H3S!Ss!T? LIPPlNCOft'l EDUCJf/ONAL SERl> FDITED BT THE EDUCATIONAI PROCESS ARTHCR TARY Pf FSHMA- \f Class _^LI&.IA1.^ Book F.IL5_ CopyiightN" COPYRIGHT DEPOSIK LIPPINCOTT'S EDUCATIONAL SERIES EDITED BY MARTIN G. BRUMBAUGH, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. SUPERINTENDENT OK SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA ¥ VOLUME VI Lippincott's Educational Series Editj:d }$y dr. m. g. brumhaugh SujK-riiiteiuleiit of Schools Philadelphia VOl.lTMK I Thinking and Learning to Think By Nathan C. Schakkkkk, Ph.D., LL.D. Superiiiieiuleiit of Public Instruction for tlie State of Pennsylvania. 351 pages. Cloth, |i.25. VOLUMK II Two Centuries of Pennsylvania HiAory By Isaac Suarpi.kss, President of Hav- erford College. 385 pages. Illustrated. Cloth, $1.25. VOLUMK III Hiftory of Education By E. L. ICkmi*, A.M., Principal of State Normal School, East Stroudsburg, Penn- sylvania. 385 pages. Cloth, I1.25. VOIAIMK IV Kant's Elducational Theory By EnwARD Franklin Bucknkr, Ph.D., Prolessor of Philosophy and Palucation in the I'niversity of Alabama. 309 pages. Cloth, I1.25. VOLUMK V The Recitation By Samuhl Hamilton, Ph.D., Superin- tendent of Public Schools, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. 369 pages. Cloth, I1.25. LippiNcoTTs Educational Series THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS BY ARTHUR GARY FLESHMAN, A.M. PEDAGOGY AND TRAINING, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SLII'l'EkY KOCK, PA. ' ' The TnUh shall make you Free ' PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 1908 L, Copyright, 1908 By J. B. LippiNcoTT Company Published July, 1908 U6RARY of CONGRESS twoCupies Heceiv<»(t JUL 3 1SJU8 %fl eye COPY a. Electrotyped a>id printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U. S, A. IN MEMORY OF MY FATHER and MY xMOTHER AUTHOR^S PREFACE '^It is not the search after nor discovery of new ideas that makes an original man, so much as his ability to reclothe the old with some newness of appearance or meaning out of his own individuality." This book attempts to organize a new doctrine of education out of an old theory of thought. The peculiar method of treatment is original but the fundamental principle creating and organizing the educational process is the central truth of all phi- losophy. The trichotomy running through this text is largely a necessary form of thought but it is at the same time a convenient mode of discussion. Each threefold division is organically related to every other in such a manner as to form a systematic whole. The sub-topics throughout the volume are suggestive rather than exhaustive. In this pedagogy the problems of education are taken out of the domain of the mechanical, experi- mental, physiological, physical and psycho-physical and explained as a spiritual process. Education is a spiritual activity rather than a brain activity. The school is ''an organic spiritual unity" and not a material, objective, fixed thing. Teaching is not a mechanical process but a spiritual activity beneath the form. Life itself is not wholly physical and phys- iological but in the last analysis a spiritual process. 7 8 AUTIIOirS PRKFACE Each of these procu'sses is grounded in ;in(I arises out of ;i iinivers.'il process. The hc^ari-heal of Uie worhl is th(^ ihrohhin^ lif(^ of th(^ scJiool, the forma- iiv(^ (Mi(M'f]^y ill lea('liiii«z;, and the <»;erniinal ehuruuit of hfe. The total educational pr()(',(%ss is based upon a world ener«2;y transinutin pupil with a forcu^ which enables him to work out a(d,ually what lu^ is p()t,(*ntially — ■ th(^ doctrine of self-realization and sj)iril>ual freedom. A j)hilosoj)liy in education Ix'comes valuabh^ to tlu^ tea,(dier in proportion as it reveals the huuw law of the Hcliool, as it vitaliz(\s t(^achin^, and as it furnishes the key which unlocks the mysteries of luiman lifc^ Accordin*; to this fundamental process in (Mlucation, tlu* en(M ke;ep constantly be;fe)re the minel the jundamenial 'process in education. 10 AUTHOR'S PREFACE I am indebted to Prof. W. W. Black of the Chicago Normal School for reading the manuscript and mak- ing many valuable suggestions and criticisms. Arthur C. Fleshman. State Normal School, Slippery Rock, Pa. June 1, 1908. EDITOR^S PREFACE Philosophy, in a purely speculative way, observes the operations of the soul, and endeavors to explain these operations in terms of law or method. When any considerable group of mental acts is found to possess common attributes, that group is set aside as a science. As organized data it is accepted for human guidance. Thus science is all the while growing at the expense of philosophy. But the unorganized and unrelated data lying everywhere in the philosopher's workshop still affords abundant exercise for speculation. There is no likelihood that the philosopher will lack for data. Then, too, if all phenomena were fully catalogued, there would yet remain to the speculative thinker many funda- mental problems upon which for all time he may profitably exercise his reflective insight. Thus philosophy is a constant norm in the world of thought. By it all tentative schemes of thought are tested. To it all systems of thought are referred for final orientation and validation. Education, like a score of kindred studies, is a derivative of philosophy, and the value and sig- nificance of referring one's educational doctrine to its philosophic basis is apparent. This treatise is one of a group of kindred studies. The value of any attempt to formulate a pedagogical theory lies in 11 12 EDITOR'S PREFACE the following directions: (a) It compels its readers to go over, once more, the subtle and suggestive relations between pure and applied thought, (b) It should aim to make more lucid than do former treatises this relation, (c) Its^vfelti^^to the educator is conditioned upon the system of speculative thought upon which it rests foV its validity. It is apparent that one does, in applied fields of knowledge, his best work when he comprehends most fully the rational basis and the essential relations of his procedures. We do best what we understand most completely. Otherwise the em- piricist and the ''quack" would lead the world's progress. Teachers need to see clearly and funda- mentally the movements of thought which in the instructional act they aim to develop. This gives rise to vision, the teleologic spirit, without which all teaching is aimless and futile. Teachers deal so constantly with concrete matter, are so environed with unorganized thought-stuff, are so continually living in the realm of devices and special methods that it is easy for them to overlook the more subtle but none the less significant guidance that philosophy affords. It is well to pause betimes and ask ''why" and "whither." The answer must come from philosophy. Speculative thought alone can give adequate account of the reason for our educational processes, and indicate in some fairly definite way the goal of all intellectual endeavor. The justification of this new statement of the basis of educational procedure is conditioned largely EDITOR'S PREFACE 13 by its clearness of statement and its simplicity of treatment. Students of education should be able readily to comprehend the author's meaning. The need is not so much for another statement as for a more lucid statement of the fundamental doctrines that condition and make meaningful the processes of the school. Many systems of speculative thought have been formulated. These necessarily vary greatly both in scope and in method of treatment. From the days of Plato until now philosophic systems of one sort or another have challenged attention and influenced the student of pedagogy. These systems of philoso- phy have run the circle of materialism and ideaUsm. They are as unlike and as confusing as are the teaching processes of untrained teachers. Germany, better perhaps than any other modern state, has produced philosophic minds. Naturally, the student of pedagogy seeks in modern German thought a basis for his attempt to formulate rational guidance for teachers. Among these German phi- losophers it is customary to select Hegel as guide and master. This is due to his radical departure from Fichte and Schelling in denying reality to both the subject and the object and in proclaiming that ideas are the only concrete realities. It follows that the first matter of moment is pure thought, the infinite idea. This idea later objectifies itself in nature, and then the idea regresses, turns upon itself, is perceived by the mind to be after all a product or process of its own activity. Thus, as 14 EDITOR'S PREFACE pure thought, the idea goes forth, like the dove from the ark, only to return to complete unity and identity with itself. This circle being complete it is a relatively simple matter to trace the idea in its circle and to predicate spiritual unity, identity, to the idea in all its wanderings from itself to itself again. Pedagogy seizes eagerly upon this round of the idea and, balancing its status in its objective form with its status in its radically ideal or subjective form, erects a system of applied thought which has peculiar charm. Since this Hegelian idealism is so remote from sense realism it is comparatively easy to frame up a system of applied thought in a fairly definite and, at times, almost dogmatic way. There are no actual experiences near enough the circle to disturb the harmony of the thought movement. The danger lies in its very perfection. It is difficult for the ordinary teacher to see the applica- tion of all this brilliant balancing of thought-school and real-school, just as it is likely to be difficult for those who do see the beauty of the theme to actualize it, make it real with flesh-and-blood chil- dren in an ordinary public school. But the effort to reduce one's ideas to a system is well worth while. Each lives an experience that is unique. Philosophy is the test of this experience. Only in the realm of reflective thought do we find the basis for common understanding and that unity of meaning that makes for system and progress in teaching. We lose the best things in our experience EDITOR'S PREFACE 15 when we fail to make lucid and meaningful that experience in terms of law, in formulae for guidance. Teachers need a clear grasp of a system of pedagogic principles before entering upon the actual work of instruction. This grasp of a theoretic system enables the young teacher to grow by reflecting upon the concrete experiences of his daily duties. The tension between one's real and one's ideal, the awareness of failure to achieve in practice what one visions in thought, is on the side of the will called conscience; on the side of the intellect it may be called interest. Intellectual advance is thus seen to depend upon a vivid realization of the gap between one's theory and one's practice. One's practice cannot rise above one's theory. To have no theory is to invite failure at the outset. To erect a high ideal, to establish an advanced theory is to make possible skillful teaching. It is the constant approach in practice to one's standards in thought that gives inspiration to teaching, that makes for large issues in the realm of the school. One's theory must not rise too high above one's experience lest the tension, the awareness of the gap, lead to discouragement and despair. For that reason it is always wise to couple with one's training in the theory of pedagogics actual practice in teach- ing. This practice gives one a personal experience to be tested and formulated after the fashion of one's theory, and it also gives one the only possible data, that of experience, by which to test the valid- ity, the workableness of one's theory. The more 16 EDITOR'S PREFACE varied and real, and the less artificial and make- believe this experience is, the more valuable it becomes when organized into theoretic guidance. The person who evolves a theory of education, no matter how coherent, gives little sympathy and affords less guidance to growing teachers unless that theory is found to organize and make mean- ingful the vast sum of concrete data given by actual experience in teaching an ordinary school. This volume is an attempt to explain this data of experi- ence in terms of law and of philosophic guidance. The author has had an extended discipline both in the theory and in the practice of educational things, and presents in this volume his best thought as guidance for those who possess the hunger to know the meaning of every act of the teacher in terms of purpose and in formula of law. M. G. B. January 20, 1908. CONTENTS THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS PAGE A. THE SCHOOL PROCESS 19 (a) The Creative Process 19 1. The Spiritual 19 2. The Teacher 29 ,3. The Pupil 39 (6) The Instructive Process 49 1 . The Organization 49 2. The Recitation 59 3. The Curriculum 74 (c) The Humanistic Process 86 1 . The Social 86 2. The ^sthetical 98 3. The Ethical 113 B. THE TEACHING PROCESS 130 (a) The Growth Process 130 1. The Movement 130 2. The Method 156 3. The Purpose 180 (h) The Thinking Process 190 1. The Law 190 2. The Development 210 3. The Doctrine 237 (c) The Life Process 256 1 . The Problem 256 2. The Tension 265 3. The Interpretation 273 C. THE UNIVERSAL PROCESS 283 (a) The Logical Process: Idea 283 (6) The Cosmic Process: Nature 293 (c) The Spiritual Process: Mind 301 BIBLIOGRAPHY 326 INDEX 331 17 The Educational Process THE SCHOOL PROCESS THE CREATIVE PROCESS I. THE SPIRITUAL The School is created by a spiritual force which unifies teacher and pupil. The spiritual (nous, mind, thought, reason, ego) is the generative princi- ple of the world, and the essence and truth of nature. It is in its vital nature, creative and constructive, and is the active element of all thought and all things. The laws of thought are, therefore, the laws of things. '^The secret of the mind is the secret of the universe." The Nature of Spirit. — It is the nature of spirit and spiritual organizations to thirst after ideal attainments. There is an energy in spirit known as ''potential infinitude" which perpetually strug- gles for the highest good. The spiritual unifying principle of the school is a subtle force which not only knits teacher and pupil together, but has the power of transforming the natural pupil into a thinking being. There is an activity in and through the pupil which transmutes him into the realm of 19 20 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS law, order, and reason which is his other, ideal and true self. The school exhibits spirit as a process of working out through the teacher and subject-matter all the potentiality found in the undeveloped child. To understand any thing, it is necessary to probe into its creative energy and to analyze its creative process. To grasp the inner nature of the school and to understand its creative process, we Creative are ushcrcd into a study of spirit itself. One of the knotty problems of the world is to gain a clear conception of the creative power of spirit. However, we are taught that its chief function is to separate itself from itself and to make itself its own '^ polar opposite." The school created by an organic unity of teacher and pupil is the polar opposite of mind. It is also the nature of spirit not only to create its otherness (the school) but to gain its freedom by a return from this creation to itself again. J. F. K. Rosenkranz says: " Mind has reality only in so far as it produces it for itself." Spirit stamps its own nature upon the school in the creative act and produces in the spiritual organ- ism an activity akin to itself. The living spirit not only creates the Formative school, but is the formatlvc principle of all things. Whatever is, is mind, thought, idea, before it becomes objective reality. The mind pencil exists before the material pencil. The ideal creates the real, but the real returns upon the ideal and performs that function for which it was created. THE SPIRITUAL 21 The house exists as idea before it springs into objec- tivity. Thought molds brick and mortar into a house. If it were possible to jerk out deftly the thought in the house, it would return to brick and mortar. Ships and railroad trains, bridges and cities are thoughts externalized. The world itself is a thought of God made objective, and all science, a process of unfolding, developing, and learning this thought. In the last analysis the school and the world are at heart one. An explanation of the school and, therefore, of all educative processes rests upon the solid rock foundation of cosmic philosophy. universal So far as we know, the universe is a crea- Tension tive energy constantly struggling between poten- tiality and actuality. This universal tension found in the physical world is transmitted into all organic existence. Within the plant there is a pent-up force which causes it to struggle for higher forms of life. The animal has an added increment of life, but still possesses the same tendencies to grow, to develop and to increase in size and strength. In addition to this same world energy found in the plant and the animal, man has the ability to set up his own ideals, and by force of mind to transmute himself into these higher possibilities. He has the ability to create an educational institution which he uses as a means of self-reahzation. The school is analyzed into the spirit of the teacher, and the spirit of the pupil unified and organized by the spirit of the world, the creating, originating, pulse-beating, har- monizing and world-producing energy. 22 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The School Organism. — The inner nature of the school is found to be the ultimate principle of the world. The laws of nature and the inner law of the school are spiritual and can be grasped by thought only. Natural laws are great spiritual threads running through the universe which make it thinkable. If nature were without law or reason, it would be unknown to the human mind. Since knowledge is possible, mind finds itself in all reality, physical, institutional and educational. Both the school and nature are governed by law or reason. A natural law and the law of the school may each be defined as an observed order of facts. In nature the flower blooms and the tree Natural Law /•i«i xi iii puts forth its leaves. In the school there is an organic spiritual unity of teacher and pupil. The human mind is not satisfied with uniformity in nature and in the school, but seeks a cause which explains this constant order of things. The keen intellect of Newton demonstrated in mathematical and physical terms ('' directly as the mass and inversely as the square of the distance") the action of force which is the root-idea of law. Force is a form of thought and a form of things and is the inherent nature of the school organism. The educator is struggling to ascertain the nature and action of this spiritual force which is the creating, controlling and organizing factor of the school. To understand the final cause or doctrine of the school and nature, it is necessary to examine that THE SPIRITUAL 23 phase of law which has for its object, the accomplishment of a function or pur- pose. The flower blooms that its species may be perpetuated. The spiritual creates the school that it may realize its essence, — freedom. Spirit not only produces itself in the school, but attains its freedom in its otherness. The thought of unfolding the spiritual nature of the child creates the school. The objective school returns upon the thought school and accomplishes the purpose of its creation. The external objective school is a means between a thought and school its realization. Thought or reason is the essence of the school and the material, objective, fixed school is merely an auxiliary factor in the process. The mind school exists before the matter school. Some educational thinkers are materialists and believe that the objective school is the real thing itself. Materialism teaches that matter seeks a central point, and if it realizes its ideal, it perishes. Idealism teaches that the essence of spirit is freedom, and that its realization is life and activity. The materialist thinks the school as dead; the idealist, as living, growing and developing. According to the doctrine of identity the material school is in and through the spiritual, and the ideal school is in and through the material. Perhaps the deepest truth found in the study of the school is the fact, that the principle which creates the school is the subject-matter of all studies in the school. The thought or reason in science. 24 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS history, literature, and other subjects is at the same time the creative energy which produces the school. That force lurking in the school organism which causes it to come into existence and to grow, is the same energy (in nature) which creates the plant, the animal, society, the state, and the church, and causes them to grow and to develop into higher forms of existence. In each there is a struggle The Inner bctwecn the real and the ideal, the poten- struggie ^j^j ^j^^ ^l^g actual, and between what is and what ought to be. The unity between the ideal and the actual, the individual and the universal is never attained, but it is still the goal (gold) of all human endeavor. H. S. Nash says: " The may-be and the ought-to-be gather in force on the frontiers of the is to daunt and disturb it." This tension is the heart of the world and the life of the school. Through this struggle the real school is striving constantly to become the ideal school, and the real pupil, the ideal scholar. The school is a spiritual process of working out actually through the teacher what the pupil is potentially. The school, society and the state are conditions in which freedom is realized. The spirit- Freedom ual creates and organizes the school and Realized brcathcs into it the life of reason. The objective school is a means by which the spiritual attains its final purpose. It is spatial and is the em- bodiment of rational freedom realizing and recognizing itself in the objective school-house and school-plant. THE SPIRITUAL 25 The spiritual energy creating the school is a similar process to the vital energy creating the oak. The productive energy of the school is as essential to its growth and development as the germinal matter of the acorn is necessary to the growth of the oak tree. In order that the acorn may germinate it requires soil, rain and sunshine. That the school may grow and function properly requires a teacher and a pupil as essential factors and the objective school as the non-essential. The school is an endoge- nous organism growing and developing from within. The law of its being originates from within rj,^^ and is not externally imposed. The inner inner Law law of the school is created by an organic spiritual unity of the essential factors. To understand this law and to follow its precepts require a close study of the unified action of the mind of the teacher and the mind of the pupil in the educational process. The school organism is an institution by which the individual pupil attains the consciousness of his own freedom. Unity in Difference. — The spiritual is the cen- tral factor of the creative process of the school and binds the other two elements, teacher and pupil, into a unity presupposed in their difference. These organic elements could not be linked together, were there no common nature binding them. A pupil is a distinct entity from the teacher, p^pn and but at the same time essentially related Teacher through the mutual element of spirituality. The consciousness of a pupil is inseparately related to 26 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS the consciousness of a teacher, for an individual does not become pupil only in relation to teacher. We know pupil only in organic, spiritual unity with teacher and a teacher cannot exist only in relation to an individual to be taught. This relation which binds the two together is a spiritual force and cannot be ascertained by sense-perception, but by a process of thought. The two essential factors of the school gravitate toward a third which embraces both and constitutes their ultimate existence. The pupil is essentially distinguished yet organically related to the teacher. Each has no meaning except in opposition to the Ultimate othcr and no significance apart from the ^"'^^ other. The ultimate meaning of teacher is wrapped up in pupil, and the essential nature of pupil is in and through teacher. Wc arc finally led to think of the two vital elements of the school as a manifestation of a higher third. This third realizes itself by uniting its otherness in a bond of activity constituting the school. Recognizing pupil and teacher as "indivisible yet necessarily opposed, as incapable of identification yet necessarily related, we are forced to seek the secret of their being in a higher principle, of whose unity they in their action and reaction are the manifestation." Their dis- tinction is found in their relation and their inde- pendence in their connection. "Hence, we are compelled to think of them both as rooted in a still higher principle, which is at once the source of their relatively independent existence and the all-em- THE SPIRITUAL 27 bracing unity that limits their independence." This eternal principle is the spiritual, which, in its highest manifestation, is the source of mankind and binds human beings together in an educational institution. The school organism presupposes a germinal principle which organizes and differenti- ates, which is hfe giving, and which moves the institution created to realize itself. Race Experience. — The Orientals do not under- stand that spirit is free. The consciousness of spiritual freedom first arose among the Greeks. However, the ancient Greek spirit was not entirely free, but depended upon the impression and stimu- lus of nature. Their thinking was conditioned by coming in contact with the natural. They listened to the murmuring fountains and gave objective existence a subjective meaning. The Greek spirit was not only observant but creative, not only per- ceptive but interpretative. It had the power to comprehend the meaning of the external world and to translate it into terms of intellectual and spiritual activity. The Greek spirit is not self- Evolution determining, not yet absolutely free, but ^^ i^'^'^edom must rely upon nature to give the impulse to thought. The element of subjectivity not realized by the Greeks was found among the Romans. This people represent the dawn of the principle of subjective inwardness. The mind now turns in upon itself and becomes abstract and universal. A political constitution is placed over the individual which creates personality, legal rights and private property. 28 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The creation of the State as well as the creation of the School is a subjective process which causes the individual to retreat into the inner sanctum of the self and has for its ultimate purpose spiritual freedom. The Germans, influenced by Christianity, were the first to attain the consciousness that man as such is free. They arrived at the doctrine that the freedom of spirit is that which constitutes its essence. They, therefore, really worked out the problem that the school is to the pupil what universal history is to the race: "A progress in the consciousness of Freedom." — G. W. F. Hegel. II. THE TEACHER The School is a spiritual organism, created by the teacher unifying himself with the pupil through the thought and spirit of the world. It is, therefore, self-evident that the ultimate essence of both the school and the teacher, is thought. In fact, a teacher could not exist without being the embodiment of reason, for a thinking mind pre- supposes a spiritual principle to be thought. Subject without object is unthinkable. ''The school is an organic spiritual unity" which grows and develops by the inherent power of reason which is not only the life of the world, but the essential nature of both teacher and pupil. spiritual It is a fundamental law of spiritual life ^°'^^ that thought can grow only by coming in contact with thought. The school is that organic process of uniting mind with mind, of fusing soul with soul, and of unifying life with life in such a manner as to strengthen all that is truest, noblest, and best in humanity. The Function. — The teacher is the mediating, organizing, and directing agency between the pupil and the world of thought. It is the func- Function tion of the teacher to analyze, to system- of Teacher atize and to present the subject of study in such a manner, that the unfolding order of the subject will 29 30 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS exactly correspond to the unfolding order of the mind of the pupil to be taught. The teacher must understand the logical order of the subject and the psychological order of the mind to be developed. The teacher finds his true life in the thought processes of the world as embodied in all branches of study. The pupil finds his better self in the life of the teacher and, finally traces out the thought of the world through the modified thought processes of the teacher. The pupil realizes what the teacher Constant idcalizes. The teacher is actually what stress lY^Q pupil is potentially. What the pupil hopes to accomplish, the teacher has already at- tained. The teacher has realized to-day what thought was yesterday, and what the pupil is struggling to attain to-morrow. There is a constant stress or tension between the thinking teacher and the world to be thought, and between the pupil thinking the thought of the world and the teacher thinking the thought of the pupil. The teacher should be to the pupil what the Great Stone Face was to Ernest. As Ernest grew into the likeness of the Great Stone Face, so should the pupil grow into the ideal character of the true and noble teacher. It is the law of life that we grow into the The Law ideal which the soul sets up. This law is Of Life ^YiQ fundamental principle of human life and is known as the tension between the real and the ideal, between what is and what ought to be. The teacher is not only the pupil's ideal, but he THE TEACHER 31 acts as a powerful incentive in drawing the pupil to that ideal. In fact the teacher is the pupil's other self, the better self, the ideal self, and should assist that self as he would help himself. It should be the function of the teacher to present every lesson in such a manner that it will exert a dominant influence upon the spiritual forces of the world. The thought in every lesson should disturb the mind of the child, give him new ideals and new tendencies in life. Every lesson should be Every taught so as to affect the whole life of the ■^®^^''° child. Suppose the child is taught to-day that heat expands bodies. This truth illuminates his mind perhaps in his first lesson in reading, explains the origin and nature of winds and ocean currents in geography, and gives the expert scientist the fundamental principle in physics. If it be true, that every idea disturbs the entire life of the child — and it does — the teacher should not only know the subject in and through itself, but in terms of the pupil's life. Unless the teacher has that keen insight which enables him to penetrate into the dim future life of the pupil, and to realize the ultimate influence of a lesson, he has neither a moral nor a pedagogical right to assist in the educative process. The teacher must see arithmetic, history and geography as an unfolding process in the life of the pupil. He must be able to resolve lessons and subjects into the mental processes of the pupil and to bring them into unity with the pupil's entire life movement. 32 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The Teacher's Characteristics. — The essential char- acteristics of the teacher are aptness, skill, tact, insight, enthusiasm, sociability, proper tempera- ment, charming personality, ethical refinement, personal magnetism and knowledge academic and professional. The apt teacher is one who is naturally adjusted to the profession and whose life seems to be in harmony with the spirit of the school. An indi- vidual having an aptitude to teach, to govern, to inspire and to elevate is a jewel of the first order and certainly has some divine guidance. Aptness is a characteristic diffi- cult to describe but invaluable to the teacher. A skillful teacher uses the means and mental energy to an advantage and never permits the mechanical phase of the school to be in bondage to the spiritual. The skillful teacher becomes tactful by reducing the machinery of the school to the minimum and operating the school as a spiritual energy to the end of spiritual growth. Skill and tact are acquired by practice in and through a profound knowledge of the teaching process. To be tactful or skillful in teach- ing one must realize that the inner nature of the school is a spiritual process and that the external phase of the school and of teaching should be made to harmonize with the inner life. No teacher can be successful and inspire pupils who is not enthusiastic. Enthusiasm in the pro- fession or in the subject taught begets enthusiasm. THE TEACHER 33 Without enthusiasm, some one says, one is already dead. There may be perfunctory teaching without enthusiasm but no teacher devoid of this essential attribute will ever be classed among those who have been called truly great. Observe a room in the presence of an enthusiastic teacher filled with the missionary spirit and notice how the pupils are controlled as if by magic. A lazy, indif- ferent teacher, although a profound scholar, will be a failure in the school-room. But a teacher filled with enthusiasm and having a keen insight into the structure of the school and the function of the teaching process becomes a past master in the profession. The teacher attains insight by a reflective study of the nature of the educational process. The teacher of insight is the individual who has a philosophical grasp of mind in interaction upon matter. It is a growth process and is attained only by persistent study and reflection. Sociability is a charming virtue and a power- ful element in teaching and in government, and absolutely necessary to a successful teacher. A charming personality captivates children, „ , . • 1 J. Sociability transforms chaos mto cosmos, gives beauty and tone to the school and is a most potent factor in the make up of a teacher. The social teacher has personal magnetism and attracts as the magnet. The real teacher possesses a constitutional capability that bafHes description and definition. The artistic teacher must have knowledge, it is true, but he must also have a keen insight into the inner structure 3 34 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The Real ^^^ functioii of the school. Possessing Teacher these natural, temperamental capabili- ties and having a well-trained mind, the teacher is fully equipped to meet the problems of the school. He becomes artistic in his teaching and governs the school not from external authority but from internal spiritual power. The teacher has not really controlled the pupil, has not made him free, until he has caused him to control himself. In the light of reason, which is the supreme principle of both the world and the school, the pupil sets up his own standard of conduct and through his own freedom subjects himself to the inner law of his being which is also the absolute law of the universe. The true teacher loves the profession, loves child life and has the power and ability to inspire pupils to higher life by causing them to study, to think, to learn, to grow. An ideal teacher should have the creative ability of an artist, the profound knowledge of a philosopher and an attractive and pleasing personality. To obtain the ideal of ideals ^^^^ in teaching, the teacher should acquire what Cicero sums up to be the requisites of a true orator, namely: ''The acuteness of the logician, the subtilty of the philosopher, the skillful harmony of a poet, the memory of jurisconsult, the tragedian's voice, and the gesture of the most skillful actor. '^ The teacher should be a truth seeker and truth lover. Truth has been defined to be the complete correspondence of the objective with the subjective. It names and defines reality, that which is. The THE TEACHER 35 mind lives and grows and breathes in an atmos- phere of truth. Every truth grasped and thought by the human mind adds power and force to the individual. A true teacher must be ,j,j.^^j^ devoted to truth, devoted to study, ^^^^^"^ devoted to knowledge, and devoted to teaching. He is the apostle of truth, the guardian of mind development, and the cupbearer of intelligence. The teacher thinks and the pupil thinks, the teacher works and the pupil works, the teacher is devoted to truth "For Truth's own sake,'' and the pupil is devoted to truth for the teacher's sake and for his own sake. Truth mirrors goodness, beauty and the divine essence. It is through the teacher that the pupil gains a knowledge of truth and thereby attains his freedom. The Professional vs. Academic Training. — The teacher's knowledge differs from the scholar's knowledge. Academic instruction is a distinct proc- ess from professional training. The former ascer- tains the facts, relations, forces, processes and laws of a subject; the latter sets forth the mental proc- esses found in learning a subject. The professional aspect explains the mind's way of thinking grammar, history and other subjects. It enables the teacher to think not only history but to think the mind's way of thinking history. Academic instruction is a single mental process of thinking the subject. Professional training is a double mental process of thinking the subject into the mind of the child and thinking the child's mind while thinking the subject. 36 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Professional Professionalisin requires a knowledge of Training ^]^g psychology of the subject in organic unity with the psychology of the mind. The psychology of a subject is not something added to the subject; it is in and through the subject. It is the necessary step which the mind takes in learn- ing a subject. Professional training presupposes academic knowledge. It is impossible to think how to think a subject without first thinking the subject. A fact is a fact only as it is related to mind. Some one says: "A fact is a thing made, and its maker is a process of thought, and this process of thought is a functioning mind. " Hence academic and professional knowledge are in organic unity and both necessary in the prepara- tion of a teacher. To teach successfully requires a thorough knowl- edge of subject-matter. The subject must be known in and through itself and in terms of related sciences. To teach English grammar in the most successful manner one should understand rhetoric, logic, psychology, linguistics and philology. To know a subject and to be able to teach it accurately and successfully, it is necessary to study it in all its relations. Scholarship or general knowl- edge is the first requisite in the prepara- tion of a teacher. The teacher should have a knowledge of mathematics, science, history, lan- guage, literature and art before specializing in any particular subject. Since education is knowing THE TEACHER 37 something of everything and everything of some- thing, specialization logically follows general culture. In addition to academic knowledge to be taught, a teacher must make a study of pedagogy, psychol- ogy, logic, ethics, sociology, aesthetics, philosophy and the history of education. These subjects give the student what is generally known as professional preparation for teaching. Professional training also includes observation of expert teaching and actual practice in a model school. Practice in teaching should be under the direction of an educator of large training and experience who can criticise and unify theory and practice. The student-teacher should plan his own lessons, be responsi- ble for government in teaching, and be permitted to teach under normal conditions. An ideal Model School is one in which the teacher initiates and puts into practice the best possible theory at hand and is not restrained by the critic teacher. If the teach- ing is not in harmony with the best educational doctrine, then the critic teacher should suggest the proper mode of procedure, but still the student- teacher must originate his own lesson plans. Professionalism also explains the nature of the physical school. The outer school is the shell in which the inner spiritual school is housed. The physical school should be of such a nature . . . . The Inner as to assist the inner school in performing And the its true function. The inner unity of teacher and pupil determines the size of the school- room and the class to be taught, explains the mean- 38 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS ing of school hygiene and school decoration and gives the key to school management. The condi- tion of the school-room, the text-books and appa- ratus are physical means of spiritual activity. When the physical school is equipped to harmonize with the inner law of the school, then the ideal will attain its freedom in the real. The material school becomes the universal school and freedom in teach- ing has been realized. The freedom which the teacher has attained, is the ideal school properly functioning in the real. The struggle is now ended; peace and comfort are secured; ideal teaching becomes actual; the potential develops into the real; what ought to be, is. This unification of the objective and subjective school is rarely attained but should be the goal sought for in every educative process. III. THE PUPIL Thought is the generative principle of the school; the teacher is the cooperating, coordinating and correlating agency, but the final purpose of the school is the spiritual freedom of the pupil. The pupil is organically related to the teacher by means of thought and grows and develops into spiritual life in proportion to the intensity of the mental combat between the teacher and pupil. The school may be defined as the spirit of the teacher flashing across the rising soul of the pupil in streaks of reel, living thought of science, literature, art, history, philosophy and other subjects. The School Essence. — The essential nature of the school is spiritual and not material. If it were possible to tie silk threads from the brain of each ">upil to the brain of the teacher, these The threads would represent the school from a Material materialistic standpoint. These material threads are the organizing principle and hold the school intact. The brain, however, is merely the physical basis of mind. Brain tied to brain does not constitute a school. Education is not brain development so much as spiritual devel- opment. Perceiving, imaging, thinking, learning and knowing are not brain processes but mind processes. 39 40 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Since the school has been defined as an organic spiritual process, let us, therefore, tie the minds of the pupils to the mind of teacher by an immaterial thread. This force of soul fusing with soul, this activity of mind in unity with mind represents in its deepest meaning the true nature of the school. The constructive principle of the school is soul unity. The ultimate essence of the school is the living unity between the teacher and the Spiritual taught who are opposite poles of the same reality, the school, but yet are at heart one. The thinking mind of the pupil harmonizing with the thinking mind of the teacher, creates an institution called the school. However, the teacher rarely has the power to think the pupils together in that organic unity characteristic of the true school. The connecting link becomes broken. Pupils are in the school-room but out of school. They may be materially present but at the same time spiritually absent. The heart of the school is found in neither the pupil nor the teacher. The inner sanctum sanctorum of the school is neither the spirit of the teacher nor the spirit of the pupil but the two unified and organized into one vitalizing power. In the last analysis of the school the pupil sets up his own ideal and strives to transform his real into his ideal self. The heart of the school is finally School- located in the soul of the pupil struggling Essence f^j. gelf-realizatiou. The process of trans- forming the real into the ideal and making every ideal a stepping stone to a real is the school-essence. THE PUPIL 41 The teacher assists in the educational process, but the pupil's self-evolution is accomplished by his own spiritual activity. The cosmic principle is again seen to be the heart of the school. There is a world energy which trans- forms the possible into the actual. Scientists tell us that this universal force is transmuted worid into all organic life. Since the school is Energy an organic institution, its inner law, the tension between the teacher and the pupil, is at last trans- ferred into the life and struggle of the pupil. This life-evolving principle, inherent in the child, ulti^ mately becomes the inner essence of the school. It has been said, as is the teacher, so is the school, but a more fundamental maxim would be, as is the pupil, so is the school. The pupil is the central factor of the school around which all 1 • T mi 1 1 #• 1 The Pupil other agencies cluster, ihe school lund, the school-house, the teacher, the apparatus and the school authorities all cooperate toward the self- reahzation of the pupil. The whole educational proc- ess tends to the advancement and freedom of the individual pupil. The old theory that the teacher is the school, must be replaced by the more modern and fundamental theory that the pupil is the school. School flanagement. — If this reasoning be cor- rect, then all school government should be pupil self-government. If the school is evolved pupn seif- out of the inner consciousness of the Government pupil, then it would be logical and psychological to conclude that he and he alone should control the 42 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS management of the school. It has been demon- strated in recent years, that a school can be so taught that it will become self-governing. As soon as the pupil comes in contact with the community life of the school, he should be taught that he can and must assist in controlling the school. Pupil self-government comes from within rather than from without. It is created by subjective thinking and not by external authority. By means of friendly discussions concerning school government, the pupil soon realizes the importance and duty of self-con- trol. He finally considers it a privilege and a duty which he owes to the community life of the school to help others to control themselves. Democratic school government should not be thrust upon pupils, but should be the outgrowth of days and months of careful consideration and explanation of the nature and art of school manage- ment. Pupils should be taught that the school is an organic spiritual unity existing between teacher and pupil and when a pupil whispers in school or bolts a recitation he has spiritually cut himself loose from the school. As the pupil is the focal centre of the school he through his own volition can and may destroy it. He can do that which if done by all pupils would annihilate the institution. As the offence is internal and spiritual, the Outer Deed ^ ^ i i - i x x Versus puuishmeut should be mner and not outer. As he spiritually cuts himself loose from the school, he must be spiritually and not cor- porally punished. Lead him to see his error. THE PUPIL 43 Let him meditate a day or two without reciting. The teacher might have him write a composition on whispering or bolting in order that he may see clearly his mistake. The pupil carefully analyzes the offence and finally concludes that the outer deed is but an externalization of an inner spiritual condition. The pupil is a spiritual member of the school and when he breaks the unity with the teacher and the school he must by an act of his own mind restore the broken unity. When a pupil commits a wrong deed it should be his duty and not the teacher's to right the wrong. Since the school is a spiritual organization the pupil and not the teacher can restore this broken unity by think- ing himself into harmony with the life of the school. Suppose after the pupil has struggled sometime, he does not right the wrong. What is the ultimatum? How about corporal punishment or expulsion from school? Suppose some one should enter the school- room, upset the stove and throw the blackboard out the window. What should be done? The school would be destroyed by either act, and each should be punished corporally perhaps, expelled perhaps, but brought under subjection to law, kindly if possible, harshly if necessary. Then is pupil self-government a failure? Is the moral law a failure? Neither is a failure, but each embraces the highest ideals known in pedagogy and ethics. A close study of pupil self-government reveals the fact that many petty troubles inside and outside the school-room may be settled by the pupils them- 44 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS selves. By this mode of school management pupils become more self-respectful, more thoughtful, more dignified and habitually more interested in the general welfare of the school. They are taught to become useful and influential citizens of a school community and thereby prepared to become better citizens of a state or nation. By means of the elective franchise pupils soon learn to read character and to understand the importance of electing able and trustworthy officials. By studying the nature of community life the pupil sees clearly that it is his duty according to the common law, the statute law and the moral law to testify when called upon and to be actively engaged in securing the best government possible. The final purpose of school government is to train pupils in the habit of self-government, self- control and self-direction. Conduct and order in school are secured through the teaching process. Teach to govern rather than govern to teach. The only government worth any thing in school is that obtained through interest and delight in the subject studied. Discipline through external means, by the authority of the teacher, by rules adopted by the Board of Trustees or by the State itself is not satisfactory unless it leads the pupil finally to control himself. The external means to secure this inner condition are a thorough and systematic knowledge of the subjects to be taught, artistic skill in teaching and managing a class, love for the child and love for the profession and a THE PUPIL 45 determination to succeed by moral suasion rather than by brute force. Pupil self-government is the ideal to be aimed at in all school management. However, special pupil organization seems to be '^useless experience and expensive machinery." The School City, Demo- cratic government as worked out in the Chicago schools, and the George Junior League of New York are examples of modern ideas in school government. Universal Synthesis. — In an ideal school there Is a universal synthesis between teacher and pupil and between the various forces and factors of the school. It is the function of the school to cause the pupil to realize the spiritual principle which exists in his own nature and which is the ultimate reality of all things to be studied. The universal is the unifying force of the school and binds all parts into an organic whole. In studying Unifying the creative process of the school the student should ''find the unity of law under the difference of facts, and the unity of a higher principle under the difference of laws.'' This insight into the inner reality of the school reveals a necessary spiritual interrelation between pupil, teacher and subject-matter. To grasp a knowledge of this complete synthesis of the school leads the individual gradually into a unity of the world other than him- self and the school. This fundamental principle which organizes the school and which is one with the eternal reason of the world is finally transmuted into mind terms by the pedagogical student. 46 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The pupil does not lose his identity in the school organism, is not wholly absorbed by the superior thought of the teacher, but should be the initiative force in the educational process. Modern Initiation of pedagogy puts emphasis upon the initia- tion of the pupil in the recitation. He studies, thinks, originates, plans and in some schools formulates the course of study through his own process of thought. The class is formed in a social group and the recitation is begun by the pupil making a formal statement of some fact. This statement may be questioned, denied or approved by a further discussion of the subject. This fact or principle is further elaborated by some one, and the entire recitation is based upon the mental movement of the pupil guided and directed by the teacher. Notwithstanding, the pupils may have full control of the recitation, there is a complete synthesis of mind, heart and soul of the pupils and the teacher becomes the final authority and source of knowledge on all subjects. The pupil takes the initiative in government, in instruction, on the playground, in literary societies, and is constantly trained in those problems requiring original thought. In the trichotomy creating the school, the spiritual synthesizes, the teacher analyzes and the pupil through his own creative energy makes the organism complete. Freedom Realized. — The pupil is the focal centre of the school from the view-point of both instruc- tion and government. He is seeking freedom in THE PUPIL 47 knowledge and freedom in control. His actions are free when control arises from within, and his thoughts are free when he finds behind all existence, material and institutional, a self-activity, a soul akin to his own. The knowledge process is complete when the pupil finds himself in everything, in the school, in literature, in science, in art, in history, and in all studies. The managing process is com- plete when the caprice of the pupil is changed to harmonize with the rational order of the school. Law and reason are characteristics of both the pupil and the school, and when the pupil conforms to the divine order of the school he realizes his true worth and destiny. The law and order of the school harmonize with the rational order of the universe. The pupil must lose his life in this ration- ality in order to find his life truly realized. The school is the rational nature of the pupil "writ large" to which he must respond in all his acts and forms of conduct. The ultimate ideal in g^^f_ the school process is the self-realization of Reaiizatioa the individual pupil. This put in other terms, is rational freedom which elevates the pupil into the highest plane of life possible. The law of the school now becomes the law of the pupil in and through the law of the world. The creative process of the school becomes the life process of the pupil in and through cosmic processes which are the manifesta- tion of reason itself. This universal principle of reason is the creative and constructive force of the school and is the deepest principle found in human 48 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS nature. Since both the school and the pupil are manifestations of this principle of reason, the supreme element in both is not mechanical and material, but rational and spiritual. The pupil becomes free, has realized his true nature when conduct and control spring up in the life of the pupil spontaneously without the aid of an external organization. The pupil obeys the inherent law of his own nature, and his actions in school are regu- lated by this divine principle. The pupil realizes his freedom, attains his ultimate good and highest state of pupilage when his life is made to throb with the life of the school in and through the life of the world other than himself. THE SCHOOL PROCESS THE INSTRUCTIVE PROCESS IV. THE ORGANIZATION It has been stated that the subjective school is created by an organic unity of teacher and pupil through the thought of the world. Corresponding to this ideal school, the objective school must now be organized as a means to the realization of the school idea. The creative principle in the subjective process now externalizes itself in the objective organization. To organize a school is to secure a definite rela- tionship between teacher and pupil, to form classes, establish grades, and to program the whole move- ment. Pupils must be carefully seated, skillfully moved, and artistically ques- tioned. Books and apparatus should be used at the proper time and in the proper manner. The external relationship of teacher and pupil should harmonize with the internal activity of the ideal school. The Class. — Pupils having the same advance- ment and reciting at the same time and place form a class. Pupils forming classes must be . , ., , . . . Class m unity with the subject-matter, m unity with the teacher, and in cooperative unity with each other. The class is an organism within an 4 49 60 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS organism; a function within a function. Classifi- cation does not depend upon age, nor primarily upon the physical condition of the child but wholly upon intellectual capacity. Pupils who can think the same subject-matter in unison with the teacher constitute a class. To teach the class is to teach the social mind organized out of the individuals. The social consciousness of the class is the individual mind of all pupils centered upon one thought. The teacher's mind must harmonize with the social mind and at the same time be in active unity with the thought of the lesson. Class instruction is much Social better than individual instruction; it Mind inspires the pupils to greater activity; it creates a spirit of emulation among the pupils and produces a higher form of mental activity in the pupils. While no two pupils may have the same degree of progress, all should have approxi- mately the same scholarship to be in the same class. To classify pupils properly it is necessary to make frequent promotions based upon accurate scholar- ship. Pupils are frequently well classified in arith- metic and at the same time are not well classified in reading. The classification may be good in gram- mar and poor in history, but real classification means a general average of the pupil's knowledge in all the subjects. Good classification naturally leads to good gradation. Good gradation is in and through good classification. Dr. Wm. T. Harris writes: THE ORGANIZATION 51 "That a properly conducted class recitation is of far greater value than individual instruction is obvious from the consideration that the contents of the lesson are stated over and over by different pupils of the class, criticised and . ^\^^^ discussed, illustrated from the experience of different pupils, and the pupil has the advantage of seeing how his fellows encounter and surmount such difficulties as he himself meets." The Grade. — The grade is an organic part of the course of study and is based upon the growth and development of the mind of the pupil. Pupils constituting a grade move through school Hfe at the same time. It is exceedingly difficult to grade pupils in all subjects accurately on account of the varied ability in the different branches. The grade may be ideal in reading but imperfect in arithmetic. In order to preserve a well graded school, it is necessary to constantly adjust the pupils to new grades to correspond to their advancement. Dr. Arnold Tompkins says: "As a school is truly classified when the members of a class can join with the greatest profit in the same act of instruction, so a school is truly graded when each pupil in his forward movement follows the continuity of ideas determined by the natural growth of his mind. " To grade a school requires a prearranged course of study based upon the law of child growth and development. In attempting to work out a graded system it may be necessary at first 'Ho cross grade." Perhaps it may be necessary for three pupils of the fourth grade to recite arithmetic in the third grade. This pseudo-gradation will gradually develop itself 52 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS into a clear-cut distinction and arrange- ment of perfect grades. School organi- zation and gradation must always respond to the inner subjective school. A grade must never be fixed and mechanical but flexible and adjustable to the life of the school. A school is a living and growing organism and must gradually throw off the outer shell to give vent to inner growth. Perfect gradation, promotion and demotion should be based upon the actual work done in the daily recitations rather than upon examinations. Written tests may constitute a part of the daily work but formal examinations should not be made the entire basis for promotion and gradation. ''The Lock-Step" problem in education may be solved by adjusting monthly the outer mechanical phase of the school to the inner spiritual movement. The outer form must grow and change itself to harmonize with the inner throbbing organism. The ideal school is struggling with the real, the individual with the universal, the what is, with the what ought to be. Again we find the heart of the school to be a polarity between two opposing forces. The Program. — No school can be taught suc- cessfully without a definite program of daily reci- tation and study placed in such a position that both teacher and pupils may see at a glance the movement of the school. This program should be flexible but at the same time it should be the basis of all school work and be in harmony with the course of study. It is just as necessary to run a THE ORGANIZATION 53 school by a program as it is to run a railroad train by a time-table- There will be just as many collisions in the school as on the railroad; as many disastrous wrecks of the mind in the former, as wrecks of body on the latter. By means of a daily program of study and recitation pupils are kept in organic unity with the teacher not only in the recitation but also in the study hour because they are tracing out the thoughts planned by the teacher in the lesson assigned. School organization presupposes a definite pro- gram of study and recitation thought out and lived through in the mind of the teacher before the first day of school. The teacher must think ^^^ and live the first day in idea before he ^'""^^ ^^y experiences it as an objective reality. Such a definite method of procedure planned before the organization of the school gives the teacher con- fidence, ease, and. equipoise, and enables him to move quickly and accurately in unifying the various forces and factors of the school. How to Organize. — In order to organize a school it is essential to have a definite knowledge of the classes and grades, of the size and condition of the school-room, and to understand thoroughly the course of study to be taught. Having these pre- requisites in mind, a school should be so organized that in a few moments each pupil will be actively engaged in studying and reciting. After a few preliminary remarks (the shorter, the better,) the teacher announces that each pupil may look over 54 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS the first reading lesson. AVhile studying these lessons, the teacher hears a prelim- inary lesson in arithmetic and at the same time assigns a lesson in grammar. He then hears each lesson in reading and assigns the next lesson for study, and in three minutes after the school is called to order each pupil is studying and reciting and the school organism is performing its function as accurately and harmoniously as on the middle or last day of school. Prior to this actual organization a school must be secured, a contract made, the teacher located, and a full knowledge of the what, the when, and the how of the first day of school. The opening exercise is the first act in the preliminary organization because it focalizes and unifies all minds to a com- mon school thought. These exercises should be scriptural, literary, scientific, historical, biographical and mythological. The Inner vs. the Outer. — As all content has its form and all noumena, their phenomena, so all the elements of the inner subjective school have their corresponding external objective phases known as the machinery of the school. There is a military side of the school; calling classes, arranging appa- schooi ratus, receiving and dismissing pupils. Machinery j^^^ -^j^ig material phase of the school process is but a means of the deeper movement. When too much attention is given to the mechanism of the school the higher spiritual life is destroyed. The highest ideal is not military precision, but THE ORGANIZATION 55 thought precision; not the manipulation of school means but the manipulation of mind in the total educational process. The fundamental principle underlying the com- plex activities of the school is the inner law of the school organism. ''The law of an organism is its own inherent energy moving forward by variety of functions in unity, to realize the end Law of an which called forth the organism.'' Within organism the school there is an inherent force (mind in unity with mind) which causes it to accomplish the pur- pose of its existence. Also within the plant, animal, state, church and school there is a pent-up force (energy strugghng with energy) which seeks its realization through a tension of the ideal and real, a polarity between the actual and the potential and a warfare between appearance and ultimate reality. The external school realizes its purpose by chang- ing the pupil from his original nature to his ideal nature. "Nature means that highest possible reahty which a Hving thing, through a series of voluntary acts, originating within or without it, may be made to attain." Thomas Davidson. The objective school must create within the pupil a desire to study, to grow, to excel, to do good in the world and give him a thirst for knowledge and a craving for higher life. If the pupil does not respond to the throbbing hfe of the school some incentive must be used as a means of stimulating 56 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Incentives him to greater activity. Artificial incen- tives, as prizes, books, medals, tickets and percentages do not reach the inner life of the child, and hence should be rarely used to induce pupils to study. They are not in harmony with the law of self-activity which teaches that nothing artificial should ever intervene between the think- ing mind and the world to be taught. Natural incentives are desires which harmonize with the law of effort and the law of self-activity. Dr. E. E. White enumerates them as follows: 1. Desire for good standing. 6. Desire for future good. 2. Desire for approbation. 7. Sense of honor. 3. Desire for knowledge. 8. Sense of right. 4. Desire for efficiency. 9. Sense of duty. 5. Desire for self-control. The school causes the pupil to externalize himself in his ideals; his individuality is changed into essentiality; the individual is made to accord with the universal. It is the purpose of the school to trace in nature, in the human mind, in social insti- immanent tutlous, iu history, iu philosophy, and in Reason reUgiou, the immanent reason which is the origin of all things. This reason is not an ethereal something seen on the border land of dreams, but is the indweUing and informing Hfe of the universe itself. The school also aims to discover this underlying unity of nature and mind, and to indicate how reason reveals itself as the indwelling life of science, art, morality and religion. The final purpose of both the external and the internal process THE ORGANIZATION 57 is to teach the doctrine that every individual thing in the world arises out of some universal law of reason. "This universal principle of reason is the creative and construc- tive force of the universe. It is seen in the architectonic principle, which is the soul of the plant, in the creative and sustaining power in the animal and in man, in the formation of character, in the building of institutions, in the development of church and state, and of the arts and sciences." J. C. HlBBEN- As all cosmic processes are the manifestation of reason, so are all school processes a form of some mental activity in interpreting this reason. The deepest principle in the world is the cosmic organizing energy of the school. As all Processes forms of nature were created by this eternal princi- ple of reason, so are the outer forms of the school derived from this immanent principle. As the laws of the physical universe are ideal, so are the laws of the school spiritual. Neither the school nor the world is material and mechanical, but both are rational and spiritual. The school and the universe are processes in the development of reason. It has been said that '^all history is an evolution of this reason in the progressive unfolding of its inner activity." We have said that science is a process of tracing the universal thought of the world. Art is a manifestation of the spiritual in the sensible. Philosophy is a thought interpretation of the universe. The educational process changes the individual into the form of universahty. This is a form of the 58 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS spirit's growth toward self-consciousness and has been called spiritual freedom. Education is a process of changing the potentiality of the child into actuality; it is a transition of the Education .,..,, .,., ,, individual pupil into a world-compre- hending process. Education is essentially a phil- osophical process; it is a study of thought as mani- fested in mind activity and revealed in the structure of the universe. Education teaches us that, — "Amidst all the mysteries by which we are surrounded, nothing is more certain than that we are ever in the presence of an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed." Herbert Spencer. V. THE RECITATION The recitation is that part of the instructive process of the school in which the pupil thinks over what he has learned, and communicates his thoughts to the teacher and the class. The recitation is a mental movement through the thought of the les- son and an accurate expression of its meaning and significance. Pupils should not be re- quired to repeat or recite '^ words, words, words." The thought of the lesson should be expressed beautifully in the language of the pupil. Reciting requires thinking; thinking leads to expres- sion; and expression fixes impression and reflection. The Purpose. — The purposes of a recitation are: To excite interest in study, to train in correct methods of study, to ascertain how much the pupil has studied, to give explanations, to approve, to criticise, to stimulate, and to inspire to higher life. It should be the aim of every recitation to see that pupils understand the lesson studied, to deepen this knowledge so that 'Hhe mind will act Aim in the again as it has once acted." Each recita- i^e«itation tion should review the previous lesson, discuss the present one and make a preliminary study of the next one. In reciting pupils are drilled in thinking, studying, learning and power of expression. Accord- ing to J. G. Fitch the objects of a recitation are: 59 60 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 1. To find what the pupil knows, to prepare him for instruction. 2. To discover his misconceptions and difficulties. 3. To secure the activity of his mind, and his full cooperation. 4. To test the result and outcome of what you have taught. 5. To determine the pupil's readiness or ability to go on. 6. To test yourself as his teacher. A Good Recitation. — The qualities of a good recitation are a lively attention, a mastery of the lesson, promptness, dispatch, order, enthusiasm, and a happy disposition on the part of both teacher A Perfect ^^^ pupil. A pcrfcct rccitatiou is one in Recitation which pupils rccltc accurately, freely, and joyfully. It is one in which the teacher talks less, but causes the pupil to think and to express himself more. The true teacher has such consummate skill and insight into the nature of mind and subject- matter as to hold the school organism intact and cause each unit to function properly. In a good recitation both teacher and pupil must thoroughly understand the lesson, the mechanical friction must be reduced to a minimum and spiritual unity of teacher, pupil and thought must be made the crown- ing purpose. A lesson is successful when order is maintained, when interest is secured in the subject, when proper means are used to attain certain mental steps and to inspire the pupils to hard work. To conduct a good recitation, there must be harmony and good will between teacher and pupil, a deep interest in the subject studied, an exhaustive and spirited discussion of the lesson, and on the part of the teacher a profound grasp of the funda- THE RECITATION 61 mental law of teaching. The outer mechanism of the recitation must breathe the spirit of the inner subjective nature of the school. The subjective school externalizes itself in the recitation. All the forces operating in the school are focalized Forces and centralized in the recitation of a Centralized lesson. This is the central activity and pulse-beat of the school and success in the recitation means that the outer school has realized its final purpose. The ultimate purpose of all educational processes, is objectified and attained in the recitation. The school fund, the school-house, the apparatus, the academic and professional training of the teacher are all put in the recitation. It becomes successful and artistic when there is accuracy and beauty of presentation, and when all mechanical means are subordinated to spiritual activity. The length of a recitation should depend upon the age of the pupil, the nature of the subject studied, and the surrounding conditions. The recitation period in the primary grades should usually be short. However, in the school-garden, in the school- kitchen, in the laboratory, and in the study of actual concrete nature, the period of the recitation may be lengthened on account of the exciting sur- roundings. For more advanced pupils a longer period is possible and necessary. In the higher subjects more time is needed ofthe for the discussion of a lesson. The pupil's mind is able to follow a train of thought longer and the recitation now becomes an intense process 62 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS in spiritual development. Recitations should be so coordinated that the interest gained in one should be carried over to the next. Sometimes in the study of a poem, a mathematical problem, or a scientific experiment, the lesson may continue a week. In the study of ''The Chambered Nautilus," in the solution of the Pythagorean theorem, or in the physical demonstration of the rotation of the earth by the Foucault Experiment, the same lesson may continue profitably for several days. In general the recitation should have sufficient length to discuss thoroughly all the important thoughts contained in the lesson. The recitation period as well as the other educational processes, has a tripartite nature: An introduction, a discussion and a conclusion. The introduction should not only outline the next lesson Parts of a briefly, but unify the present lesson with Recitation ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ rpj^^ disCUSsloU should proceed according to some logical plan thought out. The conclusion sums up the points in the lesson and should be full of feeling and inspiration. Method in the Recitation. — There are many me- chanical ways and plans of conducting a recita- tion. Pupils may recite in concert in reading, in number work, in reviewing historical facts, in stating principles in grammar, arithmetic, geog- socratic raphy and physiology and in learning definitions and quotations verbatim. This is purely a mechanical mode of procedure and should be used only occasionally and for variety THE RECITATION 63 sake. The Socratic or catechetic method is valu- able in thoroughly testing the pupil, in logically unfolding the subject and in introducing new and related matter. E. E. White says: "There is no test of knowledge as searching and thorough as a skillful question," Skill in asking questions is attained by a true insight into the essential movement of the mind of the pupil in learning a subject. While books on questioning are of little value a few general direc- tions may be helpful to the teacher. Questions should be clear, concise, definite, logical, to the point, adapted to the capacity of the learner, and never ambiguous. Questions should be avoided that give a choice between two answers and that exercise the memory only. Direct and set questions are of little value in the teaching process. The object of the catechetic method is to find out what pupils know, to ascertain what they need to know, to awaken within them a curiosity to know, to arouse the mind to action, to illustrate, to explain^ to give knowledge, to fix knowledge in the mind and to secure thoroughness. In the Socratic method a few cautions should be observed: Ask questions only once, vary the questions, begin with easy questions, let questions be connected, do not suggest the answers, ask questions distinctly, do not ridi- cule answers, never tell what the child can tell, question the lesson into the mind and question the lesson out of the mind. 64 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS However, the question method does not drill the pupil in the power of thought and expression as well as the topic method. By reciting topically, the Topic pupil gains a mastery of utterance and Method ^^ ability in the systematic arrangement of his thoughts. It cultivates his expressive powers, gives him a facile use of language and initiates him into the realm of forensics, debating, public speaking and oratory. The topic method gives both the teacher and the pupil an opportunity to introduce supplementary matter in the recitation. Pupils may be called on to recite in a consecutive or promiscuous order. The former has the advan- tage in point of time and the latter in point of atten- tion. While the consecutive method is easier for the teacher the promiscuous method keeps intact the organic spiritual nature of the school. The Lecture lecturc mcthod is perhaps the best for Method advanced classes provided the pupil does the lecturing. He prepares a talk on the eye, the Pilgrims, the infinitive, Evangeline, Cuba or cube root and discusses the subject for twenty or thirty minutes in a masterly and inspiring manner. It develops the individual's self-activity and is a much better method of review than the formal written examination. In general the oral method is adapted to child life and the written method for more ad- vanced students. However, both may be used successfully throughout the entire school work. The written method gives the child the mechanics of learning and aids pupils in the higher grades in THE RECITATION 65 studying and preparing a lesson in a systematic manner. The skillful teacher will devise some written work in almost every recitation. It gives definiteness to preparation and assists the mind in gaining and retaining knowledge. The concrete method with objects, diagrams, the numerical frame, geometrical blocks, the globe, the eye or heart is the form of instruction for the elementary grades. The abstract method, using rules, tables, definitions, principles is adapted to mature students. While the general law of these methods has been stated so far as the common school is concerned, the concrete method . ... T-» • Concrete and IS also used m universities. Botany is Abstract studied with the plant in hand, geology by observing and collecting specimens and chem- istry by using the concrete elements in the labora- tory. The abstract method must be used in the lower grades in fixing certain principles and in gradually leading the child as his mind develops from concrete reality into the realm of abstract thought. The synthetic method of going from parts to wholes, of beginning the study of geography at home and the study of grammar by words, sentences and then discourse, is the primary method. The analytic method of proceeding from And wholes to parts, of beginning geography with the globe and grammar with the sentence, is the movement of mind best suited to advanced thinking. However, the movement of mind is 5 66 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS analytico-synthetical in gaining knowledge. Accord- ing to the inner law of the mind it first seizes the object indistinctly, then analyzes it into its definite elements, again fixing its attention upon the isolated attributes and lastly unifies and organizes these elements into the original whole. Every process of analysis must be supplemented by a process of synthesis. As the pupil analyzes the eye he synthe- sizes the parts and as he synthesizes he further analyzes until he attains a definite and thorough knowledge of all the attributes and parts. Every subject taught must include both methods, because these methods embrace the law of knowing, the law of thinking and the law of learning. By the inductive method ideas are studied before words and examples before rules. By the deductive method the mind moves from general truths to particular facts. The analytic method is deductive, and the synthetic method is inductive. In Inductive i . i . i i • And the mductive method the teacher begms with the individual object comparing it with other individuals, noting likenesses and differ- ences and gradually arrives at the development of the general notion. By observing a small stream of water, a creek and finally a river, the general notion of the river is derived as an inductive process. Solving problems in square or cube root by the blocks, and then formulating a rule is an inductive process. The old method of committing the rule to memory in arithmetic and then solving the problem is the deductive process. The deductive THE RECITATION 67 method is used by studying the facts concerning the human body and then verifying them by actual observation; by studying a text-book on botany and then examining specimens of plants to illus- trate principles, and by learning mathematical axioms and principles and then applying them in the solution of problems. It seems from this discussion that there are many methods of conducting a recitation, many move- ments of mind in teaching and many different processes of attacking subject-matter. In the last analysis, there is only one method of one conducting a recitation and that is the Method manner in which the mind identifies itself with the thought and spirit of the world other than itself. The problem in the recitation is the problem in philosophy — translating the subjective into the objective and ascertaining the objective to be the subjective. Planning a Lesson. — A thorough preparation of the lesson by both teacher and pupil, a systematic plan of procedure and a proper assignment are essential factors in every recitation. To plan a lesson is to know the method in the subject and the method in the learning mind and to be able to transmute the thoughts of the lesson into the thinking mind. In planning a recitation ToPian the teacher works through the lesson, a Lesson ascertains the exact thought and arranges and organizes it into teachable form. The teacher must analyze the subject to be taught into its mental 68 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS processes and see clearly the movement of the pupil's mind in grasping it. He must understand the law of psychology on one side, and the law of subject- matter on the other. The artistic teacher must adjust the developmental phases of the subject to corresponding stages of mind growth in the child. In planning a lesson we should proceed on the assumption that education is an organic process of uniting two forces: Mind including its activities, Education powcrs and processes, and subject-matter Organic including its laws, facts and principles. The educational process as realized in the recitation transmutes these subject activities into correspond- ing mind activities. The possibilities of mind become realities through the interaction of subject and object. The recitation is that artistic process of adjusting the growing mind to a similar mind process found in the subject studied. In order to illustrate the value and purpose of planning a lesson the following brief type plans are given. In planning a lesson the means, mental steps, and the purpose should be noted. To teach the child the idea, foot, the teacher uses the foot-ruler. The pupil measures a foot on the desk and black- board, cuts paper a foot long and brings in objects a foot in length. To teach the idea, foot, pupils must see the tangible thing and then think foot in the abstract. They should be made to see that foot is not a certain length of a material thing, but that it is a certain portion of space in one direction. There are two steps in thinking foot: One seeing THE RECITATION 69 a foot, and the other, imaging the meaning back of the material thing. The pupil must get a clear- cut distinction between material foot and to Think ideal foot, foot in the mind and foot in ^°°* reality. In fact foot is mental rather than material. The mind moves from the concrete ruler to the abstract idea of foot. To think foot is to unify the real with the ideal. The child cannot think material, for meaning is universal. To think foot is to under- stand that universal element which constitutes foot wherever it may be found. Thinking is seeing relations and is a process of translating the objec- tive into the mind. The vital, living unity is at last attained, knowledge is obtained and spiritual freedom realized. The purpose or final aim in teaching foot is to gain a new idea which acts as an organ of knowing and which aids the pupil in mastering other forms of knowledge. Teaching the idea of foot disciplines the mind in seeing and thinking, and beautifully illustrates the process of the mind moving from the concrete to the abstract. From the material ruler the child ascertains the meaning or significance which alone leads into the realm of knowledge and freedom. It requires a higher form of mental activity to think number than to think an object. Number is not an object, it is not a mental picture, it is not a figure, it is not a quality of an object, to Think but has been defined by Newton as an Number abstract ratio of one quantity to another of the same kind. For a pupil to be able to think two- 70 TIUO EDUCATIONAL PROCESS thirds, the teachor us(\s sucli means as crayons, balls, squares, chairs and sticks. It requires a higher activity of thought to think two-thirds than to think a foot. The mind first thinks the quality, shape and form, and then thinks away quality and thinks quantity. TIk^ category of quality gradu- ally emerges into the category of (|uantity. External perception becomes internal perception and pln;- nomenal activity takes the form of noumenal activity. To think a fraction is a triple mental act. The pupil first thinks two as a relational activity, then three, and lastly thinks them in relation, in one thought proc(^ss. It recjuires a vigorous mind activity to think these tripartite elements, quality, quantity and relation in a single process. When the child is first introduced into the study of frac- tions he frequently fails in understanding the sub- ject on account of a lack of mental power. The aim of this lesson is to train the mind in abstract processes of thought. The number idea leads the pupil into a form of mental activity necessary to gain any knowledge whatever. It trains the mind in that universal and fundamental form of activity which is found in the world other than itself. He attains lesthetic freedom by finding himself reflected in the foot and in the two-thirds which are types of his own life. The ])Ui)il delights in learning foot and two-thirds, because in these objects he finds his true ideal self mirrored. To awaken the pupil's aesthetic emotion gives him a tendency to higher life and an inspiration to seek truth, beauty and goodness. THE RECITATION 71 "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way. And leaves the world to darkness and to me. " In planning to teach this quatrain, the pupil must first study the life of Thomas Gray and secondly get a clear idea of an elegy. The mental steps in teach- ing and thinking this stanza are perceiv- to Think ing the words, imaging the meaning, and ^ ^"^"^ identifying the self with the thought and feeling of the stanza. In studying any literary selection the mind is first directed toward the sign or word and then secondly toward the signification or meaning. The pupil should be taught the meaning of curfew, cover the fire; knell, the sound of a funeral bell; lea, a meadow or field; and parting, used by aphseresis, for departing. He should be required to think the poetic meaning of winds, to note the poetic effect of plods and the alliterative signifi- cance of "weary way'' and "plowman plods. '^ The next step is to think the stanza into poetic feet and to understand iambic pentameter. The pupil lastly identifies himself with the thought, rhyme and rhythm of the quatrain and translates it into his own life. In the musical flow he realizes the meaning of the syncope and the aphseresis. The final act in teaching and thinking the stanza is to picture the imagery, not only mentally, but in colors on paper. The spirit of the stanza is externalized, mind identifies its otherness and hence spiritual freedom is realized. 72 'llll': hlDllCA'IIONAL im{(h;i<:ss A Work of Art. A rccilM'ition should he so planned, jul.'ipl-cd, :ur}ui[^(Ml juid so cnriclicd Jis to form a work of jirl. Tfic ordin;iry l-cjudicr is usujilly HJit/is(i('(l wilJi ucvurav/y in llic icciiMl/ion, l)iii, \.\\(\ 'u]vii\ tcjM'lici- would M,dd hcjuity. I'rownin^ s.'iys: "II' y«Mi f!;<'.l, /;iiiij»l(t Ix-Jinly iuirk assists in spiritual fnuMJom. Thci activity ^^^ '^'"^ of spirit is not free; until it springs up unaided by th(; factors of the nicitation. 'i'he recitation may be compared to th(; Cr(;(;k S[)irit b(!cause it is a inind f)roc(;ss aid(Ml })y th(; natural. The mind of the pupil during the; stag(; of the develo[nnent of the school recitation n(;eds th(i excitement produced by the various external forces and factors embodied in the; recitation. The stud(;nt is not able to carry Oil an exten(I(;d train of thought without the aid of th(; recitation stimulus. It is a work of art b(;caus(.' it deals with thoughts, ideas and conceptions pro- jected in tangible form. It deals with spiritual processes and aims at spiritual freedom. Jn the final analysis of tin; (;ducational fjroccss, the teacher becomes artist, th(.' n^citation is transform(;d into a work of art, the pupil is metamr)rphos(!d in and through the spiritual energy of the recitation. The teach(;r is the Raphael, the recitation is the ''Trans- figuration" and the pupil is th(; being transfigured.. VI. THE CURRICULUM. The movement of the mind, in the recitation naturally leads to that larger movement of thought through the entire life of the school known as the curriculum. The curriculum or course of study indicates the stages of mind growth corresponding to steps in the development of subject-matter. The curriculum-maker must take into consideration the evolution of mind and the evolution of subjects. The essential question is to adjust the various phases of subject-matter to such corresponding phases of mind activity that will neatly fit into the thought embodied in the subject. The logical order of subjects must again correspond to the psychological order of the growing mind. Primary and Advanced. — In primary grades the content of subjects should be shallow, but the extent, great. The lesson should be made concrete, observational and experimental. The child is introduced into the world of spirit through the concrete world of reality. In advanced work the extent should be narrow and the content deep. University students pursue few subjects but make a more profound study of their specialties. Accord- ing to Tompkins the common school deals with perceptions or individuals, the more advanced educational institutions, the understanding or gen- 74 THE CURRICULUM 75 erals, and the university, reason or universals. The movement of the mind from the individual to the universal is the law of the learning The Law of mind and the law of the unfolding order Learning of knowledge. The lower phases of knowledge are mastered by the lower phases of mind and the higher phases of knowledge by the more mature mind. The curriculum is an arrangement of sub- ject-matter in the order of the development of the learning mind from the time the pupil perceives the individual until he is able through the dawn of reason to grasp the universal. All subjects (history, geography, mathematics and other studies) have their perceptive, imagina- tive and experimental phase adapted to the primary grades. As the child's mind unfolds into higher forms of judgment, reasoning and intuition, these same subjects must increase in generality and depth of meaning until they require the highest form of human thought and the keenest mental insight to grasp their intricate purport. Knowledge Related. — Dr. Edward Caird writes: "Thought is possible only as the relation of the thing thought of to the thinker, and an object of thought can only be known or enter into consciousness in relation to the thinking subject. " Not only is all human knowledge connected, science, literature, history and philosophy, but all reality is related to a thinkable reality. The thought in nature, in history, in man, in all things is not a thought which the human mind creates, but which 76 THK EDUCATIONAL PROCESS it discovers. TIk! reason or thoiiglit found in nature and art is a universal principle which binds human knowledge into one organic whole. It is impossible to know any one thing thoroughly without know- ing related ideas, thoughts and things. In the paraphrased language of Tennyson, — If we knew the flower in the crannied wall, we should know what God and man is. ''From the very nature of thought," says Herbert SjxMicer, ''the relativity of our knowledge is infer- able." Every thought implies a distinction and relation, a likeness and a difference. The very idea of consciousness is possible only in the Consciousness . „ ii« ij. I'j. i form of a relation between a subject and object. Learning is the formation of a relation in mind parallel to a relation in the objective world. It logically follows that all knowledge is related and that thinking and thought can never express more than a relation. Knowledge is a life process since it is a continuous adjustment of internal relations to («xt(^rnal relations. The Principle of Correlation. — Correlation (concen- tration, coordination, interrelation) is a fundamental process in curriculum -making. It involves the principle of the relativity of knowledge and accepts the doctrine that all knowledge belongs to one organic whole. Correlation places subjects together in the curriculum that the universal content of (*ach may be thoroughly taught and thought. It emphasizes the fact that the world THE CURRICULUM 77 of thought and the world of things are inter- related ideas. According to the doctrine of concentration the chikl to be educated determines in a large measure both the subject-matter and the method. The natural and social environments act upon Doctrine of the child and the child reacts upon these concentration external energies. The human mind is constantly- struggling to free itself by attaining the knowl- edge of the invisible, the truth of creation, the spirit of the world. All knowledge depends upon the activity of the mind through a thought process. A thought may be analyzed into elementary ideas. An idea is an interpretation of an external energy working through matter. All energy, cosmical and spiritual, has its origin in the Infinite and Eternal Energy. This Energy transmutes a resident force into all being. This force originates and externalizes quali- ties and properties of bodies. These physical attributes are next translated by the educational process into the thinking mind. The mind attains its freedom by cancelling its estrangement and returning to itself. The entire curriculum is based upon the investi- gation of the processes which take place in nature and in mind. Form is the manifestation of energy in nature and is the fundamental principle of all knowledge. The mental process of interpreting form is called observation. Size, weight, density, resistance, color, sound, odor, taste, and tactile 78 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Thought- sensation are essential thought relations Relations found in all objects. By coming in con- tact with these attributes the child's intrinsic thought is developed and language is made a neces- sity. It, therefore, follows that teaching spelling, reading and composition is merely an incidental process in the evolution of the child's thought. In the construction of the curriculum, the center of correlation should not be history, literature, nor science, but the child. As the child The Child . . i /• n i i i n IS the central factor of the school, all subject-matter should be focalized in him. It should be so adjusted to the life of the child as to bring out what is best in him. The studies are best adapted to the evolution of the child's life which he loves best and which will do him the most good. Doctrines of the Curriculum. — Dr. William James suggests that there should be subjects devel- oping impression and others training in expres- sion. The educative process consists in a series of reactions following a series of receptions. It is a process of grafting a native reaction into some form of school life. Out of this evolutionary doc- trine of mental life flows the profound pedagogical principle — ''No impression without expression." Madame Campan changes this dichotomy into a trichotomy: ''First I saw, then I reflected, and finally I wrote." In other words there is a taking- in process, an inside process, and out-going process. Dr. R. N. Roark teaches that there are three operations of the mind: Acquisition, assimilation, THE CURRICULUM 7^ reproduction. The acquisitive processes are per- ception, conception, retention, and are cultivated by a study of nature, object teaching, the regular branches, and in the elements of all branches. The assimilative processes are conception, reasoning, imaging, willing, and are cultivated by a study of mathematics, language, history, civics, science and works of art. The reproductive process consists of the inner process of creation and the outer process of expression and is cultivated by a study of language, conversation, composition, declaiming, debating, and literary work in general. Dr. E. E. White would construct a course of study from presentative knowledge, representative knowl- edge, thought knowledge. ''A true course of instruc- tion for elementary schools cuts off a section of presentative, representative, and thought knowledge each year." According to his doctrine the mind through school life is gradually passing from sensation to reason. L. J. R. Agassiz indicates that the movement of mind in attaining knowledge is — first, observation; second, generalization; third, verification. Thomas Huxley says whatever is taught in the university should be taught in its elements in the primary school. Colonel Francis W. Parker, in his theory of concentration, places the child surrounded by energy and matter at the centre of his system. The central subjects of study which surround the child's life and in which he is intensely interested are physics, chemistry, meteorology, astronomy. 80 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS geography, geology, mineralogy, history, ethnology, anthropology, zoology and biology. The modes of attention growing out of these central subjects are observing, reading, and hearing-language. At- tention is organically related with expression which is defined as a manifestation of thought and emo- tion. The modes of expression are gesture, writing, speech, drawing, painting, modeling, making and music. The two modes of judgment, form and number, are indispensable mental factors in the acquisition of knowledge. The Herbartians present many different courses of study based upon the principle of apperception. Herbart himself distinguishes three types of study: The merely presentative, the analytic and the synthetic. Ziller classifies school studies into those pertain- ing to man and those pertaining to nature. The humanistic group comprises history, literature, art and languages. The nature group consists of geog- raphy, natural history, physics, chemistry, arith- metic, geometry, practical exercises and gymnastics. Dr. William Rein of Jena coordinates the human- istic studies and the nature studies into a curric- ulum for his Practice School. The humanistic studies are historical instruction, art instruction and language. The nature studies are geography, natural history, arithmetic, geometry, practical work and gymnastics. Dr. Charles DeGarmo would build the curriculum out of humanistic, scientific and economic material. THE CURRICULUM 81 The humanistic studies such as literature and history- have a distinct ethical content. The development of moral character now takes the place of Moral intellectual culture. These subjects reveal character the moral order of the world, which must flow into the life of the child. The scientific core has no ethical content but has high educational value. The economic group represents man in interaction with nature. It seeks practical ends and aims at physical freedom of the individual. Dr. Edward R. Shaw in his ''Outline of a Course of Study for Elementary Schools" uses each core as material from which are induced activities of arrangement and expression. In the humanistic group the materials are myths, tales, stories, descriptions, songs, poems and pictures. The induced activity of arrangement and expression growing out of this material are reading, language, spelling and drawing. In the scientific group the materials are land, water, sky, seasons, plants, animals, minerals and forms. The induced activities produced by this material are numbers, modeling, moulding, measuring and sing- ing. The materials of the economic group are food, clothing, shelter, industries, occupations and travels. The activities created by this material are writing, drawing, paper-folding, sewing, making, painting, buying and selling. Dr. William T. Harris has apparently solved the problem of the psychology of the curriculum. According to his analysis, there are five windows 6 82 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS of the soul (subjective) to which correspond five groups (objective) of studies: First, mathematics and physics; second, biology; third, literature and art; fourth, grammar and language including logic and psychology; fifth, history and institutions. The curriculum should be built out of this material in such a manner that each group should be pre- sented at times to suit the development of the child. Each group of studies represents certain objective categories which develop certain internal laws of thinking. According to Aristotle there are ten objective categories: Substance, quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, where, when, posture and habit, which correspond to the develop- ment of the internal constitution of the human The mind. The categories are the predicates Categories ^g^j j^y ^]^^ j^jj^^ jj^ thinking the world of objective reality. To exhaust the categories in describing an object is to exhaust the possi- bilities of explanation. The categories, therefore, express the nature of thought and the nature of things. Arithmetic and geography involve a study of the categories of quality and quantity. Physiology adds the categories of action and relation and discusses the formative life principle. Grammatical study is a dual mental act: One directed to form and the other to content; one to the real, the other to the ideal; one to the sentence and the other to the meaning. In analyzing the English sentence, the mind is THE CURRICULUM 83 ushered into the realm of logic and psychology. Dr. William T. Harris says: "The method of grammar leads to insight into the nature of reason itself; it is this insight which it gives us into our methods of thinking and of uttering our thoughts that furnishes the justifi- cation for grammar as one of the leading studies in the curriculum." Reading, penmanship and drawing externalize the inner man and reveal and portray human nature in its varied forms. The genetic principle of literature is life itself. It represents the soul striv- ing to realize its inherent worth. Pen- manship, drawing and art in general represent the highest functions of the human soul. History and civics reveal to man the consciousness of his own freedom. In these subjects the student is ushered into the realm of spirit itself. He is taught the nature and end of spirit to be freedom, and that this freedom is attained through the state, which is the terrestrial representation of spirit. The Ideal Curriculum. — The ideal curriculum should be so constructed that it will bring out what is best in the pupil. It should be flexible, adapted to the circumstances but constantly moving toward the idea of personal freedom. It should put stress upon relations and interconnection of studies and thereby unify, focalize and organize the child's knowledge. History should be corre- lated with geography and civics. There is an interconnection of ideas in these subjects and to understand one is to know the other two. s4 'I'lir: il()<';i('aJ |)ro(',('ss('S. Tlic (*orr('l.'it,in ethics foF' Latin, (leiinnn or I'^remdi foi* trigonometry and HUrvciyinji; or (diemisti-y for (Ireek. To on(^ makinjj; a close study of this discussion, it seems that t,he men trained in sciiMice pref(>r sci(^n- ti(i<' subjects niid those ti'ained in metu'iphysics insist n„„, that Loii,rnry ^^j^^ n .^j-^j, ,jj(,., .^ nifh^'livt; attiiudc. The fiv(; woiru^n synibolizliig th(i five s(uis(;s arc; unicjucr. "Taste" is d?-inking from a sliell; "Sight" is look- ing into a mirror; "Smell" is enjoying the fra- gancc of a rose;; "Hearing" is listening to the mnrmuring slu^ll; "Touch" is c()ntem[)lating a biillcrdy. 'J'lu; sciences an; r(;i)res(;nted by female figures of (;x(|uisite beauty Miid most interesting synd)olism: "Zoology" is clad in the skins of animals; "i'hysics" holds a torchlight of investi- gation; "Mathematics" is illustratcul by a nude figure; representing "the naked truth"; "Geology" stands upon a mountain gath(;ring sp(M*imens; " Ar(diau)l()gy " is deciphering tlu; n^cord of an old book; "]k)tany" is standing u})()n a water lily analyzing its blossom; "Astronomy" stands upon th(; (;ai-tli, with drapery repres(;nting the heavenly bodi(*s; "Chemistry" is synd)oliz(Ml by the glass retort and hour-glass. Poetry is the most spiritual form of romaidic art. It is tin; artistic expression of spirit realizing its freedom and is no longer in touch with the sensuous world. The genetic j)rincij)l(; of poetry is lif(^ itself, and illustrates the soul struggling to free; itself from bondage. Poetry disturbs the i(h'nl, loosens the bonds and creates within th(^ indivi(hinl a longing for s})iritual free- THE ^STHETICAL 100 dom. Tho constructive energy of literature is the soul in constant stress to realize its true; nature. Lit(^rature is a form of self-rc^alization b(u;ause it assists the individual in casting off his slu^ll and attaining his true worth. It awakens within the individual a consciousness of his many limitations and idealizes befon^ him a life worthy to be realized. The chief function of literature is to liberate the human soul and to assist it in gaining its inherent worth. Homer, Dante, Shakespeare and Goethe are four great literary writers who have portrayed in artistic form the inner creative activity of the human soul and as Aristotle says — ''have to do with what is universal." Music is a form of art which gives expression to the inward consciousness of the soul. It annihilates form and gives expression to the longings, y(;arn- ings and aspirations of the spirit within, and has been called spiritual existence put in motion. Music is spiritual because; it is the soul that sings and inspires the listener as no other work of art. It is the function of music to assist in spiritual freedom by giving expression to the thrill of the soul in outer vibrations of tones and by contrasting the cold intellect with the joyous emotions. It awakens the innermost chords of life, expresses in sound the activity of spirit, sweetens the disposition, tempers the soul, fashions it according to the laws of rhythm and harmony, calms the emotions, liberates the soul, and transforms it into the realm of a purer and sweeter atmosphere. 110 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The most progressive educators are recommend- ing the master productions (the great symphonies, the oratorios, and operas) to be reproduced in school to develop the pupiFs aesthetic nature. For students to hear, love and appreciate Beethoven's ''Moon- light Sonata" is to be elevated to a higher life of beauty and to be tuned to the celestial harmonies of the world. To illustrate the profound significance of such a work of art upon the human soul. Dr. William T. Harris suggests the following interpre- Mooniight tation: The ''Moonlight Sonata" was Sonata written by Beethoven when he was recovering from a disappointment in life. The first movement is soft and floating and portrays the soul musing upon a memory which deeply affects it. The surrounding is dim, as seen in moonlight, and the soul is lit up by a reflected light at the memory of a past bliss. On account, of this feeling of borrowed light the Sonata in C Sharp Minor has been called by Americans "The Moonlight Sonata." Sadly the soft gliding movement continues and more distant grows the prospect of experiencing again the remembered happiness. Only for a mo- ment can the throbbing soul realize its dreams and the plaintive Minor changes to Major. At the remembrance of renunciation the soul is plunged into grief and despair, a sepulchral echo comes from the base and all is stilled. In the next movement Beethoven realizes, "We must separate. Farewell." The musical phrase expressing this thought lingers in its striving to THE .ESTHETIC AL 111 shake off the grasp and get free. The hands will not let each other go. The phrase runs into the next and back to itself and will not be cut off. In the trio, there seems to be the echoing of sobs that comes from the depths of the soul as the sorrow- ful words are repeated. The buried past still comes back and holds up its happy hours while the shadows of the gloomy future hover before the two renunciations! This movement is very short and is followed by the Finale. *^No grief of the soul can be conquered except through action/' says Goethe, and Beethoven expresses the same sentiment, and in the third movement the soul is depicted in endeavoring to escape from itself and to cancel its individualism through contact with the real. In the first movement of the Sonata, Beethoven's soul is involved with Julia. She does not reciprocate his devotion and her renunciation leaves his soul devoid of that universality that it would have obtained had she reciprocated his love. Hence the soul must find surcease of sorrow through action, through will or practical determination. How fiercely the soul rushed into the world of action in the Finale! Beethoven plunges through life, now and then overcoming sorrow and grief and now and then swooning beneath the weight of sorrow for his lost love. The lost chord of his devotion oc- casionally reverberates a minor tone through his soul, but he awakens from his dream and drowns his sorrow in action. 112 TIIJ^] EDUCATIONAJ. PROCESS To study such a classical production and to listen to its music are of intense value to pupils and pedagogical students. They are given a true ciaHsicai insight into the creative spirit of art Productions productious and are enabled to appro- priate unto thenis(;lves the universal i)rinciples of art creations. The aspiring pedagogical student should be familiar with at least the following great musical productions: Beethoven — Sonata Pathet- ique Op. 13; Variations in C Minor; Rondo in G Minor; Turkish March; Sonata Impassionata, Op. 57. Ch()})in — Sonata in B Flat Minor; Fantasie in F Minor. Ilandel — The Harmonious l^lack- smith. Bach — Chromatic Fantasie and Fugue in 1) Minor. Haydn — Fantasie in C Minor. Mozart — Variations in F Major. Liszt — Rhapsodies. Wagner — Deatli of Love. Rubinstein — Valse Caprice. Mendelssohn — Songs without Words. IX. THE ETHICAL The ultimate purpose of the humanistic process of the school is to make the pupil ethical. In addi- tion to the intellectual, social and sesthetical processes found in the school there is also Moralizing a moralizing process into which the pupil Process must now be introduced. To develop character, to strengthen the individual moral nature, to tone up the child's ethical ideals, constitute the final purpose of the humanizing process of the school. To humanize is to soften, to make gentle, to refine, to civilize and to give character to individuality. The school must lead the child beyond the domain of the intellectual, beyond the realm of the social and sesthetical into the highest department of culture known as the ethical. The Pupil Ethical. — The school now assumes its highest function of transforming the pupil's original nature into an ideal nature. Any educative process is moral — when it develops the human soul; when it stirs up the inner, subjective nature of the individual; when it gives the pupil an aspira- tion and ideal for higher hfe. It is truly an ethical process to teach a lesson in such a manner that the pupil can see in it his other self. To see in a history lesson his ideal self and to touch the spiritual chord in a poem is as much an ethical process as 8 113 114 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Ethical "to develop the will. Ethical training Training shoulcl stimulatc the whole soul of the individual. To train a pupil in forming accurate judgments, to drill him upon the facts of science is ethical, because it gives the pupil an upward tend- ency in life. To demonstrate the Pythagorean theorem is as truly moral as to understand and realize the inner nature of history or to absorb the spiritual content of a poem. The joy of a lesson learned, of a proposition in geometry demonstrated, or of a syllogism of logic understood, affects the whole ethical nature of the pupil. Whatever touches the intellect, whatever arouses the will, whatever disturbs the emotional nature and what- ever tones up the entire being, is an ethical act in teaching. The Law of Ethics. — The ultimate law of ethics affirms that the self-active mind must not contradict itself and that no artificial stimulus is necessary to cause a pupil to study, to think, to learn. Dr. Arnold Tompkins asserts that when a pupil is studying for a prize, rather than for the thought in the lesson, he is practicing deceit with his own thought processes which is as immoral as to prac- tice deceit with his neighbor. According to this great educational thinker it is entirely wrong to introduce per cents or an examination as a stimulus The Mind bctwecn the pupil and the subject studied Learns f^j. j^ jg jy^ dircct oppositiou to the learning process. The mind learns by struggling directly with the thought of the subject and by bring- THE ETHICAL 115 ing itself into a living relation with the thoughts and ideas of the lesson to be learned. The child through his own self-activity strives to attain the thought of the lesson; he is hungering and thirst- ing after the spirit of the universe. To interfere with this self-activity would place the pupil in a wrong attitude toward truth and would, therefore, be an immoral act. The school is an educational institution for training the pupil into positive ethical relations. The institutional pupil is taught to see in ^ ^ ° Doctrine his fellow pupil his ideal potential self of school and that he must subordinate his indi- vidual self to the larger life of the school. The true pupil loses his life in the school for the good of others and thereby realizes his true self, for — "He that findeth his hfe shall lose it." He must gradually be led to see that reason is the inherent principle of the school and the funda- mental basis of his own nature. He attains spiritual freedom by adjusting his life to the inner life and thought of the school. Altruism is a method of thought, a process of self-realization, a rule of action, a law of control and one of the deepest principles in human nature. As a law of life egoism comes before altruism, for a creature must live before it can act. However, altruism is just as essential, for a being cannot exist without depending upon others. Egoism and altruism are coessential, as living for others is a 116 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS process of living for self. The doctrine of the school should be founded upon the moral principle — ^' Thou shall love thy neighbor as thy self. ^^ As a child must exist before it acts, egoism precedes altruism; otherwise there would be no self to help another. However, what one is physi- cally, mentally and morally depends as Versus much upon others (altruism) as upon self (egoism). All human conduct which grows out of attention wholly to self or wholly to others will certainly be dcificient of an essential element. Self-sacrifice and self-preservation are inherent tendencies of life. It is nevertheless man's prerogative to live in and through beings other than himself. Altruism is said to be the name of a tendency and may b(^, therefore, physical, psychi- cal or social. It is tlu^ intent and not the result that makes the deed altruistic. If for sc^lfish purposes 1 do good to others, I am no less an egoist although I have made otlu^rs happy. If my property is destroyed and I cannot pay my debts, I am no less an altruist although I cannot meet my obligations. It is, therefore^, the intent which makes the act moral. There is a constant conflict between egoism and altruism. It is the educator's imperative duty to ascertain wdiich is the law of the school and which is the law of lifi^ Kant would say: " Nothing h1u)uI(1 ite done which wo could not see done universally. *' Schopenhauer claims that pity is the foundation for v'liihi conduct and affirms: THE ETHICAL 117 "In pity a man comes to a sense of the real oneness in essence of himself and his neighbor, " He implies that an individual directly recognizes in others his own, true, ideal self. The school like the plant and animal has an inner law and life. The ideal perfection of its nature is a potentiality hidden within which realizes itself by its own self-productive activity. The school is not a blind force in contact with another blind force, but a deep struggle with reason and an immanent warfare within. It is a tension school between the actual and the ideal, between Tension what a pupil is and what he should become. It is the very essence of school as it is of mind itself to be divided against itself, to win its ideal freedom by an internal struggle. Man rises out of the life of nature, by means of a School, into a moral atmos- phere; by means of the State, into civil freedom; by means of the. Church, into a religious life. The Moral Process. — That which makes one a moral being is a universal essence which tran- scends the particular. Thought and reason consti- tute the universal element of mankind; . . Individual appetite and desire are the particular. versus Thought and reason are constantly at war with appetite and desire. The object of desire is the particular while the end of reason is boundless. It is reason and intelligence that make an individual moral. The pupil grows into a moral life by trans- forming his lower self into a higher one. There is a moral order in the school which must flow into 118 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS the pupil's life if he realizes the perfection of his being. The school attains moral perfection when the pupil loves and obeys others as he would him- self. The individual and universal Hfe are now unified and moral freedom attained. The child in school is so organically related with the moral atmosphere of the school that very soon he identi- fies himself with the moral life of the race. The pupil attains moral perfection when his universal nature controls and transforms his lower life. Dr. John Caird in working out this ethical doctrine defines morality as the identification of the individ- ual with the universal life, the surrender of the private to the social self. He finds in the moral life the solution of the contradiction between the natural and the spiritual, the actual and the ideal, the individual and the universal nature of man. In the school process the child has duties to himself, duties to pupils, and duties to God. These are not absolute distinct functions, for a duty to God involves a duty to self and others Duties also. In fact these three forms of duties are interrelated and correlated. It is the pupil's duty to self to offer to the moral atmosphere of the school, a clean perfect body, to perform assigned tasks joyously and cheerfully, and to assist in elevating the moral tone of the school. The pupil must at all times obey the law of truth and integ- rity and live in harmony with the divine idea. The test of a pupil's moral nature, however, lies in his relationship with his fellow pupils. He must THE ETHICAL 119 not only live in accordance with the moral ideal but he must assist others in growing and developing into the highest ideals known to human beings. As the ethical process is so important in the thought and structure of the school, it is necessary to make a brief study of the origin and nature of the ethical concept. The origin of the ethical idea •11 . • . Origin of is one with the origin of knowledge itself. Ethical There are four schools of ethical thought, the intuitional, the transcendental, the utilitarian and the evolutional which discuss the ethical con- sciousness. According to the first and second schools, ethical ideas are intuitive; according to the third and fourth, empirical. The intuitional school regards the ethical concept innate, a matter of pure intellection or a faculty of sensing the right as one would an apple blossom. Modern intuitionalism combines the intel- , , , , j« 1 1 , 1 1 Intuitionalism lectual and emotional element and makes conscience a synthesis of these two factors. Accord- ing to this doctrine there is slumbering within the principle of oughtness. Kant's categorical imper- ative is the corner-stone of the intuitional school. There spontaneously arises within the soul an obliga- tion to do or not to do a thing to which reason makes no appeal. It is claimed by the advocates of this doctrine that the ethical consciousness is universal and, therefore, possessed by all persons. It is ''the moral law within" that guides and experience is not necessary to teach us ethical ideas. 120 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS According to the transcendental theory, moral consciousness is a phase of the eternal reason found Transcen- i^ and through all things. Transcen- dentaiism dcntalism teaches that the world, man, nature, history, science, art, religion and all being are manifestations of the eternal consciousness. That conduct is best which most perfectly mirrors the mind of the Supreme Being, the creative and sustaining power of all that is. It is the duty and privilege of each person in the world to realize his possibilities, and try to transform his real into his ideal attainment. The ethical axiom of this school is, "Be a person, and respect others as persons. '^ This doctrine is usually stated as the law of self- realization. Each pupil in developing his own personality should assist every other pupil because each in- dividual consciousness is related to that eternal consciousness which is the source of all life and thought. There is within the school a social soli- darity and also an ethical solidarity of pupils based upon the profound principle of the unity of mankind. The utilitarian doctrine discusses the good rather than the right, and regards ethical ideas as a result of experience. According to one thinker conduct utiii_ should be regulated and harmonized with tarianism ^^le plcasurcs of the sensibilities and ac- cording to another the pleasures should be refined and guided by prudence. Pleasure must result in conduct which is conducive to the greatest happi- THE ETHICAL 121 ness to the greatest number. These pleasures are intellectual and moral and lead to the development of the total single self. The theory of evolution teaches that conduct is due not to individual but to race experience. As every act is designed to fulfill a certain end in life, the ethical concept is the result of a long . Evolutionism series of evolutionary changes. Society is an organism made up of many individual cells and the healthy condition of the whole depends upon the ideal condition of each person making up the organism. The bond of union of the evolution- ist is organized human life, while that of the trans- cendentalist is spiritual unity. According to the former — ''We are born not into a chaotic crowd,, but into an organized army, and we must learn to keep step and rank and to obey orders. " According to the latter — ''The ethical ideal is a will to know what is true, to make what is beautiful.'' An Ethical Organism. — Whatever may be the origin and nature of the ethical concept, the school is a moral institution and has for its final purpose the training of pupils into a positive ethical life. The individual pupil realizes his highest type of moral perfection in the social whole and attains moral worth only in mingling with his fellows in the school community. The true pupil is the ra- tional pupil made so in the school as an organic whole. The rational order of the school flows into the life of the pupil and creates within him a desire to live in the highest good. 122 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The ultimate aim of the school process is to trans- form the potential spiritual pupil into an actual idealized oughtness. Besides intellectual, social and aesthetic culture the school's highest function is to develop the individual's moral consciousness. Morality is not what a pupil is, what he might be, what he could be, — but, what he ought to be. This ought-to-he is not merely a wish-to-he but a determination to accomplish some- thing worthy of the highest ideal in life. It is not what an individual is that is essential, but what he hopes to become that determines his aim in life. A natural law is a law that is, but a moral law is a law that ought to be. The categorical imperative means that we must do what is right when we know what is right and the ancient thinker is correct in asserting that knowledge is virtue. As there are certain categories in the intellectual life which belong to all human beings, so are there certain universal moral principles which guide human conduct. The ethical organism looks after the conduct and happiness of pupils and trains them to live in har- mony with the ideals of life. It sets up a moral Moral standard and inculcates moral principles. standard rpj^g moral llfc of a school should be the moral life of a community plus a high standard of perfection to be realized in the educational process. Pupils should be lifted up into a higher life of moral responsibility and made to live in conformity with the highest types of human progress. Each lesson THE ETHICAL 123 and each recitation should make the pupil ethical through intellectual facts, through volitional train- ing and through emotional aspirations. The pupil becomes moral by living in and through the ethical organism which administers to the pupil's highest aspirations of life. School Ethics. — The school interprets and ap- plies ethical ideas in a manner peculiar to its nature and function. The teacher must understand the motive and intention of a pupil and govern him through a knowledge of his habits, character and former conduct. School duties must be regulated in such a way as to create school happiness. No school is successfully taught that does not make the children happy and that does not send a thrill of joy through each. Happiness ethics is school ethics, and the greatest happiness to the greatest number is a pedagogical maxim worthy of consideration. ''Politeness is to do and say the kindest thing in the kindest way," and is one of the deepest principles of the school because it recognizes in other pupils the ideal potential self. True polite- ness in school recognizes the worth of each individual pupil and seeks to help others to become ideal in character. The teacher must be polite to pupils, pupils must be polite to the teacher and fellow pupils and each recognize in the other an organic part of the school whole. Order is not only the first law of heaven, but the first requisite of a successful 124 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS school. School discipline should not come from without, but from within, in the teaching process. To teach to govern is a better law than to govern to teach. Good government can be secured only by- loving the profession, and having an interest in the subjects taught and the children to be educated. Truthfulness is one of the essential school Truthfulness . , ., . i i • i x i. Virtues as it cements and binds teacher and pupil together into one organic unity of thought and action. For a pupil to practice deceit in school is paving the way to practice deceit in business, in politics, in the professions and in all the voca- tions of life. The pupil must be taught obedience to the law of the school and thereby obedience to the teacher. In obeying the inner nature of the school the pupil is obeying himself for the school is an expression of the pupil's better self. The teacher must set forth the doctrine that self-sacrifice is the law of self-realization and that pupils must be taught to sacrifice their own pleasures in the school for the happiness of others. Self. One of the chief school virtues is honesty Sacrifice ^f purposc IB. thc daily work. Honesty in the preparation of work is as good policy in the school as it is in life. Industry is one of the chief school virtues while idleness and inattention are disorganizing factors in every recitation. A good school is one in which each pupil is actively engaged in some form of work and one in which the incen- tive to work is found in the subjects taught and not THE ETHICAL 125 in some external matter. The teacher who inspires the pupil to work for the work's sake and not for per cents or prizes has attained a maximum of skill in his profession. The teacher who has the ability to inspire the pupil to long for truth and righteousness and to have no peace but in the pursuit of them has attained a high standard in the profession of teaching. The pupil must be taught self-respect, self- control, and self-restraint. He is an element of the social and ethical organism and must deny himself pleasures and happiness, for the Seif. sake of others. Justice prevents pupils control from infringing upon the rights of others and is a universal form of morality, because, it prefers the general good to individual happiness. In every recitation each pupil must respect the rights of others and subordinate his own desires and wishes. for the good of others. Egoism and altruism are ultimate ethical principles and express the rational order of the school. These coessential principles and rational freedom have been discussed in a previous chapter. Self-realization is the aim in ethics and education. The end of life must be a development in character — perfection rather than happiness. The true self can be realized only by sacrificing the Seu. lower self. The final problem in ethics ^e^i'^^tion and the ultimate aim in education must be tested in terms of the realization of the rational self. The supreme law of every educational process is 126 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS to make the best of self possible. The pupil is to develop his own personality to the fullest extent and in doing so he is to assist in the development of other personalities associated with him. The duty to self and duty to others are coordinated by the profound world principle that each individual pupil is a part of the eternal consciousness and that pupils are fellows by virtue of a common relation to the Infinite Mind. The Moral Life. — All educators agree that the end and aim of the educational process is moral culture. Teachers are not satisfied with facts Moral learned, the taste cultivated, and the Culture intelligence trained, but seek to develop the pupil into a noble character. A pupil may have a keen and discriminating perception, a memory stored with the fundamental truths of nature and human nature, a clean, cold, logical intellect, but if the moral life has not been strengthened, the highest ideal of the school has not been attained. To realize moral perfection, the inner spiritual life of the child must be attuned to the moral order of the world, the heart must be made to beat in unison with divine harmonies and the soul made to respond to the noblest ideals of human growth, human culture and human freedom. Whatever sharpens the intellect, whatever arouses the emotion and whatever develops the volitional nature, increases the moral capacity and gives stamina to moral character. While every well- regulated school enlarges the moral life, while all THE ETHICAL 127 good teaching is ethical, and while any subject taught in a correct manner affects the moral worth of the individual, literature is especially valuable to help the pupil form high ideals of life. We know what we are, but literature teaches us what we ought to be, and the strongest impulse to improvement is to become dissatisfied with our present, real self in comparison with the future ideal self. The ideal self is not an ignis -P^e fatuus, but the soul's consciousness of its Weaiseif possibilities through a determined choice and a preserving activity. Ideals in literature elevate the soul, animate and thrill us with a desire to know truth and to act it in our daily lives. By means of poetic inspiration, the student is made to feel the beauty, truth and pathos of physical nature, and human life is given an insight and yearning for the divine ideal. He is saturated with things that are true, things that are honest, things that are just, things that are pure, and made to think on these things that are the flower and fruit of human freedom. To teach "Crossing the Bar" in a manner to touch the inner life of the pupil is not to chop it up into preparation, presentation and application and the rest, but to inspire the pupil with the faith, hope and love of the production. The pupil must real- ize that the star, bar, sea, twilight, bell, are sym- bols of a higher life that fill and thrill the soul. The moral life is not the full and complete life, but it is the necessary approach to the religious 128 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS life. According to Dr. Edward Caird, man by the very constitution of his mind has three ways of thinking open to him. He can look outwards upon the world around him; he can look inwards upon Constitution the sclf withiu him; he can look wpwards ^^ ^'^^ to the God above him, to the Being who unites the outward and inward worlds and who manifests Himself in both. The child spontaneously throws his mind into the outer world and exercises his senses; he then examines the inner self and develops the reason; and finally he synthesizes the inner and outer through a faith in a Divine Unity. The intellectual life should grow into the moral life and the moral life should find its fruition in the religious consciousness. Our conscious life is made up of three ideas, the idea of the self, the idea of the not-self and the idea of the unity which is presupposed in the dif- Three fcrcuce of the self and the not-self or Life Ideas ^j^^ j^^^ ^f Q^^^ r^^iQ objcct aud the subject are merged into an absolute principle of unity which binds all thinking beings and all ob- jects of thought into one organic system of knowl- edge. The idea of God is the ultimate principle of our life and ''Every rational being as such is a religious being." Caird teaches that the germ of the idea of God as the ultimate unity of being and knowing, subject and object, must some way be present in every rational consciousness, for such a consciousness necessarily involves the idea of the self and the not-self, the ego and the world, as THE ETHICAL 129 distinct, yet in relation, that is, as opposed within a unity. The clear reflective consciousness of the object without, of the subject within, and of God as the absolute reality which is beyond and beneath both — as one complete consciousness in which each of these terms is clearly distinguished and definitely related to the others — is, in the nature of the case, a late acquisition of man's spirit, and one that comes to him only as a result of a long process of development. In religion, Caird further says: "Man beholds his own existence in a transfigured reflection, in which all the divisions, all the crude lights and shadows of the world, are softened into eternal peace under the beams of a spiritual sun. It is in this native land of the spirit that the waters of oblivion flow; for here the darkness of life becomes a transparent dream-image, through which the light of eternity shines in upon us." THE TEACHING PROCESS THE GROWTH PROCESS X. THE MOVEMENT Teaching is a process of unfolding the spiritual life of the pupil and causes him to think, to study, to learn and to unify himself with the objective world. It is a spiritual movement below the ma- terial, a mental process beneath the physical, a soul activity underlying the mechanical ^^ "" means. Teaching is a process of knowing the object by bringing it into unity with the subject, and knowing the subject by causing it to be realized in the object. It fuses the mind of the pupil with the mind of the teacher through the thought of the lesson. Emerson in the ''Spiritual Laws" affirms: "There is no teaching until the pupil is brought into the same state in which you are; a transfusion takes place, he is you and you are he; then there is teaching." Mind Movement. — The movement of the mind in teaching is vitally related to the movement of the mind in learning. Whatever may be the thought, feeling, volition and upward tendency of life in the teacher will become transfused into the life of the pupil in and through the process of teaching. The receptive nature of the pupil takes on to itself, 130 THE MOVEMENT 131 consciously or unconsciously, the intellectual, social, sesthetical and moral status of the teacher. Teaching is an organic process of unifying mind internal in teacher and in pupil, with mind external The Mind in the lesson studied. Before the pupil Learning can obtain any knowledge or experience the same must be a living principle in the soul of the teacher. If the teacher is to cause the pupil to think the form, size, and beauty of the human eye, he must first think these relations himself, before they can be transmuted into the mind and life of the pupil. The movement in the pupil's mind harmonizes with the mind of the teacher and takes on to itself such emotional coloring, thought-relations and volitional tendencies as are found in the life of the teacher. The teacher transplants into the life of the pupil his own cultured self, builds into the soul of the pupil a perfect thought structure and thereby inspires him to realize the highest destiny of his being. No one can arouse what is best, truest and noblest in human nature who has not a deep, full, rich emotional temperament and a well-rounded life. The artistic teacher has the ability to build into the mind of the pupil a Artistic mental structure organically related to the thought and spirit of the world. He is charged with personal magnetism, imbued with the spirit of his profession and has the ability to electrify the pupil and to disturb his mental equilibrium as the magnet attracts and disturbs substances within the magnetic field. 132 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The movement in teaching differs from the move- ment of mind in learning, yet at the same time the two processes fuse and intermingle. While the pupil is thinking the thought of the lesson the teacher is thinking the pupil's process of thinking. The pupil's mind is directed toward the lesson, while at the same time the teacher's mind is fixed upon the peculiar activity through which the And pupil's mind must pass to gain the knowledge desired. Within the inner chamber of the soul of the pupil the teacher watches the mystic movements of the spiritual forces gather- ing in new knowledge and growing and developing in and through spirit objective to itself. The true teacher understands not only this subtle movement of the mind of the child, but also the logical order of knowledge to be learned. By means of questions, directions and illustrations, and concrete material he has the happy faculty of uniting the child with the subject taught in the bond of intellectual life, growth and development. The Psychology of Subjects. — The psychology that the teacher needs is not child psychology, genetic psychology, physiological psychology, ex- perimental psychology, abnormal psychology, race psychology and animal psychology, but "primarily the psychology of the subjects to be taught. By Professional mcaus of acadcmic knowledge the teacher ^*"*^^ understands subjects, but by means of professional knowledge he gains ability to teach them. The professional study of a subject resolves THE MOVEMENT 133 it into the mental processes constituting it and explains the method of presenting these ideas and thoughts to the growing mind. Profession- alism means such a study of a subject that will clearly indicate the process by which the mind creates it and by which the mind learns the facts created and analyzed. To be able to teach geography the teacher must know not only the subject as such, but must have a thorough knowledge of the organizing principle of the subject. He must by careful analysis and synthesis know the mental activities to be stimu- lated in teaching the subject and be familiar with the unitary principle around which the subject is organized. Before the teacher engages in the actual concrete process of teaching he must have a knowl- edge of the psychology of geography, the psy- chology of reading, the psychology of history and the psychology of all other subjects he proposes to teach. To be able to resolve each branch of study into its mental processes is the funda- ^ ^^^^ mental basis for scientific teaching. The Processes ... ^ , . ,. Of Subjects mental activities found m reading, the mind's way of knowing and thinking the printed page, the faculties stimulated in the process, these and these alone are the absolute fundamental principles necessary in the correct teaching of reading. The psychology of a subject is not some- thing external to it; it is nothing more than the mental acts which the mind takes in grasping it; it involves the thinking activity in learning it. 134 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The objective method which creates the subject is not invented and then applied to the subject, but is discovered in and through a knowledge of the subject itself. This })rofessional study of a subject involves a comprehension of the organiz- orpnizing ing priuclplc in the subject, a thorough knowledge of the central factor of mental life and a delicate adjustment of the law in the mind to the fact in the thing. In teaching botany it is necessary to see the relations in ])lant life that have corresponding relations in mind activity, and to understand how the mind grows in tracing the thought in the vegetable world. The psychology of the subject states the mental laws creating the subject and the mind processes which the subject stimulates and nourishes. It traces out the con- crete process of thinking a subject and analyzes the processes by which the mind constructs the sub- ject. It is a method of exploring the innermost constitution of a subject and can be attained by thinking the mind to be taught into unity of the subject by which it is taught to the end of growth. Such a knowledge of a subject gives new signifi- cance of it, and creates within the teacher an inspira- tion and a new insight into the teaching process. Educational Values. — A study of the psychol- The ^Sy ^^ subjects logically leads to a Greatest dlscussiou of tlicir rclativc educational l"i /oii<;, (Juidos tlwough tii(; boundh'KS sky thy c(;rtain (light In the long way I must tn;ad alone; Will lead my st(!ps aright. " The mental inovcirHint in this \HWin is onward and upward, foUowinj^ tlie physical movement of th(5 Waterfowl. In the int(;r{)r(;tation of a [)0(;m th(; mind first s(;arches out the individual or ohjc^et described in tlie po(;m, and secondly, eonciuvc^s the universal, ideal meaning taught in Uu) production. 10 146 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The purpose of a poem is to teach some Ami universal, fundamental principle of life, Universal . . through the medium of some individual object. The poetic process is that movement of mind which universalizes some individual thing. The problem in the interpretation of a poem, is to analyze clearly the individual and note the dis- tinctions of the fundamental ideas embodied in the universal truth. The following analysis of this poem will indicate a method of interpreting many literary selections. THE INDIVIDUAL. THE UNIVERSAL. 1. The waterfowl. 1. Faith and Divine Provi- 2. The solitary way. dence. 3. The fowler's eye. 2. The soul arising above 4. From zone to zone. disappointments. 5. The illimitable air. 3. The soul rallying through 6. The bird has no doubts faith. nor fears. 4. No visible guiding power. 7. The waterfowl has free- 5. A lack of faith. dom. 6. Bryant has doubts and 8. The waterfowl realizes its fears. freedom. 7. Bryant is in bondage. 8. Bryant rejoices in the water-fowl's freedom. Such a study is not grammatical, rhetorical, philological, nor a literary and critical analysis in the ordinary sense of the word. It is an attempt to enter Bryant's "workshop and follow the genera- tive thought as it bursts into reality and thrills and throbs into harmonious utterance.'* The third type of poems represent the downward movement of life and thought. It pictures human THE MOVEMENT 147 life in bondage to grief, despair and de- Third spondcncy. This type leads us into the ^^^^ dismal paths of life and illustrates the bewailing and bemoaning experiences of human life. It portrays that gloomy mood of the soul in ''The Slough of Despond." It is a saddened picture in which "My heart is bewailing and tolling within me like a funeral bell." Perhaps the best representation of this type in the English language is Tennyson's — "BREAK, BREAK, BREAK. "Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O Seal And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. "O well for the fisherman's boy, That he shouts with his sister at play I O well for the sailor lad, That he sings in his boat on the bay! "And the stately ships go on To their haven under the hill; But O for the touch of a vanish'd hand, And the sound of a voice that is still 1 "Break, break, break. At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. " In this type of poems of which Longfellow's ''Afternoon in February" is another example, the soul of the reader is plunged into the depths of grief, sorrow, and sadness. A poem usually liber- ates the soul from some form of bondage, but in this selection each stanza increases the intensity 148 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS of the sadness. At each thought and stroke of the poet, the bondage is idealized, strengthened and intensified. As the poet gradually enters the abysmal shades of grief he idealizes and universal- izes sadness, which is an essential experience of Process ^hc soul in attaining freedom. The Of Freedom h^jjjan soul bccomcs free by being stirred to its very foundation by some such scene as ''the touch of a vanish'd hand" or 'Hhe sound of a voice that is still." When an individual feels so intensely he is on the royal road to freedom. To idealize grief and sorrow, to play upon the melancholy chord, to feel deeply some sad experience of life — these are true elements of liberation and freedom. Tennyson leads us into the realm of the sorrowful by beginning with ''the cold gray stones" and the thoughts that he can scarcely utter. Then he pictures the scenes of the fisherman and sailor and portrays some of the most touching images of human life, namely, the "vanished hand" and the "voice that is still." To realize the significance of this picture, one is ushered into the very threshold of death, and made to feel the intense grief of a still voice, the hand cold in death and the dead day. Fourth Movement in Reading. — In the final men- tal movement in reading and literary study, the student is required to make a vivid picture of the imagery contained in the selection studied. Pictures . cii ti -i* ihe lesson is read carefully, studied criti- cally as to form and content, reproducing the imagery first orally then pictorially. If the se- THE MOVEMENT 149 lection is short the pupil portrays the entire im- agery, but in a long literary production as *^ Evan- geline '^ or ''The Great Stone Face/' each student is assigned some definite picture and the class reproduces the total imagery. By a close study of the imagery of the selection in this manner followed by an artistic reproduction of it, the pupil is thor- oughly trained in the appreciation of a literary work of art. The philosophy of the method lies in the fact that internal ideas are objectified and made sensu- ous in drawings. The thought, spirit and essence lying dormant in the words, sentences, paragraphs, and stanzas are externalized in the particular, paintings. It is a process of estrangement processor and removal which harmonizes with the Estrangement movement, growth and development of mind. In this process the mind in the selection was first estranged from the author when the piece was written. The pupil in rethinking the thoughts and imagery of the author, first pictures them mentally and then externalizes them on paper. After be- coming absorbed in the spirit of the poem or prose selection, the pupil struggles with all his might to portray the imagery beautifully in external form. '♦ Lord Ullin's Daughter." — In studying this short poem the first image would be a picture of the daughter and lover standing on the bank of the river waiting for the ferryman. In the back- ground is seen the sky, the moon, and a beautiful woodland scene. In the foreground is the ferryman 150 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS in his skiff crossing the river. The next picture illustrates Lord UHin and his train of men on horseback in pursuit, plunging madly through the woodland. This scene is followed by another picturing the a})proaching storm, the ferryman, and the daughter and lover crossing the tempest-tossed river. The last imagery represents the denouement of the story picturing Lord UHin standing on the bank of the river in the midst of a storm and be- holding the empty boat. ** The Snow Image.** — To portray the imagery of this beautiful story of Hawthorne, the pupil first paints a snow scene, including a snow ball, the home, the sun, and Violet and Peony in the yard. As the children are given permission by the mother to enjoy the snow-storm, the pupil depicts the following thought: ''Yes, you may go out and play in the new snow." In the development of this fascinating story, a picture of the home, angel faces, Violet and Peony, and The Snow Image should be drawn to illustrate — ''What other children could have made any thing so like a little girl's figure out of snow." Following the thread of the story, it would be interesting for some pupil to picture the thought of Violet's language: "What a nice play- mate she will make for us all winter." The Snow Image should be drawn in such an artistic manner as to bring out the following thought: '^Tliat color comes from the golden clouds we see up there in the sky." Another pretty scene shows the mother — ''After opening the door, she stood an instant on THE MOVEMENT 151 the threshold" — viewing the image, bedecked with birds, surrounded by Violet and Peony. The mother in utter astonishment exclaims: ''It must certainly be one of the neighbors' daughters." The father should be pictured as he approaches the image and says: ''Come! you odd little thing!" The final scene represents The Snow Image placed near the stove; "A good fire will put every thing to rights." As the image melts, Violet in her excitement and bereavement shouts — "There is all that is left of our dear little snow-sister." "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." — The following pictures were taken from actual work done in the class-room. Sleepy Hollow is graphically pictured near the Hudson river, enlarging into Tappan Zee. In this valley is situated Tarrytown, sur- rounded by hills, forest and a murmuring brook. The headless horseman is riding a vicious animal. The church is dismally located amid the graves of the original pioneers. Ichabod Crane is vividly portrayed in connection with the church in which he taught music, the boarding-house, and the school-house. The school is situated near the brook, amidst a forest of birch trees, in which are heard the complaining notes of the owl and the whippoorwill. The rustic Zaltus Van Tassel and his charming (?) daughter Katrina, are sketched at their home on the Hudson. In the barn yard are seen the porkers, the fowls and other evidences of thrift and industry. The mighty Brom Bones, the terror of the community, is drawn in Sampson 152 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS fashion. A most vivid picture is made of the little negro delivering the invitation to Ichabod, to attend the dance at Katrina's home. Ichabod uncere- moniously dismissed the children, secured Gun- powder, and started on his way rejoicing. A very laughable picture of the dance is made with the pickaninnies looking on in the background. Dare- devil, the property of Brom Bones, is pictured in contrast to Gunpowder. The last episode happened near Major Andre's tree. As Ichabod was approach- ing the famous bridge, he was hurled from his horse. The climax of the story is shown in the finding of his hat, saddle and pumpkin. ♦♦ Hiawatha." — The following described pictures in colors were worked out by a class in the Model School. Hiawatha is painted with red feathers, black hair, the body in chrome yellow, the lower extremities clothed in bright orange and trimmed in red fringes. The ancient arrow maker painted in a tan color is standing at his wigwam. He is beautifully bedecked with feathers, face painted, and gorgeously attired. Old Nokomis dressed in true Indian fashion, is standing between a tree covered with green foliage and a wigwam watching the boiling kettle. Minnehaha, Laughing Water, is drawn as a very attractive Indian squaw with rosy cheeks and gala apparel. Hiawatha, Minne- haha and her father are portrayed ensemble in such a way as to illustrate the quotation: *'Give me as my wife, this maiden." As Minnehaha modestly stands in the background, Hiawatha with out- THE MOVEMENT 153 stretched arms is pleading fervently to her father, who is smoking a pipe. Six wigwams are drawn in different colors to represent '^Welcome, English- man!" Hiawatha is sketched with a deer thrown over his shoulder, and passing through a beautiful woodland, with the moon just appearing at the horizon. Gaudy colors are used and the picture is made realistic. After illustrating — ''You are wel- come, Hiawatha," an attractive picture is painted to represent the homeward journey. These draw- ings of Hiawatha show the study, the imagery and the artistic skill of the different pupils. The method creates unbounded interest and gives the students true literary culture. ** Enoch Arden." — This pictorial interpretation of Enoch Arden was worked out by pupils of the ninth grade: Annie Lee is drawn in a most exquisite dress of blue, trimmed in red and old gold. Philip's mill is located between two rivers, which are crossed by rustic bridges. The old, dilapidated tavern is situated on an elevated lawn surrounded by a forest. The village in the distance, at the bend of the river has a fine location, both artistically and commercially. *'A lonely island" is sketched by one pupil, and another places Enoch Arden there, hailing the approach of a ship. A beautiful drawing is painted, showing Philip holding a rose, and Annie standing near him with a downcast look: "Then first since Enoch's ring girt her finger, Annie fought his will." Another scene represents Annie standing at the door and as Enoch bids her 154 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS adieu — ''he waved his hand and went his way." The most vivid picture is a representation of Enoch lying on his death bed as Miriam Lane approaches. In the same manner pictorial interpretations have recently been made by pupils of the Model School of— ''Rip Van Winkle," ''The Great Stone Face," "Evangeline," "Snow Bound," "Deserted Village," "Vision of Sir Launfal," Gray's ''Elegy," "Courtship of Miles Standish," "Cotters' Saturday Night" and "Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner." In the fourth movement in reading the pupil is required to read the selection in a slow, critical and analytical manner, noting the meaning of words, grammatical constructions, rhetorical ele- gance, the prosody, the allusions, kind of language and lesson taught. After the selection has been gt„ry I't-ad and studied in a careful manner, the "^''''^ characters noted and its relation to the laws of the beautiful, the completed and continuous story must be told orally first and then reduced to writing. The entire literary production is read and re- read until the pupil has a vivid picture in his mind of the complete thought embodied in the selection. He is then required to stand before the class and tell in story form, in his own language, the entire thought of the classic. In this manner the pupil incorporates into his life the beautiful thoughts of master minds, and is thereby given a desire to study and to appreciate literature. THE MOVEMENT 155 The last process in teaching reading is to picture in tangible form the imagery found in the production which clinches and transmutes the thoughts of the classic into mind substance. In reading a selection the pupil has only a blurred image of the thought. These images must be studied, drawn on pictorial the black-board, sketched in the tablet ^*"*'^ and finally painted in water colors. The scenes must be studied from an artistic point of view and painted and colored in such a manner as to bring out the delicate shades of thought in the classic. When these drawings are completed they should be mounted and placed upon the wall of the school- room for inspection. This three-fold method in reading inspires the teacher, interests the children, and creates enthusiasm among the patrons of the school. XL THE METHOD. Method is a real activity of a subject to be studied made to harmonize with an ideal activity of a mind to be developed. There is a method in every subject to be learned and a method in every mind to be taught and true method m teachmg consists in exactly adjusting the pupil's mind to the corresponding thought processes in the objec- tive world. Prof. William A. Jones originated the most fundamental conception of method known in the history of education; namely, "The luw in the miiul and the fuct in the thing determine the method. " The real problem in method is to unify the thought in the thing with the law in the mind. The Thought in the Thing.— The thought in the thing is the universal principle of reason creat- ing and sustaining the world. It is the living spirit of all that is, pervades all forms of life, produces all phases of activity and determines all method. The method of the fact in the thing is objective Objective ^^^ formulates subject-matter apart from Method ^1^^ learning mind. There is a certain type of activity developing the flora and another form creating the fauna of a country. Method in bot- any investigates the former activity and method 156 THE METHOD 157 in zoology the latter, and in each case method is the peculiar constructive power of nature which develops the multiplicity of forms according to certain natural laws. Both the scientist and the philosopher teach that what is, is activity and hence method is a type of activity or a law of existence. A certain law of nature creates rocks and a different type of energy produces Saturn's rings. Method in mineralogy traces out the law of nature in rock formation, and method in astronomy investigates the subtle forces of nebular matter resulting in the rings. The tides are learned and taught by method in geography and the trilobite, by method in pale- ontology. Method in the common branches traces out the fundamental activities creating the various subjects, explains the organizing principle of each, and shows how mental life grows in and through a knowledge of subject-matter. The thought in a branch of study is its law or method and an insight into this method reveals its creative energy, and gives the clue to teach it. To understand how to teach anything means to study the thought as it creates the thing. The Evolution of Activity.^AU activity grad- ually develops into higher and higher forms until it becomes self-active and self-determined. The activity of the geode is a lower form than the activity of the sponge; the activity of the ape is higher than that of the hare. In th(5 ascending scale of creation, activity is transformed into self- activity which conquers other forms and trans- 158 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS mutes them into its own being. There is in the orange tree a self-activity, which causes it to grow, to branch, to put forth leaves, to blossom and to develop into fruit. The orange energy destroys things external to itself and ap- propriates them to build up its own tissues. To understand how to teach the orange is to trace out the intelligence found in its structure and to identify this knowledge with the orange activity in the learning mind. A still higher form of activity is seen in the horse and lion. They destroy plant and animal life respectively and appropriate and assimilate these Higher i^or the upbuilding of cells and tissues. Activity Locomotion, feeling and conformity to a definite purpose are added increments of life in the animal not found in the plant. Method in biology, treating life, differentiates itself into method in con- chology in teaching "The Chambered Nautilus," and method in ornithology in studying ''The Robin." The highest form of self-activity is found in the human mind. While the plant and animal grow without plan or purpose, the human soul grows by Self. setting up ideals — then struggling to at- Activity ^^jj^ them. Mental activity is an illustra- tion of law; law is another name for method, and method is the peculiar manner in which a subject is formed. Method in engineering discusses the self-activity which constructed the Brooklyn bridge and method in literature gives the mode of pro- cedure in teaching ''Evangeline." The teacher of THE METHOD 159 method must be able to distinguish the various phases of self-activity and know how to reduce every subject of study to its original creative principle. This is the objective method and is the activity which gives form to grammar and history and arranges their divisions and subdivisions. The objective method in creating grammar must be distinguished from the subjective method in learn- ing grammar. The Parts of Speech. — The different parts of speech are treated in grammar and are objective to the teacher and pupil. The objective method traces out the origin of a subject while the sub- jective method analyzes the process by which it is taught and learned. To derive the parts of speech is an objective process because it takes into con- sideration the genetic principle of grammar. IDEAS WORDS 1. Object Pencil Noun It Pronoun 2. Attributes (qualities) a Round Adjective. h Almost Adverb. c To fall Infinitive. d Falling Participle. 3. Connecting a And Conjunction. h Is Verb. c On Preposition. 4. Any more? There is a method of thought which creates the noun and a different shade of thinking that produces the conjunction. The parts of speech originated 100 TITK EOTICATTONAI. PROCESS in thought process(\s objective; to the pupil who studies graininar and may be illustrated by think- ing tin; lea(l-j)(!ncil. Tlu; idcias used in thinking are expressed in words classified according to their use and an; nann^d parts of s[)(M!ch. The lead- pencil is first thought as an object and tlu; word which expresses the name of that idea is called a noun. In thinking the lead -pencil then; are certain words (as it) which designate obj(;cts without naming them and an; call(;(l pronouns. The mind is next direct(;(l to th(; attributes or (pialities of the pencil as round and that })art of speech which expresses an attribute of a substance is known as an adjective. lh(; mind may tliink the lead-pencil mon; closely and clearly ob- serve that it is not round but almost round. Almost is an attribute of round which is an attribute of pencil. That })art of speech which expresses an attribute of an attribute; is named an adverb. In thinking the lead-p(;ncil to q.,,p fall or falling, attributes of action are iniiniioverb (|isc(U'ned wliicli, clothed in wonls, are called respectively — infinitives and participles. Garfield once taught: "A participle is the skin of a verb stulTed with the bran of an adjective. " In continuing the thought processes (concerning the lead-pencil it is consid(;re(l round and long. And is a word which expresses relation merely TUK MP:TII()I) hu wiiliout perfoririiii^ any other I'unction (!(>iijiiti(;t.ijeet. The; jx^neil may also h(^ thought in eonnciction with sonn; other object and th(} rela- tional activity of mind is brought into mho in (ixpress- ing the thought that th(^ [xaicil li(;s on th(^ table. The prevoHition (on) is that part of 8pe(;(di whndi (^xpr(!sses a reflation and whieli gov(;rns an obj(;ct. Since the interjection is an (expression of (^motion or isolat(»d fe(;ling, and not the; result of thought it is not a part of si)e(;ch. It is not an ehinuent of i\n) s(int(enc(i and, lik(i the expl(;tiv(i, has no grammatical relation with otlier words. lN;rha[)S, Uwra anv otluer parts of si)(M',eh whieli may b(e "dug out" of th(; l(;ad-[)(ineil by otlier f)rocess(;s of thought. W(i have; thought out eight diffcerent id(;as in relation to tin; jxencil (th(; infinitive and partieiphi having tin; sarrne function of thought). We think again and again to s(!(; if th(;n; ,,;i^,,^ an) oth(;r n(;w relations possibh; for tint if'»'vtio,iM expnjssion of thought. Since the; human mind is not abl(; to think a thing under inont tlian (eight distinct relations (t(in categori(3S })y Aristotle) there are only eight parts of speech. This is th(i objectiv(e rruethod in grammar and expnesses the genetic principle which brings the 11 162 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS science into existence. This same thought Genetic powcF dividcs the parts of speech into their divisions and subdivisions, and classi- fies the subject-matter of grammar according to the law of mental activity. Grammar is the science of the sentence and the sentence is the basis of all work in language lessons, composition, reading, grammar, rhetoric, philology and linguistics. Thoughts are classified into those having the intel- lectual phase prominent, those having the emotional phase prominent and those having the volitional phase prominent. The thought sentence is divided into the declarative and the interrogative. The feeling sentence is exclamatory and the willing sentence, imperative. In studying the evolution of a sentence it is interesting to note that it is organic not mechanical, that it originates in a sentence-germ, a kind of psychological fire-mist and that it grows Of a and develops according to certain psy- chological and sociological conditions. The sentence is evolved out of the inner consciousness of the mind, differentiates itself into the parts of speech and hence is not a mechanical process of coupling words together. The law of sentence evolution and growth may be illustrated as follows: While sharpening my pencil I accidentally cut my finger and exclaimed, "Ouch! I cut my finger.'' Before the thought originated, before the sentence was expressed, there was a confused, vague, un- differentiated feeling of pain, a jelly-like mass of THE METHOD 163 thought which was first expressed in the so-called interjection (an expression of feeling and not of thought) and which finally develops into the sen- tence. Feeling, we are told in psychology, is the basis of all conscious life which develops itself into a two-stemmed thought, self and cutting, the agent and the manner in which the agent acted. As thought develops the sentence branches, divides and subdivides in proportion to the intensity and breadth of thought. The diagram is an X-Ray photograph which pictures the sentence anatomy and is a valuable device, since it shows the law of growth and development of the sentence. Pedagogy of the Adjective. — An intense study is now made of the adjective to illustrate how the fact in the thing harmonizes with the law in the mind. An adjective has been defined as a word which describes an attribute of an object. An attribute is an energy working through matter and limits and defines the nature of a thing. Ad- jectives are developed in accordance with the nature of attributes and are usually found in pairs. If the adjective has no mate it has either lost its original meaning or its mate has become obsolete. The adjective differs from the other parts of speech in excluding the antagonist; good, bad; large, small; asleep, awake; alive, dead. In teaching the adjective it is necessary to understand the thought distinctions between the classes of adjec- tives. Limiting adjectives leave out objects, as ten mice; qualifying adjectives leave out attributes, 164 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS as white mice; the limiting adjectives exclude all mice except the ten and the qualifying adjectives exclude all except the white. Again qualifying Thought adjectives individualize, as black ink; Distinctions predicate adjectives universalize, as ink is black. In the former, black individualizes the ink to one particular kind and in the latter, black has a wider sweep of thought than ink and is said to universalize. It is the nature of the adjective to increase the comprehension and to decrease the extension. A red apple has a greater extension but less comprehension than a sweet, mellow, red apple. Limiting adjectives affect the extension while qualifying adjectives not only express the quality but limit the extension. In the sentences — Mellow apples are good. — Ripe nuts are palatable. — the quality only is affected. In the sentences — Good boys die young. — Tall trees make long shad- ows. — the extent is affected. The nature of the adjective is such that it requires five movements of mind to think it. First, the mind perceives the adjective, good chair, brittle chalk. Second, the mind images the meaning back of these words, as good accomplishes an end, and brittle expresses the idea of friability. In the third move- To Think ment of the mind, a comparison and The Adjective contrast is made of the form of the two words, good and brittle, and then of the meaning by comparing and contrasting the images back of the word. This movement of the mind is analytical -synthetical and notes likenesses and THE METHOD 165 differences. The fourth movement in thinking the adjective is a process of reasoning, as follows: All good chairs are comfortable, / This chair is comfortable, Therefore, this is a good chair. All brittle chalk is friable, This chalk is friable. Therefore, this chalk is brittle. In thinking the adjective the mind finally moves in a syllogistic process which is a form of thought in obtaining any knowledge. Lastly, the mind generalizes, names and gives a logical definition of the adjective as follows: An adjective is a word which describes the name of an object. In teaching this part of speech it is necessary to take into consideration the thought in the thing and the law in the mind. The objective method is the energy producing attributes, the activity creat- ing adjectives and the force necessary to their classification. The subjective method is Object and the activity of mind in thmkins; the Subject United adjective, the spiritual energy translat- ing it into the mind and the mental force trans- muting the real into the ideal. It makes a study of how the mind acquires the knowledge of the adjective, how the adjective is changed into the self, and how the self becomes the adjective. In studying and teaching the adjective, the pupil's mind follows the five processes of thought in learning it, while the teacher's mind follows the 166 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS pupil's mind in each process, thinks the pupil's mind into unity with the adjective, and brings the adjective into harmony with the mind of the pupil and assists him in making it a part of his thought. The adjective now becomes translated Teaching And Learning into the pupll's Ufc, affccts hls character and aids in the evolution of the individual. To think an adjective is merely to gain the thought processes in it, but to teach it is to transmute the thought and spirit into the mind and soul of the pupil, to the end of knowledge, character, growth, development and spiritual freedom. The pupil realizes himself in the adjective and the adjective attains its final purpose, when both are reconciled, and harmonized into freedom of thought and free- dom of life. The Law in the Mind. — It is difficult to discuss the fact in the thing without taking into considera- tion the law in the mind. The subjective method Subjective IS the activity or force which transmutes Method ^Yie ideas and thought of subject-matter into the living energy of mind. It is that activity which makes the facts of history, grammar and other studies subjective to the thinking mind. There is a method which creates the parts of speech and another mental process which makes them a part of the mind's constitution. The former has been called the thought in the thing and the latter the law in the mind. These two modes of activity are distinct and apart, yet resolvable into each other. Knowledge has been defined as an organic THE METHOD 167 process existing between subject and object. All mental growth or development is a process of adjusting the subject to the mind, of translating the subjective into the objective, of mind identi- fying itself with matter and of the internal unifying itself with the external. This doctrine of method is corroborated by the following authors. Dr. Arnold Tompkins in his discussion of the uni- versal law of teaching, maintains that: "The universal problem of method is, how the learning mind identifies itself with the objective world to the end of growth, — how the subjective becomes one with the objective, in the process called knowledge." Prof. Howard Sandison defines method as follows: "A real activity according to, and in harmony with an ideal activity. " He further writes: "Method is the fundamental movement of mind in the exami- nation of an object with reference to a given attribute that has been exalted and emphasized by the mind's interests." Rosenkranz in discussing the logical presup- position of instruction sets forth a similar doctrine: "The subject must be adapted to the consciousness of the pupil. .... The living mediation of the pupil with the content which is to be impressed upon his consciousness is the work of the teacher. " He means by this that the subject-matter must be adjusted and adapted to the mind taught and there is an interpenetration between the mind of the pupil and the thought of the lesson. 168 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Dr. Charles DeGarmo in his preface of '' Essentials of Method" gives the same thought; namely, that there is a method in the child and a method in the subject of study. He would have the method in the subject to harmonize with the stages of growth in the mind of the child. As the subject develops it must correspond to the identical development of the learning mind. Dr. R. N. Roark in speaking of mind and method writes : "To knowledge of the subject-matter, and knowledge of mind and mind growth, he (the teacher) must add knowledge of how to bring subject-matter and growing mind into such contact as shall cause mind to react normally on knowledge-material, and to acquire, assimilate and express. " These educational thinkers are trying to solve the problem, how mind becomes matter or how matter becomes mind; how history becomes mind or how mind becomes history; how mind becomes grammar and how grammar becomes mind. The law in the mind attempts to solve the problem, how a lesson may be transformed into human conscious- ness, or how the human mind takes on those forms of thought found in the objective world. Mind Movement in Method. — The fundamental movement of consciousness in gaining knowledge is a thinking process. To think a thing is to unify To Think "the thought in the thing with the law in A Thing ^Yie mind. There are four phases in this process: Perceptive thinking, analytical thinking, synthetical thinking and thought thinking. To THE METHOD 16^ illustrate these stages in the process of knowing, the human eye may be made the basis of thinking. By perceptive thinking the mind differentiates the eye from the other parts of the body. The mind first grasps the eye dimly, vaguely and in an in-- distinct manner. By analytical thinking the eye is analyzed into its parts and attributes; namely, coats; sclerotic, chorioid, retina, and humors; aqueous, vitreous, crystalline lens and into other parts. The next stage of thinking, the synthetical, unifies and organizes all parts and attributes into a completed whole. The mind is a unity and is not satisfied with multiplicity, but seeks constantly to synthesize what it originally analyzed. In the last stage of knowledge, thought thinks thought as the creative energy of the eye. The mind recognizes its own process in the processes constituting the eye. To understand the intelligence in the eye is to see the self reflected in it. Both the eye and the mind are the unfolding of the eternal process of the universe and both must be finally unified in teaching and learning into a bond of spiritual freedom. In the fundamental movement of mind the vague feeling becomes enlightened feeling, dim knowledge becomes clear knowledge, and the thing thought, becomes the self. Method in History. — The thought in history i& the active energy bringing events into existence, as — The First Steamboat — The Purchase of Louisi- ana — The Boston Tea Party — The Panama CanaL 170 TITF. EDUCATION A I. IMiOCMCSS Thought '^'^'<' 1^^^ i'^ ^^*^' iniiid is IIh; i)roc(;ss of '" '"""^- ('li;in<^in^ i})(^ event with its ideas, thoughts, reelin