winter she should have freshly pumped well water, for if she has to drink ice-cold water she will fall off in her pro- duction of milk, and will usually prove unprofitable. Stabling. In order than an animal may do its best in either growth or production it must be not only well fed and watered, but kept in a clean, warm, and well-lighted place. The dairy cow, since she does not put much fat on her body to keep her warm, must be kept in the barn dur- ing cold weather. This barn should be warm, and should have plenty of fresh air and plenty of sunlight. If the stable is dark and dirty the cows will not produce so well, and the milk they do produce will not be fit for any one to drink. If the cow is given a chance to keep clean, she, like most other animals, will do so. It is only by keeping her and her surroundings clean that clean milk can be pro- duced. Milking. The milking should be done as quickly and as quietly as possible. All the milk must be taken from the cow each time, for if there is any left in the udder the cow will soon go dry. If the cow is dirty, she must be cleansed, because it is necessary to have every- thing clean if clean milk is desired. The milker's hands and the cow's sides and udder should be cleansed before the milking is begun. One can obtain cleaner milk by using a milk pail that is partly closed at the top, as shown in the picture. When dirt and dust get into the milk, bacteria are car- Two types of milk pail. The partly covered pail keeps out dirt and dust. 294 AGRICULTURE ried with them, and these bacteria cause the milk to sour* The cleaner the milk, the longer it will keep. If milk is to be kept for use it should be cooled to as low a tempera- ture as possible immediately after it is drawn from the cow. In order to be kept sweet for any length of time it must be kept clean and cool. Cooling the milk imme- diately and keeping it at a low temperature delays the growth of bacteria, which grow best under warmer con- ditions. If all milk containers and utensils are sunned regularly many bacteria will be destroyed, and the milk will keep better. Separating Milk. We separate milk to get cream. Cream is made up of the same constituents as milk, but these constituents are in different proportions. Butter fat is the most important constituent of cream. Milk con- tains from three to six per cent of butter fat, while cream contains from ten to sixty per cent. The butter fat in milk and cream is in little circular masses called fat glob- ules. These globules are lighter than the rest of the milk. When the milk is drawn from the cow and left undis- turbed for a time, these fat globules float to the surface. When we skim off the top of the milk after it has set a while, we obtain cream. This is one method of separating. The best method of separating milk is the use of the centrifugal separator. The milk is run into a bowl which is revolving at a high speed. During this process the heavier part of the milk, the skim milk, is forced to the outside, while the cream, the lighter part, is crowded to the center. In this way the skim milk and the cream are separated. The advantage of using the centrif- ugal separator is that it is possible to get most of the fat out of the milk, and the separation is more rapid and much easier. The skim milk is also in better condition for feed- ing calves and pigs. DAIRYING 295 The milk should be separated as soon as possible after it is taken from the cow. If it gets cold it will not separate well, and a large amount of the butter fat will be left in the skim milk. The separator must be turned at the proper speed, as prescribed in the directions, and should be washed and scalded each time it is used. Butter Making. Cream that is to be churned is usually allowed to sour, or ripen, because it churns more readily and the butter has a better taste than that made from cream churned while sweet. After the cream has ripened properly it is brought to a temperature of 58 degrees in winter and 65 degrees in summer, and is then poured into the churn. For best results the churn should not be filled more than half full. If the cream is ripened properly and is brought to the right temperature, the churning should be completed in from thirty to forty-five minutes. The time to stop churning is when the butter begins to form in little lumps the size of a kernel of wheat or corn. One should then draw off the buttermilk and add as much water as there was buttermilk drawn off. The chum should be revolved several times, the water should be drawn off, salt should be added at the rate of one ounce to each pound of butter, the salt should be worked into the butter, and the butter should then be molded into prints. The barrel churn will give better results than types of churns that contain inside fixtures. If a churn has many inside fixtures the butter from it will have a gi'easy ap- pearance. SILOS AND SILAGE A quarter of a century ago very few people in this country knew what a silo was, and fewer still had ever seen one. To-day there are very few people who have not heard of the silo. 296 AGRICULTURE The silo is an air-tight structure used for the preserva- tion of green fodders in their green, succulent condition. Fodder, when put up in the silo, is called ensilage or silage. The first method used for preserving the green forage consisted of ditches and trenches in the ground. The crops were placed in the trenches and cov- ered with earth. In this way the air was excluded from the feed, and it was kept from spoiling. Kinds of Silos. Each year the silo is coming into more general use in every community in Kansas. Most of the silos are built above ground and are made from such ma- terials as wood, cement, cement blocks, cement staves, steel, wood and plaster, brick, and hollow tile. Some silos are built square or polygonal, but the round structure gives better satisfaction. Those built above ground have doors to aid in getting the silage out. Before the silo is filled, these openings are closed and made air- tight. The silo is filled from the top, by a blower similar to the straw blower on a threshing machine, or by a carrier. The crop to be used for silage is cut into pieces from one- half to three-fourths of an inch in length, so that it will pack thoroughly, and so that all the air possible will be ex- Two good types of silo. The one on the right is a solid-wall concrete silo; the one on the left is a hollow- tile silo. DAIRYING 297 ciuded from the silo. Too much air in the silage will cause it to mold or decay. Silage is preserved by the formation of acids, not by cooking or heating, as is often stated. The acids are formed by bacteria which grow under conditions unfavor- Filling a silo. A blower is useil to elevate the material from the cutter to the silo. able to molds and to decay-producing bacteria. The sour taste of silage is due to the acid which preserves the feed. The Pit Silo. Silos are sometimes built under ground. Such silos are called pit silos. The pit silo must be located in dry and well-drained ground, and is therefore not well adapted to the eastern part of Kansas, but in western Kansas, where the ground is dry and firm, this type of silo has proved very satisfactory. While the above-ground silo is usually to be preferred because of the ease with which the silage can be removed, the pit silo nevertheless 298 AGRICULTURE has some advantages. In the first place, it can be built with but little outlay of money, the principal item of ex- pense being the labor required to dig the pit. Second, such a silo is easily constructed and requires very little skilled labor in building. Third, it can be filled with a silage cutter without the use of a blower. The pit silo should be convenient to the place where the silage is to be fed. It is often possible to dig it at the end A pit silo in western Kansas. The method of removing .silai picture. oiii the .silo is shown in iho of the barn, and build a shed over it. The silage can then be removed and distributed with a carrier similar to the common hay-carrier equipment. It is not advisable to build pit silos too large, and especially too deep, because the labor of digging and removing the silage increases with the depth. When a large storage capacity is needed, several small silos are better than one large one. A cir- cular silo is most satisfactory and most economical to DAIRYING 299 build. It should be built with a cement curb six inches wide encircling the top. The curb should extend a few inches above the ground and into the ground a little below the frost line. This prevents surface water from entering the silo and also prevents the ground from caving into the silo around the top. The walls of the silo below the curb should be covered with a coat of plaster from three- fourths of an inch to one inch thick and then washed with a cement coat to make them air- and water-tight. The walls must be absolutely perpendicular and smooth so that the silage will settle uniformly. The silo should be provided with a good cover that will keep out trash and dirt and that will prevent children and animals from falling in. The top should be so constructed that it will provide for free circulation of air within the silo. Care should be taken not to enter a pit silo if it is filled with carbon dioxide gas. When silage ferments, carbon dioxide gas is formed. This gas is heavier than air and will sometimes remain in the bottom of the silo. If it is pres- ent in sufficient quantities, a person descending into the silo will be suffocated. The presence of gas can easily be detected by lowering a lighted lantern into the silo. If the light goes out, it is an indication that gas is present. If gas is present, it can usually be removed by dropping a few bundles of hay or fodder into the silo and thus creat- ing air currents. There is more danger of gas poisoning shortly after the silo is filled, but one should never enter a pit silo without first testing for gas. Feeding Silage. When fed, silage is taken off the top each day, and must be taken from the entire surface of the silo, else the silage will spoil and be unfit for food. The best crops for silage are corn, kafir, and sorghum, followed by milo, oats and peas, cowpeas, rye, and alfalfa. These crops are put into the silo a few days before they 300 AGRICULTURE are ripe enough for harvesting. They are not cured in any way, but are put up in their green state. The silo enables one to preserve the entire corn crop in excellent form for feeding. The stalks and leaves of corn contain almost one-half of the feeding value of the entire corn plant. The other portion of it is in the grain. When the grain is harvested and the stalks are left in the field, about one-half of the entire crop is wasted. The silo furnishes the best method possible for storing and feeding the fodder. When made into silage, the fodder is easily handled and fed. There are no cornstalks to be hauled out of the barnyard or to be broken down in the field before plowing. When crops are put into the silo they furnish a green food for the winter, and this will serve the same purposes that the green grass serves in the summer. In this way farm animals can be furnished with the best of feed during the entire year. Silage, when fed to dairy cows, causes them to produce more milk; fed to beef cattle, in connec- tion with other feeds, it causes rapid and economical gains. It is a good feed for sheep, and horses and hogs eat it readily. Silage takes the place of pasture during the dry summer months. A cow usually eats thirty to forty pounds of silage a day. Every farmer who has more than seven cows should own a silo. A table in the Appendix shows the sizes of silos and the amounts of silage required for given numbers of cattle. QUESTIONS 1. What is the importance of selecting the cows for the dairy? 2. What are the two methods used in selecting cows? Which method is better? 3. How can we account for the modern dairy cow's having dairy type? How does the typical dairy cow differ from the beef animal? DAIRYING 301 4. What is indicated by each of the following characteristics of the dairy animal: a large barrel; large milk veins; soft skin and hair? 5. What is the best way to keep the records of the milk and butter produced by a cow? 6. If a cow gives 40 pounds of milk per day and it tests 4.6 per cent butter fat, how much butter fat does the milk contain? 7. Maid Henry, a Holstein cow at the agricultural college, produced in a year 19,600 pounds of milk that tested 3.65 per cent butter fat. How much butter fat did she produce during the year? 8. Name the principal breeds of dairy cattle. How do they rank as to quantity of milk given? as to quality of milk? 9. Describe the Jersey cow typical of the breed; the Guernsey; the Ayrshire; the Holstein. 10. Under what conditions should a cow be fed grain while she is on grass? 11. How may a green, juicy food be provided for the cows during the winter months? 12. Why is it a poor practice to feed all milk cows alike? 13. State three points that must be kept in mind in building a barn for cows. 14. How does dirt get into the milk? How can this be avoided? 15. What two things must be done if the milk is to keep sweet for any length of time? Why should milk be kept cold? 16. Why do we separate milk? What is the best method of separating? Why does cream come to the top of milk? 17. Why is cream soured before it is churned? When is the proper time to cease churning? What is the best kind of churn? Why? 18. What is a silo? What is silage? What materials are used in building silos? How is a pit silo built? 19. How is a silo filled? Why is the feed cut before it is put in the silo? Why does silage keep? 20. To what animals may silage be fed with advantage? What are the advantages of a silo? What are the best crops for silage? CHAPTER XXVI POULTRY The value of the meat and eggs produced by poultry in the United States in one year is about equal to that of all the gold, silver, iron, and coal mined in the United States in the same length of time. Kansas stands fifth among the states of the Union in number of fowls of all kinds kept on farms. The states that lead her are Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio. In the value of her poultry Kansas stands seventh, being exceeded by New York and Pennsylvania in addition to those which lead in the numbers kept. The reasons these two states having fewer fowls lead Kansas in the matter of value is that much more attention has been given to keeping only pure breeds of poultry and giving them good care, and that proximity to the markets causes better prices to be obtained. The value of all the poultry and eggs sold or consumed in Kansas in one year is probably between $30,000,000 and $40,000,000. Kinds of Poultry. The tame birds which are raised for the purpose of supplying meat and eggs are spoken of as poultry. The most common kinds are chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowls, and pigeons. Ninety-five per cent of all the poultry in the United States consists of chickens, and this figure holds very nearly true for Kansas. How Poultry is Named. There are four kinds of names used in naming poultry. These are: 1. The species name. 3. The breed name. 2. The class name. 4. The variety name. (302) POULTRY 303 TABLE SHOWING THE CLASS, BREED, AND VARIETY NAMES OF THE COMMON SORTS OF POITLTRY. Brahma I k'^*!*- [ Dark. Chicken, PouHry . Asiatic . Mediterranean . American. Cochin (§"^-.. ' ' '[ Partridge. Langshan | ^1?^^' [ White. f S. C. Brown. Leghorn J-^-,?,?*?^"- . ■ ■ S. C. White. I R. C. White. fS.C. Black. Minorca i R. C. Biacl- I S. C. White. Plymouth Rock ... . [f.fJT^- [ White. Wyandotte j Silver-Iaeed. [ Columbian. Rhode Island Red ( p 9,- ^'^'^f !, K. O. Red. English Orpington ] White I Black. Turkey Turkey . Turkev Bronze. White. Buff. Duck. Pekin White. Duck ; Rouen Colored. Indian Runner ... ' S?u^? and White 1 White. Goose. Toulouse Gray. Emden White. 304 AGRICULTURE As may be seen in the accompanying table the species name tells what kind of poultry is meant. Of all kinds except chickens the species and the class names are the same. In the case of chick- ens, however, the class name of the common sorts tells whence the chickens first came. Those belonging to the Asiatic class were first brought to this country from Asia. The Mediterraneans came from the country surround- ing the Mediterranean sea. The English and the Black Langshans (Asiatic). Americau classes Originated in England and America, respectively. Each class is divided into several breeds. A breed is a group of birds having the same shape, and the breed name refers to all the birds having that shape. It is the shape name. Brahmas are a group of chickens which first came from Asia, and which have a characteristic shape. Toulouse geese are geese hav- ing a certain shape, which has been named Toulouse. It will be noticed in the foregoing table that turkeys are all of one breed. This is Barred Plymouth Rock Male (American). because they are all of the same shape, so that the spe- cies, the class, and the breed names are the same. GOOD BREEDS OF CHICKENS FOR KANSAS BUFF ORPINGTON, WHITE LEGHORN, LIGHT BRAHMA, BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK POULTRY 305 The variety name may be thought of as the color name. So we have Light and Dark Brahmas; White, Brown, and Buff Leghorns; Bronze, White, and Buff Turkeys. Some- White FI>-mouth Rocks and Rhode Island Reds. 306 AGRICULTURE times, however, birds of the same shape and color have different kinds of combs, as have the Single-Comb and the Rose-Comb White Leghorns. In such cases the variety name includes both comb and color name, as in the case of the Single-Comb White Leghorn. It is customary to use only the breed and the variety name in speaking of any sort of poultry; as, Light Erah- mas, or Toulouse geese. Where the variety name distin- guishes the kind of comb as well as the color it is customary to shorten the written name by using the letters S. C. and R. C. for Single-Comb and Rose-Comb; as, for instance, R. C. Brown Leghorns. Much of the poultry found on Kansas farms is a mixture of several breeds or varieties. Such stock is referred to as scrub or mongrel stock, and has no name besides that of the species. Houses for Poultry. While houses are not necessary for turkeys or geese, it pays to build a good house for ducks and chickens. All that is needed for turkeys and geese is some sort of rough shelter for the severest weather. It is not necessary to build so expensive a house for ducks as for chickens, because ducl% and very decidedly from those of other farm animals. 310 AGRICULTURE They do not need so much animal food as do ducks or turkeys, and are greater seed and grain eaters than either ducks or geese, which consume large amounts of grass and other soft herbage. In comparison with other farm animals, their feed is very much more concentrated, being made up chiefly of grains and grain by-products. While they eat a good deal of green grass, they can not make use of dry hay or fodder as do the larger animals. They need a larger proportion of protein and mineral matter in their feed than do any of the larger animals. The extra amount of mineral is neces- sary to furnish material out of which to make egg shells. It also serves to grind the i feed in the gizzard, as the feed is swallowed whole. Kinds of Feed. Chicken feed is usually furnished mainly in two forms, called "scratching feed" and mash. The "scratching feed" is made up of whole or cracked grains, and is fed by being scattered in a deep litter of straw so that the birds will need to take a great deal of exercise in scratching it out. The mash is made up of ground material, like shorts, middlings, commercial meat scraps, oil meal, and cottonseed meal. This may be fed dry in hoppers made for the purpose, or may be moistened with milk or water and fed in troughs. Twice as much "scratching feed" as mash should be fed. Supplements. To supplement these kinds of feed and Dark Brahma Female (Asiatic.) POULTRY 311 make them more useful, supplements, or accessories to the main ration, are fed. These are generally grit; shell or bone; charcoal; and green feed. Grit is made out of any- hard mineral substance, like granite or flint, crushed into pieces about the size of grain. It aids the gizzard in grinding the feed. Shell or bone is use- ful in furnishing the material for the formation of bone in growing chicks and the egg shell with laying stock. It is made of oyster shell or bone ground to the proper size. Charcoal ground to the right size is readily eaten by fowls, and helps to keep them in white Wyandotte Male (American). good health by absorbing injurious substances from the digestive organs. Fresh, tender green food, like young grass, cabbage, and sprouted oats, is relished by chick- ens, adds variety to the feed, and helps to stimulate the appetite. Rations for Laying Hens. A good ration for laying hens of medium size (American and English breeds) is as fol- lows: three parts of wheat; three parts of cracked corn; one part of oats. This is fed in connection with a dry mash made of 60 pounds of corn meal; 60 pounds of wheat middlings or shorts; 50 pounds of meat scraps; 30 pounds of wheat bran; 10 pounds of linseed-oil meal; 10 pounds of alfalfa meal; 1 pound of salt. Grit, shell, and charcoal should at all times be kept in hoppers before the birds, and all the green feed that the birds will eat up quickly should be fed them once a day. A good ration for laying hens of the Mediterranean, 312 AGRICULTURE or lightweight, breeds includes a mash fed dry, consist- ing of corn meal, 3 3-^ parts by weight; linseed-oil meal, 1 part by weight; wheat bran, 5^ parts by weight; wheat middlings or shorts, 3 parts by weight; meat scraps, 2 1^2 parts by weight. The scratching part of the ration con- sists of whole corn and wheat in equal parts. The sup- plements to the ration should be furnished as before. During the winter silage may be given freely in place of green feed. With both of these rations, the scratching feed is scat- tered in litter twice a day. In the morning a light feed is given, while at night the birds are given all they will eat. At noon the mash hoppers are opened, and left open throughout the afternoon. There is little danger of hens' overeating of mash; they prefer grain, and will generally be found eager for their evening meal of scratching feed. Green feed is also given at noon if the birds are shut up or the ground is frozen. Fresh water is given in the morn- ing and at noon. In warm weather it should be given again in the evening. Feeding Chicks. Little chicks should not be fed any- thing for at least forty-eight hours after hatching. The yolk of the egg is taken into the body of the chick just before it hatches, and supplies it with food for from two to three days. Chicks should not be fed until they show, by chirping loudly, that they are hungry. From that time on, they should be fed at least five times daily. The first feed may consist of the infertile eggs tested out of the incubator ; hard boiled ; and ground fine, shell and all, in a meat chopper; and mixed with about six times their bulk of rolled oats. About the sixth day the following grain mixture may be fed: cracked wheat, 15 parts by weight; pinhead oatmeal, 10 parts by weight; finely cracked corn, 15 parts by weight; POULTRY 313 finely cracked peas, 3 parts by weight; broken rice, 2 parts by weight; fine grit, 5 parts by weight; fine charcoal, 2 parts by weight. As soon as the chicks can eat whole wheat and coarsely cracked corn they should be given these in place of the finely cracked grain. When the chicks are weaned, or taken from the brooders, they may be fed by the use of hoppers if they have the run of the fields and pastures, because they will get abundant exercise chasing bugs and scratching for worms. Cracked corn, wheat, cracked bone, oyster shell, and grit may be placed in separate troughs, as may also the following dry mash mixture: wheat bran, 1 part by weight; corn meal, 2 parts by weight; wheat middlings, 1 part by weight; meat scraps, 1 part by weight. Caring for Market Eggs. Eggs spoil so easily that they are classed, along with milk and butter, among "highly perishable products." . Butter melts, and milk clabbers, if not kept cool. These conditions change their appearance and are easily noticed. An egg, however, may spoil com- pletely and still have the appearance of a good egg. For this reason eggs are not cared for on the farm so carefully as are butter and milk. In saving eggs for market one should try to keep them as fresh as possible. They lose their freshness by shrink- ing, incubating, growing watery, molding, and absorbing odors. All these defects increase with age, and eggs should therefore be sent to market just as soon after they are laid as possible. When it is impossible to market them promptly, they should be placed in a room in which the temperature never goes above 68°. Most cellars give the proper temperature. The reason for giving special attention to temperature is that a fertile egg will begin to grow into a chick in any 314 AGRICULTURE temperature above 68°. The room where eggs are kept should also be dry and free from odors. If the air is damp, spots of mold are likely to grow inside the egg shell and make the eggs unfit to eat. If the cellar has a musty smell, or if the eggs are kept close to onions, decayed vegetables, and the like, the odors will be absorbed, and the flavor of the eggs will be affected. Besides being fresh, a really first- class egg must be clean, of good size, and free from cracks. The raising of good poultry, with proper care of the birds and of the eggs, will improve the home table of the farmer and will at the same time give him an additional source of income. Poultry keeping proves also interesting and attractive to the boys and girls. QUESTIONS 1. How does the value of meat and eggs produced by poultry in one year compare with the value of the gold and silver mined in the same period? 2. What is the rank of Kansas as a poultry state? 3. How is poultry named? 4. Tell the difference between a class, a breed, and a variety, and name the three most common American breeds. 5. What are the essentials in a poultry house? 6. On what days should incubator eggs be tested and at what temperature should an incubator be run? Where should an in- cubator be run? 7. What are the important conditions in artificial brooding? 8. How do chickens differ from other farm animals in their feeding habits? 9. What are the kinds of poultry feed? 10. Give a good ration for a laying hen. 11. Tell how little chicks should be fed. 12. Give rations for chicks before and after they are weaned. 13. Tell how to care for eggs so that they will reach market in first-class condition. CHAPTER XXVII DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK Animals, like men, have diseases. In many cases the same diseases may be given to both man and the lower animals. Man is afflicted, however, with some diseases which the lower animals do not contract, and likewise the lower animals are subject to some diseases with which the human family is not troubled. The body of the human being and that of a lower animal are made up of the same kinds of tissues and organs, and it is chiefly the difterence in food and surroundings which makes the difference in disease. What Causes Disease. So long as all the organs and all the tissues of the body perform their normal functions, the animal is healthy. But when any of the organs or tissues do not perform the work that nature intended they should, the animal does not thrive, but becomes ill at ease, or, as we say, diseased. If this condition goes on for any length of time the result may show itself in various ways, depending upon the parts affected and upon the cause of the trouble. Disease, then, may be said to be a departure from the state of health. So long as the animal eats the proper amount of clean, wholesome food and drinks a certain amount of pure water and breathes a certain amount of pure air, its tissues and organs perform the functions nature intended they should and the animal is considered healthy. Any interference from any cause results in what we call disease. An animal not given food enough, too much food, improper kinds of food, or food, air, or water that is not pure, will in time cease to thrive (315) 316 AGRICULTURE or may even feel pain, which is a sign of disease. Sudden changes in the temperature of the air, too much cold, heat, sun, or rain, or a draft of air when the animal is weak or tired, or the entrance into the system of certain small organisms — any of these conditions help to cause disease. When these abnormal conditions are present the animal shows them in various ways, depending upon the parts affected and the severity of the cause. Kinds of Diseases. Diseases of animals and man are usually divided into two classes. The one class comprises all those diseases which are occasionally met with at dif- ferent times of the year and which can not be transmitted Animals become diseased when forced to live on insanitary premises. by the sick to the well. These diseases are called sporadic, or noninfectious, diseases. Examples of such diseases are rheumatism, colic, and paralysis. Infectious diseases are those which are caused by small organisms called germs and can be transmitted from the sick animal to the well ones. In this class are included such diseases as tubercu- losis, or consumption, in both man and the lower animals; DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 317 diphtheria, typhoid fever, and smallpox in man ; and hog cholera, rabies, and distemper in some of the lower animals. How Diseases Spread. Infectious diseases are trans- mitted to other animals by germs. These are organisms most of which belong to the vegetable kingdom and which are too small to be seen except with a high-power micro- scope. Each organism can cause only one kind of disease. It is necessary that before any infectious dis- ease can show itself or develop, the organism must be taken into the system. In other words, it is neces- sary to bring the germ and the animal together. If they are kept apart the disease can not spread. If the organisms were large enough to be seen with the naked eye it would be an easy matter to prevent the spread of diseases, but since they are so small that we can not see them they sometimes travel rather fast and far before we are aware of it. Some of them live and grow and are carried to healthy animals in water, some of them in milk, some in the dust. Some live only a short time outside the animal body. When a germ gets into the system of an animal it multiplies very rapidly, and germs are usually found in the blood and all the tissues of the affected animal in a very short time. Some of them are thrown off through every avenue in the body, frequently by the million, as they multiply very, very rapidly. It can be seen that if any animal is sick merely one day with an infectious dis- ease, the whole yard, the barn, or the pen where the animal is kept may be infected. It would naturally then suggest itself that, wherever there is an infectious disease, the well animals should be taken away from the sick ones as soon as the trouble is discovered, and as many as possible of the organisms that escape from the sick animal should be destroyed. 318 AGRICULTURE Disinfection. An animal that has the organisms in its body is infected. Getting rid of, or killing, these organ- isms we call disinfection. We may disinfect the animal or disinfect the surroundings. Since the organisms are found usually in all parts of the body of an infected animal, it is hard to make a thorough disinfection of the animal, but we can disinfect the place in which the animal is kept, and keep the disease under control. Sunshine is nature's best disinfectant, and, wherever possible, the sun should be encouraged to shine into all rooms and pens in which disease exists. All straw, cobs, sticks of wood, and litter should be removed from the premises and burned, in order that the organisms may not be able to hide from the sun underneath these obstructions. Then, in order to destroy all organisms that may have begun to go into the ground or into fence corners or floors, these places should be thoroughly covered or sprayed with one part of crude carbolic acid to twenty parts of water, or with a three per cent solution of compound cresol. This should be used wherever there is the slightest chance for any of the organisms to hide. They like moist, shady places. Con- sequently, for thorough disinfection good drainage is necessary, and freshly slaked lime scattered every few days over the ground and floors where animals are kept will help very much to keep the premises free from germs. When the organisms become so numerous in the body of an animal that they interfere seriously with the function of one or more of its organs, the animal becomes diseased, or sick. If the normal function is not soon restored, the death of the animal results. The whole body of this animal is filled with these organisms, which are spread in different ways to other animals. Persons walking through the premises where these germs are, or animals going through, or birds coming upon the premises, can carry DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 319 enough of the germs on their feet to give the disease to many other animals miles away. It can be seen how necessary it is to keep these organisms from getting away or from spreading to other animals. The main object should be to destroy as many of the organisms as possible and to keep the organisms and the healthy animals apart. This, of course, is accomplished by disinfection, and since the body of this dead animal is filled with these organisms A lot like tills breeds disease germs. it should be burned immediately or buried very deep and covered with freshly slaked lime. The place where the animal was kept should be thoroughly disinfected, so that a healthy animal coming upon this place may not take the disease. The general rule followed in disinfecting stables where diseased animals have been kept is as follows: Remove and burn all cobwebs, bedding in stalls, contents of the mangers, feed boxes, hayricks, and all loose and decayed woodwork in the stables, barns, or sheds where the affected animals have been. Thoroughly scrape and cleanse the floors, the sides, and the front of the stalls, as well as the mangers, feed boxes, stanchions, and hayricks, and thoroughly saturate them with a solution of carbolic acid 320 AGRICULTURE (six ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water), or with a three per cent solution of compound cresol. Then thoroughly paint or whitewash all exposed woodwork with a wash containing one pound of chloride of lime to each four gallons of water, enough quicklime having been added to make the mixture wash white. Scatter lime all over the floor, especially in the corners and in all damp places. The watering troughs and buckets must be thor- oughly scalded, and rinsed with hot water. The organisms of many diseases are found to increase in number in nearly all stables, pens, and yards. Dis temper (catarrhaj fever), lock-jaw (tetanus), some lung troubles, and one of the most deadly diseases of young foals, are some of the most common diseases the organ- isms of which are found in the horse stables and surround- ings. All these diseases can be prevented by proper care. In the cattle barns, tuberculosis, lump-jaw (actinomycosis), and calf diseases develop if the premises are not kept clean, while around the hog lots the germs of cholera and tuber- culosis are liable to be harbored for a long time. A good plan is to clean and disinfect the whole premises thoroughly every spring and fall, following the foregoing methods. In this way fully ninety per cent of. infectious diseases can be prevented. QUESTIONS 1. Compare the general make-up of man and that of the lower animals. To what extent are man and the lower animals subject to the same diseases? 2. Under what conditions may a person or animal be said to be healthy? diseased? 3. What are some of the general causes of disease? 4. What are the two general classes of diseases? Name some diseases of each class. 5. How do infectious diseases spread? 6. What is necessary to prevent a person or an animal from taking a certain disease from another person or animal? DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 321 7. How many different diseases can a certain kind of organism produce? 8. How large are disease-producing organisms and in what parts of the animal are they usually found? 9. How do disease germs spread from one animal to another? How fast do they increase in number? 10. What is disinfection? Name some common disinfectants. 11. What should be done with the bodies of animals that have died of infectious disease? 12. How should you disinfect a building and yard? 21 CHAPTER XXVIII GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES Every forest tree grows from a seed or from a part of a twig or root called a cutting. A plot of ground devoted entirely to the growing of trees from seeds or cuttings is a nursery. A forest nursery is a nursery devoted entirely to the growing of forest trees until they reach a suitable size for planting in their permanent location for the pro- duction of posts, poles, or lumber. Forest trees are divided into two main groups, conifers and broadleaf trees. The group known as conifers is composed of trees that bear cones. Conifers are usually known as evergreens, although some of the species of this group shed their leaves annually, as do the broadleaf species. Pines, spruces, firs, hemlocks, larches, cypresses, cedars, and others comprise this group. The broadleaf species are known also as hardwoods. The group is made up of species that differ from the coni- fers in the shape of the leaves. All of them have leaves more or less wide, rather than needlelike, as are the leaves of the conifers. The trees composing the broadleaf group shed their leaves annually, with the exception of a few, known as broadleaf evergreens, which are represented by the live oak, the holly , and the magnolia. Conifers. Seeds of the conifers are sown in well- prepared beds covered with a lattice roof that protects the seedlings from the direct light of the sun, and from wind, hail, and dashing rain. (322) GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 323 Coniferous seedlings in the State Forest Nursery. The shade frames have been removed to allow the seedlings to be seen. The seeds are sown in April or early in May. Under favorable weather conditions, they begin to come up in about a week. At the end of the first season's growth they vary from two to six inches in height, depending upon the species, the young seedling trees from small seeds being smaller than those from large seeds. At the age of one or two years these seedlings are transplanted to rows in the open, which are spoken of as nursery rows. In these rows they are planted six or eight inches apart, and are allowed to grow for one or two years, until they reach a suitable size for permanent planting. Broadleaf Trees. The broadleaf species do not require so much protection from sun, wind, rain, and hail as do the conifers, and they are usually grown in rows in the open. They make a much stronger growth. The seeds may be planted either in the fall or early in the spring. The rate of growth of the seedlings depends largely on the size of the seeds. The larger the seed, the more rapidly the seedling will usually grow. At the close of the season's growth the seedlings will vary from six or eight to thirty inches in height. The largest of these may, when one year old, be set in the permanent planting. The smaller plants must be allowed to grow in the nursery until they are two or three years of age. They are usually transplanted once while in the nursery. Nut-bearing trees are seldom grown extensively in nurseries. The trees can usually be grown more success- fully if the nuts are planted in the permanent site where 324 AGRICULTURE the trees are to grow to maturity. These species all develop a strong taproot and but few lateral roots; con- sequently, they are difficult to transplant successfully. Cottonwoods and willows are propagated entirely from cuttings, which are sections of wood of the past season's growth, varying from ten to fifteen inches in length. These are planted in well-prepared ground in the nursery, Catalpa seedlings in the State Forest Nursery. to grow until of suitable size for permanent planting. These two species are propagated in this manner because their seeds are so small and so hard to gather and plant that propagating by seed is very difficult. Under favorable weather conditions cuttings take root rapidly and make a very vigorous growth. At the end of the first season they vary from three feet to six or eight feet in height, and at the age of one year are of suitable size to be set out permanently. The Size of Trees for Planting. Small trees should be used in extensive plantings, such as farm wood lots and windbreaks. Where so many are planted it would cost altogether too much to plant large trees. If conifers are to be planted, young trees two or three years old and from ten to fifteen inches in height should be used. They can GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 325 be planted and protected a great deal more cheaply than larger trees, and a larger proportion will live after being planted. If broadleaf species are used, trees from three to five feet in height and from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter are usually most satis- factory. Smaller trees suffer more in the planting than do trees of this size. Larger trees are objec- tionable because of their greater cost and the greater expense incurred in planting them. For yard, street, or roadside plant- ing, where only a few trees are to be set out, larger trees should be used. Conifers from two and one-half to four feet in height are the most de- sirable, and broadleaf species should be eight or ten feet in height and one and one-half or two inches in diameter. How to Plant a Tree. The first step to insure the suc- cessful growth of the newly planted tree is to be sure that the tree is in good condition when it is planted. The tree must, therefore, from the time it leaves the nursery until it is planted, be properly handled to prevent injury by exposure of its roots. Nurserymen familiar with their business understand how to pack and handle trees without exposing them unduly, and the planter should be careful to secure his stock from the grower, rather than from tree peddlers or other irresponsible persons. On receiving trees from the nursery, one should keep them in a cool, moist place until they are planted. The first step in the actual operation of planting a tree is the One-, two-, and three-year-old ash trees. The three-year-old tree ia a good size for wood-lot and windbreak planting. The others are too small. 326 AGRICULTURE preparation of the ground for planting. Trees require a loose, mellow soil. The hole in which a tree is to be set should be dug wide enough to receive the roots in their natural order, and deep enough to allow the tree to be planted two or three inches deeper than it grew in the nursery. In the bottom of the hole, there should be one or two inches of loose soil in which to bed the roots. After covering the roots with two or three inches of mellow soil, one should tramp it firmly over them to insure close con- tact of soil and roots. An inch or two of the top soil should be left mellow, to serve as a mulch. If the ground at the time of planting is in good condi- tion it is not necessary to pour water over the roots of the newly planted tree. In case the ground is dry, the hole should be filled with water one or two days before the tree is to be planted. If water is poured on dry soil over the roots of a newly planted tree it forms a puddle, which, on drying, shrinks and allows air passages to form. The entire body of earth around the roots is thus dried to such an extent that more injury is caused to the tree than would have occurred if no water had been applied. If the water is poured into the hole prior to the time of planting the tree, the trouble mentioned will be avoided. This method of planting applies to the conifers as well as to the broadleaf species. The Time of Planting. Best results are secured by planting trees as early in the spring as the soil and the climatic conditions will permit. Trees begin their growth very soon after the frost goes out of the ground. The exact time for planting varies with the seasons, but trees should always be planted before the buds begin to burst. Cultivation. The successful growth of trees depends almost as much upon the care and cultivation that they GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 327 receive as upon the manner in which they are planted. Trees require moisture in order to maintain life. This moisture must be secured from the soil, and any cultiva- tion that will conserve the soil moisture is beneficial to the tree. Trees respond as readily to cultivation as do any growing plants. Cultivation conserves moisture by pre- venting a growth of weeds which would use water that is ^ft' ""^ % W^i^^K - :'?5yi H^^^^^ ^ \M m fm ^m ^M|iM^f^/ P m s ^^m ^^^m m W 1 1 1 1 1 |H[ HBHI HR^^ '^^'^ r ''»*^'^?5^ 1 . : ^S Bill 1 ^^ T' ^ ^M w^^ »*«•- , ,-, '■'- '■•- •; "•'" -■• ~m A •^» -*^sr»-i — :, 4i-'a*yi i^^M S«™Bl A wood lot having nearly a full stand of thrifty, well-developed trees of desirable species. needed by the tree. It also maintains a soil mulch, which prevents surface evaporation. Cultivation keeps the sur- face soil in a receptive condition for the moisture that falls in the form of rain and snow. Cultivation must be con- tinued until the trees reach a sufficient size to shade the ground and protect themselves. Protection. Newly planted evergreens must be pro- tected against injury by sun and wind. When planted, these trees are in full foliage, and are liable to injury on 328 AGRICULTURE account of excessive transpiration from the leaves, due to the drying effect of the wind or to the intense heat of the sun. Ample protection from these sources of injury can be provided by two boards driven in an upright position a A newly cut-over wood lot that should be planted in black walnut, catalpa, Cottonwood, or bur oak. The land is subject to occasional flooding and can not be used for growing grain crops. few inches back from the tree, on the south and west sides. These boards should be from six to eight inches wide, and, when driven into the ground, fully as high as the tree. Broadleaf trees are not so liable to suffer from wind and sun. All young trees, however, are subject to injury by ani- mals browsing upon them or trampling the ground about them. Animals of all descriptions must be excluded from the ground on which trees are being grown. During the winter months young trees are constantly in danger of being girdled by rabbits. For protection against this, the trees should either be wrapped with some GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 329 protective covering, or be painted with a solution of common lime and sulphur. Frequently it is more practical to trap or poison the rabbits, or even to inclose the trees with a rabbit-tight fence. Trees Suitable for Kansas. Kansas is a large state, and soil conditions and rainfall vary so greatly that a list of trees suitable for planting must be varied to suit the different conditions. In the matter of tree growth the state should be divided into two parts. The eastern part should include that portion of the state where the annual rainfall is twenty- five inches or more. To this region the following trees are best adapted: Rock (sugar) maple. Sycamore. Red oak. Black cherry. Bur oak. Kentucky coffee tree. Pin oak. Thornless honey locust. Hackberry. Basswood (linden). White elm. Green ash. The evergreens suitable for the same part of the state are: White pine. White spruce. Norway pine. Norway spruce. Table Mountain pine. Douglas fir. W^estern yellow pine. White (silver) fir. Austrian pine. Chinese arbor vitse. Scotch pine. Bald cypress. Swiss Mountain pine. Red cedar. Colorado blue spruce. Dwarf juniper. The land in the western part of the state may be divided into two classes. The first class comprises the heavy loam soil. Trees suitable for planting in this soil are: 330 AGRICULTURE Thornless honey locust. Osage orange. Hackberry. Red cedar. White elm. Chinese arbor vitae. Green ash. Scotch pine. Russian wild olive. Austrian pine. The second class includes the sandy lands composed of the sand-hill formation, and all the sandy soils along the river channels. The trees suitable for this class are : Hackberry. Red cedar. White elm. Chinese arbor vitse. Russian wild olive. Austrian pine. Russian mulberry. Scotch pine. Cottonwood. Jack pine. The conifers named in the foregoing lists are well suited for windbreak, shelter-belt, and ornamental planting, while the broadleaf species are well adapted for shade purposes. In the eastern division of the state the hardy catalpa and the Osage orange are best adapted for post and pole production, while the cottonwood, the black walnut, and the bur oak will yield a greater cut of lumber than any of the other trees. In the western division of Kansas the honey locust, the Osage orange, and the Russian mulberry may be used for post and pole production, and the cotton- wood for lumber production. QUESTIONS 1. From what sources are forest trees propagated? 2. At what seasons of the year may forest tree seeds be planted? 3. Why is it necessary to grow seedling trees in a nursery? Give as many reasons as possible. 4. For how long a time are trees grown in the nursery? 5. What size of tree should be used (1) for evergreen windbreak or wood-lot planting; (2) for broadleaf windbreak or wood-lot planting; (3) for evergreen ornamental planting; (4) for broadleaf yard, street, and roadside planting? Give reasons. 6. What care must be taken in handling the trees from the time they leave the nursery until they are planted? GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 331 7. Give in detail each step in planting a tree. What special care must be taken in each step, and why? 8. What cultivation is necessary to secure a successful growth of newly planted trees? Give reasons why cultivation is necessary. 9. Why is it necessary to protect newly planted evergreens from the wind and the sun? Describe the method of protecting the newly set trees. 10. Make a list of five broadleaf trees suitable for wood-lot planting in your home community. 11. Make a list of five broadleaf trees suitable for yard, street, or roadside planting in your home community. 12. Make a list of four coniferous evergreen trees suitable for windbreak or ornamental planting in your home community. CHAPTER XXIX PLANT DISEASES Many plants of the farm and garden become sick or diseased and never grow into strong and healthy indivi- duals. They die or their products are so diseased that the market value is greatly lessened. There are scores of plant diseases in Kansas, some of which cause a large loss. The sorghum smut disease alone caused Kansas farmers to lose more than a million dollars in 1912. The wheat and oat smuts, corn smut, the apple blotch, and the dry rot of potato are other plant diseases which are found in Kansas and which cause large losses every year. Kinds of Diseases. The diseases of plants are due to various causes, such as parasitic plants, unfavorable climatic and soil conditions, and even injuries by animals or man. The first of these is by far the most common and important, and only diseases produced by parasitic plants will be considered here. Diseases Due to Parasitic Plants. A parasitic plant is one which can not obtain its own food from the soil and air, but grows upon and gets its nourishment from some other living plant. The plant upon which the parasite lives, called the host, often becomes diseased, because it is robbed of its proper share and kind of food and its mode of life is interfered with. Parasitic plants may be divided into two groups: flower- ing plant parasites; bacteria and fungi. (332) PLANT DISEASES 333 Flowering Plant Parasites. Common examples of flowering plant parasites are the dodder and the mistle- toe. The dodder, or "love vine," is widely spread in Kansas. It is a long, twining plant, yellowish in color. It wraps itself around the stems of clover and alfalfa, and by means of little suckers ex- tracts the plant juices for its food . This para- site is very injurious to the plants attacked, and often is a serious pest in fields. Mistletoe, with its pretty white berries— a plant which we see at Christmastide— lives a similar parasitic life on trees. It extracts the juices from the branches by means of rootlike suckers. This pest oc- curs in parts of south- eastern Kansas on or- namental and forest trees. Bacteria and Fungi. Bacteria and fungi form a very large group of plants which do not have flowers, leaves, stems, or roots. They have no green coloring matter, or chlorophyll, such as is found in the leaves of the flowering plants, and are gen- erally white, yellowish-brown, or black — never green. Dodder on alfalfa. The picture shows the parasite's twining habit of growth. The dodder is in full bloom. (After Stewart.) 334 AGRICULTURE Mistletoe on elms near Coffeyville, Kansas. (After Scott.) Because fungi and bacteria do not have this green color, which is the machinery of other plants for manufacturing food from the raw materials of air and soil, they can not prepare their own food. They therefore depend upon other plants or animals, either living or dead, for their nourish- ment. Those fungi and bacteria which get their food from living plants we have called parasites, while those which live upon dead plant or animal matter are called saprophytes. Bacteria, or germs, as they are sometimes called, are the tiniest plants known, and it is necessary to use a very strong magnifying glass, or lens, to see them. It would take four hundred of the spherical bacteria placed side by side in a row to equal in length the thickness of this They are found oCbngrsLT'o^^iiL'and cverywherc - in the soil, others spiral. ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^ WatCr, plants, and animals. They multiply by splitting into two equal parts, or cells. Each of these is again divided into two cells, and so the process continues. Sometimes it takes only half an hour for these little bacteria to split in two. In this way a very large number can be produced in a day. Most bacteria do not cause plant diseases, and some are very useful. One kind, as we have learned, lives in the roots of clover and alfalfa, and gathers plant food, known as free nitrogen, from the air. This is used to some extent 000 Oo 0-e: 0- .0 ■0 Typical bacteria, magni- .p,oT-.Q„ fied two thousand times, pctptfl ^0 Diagram showing how bac- teria multiply. PLANT DISEASES 335 by the host plants. Some bacteria, however, are very harmful, causing diseases such as pear blight and cucum- ber wilt. Fungi also are small plants, but not so tiny as bacteria. Sometimes it is necessary to use a magnifying glass to see them. They grow as saprophytes on dead matter, such as rotting wood, stumps, stale bread, jelly, and cheese, or as parasites on living plants. Like bacteria, they do not have true roots or leaves, but in place of these is a mass of thread-like bodies, called mycelium, by means of which they absorb their food. Fungi do not have true seeds like flowering plants, but in their place have very tiny bodies called spores. These are so small that they can not be seen without a micro- scope, unless they are in large masses. The spores are scattered about by the wind, the water, insects, man, and other animals, and if they fall in damp places they grow. Molds, mushrooms, puffballs, corn smut, and wheat rust are good examples of fungi. Most plant diseases are caused by fungi. The rusts of wheat and oats, the smuts of wheat, corn, and sorghum, scab on potatoes, blotch on apples, brown rot on peaches, and the alfalfa leaf -spot disease, are well-known examples. Not all fungi, however, cause disease. Among those which do not may be mentioned bread mold, yeast, toad- stools, and puffballs. How a Simple Fungus Lives. Bread mold is one of the simplest of fungous plants. Its spores occur everywhere in the air. When they fall on moist bread they grow, pro- Mvcelium. Natural size. 836 AGRICULTURE ducing a white, cottony mass of thread-like filaments. On the ends of some of these are found little sack-like bodies. These sacks look black because they are filled with thou- sands of gray spores, which, when the little sacks break, escape and are scattered in the air. If these spores fall upon moist bread they grow, and again produce a white, cottony mass. Many of the fungi that produce diseases live just as simple a life as does the bread mold. It is very necessary to know how they live before methods of preventing diseases caused by them can be devised, as their man- ner of life determines very largely which of several methods of pre- vention is most useful. Some of the methods of prevention, and examples of diseases controlled by each method, are given hereafter. Pruning. Some diseases can be best controlled by cutting out and burning all diseased parts. If such a disease gets a good start the whole plant may have to be destroyed. The pear blight, the blister, or Illinois apple-tree canker, and the black knot of plum and cherry are well-known examples of such diseases, the first being caused by bacteria and the other two by fungi. The Pear Blight. The pear blight, known also as fire blight, attacks pear, apple, and quince trees. It causes a wilting and blackening of the flowers and the young tips of the twigs. Sometimes the pears or apples are half grown before this disease causes them to dry and shrivel Bread mold, showing sack-like bodies containing the spores, or "seed," of the fungus. Highly magnified. PLANT DISEASES 337 up into so-called "mummies." Bees and other insects visit diseased trees and get the bacteria on their feet, then fly to the blossoms of healthy trees and leave some of the bacteria inside the flowers. These flow- ers become infected and die, and the bacteria work their way into the plant juices, clogging the food channels in the twigs. Diseased twigs wilt and finally die. Some of the bacteria live over winter in the twigs, and in this way carry the disease over from year to year. To control the disease it is necessary to destroy all sources of infection. Diseased twigs, limbs, and "mummies" must be collected and burned, and sometimes whole trees must be destroyed. Spraying. There is no cure for fungous diseases. By spraying, some material poisonous to a fungus spore is spread as a thin film on the foliage of plants for protection. Germinating spores which come into contact with this poison are killed. Spraying, therefore, is a safeguard against disease rather than a cure. Three diseases com- mon in Kansas, which may be controlled by spraying, may be taken as examples. Early Blight of Potatoes. The early blight of potatoes is caused by a fungus which produces "target-board," or "frog-eye," markings on the surface of the leaves. The 2? A pear twig affected by pear blight. 338 AGRICULTURE Potato foliage affected with early blight, sometimes known as "frog- eye" or "target-board." leaves die early, and later the vines dry up. Sometimes fifty per cent of the potato crop is lost on account of this fungous disease. It does not, however, cause the potato tuber to rot, as does another blight known as the late blight of potatoes. Spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture several times during a sea- son will prevent both the early and the late potato blight. Apple Blotch. Apple blotch very frequently injures unsprayed apples in Kansas. It causes a more or less hard, jagged brown spot on the fruit, which sometimes cracks as a result. On the leaves it forms very small yellowish or white spots. The bark on the limbs becomes cracked and scaly. Often a cracked, roughened, ring-like area, called a canker, is formed on one side or surrounding the limb. Twigs, when diseased, show cracks in the bark. Spraying with Bordeaux mix- ture two or three times a season is a common preventive. The Brown Rot. The brown rot attacks the peach, the plum, and the apple, causing a soft rot. It can be con- trolled by careful spraying with Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur wash. Crop Rotation. Some disease- producing fungi live in the soil from one year to another, and if the same crop is grown on the land succes- sively it may become sick. When the soil becomes infected with such fungi it is necessary to change the crop grown on the land until the disease Brown rot of iieaches on picked fruit. (After Scott and Ayer.) PLANT DISEASES 339 disappears. This often takes several years, and a good crop rotation is necessary. Dry Rot of Potatoes. Dry rot of potato, or stem blight, one of the worst potato diseases in Kansas, is caused by a Potato tubers affected with dry rot. The tubers are cut in two. Observe the dark areas within the rind. fungus which may live in the soil. When potatoes are grown on infected land the parasite gains entrance into the healthy plant through the roots, from which it spreads to the stem and leaves. Plants which are diseased wilt and lie limp upon the ground. The new potatoes be- come infected through the stems upon which they are growing, and the diseased tubers, when cut in two, show a black ring a little inside the rind. The fungus may live in the soil for several years, and it is necessary to grow some crop other than potatoes on infected land. Other diseases which, like the dry rot of potato, may live for years in the soil, are cotton wilt, flax wilt, root rot of tobacco, cabbage yellows, and \vilt of cowpeas. Seed Treatment. Some diseases are carried over from year to year by means of fungus spores clinging to the seed. These diseases can often be prevented by treating the seed, before planting it, with formalin, copper sulphate, or some other solution that is poisonous to the spores but will not injure the seed. Immersing the seed in warm 340 AGRICULTURE water and raising the temperature until the spores are killed while the seed is left uninjured, is also a common preventive. Potato scab and some of the common smuts of grain may be prevented by seed treatment. Smuts of Grain. The stinking smut of wheat, some- times called bunt, is one of the worst diseases of wheat in Kansas. It is caused by a tiny, colorless fungus, which lives inside the growing wheat. When the wheat plant is full grown the seeds do not develop as they should, but in their place is formed a smutty or powdery mass of spores, known as a smut ball. At threshing time, and in handling the wheat in sacks, bins, and machinery, the smut balls break very easily, and the smut spores are scattered over the healthy seed. When such seed is planted in the spring the tiny smut spores, which often are lodged in the crease or brush of the kernel, germinate, and a little smut plant enters the wheat plant- let and gets a foothold before the wheat appears above the ground. Here the parasite leads a hidden, satisfied life until the flowering time of the wheat, when, in place of sound seed, smut balls once more are formed. The covered smut of barley, the smut of oats, the kernel smut of sorghums and broom corn, and a smut of millet live in much the same way. All of them can be prevented by proper seed treatment. V '. M w 1 Y ^^g. '• :f 1 Wheat affected with stinking smut. Notice the spreading of the glumes due to large smut balls where sound kernels should be. Smut ball.s, whole and cut in two, may be seen on the right. (After Johnson.) PLANT DISEASES 341 Two other smuts, known as the loose smut of wheat and the loose smut of barley, are also very common in Kansas. Their mode of life is similar to that of stink- ing smut, but not identical with it, and they can be prevented only by very careful treatment of the seed with hot water. Corn smut is related to the smuts already described, but is not carried from year to year on the seed. Its spores are scattered by the wind, live over winter outside, and infect the growing corn plant in the spring. Seed treatment has no effect on com smut. Potato Scab. Potato scab is recognized by the rough pitting of the seed, or the "scabby" appearance of the tubers. Young potatoes show the scab very plainly. When the tubers become older they frequently are deeply furrowed or cracked. Potato scab at- tacks only the tuber, not the leaves or stalks of the plant. If scabby potatoes are planted a scabby crop may result. Treating the uncut potato tu- bers with a formalin solution will help prevent this disease. Resistant Varieties. There is great difference in the ability of individual plants and of different varieties of plants to resist disease. Sometimes a single plant out of an entu'e field of sick plants remains healthy and produces seed. Such a plant is said to be resistant to the disease. If A potato tuber affected with scab. (After Corbett.) 342 AGRICULTURE seed from such healthy plants is collected and sown the next year, the resulting plants may also be resistant. By such selection, new resistant strains may be originated. This has been done in the case of cotton, cowpeas, cabbage, and other plants. Certain varieties also are naturally resistant to diseases. Among these may be mentioned the durum wheats, which are naturally resistant to rust. Grain Rusts. " Rust " is the name applied to the fungus which often occurs as yellowish brown or black spore masses on the leaves and stems of small grains, such as wheat and oats. These spore masses, or pustules, often are noticed about the time when the grain begins to head. At first the leaves and stems show yellowish spots, but gradually these change to a brownish color. This is due to the large number of rust-colored spore masses which project from the surfaces of the leaf and the stem. These so-called summer spores are soon scattered by the wind and insects to healthy neighboring plants, which likewise become diseased. Plants attacked in this manner are weakened, and a smaller yield of grain results, as there is less reserve food to store in the seeds. If one examines the grain, straw, and stubble at harvesting time, black pustules may be found . These are filled with the so-called winter spores. Both the summer and the winter spores help tide the disease over from year to year. There are two kinds of rusts on wheat: the stem rust, which usually is found on the stem ; the leaf rust, occurring Wheat stalks affected with rust. (After Freeman and Johnson.) PLANT DISEASES 343 on the leaves. Both have a brown and a black spore stage. The stem rust is often called black rust, and is the one which does most damage to wheat. This rust also attacks barberries, and on them produces spores which again can infect wheat. Rusts can not be entirely prevented. Neither spraying nor seed treatment is beneficial. The growing of varieties that are resistant to rusts is perhaps the only method of prevention. Wilt of Cowpeas. Wilt of cowpeas is a disease which causes the leaves to drop and the stems to dry and become Cowpeas on wilt-infected soil. Notice the healthy wilt-resistant variety on the right and the left, and the diseased non-resistant variety in the middle. ( After Orton. ) covered with a pink fungus. This fungus may live in the soil for many years. A resistant variety of cowpeas has been grown, and whether the seed of this is planted on dis- eased soil or not, the seed sprouts and develops into a strong, healthy plant. Such plants can grow next to dis- eased ones in the same row and still remain healthy. A disease-resistant variety of cabbage has likewise been 344 AGRICULTURE grown. Previously, all cabbages grown on soil which con- tained the disease-producing fungus would become dis- eased, and the crop would be a total loss. Patient, careful, and observant work on the part of the plant breeder brought forth a resistant variety. QUESTIONS 1. Wliat are some causes of plant disease? Which of these is most important? 2. What is a parasitic plant? Name two distinct groups of parasitic plants. 3. Give an example of a parasitic flowering plant. Discuss its. economic importance. 4. Are bacteria plants or animals? Are all bacteria harmful? How do bacteria grow and reproduce? 5. What is^a fungus? What is a saprophytic fungus? a para- s.t.c fungus? 6. Describe a simple fungus. How does it grow and reproduce? 7. How may plant diseases be controlled? Can a plant be cured if it is once diseased? 8. How could you recognize pear blight if you saw it? What is the treatment for it? 9. If some one asked you how to ascertain the presence of early blight of potatoes as it occurs in the field, what would be your an- swer? What treatment would you advise? 10. Describe a disease which attacks the peach. What other fruits may be attacked by this disease, and what can be done to prevent it? 11. Name some diseases controlled by seed treatment. What are some common solutions used? 12. Describe the stinking smut of wheat. Name some other smut diseases that attack grain. 13. How would you recognize the potato scab? What treatment would you give the seed before planting it? 14. What do you understand by a plant's being resistant to dis- ease? Of what value is this to the farmer? 15. Describe the wheat rust. Is this a plant disease easily con- trolled? 16. In replanting cowpeas in a field which formerly produced a crop affected by wilt, what kind would you plant? Why? CHAPTER XXX INSECTS ON THE FARM Insects cause in Kansas an annual loss of not less than $40,000,000. This is more than three times the amount that is spent each year, not only on the education of the boys and girls and young men and women in the state, including those in the public schools, colleges, universities, and all private schools, but also on the upkeep of the buildings and the erection of new buildings. The farmer needs no argum.ent to convince him that insects are injurious to farm crops, because they feed on plants, stored products, and domestic animals. Even his own health and comfort are affected by these creatures. He may be surprised, however, to learn that the injuries caused by insects equal at least ten per cent of the value of all farm crops. One must not think that all insects on the farm are harmful, for many of them are very useful. Some, such as the honeybee, contribute directly to the wealth of the state. Other insects contribute indirectly to the in- terests of mankind. For example, in carrying pollen from flower to flower and thus causing the flowers to fruit, insects are of great value to the farmer. Without the bum- blebee and some other insects we should not be able to grow clover, because the plant could not produce clover seed. Again, there are many species of insects which are especially useful to man because they feed upon and with- in the bodies of other insects and thus are the most im- portant factor in the natural control of harmful insects. The Structure and Growth of Insects. All insects have three distinct regions of the body: first, the fore part, (345) 346 AGRICULTURE or head; second, the middle part, or thorax; and thu'd, the back part, or abdomen. They always have three pairs of legs, one pair of feelers called antennae, and usually one or two pairs of wings. The legs and the wings are always attached to the thorax. Spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions, and sow bugs are not insects, but are related to them. They have four or more pairs of legs, and never have wings. An insect does not have nostrils or any opening in its head through which it breathes. Instead there is a row of small openings, called spiracles, down each side of the body. Through these the air passes into air tubes, which branch and run to all parts of the body. How an Insect Eats. A large number of insects eat their food by biting it, while, on the other hand, a great many take their food by sucking it up in a liquid form. If, for example, the mouth parts of a grasshopper are exam- ined, it will be found that there is a distinct pair of jaws adapted for biting and chewing. Insects of this class bite off a portion of the leaf or plant and swallow it. If the head of a squash bug is examined, no jaws will be found. Instead there is a stout beak fitted for piercing and suck- ing. As this insect feeds, the beak is thrust down through the outer layer of the bark or leaf into the soft, juicy tissue beneath and the plant sap extracted. It is necessary to know how insects take their food, for by knowing this we are able oftentimes to destroy them. Insects with biting mouth parts may be killed by a stomach poison, such as some suitable form of arsenic, placed upon the plant on which they are feeding. On the other hand, insects with sucking mouth parts can not be harmed by poisons on the surface of the leaves on which they feed, because they do not swallow any of the solid part of the plant. For this class of insects, sprays must be used which INSECTS ON THE FARM 347 close the breathing pores of the insect or kill by caustic, or burn- ing, action on the body of the insect. Changes of Form in the Growth of Insects. Insects in their develop- ment from the egg to the adult undergo va- rious changes. In some groups the changes are not complete, while in other groups they are so distinct that one stage does not resemble the one preceding or following it. For ex- ample, the egg of a grasshopper produces a creature which, except for the absence of wings, resembles the adult. This form, known as the nymph, is the growing stage. It sheds its skin, or molts, several times before it develops into a grown grasshopper. Such an insect passes through incomplete changes. Grasshoppers, chinch bugs, and dragon flies belong to this class. On the other hand, the egg of a moth hatches into a caterpillar, which is the active feeding stage, or the stage in which the insect does its serious injury to plants. The The changes that take place in the life cycle of a grass- hopper. 348 AGRICULTURE caterpillar sheds its skin several times before it is fully- grown. When full-grown it spins a casing of silk, known as a cocoon. In this protective case it transforms into the third stage, which is called a pupa. This is the in- active, or dormant, stage of its development, and in this stage it takes no food. The pupa does not resemble the The changes that take place in the life cycle of a butterfly. A, egg in natural position; twelve times natural size. B, larva or caterpillar; C, pupa; I), adult; all 1} 2 times natural size. caterpillar from which it came nor the moth into which it will later develop. In many cases the winter is passed in this stage, so that the pupal stage varies from a few days in summer to several months in winter. Finally the shell splits open and the moth emerges with wings which are soft and limp but which expand and harden in a few hours. The forms of the insect in these stages are so different that without experience one would not know INSECTS ON THE FARM 349 that they belonged to the same individual. Such an in- sect undergoes distinct or complete changes. Butterflies, beetles, house flies, bees and ants belong to the class. The growing stage of all insects that undergo the distinct changes is the larval stage, which is the caterpillar stage of the butterfly or moth, the maggot stage of the house fly, and the grub stage of the May beetle and of the honeybee. FIELD, GARDEN, AND ORCHARD INSECTS Before we can control insects, we must learn when and where they lay their eggs, when the eggs hatch, into what forms they develop, what the insects feed upon, where and at what stage they pass the winter, and how many genera- tions are produced each year. The Chinch Bug. The chinch bug is the most injurious insect, attacking growing corn, wheat, and oats. This, insect passes the winter as an adult in a clump of grass, in a corns hock, or under almost any kind of rubbish. In regions where the clump-forming grasses are common, most of the bugs seek winter quarters in such places. They leave their winter quarters from March to May, and move to the fields of small grain. Here the females lay their eggs upon the roots or the leaf sheaths of the plants. These eggs hatch in from two to three weeks, and the young bugs feed on the small grain until it is ripe or harvested, when they migrate to the cornfields. Here they reach maturity, and then lay eggs on the corn plants or on the grasses and weeds in the cornfields. The eggs hatch in about two- weelvs, and the second brood feeds and matures in the corn- fields. Generally all the bugs have reached maturity by the last of September. When the food gives out, or when cold weather sets in, the adults seek their winter quarters. There are two times in the year when the chinch bug can be successfully controlled. The first is in the summer when the bugs migrate from the small grain to corn, and 850 AGRICULTURE the other is in the fall after the bugs have gone into winter quarters. In fighting the chinch bug in summer, barriers over which the bugs can not pass are set up. The kind of barrier used depends on the weather. In dry weather the barrier is a deep furrow extending around the infested field, and made just before harvest. The sides and bottom of the furrow are reduced to a fine dust by a heavy log dragged back and forth in the furrow. The furrow should be dragged every day during the migration, and the bugs should be burned in the furrow with a gasoline torch. In wet weather it is necessary to run a barrier of coal tar or No. 7 road oil around the infested field. Post holes are dug at intervals of twenty feet along the inside of this barrier, and the bugs, on being trapped in these holes, are destroyed by kerosene. Winter destruction, in areas where clump-forming grasses are the principal cover, involves the thorough burning of these grasses in the fall. When bugs are found hibernating in corn shocks and under leaves and rubbish, clean culture should be practiced, and all these places should be cleaned up during the fall. The Corn-ear Worm. The corn-ear worm is widely distributed in Kansas, and with the exception of the chinch bug is the most injurious insect attacking corn. In some years it does more damage than the chinch bug. It passes the winter as a pupa located in a cell from three to five inches beneath the surface of the ground in cornfields. The buff-colored moths emerge early in June, and deposit their eggs, principally on the up- per surface of corn plants. The eggs hatch in a few days, and the worms feed in the curl of the corn for about seventeen days, when they reach full growth and enter the soil to pupate. The pupal stage lasts about two weeks, and the second brood of moths is out early INSECTS ON THE FARM 351 in July. The eggs of the second brood are deposited on the leaves and the early corn silks, and the worms feed in the curl, the tassel, or the ear. The third brood of moths is out about the middle of August, and the eggs are laid for the most part on the silks. It is this brood that does great dam- age, because practically all the worms feed within the ear. The corn- ear worm is Pupa of the corn-ear worm in its pupal cell, or burrow, in the soil. About natural size. (After Quaintance and Brues.) one of the most difficult of insect pests to control. It has been found that the fall plowing of the corn- fields destroys practically all the pupae of this insect. It is possible to reduce the injury from twenty-five to forty per cent by early planting, so that the plants will have passed the silking stage before the insects emerge. One may protect sweet corn by keeping the silks dusted with powdered arsenate of lead from the time Corn-ear worm moth with wings expanded. Natural size. 352 AGRICULTURE when they first appear until the corn is ready for market. The Hessian Fly. The Hessian fly, with the exception of the Corn-ear worm. Twice natural size. chinch bug, is the most injurious insect attacking wheat. In one recent season this insect caused a loss of fully twelve mil- lion bushels of wheat in Kansas. The adult flies, which emerge the last of August and during Sep- tember, de- posit their eggs on the leaves of the young wheat plants. The adults live but a few days, and during this time each fe- male deposits Corn silks, showing eggs of the corn-ear worm moth, shghtly enlarged. bctWCCn 150 In the upper left-hand corner are two eggs greatly enlarged. 6 S-^-J^- THE CHINCH BUG INSECTS ON THE FARM 353 and 300 eggs. The eggs hatch in from three to seven days, and the young maggots work their way down be- tween the leaf sheath and the stem, to the crown of the Corn, showing work of the corn-ear worm. plant. Here they feed on the juices of the plant, causing it to turn yellow and to die. In about four weeks they reach their full growth and develop into brown ob- jects called ''flaxseeds." The winter is passed in this stage, and adult flies emerge in the spring as soon as the weather becomes warm. The eggs are laid on The chinch bug: 1, egg just after it is laid; 2, egg just before it is ready to hatch; 3, eggshell after hatching; 4, young bug just after hatching; 5, young bug after first molt; 6, young bug after second molt; 7, young bug after third molt; 8, adult bug (all twelve times natural size) ; 9, wheat plant showing eggs and young bugs in nat- ural position (natural size). 23 354 AGRICULTURE ■ '':'MZ .M. — "::5i ^ \ w t ■ * '■■^x ■n, ^^^~if2: A X. J 1 ^ Male and female Hessian fly. .1, male; S. female. Seven times natural size. the leaves, and the maggots may be found working either at the crown of the plant or at one of the joints, generally the first or second. Here they weaken the stem and cause it to lop. These maggots reach ma- turity in about four weeks, or a short time before harvest. They transform to pupae and remain in the stubble until Map of Kansas showing dates of safe sowing, calculated directly from 1907-1908, 1908-1909, 1909-1910, 1910-1911, 1911-1912, ami 1912-1913 experimental sowings. INSECTS ON THE FARM J55 the latter part of August, at which time they emerge as adults. The principal means of controlling the fly are thor- ough preparation of the seed bed, destruction of vol- unteer wheat, which serves to carry the fly over to the main crop, and late plant- ing. Where wheat is to be planted on land which was infested with fly the pre- vious year, the ground should be disked imme- diately after harvest in order to throw out and expose the flaxseeds to natural enemies, and should be plowed about six inches deep three or four weeks later. The field should then be harrowed and packed, and a dust mulch maintained until the time of planting. The sowing should be delayed two or three weeks after the usual date of planting. Grasshoppers. Grass- hoppers are among the most destructive of pests on the farms in the western half of the state, and almost every season they seriously injure crops. The young hoppers appear early in the summer. At this time they are small and have no wings, but otherwise resemble the adults. By about midsummer their wings are fully developed, and Hessian fly puparia, or flaxseeds, in posi- tion between leaf sheath and stalk. Twice natural size. 356 AGRICULTURE during the latter part of the summer the females lay their eggs. The eggs are laid in pod- shaped masses about an inch below the surface of the ground, where they remain throughout the winter. With the coming of warm spring weather they hatch, and the young come to the surface, where they feed on growing crops and grasses. Pasture land, roadsides, undisturbed places, and alfalfa fields are favorable places for egg laying. One of the best times in which to attack the grass- hoppers is in the egg stage. So far as possible, all suit- able breeding places should be plowed in the late fall. Hessian fly eggs in natural position on wheat blade. Eight times natural size. A cornfield being destroyed by grasshoppers. INSECTS ON THE FARM 357 Potato plant, showing Colorado potato beetle at work: a, beetle; 6ii, egg masses; co, hall-grown larvs; dd, mature larvse. Slightly enlarged. (After Chittenden.) Alfalfa should be disked in the fall. Plowing and disking break up and turn out a large portion of the egg-packets, so that they are exposed to the weather and to natural enemies, such as parasitic and predaceous insects and birds. After the eggs have hatched and the grasshoppers are destroying the crops, two methods of direct control are in general use — the distribution of a poisoned bran mash broadcast over the infested places, and the catching of 358 AGRICULTURE the grasshoppers in a mechanical device known as a hop- perdozer. Poisoned bran mash, which has proved very effectual, consists of twenty pounds of bran, one pound of Paris green, two quarts of syrup, three oranges or lemons, and three and one-half gallons of water. This is made into a mash and scattered broadcast in such a manner as to cover five acres with the amount specified in the formula. The Colorado Potato Beetle. The Colorado potato beetle, a native of the Rocky Mountain region, once satis- fied with feeding upon various weeds, such as the Colorado Cantaloupe leaves, showing curling caused by melon louse; lice on lower surfaces. Slightly reduced. (After Chittenden.) thistle, is now found feeding on potato vines in practically every part of Kansas where potatoes are grown. In the fall the adult beetles enter the ground and there hibernate until the warm days of spring, when the beetles come out from their winter quarters. As soon as the potato plants appear the female beetles begin laying their yellow eggs in masses on the under sides of the leaves. The female lays on an average about five hundred eggs. The adult beetles do considerable damage by eating the tender INSECTS ON THE FARM 359 plants. In about a week the eggs hatch, and the hungiy larvae devour the plants and increase in size very rapidly. In about three weeks they are full-grown, and enter the ground to pupate. In less than two weeks the adult beetles of the second generation appear. The Colorado potato beetle is two-brooded in Kansas. Poisoning by means of Paris green has long been known to be effectual and practical. From one to two pounds of Paris green, with an equal amount of freshly slaked lime, to fifty gallons of water, applied as a spray, will kill the Melon louse: a, winged female; 06, dark female (side view), sucking sap from leaf; b, young louse; c, last stage of immature louse; d, wingless female. All greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden.) larvae. For small areas the Paris green may be used dry if mixed with fifty times its weight of dry flour or air- slaked lime. This dust should be applied, either by means of a perforated can or by means of a powder gun, while the plants are still wet with dew. The Melon Louse. The melon louse is a small, soft- bodied, greenish insect that causes the leaves of cucumber 360 AGRICULTURE and melon vines to curl, dry up, and die. One must not think that because these green lice are so small they are insignificant and will not injure vigorous plants. If they were only in small numbers, they would not be serious; Cabbage butterfly resting on cabbage leaf. Natural size. but, when millions upon millions of them are at work, and when the whole of the lower surface of each leaf is covered, the plants are soon killed. During the early spring the lice suck the juice of various weeds, but with the growth of melons and cucumbers the winged forms make their way to the patches. They seek the under surf aces of the leaves and there begin to suck the sap and bear living young. If the grower is not watching his plants closely, the lice may get a start and do much damage before he knows that anything has happened. INSECTS ON THE FARM 361 As soon as the lice are discovered tliey should be thor- oughly sprayed with a soapy spray. This spray, which is prepared by dissolving one pound of common laundry soap Cabbage plant, showing work of the cabbage worm. in six gallons of water, must be applied by means of a spraying apparatus in such a manner as actually to strike or wet every insect. When there are several plants to be sprayed, the common knapsack sprayer is best. The ex- tension rod furnished with this sprayer should be replaced by one long enough to reach from the hand to the ground without one's stooping. The lower end should be turned up at an angle of from forty to ninety degrees and capped with a fine-holed nozzle. With this equipment the spray can be easily and thoroughly applied to the under sides of the leaves, where the lice congregate. 362 AGRICULTURE The Cabbage Butterfly. One of the best-known garden insects and the worst pest of the cabbage is the common cabbage worm, whose parent is the common white butter- fly. The butterflies are observed hovering over cabbages and cauliflowers all through the summer. The small yellowish eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch in from four to eight days. The velvety green worms grow very Apple branches. A, uninfested; B, incrusted with San Jose scale. Slightly reduced. rapidly, eating large, irregular holes in the leaves of the plants and disfiguring the heads by deposits of excrement. The pupa is attached to the foliage by a strand of silk around the thorax. The pupa is first greenish and later light-brown in color. The whole life cycle in summer requires from three to five weeks. The winter is passed in INSECTS ON THE FARM 863 the pupal stage, the pupae being attached to the old cab- bage stumps and rubbish in the fields. All rubbish on the field to which the pupsG are attached should be burned either in the fall or early in the spring. The most effective means of control is spraying or dust- ing with Paris green or arsenate of lead. The arsenate of A portion of the incrusted apple branch in the preceding picture. Twenty-two times natural size. lead should be used at the rate of two or three pounds to fifty gallons of water. Arsenicals can be used safely on cabbages until the heads are half formed. Since the leaves of cabbages are very smooth, it is advisable to add two or three pounds of resin soap, or "sticker," so that the spray will not run off the leaves. The San Jos« Scale. The San Jose scale, a serious pest of fruit trees and ornamental trees, is not generally dis- tributed over Kansas, but is found in more than a dozen localities representing the principal fruit districts. The San Jose scale is a flat, circular, scale-like object, bearing at its center a little point surrounded by a circular 364 AGRICULTURE groove. It lies flat upon the bark, and ranges from a tiny- point to the size of an ordinary pinhead, depending on the degree of development. Beneath the protective scale- like covering is a lemon -yellow, soft-bodied object — the real insect. It passes the winter in a dormant state as a three-fourths grown insect lying fiat on the bark. With the flow of sap in the spring, it begins to suck the sap from the tree or shrub and continues to grow. About the first of June it is fully grown, and then it begins to give birth to living young, and continues this at the rate of nine or ten a day for a period of six weeks. The young scales reach maturity and begin to bear living young in about one month from the date of their birth. There are four genera- tions of the San Jose scale in one season, and it has been estimated that the progeny of a single female, if none were destroyed, would amount to about 3,216,000,000 indi- viduals in a single year. San Jose scale may attack many kinds of trees, shrubs, and vines, but is primarily a pest of fruit trees, peach trees being most liable to serious infestation. Fruit trees and many shrubs can not be grown successfully where the scale has secured a foothold if no effective efforts are made to control it. That San Jose scale can be controlled has been thor- oughly demonstrated by thousands of fruit growers. Some of the general steps in this process are, first, to cut Apple infested with San Jose scale. Natural size. INSECTS ON THE FARM 365 Codling moth. The one with the wings expanded is two times natural size. The one resting on the apple is in the natural position and is nat- ural size. (After Slingerland.) and burn all hopelessly infested plants; second, to prune carefully all plants that can be saved,, and burn the prun- ings; third, during the dormant con- dition to spray the trees thor- oughly with lime-sulphur; fourth, to con- t i n u e this treatment year after year so long as any trace of the scale can be detected. The Codling Moth. The codling moth is the worst pest of the apple, and is present in Kansas wherever apples are grown. The moths ap- pear early in the spring and lay their eggs on the leaves about two weeks after apples are in bloom. When the eggs hatch, the young larvse feed for a short time on the foliage and then make their way to the nearest apples dllU UOltJlIlLO A wormy apple, showing the familiar mass of brown parti- fVx-iTvi ncnollTT cif cles thrown out of the blossom end by the young larva. tnem, usually at (After Slingerland.) 366 AGRICULTURE A codling moth larva. Two and one-half times natural size. the blossom end. Until they are full-grown they feed about the cores of the apples. During June and July they emerge from the apples to pu- pate under the loose scales of the bark or in loose trash on the ground. Pupa of codling moth in cocoon on under side of loose bark. Twice natural size. (After Slingerland.) In a short time the moths again appear, and start laying eggs for the second generation of lar- vae. This time the greater num- ber of eggs are desposited on the fruit, and the larvae bore into the fruit through the side as well as at the blossom end. Here they feed until they are ma- ture, and then eat their way out, travel to a suitable shelter, and spin their cocoons. They remain as larvae in the cocoons, pupating the next spring. The method of controlling the codling moth consists in spraying with lead arsenate at the rate of from two to three pounds to fifty gallons of water. The most important point is to apply the spray just after the blossoms fall, while the calyx cup is still open, and to direct the spray so that the poison will lodge in the blossom ends of the upturned apples. This should be followed in three weeks by a second spray when the worms are just hatching. For the second brood, a treatment should be applied about ten weeds after the first spraying. Useful Insects. There are many species of insects, as the predaceous and the parasitic insects, which are useful because they prey upon injurious insects. Others are use- ful because they supply food, as does the honeybee. Still INSECTS ON THE FARM 367 others are very beneficial in carrying pollen from flower to flower, as do the wild bee and the honeybee. Insects which attack other insects, devouring them bodily, tearing them to pieces, or sucking their life blood, are called predaceous. Good examples of these are lady- Work of the codling moth larva in an apple. Natural size, (.\ftcr Slingcrland.) birds, dragon flies, ground bettles, robber flies, lacewings, and tiger bettles. Parasitic insects differ from predaceous ones in that they spend all or a large part of their life cycle within the bodies of their victims, and thus destroy them. Such are ichneumon flies, braconids, chalcis flies, tachina flies, and bee flies. Predaceous and parasitic insects are very great in num- 'ber, both of individuals and of species. They are the most 368 AGRICULTURE destructive foes of insect life. Were it not for these insects, which feed upon injurious ones, the loss to crops would dc much greater than it is, and in many cases it would be almost futile to attempt to check injurious insects. PREVENTING AND CONTROLLING INSECT INJURIES Clean Farming. Above everything else in preventing insect injuries, is cleanliness on the farm. This means clean culture, destruction of weeds, removal of crop remnants as soon as the crop is gathered, and burning the rubbish that encumbers the ground in winter. The one object of the farmer should be to destroy all hiding places that may be of service to the insects for winter quarters. This will go far toward free- ing the farm, the or- chard, and the garden from insects. Fall Plowing and Disk- ing. Many injurious .n- Two common species of ladybird beetles' a and , fc, adults; c and d, larvse. Much enlarged. (After SectS, SUCh aS CUtWOrmS, Chittenden. ) corn-ear worms, wire- worms, and white grubs, pass the winter as larvae and pupae in the soil, or hibernate around the roots of weeds and grasses. Breaking up the soil in the late fall and ex- posing these wintering forms to natural enemies and to the weather will greatly reduce the number. Disking alfalfa INSECTS ON THE FARM 369 in the fall is an effective method of controlling grass- hoppers, army worms, and cutworms. Selection of Place and Time of Planting. Too many times corn or other cereals are planted in places where they will be subjected to the attack of insects that are already present. Corn following grass or clover sod is likely to be attacked by cutworms and white grubs, and if planted in The farmer's friend, the redtailed tachina fly: a, fly, natural size; 6, fly, much enlarged; c, army worm on which the fly has laid eggs (natural size); dd, same, much enlarged. (After Slingerland.) marshy tracts, is in danger of injury from wireworms and billbugs. Planting at the proper time is a protection to many crops. Over a large area wheat sown after the first week in October is usually free from the attack of the Hessian fly. Early planting and good cultivation form one of the best means of enabling the farmer to avoid serious damage from the cotton boll weevil. Crop Rotation. By a thorough system of crop rotation the increase of many insect pests may be checked or pre- ?4 370 AGRICULTURE vented. Such a system will starve out an insect like the western corn-root worm, which is never injurious to the corn after the land has been in small grain. White grubs, cutworms, wireworms, plant lice, and the Hessian fly may be controlled in this manner. The Soil. Thorough preparation of the soil induces rapid growth and thrifty, vigorous plants, which are not susceptible to injury from insects. It also disturbs and exposes the insects that are in the ground. Stimulating the growth of the plant and keeping it in a thrifty, growing condition will make it better able to resist the attacks of insects. Plants in a weak condition, with no vitality, soon succumb to the attack of an insect enemy. Green bug parasite in the act of depositing an egg in the body of the green bug, or grain aphis. Much enlarged. (After Webster.) A good stand and healthy growth of plants lessen the danger of injurious insects. The field partly grown up with foreign weeds and grasses will produce pests that will later get on the planted crops. Poultry and Other Birds. Chickens, guineas, ducks, turkeys, and geese are continually in search of insects that may be found upon low plants, in grasses, among weeds, and under rubbish and fallen leaves. Grasshoppers have been controlled by these fowls. Inasmuch as birds depend very largely on insects for INSECTS ON THE FARM 371 food, they constitute one of the most valuable means of controlling insects. Were it not for the birds the loss from the depredations of insects would be very much greater. America is fortunate in having a large number of birds, and of these very few indeed are destructive to farm or orchard crops. QUESTIONS 1. In what ways are insects injurious? 2. Name the parts of an insect's body. How do insects differ from spiders? 3. How do insects breathe? In what two ways do insects eat? 4. Describe in order the changes or stages in the life history of a grasshopper; of a moth. In what stages do insects grow? In what stages are they most injurious? 5. Why should the farmer know the life histories of injurious insects? 6. Give carefully the life history of the chinch bug, telling clearly how it spends the winter and how it migrates in summer. Give directions for controlling this pest. 7. Where are the eggs which produce the corn-ear worm deposited? How many generations occur in a summer? How may this insect be controlled? 8. Tell fully and specifically the life history of the Hessian fly. How and to what extent is this insect injurious? What methods are used to control it? Why are these means effective? 9. Where do grasshoppers deposit their eggs? When do grass- hoppers become destructive? How may these pests be destroyed? 10. How do potato beetles spend the winter? How do they multiply during the summer? What measures are used to control them? 11. How does the melon louse get its food? Why is this louse so injurious to plants? How is it destroyed? Why are these measures necessary? 12. Give the life history of the cabbage worm. How may the gardener protect his cabbage from this insect? 13. Why is the San Jose scale considered so dangerous? How does it multiply and spread? What do orchardists use in their attempts to control this insect? 14. Give the life history of the codling moth. Give all the methods which should be used to protect the crop from this moth. 15. In what ways may insects be useful? Give examples. 16. Give the general measures of prevention and control that farmers may use in their struggle with insects. Explain why these measures are effective. CHAPTER XXXI SPRAYING One of the most important but very recent general methods of controlhng insect pests and fungous diseases consists in applying to the surfaces of plants, substances that will kill the insects and the spores of the fungi. A substance that destroys insects is called an insecti- cide, while a compound that controls fungous diseases is called a fungicide. Sprays. Sprays have been used by gardeners and florists for a long time. The old-time gardener used to distribute the liquid substances with a syringe and the powder substances with a bellows, and he called the proc- esses "syringing" and "dusting." For very many years grape growers have dusted sulphur upon their vines to prevent mildew, and florists have killed plant lice with soapsuds and decoctions of tobacco. About 1870 the Colorado potato beetle became very numerous and caused heavy losses to potato growers. A cheap poison was needed, and Paris green was found very effective in killing the insect. It was mixed with flour or lime and dusted upon the plants, or mixed with water and sprinkled on the plants from a watering pot or spattered on them with a whisk broom. Too much of this poison injured the tissue of the leaves, and the problem was presented of distributing the material evenly over the surface and in sufficient quantity to kill the insect with- out injuring the plant. Success in controlling the potato beetle suggested the use of sprays for other insects. (372) SPRAYING 373 Bordeaux Mixture. The discovery of the value of cop- per as a fungicide was accidental. The downy mildew of the gi'ape made its first appearance in France in the vineyards near Bordeaux, about 1878. The disease in- creased until, in 1882, great destruction resulted. The foliage of the vines dropped, which prevented the ripening of the grapes. It was noticed, however, along certain highways, that some vines retained their foliage in almost perfect condition. Vineyardists in these localities had suffered losses through the theft of their grapes by boys and travelers. It had been the custom to sprinkle verdigris, a poisonous compound of copper, upon the rows of vines near the road, to give the fruit the appearance of having been poisoned. Several years before the ap- pearance of the mildew, verdigris had been replaced, for reasons of economy, by a mixture of milk of lime and copper sulphate. The vines thus treated were the ones which retained their foliage in 1882. As lime had been tried before without success, the beneficial action was ascribed to the copper. Two scientists, having made ob- servations, experimented with copper, and established the value of the fungicide, which, in a modified form, is used very widely and is known as the Bordeaux mixture. These were the beginnings of the modern methods of spraying. So great has been progress in recent years that to-day it is almost as common among orchardists to spray as it is to prune. What Insecticides to Use. For biting insects, such as the potato beetle and the codling moth, some compound of arsenic is generally used. Arsenate of lead and Paris green are cheap and satisfactory forms. Paris green is speedier in action, and is less adhesive to the plants, but is more liable to injure the plant tissue than is arsenate 374 AGRICULTURE A power sprayer in the orchard. The spray material is forced upon the trees in a fine mist. of lead. When cankerworms are very thick and must be destroyed quickly, a mixture of the two is frequently used. In such a case the spray is made up of two pounds of arsenate of lead and one-half pound of Paris green to fifty gallons ofwater. Sucking insects are killed by the application of ma- terials which destroy the body tissue of the insect, or which smother the insect by closing its breathing tubes. Of this type of insect the San Jose scale is perhaps the most notable example. It is most effectively controlled by coating the plants with a combination of lime and sul- phur known as lime-sulphur wash. There are many species of plant lice which cause very serious loss. The green melon louse and the bi'own plum louse are very common, and occasionally the apple aphid SPRAYING 375 is so numerous in early spring as seriously to injure the young fruit buds. Spraying for Fungous Diseases. Fungous diseases which develop large numbers of spores are controlled in large measure by coating the surface of the plants liable to infection, with a thin film containing some substance which destroys the spore or the first growth that develops from it. The young spore is so much more delicate than the plant upon which it is growing that it is possible to use chemicals sufficiently strong to destroy the fungous tissue without injuring the plant. Weather conditions must be observed carefully before applying these mixtures, as moist weather affects the copper solutions in such way as to cause "spray burn " and the lime-sulphur wash may be injurious in very dry, hot weather. A number of copper compounds are used. The most common of these is copper sulphate, which is used alone dissolved in water, or in the combination with lime which, as has been stated, is called the Bordeaux mixture. This mixture leaves a light blue deposit upon the plant tissue. When this is particularly undesirable, as it is with flowers or ripening fruits, a colorless compound known as the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate is used. This solution is prepared by dissolving three ounces of copper carbonate in one quart of ammonia (22° Baume) and diluting this with twenty-five gallons of water. Spraying Equipment. The spraying equipment neces- sary for outdoor work is a good pump with sufficient power to reduce the mixture to a very fine spray through a nozzle that distributes it evenly. The amount of power required varies with the operation £ind the mixture to be applied. 376 AGRICULTURE In applying fungicides and insecticides that are liable to injure the plant tissues, it is essential that the surface be covered with a very thin coating, and therefore high power is required. For small orchards and garden work, a hand pump is sufficient. Hand pumps vary in capacity upward from the knapsack sprayer, which contains usually three or four gallons and is carried, suspended by shoulder straps, upon the back of the operator, and which is useful for small gardens and vineyards. For gardens of considerable area, a hand pump mounted on a barrel and transported on a cart or sled should be used. For larger plantations, a good outfit is a double-cylinder horizontal-stroke pump which has a capacity of 100 to 150 gallons an hour and is effi- ciently worked by two strong men. Large plantations should be equipped with one of the many efficient types of pump for which gasoline engines furnish power. QUESTIONS 1. Why are sprays better than powders for protecting plants? .2. What kind of spray should you use for a biting insect? Why? 3. What kind of spray is used for sucking insects? Why? 4. How do sprays protect plants from fungous diseases? What spray is generally used for this purpose? Why must weather condi- tions be taken into account in using this spray? 5. What kinds of spray outfits are desirable for gardens or orchards of different sizes? CHAPTER XXXII ORCHARDING For the sake, not only of economy, but also of better quality and greater variety of food, every farm home should produce as large a proportion as possible of the fruit and the vegetables consumed by the family. The planter who has a large tract of land can usually afford to devote a considerable area to garden and fruit crops. He may use horse tools as much as possible in culti- vating them, and be satisfied with a smaller yield than more intensive work would produce. Planning for the orchard and the garden is a part of farm management important to the finances, the health, and the happiness of the occupants of the farm. The plans should be carefully made with the knowledge of how much space the various species will require as years go by, and with far-seeing vision in other respects also. It is all- important that every bit of soil be utilized, for neglected areas cause much trouble by growing weeds and by pro- viding conditions under which insects multiply. For those crops which are not permanent the plan should include a scheme of rotation; for growing any species in one place for any considerable time is certain to result in the increase of insects and fungi, to lessen success and satisfaction, and often to cause dismal failure. The owner of the land not only must consult his own preference as to crops, but must always consider whether his land is well adapted to the desired crops in soil, eleva- tion, and general topography. The quantity and the (377) 378 AGRICULTURE quality of orchard and garden products are determined by- climate, soil, and care. Climate. The factors of climate which seem to have most influence are temperature, moisture, sunshine, and wind. Any one of these factors may limit the success of a species. Not only the degree of temperature that may be expected, but the time of the year when it occurs and the variability of the weather conditions, have no small in- fluence upon the success of fruit plantings. The tree which may not be injured by a January temperature of thirty degrees below zero might be seriously injured if that point were reached in November or March, and a frost maj?^ injure the blossoms of plants that would not be injured by very severe cold in midwinter. Sudden changes, rather than steady but extreme temperatures, injure fruit, especially if sudden drops below zero come in the fall or the spring, following mild weather. Soil and Moisture. The factors of moisture and soil are closely connected, and frequently must be considered as one, for the condition of the soil in its ability to receive and retain water is fully as important as the amount of rainfall. Orchard crops require abundant moisture, but they root deeply, and if there is sufficient moisture in the subsoil they often succeed when cereal or vegetable crops suffer. Subsoil. One of the most important factors in success- ful orcharding is the character of the subsoil. In investi- gating subsoil for orchard crops we must go deeper than for other crops, for we find extreme depths of great im- portance in the growth of tree fruits. The point of first importance is that the soil be well drained, that it be of such depth and texture that it will readily receive the rainfall or the irrigation water, and that ORCHARDING 379 no free water be held about the roots. "Fruit trees can not be healthy if they have wet feet," is one of the oldest of orchard proverbs. Soils that require tile drainage are seldom good fruit soils, because these soils are usually underlain by a stratum that is not easily penetrated by water and is not favorable to deep penetration by roots. Orchard Sites. Some of the best places for fruit grow- ing do not have particularly rich surface soil, but possess a depth of soil and a moisture capacity that insure steady growth and abundant moisture. The hills of New England, the bluffs of the Missouri valley, and the sandy soil of the Arkansas valley are not so rich in some of the elements of plant food as are the black soils of the great valleys, but are better adapted to orchard crops because of the character of the subsoil, which absorbs moisture quickly and retains it well. The deep soils have frequently shown a high content of the mineral elements required by fruits. Trees root deeply, and the minerals are made more avail- able as roots penetrate the soil, and as air and moisture more readily come into contact with the soil particles. A soil analysis made by Professor C. C. Swanson shows that a very sandy soil in the Arkansas valley con- tains over two per cent of potassium. From a sample taken eight feet below the surface in the fruit-growing part of Doniphan county he learns that the soil contains, even at that depth, .024 per cent of nitrogen, .068 per cent of phosphorus, and 2.05 per cent of potassium. Such soils are the most desirable for fruit plantations, since the supply of plant food is not easily exhausted, nor likely to be in excess, and since they retain moisture so well that even in very dry years the trees secure moisture sufficient for fair crops of fruit. Even where irrigation is 380 AGRICULTURE practicable, the subsoil is of great importance. The sub- soil should retain water in such quantity that it will be unnecessary to apply water oftener than once in three to five weeks during the growing season, and that the winter demand for moisture will be abundantly supplied. Almost any soil can be so prepared that trees and fruit plants may be successfully grown. A wet soil may be drained, a very dry soil may be irrigated, a poor soil may be enriched, and a shallow soil may be deepened by ditches and dynamite. Almost any expense might be justified in preparing a small area of soil for the trees and plants that are so large a part of a real home, but the commercial grower must compare his expenses and investments with those of his most favored competitor and decide whether or not he can go to such expense and hope for a profit. Selecting Fruits for the Orchard. In considering the value of any fruit, whether for market, exhibition, or home consumption, we estimate it according to the relative importance of its different characters. The points given most consideration should be those which most certainly and uniformly affect the value of the fruit, and which indi- cate its quality and the probability of its best serving the pui*pose for which it was gi'own. It is probable that for different fruits, and perhaps for different localities, the weight given to a single character should vary somewhat. The points of greatest importance in the selection of fruit in general are size, color, form, quality, and freedom from blemish. The points are not of equal value, and the weight given each varies somewhat with the different uses to which fruit is put. The Meaning and Origin of Varieties. The general points of desirability having been fixed, the next question is, how to secure the maximum degree of excellence in each ORCHARDING 381 of these characters. We see in the market or at the fair, fruits and vegetables that differ in many respects. We note that the labels designate them by name. Among the apples we note Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Ben Davis, Winesap, Maiden-blush, and many other varieties. What is a variety? The name of a plant consists of the name of the large group, or genus, and that of the smaller di- vision of the group, or species. The genus Prunus, for example, includes the peach, the cherry, and several spe- cies of plums. The plum that has been introduced from Europe is Prunus domestica, the species name signifying "tame." The wild plum of the wood is Prunus ameri- cana, it being a native of America. There are many kinds of plums from Europe, varying in size, color, and form; and desirable ones have been increased and have been given names by which they are generally known; as, Yellow Egg and Blue Damson, which are now the names of what we designate as varieties. In all kinds of cultivated plants we have varieties. In cabbages we have Drumhead, Flatl'kead, and Allhead; in strawberries. Senator Dunlap and Aroma; in grapes. Concord and Moore's Early; in onions, Prize- taker and Globe Dan vers. The fruits or vegetables of one variety are products of plants which trace their ancestry to some particularly desirable parent plant. The original Jonathan apple tree, for example, was grown in Ulster county. New York, on the farm of Philip Rich, from seed of the old variety, Esopus Spitzenberg. It was so desir- able that scions or twigs were taken from it and grafted upon trees which had less desirable fruit. As growers became acquainted with it, more trees were grafted, and from these others, so that all the thousands of Jonathan trees trace to the original tree. It was named in 1829 by Judge J. Buel, of Albany, in honor of his friend Jonathan 382 AGRICULTURE Hasbrouck, who had called his attention to the fruit. The origin of many valuable varieties is unknown. Vari- eties of vegetables and other plants grown from seed are kept pure by careful selection of the individuals which are to produce seed. The Adaptability of Varieties. In striving to produce the best fruits and vegetables the matter of variety is of great importance. Varieties differ in hardiness, in productiveness, and in adaptability to varying climatic and soil condi- tions. Some varieties attain a high degree of success in many differing locations; others require peculiar environment for their successful de- velopment. The factors of environ- ment which have the greatest influence on plant life are climate, soil, and neighbors, or the other plants and animals which are found in the locality. Particularly im- portant in the list of neighbors are some members of the groups of plants known as fungi, and the in- sect forms of animal life. The gi'ower must study each factor of environment in order to attain success in the production of fruit and vegetables. Securing Trees of a Variety. In the early days of fruit growing it was the usual custom to plant the seeds of the Graftms- a, The scion; b, the stock; c, the graft. fruit ORCHARDING 383 desired, in a garden rov/, and then to transplant tne young trees to the orchard; then, if the fruit proved inferior, to graft some more desirable kinds upon the branches. Since orcharding has become a business, men want to know just what fruit will be borne. They dig the seedling root, or stock, at the end of its first season's growth, store it in a cellar, and about midwinter graft upon it a scion of the de- sired variety and store it in sand in a cool cellar until spring. The graft, as the new union is called, is then set in the nursery row, where it is given every advantage of good soil and thorough cultivation until it is ready for the orchard, either as a one-year-old or as a two-year-old tree. Budding to Secure Varieties. In growing peach, cherry, and plum trees, it is found that a better degi'ee of success Budding: a, TheT-cut; 6, the bud stick, and the bud removed; c, the bud in place and tied; rf, the same ten days later, but with the tie removed. can be secured by the process called budding. The seed- ling stock is grown in a nursery row, but, instead of digging it and grafting a scion upon it in the grafting cellar, the 384 AGRICULTURE nurseryman, in July or August, when the young stem is strong and vigorous and the bark separates readily from the wood tissue, cuts a single leaf bud from the desired variety and places its freshly cut surface in contact with the wood tissue of the seedling stock. A transverse cut is first made, next a cut down the stem; the bark is then separated with the knife blade, and the bud is gently pushed into the opening and tied with a cord, a strip of cloth, or a bit of rafRa. In a week or ten days the buds are examined. If good work has been done, a large pro- portion of the buds will have "taken," as the nurseryman says, and the tie on each is cut, always on the side of the stem opposite the bud. The following spring the stem is cut off just above the bud, and the new tree is ready for the orchard in one year or in two, according to the size desired by the orchardist. The Choice of Varieties for Kansas. The choice of varieties will be determined by the purpose for which the plantation is intended. If the planting is for home use primarily, it is a matter of personal preference; while if it is for market, the varieties should be those which rank high in the markets to be supplied. There are so many desirable varieties that it is largely a matter of choosing those that succeed best in the locality and are favored by the consumer. A list of varieties for any part of America would vary from the list for any other part. Some of the more important varieties grown in Kansas are given, somewhat in order of ripening, not in order of commercial importance. Apples. Early Harvest, Cooper White, Maiden-blush, and Primate are all yellow or greenish yellow, with a slight blush on some specimens. The Wealthy is striped or nearly red ; it is desirable in every way. Jonathan, a red. GOOD VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR KANSAS JONATHAN, GRIMES GOLDEN, BEN DAVIS, WINESAP, MAIDEN-BLUSH ORCHARDING 385 and Grimes Golden, a yellow, are excelled by very few, and are known wherever apples are sold. The Delicious is a newer variety of considerable promise. Stayman and Black Twig are seedlings of Winesap, larger than the parent and of good quality and market favorites. Wine- sap, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin are old standard varieties that are well known in every apple market. Cherries. The sour cherry is the only species grown extensively in Kansas and the Middle West generally. The best known varieties are Early Richmond, Mont- morency, and English Morello. Plums. Each species of plum has given us many vari- eties. In Kansas orchards we find, of the European species, the varieties Damson, Lombard, Greengage ; of the Japanese species. Abundance and Burbank ; of the various American species, Wild Goose, Weaver, Milton, and Forest Garden. Peaches. Peaches vary in color of flesh and in ad- herence of the flesh to the stone. Free-stone varieties are most in favor. Some yellow-fleshed varieties are Triumph, Crawford, and Elberta. Some white-fleshed are Champion, Carmen, Belle of Georgia and Mamie Ross. Age of Trees for Planting. Nurserymen offer either one- year-old or two-year-old trees for sale. The advantages of a one-j'ear-old tree are: a better proportion of stem and root tissue; a lower cost of hauling and transportation; the fact that the tree may be more readily "headed," or formed to the ideal of the grower; the fact that less prun- ing is needed and less work is required in setting; the fact that only vigorous trees attain the desired measurements. Many growers still prefer the two-year-old tree because it is larger, stronger, and less liable to be twisted out of shape by strong winds; because it requires less care in heading, as main branches have usually been fostered by 386 AGRICULTURE the nurseryman; and because it is the common size sold by most nurseries and consequently can be obtained with less trouble. A careful man can grow good trees from either size, and it is more important that the young tree be vig- orous, free from disease and insect pests, and true to its variety name, than that it be of any specified size or age. The Preparation of the Ground for Planting. In planning the use of the soil for at least one year before the date of planting, the grower should have the welfare of the tree in mind. The soil should be well and deeply plowed, the deeper the better, and thoroughly worked. The crops planted should be deep- rooted ones, and such as Y mature sufficiently early to allow early fall plow- A one-year-old apple tree is easily prepared for ing. lu loCalltleS where setting and may be headed as the orchardist desires. " _ A two-year-old tree must be severely cut back to ■^Vjg SOil Is liable tO iUIUrV proportion the top to the shortened root system. " "^ •' by washing or blowing, the fall plowing should be done sufficiently early so that a cover crop of oats or cowpeas may be grown to protect the soil, or strips may be plowed for the tree rows, leaving corn stalks or stubble on the spaces between the ORCHARDING 387 tree rows. In the Middle West, where there is sometimes a lack of moisture in late fall and winter, it is usually better to plant trees in the early spring than in the fall. Ordering and Planting Trees. Trees should be ordered early and the buyer should be certain that he is dealing directly with his nursery or with its authorized agent and is not buying from some one who is ''peddling trees." When the trees are received they should be unpacked at once, and the roots at once protected from sun and air. If for any reason the trees can not be set at once they should be "heeled in," or temporarily set in good, moist soil, care being taken that all the roots are in contact with the soil, with no air space that will allow drying out. Puddling the roots— dipping them in thin mud— is a good practice, but care must be taken that the soil used is sandy or loamy and not a sticky clay. For planting the trees, holes should be dug large enough to allow the roots to be well spread, and the tree should be set a little deeper than it stood in the nursery. Trees may be well and quickly planted by opening a furrow with a lister or a double plow. The furrows should not be opened much in advance of the planter, if the air is dry, and should be filled immediately after the tree is set. Two-year-old trees should be pruned back considerably, but enough good buds should be left to insure thrifty tops. One-year- old trees are usually headed back to eighteen or twenty- four inches. Caring for Young Trees. After the tree is set we should remember that it is an investment that has a high profit- producing power. If we expect to realize a profit from the investment we must give it careful and continual atten- tion. We must have a strong, well-made plant, and the little tree must be given every opportunity it can use. It 388 AGRICULTURE must be given the exclusive use of all the soil it can oc- cupy. That soil must contain all the materials it can utilize, and we must allow it consider- able surplus energy in its early years. It would be a serious mistake to try during the first few years to restrict the growth of the tree to the few branches that will form the structure which is to produce the fruit. Let it grow as fast as it can, but keep in mind the form that it is to attain as it gets older. The tree must grow larger, and the material for this growth is manufactured by leaves; therefore we must have a large number of leaves if much wood is to be formed. But the grower must have in mind the form of tree best suited to produce fruit, and so prune the tree as to cause it gradually to grow to this form. Pruning. Whatever the object sought, pruning should be carefully and thoughtfully done. Tools should be clean and sharp, and the work should be done in a workmanlike manner. The workman should clearly understand the object in view and the reason for per- forming each operation. When it is a question of the removal of one of several branches, he should have a reason for the decision and not refer his choice to chance. In addition to pruning for growth and formation and for maturity and productive- ness, protective pruning is sometimes required to remove For young trees a strong knife is the best pruning tool. ORCHARDING 389 diseased tissues and prevent the spread of disease. In such cases the tools should be thoroughly clcdned and sterilized, and the wound should be made in sound wood and then carefully painted. A paint composed of pure white lead and linseed oil is satisfactory. When branches are cut off the wound should be close to the limb from which it orig- inates, and made smooth and even. If the limb is heavy and there is danger of splitting into the permanent tissues, a cut on each side should be made to prevent the tearing of the bark and young wood. There are on the market many kinds of priming tools, ' concerning which men differ in their opinions. A good workman can do good work with most of them. Two very popular saws are the steel-frame saw with blades with different sizes of teeth, and the A good saw for larger branches. Pruning Tools. A curved-blade saw, useful for light work. 390 AGRICULTURE curved-blade saw, which for light work is favored by many workmen. Heavy clippers are satisfactory for many special purposes. For pruning vines and bushes a pair of grape pruning shears is indispensable. Pruning to Secure Fruit. To secure fruit we need flowers, and we must study the formation of flower buds if we would secure flowers. Plants vary much in what the grower calls the fruit habit. The matter of securing fruit buds is the achievement the fruit grower has always in mind. The ap- ple, the pear, the cherry, and most varieties of plums bear their fruit on An apple spur in July, 1914: a, fruit buds lor the crop of 1915; b, sPUrS Or VCrV tlie crop of 1914; c, scar where the 1913 stem was produced; d, the r' > J' unproductive wood of 1912; e, scar of the apple borne in 1911; /, lo- short lateral cation of the fruit borne in 1910. branches. To obtain these spurs is to obtain the means to the end. These spurs are often crooked and irregular, particularly upon old trees, and ignorant people sometimes clip them off in an effort to make a clean, handsome tree. These spurs usually bear fruit in alternate years; in the year in which the fruit is borne, a leaf bud is produced in addi- tion. The year following, the leaf bud develops a cluster ORCHARDING 391 of leaves and a fruit bud for the next year's fruit. The spur should be cherished as the vital part of the tree. The spur is often injured by careless fruit pickers. The spurs of the cherry are particularly liable to injury through the tearing of the bark when the stem of the fruit is re- moved. The spur is in this way often killed. The cherry and the plum are usually less vigorous in growth than the pear and the apple, but are much more regular in their fruit habits. Pruning the Peach. On the peach tree flower buds are so far developed in the fall that we can easily recognize them by their full, rounded appearance. We look for them only on the new wood of the season's growth. These buds are more easily injured than are less well developed buds. In localities having a variable climate there are fewer crops of peaches than of fruits the buds of which are not so well developed in the fall. The peach develops such a large number of buds that it can not furnish food for them all. We must cut back the branches and thin the fruit if we would secure the size, the color, and the quality that we desire. Whenever the fruit buds are killed by winter cold or spring frost the tree should be pruned back severely, in order that the new growth upon which the buds will form may be kept low enough to make thinning and picking easier. Summer Pruning. We do not want a tree to bear until it has sufficient size and strength to produce a profitable crop, but we do want it to bear as soon and as heavily as it can without lessening its vitality and shortening its life. A tree that is making a very vigorous and heavy growth of new wood is not likely to form fruit spurs. If in the spring the new growth is very strong and the new shoots make a very strong growth, the lateral buds along the 392 AGRICULTURE older stem do not develop at all or form but a leaf or Wo that soon fall. To develop these lateral buds, in early- summer we cut back and thin out the new growth. This Trees must be so pruned as to admit light to the center, in order that the fruit spurs may be well developed and produce strong, healthy flowers. makes it possible for the lateral buds to absorb more food from the stem and gives the lateral bud more light, enabling the leaves from the lateral bud to prepare more food and inducing spur growth. The richer the soil and the more favorable the condi- tions for the growth of new wood, the greater the neces- sity for systematic summer pruning. Very dry weather in spring and early summer sometimes gives the conditions required for the formation of spurs and fruit buds. In localities where all or most of the soil moisture is secured by irrigation the conditions favorable to bud formation may be more certainly secured and the trees come into bearing ORCHARDING 393 at an earlier age than in places where the rainfall is likely to be heavy in the spring and summer months. While conditions vary somewhat, the general require- ments in growing fruit trees are : First, to secure a strong tree with a form that will carry a heavy weight; to admit sufficient light to favor bud A well-shaped Winesap tree that at seventeeu years of aye produced twenty bushels of apples. development ; and to give color to fruit by thorough culti- vation and winter pruning. Second, after the tree has sufficient size to carry a crop, to induce the formation of fruit buds by cutting back and thinning out the new growth, giving more light and food for spur formation. If summer pruning should be followed by heavy rains, a new growth might be induced which would defeat the purpose of the pruning. This possibility should be anticipated by ceasing to cultivate and sowing a 394 AGRICULTURE cover crop, which will use part of the water and available plant food that the tree might otherwise get. Cropping and Cultivating the Young Orchard. The young tree in its early growth should have every oppor- tunity to make a rapid growth, but it would be poor farm- ing to devote a square rod to the tree when three square yards are sufficient for its growth for a year or two. There- fore other crops may be grown between the trees during the first few years. Small grains and sown fodder crops should be avoided. It is difficult to harvest small grain among trees, and it is much better to use crops that re- quire cultivation. In exposed locations corn is an excellent crop if the grower, remembering that the corn plant is greedy, will therefore give the tree sufficient area. Strawberries are often grown between the rows without injury to the trees. The black raspberry is the best of the bush fruits for an orchard crop. It is not so rank in growth, and may be more easily killed by plowing than the other brambles. Melons, squashes, and pumpkins are good crops for orchards. Potatoes, tomatoes, and in fact any vegetable crop, may be grown if the welfare of the tree is always given first consideration. In plowing and cultivating care must be taken to keep the surface level. Ridging the tree row is a common orchard error; for, as the trees increase in size, it becomes more and more difficult to cultivate near the tree, the ridge becomes hard, and water is drained away, tending to form a waterway and often causing ditches, waste of soil, and inconvenience. At the first indication of ditch for- mation, some brush, straw, or other material should be used to spread the water and stop the washing. As the trees increase in size and the area available for intercropping grows less, the character of the soil and the 396 AGRICULTURE general condition of the trees must be considered in plan- ning for the welfare of the orchard. On hilly land, where washing is a problem, a cover crop is a necessity. A cover crop is one grown in the orchard, left over winter, and plowed under in the spring. It is usually a quick-growing crop, planted late in the summer. On some soils, par- ticularly in localities of abundant rainfall, crimson clover gives good results. An occasional cultivation with disk or shovel tools may be given, and the clover will form a mulch that will add to the soil fertility. Careful growers who are conscientious in returning the fertility to the orchard in the form of manure may find profit in using the clover as a hay, but, after the orchard is in bearing, there are few exceptions to the rule that the trees need all the food and moisture that can be made available. A clover cover in some regions is followed by a stand of blue grass, which, forming a thick, close sod, is unfavorable to the orchard and should be prevented. On sandy soils of the river valleys a combination of early cultivation and late cover crop is advisable. In some cases very good orchard conditions are maintained by occasional disking and frequent mowing. In regions where the rainfall is liable to be deficient the best treatment comprises clean cultivation and an occasional application of barnyard manure to maintain the texture and fertility of the soil. Fertilizers. The principles of plant nutrition apply to fruit growing. Before applying fertilizers to any crop in any locality, one should ascertain by observation and experiment what substances will give best results. Fruits need soils strong in potash and phosphorus. Occasion- ally the supply of nitrogen is too low for the best results. Clover or cowpeas as a cover crop will usually supply sufficient nitrogen. In the Middle West, where manure ORCHARDING 397 may be obtained from feed lots and stock yards, the needed element may be supplied in this way as cheaply as with the mineral substances, while at the same time humus is added to the soil. General Care. In addition to proper preparation of the soil and cultivation to conserve moisture, to keep down A spring-iuutu barrow is a ^luud inipltii.enl lV,r lu^iiilaiiniig iLe surlact- iiuikii, ;iiiiJ, \\illi iLl- exteu- sion wings, covers a large area in a short time. weeds and to maintain soil fertility, the fruit grower must work to prevent loss from injurious insects and plant dis- eases. As soon as the presence of an insect is noted, meas- ures should be taken for its control. Insects increase in numbers so rapidly that a single season's neglect may ruin a plantation. The two methods of preventing injury are the destruc- tion of infected plants, or such parts of plants as may be necessary, and spraying. If a plant is badly infected with an insect or disease, the grower must ascertain at once if the trouble can be controlled without destroying the plant. If it can, he must do the necessary work at once. A few hours spent in removing the infected bushes in a black- 398 AGRICULTURE berry patch saved an area that produced profitable crops for several years. The orchardist who does not spray his trees when a pest is first noticed may in a single season lose a hundred times the cost of the spray. The Grape. There are many species of the grape genus, Vitis, varying from the large one of Europe to the small ^' ^' -<• )»M^I l^gCTK^ Wb'^ '^PrVnn^^l ^^^^H||^^hm9MJ||^PhE ! M HHHB ■HuSitV''' J f^^K 1 ! MJ^^H m One man on the ground and one in the tower, with two hundred pounds pressure at the pump, make an effective combination for fighting the codUng moth. wild grape found in all parts of the West. Many varieties have been developed from these species. The American varieties withstand more cold and are more resistant to diseases and insects than are those of Europe. In every part of the United States except the northernmost some varieties may be grown. From some varieties that bear small bunches and berries of small size a very fine quality of juice and jelly is obtainable. Grapes are propagated from cuttings, and grow so ORCHARDING 399 readily that good vines may be secured cheaply. The usual method is to make the cuttings in the fall and store them in a cool cellar or bury them until spring, when they are set in a nursery row and kept well-cultivated and free from weeds. They may be set in the vineyard one or two years later. When set in the vineyard they should be pruned back to one or two buds, and one year later again cut back, in order that they may be vigorous. After the second season they usually produce abundantly. On rich soil grapes should be set farther apart than on thin or poor soil, and should be allowed to set more fruit. On soils of fair quality, eight feet apart each way is a good distance. The American grapes grow best on a trellis. Alm.ost any form of trellis is satisfactory if the vine is pruned care- fully. In cool or damp climates the trellises are made high, to allow a good circulation of air and to ripen the fruit a little earlier. In dry, hot regions the trellis may well be lower, to protect the fruit from sun and wind. The pruning may be done at any time after the leaves fall and before the buds begin to swell in the spring. The grape bears its fruit on new shoots which develop from the preceding year's growth. We prune the vines rather se- verely, leaving comparatively few of the buds, as we know that the quality and the size of the fruit in a fair crop will give it more value than would be possessed by a larger weight of inferior fruit. The varieties of grape best known in Kansas are Con- cord, Moore's Early, Worden, Catawba, Diamond, and Elvira. Some hybrids, secured from the American and European species, are superior to the American in flavor and quality, but are injured by a degree of cold which does not injure the American vines. Brighton, Agawam, and Goethe may be grown if the grower protects them through 400 AGRICULTURE the winter by laying down the canes and covering them with earth. For hot, dry locahties some varieties origi- nated by R. V. Munson, of Texas, by crossing the post- oak grapes with other varieties, are best. Among them are Fern Munson, Headlight and Xylenta. Small Fruits. Small fruits deserve all their popularity; for they are generally successful, come into bearing soon after planting, and are not difficult to grow. The Strawberry. The strawberry is the first fruit of our season, gen- erally ripening in Kansas in the last part of May and the first part of June. It usually gives large re- turns for cul- tivation and care. Straw- berries are prop- a g a t e d from stolons, or run- ners, a single plant in the course of a season producing a number of new plants. Good garden soil is best for strawberries. Corn land that has been heavily manured and put into condition to grow a heavy crop of corn will grow good berries. Freshly broken sod or freshly manured soil should be avoided, as the white grub, the larva of the insect called the May beetle or the June bug, infests such soil and seems par- ticularly fond of the roots of the strawberry plant. Commercial growers of the Middle West usually set A single strawberry plant set in the spring will produce, by means of stolons, a large number of plants during the following season. ORCHARDING 401 the plants in the spring in rows four or five feet apart, and twelve to eighteen inches apart in the row. Care must be taken not to set a plant so deeply in the ground that the crown or the buds may be covered by heavy rains. The blossom buds which appear on the new plant should be removed as soon as they appear, or the plant may be exhausted in producing a few berries. The plant will produce stolons, and they should be so placed about the plant that each will have sufficient space for development. Varieties differ in plant-making power, some producing but few plants, while others produce more new plants than the ground can support. Rows made up of the latter varieties usually become thickly set by fall. This is called the matted-row system. Much better fruit is secured by the hill system, in which no runners are allowed to form, the plant developing all its strength in fruit buds. The single-hedge row, in which each plant is allowed to produce two runners, and the double-hedge row, in which each plant produces four new plants, are systems that are increasing in favor, for the berries are larger and better developed than where gi'own in a matted row. In most seasons thorough cultivation will conserve sufficient moisture for a strawberry crop, but in dry soils and par- ticularly trying seasons irrigation should be practiced if possible. After the fruit is picked the plants should be severely thinned and the ground put into good condition, A mulch of cleanly threshed straw or coarse hay should be applied after freezing has checked the growth, and should remain until spring. Delay in removing the mulch may cause the plants to iDleach, which should be avoided. Some varieties of the strawberry have imperfect blos- soms, which do not produce pollen, and companion varie- 26 402 AGRICULTURE ties which are perfect-flowered must be planted near them. The imperfect varieties have usually produced better or more even crops than the perfect-flowered. Warfield, Haverland, Bubach, and Sample are popular varieties having imperfect flowers. Senator Dunlap, Aroma, Bran- dywine, Chesapeake, Splendid, and Bederwood are perfect- flowered and generally profitable. Bush Fruits. Blackberries, raspberries, and gooseber- ries should find a place in most gardens. These fruits will do well on soils varying from a sandy loam to clay, but, whatever the soil, it must be in good condition as to texture and plant food. The red raspberry does not withstand dry weather and low temperature so well as do the others. Thorough culti- vation and care are important. Early spring setting is best. A light crop may be expected one year after setting and a full crop the second year. The black raspberry propagates by means of the tips of the canes, which touch the soil and take root. The goose- berry propagates from layers, the others from suckers. In all except the gooseberry the berries are borne on canes of the preceding year. The fruit of the gooseberry is borne on older wood Pruning the gooseberry consists in removing the wood which is so old as to be useless. Pruning the others con- sists in removing the canes which have fruited. This may usually be done more easily after the ground is frozen. The new canes are also clipped back just before the berries are picked. This facilitates picking and induces a growth of laterals. Thorough cultivation will decrease suckering and will keep the stand thin. In Kansas the most extensively grown varieties of red raspberry are Miller's Red, Cuthbert, and London; of black raspberry, Kansas and Cumberland ; of blackberry. ORCHARDING 403 Early Harvest, Snyder, Mercereau, Erie, and Ward; and of gooseberry. Downing. QUESTIONS 1. Name three factors that determine the success of orchards. 2. What is the best type of subsoil for an orchard? 3. What is a variety? How are varieties secured? What fac- tors are to be considered in selecting varieties? 4 What are the best varieties for Kansas: (a) of apples; (6) of enerries; (c) of plums; and (d) of peaches? 5. Describe budding. When should it be performed? 6. State the advantages of planting one-year-old trees; two- year-old trees. 7. Name some necessary pruning tools. How should the peach tree be pruned? What are the advantages of summer pruning? 8. When may cropping be an advisable practice in the orchard? 9. What varieties of grapes are adapted to Kansas conditions? 10. Describe the culture of the strawberry. 11. How are bush fruits pruned? CHAPTER XXXIII THE VEGETABLE GARDEN A vegetable garden may be looked upon as a pleasure and as a necessity. Small areas of land yield great vari- eties of desirable vegetables, and so make the diet not only more economical, but more pleasing, more healthful, and less monotonous. A better quality of vegetables can be secured from the home garden than one can buy under Vegetables that are washed clean and attractively prepared have a better chance in the market than has the product of the careless grower. ordinary conditions. The garden furnishes interest and occupation for every member of the family and yields satisfaction and profit in direct proportion to the thought and care expended on it. The Site for the Garden. If possible, the garden should be near the house, so as to be easily accessible. It should (404) THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 405 be protected from chickens and other stock, and, where possible, should be near enough to the water supply so that it may be irrigated when necessary. The soil should be the best available, either naturally or through im- provement. There should be slope enough to drain the garden well, but not enough to make it wash. Ordinarily, it is desirable that the garden be relatively long and nar- row, so that vegetables may be planted in long rows and cultivated with tools rather than by hand. The Care of the Garden. More gardens fail because of improper preparation of the soil than for any other cause. Often no garden preparations are made until the birds and the flowers suggest that spring has com.e, and then a small patch is hastily spaded or plowed, and planted. Such practice usually results in failure. The best preparation for a garden is to plow in the fall and to use large quantities of well-rotted manure. The manure should be applied in considerable quantities in the fall and plowed under. If the garden is new and the soil poor it will pay to do a great deal of work to get the manure and the soil well mixed. Fall plowing aearates the soil and helps to release plant food, helps the soil to retain moisture, destroys insects by exposing them to frost, and usually warms earlier in the spring than unplowed land. If there is considerable slope, fall plowing should be done across the slope to prevent washing. Where the soil blows, the garden may be covered with coarse manure after the fall plowing and the blowing prevented. In the spring all the coarse manure should be removed. Only fine manure should be applied to a garden and left, for coarse manure interferes with the plants and with working the garden. For the best results, both plow- ing and liberal manuring should be practiced year after year. Quality and kind of manure should vary somewhat 406 AGRICULTURE with the plants which are to be grown in different parts of the garden. Old, leached manure will not force the growth of stems so rapidly as will recently decomposed manure. This should be kept in mind in preparing the soil and planning the garden. Planning the Garden. The garden should be planned to enable one to care for it with the least loss of time and labor. Long, narrow gardens permit all the vegetables- to be planted in rows and cultivated with wheel tools. Small beds are wasteful of land and require a great deal of extra labor. The soil should be occupied all the time. This means that we should plan to have a second crop follow the first early-maturing crop, and that the early- maturing crops should be planted with this in view. The gardener should also plan to place the crops according to the way the manuring has been done. As a rule, crops which are grown for leaves or stems are planted on re- cently manured soil. Lettuce, spinach, cabbage, cauli- flower, and chard are examples of such crops. With these we may class those plants, such as corn, squash, and mel- ons, which produce a large amount of stalk or stem be- fore producing the seed. Plants grown for the fruit or the seed parts, and those which store reserve supplies of food in roots and tubers, succeed better on soil which has not been so recently or richly manured. Examples of these crops are tomatoes, egg plants, peas and beans, beets, carrots, parsnips, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. Careful planning of the garden means careful preparation, careful arrangement of the plants in the garden, and planting for a succession of crops on the same land during the year and during succeeding years. Selecting Garden Crops. For the home garden, the preferences of the family will determine what shall be THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 407 f ^^^>K r^t <^r-i3e^Qt- -->^ lllll Lc&'-cjif -JO -/g' ^ '"llil«„t„ iiiiii" """ To ^z, f<^.p7- /-r-toyv, ii"' ^ "II Ill iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiniiii Cnoss Sfe.c7?or-> of ry Pc'oaic/ To t^iz- Mriz^f rr70ir^&<^ Cross S^c/'/or7 of frijra/ f^ouTa. f^csoc/ -^-O' v^- llllllllllllllMlllllllllllllllllllllii,, V<&''<£>^-i ""l||||,t,,,iiUU.^I^^^^^ s=^ ^^^^yi^^^^^jiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiuHiiiiiiiiimmiii J'liiiiiiuH '^'" - Orv s,To^-i of fx'oaey ff-irouof-i Cuf Drawings giving details for building various kinds of roads. factory for average Kansas conditions. In heavy clay and gumbo soils, the crown of the road should be increased to provide good surface drainage. The distance between curbs on paved streets in resi- 436 AGRICULTURE dence districts of cities is from twenty to forty feet, aver- aging about thirty feet. This is ample width to accommo- date the traffic and to leave space for a parking on either side, which materially reduces the first cost and mainte- nance expenses of paving, and adds beauty to the street. The Classification of Roads. The commissioners of each county in Kansas are required to classify the roads, ac- cording to their relative importance, as state roads, county roads, mail routes, and township roads. State roads are highways which have been designated as such by the legislature; county roads are the highways connecting the cities and the market centers, and are located as nearly continuously from one county to the next as practicable; mail routes are such highways used by rural mail carriers as have not been designated as state or county roads; all other public highways are township roads. State and county roads are constructed and maintained under the direction of the three county commissioners and the county engineer at general county expense. The high- ways designated as mail routes and township roads are constructed and maintained by the three township high- way commissioners and the county engineer at township expense, except that the county is required to pay for the construction and maintenance of all bridges costing more than $200. Expenditures for Roads. There are about 110,000 miles of public roads in the state, and in round numbers the counties and townships of Kansas spend $5,000,000 an- nually for country roads. This amount exceeds the total cost of running the state government, including all the state educational and charitable institutions, and equals almost one-half of all the expenditures for public schools. Probably as much as $35,000,000 has been spent in the last ten years on roads, bridges, and culverts, chiefly in GOOD ROADS 437 keeping the roads in repair. Less than one per cent of the roads have been surfaced with clay, oil, macadam, gravel, concrete, and brick, and probably less than twenty- A concrete bridse. The permanency of this structure is plainly evident. five per cent of the earth roads are kept thoroughly dragged. About $3,000,000 has been paid annually for the con- struction and maintenance of bridges and culverts, many of which were built of steel, wood, and corrugated metal, and must in a comparatively short time be replaced. If good stone or concrete had been used the cost would have been little, if any, increased, and the structures would have been permanent. Not less than $1,500,000 annually has been spent on earth roads. A small part of this has been used for reduc- ing grades and performing permanent work, and a part for dragging. Road Management. Usually there are too many road officials, most of whom are untrained. One- third of the present number of road officers could, if trained, do the work more efficiently and economically than it is now done. Road making is a business, and a good road offi- cer should be educated for this work. He should not be 438 AGRICULTURE a busy farmer who must neglect either his road work or his farm business. Some of the better features of road management in the various states are : 1. A state highway office which has general super- vision of road and bridge work, establishes standards for A concrete culvert. This culvert in Wabaunsee county will require no repairs and will last forever. road and bridge construction, assists and advises county engineers, and generally organizes and systematizes the work. 2. A county engineer, who is a trained road and bridge builder, selected by civil service, and is a deputy of the state highway office. He works under the authority of the county officials and has general supervision of the road and bridge construction and maintenance work in the county. His approval is required for plans and speci- fications and for all materials and machinery purchased. 3. The selection of all overseers and supervisors for their ability and training. They are employed as nearly GOOD ROADS 439 continuously as possible, so that road making may become their business. They report directly to the county engineer. A well-organized system of road management which will put road making in the hands of experts always results in better and more permanent roads at less final cost to the people. Road Drainage. Drainage will often change a bad earth road to a good one. On poorly drained roads, rain and snow soften the earth, the horses' feet and the wagon wheels mix and knead it, and soon the road becomes im- passable. If the water is allowed to run down the middle of the road it will wash away the road material and leave ruts in the surface. No road, however good it may be otherwise, can last long if water collects or remains on it. Prompt and thorough drainage is important in all road construction, particularly the construction of earth roads. There can be no good roads without it. In making a good road it is necessary to provide for both surface drainage and underdrainage. The surface drainage of a road is provided by rounding up or crowning the traveled section and keeping it smooth. The slope from the center to the sides should be sufficiently steep so that the water will be carried freely and quickly to the side ditches. If the surface is kept smooth and free from ruts and holes, less crown will be required. The amount of crown necessary varies with different kinds of soil. A sandy soil may drain well and give entire satisfaction with a crown of one-half to three-quarters of an inch to the foot, but in heavy clay or gumbo one and one-half inches to the foot may be required to provide adequate fall to carry the water away from the center of the road freely. For ordi- nary soils a crown of about one inch to the foot is generally satisfactory. This provides sufficient fall to get rid of the water, and is comfortable for driving. 440 AGRICULTURE The side ditches are constructed to collect the water from the surface of the road and to intercept that which comes in from the fields. They should have a continuous fall to enable the water to be carried rapidly and entirely away from the road. The side ditches should have a con- tinuous uniform grade from the highest point to the nearest outlet, and should be made wide and fiat so that if a team is crowded or shies off the road there will be little danger of the vehicle's overturning. Water does not flow so rapidly in a flaring ditch as in a V-shaped one, and if the water is spread out in a thin sheet the grass and weeds and the rough surface of the ground obstruct its flow very materially. When the sides are made steep, however, only a small amount of water will have a considerable depth. This condition gives the water a high velocity which carries everything before it, and in a short time great gullies are formed. If possible, the side slopes should be shaped so that a mowing machine can be used to cut the grass and weeds which grow upon them. At all wet, low places in a road tile drain should be employed to lower the water table. Tile is cheap, and, if placed in a substantial manner and according to the rules of common sense, will last for ages. Earth Road Construction. Nearly half of the road- grading work in Kansas is done between October 1 and January 1. This practice of grading the roads in the fall is wrong, for the money so spent is generally wasted, and many times the road is worse than it would have been had it not been touched, for there is not a sufficient length of time after the grading is done to compact the loose earth before winter. Grading must be done when the ground is wet enough to be worked and compacted well, and to form a good wearing surface. This can best be done by grading before GOOD ROADS 441 August 1 — the sooner after April 1 the better. In the spring or early summer the ground is loose and will work easily, and the roots of the grass and weeds do not interfere at this season. Using the Grader. In the building of new roads with a road grader the dead weeds and grass should be burned off before any grading work is done, and the width A so-called permanent patented reinforced concrete arch bridge after six months' use. The structure was 250 feet long. of the road to be graded should be staked so that the side ditches can be properly lined up; then a light furrow should be plowed with the point of the grader blade to mark definitely the lines of the ditches. The work then should be continued until the entire width to be graded has been well rounded up, including cutting off the material on the outside of the ditches to a slope of about one foot vertical to one and one-half feet horizontal. Then the road should be filled full and round, and the loose material thor- oughly harrowed with an ordinary straight-tooth harrow, if there are no clods, until the bumps have been leveled off and 442 AGRICULTURE the low places filled up and the material has been well compacted. If there are sods or tough lumps of earth in the road a disk harrow should be used to pulverize this This bridge was practically new when the engine attempted to cross but broke through and fell twenty-five feet, killing the driver. material, and the harrow should be followed by a road drag or a straight-tooth harrow to level and smooth the earth. No newly graded earth road can be finished in good shape without the use of a harrow or a drag, or of both. To com- pact the earth, a roller should follow the harrowing. It will reveal the soft spots, and new material can be placed in these and the whole surface made smooth, even, and uniform. If the earth is thoroughly compacted and the small depressions are removed, ruts will not form nearly so readily, and heavy rains will not cause great gullies, such as are often seen on newly graded roads after a heavy rainstorm. GOOD ROADS 443 It costs from $15 to $50 a mile to grade an ordinary earth road thirty feet wide. The cost depends upon the soil and the condition of the road, the time when the work is done, and the price of labor. Earth Road Maintenance. Every spring, before the ground becomes too hard, the road should be gone over thoroughly with the road grader, to clean out the ditches, A road drag. SO that the water may have a free outlet. Ruts and holes should be filled, elevations in the road and shoulders on the side of the road should be planed off, and the road should be put into good condition generally. Earth roads have a pronounced tendency to form ruts. When ruts begin to appei^r on the surface, they should be immediately filled with carefully selected new material. A fundamental principle in the repair of any road is that, whatever material is used in the construction of 444 AGRICULTURE the surface, the same material and no other should be used in its repair. A road with a surface of clay should be repaired only with clay, a gravel road with gravel, and a surface of limestone with limestone. In road sur- facing, however, a clay road is often improved by the use of sand, and a sand road by being surfaced with a foot of clay. Every hole or rut in the roadway, if not stamped full of the same material as that of which the road is con- One of the most dangerous and most inexcusable places in the road. structed, will become filled with water and will be made deeper and wider by each passing vehicle. A hole which could have been filled with a shovelful of material will soon need a wagon load. To repair a rut or mudhole, it should be cleansed of dust, mud and water; then just a sufficient amount of good fresh earth should be placed in it to bring it even with the surrounding surface after being thoroughly consolidated with a tamper or roller. In no case should sod be placed in or on the road sur- face, nor should the surface be ruined by having thrown GOOD ROADS 44a upon it the worn-out material from the gutters along the sides. When an earth road has been properly crowned and adequate drainage has been provided, there is no other method of maintaining it in good condition so effectively, so economically, and with so little effort, as the constant use of the drag. Bridges and Culverts. Much as we need improved roads, we need permanent bridges and culverts more; for, if the road is to be used at all, the bridges and culverts must be in good condition. We now know that if bridges and culverts are built of first-class concrete or of good stone there will be practically no maintenance charges and the structures will be almost everlasting. Therefore, only such materials should, whenever practical, be used in constructing bridges and culverts. Concrete or stone work, to be permanent, must be built in compliance with standard engineering practice, under rigid inspection. If bridges and culverts are to be permanent, they not only must be properly designed and well built, but must also provide adequate openings to carry the water and ample width of roadway to carry modern traffic with safety. Many bridges and culverts are built entirely too small to carry the water that will come to them. All small bridges and culverts in Kansas should be large enough to provide about one hundred square feet of waterway for each square mile of watershed ; that is, a small bridge or culvert carrying the rainfall from 640 acres of land should have an opening about ten feet long and ten feet high. The road- way of each of these structures must be wide enough to permit the passage of all farm machinery and ordinary traffic. All bridges should have a clear width of at least eighteen feet to care for this traffic safely, and culvertS; 446 AGRICULTURE those structures having a span of less than ten feet, should in no case have a roadway of less than twenty feet in the clear. QUESTIONS 1. In buying a farm home, why should the conditions of the highways be considered carefully? 2. What are some of the benefits of good roads to the farmer? 3. What are the disadvantages of locating roads on the section lines? 4. Where should the roads be located? 5. Why are wide right of ways objectionable? 6. What should be the graded width of roads for the different classes of highways? 7. Define a state road; a county road; a mail route; a township road. 8. How are the different classes of roads managed, and how is the work pa.d for? 9. What are some features of a good system of road manage- ment? 10. Since thorough drainage is an absolute necessity in the con- struction and maintenance of a good road, how can it be obtained? 11. What is the proper time to grade roads? 12. In constructing a road with a grader, how should the work be done? 13. How should an earth road be maintained? 14. Why is the drag an efficient road tool? 15. Why do concrete bridges sometimes fall down? 16. How large an opening must a culvert have to carry a six- inch fall of rain from 160 acres of land? 17. How wide should the clear roadway be on bridges and cul- verts? APPENDIX SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER The teacher should keep constantly in mind that the teaching of agriculture, in at least two respects, closely resembles the teaching of English. First, we are dealing with material about which the pupil knows considerable and with which he has had more or less experience. For that reason the pupil is able to cover more ground than in subjects with which he is wholly unacquainted. Second, just as the chief problem of the teacher of English is to correct wrong habits of speech and show the reasons for proper usage, so the teacher of agriculture must endeavor to give such information as will lead to the abandonment of poor agricultural practice, and must at the same time teach thoroughly the reason underlying the better practice. Two suggestions follow from this: (1) Do not drag the work along and tire the pupils with needless discussions of things which their experience will enable them to grasp instantly; (2) Emphasize principles or reasons underlying practice. Scarcely any rule of agricultural practice can be laid down which applies universally, but fundamental principles may be taught which can be constantly and in- telligently applied. The study of agriculture is a study of these principles and their application, rather than an attempt to master a mass of detail concerning agricultural practice. Correlate this work with reading, spelling, composition, and drawing. Make agriculture felt throughout the school just as it must be felt throughout the pupil's life. This book is made larger than the ordinary textbook in (447) 448 AGRICULTURE order that supplemental reading matter may not be so necessary, but the live teacher will not neglect to en- courage and train pupils to use other literature. The farm papers which come to homes in the district, bulletins, reports of the State Board of Agriculture, and reference books should be used. Agriculture is primarily a study of things, and the child should learn from the object itself and by action where possible. Especially in the fall and the spring the teacher should take trips with the class when possible. A trip may be made to a field to study flowers, roots, soils, or weeds. The object may be a summary or review of what has been learned about a crop such as corn, sorghum, or alfalfa. It may be to inspect a newly seeded or sprout- ing field of wheat, or to learn something of the physical condition of the soil in a field which has had special treat- ment. Some of the work may be much better done indoors. Pupils may practice budding and grafting and even demonstrate pruning in a small way by using branches of trees. There may be exercises in grain judging, fruit judg- ing, and seed testing. Some seed testing should, if pos- sible, be done by each pupil. The chief problem here is to keep the schoolroom warm enough at night to pre- vent freezing. Test not only corn, but alfalfa, garden, and other seeds. Many schools may well have a hotbed on the grounds. Building the frame, digging the pit, and other necessary tasks will furnish healthful exercise for the pupils at noon and at recess. Usually old window sashes may be bor- rowed and the frame made to fit them. Such a hotbed should be used to start plants which pupils may take home and plant in the home garden. Such plants as tomatoes, cabbage, peppers, sweet potatoes, and ornamental or flowering plants, may be started. This work will very APPENDIX 449 quickly carry the teaching into the home practice. This is the only kind of school gardening practicable in most country schools. Do not neglect some attempt to improve the school grounds. If you do nothing more, clear off the stones, weeds, and other trash. Usually the teacher can help ar- range the playground so that it will present a neat appear- ance, and she may even secure some apparatus. Where any care can be given during the summer, some shrub or tree planting should be done. Evergreen and other trees may be obtained from the State Forester, Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. Do not neglect the work of Boys' Corn Clubs and Girls' Canning Clubs. These organizations will help to vitalize your teaching of agriculture. Information concerning these clubs may be secured from the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, or from the Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. Application to the Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, will bring a list of gov- ernment bulletins classified for the use of teachers. REFERENCE BOOKS The following list contains the names of some of the better of the recent books on farming. The list is by no means complete. It does not include technically scientific books, nor books devoted entirely to specialties. All the books in the list have been written by men who are thoroughly dependable. None of the popular compilations on agriculture upon which little or no dependence can be placed, have been included. From this list the teacher and the board of education may select books which not only will furnish supplemen- tary work for the school, but will be a complete library of 450 AGRICULTURE ready reference for the farmers in the community. A few well-selected books from this list should be a part of every school library. FOR THE TEACHER Coulter, J. G., and Patterson, A. J. Practical Nature Study. New York: D. Appleton & Company. $1.35 net. Call, L. E., and Shafer, E. C. Laboratory Manual in Agriculture. New York: The Macmillan Company. 90 cents net. SOILS Vivian, Alfred. First Principles of Soil Fertility. New York: Orange Judd Company. $1 net. Burkett, C. W. Soils. New York: Orange Judd Company. $1.25. Whitson, a. R., and Walster, H. L. Soils and Soil Fertility. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1.25 net. Fletcher, S. W. Soils. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Page & Company., $2 net. FARM CROPS Wilson, A. D., and Warburton, C. W. Field Crops. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1. Livingston, George. Field Crop Production. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.40 net. Montgomery, E. G. Corn Crops. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.60 net. Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America. New York: Orange Judd Company. $1.75. Hunt, T. F. The Forage and Fiber Crops in America. New York: Orange Judd Company. $1.75. BORMAN, T. A. Sorghums: Sure Money Crops. Topeka: Kansas Farmer Company. $1.25 net. ORCHARDING AND GARDENING Sears, F. C. Productive Orcharding. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippin- cott Company. $1.50. Green, S. B. Popular Fruit Growing. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1. Bailey, L. H. Principles of Fruit Growing. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.50 net. Bailey, L. H. Principles of Vegetable Gardening. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.50. Green, S. B. Vegetable Gardening. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Pub- lishing Company. $1. LIVE STOCK Harper, M. W. Animal Husbandry for Schools. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.40 net. Plumb, C. S. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1.25 net. APPENDIX 451 Henry, W. A. Feeds and Feeding. Madison, Wis.: Author. $2.25. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. Boston: Ginn & Company. .$2 net. Smith, H. R. Profitable Stock Feeding. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1.50. Craig, J. A. Live Stock Judging. Des Moines, Iowa: Kenyon Printing Company. MuMFORD, H. W. Beef Production. Urbana, 111.: Author. $1.50. Johnstone, J. H. S. The Horse Book. Chicago: Sanders Pub- lishing Company. $2. Dawson, H. C. The Hog Book. Chicago, 111.: Breeder's Gazette. $1.50. Craig, J. A., and Marshall, F. R. Sheep Farming. New York: The Macmillan Company, $1.50 net. DAIRYING EcKLES, C. H. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.60 net. Wing, H. H. Milk and Its Products. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.50 net. POULTRY Purvis, Miller. Poultry Breeding. Chicago: Sanders Publishing Company. $1.50. Watson, G. C. Farm Poultry. New York: The Macmillan Com- pany. $1.50 net. LiPPiNCOTT, W. A. Poultry Production. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. MISCELLANEOUS Warren, G. F. Farm Management. New York: Tlie Macmillan Company. $1.75 net. Ekblaw, K. J. Farm Structures. New York: The Macmillan Company. $1.75 net. Davidson, J. B. Agricultural Engineering. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1.50. Powell, G. H. Cooperation in Agriculture. New York: The Mac- millan Company. $1.50 net. Coulter, J. L. Cooperation among Farmers. New York: Sturgis and Walton Company. 75 cents. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE BABCOCK TEST Apparatus for making the Babcock test, including glassware, acid, and directions, may be purchased from dealers in dairy supplies. Following is a list of the ap- paratus necessary: a 17.6 cc. pipette; a 17.5 cc. acid measure; test bottles; dividers; a water bath; a centrifuge; sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.83 to 1.84. 452 AGRICULTURE The milk to be tested and the acid to be used should be brought to a temperature of about 70 degrees; this can best be done by means of the hot -water bath. Following are directions for making the test: 1. Pour the sample of milk from one vessel to another at least five times. 2. Take the pipette between the thumb and the second and third fingers, leaving the index finger free; draw the milk into the pipette immediately after stirring it, and place the index finger over the top of the pipette; now release the finger very slightly until the top of the milk column is even with the mark on the pipette. 3. Hold the milk bottle at a slant and place the end of the pipette in the neck of the bottle, leaving an opening for air so that air bubbles can not form and throw the milk out of the neck; release the finger and allow the milk to flow into the bottle; blow the last drop from the pipette. 4. Fill the acid measure to the mark (never draw the acid into the pipette); take the milk bottle by the neck between the thumb and the fingers of the left hand so that the bottle can be turned; now bring the lip of the acid measure to the mouth of the bottle and pour the acid into the bottle, rotating the bottle so that all the milk will be washed from the neck into the bottle, and holding the bottle at a slant so that the acid will not fall directly upon the milk and thus form pieces of charred curd. 5. Give the bottle a rotary motion in order to cause a gradual mixture of milk and acid; sudden mixing will cause the formation of large amounts of heat and gas, and will throw the material out of the bottle. 6. After the bottle has been stirred thoroughly and the curd is dissolved, place the bottle in the centrifuge and whirl it for five minutes. APPENDIX 453 7. Place the bottle in a water bath of 180° F. for five minutes, then fill the bottle to the neck with hot water. 8. Whirl the bottle in the centrifuge for two minutes. 9. Place the bottle in the water bath for five minutes and fill it with hot water to within one-half inch of the top. 10. Whirl the bottle in the centrifuge for two minutes. 11. Place the bottle in a water bath, 130° F., for five minutes. 12. Measure the fat column by placing one point of the dividers at the bottom and the other at the top; then, keeping the two points that distance apart, place one point on the zero mark and then note where the other point falls on the scale; the figure on which it falls in- dicates the per cent of fat in the milk. 454 AGRICULTURE Seed Table for Field Crops Adapted to Kansas Namh. Amount of seed to plant to the acre. Alfalfa (broadcast) 10 Alfalfa (drilled) 8 Barley 4 Bean, field (small varieties) 2 Bean, field (large) 5 Beets 4 Blue grass, Kentucky 25 12 15 3 3 12 2- Brome grass (alone, for hay) , Brome grass (alone, for pasture) Broom corn Buckwheat Bur clover Carrots (for stock) Castor beans Clover, alsike (alone) Clover, Japan, or lespedeza (in pod) . . . Clover, mammoth Clover, red (on small grains in spring). Clover, sweet (melilotus) Clover, crimson Corn Cotton Cowpeas (broadcast) Cowpeas (drilled) Cowpeas (for seed) Duvea Emmer (miscalled spelt) . . . . Field peas (small varieties) . Field peas (large) Flax (for seed) F'lax (for fiber) Feterita Hemp (broadcast) Kafir (in rows) Kafir (broadcast) Lupines Mangels Meadow fescue Millet, barnyard (in drills) . . Millet, foxtail (in drills) .... Millet, German (in drills) . . . Millet, German (for seed) . . . Millet, Hungarian (for hay) . Millet, Hungarian (for seed) 20 lbs. -16 lbs. 10 pks. 3 pks. - 6 pks. - 6 lbs. 40 lbs. 15 lbs. -20 lbs. 5 lbs. 5 pks. lbs. 6 lbs. 12 8 10 10 5 4 4- 1- 3- 4- 12- 2- 6- 4- 14- 4- 50- 6- 5- 1- 2- 2- -15 lbs. 2 pks. -15 lbs. -12 lbs. -20 lbs. -12 lbs. - 9 lbs. -12 pks. - 6 pks. - 2 pks. 3 pks. ■ 6 lbs. - 8 pks. 10 pks. ■14 pks. ■ 3 pks. • 8 pks. • 6 lbs. •16 pks. • 8 lbs. 80 lbs. • 8 pks. 8 lbs. 50 lbs. 2 pks. 3 pks. 3 pks. 1 pk. 2 pks. 1 pk. Pound ; to tl;e bushel. 60 60 48 60 60 56 14 14 14 30 50 50 50 46 90 60 60 60 60 56 32 60 60 60 56 43 60 60 56 56 56 44 56 56 60 22 35 50 50 50 50 50 APPENDIX Seed Table for Field Crops — concluded 455 Name. Amount of seed to plant to the acre. Pounds to the bushel. Millet, pearl (for hay) Millet, broom-corn or proso Milo Oat grass, tall Oats Oats and peas — Oats — Peas Orchard grass Parsnips Peanuts (in pod) Pop corn Potato, Irish Potato (cut to one or two eyes) Potato, sweet Rape (in drills) Rape (broadcast) Red top (recleaned) Red top (in chaff) Rice (rough) Rutabaga Rye ■ Rye grass Sorghum (forage — broadcast) Sorghum (for seed or syrup) Sorghum (for silage or soiling — drilled) Soy beans (broadcast) Soy beans (drilled) Sudan grass (for hay) Sudan grass (for seed) Sugar beets Sunflower Timothy Timothy and clover — Timothy — Clover Turnips (broadcast) Turnips (drilled) Velvet beans Vetch, hairy (broadcast) Vetch, hairy (drilled) Wheat 8-10 lbs. 2- 3 pks. 4- 6 lbs. 30 lbs. 8-12 pks. 8 pks. 2 pks. 12-15 lbs. 4- 8 lbs. 8 pks. 3 lbs. 40-60 pks. 24-36 pks. 6-16 pks. 2- 4 lbs. 4- 8 lbs. 12-15 lbs. 50-60 lbs. 4-12 pks. 3- 5 lbs. 3- 4 pks. 8-12 pks. 25-75 lbs. 4- 8 lbs. 6-15 lbs. 4- 6 pks. 2- 3 pks. 20-25 lbs. 3- 4 lbs. 15-20 lbs. 10-15 lbs. 12-15 lbs. 10 lbs. 4 lbs. 2- 4 lbs. 1 lb. 1- 4 pks. 6 pks. 4 pks. 2- 8 pks. 50 56 14 32 32 60 14 50 22 70 60 50 50 50 35 12 45 60 56 20 50 50 50 60 60 28 28 45 55 55 60 60 60 456 AGRICULTURE <1) m C3 M CX ,__4 rt ea O 4-3 VI >. rt (1) ^ C 0) o rt T3 n , ^ +j t- 'T-t »-i O CI) 05 fs &, a -w C a G O C3 O bc rt rt +3 -M X e w bc 01 C M lU CTl 01 .D a> _^ 4) D< »— < -O !S Ih l^fl tuO Oi « >• "o m U bii rt (u el t' M 03 s wj rt 3 (1) P^ ti ^2 <; o j= s te a >. to OS 1 g a-a S " a Q g O. lO C-J CO CC iO (MOO CI CI fM ^H iM CI nq ^ CI CI C^ ,.-. — CI (N .^ & s *» ^ ?ss cq cj i; — < iIh --. — ' OCOd'**^'tt»lilSMWMQHW Oh^ O OhOh v^^^zji aj APPENDIX 457 WEIGHT OF FEEDING STUFFS* The following table, showing the weight of a quart of each of u number of feeding stuffs, may be helpful in feeding farm animals: Feeding Stiffs. Weight. Pounds. Ounces Corn, cracked Corn meal Corn-and-cob meal Oats, whole Oats, ground Wheat, whole Wheat bran Wheat bran, coarse Wheat middlings Wheat middlings, coarse. Rye bran Gluten meal Gluten feed Linseed meal Cottonseed meal Some of these materials, especially by-products like wheat bran, vary considerably in weight, and the figures can not be regarded as strictly accurate for all cases. Weighing is, of course, always preferable w here it is desired to feed absolutely definite amounts. THE SIZE OF SILO TO BUILD The following table shows the size of silo required to feed various numbers of animals for a period of six months, or 180 days, at the rate of forty pounds of silage daily to the animal: Size of silo. Approximate acreage of corn required. Number Estimated capacity of cows. in tons. Diameter in feet. Height in feet. Eastern Kansas. Western Kansas. 7 20 10 20 2 - 2.5 4- 5 13 47 10 30 3-5 6-10 H r.i 10 32 3 . 5- 5 .') 7-11 lit (iS 12 30 4.5- 7 9-14 21 73 12 32 5 - 7 .') 10-15 2.5 93 14 30 - 9 12-18 27 1(11 14 32 7 -10 14-20 30 109 14 34 8 -11 16-22 33 119 16 30 S.5-12 17-24 36 131 10 32 9 -13 18-26 40 143 16 34 9.5,14 19-28 43 1.55 16 36 10.5-15.5 21-31 46 166 18 32 11 -10 5 22-33 50 181 IS 34 12 -18 24-36 54 19G IS 36 13 -20 26-40 *From Farmers' Bulletin No. 22 458 AGRICULTURE DIRECTIONS FOR MEASURING FARM PRODUCTS I. Measuring Grain in the Bin Rule: Multiply together the number of feet in length, width, and depth, and take four-fifths of the result, which will be the number of bushels. II. Measuring Ear Corn in the Crib Rule: Multiply together the number of feet in length, width, and depth, and divide the result by two and one- half to get the number of bushels. Note: It is usual to calculate a bushel of ear corn in the crib as two and one- half cubic feet if the corn is dry, but if it is new and recently stored, two and five-eighths to two and three- quarters cubic feet should be allowed. III. Measuring Hay in the Mow or Stack If alfalfa hay has been stacked or stored in the mow about thirty days, 512 cubic feet are usually regarded as a ton. If the hay has stood five or six months 422 cubic feet, and if it is fully settled 343 cubic feet, will approxi- mate a ton. In very large stacks or deep mows, fully settled, 216 cubic feet are taken for a ton. Hence, to find the number of tons: (1) In a mow: Multiply together the number of feet in length, width, and depth, and divide the result by the number of cubic feet in a ton. (2) In a round stack: Find the circumference of the stack at a height that will give a fair average distance around the stack; also find the vertical height of the measured circumference from the ground, and the slant height from the measured circumference to the top of the stack. Take all measurements in feet. Square the number of feet in the circumference; divide this by 100 and multi- ply it by 8; then multiply the result by the number denot- APPENDIX 459 ing the height of the base plus one-third the number denoting the slant height. The result is the number of cubic feet, which, if divided by the number of cubic feet in a ton, will give the number of tons. (3) In a rick: Measure the distance in feet over the rick from the ground on one side to the ground on the other, also measure the width in feet near the ground. Add the two numbers and divide the result by 4 ; square this result and multiply it by the number denoting the length of the rick. Divide the final result by the number of cubic feet in a ton, which will give the number of tons in the rick. DIRECTIONS FOR MEASURING LAND To measure a square or a rectangular field, multiply the number of rods in length by the number of rods in width and divide the result by 160 to find the number of acres. If the field is a right triangle, follow the same rule, but take one-half of the original product and divide it by 160. The area of any triangular-shaped field where the lengths of the sides are known can be found by the follow- ing rule: From one-half the sum of the number of rods in the sides, subtract separately the number of rods in each side. Multiply the half sum and the three remainders and extract the square root of the product. Divide the result by 160 to obtain the number of acres. The area of an irregular-shaped field may be found by dividing the field into triangles by means of diagonals, finding the areas of the triangles, and then adding the areas found. INDEX Alfalfa, 103 ff., 159, 233-235, 415, Birds—concluded 454; growth, 105-106; varie- ties, 106-107; seed bed, 107- 108; seeding, 108-110; har- vesting, 110-111; seed produc- tion, 111; effect on soil, 112. Apples, 381 ff., 392. Apple aphid, 374, 375. Apple blotch, 338. Ash, 211. Asparagus, 5. Babcock test, 451-453. Bacteria, 174, 333-335. Barley, 31, 87-88 ff., 341, 454; covered smut, 341; loose smut, 341. Barnyard manure, 175-178. Beans, 30, 35, 37, 103, 174, 406, 408, 454, 456. Beef cattle, 242 ff., 451; in Kan- sas, 243; the ideal beef animal, 244-248; breeds, 248-249; divi- sions of industry, 250-255; producing pure-bred cattle, 251; producing stockers and feeders, 251-252; grazing cat- tle, 253; fattening cattle, 254- 255. Beets, 407, 454, 456. Bindweed, 7, 8. Birds, 370-371, 425 ff.; when birds are helpful, 426-427; protectors of the orchard, 427- 428; protectors of the field and garden, 428; other bird friends, 428-430; protecting and encouraging birds, 430. I Blackberries, 138, 402-403. I Books for reference, 449-451. I Broom corn — see Sorghums. I Brown plum louse, 374. Brown rot, 338. Brussels sprouts, 131-133. Buckwheat, 41, 454. Buds, 26, 28. Buffalo grass, 16. Bush fruits, 402-403. Butter making, 295. Cabbage, 131-133, 406, 456. Cabbage butterfly, 362-363. Cabbage yellows, 339. Canadian thistle, 8, 9. Canna, 20. Carbohydrates, 211 ff. Carrots, 406, 408, 454, 456. Castor beans, 454. Cats, 140. Cattle, 140-141, 207; see, also, Beef cattle. Dairying. Cauliflower, 406. Celery, 456. Chard, 406. Cherries, 381, 385. Chickens — see Poultry. Chinch bug, 349-350. (461) 462 INDEX Chlorophyll, 23 fF. Clover, 112 S., 454; red, 112- 113, 454; crimson, 113, 454, 455; mammoth, 113-114, 454; alsike, 114, 454; sweet, 114- 115, 454; white, 115; bur, 115, 454; Japan, 115, 454. Codling moth, 365-366, 398. Cold frames, 409-410. Colorado potato beetle, 358-359. Concentrates, 25, 209-210. Corn, 42 ff., 133, 265-266, 341, 454; kinds, 42-44; varieties adapted to Kansas, 44-46; home-grown seed, 46-47; se- lecting seed, 47-49; storing seed, 49-50; testing seed, 50- 52; decrease in yield, 52-53; preceding crops, 53; planting, 53-57; plowing for, 55-56; cultivation, 57-58; improving, 135-136; smut, 341. Corn-ear worm, 350-352. Cotton, 31, 342, 454; wilt of, 339. ( -ottonwoods, 17. Cowpeas, 115 ff., 386, 454; growth, 116-117; seed-bed preparation, 117; seeding, 117- 118; cultivation, 118; harvest- ing, 118; for green manuring, 119; wilt, 339, 343-344. Crab grass, 4. Cucumbers, 456. Dairying, 285 S., 451-453; in- creasing milk production, 285- 286; selection of dairy cows, 286; types, 286-287; records, 287-288; breeds, 288-291; Jer- seys, 289; Guernseys, 289-291 ; Dairying — concluded. Ayrshires, 291; Holsteins, 291- 292; feeding the cow, 292-293; stabling, 293; milking, 293- 294; separating milk, 294-295; butter making, 295; silos and silage, 295-300; kinds of silos, 296-297; the pit silo, 297-299; feeding silage, 299-300; the Babcock test, 451-453. Digestion, 211-214. Diseases of live stock, 266-267; hogs, 315 ff.; what causes dis- ease, 315-316; kinds of disease, 316-317; how diseases spread, 317; disinfection, 318-320. Diseases of plants, 332 ff., 375- 376; kinds, 332; parasitic plants, 332-336; bacteria and fungi, 333-336; pruning, 336; pear blight, 336-337; spraying, 337; early blight of potatoes, . 337-338; apple blotch, 338; brown rot, 338; crop rotation, 338-339; dry rot of potatoes, 339; seed treatment, 339-340; smuts of grain, 340-341; potato scab, 341; resistant varieties, 341-342; grain rusts, 342-343; wilt of cowpeas, 343- 344. Dodder, 333. Dogs, 140. Drainage, 183 ff.; lands requiring drainage, 183-184; surface drainage, 184-185; ditches, 185-186; underdrainage, 186; tile drains, 186-189; drainage systems, 189-191; construc- tion methods, 191; the action INDEX 463 Drainage — concluded. of tile drainage, 191-192; benefits of drainage, 192-193. Ducks — see Poultry. Duvea, 454. Eggs — see Poultry. Egg plant, 406. Emmer, 88-89, 454. Epidermis, 6. Fat, 211 ff. Feeding farm animals, 207 ff.; plants, 207; maintenance, 207- 208; growth and fattening, 208; work, 208-209; milk, 209; concentrates and roughages, 209-210; feeding values, 210; composition of animal bodies, 211; digestion of feeds, 211- 214; kinds of nutrients, 214; nutritive value of feeds, 215; ration, 216; effect of different rations, 217; amount of feed, 217-218; the feeder's duty, 218; preparation of feeds, 218- 219; silage, 295-300; see, also. Horses, Beef cattle, etc. Flax, 89; wilt of, 339. Flowers and fruits, 28 ff.; parts of flower, 28-30; how flowers differ, 30-33; pollination, 33- 34; fertilization, 34. Foxtail, 4. Fruits — see Flowers and fruits, Orcharding. Fungi, 20, 332, 333-336. Geese — see Poultry. Goldenrod, 5. Good roads, 431 ff.; importance, 431-433; locating roads, 433- 434; width, 434-436; classi- Good roads — concluded. fication, 436; expenditures, 436-437; management, 437- 439; drainage, 439-440; earth road construction, 440-443 ; using the grader, 441-443; earth road maintenance, 443- 445; bridges and culverts, 445- 446. Gooseberries, 402-403. Grapes, 134, 135, 138-139, 398-400. Grasses, 101, 122 ff., 207, 455; native, 122-123; tame, 123- 124; Kentucky blue, 125,454; Bermuda, 125-126; mixtures for pastures, 126-127; meadow fescue, 127-128, 454; brome grass, 128, 454; western rye grass, 128; redtop, 128, 455; seeding of grass, 129; orchard, 455; rye grass, 455; oat grass, 455. Green manure, 180-181. Hay, 111, 112-115; cowpea hay, 118; the hay ration, 234- 236. Hemp, 454. Hessian fly, 352-355. Hogs, 140-141; 207, 257 ff., 451; history, 257; types, 257-260; breeds, 260-265; Duroc Jersey, 260-262; Poland China, 262; Berkshire, 262-263; Chester White, 263; Hampshire, 263- 264; Large Yorkshire, 264- 265; Tamworth, 265; feeding, 265-266; sanitation, 266-267; judging, 267-270; meat on the farm, 270-275; slaughtering, 464 INDEX Hogs — concluded. 270; scalding, 272; cutting, 272; curing, 272-273; plain salt pork, 273-274; smoking meats, 274; keeping smoked meats, 274-275; pork sausage, 275. Home grounds. Beautifying, 416 ff.; shrubs, 417-418; vines, 418-419; grasses, 419; trees. 419-420; flower gardens, 420- 422; flower beds, 422-423. Horses, 140, 207, 221 ff., 451 value in Kansas, 221; origin 221-222; classification, 222 breeds, 222-233; Percheron 222-223; French draft, 224 Belgian draft, 224-225; Shire 225-226; Clydesdale, 226-227 Suffolk, 227-228; Hackney 228; German coach, 228 French coach, 228; Cleveland bay, 228; Yorkshire, 228 Standard-bred, 229; Morgan 229; Orloff, 230; Arabian, 230 Thoroughbred, 230; American Saddle, 231-233; Hackney ponies, 232; Welsh ponies, 232; Shetland ponies, 232- 233; feeding horses, 233-236; grain, 233-234; hay, 234-235; soundness and unsoundness, 236-238; judging horses, 238- 241. Hotbeds, 408-409. Humus, 178 ff. Improving plants and animals, 131 ff.; variation, 131-133; selection, 133-135; improving corn, 135-136; wheat, 136- 137; hybridization, 137-140; Improving plants and animals — concluded. animal improvement, 140 ff.; pure breeds, 140-141; crossing, 141-142. Insects on farm, 345 ff.; harmful and helpful, 345; structure and growth, 346; how insects eat, 346; changes in form, 347-349; the chinch bug, 349- 350; corn-ear worm, 350-352; Hessian fly, 352-355; grass- hoppers, 355-358; Colorado potato beetle, 358-359; melon louse, 359-361; cabbage but- terfly, 362-363; San Jose scale, 363-365; codling moth, 365- 366, 398; useful insects, 366- 368; preventing and con- trolling insect injuries, 368- 371; cleanliness, 368; fall plowing and disking, 368-369; place and time of planting, 369-370; crop rotation, 369- 370; soil preparation, 370; poultry and other birds, 370- 371. Ironweed, 5. Jerusalem corn — see Sorghums. Johnson grass, 16, 17, 21, 129. June bug, 400. Kafir — see Sorghums. Kaoliang — see Sorghums. Kohl-rabi, 131, 133. Leaves, 22 ff.; structure, 22-23. Legumes, 101 ff., 173-175, 180- 181; description, 101; import- ance, 101-103; inoculation of soil, 103. Lespedeza, 115. INDEX 465 Lettuce, 406, 407, 409. 456. Lime and liming, 181-182. Lucerne — see Alfalfa. Lupines, 454. Mangels, 454. Measuring farm products, 458- 459. Meat on the farm — see Hogs. Melon louse, 359-361. Milk — see Dairying. Millet, 218, 454-455; smut of, 340. Milling — see Wheat. Milo — see Sorghums. Minerals used by plants, 11-12, 14. Mistletoe, 333. Morning-glories, 13. Mulberries, 31. Mycelium, 335. Nitrogen, 101-103, 173-175, 181- 182. Nutrients, 210-214, 266. Oats, 85 S., 340, 455; types, 86; preparation of the ground, 86-87; seeding, 87; smut of, 340. Onions, 4-5, 381, 407, 456. Oranges, 134. Orcharding, 377 ff.; climate, 378; soil and moisture, 378; sub- soil, 378-379; sites, 379-380; selecting fruits, 380; meaning and origin of varieties, 380- 382; adaptability of variety, 382; securing trees of a variety, 382-384; choice of varieties for Kansas, 384; apples, 384-385; cherries, 385; plums, 385; peaches, 385; age Orcharding — concluded. of trees for planting, 385-386; preparation of ground, 386- 387; ordering and planting trees, 387; caring for young trees, 387-388; pruning, 388- 394; tools, 389-390; pruning to secure fruit, 390; pruning the peach, 391; summer prun- ing, 391-394; cropping and cultivating the young orchard, 394-396; fertilizers, 396-397; general care, 397-398. Parsnips, 406, 408, 454, 456. Pasture, 69, 83, 112-115, 284. Parasites, 40, 332-336. Peaches, 381, 385, 391. Peanuts, 455. Pear blight, 336-337. Pears, 159, 456. Peas, 406, 407, 408, 454. Phosphorus, 173. Pigweed, 4, 6. Plants, 4 ff.; 35 ff.; parts, 4-5; structure, 5-6; cells, 6; multi- plication, 35 ff.; spore plants, 39-40; propagation, 40; cul- ture, 41; see, also, Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers and fruits. Seeds, Improving plants and animals. Plant diseases — see Diseases of plants. Plumcots, 139. Plums, 159, 381, 385. Pollination, 29, 33-34. Popcorn, 455. Potassium, 173. Potatoes, 337 ff., 406, 411 ff., 455; early blight of, 337- 466 INDEX Potatoes — concluded. 338; scab, 341; dry rot of, 339: growing potatoes in Kansas, 411-412; selecting seed, 412- 413; planting, 413; cultiva- tion, 413-414; mulching, 414: digging, 414-415; storing, 415. Poultry, 207, 302 ff., 370-371, 451; kinds, 302; classification, 302-306; houses, 306-307; sav- ing eggs for hatching, 307; running an incubator, 307- 309; brooding, 309; feeding chickens, 309-313; kinds of feed, 310; supplements, 310- 311; rations for laying hens, 311-312; feeding chicks, 312- 313; caring for market eggs, 313-314. Prunes, 134. Pruning, 336, 388-394, 402. Protein, 211 ff., 266, 283. Pumpkins, 30-31, 394. Quack grass, 21. Radishes, 407, 409, 456. Ragweed, 8. Rape, 455. Raspberries, 40, 394, 402. Resistant varieties, 341-342, 343-344. Rhubarb, 21. Rice, 41, 455. Roads — see Good roads. Roots, 7 ff.; work, 8; growth, 8-9; hairs, 9-11; getting water and mineral matter from soil, 11-14. Rootstocks, 16, 17. Rotation of crops, 338-339, 370. Roughage, 25, 209-210. Russian thistle, 4. Rusts of grain, 342-343. Rutabaga, 455. Rye, 218, 455. Salsify, 408, 456. San Jose scale, 363-365. Saprophytes, 335. Seeds, 35 ff.; germination, 35- 36; seed bed, 36-37; storing, 38-39; testing, 39; treatment of, 339-340, 341. Sheep, 140, 207, 276 if., 451; history, 276-277; breeds, 277- 281; fine-wooled, 278; me- dium-wooled, 278-279; long-wooled, 280-281; han- dling sheep, 281; judging, 281- 283; feeding, 283-284. SUos, 295-300, 457. Smuts of grain, 340-341. Soil, 370. Soil formation, 149 ff.; soil and subsoil, 149-150; action of water, 151-152; of air, 152; of ice, 152-153; of heat and cold, 153; of plants and ani- mals, 153-154; soils formed from plants, 154-155; trans- portation of soils, 155; soils formed by water, 155; soils formed by wind, 155-156; soils formed by ice, 156; types of soils, 156-159; soil mass, 156,157; sandy soils, 157- 158; clay soils, 158-159; loam soils, 159; soils of Kansas, 159- 160. Soil improvement, 173 ff., 450: leguminous crops, 173-175: commercial fertilizers, 175; INDEX 467 Soil improvement — concluded. manure, 175-178; humus, 178-182; fertilizers, 396-397. Soil water, 162 ff.; free, 162-163; film, 163-166; increasing water-holding capacity, 166- 167; dry farming, 167-168; erosion, 16S-171. Sorghums, 59 ff., 340, 454, 455; present importance, 59-60; introduction, 60-61; descrip- tion, 61-62; habits of growth, 62; saccharine and non- saccharine, 62-63; seed bed, 64; planting, 64-66; cultiva- tion, 66; harvesting, 66-67; storing, 67; threshing, 67-68; improvement, 68; pasturing, 69; sorghum regions of Kan- sas, 69-70; kernel smut of, 340. Soy beans, 119-120, 455. Speltz — see Emmer. Spinach, 406, 407, 456. Spores, 39-40, 335-336. Spraying, 337, 338, 372 ff.; sprays, 372; Bordeaux mix- ture, 373; what insecticides to use, 373-375; spraying for fungous diseases, 375; spray- ing equipment, 375-376; Colo- rado potato beetle, 372; cod- ling moth, 373; San Jose scale, 374; melon louse, 374. Squash, 394, 406, 456. Stems, 16 ff.; purpose, 16; structure, 16-18; thickening, 18; injuries, 19; storage of food, 19-20; underground, 20- 21. Stolons, 16. Storage, 67. Strawberries, 138, 139, 381, 394, 400-402. Study of agriculture, reasons for, 1 ff. Sudan grass, 455. Sugar beets, 455. Summer fallowing, 168. Sunflowers, 4, 5, 455. Sweet clover, 6, 7, 37. Sweet corn, 456. Sweet potatoes, 406, 408, 455. Teacher, Suggestions to, 447- 449. Timothy, 127, 455. Tobacco, root rot of, 339. Tomatoes, 133-134, 394, 406. 409, 456. Trees, Growing and caring for, 322 ff.; conifers, 322-323; broadleaf trees, 323-324; size of trees for planting, 324-325; how to plant, 325-326; time of planting, 326; cultivation, 326-327; protection, 327-328; trees suitable for Kansas, 329- 330; see, also, Home grounds. Orcharding. Turkeys^see Poultry. Turnips, 407, 415, 455, 456. Vegetable gardening, 404 ff., 450; site, 404-405; care, 405- 406; planning, 406; selecting crops, 406-408; hotbeds, 408- 409; cold frames, 409-410; transplanting, 410-411, Vetch, 455. Water used by plants, 11-14. Watermelons, 30. 468 INDEX Weeds, 143 ff., 283-284; classes, 143-147; barnyard weeds,146: field and garden weeds, 146- 147; pasture weeds, 147-148. Weight of feeding stuffs, 457. Wheat, 72 ff., 91 ff., 101, 133- 138, 330 ff.,455; history, 72-73; tillering, 73-74; types, 74-76; varieties, 76; preparation of the ground, 76-77; plowing, 77-79; listing, 79-80; seed, 80- 81; seeding, 81-83; harvesting, ' Wheat — concluded. 83, 91-92; pasturing, 83; sweat, 92-93; milling Kansas wheats, 93-95; flour machin- ery, 95 ff.; cleaning, 96-97; scouring, 97; tempering, 97- 98; breaking, 98; sifting or bolting, 98; purifying, 98-99; reducing, 99; total production, 99-100; stinking smut, 340; loose smut, 341, 342; rust, 342-343. iil'^'HIIIIIil